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CBSE,class12th,Physicspracticalfilereadings
Hello!friends,gotnotimeornofriendstoborrowphysicspracticalfilereadingandyouneed
itbadlyrightnow:hereisyoursolution:
Thereturnofmydoomedwork.Ideletedmypostbyaccident.Butworrynotfriends.
Irecoveredthelostcopyofthisbloganditisbacktohelpyouagain.
Schoolisforenjoymentandsometimeswetendtoleftoutfewofthepracticals.
Thatisnotaproblemanymore.
Beforethesubmissionofmypracticalfileduringtheboardexams.Iknewthatsomescary
lookingteacherwouldjusttearthefileapartsothatitcannotbeusedagain.

Physicsfilewasthemostdifficulttomaintain,allthereadingandsomuchcalculation.
Ithoughtinthedayofmydesolationwhennoonewouldsharethefileortheythemselves
havenotcompleteditormaybehavedonethewholepracticalwrong,interredasenseof
BoardExaminmybones.
Mostofthepracticalsscreenshothavebeenlistedbelowwithexactnumbering.
Ifyoufindanythingmissingoraboveyourhead,dopostsomecommentsastherearemany
otherswhovisitthissiteandthesemightbeabletohelpyououtofthismuck.

EXP1>TODETERMINETHERESISTANCEPERCMOFAGIVENWIREBYPLOTTINGAGRAPH
OFPOTENTIALDIFFERENCEVERSUSCURRENT

MaterialsRequired:AResistancewire,voltmeter,ammeter,battery,rheostat,meterscale,oneway
key,connectingwiresetc.
Theory:IfIbethecurrentflowingthroughaconductor&Vbethepotentialdifferenceacrossitsends,
thenaccordingtoOhmslaw
VI
orV=RI
Where,Ristheconstantofproportionality.Itisknownasresistanceoftheconductor.
V/I=R
Rdependsuponthenatureofmaterial,temperature&dimensionsoftheconductor.
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Procedure:
1.Cleantheendsoftheconnectingwireswiththehelpofsandpaperinordertoremoveany
insulatingcoatingonthem.
2.Connectvariouscomponentsresistance,rheostat,battery,key,voltmeterandammeter
3.Notewhetherpointersinmilliammeterandvoltmetercoincidewiththezeromarkonthe
measuringscale.Ifitisnotso,adjustthepointertocoincidewiththezeromarkbyadjustingthe
screwprovidednearthebaseoftheneedleusingascrewdriver.
4.Notetherangeandleastcountofthegivenvoltmeterandmilliammeter.
5.InsertthekeyKandslidetherheostatcontacttooneofitsextremeends,sothatcurrentpassing
throughtheresistancewireisminimum.
6.Notethemilliammeterandvoltmeterreadings.
7.RemovethekeyKandallowthewiretocool,ifheated.Againinsertthekey.Shifttherheostat
contactslightlytoincreasetheappliedvoltage.Notethemilliammeterandvoltmeterreading.
8.Repeatstep7forfourdifferentsettingsoftherheostat.Recordyourobservationsinatabular
form.
OBSERVATIONS:
1.Rangeofammeter=0...mAto...mA
2.Leastcountofammeter=...mA
3.Rangeofvoltmeter=0...Vto...V
4.Leastcountofvoltmeter=...V

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5.Leastcountofmeterscale=...m
6.Lengthofthegivenwire,l=...m

RESULT:
1.Thepotentialdifferenceacrossthegivenwirevarieslinearlywith
thecurrent.
2.Theresistanceperunitlengthofthewireis(RR)=(......m1).

EXP2>TODETERMINERESISTANCEOFGALVANOMETERBYHALFDEFLECTIONMETHOD
ANDTOFINDITSFIGUREOFMERIT.

MATERIALREQUIRED:Amovingcoilgalvanometer,abatteryorabatteryeliminator(06V),one
resistancebox(RBOX1)ofrange010k,oneresistancebox(RBOX2)ofrange0200,2one
waykeys,voltmeter,connectingwiresandapieceofsandpaper.
Theory:Galvanometerisasensitivedeviceusedtodetectverylowcurrent.Itsworkingisbasedon
theprinciplethatacoilplacedinauniformmagneticfieldexperiencesatorquewhenanelectric
currentissetupinit.Thedeflectionofthecoilisdeterminedbyapointerattachedtoit,movingon
thescale.WhenacoilcarryingcurrentIisplacedinaradialmagneticfield,thecoilexperiencesa
deflectionwhichisrelatedtoIas
I=k
wherekisaconstantofproportionalityandistermedasfigureofmeritofthegalvanometer.

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Procedure:
1.Cleantheconnectingwireswithsandpaperandmakeneatandtightconnectionsasperthecircuit
diagram

2.Fromthehighresistancebox(RBOX1)(110k),remove5kkeyandthenclosethekeyK1.
AdjusttheresistanceRfromthisresistanceboxtogetfullscaledeflectiononthegalvanometerdial.
Recordthevaluesofresistance,Randdeflection.

