Over-current and Earth Fault Protection

    Introduction

As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is
more than load current. If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is
reduced to a low value and therefore a fault is accompanied by large current.

Over-current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when

the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level.

 The basic element in Over-current protection is an Over-current relay.

The Over-current relays are connected to the system, normally by means of
CT's.
 
Over-current relaying has following types:
1.      High speed Over-current protection.
2.      Definite time Over-current protection.
3.      Inverse minimum time Over-current protection.
4.      Directional Over-current protection (of above types).
 
Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is
most widely used protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment
generally) means the machine is taking more current than its rated current.
Hence with overloading, there is an associated temperature rise. The
permissible temperature rise has a limit based on insulation class and material
problems.
Over-current protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.
 
Over-current protection includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits a be
phase faults, earth faults or winding faults. Short-circuit currents are generally
several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always
desirable on short-circuits.
 
When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is
provided in addition as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine
from sustained through fault.
Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these
include:
1.      Fuses
2.      Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over-
current relays.
3.      Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.
4.      Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.
 
The primary requirements of over-current protection are:
  The protection should not operate for starting currents,
permissible over-current, and current surges. To achieve this, the
time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays). If time delay
cannot be permitted, high-set instantaneous relaying is used.
 The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over-
current protections so as to discriminate.
 
          Applications of Over-current Protection
Over-current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied
where there is an abrupt difference between fault current within the protected
section and that outside the protected section and these magnitudes are
almost constant.
 
The over-current protection is provided for the following:
                 Motor Protection
Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used against overloads
and short-circuits in stator windings of motors. Inverse time and instantaneous
phase and ground over-current relays can be employed for motors above 1200
H.P. For small/medium size motors where cost of CT's and protective relays is
not economically justified, thermal relays and HRC fuses are employed,
thermal relays used for overload protection and HRC fuses for short-circuit
protection.
                 Transformer Protection
Transformers are provided with over-current protection against faults, only,
when the cost of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, over-current
relays are provided in addition to differential relays to take care of through
faults. Temperature indicators and alarms are always provided for large
transformers.
Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are
generally protected by drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit-
breakers is not generally justified Line Protection.
The lines (feeders) can be protected by
(1)               Instantaneous over-current relays.
(2)               Inverse time over-current relays.
(3)               Directional over-current relay.
Lines can be protected by impedance or carrier current protection also.
 
Protection of Utility Equipment
The furnaces, industrial installations commercial, industrial and domestic
equipment are all provided with over-current protection.
 
    Relays used in Over-current Protection
The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the Time /
current characteristic and other features desired. The following relays are
used.
1.      For instantaneous over-current protection. Attracted armature type,
moving iron type,
      permanent  magnet moving coil type and static.
2.      For inverse time characteristic.  Electromagnetic induction type,
permanent magnet
       moving coil type and static.
3.      Directional over-current protection. Double actuating quantity induction
relay
      with directional feature.
4.      Static over-current relays.
5.      HRC fuses, drop out fuses, etc. are used in low voltage medium voltage
       and high voltage distribution systems, generally up to 11 kV.
6.      Thermal relays are used widely for over-current protection.
 
Not: Now Digital Numerical Relay you can used for all types
 
     Characteristics of relay units for over current protection
There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their
type and characteristics. The major characteristic includes:
           1. Definite characteristic
           2. Inverse characteristic
           3. Extremely Inverse
           4. Very Inverse
 
In definite characteristic, the time of operation is almost definite i.e.
 
I0 * T = K
Where:                
          I = Current in relay coil
          T = Relay lime
          K = Constant.
In inverse characteristic, time is inversely proportional to current i.e.
 
I1 * T = K
In more inverse characteristic
 
In * T = K
 
Where n can be between 2 to 8 the choice depends on discrimination desired.
Instantaneous relays are those which have no intentional time lag sod which
operate in less than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As suck they
are not instantaneous in real sense.
 
The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time Delay Relay'. Such
relays are provided with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash poss.
bellows, escape mechanisms, back-stop arrangement, etc.
 
The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude actuating
quantity can be known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer.
The typical characteristics are shown in (Fig. 1)
 
An inverse curve is one in which the operating time; becomes less as the
magnitude of the actuating quantity is increased. However for higher
magnitudes of actuating quantity the time is constant. Definite time curve is
one in which operating time is little affected by magnitude of actuating current.
However even definite time relay has a characteristic which is slightly inverse

The characteristic with definite minimum time and of inverse type is also called
Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics (Fig.1).

(Fig.1)  Inverse Definite Minimum Time

(IDMT) characteristics
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 Principle of trip circuit
Referring to (Fig. 2) the three current transformers and relay coils connected in
star and the star point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected
zone the secondary current of CT's increases.       

 These current flows through relay coils and the relay picks-up, the relay
contacts close, thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breaker-
operates The over-current protection scheme with three over-current relays
(Fig. 2) responds to phase faults and earth faults including single-phase to earth
fault.
Therefore such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase to
phase and phase to earth faults are likely to occur.

For proper functioning of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice of
CT's and polarity connections should be correct.

