chap-1

B.V.Ramana

August 30, 2006

Chapter

9:40

Matrices and Determinants

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Matrix means an arrangement or array Matrices
(plural of matrix) were introduced by Cayley in 1860.
A matrix A is rectangular array of m n numbers (or
functions) arranged in m horizontal lines (known as
rows) and in n vertical lines (known as columns),
denoted by Amn . These m n numbers are known
as the elements or entries of the matrix A and are
enclosed in brackets [ ], or ( ) or || ||. The order of the
matrix is m n.
When m = n, the matrix is said to be rectangular.
Row matrix (or row vector) B1n is a matrix having
only one row (and several columns), column matrix
(or column vector) Cm1 is a matrix having only one
column (and several rows). A matrix is said to be a
n-square matrix or simply square matrix if m = n.
Thus the number of rows and number of columns in
a square matrix are equal.
The elements of the matrix A are denoted by aij
and are located by the double subscript notation ij
where the rst subscript i denotes the row (position)
and the second subscript j denotes the column position. Thus capital letters are used to denote matrices,
while the corresponding small letters with double
subscript notation are used to denote the elements
(or entries). Thus A = [aij ].
Null or zero matrix denoted by 0 is a matrix with
all its elements zero.
Equality: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal
if they are of the same order and aij = bij for every
i and j . Otherwise they are unequal, denoted by
A = B.

1.2 MATRIX ALGEBRA

Sum (or difference): Cmn = Amn Bmn then C
is said to be the sum (or difference) of A and B provided cij = aij bij for i, j i.e. the elements of C
are obtained by adding (or subtracting) the corresponding elements of A and B.
Note that addition or subtraction of matrices A and
B is possible only when both A and B are of the same
order.
Submatrix of A is a matrix obtained from A after
deleting some rows or columns or both.
Scalar multiplication: For any non zero scalar k,
we have C = kA when cij = kaij i.e every element
of A is multiplied by k. Thus B is considered as B
multiplied by 1.
Properties:
1.
2.
3.
4.

A+B =B +A
commutative
A + (B C) = (A + B) C
associative
k(A + B) = kA + kB
distributive
A B = B A
not commutative

Transpose of a matrix A of order m n is denoted

by AT or A is obtained from A by interchanging the
rows and columns. Thus B = AT is of n m order
and bj i = aij for any i, j , i.e. the i, j th element of A
is placed in the j , i th location in AT .
Properties:
1. (AT )T = A
2. (kA)T = kAT
3. (A + B)T = AT + B T
1.1

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

1.2

August 30, 2006

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MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Matrix multiplication: Two matrices A and B are

said to be conformable for multiplication if the number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows
in B. Then the product of two matrices Amp and
Bpn is a matrix cmn where
cij =

p


k=1

aik bkj

for i = 1 to m and
j = 1 to n

i.e., i, j element in the product matrix C is obtained

by adding the p products obtained by multiplying
each entry of the i th row of A by the corresponding
entry of the j th column of B. Thus matrix multiplication amounts to multiplication of rows (of the rst
matrix) into columns (of the second matrix) i.e., row
by column multiplication.
p
n
n
m A p B = m C i.e. mn scalar products of the
m rows of A with n columns of B.
In the product C = AB, the matrix B is premultiplied or multiplied from the left by A; while the
matrix A is post multiplied or multiplied from the
right by B.
th

Properties:
1. (kA)B = k(AB) = A(kB) = kAB
2. A(BC) = (AB)C
3. (A + B)C = AC + BC
4. A(B + C) = AB + AC
However
5. AB = BA in general (not commutative)
6. AB = 0 does not necessarily imply that A = 0 or
B = 0 or BA = 0.
Also
7. AB = AC does not necessarily imply that
B = C, even when A = 0.
8. (AB)T = B T AT
i.e., transpose of a product is the product of the transposes.
1.3 SPECIAL SQUARE MATRICES
The elements aii of an n-square matrix are known
as diagonal elements. Trace of matrix A =

trace of A =

n


i=1

aii = sum of the diagonal elements.

Result: trace (A + B) = trace A + trace B,

trace (kA) = k trace A.
A is singular matrix if |A| = 0. A is Non-singular
matrix if |A| = 0
Upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i > j i.e.,
can have non zero entries only on and above the main
diagonal while any entry below the diagonal is zero.
Lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 for i < j . A
matrix is said to be triangular if it is either upper or
lower triangular matrix.
Diagonal matrix if any entry above or below, the
main diagonal is zero. However zero entries may be
present in the diagonal. Thus
aij = 0 for i = j
(however aii = 0, not for all i).
Scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the
diagonal entries are equal to a constant k i.e., aii = k
for every i and aij = 0 for any i and j , (i = j ).
Identity matrix denoted by I is a scalar matrix with
k = 1. Thus

1 0 0
I3 = I 3 3 = 0 1 0
0 0 1
Positive integral power of a matrix A, denoted by
An , is obtained by multiplying A by itself n times.
1.4 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES
Determinant D
1. It has a numerical value

2. It can only a be square

3. It is zero when elements
of any one row (or
column) are zero
4. It is multiplied by k
if elements of any
one row (or column)
are multiplied by k
5. Its value remains unaltered by the interchange
of rows and columns.
6. Its value is D when
adjacent rows (or
columns) are interchanged.

