Embryology is the study of embryo development in animals. Key stages include fertilization where an egg and sperm fuse; cleavage where rapid cell divisions occur; blastulation where a hollow ball of cells called a blastula forms; gastrulation where the three germ layers are established; and organogenesis where organs begin to form. During gastrulation, cells migrate and involute to form the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm layers through processes like invagination and epiboly. The mesoderm then differentiates to form tissues like somites, the notochord and lateral plate mesoderm that give rise to muscles, bones and other structures. Neurulation occurs concurrently and forms the neural
Embryology is the study of embryo development in animals. Key stages include fertilization where an egg and sperm fuse; cleavage where rapid cell divisions occur; blastulation where a hollow ball of cells called a blastula forms; gastrulation where the three germ layers are established; and organogenesis where organs begin to form. During gastrulation, cells migrate and involute to form the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm layers through processes like invagination and epiboly. The mesoderm then differentiates to form tissues like somites, the notochord and lateral plate mesoderm that give rise to muscles, bones and other structures. Neurulation occurs concurrently and forms the neural
Embryology is the study of embryo development in animals. Key stages include fertilization where an egg and sperm fuse; cleavage where rapid cell divisions occur; blastulation where a hollow ball of cells called a blastula forms; gastrulation where the three germ layers are established; and organogenesis where organs begin to form. During gastrulation, cells migrate and involute to form the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm layers through processes like invagination and epiboly. The mesoderm then differentiates to form tissues like somites, the notochord and lateral plate mesoderm that give rise to muscles, bones and other structures. Neurulation occurs concurrently and forms the neural
Embryology is the study of embryo development in animals. Key stages include fertilization where an egg and sperm fuse; cleavage where rapid cell divisions occur; blastulation where a hollow ball of cells called a blastula forms; gastrulation where the three germ layers are established; and organogenesis where organs begin to form. During gastrulation, cells migrate and involute to form the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm layers through processes like invagination and epiboly. The mesoderm then differentiates to form tissues like somites, the notochord and lateral plate mesoderm that give rise to muscles, bones and other structures. Neurulation occurs concurrently and forms the neural
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Embryology
Embryology The study of embryos, encompasses the study of the development of animals Deals with ontogenetic development (individual organism development), rather than phylogenetic development (evolutionary history of an organism)
Stages in Ontogenetic Development
Gametogenesis Formation and maturation of sperm and egg 1N = haploid
Fertilization Fusion of sperm and egg to produce a zygote 2N = diploid
Cleavage Mitotic cell divisions of early embryo, eventually forming a blastula or blastodisc
Stages in Ontogenetic Development
Gastrulation Migration and displacement of a single layer of surface cells, still mitotically active, so that three distinct layers are formed
Organogenesis Continuous masses of cells in the 3 germ layers become split into smaller groups of cells, each of which will develop into a specific organ or body part of the animal
Growth and Differentiation
Growth of organ rudiments and acquisition of structure and physiochemical properties allowing them to function as adult structures
The Egg
Animal pole upper hemisphere
(dark) Vegetal pole lower hemisphere (light) Arrested at metaphase II when deposited in the water and ready for fertilization
Classification of Eggs Based on Amount of Yolk Megalecit hal Mesolecith Microlecit al hal Huge amount of Moderate Very little yolk amount of yolk yolk Birds, Amphioxus, reptiles, Amphibians Mammals bony fish
Classification of Eggs Based on Distribution of Yolk Isolecithal Yolk evenly distributed Sea urchins, humans
Telolecithal Yolk distributed in a gradient Amphioxus,Rept iles, fish, birds, amphibans
Centrolecithal Yolk concentrated in the center of the egg Most arthropods
Fertilization Metaphase II is completed 30 rotation of the cortex (gray crescent) Formation of GC opposite the point where the sperm entered Determination of the future pattern of the animal Formation of diploid zygote nucleus
Establishing the Axes
1. The polarity of the egg determines the antero-posterior axis before fertilization. 2. At fertilization, the pigmented cortex slides over the underlying cytoplasm toward the point of sperm entry. 3. The first cleavage division bisects the gray crescent.
Cleavage Types Cleavage Initial series of mitotic divisions by the zygote Holoblastic = total cleavage. The entire egg divides, as do successive blastomeres. Equal = microlecithal eggs; dividing cells are equal in size Unequal = mesolecithal eggs; dividing cells ventrally are larger than those dorsally
Meroblastic (Discoidal) = division only
occurs in a small area at the animal pole blastodisc
Cleavage Patterns Position of upper cells relative to lower cells during cleavage is important to classification Radial cleavage = cleavages are symmetrical to the first (echinoderms and chordates cleavage pattern shows link between these groups, both deuterostomes) Spiral cleavage = cleavages are rotated from the first (annelids, molluscs, some other invertebrates separate evolutionary lineage: protostomes)
End product of cleavage is the blastula
(micro-, meso-) or blastodisc (macro-)
Cleavage Patterns
Cleavage Cleavage is reductive The average diameter of a cell decreases as cleavage continues. There is a large increase in surface area relative to cellular volume.