3.InsertthekeyK2andkeepRfixed.AdjustthevalueofshuntresistanceStogetthedeflectionin
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thegalvanometerwhichisexactlyhalfof.NotedownS.RemoveplugK2afternotingdownthe
valueofshuntresistance,S.

4.Takefivesetsofobservationsbyrepeatingsteps2and3sothatisevennumberofdivisionsand
recordtheobservationsforR,S,and2intabularform.

5.CalculatethegalvanometerresistanceGandfigureofmeritkof
galvanometerusingEquations.

OBSERVATIONS:
EmfofthebatteryE=.....V
Numberofdivisionsonfullscaleofgalvanometer=....

RESULT:
1.Resistanceofgalvanometerbyhalfdeflectionmethod,G=...
2.Figureofmeritofgalvanometer,k=...ampere/division

EXP3>TOVERIFYLAWSOFCOMBINATIONOFRESISTORUSINGAMETERBRIDGE.
MaterialsRequired:Meterbridge,galvanometer,onewaykey,aresistancebox,battery,jockey,two
unknownresistancewires,andconnectingwires.
Theory:TheeffectiveresistanceXsofthecombinationoftworesistorswhenconnectedinseriescan
becalculatedby:
Xs=X1+X2(i)
Theresistance(X)ofaresistorisgivenby:

(ii)
WherelisthebalancinglengthandR,theknownresistance.

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Procedure:
(i)MeasuretheunknownresistancesX1andX2separatelyusingtheprocedureexplainedin
experiment2,aftermakingthesuitableconnectionsasdoneinexperiment2.Hereyoucanfindthe
valueofunknownresistanceswithoutinterchangingtheR.B.andunknownwireinthegaps.

(ii)AfterfindingthevalueofX1andX2,connectthetwoinseriesasshowninfigure.

(iii)Proceedinthesamewayasinexperiment2.Takeatleastthreesetsofobservationsforbalance
pointlyingbetween30cmand70cm.

(iv)Calculatetheeffectiveresistancesusingequation(ii).

(vi)ComparethemeasuredvaluesofeffectiveresistancesusingMeterBridgewiththecalculated
values.

OBSERVATIONS:
1.Rangeofammeter=0...mAto...mA
2.Leastcountofammeter=...mA
3.Rangeofvoltmeter=0...Vto...V
4.Leastcountofvoltmeter=...V
5.Lengthofthewireofunknownresistance,L=...cm

RESULT:
ThevalueofunknownresistancesX1=...andX2=....
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Thevalueofeffectiveresistanceinseries:
Bycalculation=...
Byexperiment,=....
Hencethelawofcombinationofresistancesinseriesisverified.

EXP4>Tofindresistanceofagivenwireusingmeterbridgeandhencedeterminethespecific
resistanceofitsmaterial.
MaterialsRequired:Ameterbridge,galvanometer,onewaykey,aresistancebox,abatteryjockey,
unknownresistancewireabout1meterlong,screwgaugeandconnectingwires.
Theory:AmeterbridgeisthepracticalapplicationofWheatstonebridgearrangementasshownin
figurebelow.Thefourresistancesareconnectedtoeachotherasshownandifthebridgeis
inbalancedstate,i.e.,thereisnodeflectioninthegalvanometer(G),
P/Q=R/S
Wecanusethisrelationtofindtheunknownresistanceofthegivenmaterialofwire.Theunknown
resistance'X'canbefoundbyMeterbridgewhichusestheprincipleofWheatstonebridge.
Theunknownresistance'X'ofthegivenwireisobtainedbyrelation:

Andspecificresistanceofthematerialofagivenawireisobtainedby:

whered=diameterofthewireandL=lengthofwire.

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Procedure:
1.Findtheaveragediameterofthewirewithascrewgauge.Fromthis,obtainthevalueofitsradius
r.

2.Cleantheinsulationattheendsofconnectingwireswithapieceofsandpaper.Tightenallplugsof
theresistancebox(RBOX)bypressingeachplug.

3.SetupthecircuitasshowninFig.E2.1withunknownresistancewireofknownlengthingapE.

4.Next,introducesomeresistanceRinthecircuitfromtheresistancebox.BringthejockeyJin
contactwithterminalAfirstandthenwithterminalC.Notethedirectioninwhichpointerofthe
galvanometergetsdeflectedineachcase.Makesurethatjockeyremainsincontactwiththewirefor
afractionofasecond.Ifthegalvanometershowsdeflectiononbothsidesofitszeromarkforthese
twopointsofcontactofthejockey,nullpointwillbesomewhereonthewireAC.Ifitisnotso,adjust
resistanceRsothatthenullpoint
issomewhereinthemiddleofthewireAC,say,between30cmand70cm.

5.Ifthereisonesideddeflection,checkthecircuitagain,especiallyjunctions,fortheircontinuity.

6.Repeatstep4forfourdifferentvaluesofresistanceR.

7.InterchangethepositionoftheresistancesSandRandrepeatsteps4to6forthesamefive
valuesofR.WhileinterchangingSandR,ensurethatthesamelengthofwireofresistanceSisnow
inthegapF.Theinterchangetakescareofunaccountedresistanceofferedbyterminals.

