Statistical

Process Control

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 1

Outline

Statistical Process Control

Process Capability
Acceptance Sampling

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 2

Learning Objectives
When you complete this supplement
you should be able to :
1. Explain the purpose of a control chart
2. Explain the role of the central limit theorem
in SPC
3. Build

x-charts and R-charts

4. List the five steps involved in building

control charts
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 3

Learning Objectives
When you complete this supplement
you should be able to :
5. Build p-charts and c-charts
6. Explain process capability and compute Cp
and Cpk
7. Explain acceptance sampling

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S6 - 4

Statistical Process Control

The objective of a process control
system is to provide a statistical
signal when assignable causes of
variation are present

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S6 - 5

Statistical Process Control

(SPC)

Variability is inherent
in every process

Natural or common
causes

Special or assignable
causes

Provides a statistical signal when assignable

causes are present

Detect and eliminate assignable causes of

variation

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S6 - 6

Common Causes
Common causes of variation are the purely
random, unidentifiable sources of variation that
are unavoidable with the current process. For
example, the time required to process
specimens at an intensive care unit lab in a
hospital will vary. If time is measured to
complete an analysis for a large no. of patients
and plotted the
results, the data would
tend to
form a pattern that can be
described as a distribution.

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S6 - 7

Natural Variations

Also called common causes

Affect virtually all production processes

Expected amount of variation

Output measures follow a probability

distribution

For any distribution there is a measure of

central tendency and dispersion

If the distribution of outputs falls within

acceptable limits, the process is said to be
in control

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S6 - 8

Common Causes

A distribution may be characterized by its mean,

spread, and shape.
The spread is a measure of the dispersion of
observations about the mean. The standard deviation
is the square root of the variance of a distribution.
Standard Deviation/
Spread

Mean
n

i 1

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x x

n 1

S6 - 9

Assignable Variations

Also called special causes of variation

Generally this is some change in the process

Variations that can be traced to a specific

reason

The objective is to discover when assignable

causes are present

Eliminate the bad causes

Incorporate the good causes

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S6 - 10

Assignable Causes
The green curve is the process distribution when only common
causes of variation are present. The red lines depict a change in
the distribution because of assignable causes. In Fig. 6.0(a) the
red line indicates that the process took more time than planned
in many of the cases, thereby increasing the average time of
each analysis.

Average

(a)
2014Location
Pearson Education, Inc.

Time

S6 - 6.0
11
Figure

Assignable Causes
An increase in the variability of the time for each case
affected the spread of the distribution.

Average

(b) Spread

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Time

Figure
S6 - 6.0
12

Assignable Causes

The red line indicates that the process produced a

preponderance of the tests in less than average time.
A process is said to be in statistical control when the
location, spread, or shape of its distribution does not
change over time.

Average

(c) Shape

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Time

Figure
6.0
S6 - 13

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these
steps
Each of these
represents one
sample of five
boxes of cereal

(a) Samples of the product,

say five boxes of cereal
taken off the filling machine
line, vary from each other
in weight
Frequency

# #
# # #
# # # #
# # # # # # #
#

Figure S6.1
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# # # # # # # # #

Weight
S6 - 14

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these
steps

Frequency

(b) After enough samples

are taken from a stable
process, they form a
pattern called a
distribution

The solid line

represents the
distribution

Weight
Figure S6.1
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S6 - 15

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these
steps
(c) There are many types of distributions, including the normal (bellshaped) distribution, but distributions do differ in terms of central
tendency (mean), standard deviation or variance, and shape

Frequency

Figure S6.1

Central tendency

Weight
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Variation

Weight

Shape

Weight
S6 - 16

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these
steps

Prediction

Frequency

(d) If only natural causes of

variation are present,
the output of a process
forms a distribution that
is stable over time and is
predictable

e
Tim

Weight
Figure S6.1
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S6 - 17

Samples
To measure the process, we take samples and
analyze the sample statistics following these
steps

Prediction

Frequency

(e) If assignable causes are

present, the process output
is not stable over time and
is not predicable

?
?? ??
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
?
??
??
?

