Book 4 Module 13 STRUCTURES Licence By Post icence By Post © copyright B2 13.2 ISSUE 112CONTENTS Page Principles of Design 1 Materials 3 Structure Loading 5 Structure Classification 7 ‘The Fuselage 9 Airframe Location Systems 14 Mainplanes 18 Construction Techniques . 22 : Lightning Strike Protection 25) [ Electrical Bonding | 33) | Test Values of Primary Bonding 42) | Testing 46 | HIRF i 87 Le Demagnetisation ‘olHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK Written for the B2 engineer to give a general background to aircraft structures with the emphasis on the relationship between the structure and the avionic systems. ‘Much of it is fairly straight forward. There is no need to remember the detailed bonding values given though you should have a good idea of the sort of values to be expécted when carrying out these tests. Ideally, try to get access to some af the test meters mentioned. Inspect) them and read through the manufacturer’s operating instructions supplied. |AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES Structures are concerned with the airframe of the aircraft, ie the fuselage, wings, fin, tailplane, engine mountings, attachment brackets etc. The airframe is built to very specific requirements since it comprises about 40% of the total aircraft mass and provides all the aircraft strength. The requirements are: * Adequate strength. * Adequate stiffness. * Minimum mass. * Adequate mechanical properties such as toughness, fatigue resistance etc. * Smooth aerodynamic shape. Principles of Design a | \ \ All aircraft must be built to the requirements Jaid down by the|authority pf the country in which they are built. In the UKthis means the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). The requirements are published in British Civil Airworthiness“ / Requirements (BCARs) and Joint Airworthiness Requirements (JARs). The structure must meet stringent sbquirembals and the aviation authority will be involved both during the design and|the construction of the aitframe. JAR 25 JAR 25 specifies the structural requirements that the airframe of large turbine powered aircraft must meet before it is allowed to be considered for a Certificate of ‘Airworthiness (C of A). The requirements are extensive so listed below are just a few examples of the areas dealt with. Factor of Safety. The normal specified minimum is 1.5 but can be changed, provided authority is obtained. This means that an airframe part/substructure must be made 1% times stronger than the maximum load it is likely to meet in service. Deformation of the structure must not be significant under normal maximum loadings. Fatigue. (Cyclic stressing that weakens the structure even though the stresses are well within the normal maximum stress levels the material will bear).The structure must pass both static and dynamic fatigue testing. More of this later. Gust Loads. (Aerodynamic loadings which the aircraft experiences whilst in flight). Various loadings and the conditions under which they are applied are specified. Fuel & Oil Loads that are applied to the airframe by fuel and oil tanks. In many cases the fuel tank loads are considerable. Engine, APU and Landing Gear Loads. The landing gear produces large compressive loads on landing and has significant weight considerations when the aircraft is airborne. Engines, of course, put a considerable stress onto the airframe locally, caused by their weight and the thrust they produce. Pressurisation Loads. The stress can be as high as 8psi (in some cases even higher). This means that on a square meter of pressurised fuselage (fractionally more than a Square yard) the loads can_be in the region of 10,000Ibs (4545kg). [psi = pounds force per square in¢h] \ } \ \\ i | 1h | ‘Towing and Ground Movement Loads. These jnaximum loads Ler. irframé structure. L ap Emergency Landing Loads. These|maximum. loads apply to the Lightening Protecti ‘Static Chi , Build-up.\ This is usually ichieved, for the structuré, by having the airframe electrically Honded, so that jwhen lightening strikes the whole ‘airframe will be at the sarhe/potential (voltage). For bonding purposes ordirfary/metal to metal joining is considered satisfactory, but more of this later. ee COMPONENT BONDING PIPE TO PIPE BONDING Fig. 1 BONDING - COMPONENTS & PIPES oP }0Where metal to metal joining is not used, or where it might be considered unsatisfactory, bonding strips are used (braided copper or something similar). ‘This requirement applies to both metal and composite structures. Electrical/electronic equipment is also regulated for lightening protection. Static discharge wicks are provided for discharge of static electrical potential build-up. Flying Controls, Landing Gear & many other systems/subsystems. Strength Requirements. These are related to both static and fatigue strengths and in all cases a factor of safety is provided. The factor of safety may not be great, as in civil engineering, as high factors of safety carry a weight penalty. Static Strength ; . , Such as compressive, tensile, and shear. These must have a factor of safety sufficiently high to ensure a long structure Jif¢ under all expected maximum conditions, plus the ability to withstand ceftain abnormally high loads on a once or twice-off basis. “ 7 | Fatigue Strength This is the ability to withstand cyclic loading at normal level (try‘breaking a steel paper clip in one go - then try breaking it by a gentle to and fro-bending. Fatigue will cause the paper clip to fracture at loads well below its normal breaking limits). Again a factor of safety is involved with aircraft structures to ensure that the fatigue limit is never reached. MATERIALS Metals Aluminium alloys. Copper based - damage tolerant material used in fatigue critical areas of the airframe - pressurised fuselage and wing skins - 2000 series. Zinc based (7000 series). Boeing 747 400, Airbus A320, 340 etc. Offers increased strength and weight saving. Used on the A320 for large machined structures. Aluminium /lithium alloys being developed which are stronger and have greater stiffness.Steels. Used in high stress areas such as wing to fuselage joints, engine attachments, gear box attachments, bolts, hinge pins etc. Titanium Alloys, Good in tension and with a density lower than that of steel, is used to replace steel in certain applications. Titanium is nearly half the weight of steel - size for size, has a higher melting point, and can have the same strength. Resist corrosion well. Magnesium Alloys. Less dense by half again than titanium alloys - and lighter than aluminium alloys - size for size. Prone to corrosion, poor tensile strength, but casts well and good in compression. Will burn under some circumstances Main) rames. (machined : 7010/7050) ing gear attachment fitings (torgpa: 7010) Keel member. ot 2084 aT extrusion : Weg} Fig. 2 A320 STRUCTURE ~ MATERIALS Non-Metals Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastics (GRP). Used for honeycomb panels, ducts, radomes, aerials, and internal decor panels and finishings. Is strong and tough and used as primary structure on some aircraft. CFCs - Carbon Reinforced Composites. Have a very good strength/weight ratio and resistance to damage. Is of similar construction to GRP but the material is made of carbon filament. Used in structural parts of the airframe. ©Kevlar. Used for structures, fairings, internal furnishings and carpets. It is tough, has good tensile strength, is self-extinguishing and generates little smoke when burning. Varieties are used for electrical cable insulation. Nomex. Kevlar honeycomb sandwiched between glass fibre or carbon fibre sheets. Fibrelam. Produced by Ciba Geigy and used extensively on aircraft floors, bulkheads, and internal fittings. Carbondec. Similar to Fibrelam using a Nomex honeycomb core sandwiched between carbon fibre sheeting. Composite Structures The trend is towards more components being made from composite materials. Some dircraft are already all composite - the Beech Starship, and the Af Tak 400 to name but two. In the military field the AV-88 Harrier has an all composite wing and front fuselage. Some sailplanes are all pomposite. Helicopter rotor blades, and some helicopter rear structures|are all composite. To cope with electrical bonding, composite panels may have al alloy interleaves within their structure, may be paihted with.a special conductive paint‘or may have thin metal strips at regular intervals bonded to the outside. STRUCTURES - GENERAL Structure Loading Since the structure mass must be kept as low as possible, the safety factors are also low and reserves of strength are minimal. Every structural item must be capable of withstanding the various stresses set up due to the loadings. These stresses will vary in flight and will be more concentrated in some areas than others. The type of stress within the structure will also vary, some members must resist bending, others stretching, shear, or compression. Some have to resist twisting and some have to resist a combination of all these loads. Hence the choice of a material is as important as the design. QUESTION: Can you define stress? It is part of the Physics module 2. (5 mins)ANSWER: Stress is defined as force per unit area. Stress = LOAD AREA In imperial units, Ibs force per square inch = psi In SI units, Newtons per square metre = N/m? = Pa (Pa = Pascal) In scientific notation o = Pa where Pa = Pascal 5 c = The Greekcletter sigma i \ \ \ \ It is worth pointing out that the Pal a very| small unit. There are nearly 7000 Pa to just 1 psi (Note - the units of stress and/j pressure are the same). { / It is worth noting that the easiest /stress-to, ee with, and the|one design engineers, is tension. Most materials behave better in tension than with any other load. 1] | ‘TENSION ‘COMPRESSION "TORSION oon ‘TENSION BENDING Fig. 3 TYPES OF STRESS eer‘Try pulling a piece of string (tension) - it copes well. When pushing (compression) it will not withstand the load at all. Compressive stresses are difficult to deal with because they require the use of struts which have to have a large cross-sectional. A member will try to bend if it is put under compressive stress and to prevent it bending it must be given a large cross sectional area - this means that it is heavy (for the load that it has