Fig.2)  Over Current protection

with three phase OC relays
Methods of CT Connections in Over-current Protection of 3-Phase Circuits

                 Connection Scheme with Three Over-current Relays

Over-current protection can be achieved by means of three over-current relays
or by two over-current relays (See Table 1).
Table 1
Fig Description Note
 
1 One OC with For balanced
one CT for load only.
over load
protection.

2 Two OC relays  
with two CT's
for phase to
phase fault
protection. 

3 Three OC EF current >

relays with two time
three CT's for pick-up
phase to phase
phase fault current
protection. 

4 Three OC EF setting
relays with less than
three CT's for phase fault
phase to setting
phase fault
protection and
phase to earth
fault. 
5 Two OC and  
one EF relays
for phase to
phase and
phase to earth
fault
protection
          Earth-Fault Protection

When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth
Fault. Other faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since
earth faults are relatively frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most
cases. When separate earth fault protection is not economical, the phase
relays sense the earth fault currents. However such protection lacks
sensitivity. Hence separate earth fault protection is generally provided. Earth
fault protection senses earth fault current. Following are the method of earth
fault protection.

          Connections of CT's for Earth-fault Protection

 1. Residually connected Earth-fault Relay

Referring to Fig. 3 In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line

currents is zero. Hence the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.

IR+I Y +I B =0

The sum (IR+I Y +I B ) is called residual current

The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through
it (Figs.3 and Fig. 4), in the absence of earth-fault,
Therefore, the residually connected earth-fault relay does not operate.
However, in presence of earth fault the conditions is disturbed and
(IR+I Y +I B ) is no more zero. Hence flows through the earth-fault relay. If
the residual current is above the pick-up value, the earth-fault relay
operates.
 In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away
from the location of CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the
protected
zone is not definite. Such protection is called unrestricted earth-fault protection

(Fig.3) Earth-fault Relay connected in Residual

Circuit.
 
(Fig.4)  Earth fault protection combined
with phase fault protection
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2. Earth-fault Relay connected in Neutral to Earth Circuit (Fig. 5).

Another method of connecting an earth-fault relay is illustrated in Fig 5. The relay is

connected to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth
connection. Such protection can be provided at various voltage levels by
connecting earth-fault relay in the neutral-to-earth connection of that voltage level.
The fault current finds the return path through the earth and then flows through the
neutral-to-earth connected. The magnitude of earth fault current is dependent on
type of earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and location of fault. In this type of
protection,

 The zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The protected area is not
restricted to the transformer/generator winding alone. The relay senses the
earth faults
beyond the transformer/generator winding hence such protection is called
unrestricted earth-fault protection. The earth-fault protection by relay in neutral
to earth circuit depends upon the type of neutral Earthing. In case of large
generators, voltage transformer is connected between neutral and earth
 

(Fig. 5) Earth-fault protection by earth-fault-

relay connected
in neutral-to-earth circuit.
          Combined Earth-fault and Phase-fault Protection

It is convenient to incorporate phase-fault relays and earth-fault relay in a

combined phase-fault and earth-fault protection. (Fig. 4) The increase in
current of phase causes corresponding increase in respective secondary
currents. The secondary current flows through respective relay-units Very
often only two-phase relays are provided instead of three, because in case of
phase faults current in any at least two phases must increase. Hence two
relay-units are enough.
 
     Earth-fault Protection with Core Balance Current Transformers.  (Zero
Sequence CT)
In this type of protection (Fig. 6) a single ring shaped core of magnetic
material, encircles the conductors of all the three phases. A secondary coil is
connected to a relay unit. The cross-section of ring-core is
 (Fig.6) Principle of core-balance
CT for earth fault protection
Ample, so that saturation is not a problem. During no-earth-fault condition, the
components of fluxes due to the fields of three conductors are balanced and
the secondary current is negligible. During earth faults, such a balance is
disturbed and current is induced in the secondary. Core-balance protection can
be conveniently used for protection of low-voltage and medium voltage
systems. The burden of relays and exciting current are deciding factors. Very
large cross-section of core is necessary for sensitivity less than 10 A. This
form of protection is likely to be more popular with static relays due to the
fewer burdens of the latter. Instantaneous relay unit is generally used with core
balance schemes.

           Theory of Core Balance CT

. Let Ia, Ib and I c , be the three line currents and Φa, Φb and Φc be corresponding
components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming linearity, we get resultant
flux Φ as,

Φ=k (Ia + Ib + I c )

 where k is a constant Φ = K * Ia. Referring to theory of symmetrical components

(Ia + Ib + I c )= 3 I c= I n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In, is current in neutral to ground circuit.
During normal condition, when earth fault is absent,

(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0

  Hence  Φr = 0 and relay does not operate

During earth fault the earth fault current flows through return neutral path.
For example for single line ground fault,

If = 3Iao = In
Hence the zero-sequence component of I o produces the resultant flux Φr in
the core. Hence core balance current transformer is also called as zero
sequence current transformers (ZSCT).

      Application for Core Balance CT's with Cable Termination Joints

The termination of a three core cable into three separate lines or bus-bars is
through cable terminal box. Ref. (Fig. 7), the Core Balance Protection is used
along with the cable box and should be installed before making the cable joint.