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OBSERVATIONS:
1.Lengthofthewireofunknownresistance,L=...cm
2.Measurementofdiameterofwireofunknownresistance
Leastcountofthescrewgauge(L.C.)=...mm
Zeroerrorofthescrewgauge=...mm
Zerocorrectionofthescrewgauge=...mm

RESULT:
1.TheunknownresistanceofthegivenwireisfoundtobeS+S=......
2.Theresistivityofthematerialofthewireis=......m
HereSandaremeanvalues.Sandaremaximumofthe
fivevaluesoferror.

EXP5>TofindfrequencyofACmainswithhelpofasonometer.
MaterialsRequired:Sonometerwithnonmagneticwire(brasswire)stretchedoverit,stepdown
transformerof68volts,horseshoemagnet,meterscale,screwgaugeandhalfkgweights.
Theory:ThefrequencyofA.Cmainsisgivenbythefollowingformula:
n=1/2l(T/m)
Where,
l=lengthofthesonometerwirebetweenthetwobridgeswhenitisthrownintoresonant
vibrations.
T=tensionappliedtothewire.
m=massperunitlengthofthewire

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Procedure:
(i)ConnecttheprimaryofthestepdowntransformertoA.Cmains,whilethesecondarytothetwo
endsofthesonometerwire.
(ii)Thehorseshoemagnetisplacedinthemiddleofthewiresuchthatthemagneticfieldisapplied
inahorizontalplaneandatrightanglestothelengthofthewire.

(iii)HangamassM(saykg)fromoneendofthewireandadjustthedistancelbetweentwo
bridgesCandDsymmetricallywithrespecttomagnettillthewireappearstobevibratingwiththe
maximumamplitude.Notethedistancelbetweenthetwobridges.

(iv)Byincreasingthetensiononthewire,repeattheexperimentforthreeormoredifferenttensions.

(v)Takereadingswithdecreasingweight.

(vi)Measurethediameterofthewireinmutuallyperpendiculardirectionsatvariouspoints.

(vii)Notethedensityofthematerialfromthetableofconstants

OBSERVATIONS:
1.Lengthofthewire=...cm=...m
2.Massofthewire=...g=...kg
3.Massperunitlength,m=...g/cm=...kg/m
4.Accelerationduetogravity,g=...ms2

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RESULT:
1.Frequencyofacsupplyf=n/2
(i)fromcalculation...Hz
(ii)fromgraph...Hz

EXP6>TodrawIVcharacteristicscurveofaPNjunctioninforwardbiasandreversebias.

MaterialsRequired:DiodeCharacteristicsKit,PowerSupply,Ammeter(020mA),Voltmeter(020V),
ConnectingLeads.
Theory:APNjunctionisknownasSemiconductordiodeorCrystaldiode.ItisthecombinationofP
type&NtypeSemiconductor.WhichoffersNearlyzeroresistancetocurrentonforwardbiasing&
nearlyinfiniteResistancetotheflowofcurrentwheninreversebiased.
Forwardbiasing:WhenPtypesemiconductorisconnectedtothe+veterminalandNtypetove
terminalofvoltagesource.Nearlyzeroresistanceisofferedtotheflowofcurrent.
Reversebiasing:WhenPtypesemiconductorisconnectedtotheveterminalandNtypeto+ve
terminal.Nearlyzerocurrentflowinthiscondition.

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Procedure:
(1)Connecttheckt.asshowninfig.
(2)Switchonthepowersupply.
(3)Varythevalueofinputdcsupplyinsteps.
(4)Notedowntheammeter&voltmeterreadingsforeachstep.
(5)PlotthegraphofVoltageVsCurrent

OBSERVATIONS:
1.Rangeofammeter=0...mAto...mA
2.Leastcountofammeter=...mA
3.Rangeofvoltmeter=0...Vto...V
4.Leastcountofvoltmeter=...V

RESULT:
Thegraphhasbeenplottedbetweenvoltageandcurrent.

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EXP7>Todrawcharacteristicsofazenerdiodeandtodetermineitsreversebreakdownvoltage.
Theory:AZenerDiodeisconstructedforoperationinthereversebreakdownregion.Therelation
betweenIVisalmostlinearinthiscase
Vz=Vz0+IzRz,
whereRzisthedynamicresistanceofthezenerattheoperatingpoint.
Vz0isthevoltageatwhichthestraightlineapproximationoftheIVcharacteristicintersectsthe
horizontalaxis.Afterreachingacertainvoltage,calledthebreakdownvoltage,thecurrentincreases
widelyevenforasmallchangeinvoltage.However,thereisnoappreciablechangeinvoltage.So,
whenweplotthegraph,weshouldgetacurveveryneartoxaxisandalmostparalleltoitforquite
sometime.AftertheZenerpotential
Vztherewillbeasuddenchangeandthegraphwillbecomeexponential.

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Procedure:
1.Drawaneatcircuitdiagramasshowninfigure.Connectallthecomponentsbyleadsandensure
thattheZenerdiodeisreversebiased.Alsoensurethatmilliammeterisconnectedinserieswith
ZenerdiodehavingprotectiveresistanceandvoltmeterisconnectedinparallelwithZenerdiode.
Nowadjustthesliderofrheostatsothatthepowersupplyshowsminimumpotential.

