Construction Techniques, Equipments and Practices
Construction Techniques, Equipments and Practices
Construction Techniques, Equipments and Practices
in
heavy decks in-situ pre-stressing in high rise structures, Material handling - erecting light
weight
components on tall structures - Support structure for heavy Equipment and conveyors -Erection
of articulated structures, braced domes and space decks.
UNIT V CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT 10
Selection of equipment for earth work - earth moving operations - types of earthwork equipment
tractors, motor graders, scrapers, front end waders, earth movers Equipment for foundation and
pile driving. Equipment for compaction, batching and mixing and concreting - Equipment for
material handling and erection of structures - Equipment for dredging, trenching, tunneling,
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
cemnt
Actions involved:
1. Dispersion:
Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They are adsorbed on the
cement particles, giving them a negative charge which leads to repulsion between the particles.
Electrostatic forces are developed causing disintegration and the free water become available for
workability.
2. Lubrication:
As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing the friction and
increasing the workability.
3. Retardation:
Give 1625%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which makes them
very effective at low temperatures or where early strength is most critical.
However, at higher temperatures, they lose workability relatively quickly. SMF generally
give a good finish and are colorless, giving no staining in white concrete.
Typically give 1625%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of larger,
unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more surface defects.
Retardation is more than with SMF but will still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is
a very cost-effective.
Typically give 2035%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but are
very powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used.
In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water reducers, and
the possible undesirable side effects are reduced because they do not markedly lower the
surface tension of the water.
Accelerators:
An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of hydration of
hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate of hardening or
strength development.
Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and application:
1. Set Accelerating Admixtures,
Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20C and at 5C by at least 130% at
48 hours. Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or very early access
to pavements is required. They are often used in combination with a high range water reducer,
especially in cold conditions.
.
Set Retarders:
The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in
placing the concrete at high temperatures.
When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after which
there is little formation of further hydrates for typically 23 hours.
The exact time depends mainly on the cement type and the temperature. This is called the
dormant period when the concrete is plastic and can be placed.
At the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of calcium silicate
hydrate and calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to the
setting time of the concrete.
Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and the start of setting and
hardening. This is useful when used with plasticizers to give workability retention. Used
on their own, retarders allow later vibration of the concrete to prevent the formation of
cold joints between layers of concrete placed with a significant delay between them.
The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture anions and
molecules are absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which hinders further
reactions between cement and water i.e. retards setting.
An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes
air, usually in small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the
concrete or mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost
resistance.
Air-entraining admixtures are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water.
Traditionally, they were based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely
been replaced by synthetic surfactants or blends of surfactants to give improved stability
and void characteristics to the entrained air.
Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened
concrete. These include:
Resistance to freezethaw action in the hardened concrete.
Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
Stability of extruded concrete.
MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
Raw materials used
Dry process
General
Adopted when the raw materials are quite hard
The process is slow an the product is costly
Process
Lime stone and clay are ground to fine powder separately and are mixed together
The paste format are dried and off charged into a rotary kiln
The clinker I obtained as a result of incipient fusion and sintering at a temp about 1400c
to 1500 c
The clinker is cooled to preserve the meta stable compounds and there solid solutions
Dispersion of one solid with another solid which made the clinker again heated
Clinker is again cooled and grounded in tube mills where 2-3% gypsum is added
The purpose of adding gypsum is to coat the cement particle by interfering the process of
hydration of cement particles
Wet process
The operations are
The crushed raw materials are fed in to a ball mill and a little water is added
The steel balls in the ball mill pulverized the raw material which form a slurry with water
The slurry is passed through storage tanks where the proportioning of compound is
adjusted to ensure desired chemical composition
The corrected slurry having moisture about 40%,is then fed into rotary kiln
It becomes clinker at this stage, the clinker is cooled and then grounded in tube mills
While grinding the clinker 3% gypsum I added this is stored in silos and packed
Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain
minimum strength and durability as economically as possible.
One of the ultimate aims of studying the various properties of the materials of concrete,
plastic concrete and hardened concrete is to enable a concrete technologist to design a
concrete mix for a particular strength and durability.
The design of concrete mix is not a simple task on account of the widely varying
properties of the constituent materials, the conditions that prevail at the site of work, in
particular the exposure condition, and the conditions that are demanded for a particular
work for which the mix is designed.
Design of concrete mix requires complete knowledge of the various properties of these
constituent materials, these make the task of mix design more complex and difficult.