 The induced current flowing through cable sheath of normal healthy cable
needs particular attention with respect to the core balance protection.

The sheath currents (Ish) flow through the sheath to the cover of cable-box and
then to earth through the earthing connection between cable-box. For
eliminating the error due to sheath current (Ish) the earthing lead between the
cable-box and the earth should be taken through the core of the core balance
protection.
Thereby the error due to sheath currents is eliminated. The cable box should be
insulated from earth.
      1.      Cable terminal box
2.      Sheath of 3 core cable connection to (1)
3.      Insulator support for 1
4.      Earthing connection passing through 5
5.      Core balance CT

Fig (7) Mounting of Core

Balance CT with Cable
Terminal Box
    Frame-leakage Protection

The metal-clad switchgear can be provided with frame leakage protection. The
switchgear is lightly y insulated from the earth. The metal-frame-work or enclosure
of the switchgear is earthed with a primary of a CT in between (Fig. 8).

The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable-boxes and other
conduits are slightly insulated from earth, the resistance to earth being about 12
ohms. In the event of an earth fault within the switchgear, the earth-fault current
finds the' path through the neutral connection. While doing so, it is sensed by
the earth fault relay.

Metal clad switchgear

Earthing bus
Earth fault current
EF Relay

Earth

(Fig. 8) Principle of frame-leakage protection

of metal-clad-switchgear
Circulating current differential protection also responds to earth-faults within
its protected zone.

     Earth-fault protection can be achieved by following methods:

1. Residually connected relay.

2. Relay connected in neutral-to-ground circuit.
3. Core-balance-scheme.
4. Frame leakage method.
5. Distance relays arranged for detecting earth faults on lines.
6. Circulating current differential protection.
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Directional Over-current Protection

The over-current protection can be given directional feature by adding
directional element in the protection system. Directional over-current
protection responds to over-currents for a particular d irection flow. If power
flow is in the opposite direction, the directional over-current protection
remains un-operative.

Directional over-current protection comprises over-current relay and power

directional relay- in a single relay casing. The power directional relay does not
measure the power but is arranged to respond to the direction of power flow.

Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved by

directional relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in which
fault occurs, relative to the location of the relay. It is set such that it actuates
for faults occurring in one direction only. It does not act for faults occurring in
the other direction. Consider a feeder AC (Fig. 9) passing through sub-section
B. The circuit breaker CB3 is provided with a directional

B C
A

CB1 CB2 CB3 CB4

R R R R

(Fig. 9) Principle of directional protection

Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction C
alone. Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not trip
unnecessarily. However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-breaker CB3 trips
Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in
direction AC
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power
protection of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the generator
continues to run as a motor and takes power from bus-bars.

Directional of flow
For tripping

CB

(Fig. 10) Reverse powers

protection against motoring action
of a generator
Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of
power flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in
relation to the normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in
construction than directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure the
magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in
Reverse Power Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and
direction of power flow.

    Relay connections of Single Phase Directional Over-current Relay :

The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally connected to
a secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to
a line VT, having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common
methods of connecting the relay depending upon phase angle between current
in the current coil and voltage applied to the voltage coil.
 

Fig.11 Numerical Over

current,  and Overload
Protection Relay
3-Phase Directional over current relays

When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location, it
is necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the
introduction of directional control elements. These are basically power
measuring devices in which the system voltage is used as a reference for
establishing the relative direction or phase of the fault current.

Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to

respond to the actual system power for a number of reasons:

1.      The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault
power factor is usually low. A relay
V a , Vb and Vc. Normal system
voltages
V b 1 and V c 1 Voltages at fault
location on faulted phases
V b 2 and V c 2 Voltages remote
from fault location
 
Fig.12 Phase voltages for a
B-C fault

 
Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high
torque and might be much slower and less decisive than it could be.
1.      The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit.
When the fault is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across the
short-circuited points which are reduced. So a B—C phase fault will
cause the B and C phase voltage vectors to move together, the locus
of their ends being the original line be for a homogeneous system, as
shown in (Fig.12)
At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across the
fault, but the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to neutral
voltage. At other points in the system the vector displacement will be less,
but relays located at such points will receive voltages which are
unbalanced in their value and phase position.
 
The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make the
torques developed by the different phase elements vary widely and even
differ in sign if the quantities applied to the relay are not chosen carefully.
To this end, each phase of the relay is polarized with a voltage which will
not be reduced excessively except by close three-phase faults, and which
will remain in a satisfactory relationship to the current under all conditions.
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      Relay connections
This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities are
applied to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the phase
angle, at unity system power factor, by which the current and voltage
applied to the relay are displaced.
 
     Relay maximum torque
The maximum torque angle (MTA) is defined as the angle by which the
current applied to the relay must be displaced from the voltage applied to
the relay to produce maximum torque.
Although the relay element may be inherently wattmetric, its characteristic
can be varied by the addition of phase shifting components to give
maximum torque at the required phase angle.
A number of different connections have been used and these are discussed
below. Examination of the suitability of each arrangement involves
determining the limiting conditions of the voltage and current applied to
each phase element of the relay, for all fault conditions, taking into account
the possible range of source and line impedances.
 