e
Tim

Weight
Figure S6.1
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Control Charts
Constructed from historical data, the
purpose of control charts is to help
distinguish between natural variations
and variations due to assignable causes

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Process Control
Frequency
Lower control limit

(a) In statistical
control and capable
of producing within
control limits
Upper control limit

(b) In statistical control

but not capable of
producing within
control limits

(c) Out of control

Size
(weight, length, speed, etc.)
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Figure S6.2
S6 - 20

Control Charts for Variables

Characteristics that can take any real value

May be in whole or in fractional numbers

Continuous random variables

x-chart tracks changes in the central

tendency

s
R-chart indicates a gain or loss eoftwo chart
es
d
h
e
s
T
u
dispersion
be
t
s
u
m
r
e
h
t
e
to g
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S6 - 21

Central Limit Theorem

Regardless of the distribution of the population,
the distribution of sample means drawn from
the population will tend to follow a normal curve
1) The mean of the sampling
distribution will be the same as the
population mean
2) The standard deviation of the
sampling distribution ( x ) will
equal the population standard
deviation () divided by the square
root of the sample size, n

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=
x

S6 - 22

Population and Sampling

Distributions
Population
distributions

Distribution of
sample means
=

Mean of sample means = x

Beta

Standard
deviation of
the sample
means

Normal

Uniform
|

3 x 2 x 1 x

=
x

1 x 2 x 3 x

95.45% fall within 2 x

99.73% of all x
fall within 3 x
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Figure S6.3

S6 - 23

Sampling Distribution
Figure S6.4

Sampling
distribution of
means
Process
distribution of
means

x=
(mean)
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Setting Chart Limits

For x-Charts when we know
=
Lower control limit (UCL) x
z x
=
Upper control limit (UCL) x
z x
Where

=
x

= mean of the sample means or a target value set

for the process
z = number of normal standard deviations
/ n
x = standard deviation of the sample means

=
n =

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population (process) standard deviation

sample size

S6 - 25

Setting Control Limits

Randomly select and weigh nine (n = 9) boxes
each hour
Average weight in 17 13 16 18 17 16 15 17 16

16.1 ounces
the first sample
9
WEIGHT OF SAMPLE

WEIGHT OF SAMPLE

WEIGHT OF SAMPLE

HOUR

(AVG. OF 9
BOXES)

HOUR

(AVG. OF 9
BOXES)

HOUR

(AVG. OF 9
BOXES)

16.1

16.5

16.3

16.8

16.4

10

14.8

15.5

15.2

11

14.2

16.5

16.4

12

17.3

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S6 - 26

Setting Control Limits

Average mean =
x
of 12 samples

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12

i1

Avg of 9 boxes

12

=
16 ounces
x
n 9
z 3
1 ounce

S6 - 27

Setting Control Limits

Average mean =
x
of 12 samples

12

i1

Avg of 9 boxes

UCL x x z x 16 3

1
16 3 17 ounces
3
9

LCL x x z x 16 3

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12

=
16 ounces
x
n 9
z 3
1 ounce

1
16 3 15 ounces
3
9

S6 - 28

Setting Control Limits

Control Chart
for samples
of 9 boxes

Variation due
to assignable
causes

Out of
control

17 = UCL
Variation due to
natural causes

16 = Mean
15 = LCL
| | | | | | | | | | | |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Sample number

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Out of
control

Variation due
to assignable
causes

S6 - 29

Setting Chart Limits

For x-Charts when we dont know
=
UCL x x
A2 R
=
LCL x x
A2 R
n

where

i1

n
samples
A2 =
S6.1
=

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average range of the

control chart factor found in Table

mean of the sample means
S6 - 30

Control Chart Factors

TABLE S6.1

Factors for Computing Control Chart Limits (3 sigma)

SAMPLE SIZE,
n

MEAN FACTOR,
A2

UPPER RANGE,
D4

LOWER RANGE,
D3

1.880

3.268

1.023

2.574

.729

2.282

.577

2.115

.483

2.004

.419

1.924

0.076

.373

1.864

0.136

.337

1.816

0.184

10

.308

1.777

0.223

12

.266

1.716

0.284

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S6 - 31

Setting Control Limits

Super Cola Example
Labeled as net weight
12 ounces

Process average = 12 ounces

Average range = .25 ounce
Sample size = 5

= A R
UCL x x
2

12 (.577)(.25)
12 .144
12.144 ounces
= A R
LCL x x
2

12 .144

UCL = 12.144

Mean = 12
From Table
S6.1
LCL = 11.856

11.856 ounces
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Restaurant Control Limits