Design of concrete mix needs not only the knowledge of material properties and
properties of concrete in plastic condition; it also needs wider knowledge and experience
of concreting.
Even then the proportion of the materials of concrete found out at the laboratory requires
modification and re adjustments to suit the field conditions.
With better understanding of the properties, the concrete is becoming more and more an
exact material than in the past.
Further, the site engineer is required to make the concrete at site, closely following the
parameters suggested by the mix designer to achieve the minimum strength specified by
the structural engineer.
In some cases the site engineer may be required to slightly modify the mix proportions
given by the mix designer.
He also makes cubes or cylinders sufficient in numbers and tests them to confirm the
achievements with respect to the minimum specified strength. Mix designer, earlier, may
have made trial cubes with representative materials to arrive at the value of standard
deviation or coefficient of variation to be used in the mix design.
American Concrete Institute Method of Mix Design 11.3 (ACI Concrete Mix Design)
This method of proportioning was first published in 1944 by ACI committee 613. In 1954 the
method was revised to include, among other modifications, the use of entrained air. In 1970, the
method of ACI mix design became the responsibility of ACI committee 211. We shall now deal
with the latest ACI Committee 211.1 method.
It has the advantages of simplicity in that it:
1. Applies equally well
2. With more or less identical procedure to rounded or angular aggregate
3. To regular or light weight aggregates
4. To air entrained or non-air-entrained concretes.
Manufacturing of concrete
Introduction
Production of concrete requires meticulous care at every stage
The ingredients of good and bad concrete are same but good rules are not
Observed it may become bad
Manufacturing of concrete includes the following stages
1. Batching
Volume batching
The required ingredients of conc. Are measured by volume basis
o Volume batching is done by various types of gauge boxes
o The gauge boxes are made with comparatively deeper with narrow surface
o Some times bottomless gauge boxes are used but it should be avoided
Volume batching is not a good practice because of the difficulties it offers to granular material.
Some of the sand in loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry compacted
soil.
For un important concrete or any small job concrete may be batched by volume.
Weigh batching
The different types of weigh batching are there, they are used based on the different
situation.
In small works the weighing arrangement consist of two weighing buckets connected to
the levers of spring loaded dials which indicates the load,
Hand mixing
Machine mixing
Hand mixing
Hand mixing should be done over a impervious concrete or brick floor sufficiently large
size take one bag of cement .
Spread out and measure d out fine aggregates and course aggregate in alternative layers.
Pour he cement on the top of it and mix them dry by showel, turning the mixture over and
over again until the uniformity of color is achieved.
The water is taken and sprinkled over the mixture and simultaneously turned over
The operation is continued till such time a good uniform homogeneous concrete is
obtained
Machine mixing
Mixing of concrete almost invariably carried ot by machine ,for reinforced concrete work
medium or large scale concrete works .
Machine mixing is not only efficient it is also economical when quantity of concrete to be
produced is large
Type of mixer for mixing concrete
Batch mixer
Batch mixer produce concrete batch by batch with time interval
This is used in normal concrete work
Drum types are further classified into tilting ,non tilting and forced action type
The capacity of batch mixer depends on the proportion of the mix
For 1:2:4 ideal mixer 200 liters
For 1:3:6 ideal mixer 280 liters
Mixing time
Concrete mixers are generally designed to run at a speed of 15 to 20 revolutions per minute
For proper mixing it is seen that about 25to 30 revolutions are required in a well designed mixer
It is important that a mixer should not stop in between concreting operations for this requirement
concrete mixer must be kept maintained
Transporting of concrete
Concrete can be imported by variety of methods and equipments
Methods adopted for transportation of concrete
e way
Mortar pan
This method exposes greater surface area of concrete for drying conditions
Mortar pan must be wetted to start with and must be kept clean
Wheel barrow
This method is employed for hauling concrete in longer distance in case of concrete road
construction.
If the distance is long or ground is rough it is likely that the concrete get segregated due
to vibration
This is one of the right way for transporting concrete above the ground level
Crane can handle concrete in high rise construction project and are becoming familiar
sites in big cities
For large concrete works particularly for concrete to be placed at ground level
Provided for transporting concrete from ground to lower levelThe surface should have same
slope not flatter than 1 vertical to 2 and a1/2 horizontal
Placing of concrete
Placing concrete with large earth mould or timber plank form work
The concrete must be placed very care fully a small quantity at a time so that they will not block
the entry of subsequent concrete
Placing concrete under water
Concrete is often required to be placed under water or I a trench filled with slurry
In such a cases use of bottom slurry buckets or termic pipes are used
In the bottom bucket concrete is taken through water in a water tight box or bucket
reaching final place of deposition
The bottom is made to open by some mechanism and the whole concrete is dumped
slowly.