     30° relay connection (0° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage V ac. In this case,
the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied V ac voltage by 90°, so the
maximum torque occurs when the current lags the system phase to neutral
voltage by 30°. For unity power factor and 0 .5 lagging power factor the
maximum torque available is 0 .866 of maximum. Also, the potential coil
voltage lags the current in the current coil by 30° and gives a tripping zone
from 60° leading to 120° lagging currents, as shown in (Fig. 13a).
 
The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that
ensures correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders, is
0°, and it can be shown that a directional element having this connection
and 0° MTA will provide correct discrimination for all types of faults, when
applied to plain feeders
 
If applied to transformer feeders , however, there is a danger that at least
one of the three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse direction;
for this reason a directional element having this connection should never
be used to protect transformer feeders.
This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory
under all conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase elements
are employed. When only two phase elements and an earth fault element
are used there is a probability of failure to operate for one condition. An
inter-phase short circuit causes two elements to be energized but for low
power factors one will receive inputs which, although correct, will produce
only a poor torque. In particular a B—C fault will strongly energize the B
element with lb current and Vba voltage, but the C element will receive I c and
the collapsed V cb voltage, which quantities have a large relative phase
displacement, as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory provided that
three phase elements are used, but in the case of a two phase and one
earth fault element relay, with the B phase element omitted, operation will
depend upon the C element, which may fail to operate if the fault is close to
the relaying point.

A phase element connected

l a Vac
B phase element connected
l b Vb a
C phase element connected
Ic Vcb
(a)        Characteristic and
inputs
for phase A element
 (b)        B-C Fault with
voltage
distortion
(Fig. 13) Vector diagrams
for the 30° connection

     60° No. 1 connection (0° MTA)

The A phase relay is supplied with lab current and Vac voltage. In this case,
the flux due to the voltage coil lags the applied voltage to the relay by 90°,
so maximum torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to
neutral voltage by 60°. This connection, which uses Vac voltage with delta
current produced by adding phase A and phase B currents at unity power
factor, gives a current leading the voltage Vac by 60°, and provides a correct
directional tripping zone over a current range of 30° leading to 150°
lagging. The torque at unity power factor is 0 .5 of maximum torque and at
zero power factor lagging 0 .866; see (Fig.14).
It has been proved that the most suitable maximum torque angle for this
relay connection, that is, one which ensures correct directional
discrimination with the minimum risk of mal-operation when applied to
either plain or transformer feeders, is 0°.
When used for the protection of plain feeders there is a slight possibility of
the element associated with the A phase mal-operating for a reversed B—C
fault.

         A phase element connected la b

Va c
B phase element connected I b c
Vba
 C phase element connected Ic a
Vc b
 
(Fig.14) Vector diagram for the 60°
No. 1 connection
(phase A element)
However, although the directional element may mal-operation, it is unlikely
that the over current element which the directional element controls will
receive sufficient current to cause it to operate. For this reason the
connection may be safely recommended for the protection of plain feeders.
When applied to transformer feeders there is a possibility of one of the
directional elements mal-operation for an earth fault on the star side of a
delta/star transformer, remote from the relay end. For mal-operation to
occur, the source impedance would have to be relatively small and have a
very low angle at the same time that the arc resistance of the fault was
high. The possibility of mal-operation with this connection is very remote,
for two reasons: first, in most systems the source impedance may be safely
assumed to be largely reactive, and secondly, if the arc resistance is high
enough to cause mal-operation of the directional element it is unlikely that
the over current element associated with the mal-operation directional
element will see sufficient current to operate.
The connection, however, does suffer from the disadvantage that it is
necessary to connect the current transformers in delta, which usually
precludes their being used for any other protective function. For this
reason, and also because it offers no advantage over the 90° connection, it
is rarely used.
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     60° No. 2 connection (0° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage In this case, the
flux of the voltage coil lags the applied voltage by 90° so the maximum
torque is produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral
voltage by 60°. This connection gives
A phase element connected
Ia —Vc
B phase element connected
Ib — Va
C phase element connected
Ic —Vb

 (Fig.15) Vector diagram

for the 60° No. 2
connection
(phase A element).
a correct directional tripping zone over the current range of 30° leading to
150° lagging. The relay torque at unity power factor is 0 .5 of the relay
maximum torque and at zero power factor lagging 0 .866; see (Fig.15).
The most suitable maximum torque angle for a directional element using
this connection is 0°. However, even if this maximum torque angle is used,
there is a risk of incorrect operation for all types of faults with the
exception of three-phase faults. For this reason, the 60° No. 2 connection is
now never recommended.
A phase element connected Ia
Vbc
B phase element connected Ib
Vca
C phase element connected Ic
Vab
(Fig.16) Vector diagram for
the 90°- 30° connection
(Phase A element)

 
     90° relay quadrature connection
This is the standard connection for the type CDD relay; depending on the
angle by which the applied voltage is shifted to produce the relay maximum
torque angle, two types are available.