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2.Switchonthepowersupplyandgraduallyincreasethepotentialdifferenceappliedacrossthe
Zenerdiodeandnotethereadingofpotentialdifferencefromvoltmeteralsonotecorresponding
valueofreversecurrentinmilliammeter.

3.Increasethevalueofappliedpotentialdifferenceinthestepsof0.5Vandreadthecorresponding
currentinmilliammetertoeachappliedpotential.

4.Continueincreasingthepotentialdifferencetillyougetasuddenincreaseinthereversecurrentin
microammeter.

5.Thereversepotentialcorrespondingtothisvalueofreverse.currentisthebreakdownorZener
voltageoftheZenerdiode.Taketheobservationsnearthebreakdownvoltagebyvaryingapplied
potentialdifferenceinthestepsof0.1V.

6.Recordalltheobservationsinthetablegiven.

7.PlotthegraphbetweenVandIasshown.

8.MarkonthegraphthevalueofBreakdownVoltageorZenerVoltageVzasshown.Takethevalue
ofV,correspondingtoI,whereitsuddenlyincreases.ThisvalueofV,iscalledZenervoltageor
BreakdownvoltageVz.

OBSERVATIONS:
Leastcountofmilliammeter=...................mA
Leastcountofvoltmeter=.......................V

RESULT:
ThecharacteristiccurveofthegivenZenerisplottedasshowninthegraph.
ThereversebreakdownvoltageofthegivenZenerDiodeisV

EXP8>TostudycharacteristicsofacommonemitterNPNorpnptransistorandtofindoutthe
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valueofcurrentandvoltagegain.
Theory:AnNPNtransistorcanbeconsideredastwodiodeswithasharedanoderegion.Intypical
operation,theemitterbasejunctionisforwardbiasedandthebasecollectorjunctionisreverse
biased.Theelectronsinthebasearecalledminoritycarriersbecausethebaseisdopedptype
whichwouldmakeholesthemajoritycarrierinthebase.Thebaseregionofthetransistormustbe
madethin,sothatcarrierscandiffuseacrossitinmuchlesstimethanthesemiconductorsminority
carrierlifetime,tominimizethepercentageofcarriersthatrecombinebeforereachingthecollector
basejunction.
=Ic/Ib

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Procedure:
Connect5Vand12VDCpowersuppliesattheirindicatedpositionfromexternalsourceor
ST2612AnalogLab.
Toplotinputcharacteristicsproceedasfollows:

1.RotateboththepotentiometerP1andP2fullyinCCW(counterclockwisedirection).

2.ConnectAmmeterbetweentestpoint2and3tomeasureinputbasecurrentIB(mA).

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3.Shortorconnecta2mmpatchcordbetweentestpoint4and5

4.Connectonevoltmeterbetweentestpoint1andgroundtomeasureinputvoltageVEBand
anothervoltmeterbetweentestpoint6andgroundtomeasureoutputvoltageVEC.

5.SwitchOnthepowersupply.

6.VarypotentiometerP2andsetavalueofoutputvoltageVECatsomeconstantvalue(1V,3V,)

7.VarythepotentiometerP1soastoincreasethevalueofinputvoltageVEBfromzeroto0.8Vin
stepandmeasurethecorrespondingvaluesofinputcurrentIBfordifferentconstantvalueofoutput
voltageVECinanobservationTable1.

8.RotatepotentiometerP1fullyinCCWdirection.

9.Repeattheprocedurefromstep6fordifferentsetsofoutputvoltageVEC.

10.PlotacurvebetweeninputvoltageVEBandinputcurrentIBasshowninfigure1usingsuitable
scalewiththehelpofobservationTablel.Thiscurveistherequiredinputcharacteristic.

OBSERVATIONS:
1.Rangeofammeter=0...mAto...mA
2.Leastcountofammeter=...mA
3.Rangeofvoltmeter=0...Vto...V
4.Leastcountofvoltmeter=...V

RESULT:
InputresistanceRin=______________
OutputresistanceRout=______________
CurrentGainbac=______________

EXP9>a)Todetermineangleofminimumdeviationforagivenprismbyplottinggraphbetween
angleofincidenceandangleofdeviation.
b)Todeterminerefractiveindexofmaterialofprism.
Requirements:Drawingboard,awhitesheetofpaper,prism,drawingpins,pencil,halfmeterscale,
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officepins,graphpaperandaprotractor.
Theory:Forangleofdeviation
=(ir)+(er)=i+eA
Atthepositionoftheprismforminimumdeviationm,thelightray
passesthroughtheprismsymmetrically,i.e.paralleltothebaseso
thatwhen
=m,i=ewhichimpliesr=r.

Therefractiveindex(n)ofthematerialoftheprismisgivenby

whereDmangleofminimumdeviationand
AndAangleofprism.

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Procedure:
1.Fixawhitesheetofpaperonadrawingboardwiththehelpofcellotapeordrawingpins.

2.DrawastraightlineXY,usingasharppencilnearlyinthemiddleandparalleltothelengthofthe
paper.