Matrix A
It has no value. It is a symbol
representing an array of many
numbers on which algebra can
be performed.
It can be rectangular
It is zero only when all the
elements in the matrix are zero
It is multiplied by k. if all the
elements of the matrix are
multiplied by k
It gets altered (giving rise to
a new matrix) when rows and
columns are interchanged
It gets changed to a new matrix
when adjacent rows (or
columns) are interchanged.

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

August 30, 2006

9:40

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

WORKED OUT EXAMPLES

Example 1: Classify the following matrices. Also
nd the order of the matrices.

1 2 3 4
1
2 3 4 5

(a)
3 43 0 6 (b) 3 (c) [2 4 6 7 8]
7

8
10
2
4
5 6 7 9

2 3 1 0
5 0 0
0 5 3 7

(d)
(e) 7 2 0
0 0 0 10
9 8 12
0 0 0 6

k 0 0 0
5 0 0
0 k 0 0

(f) 0 6 0
(g)
0 0 k 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 k

0 0 0
(h) 0 0 0
(i) [13]
0 0 0
Solution:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)

Rectangular matrix of order 5 4

Column matrix of order 4 1
Row matrix of order 1 5
Upper triangular matrix, 4 4 (square)
Lower triangular matrix, 3 3 (square)
Diagonal matrix, 3 3 (square)
Scalar matrix, 4 4 (square)
Null or zero matrix, 3 3 (square)
1 1 matrix which identies the single entry

Example 2: Suppose matrix A has m rows and m

+ 6 columns and matrix B has n rows and 12 n
columns. If both AB and BA exists, determine the
orders of the matrices A and B.
Solution: Since Am m + 6 Bn 12 n exists, the number of columns in A must be equal to the number of
rows in B i.e. m + 6 = n or m n = 6.
Similarly Bn 12 n Am m + 6 exists,
12 n = m or m + n = 12

1.3

solving m = 3, n = 9. The order of A is 3 9 and

of B is 9 3.
Example

3: Determine
 AB
and BA if A B =
2 3
5 7
and A + B =
. Is AB = BA.
1 2
4 1


2 3
Solution: Adding A B =
=C
1 2


6 7
A+B =
= D we get
5 2




2 3
6 7
8 10
2A = C + D =
+
=
so
1 2
5 2
6 4


4 5
A=
. Then
3 2




6 7
4 5
2 2
B =DA=

=
5 2
3 2
2 0




4 5 2 2
18 8
So AB =
=
and
3 2 2 0
10 6




2 2 4 5
14 14
BA =
=
.
2 0 3 2
8 10
Note that AB = BA, in general.


11 25
Example 4: If A =
show that An =
4 9


1 + 10n 25n
using mathematical induction.
4n
1 10n
Solution: Consider A2 = A A



11 25 11 25
=
4 9
4 9



21 50 1 + 10 2
25 2
A2 =
8 19
4 2 1 10 2



11 25 21 50
3
2
Now A = A A =
4 9
8 19


31 75
=
12 29
So

1 + 10 3
25 3
.
4 3 1 10 3


1 + 10 k
25 k
. Then
Assume Ak =
4 k 1 10 k
A3 =

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

1.4
Ak+1


=


August 30, 2006

9:40

MATHEMATICAL METHODS



25k
11 25 1 + 10k
= A Ak =
4k 1 10k
4 9

11 + 10k 25 25k
4 + 4k 9 10k

1 3 5
2 2 4
B = 1 3 5 , C = 1 3 4
1 3 5
1 2 3

1 + 10(k + 1) 25(k + 1)
=
4(k + 1)
1 10(k + 1)

By mathematical induction the result follows.


8 4
Example 5:
If A =
prove that
2 2
A2 10 A + 24 I = 0.