to take) and aircraft engineers are not happy about this. Structure Classification Owing to the difficulty of formulating repair instructions for members or parts of similar size but designed to take different loads, the airframe structure can be divided into three general classifications: a) Primary Structure ' . a ‘These parts of the aircraft are highly stressed and , if damaged, imay cause failure and loss of life, eg wing spars, engine mountings, I | b) Secondary Structure Patts of an airframe that are highly stressed but if damaged have provision for alternative load paths. Ancillary frames designed to support components, some skin pariels, etc are examples. It is difficult to give good examples for this one as a frame-on one aircraft might-be primary while on another it could be secondary. ‘ 7 ©) Tertiary Structure Lightly stressed parts such as fairings, wheels shields and minor component brackets. Failure of which would not be serious. Structural Members 1. Ties ‘These are designed mainly to withstand tensile stresses. Usually a solid rod of small cross sectional area. 2. Struts A strut is designed to withstand, mainly, compressive loads.3. Beams ‘These are designed to withstand bending loads. The main spar of a wing is a good example. It has to withstand considerable bending (upwards due to lift when flying and downwards due to its weight when stationary on the ground). ‘A beam has the highest stresses on its outside with the least stresses on the inside. Beams, therefore, are designed with most of the material on the outside - tubes, I section girders etc. (Some small aircraft have a single continuous tube for a main spare, most large aircraft have I section main spares or box spares). Bending, of course, is a function of the applied load and the distance the load is applied along the beam from the point of attachment such as with a cantilever wing. (Cantilever = attached at one end only). I section beams may also be used in the construction of main spars in tailplanes, fin, ete. - ~ Fig. 4 BEAM - WING MAIN SPARE ‘The I section beam shown above designed to withstand bending in one plane only, ie up and down, so its structure is concentrated in those areas that take the most load - at the top and at the bottom (the flanges). When airborne the top flange is in compression and the bottom is in tension with the web taking very little load {which is a shear load). If it has to be able to withstand bending in more than one plane (example - a yacht mast being bent in all directions - fore and aft and sideways - by the wind), then it may be designed as a square hollow section or a tube. In very general terms this is similar to an aircraft fuselage.THE FUSELAGE ‘The fuselage of an aircraft may be considered as a beam designed to withstand loads in more then one plane. Early aircraft fuselages were made up of four main longerons crossed braced with steel tie wires. This cross bracing took up internal space and was relatively heavy. To complete the structure, streamlining had to be added (called secondary structure) which added nothing to the strength but increased the weight. This secondary structure was attached to the Primary Structure and the whole lot was fabric covered to provide a smooth aerodynamic shape. A significant improvement came with the advent of Stressed Skin construction. Stressed Skin Construction \ | i | | | | i Most modern aircraft fuselages are built on the cantilever tube principle jwith the fuselage skin taking all or some of the stresses. The fuselage may-be-of monocoque or semi monocoque construction. - Monocoque Construction \| In this type of Goiistruction the skin takes all of the stress and there is no internal support. It is very much like a tube - although tapered for most aircraft towards the rear. LIGHTENING HOLES IN FRAME LONGERON Fig. 5 SEMI MONOCOQUE STRUCTURESemi Monocoque Construction In this form of construction the skin takes some of the load and is supported internally by structure such as stringers, longerons etc. This support usually takes the form of: Longerons Frames Stringers Bulkheads Backing or doubler plates Semi monocoque (pronounced ‘monocock’ construction is the most common form of stressed skin construction. The skin of a semi monocoque fuselage is strengthened by: | __ \ : ; | (a) Longerons - to improve the bending strength of the fuselage and resistant to compressive loads. Figure 5 shows 4 Jongerons. Some spun lurers have all|the longitudinal member's the sarhe/and call all of them longérgns. Check the AMM/SRM (Aircraft Maintenance Manual/Structur Reps it Manual) pa {b) Stringers - to-stiffen and support the §icin against buckling. Similar to longerons bnit lighter in construction. | () Bulkheads -/mainframes across the fuselage to resist shear, loads and to give shape: Solid with cut-outs for doors and hatches. For pressurised aircraft they form the front and rear pressurised bulkheads and are often curved to help resist the pressure. prone a rvae Barf fee Haack iano STFFENNG x HOLES (maketh ame Wprer and ser,(4) Frames - lighter cross members usually in the form of rings to resist shear loads and to stiffen and give shape to the fuselage. Fitted at close intervals in high stress areas. Heavy frames are fitted to certain areas of the fuselage where there are additional stresses - main landing gear attachments - front and rear spar attachments - engines. These may be machined out of solid block. Longerons ‘The fuselage may be fitted with four or more of these, and some manufacturers call all their fore and aft fuselage members longerons Stringers Where possible, stringers run the complete'length of the fuselage passing through small cut-outs in the frames, bulkheads etc, \ ‘The stringers do not usually pass through préssure bulkheads However, since any apertures in these members create a sealing problem. } Bulkheads Structural bulkhedds are used where more strength is needed than can be provided by @ frame and where passage through the fuselage is not required. They are often fitted in the rear fuselage and carry the tail unit loads and for strengthening the fuselage at the ends of a large aperture. This type of bulkhead may incorporate a bolt-on door panel to permit through access for maintenance purposes. Fig. 7 PRESSURE BULKHEAD -1l-Fig. 8 FIREPROOF BULKHEAD Pressure Bulkhead Pressure bulkheads form the strong, air-tight ends of the pressurised flightdeck or passenger compartment or pressure hull. They are usually domed so that they can withstand the pressure loading without deformation - acting more in tension. Fireproof Bulkheads | ] \ | i] \ Fireproof bulkheads are used to igolate a fife hazard zone, such as anjengine compartment, from the rest of the fuselagé, ‘These are mandatory. Floors \ } | On small aircraft these may be nothing mote than an aluminium alloy panel riveted[to horizontal cross members and strengthened locally to Support seats, controls and cockpit equipment. On larger aircraft the floor is usually the structure separating the cabin area from the baggage area or cargo hold. This means that it may not be supported over much of its width from (aircraft) wall to wall, and much use is made of beams to withstand the bending moments. - For passenger aircraft the floor will house seat rails (into which the seats fit) and have provision for the fitting of carpets. On pressurised aircraft the floor area/sidewall area will contain pressure equalisation holes/vents to allow pressurisation to equalise between the passenger area and cargo bay area. Drains ‘The fuselage - as with the wings and other structures - will have drain or vent holes (usually underneath) to allow trapped water to drain to atmosphere. This helps to prevent corrosion. -12-| | wamnseai Swine rrr | Fig. 9 THE BASIC AIRFRAME STRUCTURE Pressure Hulls, | ‘The fuselagés of pressurised aircraft are sealed as much as possible (rivets, metal joins, doors, windows, escape hatches, where systems pass through the pressure hull — pipes, cables, controls etc) to keep the air in. Keel Beam On some aircraft the fuselage is built around a strong box that runs along the Keel (bottom) close to that part of the fuselage where the wings are attached. This section is called a Keel Beam. Wing Attachment On some aircraft the wings are attached by bolts at the front and rear spares, with fairings to cover-in the wing join. On others the attachment is by butt straps running along the top and bottom of the wing skin. This attachment is to a locally strengthened part of the fuselage using heavier frames, thicker skin material and a centre box section. -13-AIRFRAME LOCATION SYSTEMS Structure location/component location may be achieved by using a zonal location system and/or a stringer/frame station location system. The zonal location system (specified in ATA100) relies on giving each zone on the aircraft an identification number. The stringer/frame station system relies on numbering all the frames and alll the stringers. Fig. 10 777 MAJOR ZONE DIAGRAM Some manufacturers will give zonal location diagrams and frame/rib/stringer station numbered diagrams. In this way an area of the airframe can be located precisely. Zonal locations tend to be less precise than station locations. An example of a zonal system is shown in figure 10. Example - Boeing 777 Zonal Location. The eight Major Zones have Subzones and the Subzones have Zones. A three-digit number shows the major zone, subzone, and zone as follows: -14-- Major zone - the first digit is a number from 1 to 8 followed buy two zeros. - Subzone - the first digit is the Major Zone number, the second digit is a number form 1 to 9 and the third digit is a zero. = Zone - the first two digits are the Subzone number and the third digit shows a component or group of components in the Subzone. The following is the number sequence for the zones and subzones: - Wings - inboard to outboard and front to back. = Horizontal stabiliser (tailplane) and elevator - inboard to outboard and front to back. - Vertical stabiliser (fin) and rudder ~ root to tip. - Fuselage - front to back and away from the floor line. Access Panel Identification ‘Access doors panels have five digit alpha-numeric codes: ~~ - First three digits: aircraft zone. i - Fourth digit: a letter that identifies each access door or panel