 
     90°- 30° characteristic (30° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with la current and Vbc voltage displaced by
30° in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage
coil lags the applied voltage Vbc by 60°, and the relay maximum torque is
produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 60°.
This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the current
range of 30° leading to 150° lagging; see (Fig.16). The relay torque at unity
power factor is 0.5 of the relay maximum torque and at zero power factor
lagging 0.866. A relay designed .for quadrature connection and having a
maximum torque angle of 30° is recommended when the relay is used for
the protection of plain feeders with the zero sequence source behind the
relaying point.
 
     90°- 45° characteristic (45° MTA)
The A phase relay is supplied with current la and voltage Vbc displaced by
45° in an anti-clockwise direction. In this case, the flux due to the voltage
coil lags the applied voltage V bc by 45°, and the relay maximum torque is
produced when the current lags the system phase to neutral voltage by 45°.
This connection gives a correct directional tripping zone over the current
range of 45° leading to 135° lagging.
 
The relay torque at unity power factor is 0 .707 of the maximum torque and
the same at zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).

A phase element connected

Ia ,Vbc
B phase element connected Ih
Vca
C phase element connected Ic
Vab
 (Fig.17) Vector diagram for
the 90°-45° connection
(Phase A element)
This connection is recommended for the protection of transformer feeders
or feeders which have a zero sequence source in front of the relay. The 90°-
45° connection is essential in the case of parallel trans-formers or
transformer feeders, in order to ensure correct relay operation for faults
beyond the star/ delta transformer. This connection should also be used
whenever single-phase directional relays are applied to a circuit

Theoretically, three fault conditions can cause mal-operation of the

directional element: a phase-phase ground fault on a plain feeder, a phase-
ground fault on a transformer feeder with the zero sequence source in front
of the relay and a phase-phase fault on a power transformer with the relay
looking into the delta winding of the transformer.

It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed above to

establish the maximum angular displacement between the current and
voltage quantities at the relay, are such that, in practice, the magnitude of
the current input to the relay would be insufficient to cause the over current
element to operate. It can be shown analytically that the possibility of mal-
operation with the 90 °- 45° connection is, for all practical purposes, non-
existent.
 

(Fig.18) Directional relays applied to

parallel feeders.
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Parallel feeders
If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that
might occur on any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used,
isolate both lines and completely disconnect the power supply. With this
type of system configuration it is necessary to apply directional relays at
the receiving end and to grade them with the non-directional relays at the
sending end, to ensure correct discriminative operation of the relays during
line. faults. This is done by setting the directional relays R'1 and R'2 as
shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements looking into the protected
line, and giving them lower time and current settings than relays R1 and R2.
The usual practice is to set relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of the normal full load
of the protected circuit and 0 .1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that
their continuous thermal rating of twice rated current is not exceeded.

    Ring mains

Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case of a
ring main fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at the mid-
point substation, where the setting of both relays are identical, can be made
non-directional, provided that in the latter case the relays are located on the
same feeder, that is, one at each end of the feeder.

It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is an
even number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the same
substation and will have to be directional, whereas when the number of
feeders is an odd number, the two relays with the same operating time are at
different substations and therefore do not need to be directional.

It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the

operating times of the relays at each substation are different, the difference
between their operating times is never less than the grading margin, so the
relay with the longer operating time can be non-directional.

      Grading of ring mains

The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is to

open the ring at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and
then anti-clockwise; that is, the relays looking in a clock-wise direction
round the ring are arranged to operate in the sequence 1—2—3—4—5—6 and
the relays looking in the anti-clockwise direction are arranged to operate in
the sequence 1'—2'—3'—4'—5'—6', as shown in (Fig.19)
 (Fig.19) Grading of ring mains
The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the direction of
current flow that will cause the relays to operate.

A double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional relay, such as

those at the supply point where the power can flow only in one direction,
and a single-headed arrow a directional relay, such as those at intermediate
substations around the ring where the power can flow in either direction.
The directional relays are set in accordance with the invariable rule,
applicable to all forms of directional protection that the current in the
system must flow from the substation bus-bars into the protected line in
order that the relays may operate.
Disconnection of the faulty line is carried out according to time and fault
current direction. As in any parallel system, the fault current has two
parallel paths and divides itself in the inverse ratio of their impedances.
 
Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made
inoperative because of the direction of current flow, and the other set
operative. It will also be found that the operating times of the relays that are
inoperative are faster than those of the operative relays, with the exception
of the mid-point substation, where the operating times of relays 3 and 3'
happen to be the same.
 
The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault and
the last to be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to both paths
to the fault. Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to be disconnected
from the ring and the power supply is maintained to all the substations.
 
When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded over
current protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may not be
possible. With two sources of supply, two solutions are possible. The first
is to open the ring at one of the supply points, whichever is more
convenient, by means of a suitable high set instantaneous over-current
relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the case of a single infeed,
the second to treat the section of the ring between the two supply points as
a continuous bus separate from the ring and to protect it with a unit system
of protection, such as pilot wire relays, and then proceed to grade the ring
as in the case of a single infeed.
  Previous Next  

Directional Earth-Fault Protection

In the directional over-current protection the current coil of relay is
actuated from secondary current of line CT. whereas the current coil of
directional earth fault relay is actuated by residual current.