Compaction of concrete
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the concrete
Method for compacting concrete
Hand compaction
Compaction by vibrator
Compaction by spinning
Hand compaction
Adopted in case of unimportant concrete
This can be adopted when mechanical mean cannot be used
It consist of
Roding
Internal vibrator
Formwork vibrator
Table vibrator
Platform vibrator
Surface vibrator
Vibratory rollers
Often used for compacting hollow block ,cavity blocks concrete blocks
With the combined action of the three the stiff conc gets compacted to an dense form to
give good strength and volume
Compaction by spinning
The plastic concrete when at every high speed get well compacted by centrifugal force
The measured slump must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more
workable than drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability.
It can also be defined as the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of
its workability.
clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum test
.
e with the sample. Compact
the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the concrete
to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern, working from
outside into the middle.
to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the sample
fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another must be taken.
If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Compression Test
The compression test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect
conditions.
The compression test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should
always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a
concrete cylinder for the compression test.
The compressive strength is a measure of the concretes ability to resist loads which tend
to crush it.
f the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
For prepare progress of construction each stage may be constructed under separate
contraction
Before starting to construct the structure we must go for the sequence of operation in the
project it is better way o arrange the labour material and equipment
Site clearance
Setting out is the process of laying down the excavation lines and centre lines on the
ground before excavation is started after the foundation design is done
For setting out the foundation of a small building the centre line of the longest outer wall
of the building is first marked on the ground by stretching a string between wooden or
mild steel pegs driven at the ends
Two pegs one on either from the central peg are driven at the each end of the line
Each peg is equidistant from the central peg and the distance between the outer pegs
corresponds to the width of foundation trench to be excavated
Each peg may be projected about 25 to 50 mm above ground level may be driven at a
distance of 2m from the edge of excavation
The centre line of the other wall which is perpendicular to the long wall can be marked
by setting out right angles
All the specifications are made by tape or prismatic compass may be used for setting out
right angles
Similarly outer lines of the foundation trench of each cross wall can be set out
For big project reference pillars of masonry is constructed first, these pillars may be
about 20cm thick and 15cm wider than the width of the foundation
EXCAVATION
Excavation of foundation can be done by manually or with the help of special mechanical
equipments
Manually it can be done by the help of following equipments
o Spade
o Phawrah
o Pick axe
o Crowbar
o Rammer
o Wedge
o Boning rod
o Sledge hammer
o Basket
o Iron pan
o line and pins
FOUNDATION
The foundation is he lower portion of the building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmit the load of super structure to sub soil
Functions of foundation
Types of foundation
Shallow foundation
If the depth of foundation is less than or equal to width of foundation it is called as shallow
foundation
Types of shallow foundation
Spread footing
Spread footing is those which spread the super imposed load to of a wall or column over the
large area
Spread footing support either a column or a wall
It has the following types
Combined footing
A spread footing which supports two are more columnsis termed as combined footing
It has the following types
Deep foundation
If the depth of foundation is equal to or more than the width of the foundation is called deep
foundation
Types
Drilled caissons
Well foundation or caissons are box like structures circular or rectangular which are
sunk from the surface of either land or water to the desired depth
Large water front structures such as pump houses, subjected to heavy vertical and
horizontal loads
Well foundations are caissons are hollow from inside, which may filled withstand and are
plugged at the bottom, the load is transferred to the perimeter wall called as steining
Stone Masonry
Definition:
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.
Types of Stone Masonry:
Stone masonry may be broadly classified into the following two types:
1. Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry
1. Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable
mortar is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness.
Rubble masonry is further sub-divided into the following three types:
a. Un coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid
without forming courses is known as un coursed random rubble masonry. This is the roughest
and cheapest type of masonry and is of varying appearance. The stones used in this masonry are
of different sizes and shapes. before lying, all projecting corners of stones are slightly knocked
off. Vertical joints are not plumbed, joints are filled and flushed. Large stones are used at corners
and at jambs to increase their strength. Once "through stone" is used for every square meter of
the face area for joining faces and backing.
Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of ordinary buildings.
b. Coursed random rubble masonry: The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid in
layers of equal height is called random rubble masonry. In this masonry, the stones are laid in
somewhat level courses. Headers of one coursed height are placed at certain intervals. The stones
are hammer dressed. Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go downs,
boundary walls etc.
2. Squared rubble masonry:The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on all
joints and beds by hammer dressing or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is called
squared rubble masonry.
3. Dry rubble masonry: The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar
is called dry rubble masonry or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary masonry and
is recommended for constructing walls of height not more than 6m. In case the height is more,
three adjacent courses are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at 3m intervals.
2. Ashlar masonry:
The stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is known as
ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are regular,
thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires dressing of
stones.
Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers and
abutments of bridges.
Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:
hlar masonry
Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry: In this type of stone masonry stone blocks of same
height in each course are used. Every stone is fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is
uniform through out. It is an expensive type of stone masonry as it requires heavy labor and
wastage of material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can be obtained in this type of stone
masonry.
Rough tooled ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry the sides of the stones are rough
tooled and dressed with chisels. Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry: This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough
tooled type except that there is chisel-drafted margin left rough on the face which is known as
quarry faced.
Chamfered ashlar masonry: It is similar to quarry faced except that the edges are beveled or
chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5 cm or more.
-in course masonry: It is the name given to a class of ashlar masonry which occupies an
intermediate place between rubble and ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly dressed.
It resembles to coursed rubble masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.
Ashlar facing: Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is type of masonry
is very expensive, it is not commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the wall, except in
works of great importance and strength. For economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest
in rubble.
Brick masonry
cher bricks on edges instead of bed
This bond is weak in strength but it is economical Brick masonry is made up of brick units
bonded together with mortar
Components of brick masonry
-lime mortar
Types of bricks
Traditional bricks
It has not been standardize in size
Dimensions varies from place to place
Thickness varies from varies from cm to 7.5cm,widthvaries from 10to13 cm and length varies
from 20to25 cm
Modular brick
Any brick which is the same uniform size as laid down by bis
The nominal size of the modular brick is 20cm x10cmx10cm
Actual size is 19x9x9
Classes of brick
Stretcher bond
The length of the brick its along with the face of the wall\
This pattern is used only for those wall which have thickness of half brick
Header bond
The width of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall
This pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is equal to one brick
English bond
Every alternative header come centrally over the joint between two stretchers in corse in
below
Since the number of vertical joint in the header course twice the number of vertical joints
in stretcher course ,the joints in the header course are made thinner than the joints in the
stretcher course
Flemish bond
Surface teatement
The use of metallic soap such as calcium and aluminium oletes and stearates are much
effective against rain water penetration
Surface treatment is effective only the moisture is superficial and its not under pressure
this is an effective method of damp prevention in which the external wall of the building
is shielded by an outer skin wall leaving a cavity between the two guniting
This consist of depositing under pressure ,an impervious layer of rich cement mortar over
the exposed for water proofing or over pipes for resisting the water pressure
Cement mortar consist of 1:3 cement sand mix which is short on the cleaned surface with
the help of cement gun under a pressure of 3to 4 kg/cm2
Pressure grouting
This is the process of forcing cement grout under pressure, into cracks, voids, fissures etc
present into the structural components
This method is quite effective in checking the seepage of raised ground water
Hot bitumen
Mastic asphalt
Metal sheets
Bricks
Stones
Mortar
Cement concrete
Plastic sheets
resistance
Components of a floor
Sub floor, basecourse or floor base
Floor covering or flooring
Selection of flooring materials
Factor that affect the choice of flooring
Base concrete
Terrazzo flooring
Terrazzo flooring is another type of floor finish that is laid in thin layer over concrete
topping
Terrazzo is a specially prepare concrete surface containing cement and marble chips in
the proportion to 1:1 1/4 to 1:2
When the surface has set the chips are exposed by grinding operation
Mosaic flooring
Mosaic flooring Is made of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or of cement or of
marble arranged in different pattern
a concrete base is prepare as in the case of concrete flooring over that 5to8 thick lime
surkhi mortar is spread over an area, over this 3mm thick cementing paste is layered and
is left to dry about 4 hours,
,there after small pieces of broken tiles or marble pieces of different colors arranged
definite pattern and hammered in different layers
Tiled flooring
Thes are commonly used in residential houses ,schools,hospitals and other public
buildings
Over the concrete base a 25 to 30 mm thick layr of lime mortar 1:3 to serve as a bedding
Neat cement slurry is spread over it and the tiles are laid flat over it
Marble flooring
It is the superior type of flooring used in bathrooms and kitchens of residential building
and hospitals ,sanitorium ,temples etc
After the preparation of base concrete 20 mm thick bed layer of 1:4 cement mix spread
under the area of each individual slabs.