8 4
8 4
2
Solution: A = A A =
2 2
2 2


56 40
=
.
Then
A2 10A + 24I
=
20 4


56 40
8 4
1 0
10
+ 24
20 4
2 2
0 1


56 80 + 24 40 + 40 + 0
=
20 20 + 0 4 20 + 24


0 0
=
=0
0 0
Example 6: Show that AB = AC
does not neces
1 3 2
sarily imply that B = C where A = 2 1 3 ,
4 3 1

1 4 1 0
2 1 1 2
B = 2 1 1 1 , C = 3 2 1 1
1 2 1 2
2 5 1 0
Solution: A3 3 B3 4 = D3 4

3 3 0 1
= 1 15 0 5
3 15 0 5
= A33 C34 however B = C.
Example 7: Verify that
(a) AB = BA = 0,
(b) AC = A,
(c) CA = C,
(d) ACB = CBA,
(e) (A B)2 = A2 + B 2 ,
(f) (A B)(A + B) = A2 B 2

2 3 5
where A = 1 4 5 ,
1 3 4

Solution:

2 3 5
1 3 5
(a) AB = 1 4 5 1 3 5
1 3 4
1 3 5

0 0 0
= 0 0 0 = 0
0 0 0
Similarly

1 3
BA = 1 3
1 3

0 0
= 0 0
0 0

5
2 3 5
5 1 4 5
5
1 3 4

0
0 = 0
0

Thus AB =
BA = 0

2 3 5
2 2 4
(b) AC = 1 4 5 1 3 4
1 3 4
1 2 3

2 3 5
= 1 4 5 = A
1 3 4

2 2 4
2 3 5
(c) CA = 1 3 4 1 4 5
1 2 3
1 3 4

2 2 4
= 1 3 4 = C
1 2 3
(d) ACB = (AC)B = (A)B = AB = 0
CBA = C(BA) = C 0 = 0
(e) (A B)2 = A2 AB BA + B 2 = A2 + B 2
since AB = BA = 0
(f) (A B)(A + B) = A2 BA + AB B 2 =
A2 B 2 since AB = BA = 0
Example 8: Prove that (a) trace (A + B) = trace A
+ trace B (b) trace (kA) = k trace A.
n

Solution: (a) Trace (A + B) =
(aii + bii )
=

aii +

i=1

bii = trace A + trace B

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

August 30, 2006

9:40

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

1.5

n


4 6 2
(kaii ) = k
aii = k trace A
C = 0 3 2
i=1
i=1

5 2 1
7 2 3
Example 9: Express A = 7 1 5 as the
nd (a) A + B, (b) A B, (c) 3B, (d) verify
3 7 4
A + (B C) = (A + B) C, (e) Find D such
product of LU where L and U are lower and upper
that C + D = B, (f) AB, (g) BA, (h) Is AB =
triangular matrices (known as LU-decomposition or
BA, (i) AC, (j) verify A(B + C) = AB + AC
Factorization).
(k) Is AB = AC, (l) Is AC = CA

Solution: Let the lower triangular matrix be

5 2 1

l11 0 0
u11 u12 u13
Ans. (a) A + B = 9 2 7
L = l21 l22 0 while U = 0 u22 u23
5 1 7
0 0 u33
l31 l32 l33

1 6 5
be the upper triangular matrix. Then
(b) A B = 1 2 3

5 2 1
1 1 1
A = 7 1 5 = LU

9 12 6
3 7 4
(c) 3B = 12 6 15

l11 0 0
u11 u12 u13
6 0 9
l21 l22 0 0 u22 u23

1 10 0
0 0 u33
l31 l32 l33
(e) Hint: B C = +4 1 3 = D
Equating the corresponding component on both
5
2 0
sides, we have l11 u11 = 5, l11 u12 = 2, l11 u13 = 1,

l21 u11 = 7, l21 u12 + l22 u22 = 1, l21 u13 + l22 u23 =
8 4 5
5, l31 u11 = 3, l31 u12 + l32 u22 = 7, l31 u13 + l32 u23
(f) AB = 19 20 16
+l33 u33 = 4.
13 14 13

Since there are 12 unknowns and 9 equations only,

8 4 9
to get a unique solution, assume that
(g) BA = 33 3 12
l11 = l22 = l33 = 1
13 1 9
Now u11 = 5, u12 = 2, u13 = 1. Then l21 = u7 =
11


(h) No. In general AB = BA
7
, u22 = (1 l21 u12 )/ l22 1 75 (2) 1 = 19
, u23
5
5



13 24 1
= (5 l21 u13 )/ l22 = 5 75 1 = 32
,
l
=
31
5
3
(i) AC = 34 26 16
= 35 .
u11
40 12 16
327
Similarly l32 = 41
,
u
=
.
Thus
A
=
LU
=

33
19

19
7 2 4
5 2
1
1 0 0
(j) Hint: B + C = 4 5 7
7 1 0 0 19 32
5
5
5
9 2 6
3 41
327
1
0 0 19
5 19

44 6
8
1.5 MATRICES
(l) No (j) Hint: CA = 21 2 14 , No
13 11 13
EXERCISE
AC = CA
(b) Trace (kA) =

n

2 2 3
3 4 2
1. If A = 5 0 2 , B = 4 2 5 ,
3 1 4
2 0 3

2. Determine the orders of the matrices A having m

rows and m + 5 columns and B having n rows
and 11 n columns if both AB and BA exist.