In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary of line

VT. In directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by the residual
voltage. Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which earth fault
occurs with respect to the relay location and it operates for fault in a particular
direction. The directional earth fault relay (single phase unit) has two coils. The
polarizing quantity is obtained either from residual current

I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic)

or residual voltage             VRs = V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b and Vc are phase voltages.

Referring to (Fig. 11) the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to
the coils is connected in residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 5). This coil gets
current during earth-faults. The other coil gets residual voltage,

                V RS= V a + V b + V c

Where V a , V b a n d V c are secondary voltages of the potential transformer

('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single phase
potential transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil connected in
potential-transformer secondary circuit gives a polarizing field.

 (Fig. 20) Connections of a directional

earth-fault relay.
The residual current I RS i.e. the out of balance current is given to the current coil
and the residual voltage VRs is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The torque
is proportional to
 
T = I RS * V RS * cos (Φ - α)
  Φ = angle between I RS and VRs
  α = angle of maximum torque.
 
    Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-up value
over-currents are caused by overloads and short-circuits.
The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current transformer.
The characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time characteristic,
definite time characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line to
ground faults. The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in neutral
to ground circuit or in residually connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to fault
in which power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations. Such
directional relays are used when power can flow from both directions to the
fault point.
    Co-ordination
 Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that
can flow in each part of the network. Since large scale tests are normally im-
practicable, system analysis must be used. It is generally sufficient to use
machine transient reactance X' d and to work on the instantaneous
symmetrical currents. The data required for a relay setting study are:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the
type and rating of the protective devices and their associated
current transformers.
 2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power
transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits.
3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that
are expected to flow through each protective device.
4. The starting current requirements of motors and the starting
and stalling times of induction motors.
5. The maximum peak load current through protective devices.
6. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current
supplied by the generators.
7. Performance curves of the current transformers.
8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the shortest
operating times at maximum fault levels and then checked to
see if operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault
current expected. It is always advisable to plot the curves of
relays and other protective devices, such as fuses, that are to
operate in series, on a common scale. It is usually more
convenient to use a scale corresponding to the current expected
at the lowest voltage base or to use the predominant voltage
base. The alternatives are a common MVA base or a separate
current scale for each system voltage.
9. The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be
stated as follows:
10.       Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating
characteristic in series with each other.
11.       Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current
settings equal to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the
primary current required operating the relay in front is always equal to
or less than the primary current required operating the relay behind it.
 
   PRINCIPLES OF TIME/CURRENT GRADING
Among the various possible methods used to achieve correct relay co-
ordination are those using either time or over current or a combination of
both time and over-current. The common aim of all three methods is to give
correct discrimination. That is to say, each one must select and isolate only
the faulty section of the power system network, leaving the rest of the
system undisturbed.
1. Discrimination by time
In this method an appropriate time interval is given by each of the relays
controlling the circuit breakers in a power system to ensure that the breaker
nearest to the fault opens first. A simple radial distribution system is shown
in (Fig. 21) to illustrate the principle.
 (Fig. 21)  Radial systems with time
discrimination
Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed
end of each section of the power system. Each protection unit comprises a
definite time delay over current relay in which the operation of the current
sensitive element simply initiates the time delay element. Provided the
setting of the current element is below the fault current value this element
plays no part in the achievement of discrimination. For this reason, the relay
is sometimes described as an 'independent definite time delay relay' since
its operating time is for practical purposes independent of the level of over
current.

It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of

discrimination. The relay at B is set at the shortest time delay permissible to
allow a fuse to blow for a fault on the secondary side of trans-former A.
Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is adequate.

If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the subsequent
operation of the circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C,
D and E have time to operate. The main disadvantage of this method of
discrimination is that the longest fault clearance time occurs for faults in the
section closest to the power source, where the fault level (MVA) is highest.

 1.    Discrimination by current

Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with
the position of the fault, because of the difference in impedance values
between the source and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the
various circuit breakers are set to operate at suitably tapered values such
that only the relay nearest to the fault trips its breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates
the method.
(Fig. 22) Radial system with current
discrimination
For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1)       A

Where Zs = source impedance = 112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms

                ZL1= cable impedance between C and B = 0.24 ohms

     Hence I=6350/0.725 = 8800 A

So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault

current of 8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of the cable
section between C and B. However, there are two important practical points
which affect this method of co-ordination.

1. It is not practical to distinguish between a fault at Fl and a fault

at F 2, since the distance between these points can be only a few
meters, corresponding to a change in fault current of
approximately 0 . 1%.
2. In practice, there would be variations in the source fault level,
typically from 250 MVA to 130 MVA. At this lower fault level the
fault current would not exceed 6800 A even for a cable fault
close to C, so a relay set at 8800 A would not protect any of the
cable section concerned.

Discrimination by current is therefore not a practical proposition for

correct grading between the circuit breakers at C and B. However, the
problem changes appreciably when there is significant impedance between
the two circuit breakers concerned. This can be seen by considering the
grading required between the circuit breakers at B and A in (Fig. 22).