The marble layer is then laid over it and pressed with wooden mallet and leveled
Timber flooring
Etc
But hilly area where wood is available and temperature drops very low timber flooring is
quite common
SCAFFOLDING
When te higt of wall or column or othet structural member of a building exceeding1.5 m
temporary structures needed to support trhe platforms over which the work man sit and carry o
the work
These temporary structures constructed very close to the wall is in the form of imber o steel
frame work commonly called as scaffoldings
or needle scaffoldings
Single scaffoldings
This consists of a single frame work of standards, legers, put logs etc
Constructed parallel to the wall at a distance of about 1.2 meters
The standards are placed at a distance of 2to2.5m interval
Ledger connected with the standards, and are provided at a vertical distance of 1.2to 1.5 m Put
logs or connected with one end on the ledgers and other end at the holes of the wall at an interval
of1.2 to 1.5 m interval
The first row placed 20 to 30 cm away from the wall the other frame will 1m distance
from the first one
Put logs are the supported on both the supports, rakers and cross braces are provided to
make the scaffolding more strong
It is required to keep the ground near wall free for traffic etc i
It ha s two types
Single Frame
Te standards are supported on series of needle taken out through opening or through holes
Double frame
The needles are projecting beams are strutted inside the floors
Suspended scaffolding
It is the light weight scaffolding used for repair works such as pointing, painting etc
The working platforms are suspended from roofs by means of wire ropes or chains etc
Trestle scaffolding
Such type of scaffoldings are used for painting and repairing work inside the room up to a height
of 5m
The working platform is supported over the top of movable contrivances such as tripods ladders
etc
Steel scaffolding
Steel scaffolding is practically similar to the timber scaffolding, here wooden members
are replaced by steel couplets are fittings
Patented scaffolding
Many patented scaffolding made of steel are available in the market
Thos scaffoldings are equipped with special couplings frames etc
TRUSSES
Trusses are the frame formed by number of straight members connected in the form of
triangles
The embers are made by steel angles and they are joined by rivet or welding, these joints
are called nodes
The compression members are called as struts and the tension members are called as ties
Here t he common rafters are supported by wooden frame work called truss under
required interval
The frame work consist of a king post, two struts two principal rafters and tie beam
The common rafters rest on wooden purlins which in turn are fixed to the principal rafters
of the truss
The king post connect the ridge post and the middle of the tie beam
The struts are connected to the king post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the top
The roofing material is fixed to the common rafters king post truss is used for spans of
5m to 9m
The frame work consist of two principal rafters ,two queen post one straining sill two
struts one tie beam and one straining beam
The struts are connected to the queen post at the bottom and the principal rafters at the
top
North light or saw tooth roof truss is special type of roof trusses suitable for factories
engaging in manufacturing work
Actual lighting is taken an advantage during day time by using the north light roof trusses
In this type of trusses vertical drops are provided this drops are covered with glasses so as
to permit light in to the interior
Shuttering is the temporary ancillary construction used as a mould for the structures
These are classified as steel wooden plywood combined woods steel, reinforced concrete
and plain concrete
Requirements of shuttering
The material should be cheap and should be suitable for re use several times
It should be practically water proof so that it should not observe water from concrete
The surface of the formwork should smooth and it should afford easy stripping
Components
Yokes
Wedges
bolt
Roof finishing accessories include all types of accessory materials that are used to finish
a roof. Flashing, drip edge, and roof drains are all examples of roofing accessories.
Roof finishing accessories are widely available for a range of applications and may be
chosen for functional, aesthetic, or budgetary reasons.