Sample Mean

For salmon filets at Darden Restaurants

x Bar Chart

11.5

UCL = 11.524

11.0

= = 10.959

10.5

LCL = 10.394
|

11

13

15

17

Sample Range

Range Chart
0.8

UCL = 0.6943

0.4

= 0.2125

R =0
LCL

0.0
|

11

13

15

17

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S6 - 33

R Chart

Type of variables control chart

Shows sample ranges over time

Difference between smallest and

largest values in sample

Monitors process variability

Independent from process mean

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Setting Chart Limits

For R-Charts
Upper control limit (UCL R ) = D4 R
Lower control limit (LCL R ) = D3 R
where

UCL R upper control chart limit for the range

LCL R lower control chart limit for the range
D4 and D3 values from Table S6.1

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S6 - 35

Setting Control Limits

Average range = 5.3 pounds
Sample size = 5
From Table S6.1 D4 = 2.115, D3 = 0

UCL R D4 R
(2.115)(5.3)
11.2 pounds

UCL = 11.2

Mean = 5.3

LCL R D3 R
(0)(5.3)
0 pounds
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LCL = 0

S6 - 36

Mean and Range Charts

(a)
(Sampling mean is
shifting upward, but
range is consistent)

These
sampling
distributions
result in the
charts below
UCL

x-chart
LCL

(x-chart detects
shift in central
tendency)

UCL

R-chart
Figure S6.5

LCL

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(R-chart does not

detect change in
mean)
S6 - 37

Mean and Range Charts

(b)
These
sampling
distributions
result in the
charts below

(Sampling mean
is constant, but
dispersion is
increasing)
UCL

x-chart
LCL

(x-chart indicates
no change in
central tendency)

UCL

R-chart
Figure S6.5

LCL

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(R-chart detects
increase in
dispersion)
S6 - 38

Steps In Creating Control

Charts
1. Collect 20 to 25 samples, often of n = 4 or n = 5
observations each, from a stable process and
compute the mean and range of each
=
x
2. Compute the overall means ( and R), set
appropriate control limits, usually at the 99.73%
level, and calculate the preliminary upper and
lower control limits

If the process is not currently stable

and in control, use
=
the desired mean, , instead of x to calculate limits.

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S6 - 39

Steps In Creating Control

Charts
3. Graph the sample means and ranges on their
respective control charts and determine whether
they fall outside the acceptable limits
4. Investigate points or patterns that indicate the
process is out of control try to assign causes
for the variation, address the causes, and then
resume the process
5. Collect additional samples and, if necessary,
revalidate the control limits using the new data

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S6 - 40

Setting Other Control Limits

TABLE S6.2

Common z Values

DESIRED CONTROL
LIMIT (%)

Z-VALUE (STANDARD
DEVIATION REQUIRED
FOR DESIRED LEVEL OF
CONFIDENCE

90.0

1.65

95.0

1.96

95.45

2.00

99.0

2.58

99.73

3.00

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S6 - 41

Example

Control Charts
for Variables

West Allis Industries

The management of West Allis Industries is concerned about
the production of a special metal screw used by several of
the companys largest customers. The diameter of the screw
is critical to the customers. Data from five samples appear in
the accompanying table. The sample size is 4. Is the process
in statistical control?
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S6 - 42

Control Charts
for Variables
Special Metal Screw

Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5

1
0.5014
0.5021
0.5018
0.5008
0.5041

Example
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Sample
2
3
0.5022 0.5009
0.5041 0.5024
0.5026 0.5035
0.5034 0.5024
0.5056 0.5034