Assuming a fault at F 4, the short-circuit current is given by:

I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)       A

 

Where
                     ZS = source impedance
                     =11 2 / 250 = 0 .485 ohms
 
ZL1 = cable impedance between C and B 0.24 ohms
ZL2 = cable impedance between B and 4 MVA
transformer 0.04 ohms
 ZT = transformer impedance
             =0.07(11 2/4) =2.12 ohms
Hence I = 6350/ 2.885 = 2200 A
 
For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to
operate at a current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for a
fault at F 4 and would thus discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a
safety margin of 20% to allow for relay errors and a further 10% for
variations in the system impedance values, it is reasonable to choose a
relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B. Now, assuming
a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable feeding the 4 MVA
transformers, the short-circuit current is given by:
I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)
I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp.
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA:
I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp.

In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B  would
operate correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the
transformer.
  Previous Next  

Discrimination by both time and current

3 Discrimination by both time and current

Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental disadvantage.

In the case of discrimination by time alone, the disadvantage is due to the
fact that the more severe faults are cleared in the longest operating time.
Discrimination by current can only be applied where there is appreciable
impedance between the two circuit breakers concerned.
 
It is because of the limitations imposed by the independent use of either
time or current co-ordination that the inverse time over current relay
characteristic has evolved. With this characteristic, the time of operation is
inversely proportional to the fault current level and the actual characteristic
is a function of both 'time' and 'current' settings.
The advantage of this method of relay
Co-ordination may be best illustrated by the system shown in (Fig.23) which
is identical to that shown in (Fig.21) except that typical system parameters
have been added.
In order to carry out a system analysis, before a relay co-ordination study of
the system shown in (Fig. 23), it is necessary to refer all the system
impedances to a common base and thus, using 10 MVA as the reference
base, we have:
 
4MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10MVA base=7X (10/4) =17.5%
11 kV cable between B and A percentage impedance on10 MVA base
 
= (0.04 X 100 X 10) / 112= 0.33%
 
11 kV cable between C and B percentage impedance on 10 MVA base
 
= (0.24 X 100 X10) /112 =1.98 %
 
30 MVA transformer percentage impedance on 10 MVA base
                                 
=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %
 
132 kV overhead line percentage impedance on10 MVA base
                                 
   = (6.2x100x10)/ 1322 =0.36%
 
1 3 2 kV source percentage impedance on 10 MVA base
                       
 = (100 x 10) /3500 =0.29%
 
The graph in (Fig.23) illustrates the use of 'discrimination curves', which are
an important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination. In this example, a
voltage base of 3.3kV has been chosen and the first curve plotted is that of
the 200 A fuse, which is assumed to protect the largest outgoing 3.3kV
circuit. Once the operating characteristic of the highest rated 3.3kV fuse has
been plotted, the grading of the over current relays at the various sub-
stations of the radial system is carried out as follows:
 
Substation B
  CT ratio 250/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
200A fuse at fault levels up to:
 
(10 x 100) / (17.5+0.33+1.98+7.5+0.36+0.29) = 35.7 MVA
 
That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of
the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A and 4.76
MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable discrimination
with the 200 A fuse is achieved.
 
Substation C
CT ratio 500/5A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
relay in substation
B at fault levels up to:
 
(10 X 100) / (1.98 +7.5 +0.36 +0.29) = 98.7MVA
 
That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of
the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 9.52
MVA at 11 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.7, suitable discrimination
with the relay at substation B is achieved.
 
 (Fig.23) Time and current grading
Substation D
  CT ratio 150/1A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
relay in substation C at fault levels up to
 
 (10 X 100) / (7.5 + 0.36 + 0.29) = 123 MVA
 
That is, 21,500 A at 3.3kV or 538 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of
the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 150 A and 34.2
MVA at 132 kV and at a time multiplier setting of 0.25, suitable discrimination
with the relay at substation C is achieved.
 
Substation E
CT ratio 500/1 A Relay over current characteristic assumed to be extremely
inverse, as for the type CDG 14 relay. This relay must discriminate with the
relay
 in substation D at fault levels up to:
 
(10 x 100) / (0.36+ 0.29) = 1540 MVA
 
That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics
of the CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and
114 MVA at 132 kV, and at a time multiplier setting of 0.9, suitable
discrimination with the relay at sub-station D is achieved.
A comparison between the relay operating times shown in (Fig. 21) and the
times obtained from the discrimination curves of (Fig. 23) at the maximum
fault level reveals significant differences. These differences can be
summarized as follows:
 
Relay Fault Time from Time from
level Fig.12 Fig.14
(MVA) (seconds) (seconds)
B 98.7 0.25 0.07
C 123 0.65 0.33
D 1540 1.05 0.07
E 3500 1.45 0.25
 
These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the inverse
time characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in fault clearance
times.
Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections, reductions in
fault clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the following table:
 
Relay Fault Time from
level Fig.14
(MVA) (seconds)
B 35.7 0.17
C 98.7 0.42
D 123 0.86
E 1540 0.39
To finalize the co-ordination study it is instructive to assess the average
operating time for each extremely inverse over current relay at its maximum
and minimum fault levels, and to compare these with the operating time
shown in (Fig.21) for the definite time over current relay.
 