All building and particularly building having more than one storey shall be provided with
liberally designed and safe fire proof existence
The exist shall be so placed that they are always immediately accessible and each is
capable of taking all the persons on that floor a s alternative escape route
Escape route shall be well ventilated as persons using the escapes are likely to over come
from smoke Fire proof door shall conform rigidly to the fire safety requirements
Electrical and mechanical lifts while reliable undr normal condition may not always be
relied on escape purpose
Lift shafts and stairways invariably serve as flues are tunnels thus increasing the fire by
increased draught
Floors are required to withstand the effect of fire for full period stated for the particular
grading
Roofs of the various fire grades of the building shall be designed and constructed to
withstand the effect of fire for the maximum period
The box shaped tunnel structures are pre fabricated units which are pushed into soil by
hydraulic jack
To avoid settlements of over laying roads or rail track soil is excavated after it enters the
cutting heads
Excavation ahead of the cutting is avoided the cutting head is moved forward in small
increments to avoid any having of the road or rail track
In addition to that, without stabilizing the soil, the box technique would cause the super
structure to settle the threatening structure failure so the ground ahead of tunnel boxes
needed to be frozen
PIPE JACKING
In tunnels of damages above 2m men and machines worked the tunnel phase exacting and
providing soil support to the excavator soil by erecting the lining. The tunnel diameter becomes
small it becomes difficult for workers to carry out soil excavation of in erect the tunnel lining
system with in the tunnel shield
For diameter in the range of 0.5m to 1.5m it is more efficient to excavate the soil by drilling
systems controlled from a shaft or a pit to push the tunnel lining segment from the shaft or pit
. These lateral loads are usually wind and earthquake loads, but other lateral loads such as
lateral earth pressure or hydrostatic pressure can also be resisted by diaphragm action.
The diaphragm of a structure often does double duty as the floor system or roof system in
a building or the deck of abridge, which simultaneously supports gravity loads.
Metal deck or composite metal deck in steel construction; or concrete slab in concrete
construction.
The two primary types of diaphragm are flexible and rigid. Flexible diaphragms resist
lateral forces depending on the tributary area, irrespective of the flexibility of the
members that they are transferring force to
. On the other hand, rigid diaphragms transfer load to frames or shear walls depending on
their flexibility and their location in the structure.
TUNNELING
Process of making tunnels in order to reduce distance of travel or traffic congestion for highway
and railway is called tunneling
Tunneling is important for the following purpose
o Time saving and reduction in fuel
o Avoid unwanted traffic congestion
o Maintain a proper speed
o Avoid tiredness of travel
o Avoid unwanted accidents
o To avoid deforestation and death of animal while crossing
o To avoid land slide in hilly region
o To avoid the long route around the mountain
o To reduce the length of highway and railway and it may be economical
o To have flatter gradient that is essential to maintain the speed of the vehicle
Using hammering
Hammering
Heavy bl0w is given by means of a hammer
Variety of hammers available to perform some of the acion
hammer
Drop hammer
The hammer is lifted by a winch and dropped down
The hammer is connected to the rope by a hook
When it is lifted up after reaching a particular height it is dropped down
The thickness of the pile is very less when compared to the length and width of the pile
To prevent the entry water in construction the sheet piles are used, this is also used to
separate the vertical member of the building
The piles are inserted by some machine the depth of the piles can be increased by proper
joints in successive installment
Functions
To prevent seepage below the dams or hydraulic structures to construct coastal defense
work
Dewatering of soil by temporary lowering of water table using wells and pumps prior
excavation as depleted in figure
Allowing water to reap into excavation area, collecting it in sumps and pumping it out.
Before that adequate steps have to be taken to support the soil on sides of the excavated
area, to prevent washing away of fines and have sufficient space for the work area.
Making the soil around excavated zone impermeable by technique such as grouting are
freezing so that inflow of water is stop are minimized.
INSTALATION TECHNIQUE
Sufficient size and capacity of dewatering system is necessary to lower and maintain
ground water table and to allow material to be excavated in a reasonable dry condition.
The complete stand by have to be available for immediate operation as may be required,
to adequately maintain dewatering on continuous basis and in the event that all or any
other part of the system may become inadequate or fail
The water removed from the excavation to be disposed in such a manner as will not
endanger portions of work under construction or completed.
For dewatering purpose, well points deep well, caissons and tunnels are used.
This is economical and useful for lowering the water table by 15m or less.
Incase of well point method or deep well method it is based on the fact that removal of
water by continuous pumping from a well causes the water table level to become
depressed and result in the formation of draw down.
When a series of wells are placed close to each other, the overall effect is lowering of the
water table level.
Well points, can lower the water table by only 6.7m because the pump, is located at the
ground surface and connected to group of well points through a pipe, cannot lift water
from greater depth.