3.MarkpointsO1,O2,O3..,....onthestraightlineXYatsuitabledistancesofabout8to10cm
anddrawnormalsN1O1,N2O2,N3O3....onthesepoints(Fig.E13.2).
4.Drawstraightlines,P1O1,P2O2,P3O3,...correspondingtotheincidentraysmakinganglesof
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incidenceat35,40,45,50,...60respectivelywiththenormals,usingaprotractor.Writethe
values
oftheanglesP1O1N1,P2O2N2,P3O3N3,...onthewhitepapersheet(Fig.E13.2).

5.PlacetheprismwithitsrefractingfaceABonthelineXYwithpointO1inthemiddleofABas
showninthefigure.Drawtheboundaryoftheprismwithasharppencil.
6.FixtwoalpinsPlandQ1withsharptipsverticallyabout10cmapart,ontheincidentraylinePlQl
suchthatpinQ1isclosetopointO1.Closeoneeye(sayleft)andlookingthroughtheprism,bring
yourrighteyeinlinewiththeimagesofthepinsPlandQl.FixalpinsRlandSlabout10cmapart
verticallyonthewhitepapersheetwiththeirtipsinlinewiththetipsoftheimagesofpinsPlandQl.In
thiswaypinsR1andS1willbecomecollinear,withtheimagesofpinsP1andQ1.

7.RemovethepinsRlandSlandencircletheirpinpricksonthewhitepapersheetwiththehelpofa
sharppencil.RemovethepinsP1andQ1andencircletheirpinpricksalso.

8.Jointhepoints(orpinpricks)RlandSlwiththehelpofasharppencilandscale,toobtainthe
emergentrayRlSl.ProduceitbackwardstomeettheincidentrayPlQl(producedforward)atT1.
DrawarrowheadsonPlQlandR1S1toshowthedirectionoftherays.

9.MeasuretheangleofdeviationlandtheangleBAC(angleA)oftheprism(Fig.E13.1)witha
protractorandwritethevaluesoftheseanglesindicatedinthediagram.

10.Repeatsteps5to9fordifferentvaluesofangleofincidence(40,45,50...)andmeasurethe
correspondinganglesofdeviation2,3...withtheprotractor,andindicatethemintherespective
diagrams.

11.Recordobservationsintabularformwithproperunitsandsignificantfigures.

OBSERVATIONS:
Leastcountoftheprotractor=...............(degree)
Angleoftheprism,A=..............(degree)

RESULT:
Angleofminimumdeviation,m=......degree
Refractiveindexofthematerialn=...........

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EXP10>TocompareEMF'sof2givenprimarycellsusingpotentiometer.
Requirements:Potentiometer,battery,twoonewaykey,rheostatoflowresistance,galvanometer,
highresistancebox,fractionalresistancebox,ammeter,voltmeter,acell,jockey,connectingwires
etc.
Theory:Theinternalresistanceofacellisgivenby

E1emfofprimarycell1(Lechlanchecell),l1isthebalancinglengthforcell1
E2emfofprimarycell2(Danielcell),l2isthebalancinglengthforcell2

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Procedure:
1.Theconnectionsaremadeasshowninthecircuitdiagram.Thecircuitischeckedforoppositeside
deflections.

2.UsingDPDTswitchtheLeclanchecellisincludedinthesecondarycircuit.Thejockeyispressed
onthepotentiometerwire.

3.Thepoint(J)wherethegalvanometerwireshowsfullscaledeflectionisnoted.

4.ThebalancinglengthAJ=l1ismeasured.
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5.UsingDPDTswitchtheDanielcellisincludedinthesecondarycircuit.

6.Theabovestepsarerepeatedandthebalancinglengthl2ismeasured.

7.Byvaryingtherheostatvaluesl1,l2aremeasuredandthereadingsaretabulated.

8.Theratioofemfofthegiventwoprimarycallsarecalculatedusingtheformula

OBSERVATIONS:
BalancinglengthforLechlanchecell,
l1=..................cm.
BalancinglengthforDanielcell,
l2=......................cm.

RESULT:
EMFof2givencellsare:
E1=....................V
E2=...................V

EXP11>Todeterminetheinternalresistanceofagivenprimarycellusingpotentiometer.
Requirements:Potentiometer,battery,twoonewaykey,rheostatoflowresistance,galvanometer,
highresistancebox,fractionalresistancebox,ammeter,voltmeter,acell,jockey,connectingwires
etc.
Theory:Theinternalresistanceofacellisgivenby

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Wherelength1and2andarethebalancinglengthswithoutshunt&withshunt,respectively&Ris
theshuntresistanceinparallelwiththegivencell.

Procedure:
1.Connectdifferentelectricalcomponentsasshowninthecircuit(Fig.E5.1).Aftercheckingthe
circuitconnections,closekeyK1.

2.WithkeysK2andK3openandaprotectivehighresistancePfromtheRBOX2,findtheposition
ofthebalancepoint.Forfinalreading,shortcircuittheresistancePbyclosingthekeyK3andfindthe
balancelengthlo.
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3.TakeR=10(fromRBOX1),closethekeyK2andquicklymeasurethenewbalancelengthl.
OpenK2assoonasthishasbeendone.