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

1.6

August 30, 2006

9:40

MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Ans. A38 ; B83

3. Compute
the
that A + B

product AB,BA given

1 1
3 1
=
and A B =
. Is BA = AB
3 0
1 4




2 2
4 2
Ans. AB =
, BA =
, No
0 6
2 4




2 0
1 1
Hint: A =
,B =
2 2
1 2



3 0
1 7
(b) B T =
1 1
5 2


4 7
(c) (A + B)T =
6 3


2 7
(d) (A B)T =
4 1


4 7
(e) AT + B T =
(g) True
6 3

Ans. (a) AT =

4. State why in general (a) (A B)2 = A2

2AB + B 2 (b) A2 B 2 = (A B)(A + B)
(c) Verify the results (a) and (b) for A and B in
the above problem 3.
Ans. Since AB = BA in general.

1 2 2
5. If A = 0 2 1 , verify that A3 5A2 +
1 2 2
8A 4I = 0
10.


cos sin
6. If A =
show that An =
sin cos


cos n sin n
by using mathematical
sin n cos n
Ans.
induction.
7. Is AB = BA given that

1 3 0
2 3 4
A = 1 2 1 , B = 1 2 3
0 0 2
1 1 2

2
3

Hint: |A| = 3x 211x +6

= (x 3) x 23 = 0




3 1
1 5
9. If A =
,B=
then nd (a) AT (b)
0 1
7 2
B T (c) (A + B)T (d) (A B)T (e) AT + B T
(f) AT B T (g) Verify (A + B)T = AT + B T
(h) Is (A B)T = AT B T (i) (AB)T (j) B T AT
(k) Verify that (AB)T = B T AT

(k) True

3 5 2
Express A = 0 8 2 as product LU where L
6 2 8
and U are lower and upper triangular matrices.

1 0 0
3 5 2
L = 0 1 0 , U = 0 8 2
2 1 1
0 0 6

1.6 DETERMINANTS

8. Determine the values of x for which the matrix A

1 2x 3x
is nonsingular where A = 1 1 2
x 3 0
Ans. A is nonsingular for any x other than 3 and

(h) (A B)T = AT B T


10 7
(i) (AB)T =
17 2


10 7
(j) B T AT =
17 2

Although determinants are inefcient in practical

computations, they are useful in vector algebra,
differential equations and eigenvalue problems. A
determinant is a scalar (numerical value) associated
with only square matrix A = [aij ] and is denoted as
determinant of A or det A or |A|. Thus a determinant
is a scalar-valued function whose domain is a set of
square matrices. A determinant of an n n square
matrix A is a scalar given by


 a11 a12 . . . a1n 


 a21 a22 . . . a2n 


(1)
D = det A =  .


 ..


 an1 an2 . . . ann 
The determinant D is said to be of order n and contains n2 elements or quantities (which may be numbers or functions), arranged in n rows and n columns.

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

August 30, 2006

9:40

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

The principal diagonal of the determinant is the sloping line of elements from left top corner a11 to ann .
Note that in the matrix representation the elements
aij are enclosed between brackets [ ] or ( ) or || ||,
whereas in the determinant the elements are enclosed
between vertical lines or bars | |. For n = 2, the second
order determinant is dened by


a a 
D = detA =  11 12  = a11 a22 a21 a12 . (2)
a21 a2
i.e. second order determinant = difference between
the product of elements of principal diagonal and the
product of the elements of the other diagonal.
For n = 1,
D = det[a11 ] = [a11 ] = a11
Note: Here vertical bars does not denote absolute
value. Thus det [5] = | 5| = 5
Minor of an element aij of a matrix A, denoted by
Mij , is an (n 1) order determinant of the submatrix
of A obtained by omitting the ith row and j th column
in A.
Cofactor of an element aij of a matrix A, denoted
by Cij , is a signed minor of aij
Cij = (1)i+j Mij

i.e.

Laplace Expansion
Laplace Expansion is the expansion of determinant
in terms of the cofactors. For n 2
D=

aij Cij = ai1 Ci1 + ai2 Ci2 + + ain Cin

j =1

(row wise for any i = 1, 2, . . . or n)

(3)

or
D=

n


i=1

aij Cij = a1j C1j +a2j C2j + +anj Cnj (4)

(column wise for any j = 1, 2, . . . or n).