in a zone. If there are more than one access panels in.a zone, they have letters (A, B, C etc). The letters increase inboard to outboard, bottom to top, and forward-to aft: - Fifth digit: a letter that gives additional location information if the aécess - door or panel is on the top (T), Bottom (B), left (L), right (R) or internal (2). Fig. 11 FRAME LOCATION - A310 pieStringer/Frame Location System Figure 11 shows the frame location diagram for the A310. Note the numbering of the frames from front to rear (usually starting at 1) and their identification as station numbers. Notice also door cut-outs and the front and rear pressure bulkheads. ‘The stringers are numbered — some clockwise starting at 12 o'clock, others clockwise and anti-clockwise starting at 12 o'clock (figure 12). Ribs in the wing, tailplane and fin are also numbered as are also the stringers. Ribs will be dealt with later, they are used to give shape to the aerofoil and are not too unlike frames in function. Fig. 12 STRINGER LOCATION - AIRBUS To locate any part of the fuselage structure for example, the stringer number above and below the area in question is stated as well as the station number/frame number in front of and behind. In this way an area of about a square foot (0.1m?) can be specified — on even the largest aircraft. Windscreens /Windows Windscreens are fitted in the flight deck area of the airframe and are designed to withstand pressurisation loads as well as bird strikes (by regulation). For large aircraft they are usually of laminated glass/vinyl construction and have provision for demisting and anti-icing. -16-Windows, for passenger use, are usually made of a polymer (Perspex etc). Both windscreens and windows may be of dry air sandwich construction - to help reduce internal misting. In both cases they are fitted into the fuselage in locally strengthened areas, particularly the windscreens. Hatches Usually provided for emergency escape with a construction similar to that of the fuselage. They usually open inwards and are often without hinges. They are sealed to prevent air leakage from the pressure cabin and may be fitted with windows, stringers, strengthening members and support brackets. ‘The latch mechanism is such that if can bé operated from inside as wWell.as outside the cabin - with the outside handle fitting flush with the fuselage skin (in the locked position). | } Proximity detectors /micro switches may be'fitted to give the crew warning that the hatch is not properly secured. Operating instructions are displayed inside and outside the aircraft. Doors - ; On small unpressurised aircraft the doors are simple structures that open outwards on external pin or piano type hinges. There is a single catch that is operated by a handle inside and outside the aircraft. On pressurised aircraft the doors are quite complex structures and are usually designed so that they are of the ‘plug type’. This means that the effect of pressurisation tends to push the door more firmly into the closed position as pressurisation will cause it to sit more firmly shut. Those with an escape chute fitted have an arm/disarm mechanism. When in the disarm position the escape chute is not armed and the door will open normally. When in the armed position the sliders on the end of the girt bar are engaged with the locking fittings on the floor. It is important to remember that if the door is opened in this condition it may be pushed out with considerable force due to the actuation of a gas operated cylinder. At the same time the chute will deploy. This would be dangerous to personnel working nearby on the outside of the aircraft. -17-All doors on large aircraft will have a door warning system connected from proximity switches/microswitches on the door to a flight deck indication /warning system in the flight deck (figure 13). \ Air reakage i is possible wherever the pressure ull i is discontinudus, thus every structure joint; every connection 6f [or passage of stringer through) pressure bulkheads} every inspection door pr entrance door; every control link, pipe, and cable through the hull is a potential source of leakage. Jy To reduce air leakage of the hull, sealing materials are applied to structural joints prior to joining and a sealing compound may be sprayed or brushed in or over the joints from inside. All systems (pipes, control runs, electrical cables, aerial cables etc) passing through the pressure hull must be sealed. MAINPLANES: ‘These are the main lifting surfaces of the aircraft and comprise: (a) Spars- Spanwise, cantilever beams often of I section designed to resist mainly up and down bearing loads. (b) Stringers - Spanwise, to stiffen and support the skin against buckling. ()__ Ribs - Chordwise, to resist shear loads and give aerofoil shape. athA normal wing, in plan view, comprises a front and rear spar with ribs as supporting members. For many large aircraft the front and rear spars are joined together in such a way as to form a box spar. This makes for a strong wing section and provides a large internal volume which can be used for fuel storage. Fig. 14 TYPICAL MAINPLANE CONSTRUCTION. Spars Dy | Root to bay Pylon | ib. ribs: support Wain sacral skin panels on top surtace 5 Skin panels on bottom surtace Siats (6 sections) Centre section Main landing gear ple support Paps esecton) yh tok es, Take Pf , ae Aileron Fig. 15 A320 WING CONSTRUCTION -19-Figure 15 shows the wing structure of the A320. Note the box spare construction using front and rear spars and ribs. Note the sealed ribs that make up the ends of the integral fuel tanks. Note also the reinforced sections for attachments of landing gear, pylon (for the engine) and flap tracks. DETACHABLE FIN TP pet wih gh, Setennae el) REAR SPAROR Frost eso ea RUDDER HINGES. ae Fig. 16 TYPICAL FIN'STRUCTURE Fig. 17 A320 TAILPLANE -20-stabilizer Talicone forwardfat Outer wing ‘Aft fuselage ‘At contre fuselage Forward contre fuselage Tailplané and Fin ; ok ‘The tailplane (sometimes called a stabilator) and fin are similar to the wings in construction. They have the same type of basic framework consisting of one or more spars (sometimes a box spare), ribs and stringers (sometimes called stiffeners). Figure 18 shows the major structural components of the A320 which could be taken as typical of any large passenger aircraft. Major Component Attachment Points ‘These include engines, pylons, mainplanes, tailplanes etc and each component is suitably strengthened locally to take the additional stresses imposed. -21-The aircraft may be dismantled into its various major components for maintenance purposes and to make it road/air transportable. The actual attachment methods will vary from aircraft to aircraft but in all cases the area and joining process is of critical importance. CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES The Stressed Skin This may be made of metal or composite structure. Metal is usually preformed to the necessary curvature before being joined to the frames, stringers, etc. The skin of metal aircraft is usually made from aluminium alloy but on some aircraft it may be magnesium alloy. Some parts df the structure may-be made irom titanium or stainless Steel. These are heavier but withstand heat and corrosign\better, so may be fitted\néar jet engine exhausts etc. | \ | in \ | In the majority of metal aircraft the skin is/sttached to the frames, stringers etc, by the use of rivets. These are usually couritersunk or dimpled flush‘with the skin on the outside of the aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag. aa 1 ~ j "\ On some parts of the airframe the structure may be attached by the use of bonding) This is an adhesive process using synthetic resin adhesives and often called by its trade name ‘Redux Bonding’. Itrequires a bonding agent, heat, and pressure. aa ~ 7 ° ~ For composite aircraft attachment will be by special fasteners, bonding, or the frames etc are integral with the skin. Machined Skin/Integral Structure We have so far seen how the metal aircraft is made up of several parts riveted/bonded together. For large aircraft the separate parts run into their thousands, with each joint a potential corrosion, fatigue and stress hazard. If the whole of the aircraft skin, including stringers, frames, longerons, brackets, window cut-outs, etc, were to be made from one piece of metal then this would eliminate many corrosion problems and produce a high strength/weight ratio structure. -22-This type of construction is known as Machined Skin or Integral Construction. Of course, integral construction is expensive. Large slabs (example 1.5m x 0.3m x 20m) of aluminium alloy are milled into shape by a computer controlled milling head - working in a similar way to a sculpture. Milling most of the metal away to produce skin say no more than 4 or 6mm thick with all the “attachments” (stringers, brackets etc) part of the original skin material. It is expensive, using large computer controlled milling heads, with 90% of the original metal being milled away to be returned to the supplier for recycling. Chemical Etching The “machining” may be done by chemical etching. For small amounts of metal removal the metal may be removed by chemicals. The parts that do not require metal removal are protected by an, applied. protective process. Honeycomnlh Construction {| | | This type of construction may be used_in 1 {is manufacture of aireraft< actures including flooring and flying control ‘surfaces. \ Fig. 19 HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE OF A WING LEADING EDGE When a panel bends the high stresses are felt on the outside surfaces, with little or none felt in the middle - so why not have all the metal on the outside where it matters. Modern sandwich construction methods usually have the outside skins of aluminium alloy or carbon fibre with the ‘filling’ of low density aluminium or composite honeycomb. These are all bonded together using the Redux or other bonding process. -23-Fail Safe Construction Fail-safe may also be used in system design. For example: if the computer controlling the cabin lights on the 747-400 fails then it automatically fails with the lights ON. In structure design “fail safe” is normally associated with prevention of crack propagation. The best way to stop a crack from