4
0.5027
0.5020
0.5023
0.5015
0.5039

_
x

S6 - 43

Control Charts
for Variables
Special Metal Screw

Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5

1
0.5014
0.5021
0.5018
0.5008
0.5041

Example
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sample
2
3
4
0.5022 0.5009 0.5027
0.5041 0.5024 0.5020
0.5026 0.5035 0.5023
0.5027
0.5009
0.5034
0.5024
0.5015
0.5056 0.5034 0.5039

R
0.0018

x
0.5018

0.0018

S6 - 44

Control Charts
for Variables
Special Metal Screw

Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5

1
0.5014
0.5021
0.5018
0.5008
0.5041

Example
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sample
2
3
4
0.5022 0.5009 0.5027
0.5041 0.5024 0.5020
0.5026 0.5035 0.5023
0.5027
0.5009
0.5034
0.5024
0.5015
0.5056 0.5034 0.5039

R
0.0018

x
0.5018

0.0018

S6 - 45

Control Charts
for Variables
Special Metal Screw

Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5

1
0.5014
0.5021
0.5018
0.5008
0.5041

Example
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sample
2
3
4
0.5022 0.5009 0.5027
0.5041 0.5024 0.5020
0.5026 0.5035 0.5023
0.5027
0.5009
0.5034
0.5024
0.5015
(0.5014 + 0.5022 +
0.50560.5009
0.5034
0.5039
+ 0.5027)/4

R
0.0018

x
0.5018

0.0018

0.5018

S6 - 46

Control Charts
for Variables
Special Metal Screw

Sample
Number
1
2
3
4
5

1
0.5014
0.5021
0.5018
0.5008
0.5041

Example
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sample
2
3
0.5022 0.5009
0.5041 0.5024
0.5026 0.5035
0.5034 0.5024
0.5056 0.5034

4
0.5027
0.5020
0.5023
0.5015
0.5047
R=

R
0.0018
0.0021
0.0017
0.0026
0.0022
0.0021
=
x=

x
0.5018
0.5027
0.5026
0.5020
0.5045
0.5027
S6 - 47

Control Charts
for Variables
Control Charts Special Metal Screw
R-Charts

R = 0.0021

UCLR = D4R
LCLR = D3R

Example
5.1
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S6 - 48

Table 5.1 Control Chart Factors

Control Charts
for Variables

Size of
Sample
(n)

Factor for UCL

and LCL for
x-Charts
(A2)

Factor for
LCL for
R-Charts
(D 3)

Factor
UCL for
R-Charts
( D4)

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

1.880
1.023
0.729
0.577
0.483
0.419
0.373
0.337
0.308

0
0
0
0
0
0.076
0.136
0.184
0.223

3.267
2.575
2.282
2.115
2.004
1.924
1.864
1.816
1.777

Example
5.1
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S6 - 49

Control Charts
for Variables
Control Charts Special Metal Screw
R-Charts

R = 0.0021

UCLR = D4R
LCLR = D3R

Example
5.1
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S6 - 50

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
R-Charts

R = 0.0021

D4 = 2.282
D3 = 0

UCLR = D4R
LCLR = D3R

Example
5.1
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 51

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
R-Charts

R = 0.0021

D4 = 2.282
D3 = 0

UCLR = D4R
LCLR = D3R
UCLR = 2.282 (0.0021) = 0.00479 in.
Example
5.1
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 52

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
R-Charts

R = 0.0021

D4 = 2.282
D3 = 0

UCLR = D4R
LCLR = D3R
UCLR = 2.282 (0.0021) = 0.00479 in.
LCLR = 0 (0.0021) = 0 in.
Example
5.1
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 53

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
R-Charts

R = 0.0021

D4 = 2.282
D3 = 0

UCLR = D4R
LCLR = D3R
UCLR = 2.282 (0.0021) = 0.00479 in.
LCLR = 0 (0.0021) = 0 in.
Example
5.1
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S6 - 54