Thus the value of a determinant is the sum of the
products of elements of any row (or column) and
their respective cofactors. However sum of products
formed by multiplying the elements of a row (or col-

1.7

umn) of A by the corresponding cofactors of another

n


aik Cj k = ij |A|
row (or column) of A is zero i.e.
or

n


k=1

k=1

akj Cki = ij |A|. Here ij is the Kronecker

delta. So it is convenient to choose the row or column

in the determinant with zeros in it, since these terms
in the expansion will vanish. The expansion of D by
(3) or (4) involves n! determinants since D is dened
in terms of n determinants of order (n 1), each of
which is in turn dened in terms of (n 1) determinants of order (n 2) and then (n 2) determinants
of order (n 3) and so on. As the number of calculations of an nth order determinant is N (n) en!, even
for n = 25, computing time is 4 1019 sec s  1012
years. However with the use of several properties of
determinants which are listed below, the determinant
can be triangularized. In this case, the number of cal3
culations N (n) 2n3 . For n = 25, computation time
is 0.01 second (against 1012 years which is incredible!)
Properties of Determinants
1. If all the elements of any one row (or column) are
zero, then det A = 0.
2. If any two rows (or columns) are proportional to
each other, then det A = 0.
3. If any row (or column) is a linear combination of
other rows (or columns), then det A = 0.
4. If all the elements of any row or column are multiplied by k, giving rise to a new matrix B, then
det B = k det A.
5. If B = kA then det B = det (kA) = k n det A.
6. det (AT ) = det (A).
7. In general, det (A + B) = det (A) +
det (B) i.e. determinant ( ) is not linear.
8. If any two rows (or columns) of A are interchanged, yielding a new matrix B then
det B = det A.
9. If k times the elements of any row (or column) in
A are added to the corresponding elements of any
row (or column) in A, giving rise to a new matrix
B, then det B = det A. This operation is written
symbolically as

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B.V.Ramana

1.8

August 30, 2006

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MATHEMATICAL METHODS
ri ri + k rj

i.e., elements of j th row multiplied by k are added

to the corresponding elements of the ith row. Here
the ith row gets modied. Similarly
ci ci + k cj

10. If A is a (upper or lower) triangular matrix or

diagonal matrix then
det A = a11 a22 ann

i.e. value of the determinant is the product of the

diagonal elements.
11. If each element of a row (or column) consists of
m terms (two: binomials, three: trinomial etc),
then the determinant is expressed as the sum of
m determinants. Suppose any row (or column)
of A is a binomial say a = b + c then

by row, row by column, column by row or column

by column.
14. Derivative of a Determinant
If the elements aij of a matrix A are differentiable
functions of a parameter t, then the derivative of
the determinant A equals to sum of n determinants
obtained by replacing in all possible ways the elements of one row (or column) of |A| by their derivatives wrt t, i.e.
 

 da11 da1n   a11 a1n 
 da

 dt
dt 
 a21 a2n   21 da2n 
  dt

dt 
d
(det A) =  .
+  .
+
dt
  ..

 ..
 


 an1 ann   an1 ann 


 a11 a1n 


 ..

 .

+ + 

 an1, 1 an+1, n 


 dan1 dann 

det A|a = det A|b + det A|c .

Here A|a is the original matrix, A|b is the matrix

obtained from the original matrix A|a by replacing
a by b and similarly A|c by replacing a by c.
Extending this, if the elements of say three rows
(or columns) consists of m, n, p terms respectively
then the original determinants can be expressed as
the sum of m n p determinants as stated above.
Product of Determinants
12. For any n n matrices A and B
det (AB) = det (BA) = det A det B
Note: If A is singular, then AB is also singular so
det A = 0, det AB = 0. Thus 0 = 0
13. If C = det A det B, then the i, j th element of C
is obtained by multiplying the ith row (or column)
of A with j th column (or row) of B. Note that in
matrix multiplication i, j th element is obtained
by multiplying the ith row of A with j th column
of B. Whereas in determinant multiplication, ij th
element is obtained either by multiplying (ith row
of A with j th column of B) or (ith row of A with
j th row of B) or (ith column of A with j th column
of B) or (ith column of A with j th row of B). Thus,
in determinant multiplication we can multiply row

dt

dt

15. Factor Theorem

Consider an nth order functional determinant A in
which the elements aij are functions of x. Suppose
for x = x , any two rows (or columns) of A become
equal, then det A = 0. Then det A must contain
a factor (x x ). Suppose for x = x , k rows (or
columns) become identical then det A = 0. So consequently det A must contain a factor (x x )k1 .
16. Singular
A matrix A is said to be singular if |A| = 0, otherwise
A is said to be nonsingular i.e., determinant of A is
non zero (|A| = 0).