developing is to design a discontinuity across its path. So instead of making, say, a frame of a single part, make it out of two parts (bolted or riveted together). If a crack starts in one part it will not propagate into the other. In composite materials the ‘discontinuity’ is provided by the fibres - which means that a crack will not normally develop across the fibres but will develop along them. Fail Hard This term relates mainly to primary structures where failure or fracture would be catastrophic. I _ i Safe Life 4 This is a basic design certification philosophy - mainly associated with primary structure to limit the life of a component (normally in flying hours). Total safe life is published by the airframe manufacturer and when reached the component is replaced irrespective of condition. Redundant Structure ‘This term is usually associated with structure that has many members ie, there are several load paths. Should one member in the structure fail then the load that it took will be shared by the other members. -24-LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION The metal airframe of the aircraft acts as a protective shield around the passengers, crew, fuel system, and avionics systems. Lightning protection devices are used to maintain this protective shield and to ensure that penetration of the shield by the high voltages and currents of a lightning strike is stopped. Low conductivity composite structures, such as graphite fibre-epoxy and honeycomb components, and electrically insulated metal sections require grounding (bonding) to the metal airframe to provide a low resistance path along the aircraft structure for the lightning current. Lightning Protection System |. The functions of the lightning protection system are to: 1] \ | ior skin into fuel vapour and) lother (1)| | Prevent penetration of the ext critical safety of flight areas. (2) Prevent puncturing of lgw conductivity composite structures such as fairings and control surfaces ‘cing and sparking or limit the movement of electrical charges to the exterior surfaces ofthe aircraft. | The following protective devices are used to ‘provide a low resistance current path between structural components and the metal airframe. (1) Bonding jumpers/leads (2) Diverter strips and rods (3) Conductive coatings (4) Metal sheets or grids adhesively bonded to dielectric type structures. Safety of Flight Components Fuel tanks are considered to be safety of flight items requiring protection either by the installation of lightning protection devices or engineering design that limits the flow of electrical charges to the exterior surfaces of the aircraft. Fuel tanks include: (1) Access doors. (2) Measuring sticks/dip sticks ete. (3) Over wing refuelling caps etc. -25-(4) Wing integral fuel tanks. (5) Wing skin joints. (6) Vents. (7) Electrical wiring within fuel tanks. High Maintenance and Replacement Cost Items ~ Usually Not Critical to Safety of Flight Items under this category normally do not effect the aircrafts operation and safety when struck by lightning. The following items are considered to be high maintenance/replacement cost components and require careful attention during removal or installation to preserve the integrity of their shield against lightning strikes. (1). Control surfaces, hinges, bearings and actuators/PFCUs. (2), Nose radomes. ; a. (3)! | Tail cones. \ (4) Wing tips. \ | (5)|_ | Trailing edges. | } | (6)| | Antennas. tL 7 (7) TAT probes. - (8) | Fuel probes. | \ (9), Navigational lights. \ (10) | Weather radar. | j (11) | Pitotheads. | / (12) Strobe lights. / ao Most of the external parts of the aircraft are made of Al alloy with sufficient thickness to be resistant to lightning strikes and to provide protection to internal areas and components. The metal skin also gives protection from the entrance of electromagnetic energy into the electrical wires of the aircraft. However, the metal skin does not prevent all electromagnetic energy from getting into the wiring. However, it does keep the energy to a reasonably save level. Ifa lightning strike is reported, the structure must be carefully inspected to find the areas of the lightning strike entrance and exit points, and all systems must be checked for correct operation. The AMM will have details of where the lighting is likely to hit and these areas (lightning strike zones) must be inspected first - but the other areas must also be checked. -26- (3counts) omen © © Fig. 20 LIGHTNING STRIKE PROBABILITY AREAS EXAMPLE B757 On the B757 for example, lightning strike entrance and exit points are usually found in zone 1, but also can occur in zones 2 and 3 (figure 20). Strikes can occur to any part of the aircraft, to include the fuselage, wing trailing edge panels, wing-body fairing, air data probes, antennas and tailplane. -27-In metal structures, lightning damage usually shows as pits, burn marks, discoloured skin or small circular holes. These holes can be grouped in one location or spread around a larger area. In composite structures, solid, laminate or honeycomb, damage shows as discoloured paint, burned, punctured, or delaminated skin plies. Damage can also occur within the panel that is not visible. This damage can extend around the area and signs of arcing and burning can also occur around the attachments to the supporting structure. Aircraft components made of ferromagnetic material may become magnetised when subjected to lightning currents which flow through them. These have to be replaced and/or demagnetised. If the aircraft has become magnetised then it must also be demagnetised (de- Gaussed) (Gauss - Karl Friedrich German mathematician 1777 — 1855). A compass swing should also bé-carried out A lightning strike usually hits the aircraft in @ zone (say zone |1)|and leaves at a different place in the same zone (zone 1). Frequently a lightning strike can enter the nose radome and go out of the aircraft/at one of the horizontal stabiliser trailing edges. The external components miost likely to be hit are“ sa f : (1) Nose radome i (2) Nacelles (3) Wing tips, tips of tailplane and fin (4) , Elevators, ailerons and rudder (5) - Ends Of the leading edge flaps (6) Trailing edge flap track fairings (7) Landing gear (when in the down position during the strike) (8) Drain masts, Pitot probes ete Any damage to the structure must be repaired in accordance with the SRM or replaced. Any components found damaged beyond limits must be changed and tested in accordance with the AMM. Lightning strikes can cause problems to the electrical systems. These are designed to be resistant to lightning strikes, but a strike of unusually high intensity can damage wiring and components — generators, relays, TRUs etc. A lightning strike may be referred to as a static discharge. This is incorrect as static discharge is the discharge of static electricity built up as the aircraft flies through the air ~ caused by the air/dust particles /water particles rubbing along the aircraft skin. Static wicks/static dischargers are for bleeding off static charge only; they have no lightning protection function. -28-As the aircraft flies through the air, it will pick up a static charge. If large enough it will bleed off the aircraft via the dischargers on its own ~ without radio noise interference. If the charge does not bleed off on its own, it will usually result in noise on the VHF or HF radios. ‘The static dischargers are frequently hit by lightning. The dischargers have the capacity to carry only a few micro-Amps of current from the collected static energy. The approximate 200,000 Amps from a lightning strike will cause damage to the discharger. After a lightning strike they are often found burnt-off and must be replaced. MAINTENANCE PRACTICES This can be split into three sections: (%,_ -Bxamination of extemnal_surfaces for lightning alse d (2)) | Examination of internal compénents. (3), Inspection and operational check bf the radio, navigation 4nli other | systems. 1] | | The Structure || * | | Examine the external |surfaces carbfully to find the Weer and exit points of the strike. Check areaé where one surface stops and another / “surface starts. Examine the metallic structure for holes or pits, purried or discoloured skirrand rivets. * Examine the internal and external surfaces of the nose radome for burns, punctures, and pin holes in the composite structure. Examine the external surfaces of the composite components for discoloured paint, burned, punctured, or delaminated skin plies. NOTE. Delamination and debonding can be detected by NDT methods or by a tap test. For a tap test, use a coin or similar object and tap the area adjacent to the damaged area lightly. If there is delamination, the sound that is heard is different from the sound of a solid bonded area. If the entrance and exit points are not found during the examination of the most vulnerable zones (eg, zones 1 and 2), then inspect the next vulnerable zone/s (eg zone 3). Examine the primary flight control surfaces for signs of lightning strike damage. If any surface shows signs of a lightning strike, examine the hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage. oorIf the speed brakes/spoilers/lift dumpers show signs of a lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, and bonding jumpers for signs of damage. If the trailing and leading edge flaps show signs of a lightning strike, examine the surface hinges, bearings, bonding jumpers and flap tracks for signs of damage. Carry out a full functional test of the control system of any surface found damaged. If any item has to be changed or adjusted a duplicate inspection has to be carried out. If there are signs of lightning strike damage to the landing gear, change any damaged component and carry out a functional test Examine the static dischargers. (a) Visually examine all discHargers to make sure they are.in placé, not broken and installed correctly on their mounting retainers. ae. (b) Examine the dischargers for damage as|shown by a burned or rougher coating and pits in the metal dischargef retainers. | () Examine the dischargers for broken, bént, or blunt tungsten digcharge pins = change the discharger if damaged or bent. I (4) Check for deterioration of the/discharger coating or damage-to the tip cup. Deterioration-to the