Cleavage
Blastula Microlecit hal (Amphioxus ) Mesolecith al (Amphibian s) Macrolecit hal (Birds)
Hollow sphere Wall is single-layered Hollow sphere Wall is several layers thick Blastula forms as a plate, several layers thick, on top of the yolk mass
Blastula
Blastulae from various organisms
Blastula
Gastrulation It is not birth, marriage, or death, but gastrulation, which is truly the most important time in your life. Lewis Wolpert (1986) Migration and division of cells to set up the 3 primary germ layers
Fate Map
Gastrulation 1. Establishment of the three primary germ layers 2. Establishment of the basic body plan (including the physical construction of the rudimentary primary body axes) 3. Cells are brought into new positions, allowing inductive interactions
General Mechanisms that Drive
Gastrulation Changes in cell motility Changes in cell shape Changes in cellular adhesion to other cells and to molecules of the extracellular matrix
Morphogenetic Movements Invagination an epithelial sheet bends inward to form an inpocketing Ingression cells leave an epithelial sheet by transforming from wellbehaved epithelial cells into freely migrating mesenchyme cells. Involution a tissue sheet rolls inward to form an underlying layer via bulk movement of tissue
Morphogenetic Movements Epiboly a sheet of cells spreads by thinning Intercalation two or more rows of cells move between one another, creating an array of cells that is longer but thinner. Convergent Extension two or more rows of cells intercalate, but the intercalation is highly directional
Steps in Gastrulation
Formation of the blastopore on the dorsal side of
the late blastula through invagination Sheets of outer cells roll inward over the dorsal lip (involution) and move into the interior (dashed arrow) Cells at the animal pole change shape and begin spreading over the outer surface (epiboly)
Steps in Gastrulation
The blastopore extends around both sides of the
embryo (red arrows) as more cells invaginate. The ends finally meet on the other side and the blastopore forms a circle that becomes smaller as ectoderm spreads over the surface Continued involution expands the endoderm and mesoderm, and the archenteron begins to form; the blastocoel becomes smaller
Steps in Gastrulation
The archenteron has completely replaced the
blastocoel and the three germ layers are in place. The circular blastopore surrounds a plug of yolkfilled cells
Gastrulation DORSAL blastopor e blastocoe l
VENTRAL
Gastrulation
Gastrulation
Ventral lip
blastocoe l
Yolk plug Dorsal lip
archenter on
Neurulation 1. Creates the neural tube, which gives rise to the central nervous system. 2. Creates the neural crest, which migrates away from the dorsal surface of the neural tube, and gives rise to a diverse set of cell types. 3. Creates the bona fide epidermis, which covers the neural tube once it is created.
Neural Plate Formation
Thickening of the dorsal
ectoderm neural plate
Neural Tube Formation
The neural tube is produced by the infolding and pinching off of the neural plate. Delamination of neural crest cells from the roof of the neural tube
Neural Crest 4th germ layer Derivatives: Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Endocrine and paraendocrine derivatives Epidermal pigment cells Facial cartilage and bone Connective tissue
Neural Plate Stage
Neural plate Notochord Ectoderm Archentero n
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Neural Groove Stage
Neural groove Neural fold
Neural Tube Stage
Neural tube Somatic mesoderm Splanchnic mesoderm
Mesoderm Development Majority of body structures are mesodermal in origin Notochordal mesoderm rapidly rounds up and separates from lateral mesoderm, forming a discrete cylinder = notochord Lateral mesoderm Branchiostoma Mesoderm forms paired series of segmentally arranged blocks = somites From their initiation, somites possess a cavity = coelomic cavity
Mesoderm Development Lateral Mesoderm Vertebrates No initial segmentation of mesoderm; instead forms as a continuous sheet without a central cavity Differentiation occurs from head to tail Epimere (somite) Mesomere (nephrotome) Hypomere (lateral plate)
Mesoderm Development
Mesoderm Development Epimere (somites) next to the neural tube and notochord Sclerotome = gives rise to the vertebral column Dermatome = gives rise to the dermis of the skin Myotome = gives rise to the voluntary muscles of the body (with certain exceptions)
Mesoderm Development
Mesomere lateral and
ventral to the somites Gives rise to the kidneys, the reproductive organs, and their ducts
Mesoderm Development
Hypomere extends ventrolaterally from the mesomere region Coelom = cavity of the hypomere Gives rise to the smooth muscle and connective tissue coats of the digestive tract Gives rise to the linings of all the coelomic cavities, the serosa of the viscera, and all of the mesenteries The splanchnic mesoderm gives rise to the heart
Adult Derivatives of the Three
Embryonic Germ Layers Epithelial lining of digestive tract & respiratory system Lining of urethra, urinary bladder, & reproductive system Liver Pancreas Thymus Thyroid & Parathyroid glands Lining of Blood Vessels
Endoderm
Notochord Skeletal, muscular, excretory, circulatory, lymphatic, & reproductive systems Muscular layer of stomach & intestine Dermis Lining of body cavity Adrenal cortex Heart Smooth Muscle and Connective Tissue of Circulatory and Digestive System
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
Epidermis of the skin & its derivatives Epithelial lining of mouth & anus Cornea, lens, & retina of eye Nervous system Sensory receptors in epidermis Neural crest derivatives
Organogenesis Once the mesoderm divisions are set up, ontogenetic development proceeds to embryonic differentiation of the adult body. This differentiation is caused by induction
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the olfactory placode
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the olfactory placode
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the olfactory placode
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the olfactory placode
10 mm tadpole serial sections Between the olfactory placode and optic cup
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the optic cup
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the optic cup
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the optic cup
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the optic cup
10 mm tadpole serial sections Close-up of the optic cup
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the heart
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the heart
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the heart Somite
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the heart
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the glottis Somite
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the lung buds
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the lung buds
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the lung buds
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the hindgut
Coelo m
Hindgu t
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the cloaca
10 mm tadpole serial sections Close-up of caudal artery and vein
10 mm tadpole serial sections Level of the ventral fin