It may be necessary to take account of these combined actions when verifying the design of the
deck. This is most likely to be the case when there are significant stresses from the overall
structural actions in the same direction as the maximum bending moments from local deck
actions, e.g. in structures with cross girders where the direction of maximum moment is along
the bridge.
The passage of each wheel load causes a complete cycle of local bending stresses. The number
of significant stress cycles is, therefore, very much higher for the deck than for the remainder of
the superstructure. In addition, some of the actions of the deck arising from its participation in
the overall behaviour are subject to full reversal;
an example is the transverse distribution of vertical load between girders. For both these reasons,
fatigue is more likely to govern the design of the bridge deck than the remainder of the
superstructure.
SHELL STRUCTURES
Shells are 3d structures constructed on storage tanks or roof for large column area such as indoor
stadiums, exhibition halls, theatres, complex churches etc
Singly curved
Doubly curved
Cylindrical shells
Singly curved
It can be used for rectangular shape buildings, shells represents the roof of the building
Dome storage tank for water and petroleum is example for single curved
Doubly curved
For doubly curved structures the super structure should be in hexagonal or circular shape
Cylindrical shape
These are just modification of pitched roof and frequently emloyed in modern age construction
It has two types
Selection of environment
Tidal conditions
Gravity structures
Besides high raise buildings the usage of steel element is also popular with construction
of hospital and commercial complexes
Instead of concrete beams and columns more than 6100 tonnes of steel have been used to
build the main frames
Light weight blocks are used for patricians to reduce the dead load building
The usage of permanent concrete form works and structural steel elements will be the
main constituter for erecting light weight components on tall structures results rapid
speed of constructions.
Hence the erection of steel beams and columns as well as the installation of concrete
form work consumes only less time
Self drilling tapping screws are the most prevalent fasteners. Steel to steel connections
can be carried out to connect struts or joist and track together
Entire can be erected manually with out the use of heavy equipment
All these structures require few battery powered screw gunes and some ropes and pulleys
No scaffoldings is require for assembly and disc assembly of the structures because the
structure itself provides the scaffoldings as it goes up or comes down
Almost any number of column sections can be added to make it any height we desire
During the construction of tall structures the following equipments areused for the aerial
transporting and handling
Helicopter
e equipment
TRACTORS
Tractors are machine which change the engine energy into tractive energy
These are primarily used for pull or push the loads
They are also used for different purposes by mounting many types of accessories
Types of tractor
Heavy models are employed in earth moving works, cranes, shovels or special rigs
Size of the dozer for given job the type expected from the track to dozer
distance to be move
Dozers are machine designed primarily for cutting and pushing the material over short
distance
They consist with a front mounted blade controlled by hydraulic cylinder to vary the
depth of cut and rate of leveling depending on the material and application
a dozer is frame mounted unit with a blade, curved in its section, extending in front of the
tractor
Basically its pushing unit but its widely used as multipurpose equipment and can perform
large number of operations with minor changes
Scrapers
Scrapers are the devices to scrap the ground and load it simultaneously, transport it for the
required distance and dump it and then spread it for the required area
The scrapers are designed to dig,load,haul,dump and spread
The scrapers are of three types
Towed type
The towed type scrapers are provided with either cable or hydraulic control
It can be operated in extremely adverse condition
Conventional scrapers
Bowl
Cutting edge
Apron
Loading or digging
Transporting
Unloading
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Proper selection of construction equipment place a vital role in the speedy and
economical completion of the construction
Following are the main points which should be considered while selection off the
construction equipments
The equipment must meet the requirement of the work climate and working condition
Size of the equipment it should be such that must be able to be used with other
equipments
If the equipment selected for larger size it will remain idle inmost of the time
Standardization
It is better to have same type and size of equipment in a construction then it is easy to
have spare parts, and to understand its operations
Availability of equipment
The equipments selected should be satisfactorily handled by the available operators and
machine
Service support
Operating requirements
Past performance
EXCAVATORS
A super structure with operators cabin mounted on either a sloe ring to traverse through
360or on a rigid frame
Types of excavators
Compactors
Compaction is the process where by material particles are constrained to pack more closely
together through
a reduction of air void content generally by mechanical means
Types of compactors
Power shovels
Tractor loader
Working principle of tunneling these machines perform the bring operation through the
rotation of the front head against the rock face
The mole has circular cutter head in the front provided with fixed cutters of desired
shapes
The cutter head while rotating is pressed against the rock to cut or pulverize it
These machine are allowed to access change in bore hole diameter and this can be done
without any change of machines