leading edge of the discharger must not extend back more than 1/3 of the width of the discharger. Change thel unit if it does. (e) Carry out a resistance test if damage/within replacement allowances or if unit is changed. / ok Examine the air data sensors (Pitot static probes, AoA vanes, TAT probes etc. for signs of lightning strike damage. If damaged within allowable damage carry out a functional test. If outside tolerances change and test. Examine the following antennas for damage: (a) HF (ob) VHF {ce} ILS (@) Marker Beacon () RA (9) VOR (@ atc (h) DME () ADF oO@) ACARS () GPS () SATCOM (m) TCAS (n) Airborne Telephone If found damaged remedial action is the same as for the air data probes. Examine the nose radome and the WXR antenna as follows: (a) Examine the radome for pinholes, punctures, and paint that has. chipped. (b) Make sure the radome bonding straps are attached correctly to the airframe. () Examine the lightning diverter strips, and repair or replace them if there is damage. _ _ (a), If there is damage to-the radome, examine the WXR anterina and waveguide for damage. | | ’ INTERNAL COMPONENTS 4 | Ifa lightning strike has caused a aytem malfunction, carry ot afulléxamination of the defective system using the AMM. | 1 / 1} j i] Carry out a check of the standby compass system if the flight ¢rew reports a large compass deviation, A compass swing will be required if the deviation is excessive, of if the unit has to be changed. Ensure that the fuel quantity system is accurate by carrying out a BITE check. Change any defective components and retest. Operational Checks of Radio and Navigation Systems ‘The level of the checks after a lightning strike to the aircraft is determined by flight crew information and the aircraft condition after the incident. For example, if all the NAV/COM systems are exercised by the flight crew in flight after the lightning strike and no anomalies are found, then ground crew checks would not normally be required. For systems not used by the flight crew in flight or systems where anomalies are found, additional checks to that system will be required. In addition, even if a system were exercised in flight after the lightning strike and no anomalies were found, but subsequent inspections showed lightning damage near that system antenna, additional checks of that system would be required. -31-Systems/equipment include: (1) Coaxial cable (2) HF communications (3) VHF communications (4) ILS navigation (5) Marker beacon (6) Radio altimeter (7) Weather radar (8) VOR (9) ATC (10) DME (11) ADF (12) ACARS (13) GPS (14) SATCOM _ (15) TCAS. Qo - (16) ‘Airborne telephone (17) Emergency locator transmitter (ELI -32-ELECTRICAL BONDING OF COMPONENTS WARNING: Use solvents, cleaners and any special fluids only in well ventilated areas. Many are toxic and skin irritants. Follow the manufacturer's instructions. Seek medical advice if skin or eyes become contaminated irrigating copiously with water as soon as possible after contamination occurs. Materials and Equipment Required Compounds are listed in the AMM and the list of compounds and equipment could include: Pure mineral Vaseline or petrolatum Epoxy-varnish with catalyst, to Polygulfide sealant - brush ¢ohsistericy) } In the UK - AFS-1344 and §26-1001.) | | Cofrosion inhibiting synthe! id chromate. DTD-900/4549 sealant. | i MIL-T-81533 specification tHichloroethane (methyl chloroform). Cleaning agent. || ‘ i a Lint free cloth. | i i i Common gr¢ase. | i Al Type 1/320 dbrasive paper.) | } fal Wire brush. ¢s Standard tool kit. Various test sets. Small standard parts - rivets, nuts, bolts etc. Standard aircraft paint finishes. } GENERAL The following start and finishing procedures are general to all electrical bonded joints; metal to metal, metal to composite, pipe to pipe etc. Slight variations occur in these start and finish processes but these should be obvious. The process of actually forming the bonded joint will, of course, be dedicated to that particular joint. Start and Finish Procedure Remove the surface protection from the contact area where connection is to be made (including any countersinks) with emery cloth or type 1 abrasive paper. Baap‘The diameter of the area of bare metal must be larger than the rivet/bolt/screw head diameter by 2mm (0.0787”) to 4mm (0.1574”). Be careful not to scratch or damage the metal. NOTE: For contacts between corrosion-resistant steel (stainless steel) and cadmium plated steel, titanium and cadmium-plated steel, it is not necessary to remove the surface protection. Remove any contamination from the areas with a lint-free cloth moist with cleaning agent. | cee ee oe 1 & b a oo Sa Fig. 21 BONDING USING RIVETS If the assembly cannot be riveted/treated and bolted within 15 minutes, apply a thin coat of common grease. Remove this product with a lint-free cloth moist with cleaning agent before making the joint and before any anti-corrosive process is carried out. Assemble the joint applying anti-corrosive treatments, sealants etc as per the ‘AMM/SRM. Carry out a bonding test. Check ohmic values. If not within the stated tolerances the reason must be investigated with the joint being re-assembled if necessary. -34-RIVETED JOINTS Apply start and finish procedures as stated above. Install and form the rivet as per the SRM through the support and the structure. In figure 21 the captive nut is attached to the structure with the rivets. Rivets may need special attention - depending where they are fitted: If installed in the fuselage, or in the centre tank, apply a lacquer. If installed in the wings or integral tanks, apply sealants. Make sure the product fully covers the bare metal areas and the fasteners. Carry out a bonding test. SCREWS BOLTS AND BONDING-LEADS |“ ‘The preparation of the joint area Hefore assémbly, and after assembly is pimlar to the start/and finish procedures described apoye. } In the AMM the actual method may change'depending on where the joint is, and how often it is likely to be disturbed] (dismantled/assembled). | | —— i \ Often classed as in the wing, in the fuselage, or in the fuel tanks, and joints (a) not likely to be disturbed, (b) not likely to be disturbed frequestly and (c) likely to be disturbed frequently. ‘The process is similar to the riveted joint with the main differences as follows: * Assemble the fasteners (nuts, bolts, conductive bolts or screws, bonding leads, washers etc) and the components in accordance with the AMM. Make sure that bonding leads are as short and straight as possible but cause no strain. * For static parts - make sure that bonding leads are as short and straight as possible. * For moving parts ~ make sure that bonding leads are the appropriate length and cause no strain when the parts move to their fullest extent ~ in both directions. * Leads must be installed without twist, carried out by loosely fitting the two ends before the clamps are tightened. -35-Check that when the moving part is moved to its fullest extent in both directions that there is adequate clearance between it (and its bonding lead) and any surrounding structure /equipment. Check that the bonding lead does not interfere with the full and free range of travel of the equipment. | Fig. 22 BONDING OF ITEMS NOT REMOVABLE-OR~ NOT FREQUENTLY REMOVED i } | if | \ | BONDING OF PIPES ‘The general preparation and finishing of the task is similar to that already described. ‘The process described below is typical of bonding light-alloy and corrosion- resistance steel fuel pipes in the fuselage and centre tanks. Connect one end of the bonding lead (1 figure 23) to the clamp (2). Attach the other end of the bonding lead (1) to a bonding lug (3) welded on the other pipe or to a clamp (4) connected to the structure. Apply lacquers to the bare metal areas and the fasteners, but not if the clamp and pipe are made of corrosion-resistance steel. Make sure that the product covers the bare metal areas and the fasteners fully. Make sure that the resistance (ohmic) is correct. - 36-t f 3 a © op a) i | | \ Fig. 24 PIPE to PIPE BONDING LEADS - 2 Fig. 25 PIPE CLAMPS ao7Fitting the Clamps NOTE: The material of the clamps is the same as that of the pipes. Install the clamps (3) on the pipes (2) to attach to the structure (Ggure 25). Ifa floating clamp is used (bottom figure), connect the clamp nut and bolt (6) with a bonding lead (7). Make sure that the resistance (ohmic) is correct. BONDING OF ANTENNAS NOTE: Antennas are usually delivered with specific seals, which cover the whole flange that will replace the sealant. The seals are used as 4 ‘shim to ‘match the fuselage profile | | 1. Chedk the continuity between the captive nuts and the | adjagent structure. Check the AMM for specific procedures. >. ° - Fig. 26 BONDING OF ADF ANTENNA - 38 -Put the antenna in position. Install the screws but one (1 figure 26) and tighten them equally until the antenna is against the fuselage. Measure the bonding resistance between the countersunk hole of the antenna and the adjacent structure with a milliohmeter. Install the last screw (1). Torque all screws diagonally to the same value to prevent any cracking on the antenna base plate. Apply sealants to fill the cavity between the screw heads and the top of the flange. Carry out radio test. ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS The general preparation and finishing processes are again si a those'already described, but the bared contact area is slightly larger - 3mm (011181 in} to Smm_ (0.1968 in) greater than the connector. 