WORKED OUT EXAMPLES

Example 1:

Find all the cofactors and evaluate



 2 3 


A=
4 5 

Solution: C11 = cofactor of 2 = 5,

C12 = cofactor of 3 = 4,
C21 = cofactor of 4 = 3,

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

August 30, 2006

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MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

C22 = cofactor of 5 = 2
By Laplace expansion about the rst row,
|A| = 2 C11 + 3 C12 = 2(5) + 3(4)
= 10 + 12 = 2
By Laplace expansion about the second row
|A| = 4 C21 + 5 C22 = 4 (3) + 5 (2)
= 12 10 = 2
Similarly about rst column
|A| = (2)(5) 4(3) = 10 + 12 = 2
About 2nd column, |A| = 3(+4) + 5(2) = 2
Example 2: Find the minors M21 , M13 , cofactors
C22 , C32 and evaluate the determinant


 12 27 12 


|A| =  28 18 24 
 70 15 40 
Solution: M21



 27 12 


= minor of 28 = 
15 40 

= 1080 180 = 900



 28 18 
 = 840
M13 = Minor of 12 = 
70 15 



 12 12 

C22 = cofactor of 18 = (1)2+2 M22 = 
70 40 
= 360


 12 12 
3+2


C32 = cofactor of 15 = (1) M32 = 
28 24 
= (48) = 48. Expanding the determinant by element of rst row, we have
|A| = 12(18 40 15 24) 27(28 40 70 24)
+12(28 15 70 18)
= 12(360) 27(560) + 12(840) = 4320 +
15120 11080
= 9360
Example 3:
where

Solution:

Evaluate |A|

1 2 3

2 1 4
|A| = 
3 4 2
4 3 1

by triangularization

4 
3 
1 
2

R2 R2 2 R1 , R3 R3 3 R1 ,

1.9

R4 R4 4 R1


1 2
3
4 

 0 3 2 5 

|A| 

 0 2 7 11 
 0 5 11 14 
Expanding by rst column and taking minus from
the three rows,


3 2 5


|A| = (1)  2 7 11  R2 R2 R1


 5 11 14 
 3 2 5


= (1)  1 5 6 
 5 11 14 


 0 17 23 


R1 R1 + 3R2
= (1)  1 5 6 
R3 R3 + 5R2
 0 36 44 
Expanding by rst column
|A| = (1) (1)(1)[17 44 23 36]
|A| = [748 828] = 80
Example 4:

0

0

0
A = 
0
0

6
Solution:
we get

Evaluate
0
0
0
0
5
5

0
0
0
4
4
4

0
0
3
3
3
3


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1

0
2
2
2
2
2

Interchanging all the rows and columns


1

1

1
|A| = |B| = 
1
1

1

0
2
2
2
2
2

0
0
3
3
3
3

0
0
0
4
4
4

0
0
0
0
5
5


0 
0 
0 
= (1234 56)
0 
0  = 720
6

since B is an lower triangular matrix.



 1 15 14 4 


 12 6 7 9 

Example 5: Find the value of 

 8 10 11 5 
 13 3 2 16 

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B.V.Ramana

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MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Solution: R3 R3 R2 , R4 R4 R1


 1 15 14 4 


 12
6
7 9 

=
4
4 4 
 4
 12 12 12 12 
Taking 4from 3rd row and 12 from 4th row,
 1 15 14 4 


 12 6 7 9 
;
= 4 12 

 1 1 1 1 
 1 1 1 1 


 1 15 14 4 


 12 6 7 9 

R4 R4 + R1 = 48 

 1 1 1 1 
 0 0 0 0
= 48 0 = 0
since all the entries of the 4th row are zero.


 a + 2b a + 4b a + 6b 


Example 6: Evaluate  a + 3b a + 5b a + 7b 
 a + 4b a + 6b a + 8b 
Solution:
Performing R3 R3 R2 , R1
R

R
,
2
1

 a + 2b a + 4b a + 6b 


 b
b
b  = 0 since the last two row

 2b
2b
2b 
are proportional.
Example 7: Evaluate the nth order determinant

a

b

& = 
b

b

b
a

b
b

b
b

a
b


b 
b 

b 
a 

Solution: Adding all the (n 1) columns to the rst

column,

 a + (n 1)b b

 a + (n 1)b a

& =  a + (n 1)b b



 a + (n 1)b b


b 
b 
b 

a


 1 b

 1 a

= a + (n 1)b  1 b


 1 b


b b 
b b 
a b 

b a

when a = b, R1 = R2 = R3 = = Rn i.e. all the n

rows are identical and so determinant & vanish. Thus
by factor theorem, (a b)n1 is factor of &. Thus &
= (a b)n1 [a + (n 1)b].


a + b b + c c + a 


Example 8: Show that  b + c c + a a + b 
c + a a + b b + c


a b c 


= 2  b c a 
c a b
Solution: Here the 3 rows contains binomials. So
the given determinant can be expressed as the sum
of 2 2 2 = 8 determinants as follows.
 

a + b b + c c + a  a b + c
 

b + c c + a a + b = b c + a
 

c + a a + b b + c c a + b


b b + c c + a 


+  c c + a a + b 
a a + b b + c 
 
 

a b c + a  a c c + a  b
 
 