4.Keepthereadingsintheammeterconstantthroughouttheaboveobservation.
5.ReducethevalueofRinequalstepsof1andforeachvalueofRobtainthebalancelengthl.

6.Attheendoftheexperiment,openkeyK2andrepeatstep2tofindloagain.

OBSERVATIONS:
lo=.....cm(inthebeginningoftheexperiment)
lo=......cm(inthebeginningoftheexperiment)
Meanlo=...cm.

RESULT:
Theinternalresistanceofthegivencellr
(i)bycalculation...
(ii)bygraph...

EXP12>Tofindfocallengthofaconcavelensusingaconvexlens.
Requirements:Anopticalbenchwithuprightsforholdinglens,mirrorandtwoneedles,twoneedles
(pins),athinconvexlens,aconvexmirror,indexneedle(maybeaknittingneedleorapencil
sharplypointedatbothends),ameterscaleandaspiritlevel.
Theory:AconvexlensL1convergesthelightraysstartingfromtheobjectABtoformarealand
invertedimageABatpositionI1[Fig.E12.2(a)].IfaconcavediverginglensL2isinsertedbetween
thelensL1andpointI1asshowninFig.E12.2(b),forconcavelensL2imageABbehavesas
virtualobject.ArealandinvertedimageABisformedatpointI2bythediverginglensL2.Thus,for
theconcavelensL2thedistancesOI1andOI2wouldbethedistancesuandv,respectively.Itis
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importanttonotethatthefocallengthofconvexlensL1mustbesmallerthanthefocallengthofthe
concavelensL2.ThesecondimageABisformedonlywhenthedistancebetweenlensL2andfirst
imageABislessthanthefocallengthofL2.
ThefocallengthoftheconcavelensL2canbecalculatedfromtherelation

Herefortheconcavelensbothdistancesuandvarepositiveandsinceuwillbefoundtobeless
thanv,fwillalwaysbenegative.

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Procedure:
1.Incase,ifthefocallengthofthegiventhinconvexlensisnotknownthenroughvalueofitsfocal
length(fL)shouldbeestimatedfirsttoensurethatitsfocallengthislessthanthatoftheconcave
lens.
2.Placetheopticalbenchonarigidplatformandusingthespiritlevel,makeithorizontalwiththe
helpoflevellingscrewsprovidedatthebaseofthebench.
3.PlacetheuprightsmountedwithpinP1(objectpin),convexlensL1,andanotherpinP2(image
pin)ontheopticalbench.YoumayputasmallpieceofpaperonimagepinP2todifferentiateitfrom
theimageofobjectpinP1[Fig.E12.2(a)].
4.CheckthecollinearityofthetipofpinP1,opticalcenterOofconvexlensL1,andthetipofimage
pinP2alongahorizontalstraightlinewhichisparalleltothelengthoftheopticalbench.Inthis
conditiontheplanesoflensandboththepinswouldbeperpendiculartotheaxisofthelens.
5.Forthedeterminationoftheindexcorrection,bringamountedpinclosetotheconcavelensL2.
Adjusttheindexneedle(asharpedgedknittingneedlewouldalsoservethepurpose)horizontally
suchthatitsoneendtouchesoneofthecurvedsurfacesofthelensandtheotherendtouchesthe
tipofthepin.Notethepositionsofthetwouprightsonthescaleprovidedontheopticalbench.The
differenceofthetwowouldgivetheobservedlengthoftheindexneedle.Theactuallengthbetween
thetipofthepinandoptical
centerOofthelensL2wouldbelengthoftheindexneedle(asmeasuredbyascale)plushalfofthe
thicknessofthelensatits
opticalcenter.Thedifferenceofthetwolengthsistheindexcorrection.(Iftheconcavelensisthinat
thecenter,itsthicknessatthecentercanbeignored).
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6.SeparatetheobjectpinP1fromtheconvexlensbyadistanceslightlygreaterthanthefocallength
fLofthelens.
7.LocateitsrealandinvertedimageatpointI1ontheothersideofthelensbyremovingtheparallax
betweentheimagepinP2andimageoftheobjectpinP1[Fig.E12.3(a)].
8.ReadthepositionsoftheuprightsholdingtheobjectpinP1,convexlensL1,andimagepinP2(i.e.
pointI1).RecordtheseobservationsinTableE12.1.
9.Fromnowon,donotchangethepositionoftheconvexlensL1andthepositionoftheobjectpin
P1.InserttheconcavelensL2inbetweentheconvexlensL1andimagepinP2.Nowtheimageof
objectpinwillshiftfurtherfromtheconvexlensL1toapointI2(say).Adjustthepositionofthe
concavelenssothatthepointI2issufficientlyawayfromthepointI1.
10.Incasetheimageformedbythecombinationofconvexandconcavelensesisnotdistinctly
visible,trytoseeitonmovingtheconcavelensnearertothepointI1andtolocatetheimageby
usingapencilheldinhand,andkeepingtheimagepinP2atpointI1asaguidetodecidewhichway
toshifttheconcavelensL2.AfterhavingseentheclearimageatpointI2andensuredthatitlies
withintherangeoftheopticalbench,moveimagepinP2tolocatetheimage(orpointI2)more
accuratelyusingthemethodofparallax[Fig.E12.3(b)].SincetheimageformingatI2isquite
enlarged,itcanbeblurred.
11.NotethepositionofuprightsholdingtheconcavelensandimagepinP2,i.e.,pointI2.Notethe
readingsintheObservationTable.
12.ChangethepositionofuprightholdingtheobjectpinP1andrepeatthesteps6to10.Takefive
setsofobservations.
OBSERVATIONS:
1.Focallengthoftheconvexlens,fL=...cm
2.Lengthoftheindexneedleasmeasuredbythescale,s=...cm
3.Thicknessofthethinconcavelens(given)atitsopticalcentre,
t=...cm
4.ActuallengthbetweentheopticalcentreOofthelensandtipofthepin,
l=s+t/2=...cm
5.Observedlengthoftheindexneedle,l
=Distancebetweenthepoleofthelensandtipofthepin
=Positionoflensuprightpositionofpinuprightonthescale
=......cm.