1 Fig. 27 BONDING OF ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS COMPOSITES These include carbon fibre, Kevlar and glass fibre panels and components, and the purpose of the bonding is to make a path for electrostatic charges to cross the composite panel to all adjacent metal surfaces. ‘The area should be thoroughly cleaned using a lint free cloth moist with cleaning agent. -39-Non-conductive components protected with anti-static paint (figure 28). Obtain the electrical continuity of the external surface: * Directly between the anti-static paint and the fastener when the fastener is installed at the edge of the panel, or a With a bonding lead connected to the structure when the fastener is not installed at the edge of the panel. In all cases a conductive insert or washer should be fitted between the anti-static paint and the fastener head. Make sure that the resistance (ohmic) is correct. = ae Fig. 29 COMPOSITE PANEL WITH LIGHT ALLOY CONDUCTIVE LAYER SURFACE OF METAL TO METAL COMPONENTS It is generally considered that the attachment screws/fasteners make a sufficiently good enough electrical contact to make the provision of additional bonding methods unnecessary. erieWhere this is not the case, however, bonding leads will be fitted and be tested in the normal way. Major metal to metal structure components are bond tested in the normal way. ~Fig-30 BONDING ‘OF REMOVABLE NON-CONDUCTIVE COMPOSITE-COMPONENTS -41-TEST VALUES OF PRIMARY BONDING The following pages are based on bonding tests taken from the AMM of the A330. Actual examples of minimum resistance values are given that should be obtained when carrying out bonding testing. There is no need to try to commit all this to memory but you should have a good idea of the values that apply generally to the major parts of the airframe. Various testers are also described, and while reading these you should not forget the standard bonding tester as described in Module 7 General Avionic Test Equipment. Of course, on your aircraft, you will refer to the AMM for details of the testers to be used and the maximum resistance values allowed. MAXIMUM TEST VALUES Control surfaces and external metal. components between the part of the primary structure as near as possible to the aircraft nose (FRI) reference point and the: \ | \ - lightning arrester strips of the radome (2 milliohms). | - structure of the engine (2 milliohms).~ = structure of the APU (2 milliohms). - Pitot probes, the angle of attack, the temperature sensors, and the antennas (5 milliohms), - radar antenna)(5 milliohms). - flaps (from the attachment points) (50 milliohms). = landing gear doors, the doors (10 milliohms). - slats on the tracks (from the attachment points) (50 milliohms). - actuators (jacks) and uplock assemblies of the landing gear (500 milliohms). ‘The fuel system between the adjacent structure and the: - internal equipment of the fuel tanks (10 milliohms). - external equipment of the fuel tanks (50 milliohms). - light alloy pipes (10 milliohms). - stainless steel pipes (100 milliohms). - refuel/defuel couplings and the bonding points (10 milliohms). -42-Hydraulic system between the adjacent structure and the: ~ electrical equipment (50 milliohms). ~ equipment that is not electrical, length > 200mm (7.8 in) (500 milliohms). - light alloy, stainless steel and titanium pipes, length > 1m (39.3 in) (500 milliohms). Pneumatic system between the adjacent structure and the: - electrical equipment (50 milliohms). = equipment that is not electrical, length > 200mm (7.8 in) (500 milliohms). - metal pipes, length > 2m (78.7 in) (500 milliohms). Oxygen system between the adjacent structure and the light alloy parts (10 milliohms}, stainless steel parts (100 milliohms). Other fluid systems between the adjacent structure and the: - circuits that contain electrical equipment) (50 milliohms)._ - metal pipes, length > 1m (39.3 in} (500 milliohms). = equipment that is not electrical, length >,200mm (7.8 in) (500-milliamps. 500 milliohms fot mechanical controls between the adjacent structure and the mechanical assembly support chassis but not the mechanical drive units. Electrical equipment between the adjacent structure and the: - equipment that is not installed in the rack and bonded by its attachment (10 milliohms). = equipment installed in the rack or bonded by pin and cable (50 milliohms). - TRUs and the HF rack coupler (plugs disconnected) (5 milliohms). Racks and shelves for electrical equipment between the adjacent structure and the: - main structure of the racks or shelves (1 milliohm). - secondary parts of the racks or shelves (10 milliohms). -43-Miscellaneous components, panels & control panels between the adjacent structure and the: - panels used for support of electrical control (10 milliohms). structure of fixed boxes individual mounts containing equipment with electrical connection (10 milliohms). - metallic boxes containing electrical equipment located in the flight compartment or above the cabin floor which include parts subjected to voltage > 42V and likely to be normally touched by aircraft occupants (500 milliohms). - control components (500 milliohms). - panels and covers for electrical equipment protection (10 milliohms). - flight compartment and cabin seat rails (10 milliohms). LOW CURRENT TEST METHOD (10A) Static dischargers, 50 milliohms between the: = grounding point on the main landing geay and alll the static dischargers (metallic part) fitted on the wing. \ - dischargers metallic part and one of the THS bonding leads, for all static dischargers fitted on THS, elevator, fin and rudder. | Aircraft, grounding between the metal plate, between the ground and the nose gear tyres, and the landing gear leg (10 megohms). USING A CORAS RESISTIVITY-CONTINUITY METER Composite material panels between the: - adjacent structure and the antenna fairings and radome (200 megohms). - adjacent structure and miscellaneous fairings (carbon or with anti-static paint) (100 kohms). - surface resistance of anti-static coating on antenna fairing and radome (between 5 megohms and 100 megohms. - surface resistance of anti-static coating on miscellaneous fairings (50 kohms). LOW CURRENT TEST METHOD Landing gear between the unit and the primary grounded structure (10 milliohms). -44-HIGH CURRENT TEST METHOD (150ft) OR HIGH RESISTANCE BOND TESTER Isolated conducting parts with external surfaces between 9 in sq (58.06 cm sq) and 28 in sq (185.80cm sq) between the part and the adjacent primary grounded structure or grounding point (0.5 megohms). Larger areas 14.4 megohms. PRIMARY BONDING TEST Between the engine and the adjacent major structure or earth station (50 milliohms). COMPONENT BONDING Electrical shielding conduits between the shielding conduit terminals and the adjacent pain structure (10 malligams} | |) LOW CURRENT TEST 1 milliohm between the ground point of gach battery (successively) and the ground point of: - each other battery. - each TRU. - each generator. - the emergency generator. - the APU starter. - the external power supply receptacle. 1 milliohm between the ground point of each TRU (successively) and the ground point of: = each other TRU. - each generator. - the APU starter. = the external power supply receptacle. -45-1 milliohm between the ground point of each generator (successively) and the ground point of the: - other generator. - external power supply receptacle. TESTING TEST EQUIPMENT (1) DC power source (nominal 24 volts), output 10 amperes for a minimum of 60 minutes. (2) Ammeter - moving coil, permanent magnet, single-range, FSD = 10 amperes, scale length = 3% to 5 inches (82mm to 127mm). (3) Millivoltmeter - moving coil, permanent magnet, multi-range, scale length = 3% to 5 inches. RANGE 7 1 20 7 ~3\ 4 FSD | 2mV. 20mV, 200mV_ 2v (4) Variable resistor, rating for! / = 10 ampere continuous duirent. | + 10 ampere current from] aj24-volt Source with a test |cireui L resistance between 1.0 and 0 ohms. a (5) Cable, ratifig not less thah 12 ampere continuous fot connections. Procedure — Make sure that all the connectors, prods, bolts, areas to be tested etc are clean and free from grease. : (1) Connect the equipment. (2) Connect the power circuit to the applicable bonding section to be tested. Use the bolts where possible. NOTE: Do not connect directly to the joint to be tested. The complete assembly (structure, bolt and cable) must be tested and the maximum resistance measured from one end of the joint to the other: (3) Set RV1 (RV = Resistance Value) to the maximum resistance giving minimum current. Switch on power supply and adjust RV1 to get 10 amperes on the ammeter. NOTE: Start the test with the millivoltmeter in the 20V range. Go down in sequence through the ranges to get the highest movement (highest sensitivity) of the needle on the scale. -46-(4) Put one prod of the millivoltmeter on the body of the aircraft and the other prod on the component (put them adjacent to the bonding points and make sure that there is a good contact). Measure and record the values. Remove the prods, de-energise the power supply and disconnect the test circuit. Calculate the resistance of the joint in milliohms - divide the obtained value by 10. NOTE: The ratings of the wires that connect the tester to the components that are tested must be: - at least 25% higher than the maximum current used in the test. - for the low-current test, the wire rating = 13 amperes. Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted values. C Closing Procedure i } || / | Remove test equipment. Make sure that the work area is cledn|and élear of tools and other items. Investigate and réctify any joint with high resistance values and re-test. Any anti-corrosive treatments (paint and arjodic films) penetrated to get/a good prod to etal contact must have their anti corrosive treatments reinstated iaw the SR A. Record ghd sign for all work done. HIGH CURRENT TEST Equipment (1) Variable Power Supply Unit (PSU), continuous output 150 amperes. (2) Ammeter - single range, FSD 150 amperes. (3) Millivoltmeter - single-range, FSD 200 millivolts. (4) Variable resistor, rating for: = 10 ampere continuous current. - 10 ampere current from a 24 volt source with a test circuit resistance between 1.0 and 0 ohms. (5) Cable ~ rating not less than 12 amperes continuous for connections. Make sure that the connections, prods and bolts are clean and are free of grease. otoProcedure (1) Connect the equipment. NOTE: Make all the connections as near as possible to the bonding or grounding point. (2) Adjust the PSU to get the necessary current on the ammeter. Apply the test current for a minimum of one minute before measuring the mv value. Make sure that the joint does not become too hot, ie a temperature increase of more than 40°C (104°F). (3) Put the prods of the voltmeter on the structure adjacent to the bonding points (make sure that there is a good contact). Measure and record the values. Remove the prods, de-energise and disconnect the test circuit. Carry out closing procedure. — l , \ Calculate’ the resistance of the joint in milliohms