=  b c a + b  +  b a a + b  +  c
 c a b + c   c b b + c  a


b c c + a 


+  c a a + b 
a b b + c 


c + a 
a + b  +
b + c


b c + a 
c a + b  +
a b + c

In this the 3rd determinant is zero because the 1st

and 2nd columns are identical. Then
 

a b c  a b
 

=  b c a  +  b c
c a b c a
 

a c a  b
 

+  b a b  +  c
 c b c  a

 
a   a c
b  +  b a
c c b
 
c c   b
a a  +  c
b b a


 

a b c  b c a 

 

=  b c a  +  c a b 
 c a b  a b c 


c 
a  +
b


c a 
a b 
b c

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MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Since in these 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th determinants are zero

because of identical columns.




a b c 
a b c 




=  b c a  + (1)(1)  b c a 
c a b
c a b


a b c 


= 2  b c a 
c a b
Example 9: Prove that for the nth order determinant & where


 1 + a1
a2
a3
an 

 a1
1 + a2
a3
an 

 a1
a2
1 + a3 an 
&=

 ..
..

 .
.


 a1
a2
a3
1 + an 
= 1 + a1 + a2 + + an .
Solution:
Performing R2 R2 R1 , R3
R3 R1 , . . . , Rn Rn R1 (i.e. subtracting the
rst row from the remaining (n 1) rows) we get

...
an 
...
0 
...
0 
...
0 
...

... 0 1 


 1 + a1 a2 a3 a4

 1
1 0 0

 1
0
1 0
& = 
1
0
0
1

 ...
...

 1
0 0 0

Adding C2 , C3 , . . . , Cn columns to the rst column

C1 i.e. C1 C1 + C2 + C3 + + Cn , we have

 1 + a1 + a2 + + an


0


0
&=

..

.


0

a2
1
0
..
.
0


a3 a4 . . . a n 

0 0 . . . 0 
1 0 . . . 0 



0 0 ... 1 

Since this is an upper triangular matrix, & = product

of the diagonal elements.
& = (1 + a1 + a2 + + an ) 1 1 . . . 1
Example 10: Solve the following equation


a x
c
b 

bx
a  = 0
& = |A| =  c
 b
a
c x

1.11

or for what value of x, & is zero (i.e., matrix A is

singular).
Solution: Adding C2 , C3 columns to the rst column C1 , i.e, C1 C1 + C2 + C3 we have


a x + c + b
c
b 

a 
& =  c + b x + a b x
b + a + c x
a
c x


1
c
b 

a 
= (a + b + c x)  1 b x
1 a
c x
performing R2 R2 R1 , R3 R3 R1 we get
1

c
b



& = (a + b + c x)  0 b x c a b 
0 a c c x b
= (a + b + c x) 1 [(b x c)(c x b)
(a c)(a b)].
= (a + b + c x) (x 2 a 2 b2 c2 +
+ ab + bc + ca).
Thus & = 0 when x = a + b + c or

x = a 2 + b2 + c2 ab bc ca
Example 11: Compute the product directly (a)
Row by column (b) Row by row (c) Column by column (d) Column by row (e) By individually, calculating the
where

 determinants


 1 1 1 
 2 1 1 




A =  2 1 3 , B =  3 1 0 
1 0 1
 1 2 4 
Solution: Product of the determinants
(a) Row by column

 


 1 1 1   2 1 1   2 0 3 



 
AB =  2 1 3   3 1 0  =  4 9 14  = 39
 1 0 1   1 2 4   3 3 5 
(b) Row by row


 

 1 1 1   2 1 1   2 4 3 


 

AB =  2 1 3   3 1 0  =  0 7 12  = 39
 1 0 1   1 2 4   1 3 3 
(c) Column
by column


 

 1 1 1   2 1 1   3 5 5 


 

AB =  2 1 3   3 1 0  =  1 2 1  = 39
 1 0 1   1 2 4   10 4 3 

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MATHEMATICAL METHODS

(d) Column by row



 

 1 1 1   2 1 1   1 5 7 


 

AB =  2 1 3   3 1 0  =  1 4 1  = 39
 1 0 1   1 2 4   6 0 11 

Expanding the determinant

|A| = (3 x)[(4 x)(1 x) + 4]
2[2(1 x) + 2) + 2[8 + 2(4 x)]

(e) A = 3, B = 13, so AB = (3)(13) = 39

Example 12: Find the derivative of the determinant
wrt x (a) using formula (b) by differentiating the
value of the (expanded) determinant wrt x.
d
dx



x
1
2 
 2
3
 x 2x + 1
x 

 0 3x 2 x 2 + 1 

Solution: (a) By formula, the derivative = sum of

3 determinants where the 1st, 2nd, 3rd rows are differentiated respectively wrt x. Thus
d
dx