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RESULT:
Thefocallengthofthegivenconcavelensis(ff)=......cm.
Herefismeanvalueofthefocallength.

EXP14>Todeterminerefractiveindexofaglassslabortransparentliquidusingatraveling
microscope.
Requirements:Givenliquidorglassslab,glassbeaker,travelingmicroscope,lycopodiumpowder,
pin,etc.
Theory:Atravelingmicroscopeisanordinarymicroscopefixedonastandinsuchawaythatitmay
bemadetotravelinverticalaswellashorizontaldirectionwithoutdisturbingitsadjustedfocus.The
readingsarerecordedbymeansofmainscaleandvernierscaleofhighaccuracy(0.001cm)
attachedtotheinstrument.
Therefractiveindexofglassslaborliquidwater:

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Procedure:
1.Theleastcountofthemicroscopeisdeterminedasinthecaseofverniercalipers.
2.Asmallpinisfixedhorizontallywithwaxorcellotapeatthebottomoftheemptybeaker.Thetipof
pinisfocussedclearlyonthemicroscopeandthecorrespondingmainscalereading(MSR)and
vernierscale
coincidence(VSC)intheverticalscalearenotedinthetabularcolumn.(Reading1)
3.Thegivenliquidistakeninthebeaker.Nowthepinisapparentlyraisedthroughaheight.
Therefore,itwillbenolongerinfocus.Themicroscopeismovedupwithoutchangingtheadjusted
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focus,sothattheimageofthepinisclearlyseenthroughthemicroscope.Thecorrespondingmain
scalereading(MSR)andvernierscalecoincidence(VSC)intheverticalscalearenotedinthetabular
column.(Reading2)
4.Finally,alittlelycopodiumpowderorsawdustwhichcanfloatonliquidisscatteredonthesurface
oftheliquid.Themicroscopeisfurthermovedupwithoutchangingtheadjustedfocus,sothatthe
clearimageof
lycopodiumpowderisseenthroughthemicroscope.Thecorrespondingmainscalereading(MSR)
andvernierscalecoincidence(VSC)intheverticalscalearenotedinthetabularcolumn.(Reading3)
5.ThedifferencebetweenthisReading3andReading1givestherealdepthoftheliquid,whereas
thedifferencebetweenReading3andReading2givestheapparentdepthoftheliquid.
6.Bysubstitutingthereadingsintheformula,therefractiveindexoftheliquid(water)isdetermined.

OBSERVATIONS:
TofindLeastcountofmicroscope:
Leastcount:Valueof20MSD=.......cm
Valueof1MSD=........cm
No.ofdivisionsonthevernierscale(n)=.........
LeastCount(LC)=1/nxvalueof1MSD
=..............cm

RESULT:
Therefractiveindexofglassslaborliquidwater=........................

EXP15>Tofindfocallengthofaconvexlensbyplottingagraphbetween"uandv"or1/uand1/v.
Requirements:Anopticalbenchwiththreeuprights(centraluprightfixed,twoouteruprightswith
lateralmovement),aconvexlenswithlensholder,twoopticalneedles,(onethin,onethick)aknitting
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needleandahalfmeterscale.
Theory:Therelationbetweenu,vandfforaconvexlensis

Where,
f=focallengthofconvexlens
u=distanceofobjectneedleformopticalcenterofthelens
v=distanceofimageneedlefromopticalcenterofthelens.
TERMSANDDEFINITIONS:
1.Principalaxisofalensisthelinejoiningcenterofcurvatureofthetwosurfaces.
2.Opticalcenteristhepoint,throughwhicharaypassesundeviatedthroughthelens.
3.Principalfocusisthepointwhereraysparalleltotheprincipalaxisfocusafterpassingthroughthe
lens(convex)orappeartocomefromafterpassingthroughthelens(concave).
4.Focallengthisthedistancebetweenopticalcenteroflensandfocus.
5.Interceptsofagraph:Ifagraphcutsxaxisandyaxis,thenlengthsbetweenoriginandpointsof
interceptionareintercepts

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Procedure:
1.Obtainapproximatevalueofthefocallengthofthethinconvexlensbyfocusingtheimageofa
distantobject.ItcanbefoundbyobtainingasharpimageoftheSunoradistanttreeonascreen,
sayaplanewall,orasheetofpaperplacedontheothersideofthelensandmeasuringthedistance
betweenthelensandtheimagewithascale.Thisdistanceisaroughestimateofthefocallength,f
oftheconvexlens.
2.Placetheopticalbenchonarigidtableoronaplatform,andusingthespiritlevel,makeit
horizontalwiththehelpoflevelingscrewsprovidedatthebaseofthebench.