by divide the voltage in millivolts by the current in milliamps (Ohms law. | | (1) The ratings of the wires that cones the PSU to the components that are tested must be: | | - Atleast 25% higher than the spins: current used in the test. ~ For the high-amperage test ( amperte), the wire rating = 190 amperes. HIGH RESISTANCE BOND TESTER Equipment (1) Variable PSU, continuous output 150 amperes. (2) Ammeter - single-range, FSD 150 amperes. (3) Millivoltmeter - single-range, FSD 200 millivolts. (4) _ Insulation tester, 500 volt (nominal), with the related test leads. The precision must be better than plus or minus 20% of the measured value for the range 0.05 ~ 5 milliohms. (a) Connect the test equipment and measure the insulation value (refer to. the equipment handbook). (c) Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted values. Carry out normal closing procedure. -48-TEST OF THE PRIMARY BONDING Equipment Ohmmeter - safety, low voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately 1 ampere. The precision must be better than plus or minus 10%, examples: - milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type 498M - milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type DIGITOHM 1998 Connection of test equipment CAUTION: Make sure damage is not caused to the equipment or the structure when using sharp pointed prods. Make sure that the test equipment is correctly installed be before “\ measuring the bonding.values:\ Make sure that any lodnetratiqa damage to paint| and ohh films ' are repaired iaw the SRM. J | é | yf 1) Gotiect the test equipment # tthe applicable cations 2) Opérate the test set iaw the manufacturer's instructions and measure the, applicable values. | } | i | Make: sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted values. Carry out normal close-up procedure. TEST OF BONDING BETWEEN DIFFERENT COMPONENTS (but not the fluid system or the Electrical/Electronic Systems) Equipment Ohmmeter - safety, low voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately 1 ampere. ‘The precision must be better than plus or minus 10%. Example instruments include: - milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type 498M - milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type DIGITOHM 1998 -49-TEST OF FLUID SYSTEMS Equipment CAUTION: Use only a safety ohmmeter (Culton type 278 or an equivalent. Refer to BS 5501 PT7 and 50-020) when testing in wet areas. Do not use a milliohmmeter of the Guerpillon type when testing hydraulic pipes (the current of this equipment is too high and causes damage to the nylon clamps that are plated with silver and graphite). Use a Tekelec Airtronic milliohmmeter or equivalent, which uses approximately 0.1 amperes. Ohmmeter - safety, low-voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately 1 ampere. The precision must be better than plus or minus 10%, eg: -.ohmmeter CULTON type. 278. — \., milliohmmeter TEKELEC AIRTRONIC a \ | Connection of Test Equipment CAUTION: Make sure that you do-not cause damage to the equipment or the structure when using sharp-point prods. co \ j \ | | Make sure that the test equipment is correctly installed before recording bonding values. | Connect the tést equipment (refer to the supplier's instructions) at the applicable locations. Measure the applicable values and carry out normal close- up procedure. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT (not related to fluid systems) Equipment Ohmmeter ~ safety, low voltage, with the related leads and prods. The effective range must be to a minimum of 0.1 ohms with a test current of approximately 1 ampere. The precision must be better than plus or minus 10% eg: - milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type 498M - milliohmmeter GUERPILLON type DIGITOHM 1998 Connect the test equipment (refer to the supplier's instructions) at the applicable locations. Measure the applicable values. Make sure that these are not higher than the maximum permitted values. Carry out normal close-up procedures. -50-=< | | bs | Fig. 31 TESTING EXTERNAL RESISTANCE OF COMPOSITE AREAS | | j | o } : ik ‘TEST'OF SURFACE RESISTANCE OF THE EXTERNAL COMPOSITE COMPONENTS WITH A MEGOHMMETER Equipment 1) Megohmmeter 100 Mohms-500 Volts-1 mA (max). 2) Probes (SR2) Note: 2 rounded point prods can be used, diameter 4mm (0.1574 in) in place of SR2. Measurement of the Surface Electrical Resistance CAUTION: Measure values before application of the top coat of paint on the components. Connect the probe to the megohmmeter. -51-Apply the prod on the surface covered with the anti-static paint. The distance between the edge of the surface and the probe should be at least of 50mm. (1.9685) - typically 100mm (3.9370") Read directly the square resistance “Rs”. NOTE: For probes whose electrodes are 100mm (3.9370") apart from each other, the measured value must be multiplied by 0.5 to get the Square Resistance “Rs”. The process is repeated about 10 times at different locations on the surface. The number of test locations should be a function of the surface size. Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted values. NOTE: If one or several small areas [surfaces < 10cm sq (1.55 in sq)] away from each other are out of the above tolerances, they can be considered acceptable. yoo | = Disconnect the megohmmeter and carry out normal closing procedure TEST OF THE BONDING OF THE EXTERNAL COMPONENTS WITH A MEGOHMMETER ‘ Use a Megohmmeter 100 Mohm$-$00 Volts-1 mA (max), with 2 rounded-point prods, diameter 4imm (0.1574”).| | Procedure - Anti-static Paint Protection CAUTION: Measure the values before application of the top coat of paint on the components. 1) Apply one prod on the panel a minimum of 50mm (1.9”) but typical 100mm (3.9") from the edge of the panel and from bonding the point. 2) Apply the other prod to the structure near the panel. NOTE: The composite structures are coated with anti-static paint or have a metallic surface, eg Alumesh. Measure the resistance. Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted values and carry out normal closing procedures. -52- iTEST OF THE BONDING OF THE EXTERNAL COMPONENTS WITH A CORAS RESISTIVITY-CONTINUITY METER The RESISTIVITY TEST SET (QB31B) measures directly continuity of the anti- static paint in relation to the aircraft metallic structure. NOTE: It will measure these values when the anti-static paint is coated with a non-conductive paint finish. NOTE: - if the paint finish is applied; use the mode C1 on the meter. - if the paint finish is not applied; use the mode C2. Procedure - Test of the electrical continuity when the paint finish is applied: 1) Set the CORAS to the mode C1. 2) Connect one lead of the resistivity-continuity meter to the metallic structure. — Ve 3) Connect the probe (C1) to the applicable component. > 4) Make sure that the orange indicator light,is on. 5) Carry put normal close-up procedure. | | \| | | Test when the paint finish is not applied: 1) Set the CORAS to the mode 02) ’ i 2) Connett one lead of the resistivity-continuity meter to the metallic structure. / iI mi | 3) Connect the’probe (R2/C2) tgt he applicable component. | | 4) Make sure that the continuity resistance is not more than 200 Mohms. 5) Carry out closing-up procedure. a Readings 1) If the green indicator light cones on there is continuity with the structure, the value is Rm < 100 Kohms. 2) If the orange indictor light comes on there is continuity with the structure, the value is: 100 Kohms < Rm < 200 megohms. 3) If the red “unbonded” indicator light comes on there is no (or insufficient) continuity with the structure, the value is Rm > 200 megohms. TEST OF SURFACE RESISTANCE OF THE EXTERNAL COMPOSITE COMPONENTS WITH A CORAS RESISTIVITY-CONTINUITY METER ‘The RESISTIVITY TEST SET (QB31B) measures directly the surface resistance of the anti-static paint. aooeNOTE: It can also measure these values when the anti-static paint is coated with a non-conductive paint finish. NOTE: The mode of the CORAS: - if the paint finish is applied; use the mode R1. - if the paint finish is not applied; use the mode R2. Procedure Measurement of the Surface Electrical Resistance where the paint finish is applied. 1) Set the CORAS to the mode R1. 2) Apply the probe (R1) to the applicable component. 3) Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted values. NOTE: If the red “Dielectric” indicator light comes on there is. ” > 200 Mohmis (Square Resistance). a Q \ 4) Repeat the above steps again several tijnes at different arpas of the given surface, according to size. ] er r 5) Carry out normal closing-up procedures. } recounmeren _@ @ + eb seamen vet Fig. 32 TESTING SURFACE RESISTANCE OF EXTERNAL COMPOSITE PANEL USING CONDUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TAPE -54-Measurement of the Surface Electrical Resistance when the paint finish is not applied: 1) Set the CORAS to the mode R2. 2) Apply the probe (R2/C2) to the applicable component. 3) Make sure that the measured values are not higher than the maximum permitted values. 4) Do the above steps again several times at different areas of the given surface, according to its size. Disconnect the resistivity-continuity meter and carry out normal closing-up procedures. TEST OF THE AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL GROUNDING Put a clean non corroded metal plate between the tyres of the nose landing gear and the ground. NOTE: This procedure is easier Ite arpa contact oi is mois Remove the metal plate. Carry ou close -Lip procedure. = { | \ } TEST OF SURFACE RESISTANCE OF THE/EXTERNAL COMPOSITE COMPONENETS WITH CONDUCTIVE ELECTRICAL TAPE o | ; 24 Equipment — 1) Megohmmeter 100Mohms-500 Volts-1 mA (max) with 2 rounded-point prods, diameter 4mm (0.1574”). 2) 3M Conductive Electrical Tape (X-1181/Copper or X-1170/Aluminium). Measurement 1) On the painted surface, apply two parallel strips 100mm (3.9370”) length of 3M conductive electrical tape, 100mm (3.9370”) away from each other, so as to make a square. 