Range Chart Special Metal Screw

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Example

S6 - 55

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
X-Charts

R = 0.0021
x= = 0.5027

=
UCLx = x + A2R
=
LCLx = x - A2R

Example
5.1
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S6 - 56

Table 5.1 Control Chart Factors

Control Charts
for Variables

Factor for UCL

Factor for
Size of
and LCL for
LCL for
Control
ChartsSpecial
Metal
Screw
Sample
x-Charts
R-Charts
(n)
(A2) R = 0.0021
(D 3)
X-Charts
x= = 0.5027
2
1.880
0
3
1.023
0
4 x
0.729
0
2
5
0.577
0
6 x
0
20.483
7
0.419
0.076
8
0.373
0.136
9
0.337
0.184
10
0.308
0.223

=
UCL = x + A R
=
LCL = x - A R

Example
5.1
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Factor
UCL for
R-Charts
( D4)
3.267
2.575
2.282
2.115
2.004
1.924
1.864
1.816
1.777
S6 - 57

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
x-Charts

R = 0.0021
x= = 0.5027

A2 = 0.729

=
UCLx = x + A2R
=
LCLx = x - A2R

Example
5.1
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 58

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
x-Charts

R = 0.0021
x= = 0.5027

A2 = 0.729

=
UCLx = x + A2R
=
LCLx = x - A2R
UCLx = 0.5027 + 0.729 (0.0021) = 0.5042 in.
Example
5.1
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 59

Control Charts
for Variables
Control ChartsSpecial Metal Screw
x-Charts

R = 0.0021
x= = 0.5027

A2 = 0.729

=
UCLx = x + A2R
=
LCLx = x - A2R
UCLx = 0.5027 + 0.729 (0.0021) = 0.5042 in.
LCLx = 0.5027 0.729 (0.0021) = 0.5012 in.
Example
5.1
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S6 - 60

x-Chart
Special Metal Screw

Example
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S6 - 61

x-Chart
Special Metal Screw

Example
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sample the process

Find the assignable cause
Eliminate the problem
Repeat the cycle
S6 - 62

Control Charts for Attributes

For variables that are categorical

Defective/nondefective, good/bad,
yes/no, acceptable/unacceptable

Measurement is typically counting

defectives

Charts may measure

1. Percent defective (p-chart)
2. Number of defects (c-chart)

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 63

Control Limits for p-Charts

Population will be a binomial distribution, but
applying the Central Limit Theorem allows us
to assume a normal distribution for the sample
statistics
UCL p p z p
p 1 p
p
LCL p p z p
n

where

p mean fraction (percent) defective in the samples

z number of standard deviations

p standard deviation of the sampling distribution

n number of observations in each sample
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S6 - 64

p-Chart for Data Entry

SAMPLE
NUMBER

NUMBER
OF
ERRORS

NUMBER
OF
ERRORS

FRACTION
DEFECTIVE

SAMPLE
NUMBER

.06

11

.06

.05

12

.01

.00

13

.08

.01

14

.07

.04

15

.05

.02

16

.04

.05

17

11

.11

.03

18

.03

.03

19

.00

10

.02

20

.04

FRACTION
DEFECTIVE

80

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 65

p-Chart for Data Entry

SAMPLE
NUMBER
p
1

6
.06
11
Total number
of records
examined

p 3
4
5
6
7
8

NUMBER
OF
FRACTION
SAMPLE
Total
number
of
errors
ERRORS
DEFECTIVE
NUMBER
5

.05

12

NUMBER
OF
80
ERRORS

6
(100)(20)
1

(.04)(1 .04)
0
.00 (rounded
13up from .0196)
8
.02
100
1
.01
14
7
4

.04

15

FRACTION
DEFECTIVE
.04

UCL
p.02
z p .04 16
3(.02) .104
2
p
5
.05
17
11
LCL

p
z

.04

3(.02)

p
p

.06
.01
.08
.07
.05
.04

.11

.03

18

.03

.03

19

.00

10

.02

20

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

nnot
a
c
e
w
4
se .04
u
a
c
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ative
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g
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S6 - 66

Fraction defective

p-Chart for Data Entry

.11
.10
.09
.08
.07
.06
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01
.00

UCLp = 0.10

p = 0.04

10

12

14

16

18

20

LCLp = 0.00

Sample number

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 67

p-Chart for Data Entry

Fraction defective

Possible assignable
causes present
.11
.10
.09
.08
.07
.06
.05
.04
.03
.02
.01
.00