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3.Clamptheconvexlensonanuprightandmountitverticallyalmostneartothemiddleoftheoptical
benchsuchthatitsprincipalaxisisparalleltotheopticalbench.Inthisposition,thelenswouldlieina
planeperpendiculartotheopticalbench.
4.Forthedeterminationoftheindexcorrection,bringamountedpinclosetothelens.Adjustthe
indexneedle(asharpedgedknittingneedlewouldalsoservethepurpose)horizontallysuchthatits
oneendtouchesoneofthecurvedsurfacesofthelensandtheotherendtouchesthetipofthepin.
Notethepositionsofthetwouprightsonthescaleprovidedontheopticalbench.Thedifferenceof
thetwowouldgivetheobservedlengthoftheindexneedle.Theactuallengthbetweenthetipofthe
pinandopticalcenterOwouldbelengthoftheindexneedle(asmeasuredbyascale)plushalfof
thethicknessofthelensbecauseopticalcenterofadoubleconvexlenswithsurfacesofequal
curvatureisatitsgeometricalcenter.Thedifferenceofthetwolengthsistheindexcorrection.Find
indexcorrectionforboththepins.
5.PlacetheverticallymountedsharppinsPandP(Fig.E10.3)onleftandrighthandsidesofthe
lens
respectively.AdjustthepinsPandPsothattheheightsofthetipsofthesepinsbecomeequaltothe
heightoftheopticalcenterOofthelensfromthebaseoftheopticalbench.LetthepinP(placedon
lefthandsideofthelens)betheobjectpinandthepinP(lyingonrighthandside)betheimagepin.
Putasmallpieceofpaperononeofthepins(sayonimagepinP)todifferentiateitfromtheobject
pinP.
6.DisplacetheobjectpinP(onleftsideofthelens)toadistanceslightlylessthan2ffromtheoptical
centreOofthelens(Fig.E10.3).Locatethepositionoftherealandinvertedimageontheotherside
ofthelensabovetheimagepinP.
7.Usingthemethodofparallax,adjustthepositionoftheimagepinPsuchthattheimageofthe
objectpinPcoincideswiththeimagepinP.
8.Notetheuprightpositionoftheobjectpin,convexlensandimagepinontheopticalbenchand
recordthereadingsinanobservationtable.
9.MovetheobjectpinPclosertotheopticalcentreOofthelens(sayby2cmor3cm).Repeatthe
experimentandrecordatleastsixsetsofreadingsforvariousdistancesofobjectpinbetweenfand
2ffromthelens.

OBSERVATIONS:
1.Approximatefocallengthoftheconvexlens=...cm
2.Lengthoftheindexneedleasmeasuredbythemeterscale,
Lo=...cm
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3.Thicknessofthethinconvexlens(given),t=...cm
4.ActuallengthbetweentheopticalcenterOofthelensandtipofthepin,lo=Lo+t/2=...cm

5.Observedlengthoftheindexneedle,lo=Distancebetweenthecenterofconvexlensandtipof
theobjectpin
=Positionoflensuprightpositionofobjectpinuprightonthescale.

=...cm...cm=...cm
6.Indexcorrectionforobjectdistance,eo=lolo=cmsimilarlyforimagepin

ei=lil'i=......cm
RESULT:
Thefocallengthofthegivenconvergingthinconvexlens:

(i)ff=...cm(herefismeanvalueofthefocallength)
(ii)fromuvgraph=...cm,and
(iii)from1/u1/vgraph=....cm

Doaskifyouhaveanydoubtregardinganytopic.
Icanexplainyouthethingsbutifyouhaveadoubtregardingreadingsandmyreadingsshallgive
thebareideaandthenyoucanovercomesomesillymistakesthatyoumighthadbeenmakingang
theseverymistakedmightahvebeenhinderingyourperfectreadings.

Alltheseexperimentshavebeen:A..youcansayperfectlymatchedandcorrectedbycross
checkingfrombrialliantstudentsinmyclass.
Don'tworryaboutyourboardsexams.Justprepareforyourvivaperfectly.
25marksregardingtheperformingofthepracticalispurelypassabletotheextentof21marks.
LINKforthewholephysicspracticallabmanual:
clickheretodownloadlabmanual
Pleasedofollowmyprofileformyefforts.
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ANDTHEREAREOTHERPOSTSONMYPROFILE,THATYOUMAYLIKEORMAKEYOUR
SCHOOLDAYSASMOOTHSAILING.

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