Relay Fault level Time from Average
(Max./Min Fig.14 time
MVA) (seconds) (seconds)
(Max./ Min)
B 98.7/35.7 0.07/0.17 0.12
C 123/98.7 0.33/0.42 0.375
D 1540/123 0.07/0.86 0.465
E 3500/1540 0.25/0.39 0.32
  
This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in fault
level all along the system network the overall performance of the inverse
time over current relay is far superior to that of the definite over current
relay.
 
4 GRADING MARGIN
The time interval between the operations of two adjacent relays depends
upon a number of factors:
1. The fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker.
2. The overshoot time of the relay.
3. Errors.
4. Final margin on completion of operation.
 
A.           Circuit breaker interrupting time
The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely interrupted
the current before the discriminating relay ceases to be energized.
 
B.          Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a little longer
until any stored energy has been dissipated. For example, an induction disc
relay will have stored kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static relay
circuits may have energy stored in capacitors. Relay design is directed to
minimizing and absorbing these energies, but some allowance is usually
necessary.
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward
operation takes place, but the time which would have been required by the
relay if still energized to achieve the same amount of operational advance.
 
C.          Errors
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject
to some degree of error. The operating time characteristic of either or both
relays involved in the grading may have a positive or negative error, as may
the current transformers, which can have phase and ratio errors due to the
exciting current required to magnetize their core. This does not, however,
apply to independent definite time delay over current relays.
Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy of the
calibration curves published by manufacturers, but since some error is to be
expected, some tolerance must be allowed.
 
D.          Final margin
After the above allowances have been made, the discriminating relay must
just fail to complete its operation. Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is
required to ensure that a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent) remains.
 
E.           Recommended time
The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items depends on the
operating speed of the circuit breakers and the relay performance. At one
time 0.5s was a normal grading margin. With faster modern circuit breakers
and lower relay overshoot times 0.4s is reasonable, while under the best
possible conditions 0.35s may be feasible.
In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading margin, it is
better to adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the operating time of the
circuit breaker and relay overshoot, and to add to it a variable time value
that takes into account the relay errors, the CT errors and the safety margin.
 
A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made up of 0.1 s for the
fault current interrupting time of the circuit breaker, 0.05s for the relay over-
shoot time and 0.1 s for the safety margin. Considering next the variable
time values required, it is first assumed that each inverse time over current
relay complies with Error Class E7 .5 defined as normal British practice in BS
142:1966.
 
The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are ±7.5% but allowance should
also be made for the effects of temperature, frequency, and departure from
reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective
error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%, this to apply to the relay nearest to the fault,
which shall be considered to be slow.
To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be added for
the overall current transformer error. Hence, for the time interval t' required
between inverse time over current relays it is proposed to adopt the
equation:
 
t' = 0.25t + 0.25 seconds
 
Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearer to the fault.
 
As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are
concerned, it is assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0, defined as
normal British practice in BS 142:1966. The normal limits of error for an El 0
relay are ± 10%, but allowance should also be made for the effects of
temperature, voltage, frequency and departure from reference setting. A
practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 10, that is,
20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault, which shall be
considered to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time over current relay, it
is not necessary to add a further error for the current transformers. Hence,
for the time interval t' required between independent definite time delay over
current relays, it is proposed to adopt the equation:
t' = 0.2t + 0.25 seconds
Where t = nominal operating time of relay nearest to the fault.
 
     STANDARD I.D.M.T. OVER CURRENT RELAY (TYPE CDG 11)
Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees
and (Fig.24) shows a typical example of the limits set by the British
Standards Institution specification BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse
definite minimum time over current relay.
The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of such
a relay to a sectioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the assumed
relay settings and the tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the permissible
grading margin between the over current relays at each section breaker is
approximately 0.5s. With the increase in system fault current it is desirable to
shorten the clearance time for faults near the power source, in order to
minimize damage. It is therefore necessary to reduce the time errors, which
are in this situation disproportionately large when compared with the
clearance time of modern circuit breakers; this can only be achieved by
improving the limits of accuracy, pick-up and overshoot
 
(Fig. 24) Typical limits of accuracy
set by BS 142: 1966 for an inverse
Definite Minimum Time over current
relay
 
NORMAL BRITISH PRACTICE
ACCURACY CLASS E7.5%
TIME/CURRENT CHARACTERISTIC
ALLOWABLE LIMIT
At 2 times setting 222E
At 5 times setting 1.13E
At 10 times setting 1.01E
At 20 times setting 1.00E

NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less than 100ms

All this must be obtained without detriment to the general performance of the
relay; in other words, there must be no reduction in the operating torque or
weakening of the damper magnets or contact pressures, and the construction
must remain simple with the minimum number of moving parts. While these
requirements present considerable difficulties in manufacture, owing to
variations in materials and practical tolerances, the progress made in the
GEC Measurements relays has made it possible to discriminate more closely
by reducing the margin between both the current and the time setting of the
relays on adjacent breakers.
 

(Fig.25) application of an IDMT over

current relay to a sectioned
Radial feeder
 These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay nearest the power
source to be reduced, or, alternatively, make it possible to increase the
number
of breakers in series without increasing the time setting of the relays
at the power source.
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