UCLp = 0.10

p = 0.04

10

12

14

16

18

20

LCLp = 0.00

Sample number

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 68

Control Limits for c-Charts

Population will be a Poisson distribution, but
applying the Central Limit Theorem allows us
to assume a normal distribution for the sample
statistics

c mean number of defects per unit

c standard deviation of defects per unit

Control limits (99.73%) c 3 c

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S6 - 69

c-Chart for Cab Company

c 54 complaints/9 days 6 complaints/day

63 6
13.35
LCLc c 3 c
63 6
0
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Number defective

UCL c c 3 c

be a
Cannot mber
e nu
negativ

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

|
1 2

UCLc = 13.35

c= 6

| |
3 4

|
5

|
6

|
7

LCLc = 0

| |
8 9

Day
S6 - 70

Managerial Issues and

Control Charts
Three major management decisions:

Select points in the processes that

need SPC

Determine the appropriate charting

technique

Set clear policies and procedures

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 71

Which Control Chart to Use

TABLE S6.3

Helping You Decide Which Control Chart to Use

VARIABLE DATA
USING AN x-CHART AND R-CHART
1. Observations are variables
2. Collect 20 - 25 samples of n = 4, or n = 5, or more, each from a stable
process and compute the mean for the x-chart and range for the R-chart
3. Track samples of n observations

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 72

Which Control Chart to Use

TABLE S6.3

Helping You Decide Which Control Chart to Use

ATTRIBUTE DATA
USING A P-CHART
1. Observations are attributes that can be categorized as good or bad (or
passfail, or functionalbroken), that is, in two states
2. We deal with fraction, proportion, or percent defectives
3. There are several samples, with many observations in each
ATTRIBUTE DATA
USING A C-CHART
1. Observations are attributes whose defects per unit of output can be
counted
2. We deal with the number counted, which is a small part of the possible
occurrences
3. Defects may be: number of blemishes on a desk; crimes in a year;
broken seats in a stadium; typos in a chapter of this text; flaws in a bolt
of cloth
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 73

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Normal behavior. Process is in
control.

Figure S6.7
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 74

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

One plot out above (or below).
Investigate for cause. Process is
out of control.
Figure S6.7
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 75

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Trends in either direction, 5 plots.
Investigate for cause of
progressive change.
Figure S6.7
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 76

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Two plots very near lower (or
upper) control. Investigate for
cause.
Figure S6.7
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 77

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Run of 5 above (or below) central
line. Investigate for cause.

Figure S6.7
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 78

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Erratic behavior. Investigate.

Figure S6.7
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 79

Process Capability

The natural variation of a process should

be small enough to produce products that
meet the standards required

A process in statistical control does not

necessarily meet the design specifications

Process capability is a measure of the

relationship between the natural variation
of the process and the design
specifications

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 80

Process Capability Ratio

Cp =

Upper Specification Lower Specification

6

A capable process must have a Cp of at

least 1.0

Does not look at how well the process is

centered in the specification range

Often a target value of Cp = 1.33 is used to

allow for off-center processes

Six Sigma quality requires a Cp = 2.0

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 81

Process Capability Ratio

Insurance claims process
Process mean x = 210.0 minutes
Process standard deviation = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 3 minutes
Cp =

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

6

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 82

Process Capability Ratio

Insurance claims process
Process mean x = 210.0 minutes
Process standard deviation = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 3 minutes
Cp =

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

6

213 207
=
= 1.938
6(.516)

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 83

Process Capability Ratio

Insurance claims process
Process mean x = 210.0 minutes
Process standard deviation = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 3 minutes
Cp =

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

6

213 207
=
= 1.938
6(.516)

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Process is
capable
S6 - 84

Process Capability Index

The process capability index, Cpk, measures the
difference between the desired and actual
dimensions of goods or services produced.
Cpk = minimum of

Upper
Lower
Specification x , , x Specification
Limit
Limit

A capable process must have a Cpk of at least

1.0

A capable process is not necessarily in the

center of the specification, but it falls within the
specification limit at both extremes