2) Apply the plugs of the megohmmeter on each strip, and read directly the Square Resistance “Rs”. Make sure that the measured values “Rs” are not higher than the maximum permitted values. -55-NOTE; Repeat the steps again several times at different areas of the given surface, according to its size. Disconnect the megohmmeter. Remove the strips and carry out normal closing- up procedure. -56-HIRF Requirements With the introduction of computers and Fly-by-wire on such aircraft as the Airbus A320 and the Boeing 777, regulations were introduced to increase the protection levels of certain systems from the effects of High Intensity Radiated Fields (HIRF) and lightning strikes. These regulations require that critical and essential systems be protected to higher standards than was the case previously. The regulations also require that a maintenance programme be put into effect to ensure the continued airworthiness of such systems. ‘The prime requirement for an aircraft's computer and data transmission system is reliability. The units are put through severe temperature, pressure, and humidity tests and checked for electromagnetic compatibility, ie that the units radiate little or no electromagnetic interference to cause problems to other systems and are also unaffected by external electromagnetic interference from other systems. ‘The systems that require extra dren ate specified and ihdude RiyBy-Wire system$, databases, LRU’s (Line! Replacemertt Units) etc. | | | The level of protection from HIRF eae other electrical sources Gightning strikes etc) is increased by the use of mh ete which use light as the data transmission medium in place of digital (Or analogue) clectri¢al/ electronic signals, | n | /| Whilst external electrical inputs td a datatrgnsmission line will have an effect on electrical /electronic based data transmission systems their effect on light based data systems is considerably reduced. Of course, there can always be mechanical damage — from lightning strikes for example - and the data transmission/reception units can be affected by HIRF, as they are electronic. To provide the regulatory requirements with regards to HIRF /lightning protection the LRU’s in modern digital systems have built in filters and filter pins and over voltage protection systems. The wire design includes the following: (a) Single layer of braid internal to fuselage. (b) Two layers of braid external to fuselage (c) Extensive use of twisted pairs and triples. (4) No power or signal grounds external to fuselage. {e) Single point grounding for actuator control electronics and power control units and signals. (Nickel coating for fly-by-wire shields, (@) Back shell and shield termination for connectors. (h) Equipment interface protection. ‘The requirements for lightning protection are laid down in JAR 25.581. -S7-SHADING INDICATES | AREAS REQURING SPECIALINSPECTION / Fig. 33 STRUCTURE INSPECTION - B77 Airframe Protected Areas ‘These areas include whole parts of the airframe such as the flight deck and equipment racks. Aluminium coated honeycomb internal walls, floors and ceiling panels may be used around the flight deck and appropriate equipment bays (as on the B777 for example). This ensures that the whole area is encased in a “metal box”. On the flight deck, the existing windscreen metallic coatings (electric heater films) are used as part of the protection system. Special attention is paid to grounding and earthing points, and shielding of electrical cables and plugs and sockets. Maintenance Practices Special checks are carried out on the earthing/grounding points of all the systems and the airframe. These check may be scheduled at intervals of 4 and 8 years. -58-For example: * Every 4 years. Detailed inspection of all critical wiring and bonding external to the fuselage. * Every 8 years. General inspection of all critical and essential wiring and bonding inside the fuselage. * Every 8 years. Detailed inspection of some essential wiring and bonding external to the fuselage. General Visual Inspection This is a general visual inspection using a light source if necessary, to check for damage, deterioration, contamination, signs of burning, security, open circuits, correct assembly, correct torque of plugs/sockets, locking, chafing, corrosion, broken strands, broken screening etc. All wires, shields, ground leads, screen jumpers and bonding leads are to be intact. Panels and access doors may-have to be removed/refitted.All this will be specified in the AMM and the maintenance schedule>Thereis normally no routine, requirement for dismantling. \ | vet 1 | | Detailed Visual Inspection This inyolves an inspection similar to above but it will also include the use of specialist test equipment. 1 | || All metilised airframe (and othet) screening to be secure, undamaged and compléte. } / co If any item is found to be defective, the defect should be repaired or the part replaced, and the system tested. Systems Testing When testing a particular system (radio, radar, TCAS etc) it is possible that signals from these systems can be picked up as noise on other systems/other aircraft. It is important that the AMM is consulted reference the precautions to take prior to testing any system so that other systems and/or aircraft are not affected. It has been known, for example, for TCAS to affect aircraft flying near the area when the system is being tested. It is recommended, therefore, that it is tested in the hangar with the hangar doors closed to minimise interference. The actual test will depend on the system to be tested but it will be in accordance with AMM and will normally involve a functional test. SorIt may require that other electric/electronic systems are working at the same time to check for any cross-interference. It may require the use of a special test programme to include simulated interference signals (noise). Remember that testing of some equipment on the ground requires safety precautions to be carried out to prevent injury to personnel. This includes safety distances for radar antennae and radio aerials for example. On the point of test equipment, it must be electromagnetic compatible to the aircraft systems to ensure no problems are caused to the system under test or other systems -60-DEMAGNETISATION Carried out if the crew report problems with the magnetic compass or flux valves, or any other equipment where magnetic interference is suspect. Fixed Component Demagnetisation For structure demagnetisation, a portable magnet may be used having a U- shaped iron core of a cross section area of approximately 0.6 square inches. ‘The magnet should be placed in contact with, and moved slowly along, the part to be demagnetised. This operation should be repeated three or four times on each part to be demagnetised. The magnet should be moved well away from the component being demagnetised before switching off the current to avoid re- magnetisation of the component. Removable ‘Components : : \ \ \ | These shguld be removed from the aircraft for convenience, 4s jvett as fact that the degree of demagnetisation netessary is usually much higher than that required for a part of the fixed structure. | / 1 | —_* i | | r 1} li AC Coil Method > i | | i i J | | — \\ | / ii | | ‘The corhponent’tg be demagnetised should be passed through a coil supplied with alternating ¢urrent. The coil is mounted with its axis suchthat the component is not subjected to the earth’s magnetic field, eg on an East-West line. The field intensity within the coil necessary for satisfactory demagnetisation depends on the nature of the metal being demagnetised, a metal having a high coercive force requiring a larger field intensity than a metal having a low coercive force. Also a component having a large cross section is more difficult to demagnetise because of eddy currents in the metal reducing the effective intensity of the demagnetising field. For normal demagnetisation requirements, a field intensity of 170 lines/sq cm is sufficient, but in extreme cases an intensity of 300-400 lines/sq cm may be necessary. -61-DC Coil Method ‘This method was developed to enable components which have a large cross section to be readily demagnetised. The component to be demagnetised should be placed within a coil large enough to enclose it completely. The current through the coil should be reversed at approximately two second intervals. Starting at a large value the current and gradually reducing it to zero. Demagnetisation Procedure The in-situ method of demagnetisation should only be used where it is too difficult to dismantle the parts. Before commencing the demagnetisation of an aircraft the compass should be swung with the corrector box neutralised and a note made of the readings obtained, (if corrector box fitted). ‘The compass, corrector box and, any other equipment that ig likely tobe affected by a strong alternating magnetic field, should be removed before commencing demagnetising opeta fions (check the AMM). | 1 | i LI } Li od} Parts highly magnetised can be detected ty ‘searching’ with a hand compass. It is advisable to wipe (demagnetise) all magnetisable parts within-six feet (3m) of the magnetic compass and flux valves. Parts being wiped shouldbe at right angles to the earth’s field and the inclination of the earth’s field taken into consideration when treating upright /diagonal components. The ac coil is held near the part by the insulated handles and the current is switched on. After a period: of timie (depends on theysize of the part and how maghetised it is) the coil is removed and switched off. - - ‘The part/area is checked for magnetism by using a hand compass or a special magnetic detector. After all suspected parts have been demagnetised, the magnetic compass (without corrector box) should be replaced and a compass swing taken. If the compass still shows errors that are not within the correctable limits, further demagnetisation should be carried out until it is within the correctable limits. After demagnetisation is complete and compass and corrector box have been replaced and adjusted to within limits (and all other items removed, replaced) the aircraft should have the magnetic compass swung at frequent internals. For example once every two weeks for a period of two to three months, or until it is evident that stability has been reached. Evidence of such stability may be obtained from flight crew reports on the behaviour of the magnetic compass over a number of subsequent flights. A suitable entry should be made in the Aircraft Tech Log requesting such reports and the reason for the request given. -62-