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 85

Process Capability Index

New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 86

Process Capability Index

New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches
Cpk = minimum of

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

(.251) - .250
,
(3).0005

S6 - 87

Process Capability Index

New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches
Cpk = minimum of

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

(.251) - .250 .250 - (.249)

,
(3).0005
(3).0005

S6 - 88

Process Capability Index

New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches
Cpk = minimum of

(.251) - .250 .250 - (.249)

,
(3).0005
(3).0005

Both calculations result in

.001
Cpk =
= 0.67
.0015
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

New machine is
NOT capable
S6 - 89

Figure S6.8

Interpreting Cpk

Cpk = negative number (Process

does not meet specifications)
Cpk = zero (Process
does not meet specifications)
Cpk = between 0 and 1(Process
does not meet specifications)
Cpk = 1 (Process meets
Specifications)
Cpk > 1 (Process meets
Specifications)
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lower
specification
limit

Upper
specification
limit
S6 - 90

Acceptance Sampling

Form of quality testing used for incoming

materials or finished goods

Take samples at random from a lot

(shipment) of items

Inspect each of the items in the sample

Decide whether to reject the whole lot

based on the inspection results

Only screens lots; does not drive quality

improvement efforts

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 91

Acceptance Sampling

Form of quality testing used for incoming

materials or finished goods

Rejected lots can be:

Take samples at random from a lot
1.Returned to the supplier
(shipment) of items
2.Culled for defectives
Inspect each of the items in the sample
(100% inspection)
Decide whether to reject the whole lot
3.May be re-graded to a
based on the inspection results
lower specification

Only screens lots; does not drive quality

improvement efforts

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S6 - 92

Operating Characteristic
Curve

Shows how well a sampling plan

discriminates between good and bad
lots (shipments)

Shows the relationship between the

probability of accepting a lot and its
quality level

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S6 - 93

The Perfect OC Curve

P(Accept Whole Shipment)

Keep whole
shipment
100
75

Return whole
shipment

50
25

Cut-Off

0
|

10 20

30 40

50 60

70 80

90 100

% Defective in Lot
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 94

An OC Curve
Figure S6.9

= 0.05 producers risk for AQL

Probability of
Acceptance

= 0.10
Consumers
risk for LTPD

|
0

|
1

|
2

|
3

|
4

|
5

AQL
Good
lots

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

|
6

|
7

LTPD
Indifference
zone

|
8

Percent
defective
Bad lots
S6 - 95

AQL and LTPD

Acceptable Quality Level (AQL)

Poorest level of quality we are willing to

accept

Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD)

Quality level we consider bad

Consumer (buyer) does not want to accept

lots with more defects than LTPD

The probability of rejecting a good lot is called a

type I error. The probability of accepting a bad lot
is a type II error.
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S6 - 96

Producers and Consumers

Risks

Producer's risk ()

Probability of rejecting a good lot

Probability of rejecting a lot when the

fraction defective is at or above the AQL

Consumer's risk ()

Probability of accepting a bad lot

Probability of accepting a lot when

fraction defective is below the LTPD

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S6 - 97

OC Curves for Different

Sampling Plans
n = 50, c = 1

n = 100, c = 2

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S6 - 98

Average Outgoing Quality

AOQ =

(Pd)(Pa)(N n)
N

where
Pd = true percent defective of the lot
Pa = probability of accepting the lot
N = number of items in the lot
n = number of items in the sample
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S6 - 99

Average Outgoing Quality

1. If a sampling plan replaces all defectives
2. If we know the incoming percent defective
for the lot
We can compute the average outgoing
quality (AOQ) in percent defective
The maximum AOQ is the highest percent
defective or the lowest average quality
and is called the average outgoing quality
limit (AOQL)
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 100

Automated Inspection

Modern
technologies
allow virtually
100% inspection
at minimal costs
Not suitable for
all situations

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 101

SPC and Process Variability

Lower
specification
limit

Upper
specification
limit

(a) Acceptance sampling

(Some bad units
accepted; the lot is
good or bad)
(b) Statistical process
control (Keep the
process in control)

Process mean,
2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

(c) Cpk > 1 (Design

a process that
is in within
specification)
Figure S6.10
S6 - 102

Thank you

2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

S6 - 103