 

x
1
2   1
0
0 
 2
 x 2x + 1
x 3  =  x 2 2x + 1
x 3  +

 0 3x 2 x 2 + 1   0 3x 2 x 2 + 1 
 


x
1
2   x
1
2 

2
3x 2  +  x 2 2x + 1 x 3 
+  2x
 0 3x 2 x 2 + 1   0
3
2x 

= [(2x + 1)(x 2 + 1) x 3 (3x 2)] + [x 2 (x 2 + 1)

3x 2 (3x 2) 1(2x(x 2 + 1) 0)+
+ 2(2x(3x 2))] + [x((2x + 1)2x 3x 3 )
x 2 (2x 6)] = 1 6x + 21x 2 + 12x 3 15x 4 .
(b) Expanding the given determinant
x[(2x + 1)(x + 1) x (3x 2)]
2

1[x 2 (x 2 + 1) 0]

+ 2[x 2 (3x 2) 0]

= 3x 5 + 3x 4 + 7x 3 3x 2 + x.
d
d
of determinant = dx
So dx
(3x 5 + 3x 4 + 7x 3
3x 2 + x) = 15x 4 + 12x 3 + 21x 2 6x + 1.

Example 13: Determine the values of x for which

matrix A is non singular given

3x
2
2
1
A= 2 4x
2
4 1 x
Solution:



3 x
2
2 

1 
|A| = det A =  2 4 x
 2
4 1 x 

= x(x 2 6x 9) = x(x 3)2

Then |A| = 0 when x = 0 or 3. Thus matrix A is non
singular i.e. |A| = 0 for any x other than zero and 3.
EXERCISE
1. Evaluate
the
determinants

 following


 4 8
 cos sin 
 (b) 

(a) 
 sin cos 
1 2 




 1 3 4 
 1 p p2 




(c)  3 4 1  (d)  1 q q 2 
 4 1 3 
1 r r2 


 
 0 1 2 3 1 1 1 1


 
 1 0 1 2   1 2 3 4 




(e) 
 (f) 

 2 1 0 3   1 3 6 10 
 3 2 3 0   1 4 10 20 
Ans. (a) 16 (b) 1 (c) 126
(d) qr(r q) + rp(p r) + pq(q p) (e) 4
(f) 1
2. Evaluate the determinants using triangularization.


 1 2 3 2 2  


 

 2 1 1 3 2   1 2 3 4 

  2 1 4 3 

(a)  1 1 2 1 1  (b) 

 1 4 3 2 5   2 3 4 5 

  3 4 5 6 
 3 2 2 2 2 




 21 17 7 10 
3 2 2 2




 24 22 6 10 
2 3 2 2




(c) 
 (d)  2 2 3 2 
 6 8 2 3


 6 7 1 2
2 2 2 3
Ans. (a) 118 (b) 304 (c) 0 (d) 9
3. Determine the values of x for which the determinant is zero


 x + 2 2x + 3 3x + 4 


(a)  2x + 3 3x + 4 4x + 5 
 3x + 5 5x + 8 10x + 17 

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B.V.Ramana

August 30, 2006

9:40

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS



1 + x
2
3
4 

 1 2+x
3
4 
(b) 
2 3+x
4 
 1
 1
2
3 4 + x


 x + 1 2x + 1 3x + 1 


4x + 3 6x + 3 
(c)  2x
 4x + 1 6x + 4 8x + 4 

n(n1)

(f) (1) 2 where = product of factors

(xi xj ) with i < j ( n).
Hint: At x1 = x2 , x3 , . . . , xn , the & = 0 so
(x1 x2 )(x1 x3 ) (x1 xn ) are factors of
&. Similarly at x2 = x3 , x4 , xn , the & = 0
so (x2 x3 )(x2 x4 ) (x2 xn ) are factors
of & and so on. At xn1 = xn , the & = 0, so
(xn1 xn ) is a factor of &. Compare the principal diagonal term to get the value of the constant coefcient.


1 + a
1
1
1 

 1 1+b 1
1 
5. Prove that 
=
1 1+c
1 
 1
 1
1
1 1+d


1
1
1
1
abcd 1 + a + b + c + d

Ans. (a) x = 1, 1, 2 (b) x = 0, 10

(c) x = 0, 21
4. Find the value of the determinant




 a b c d
1 a b + c 




 a b c d 

(a)  1 b c + a  (b) 

1 c a + b
 a b c d 
 a b c d 




 1 a a2 a3 
 1 a a2 




 1 b b2 b3 
2



(c)  1 b b  (d) 
2
3
 1 c c2 
 1 c c2 c3 
1 d d d 

x12 . . .

  1 x1
 1 a a 2 a 3  
1 x2
x22 . . .


 1 b b2 b3   .

(e) 
2 3  (f)  ..
 1 c c 2 c 3  
2
 1 d d d   1 xn1 xn1
...
2
1 x
x
...
n
n

1.13


x1n1 
x2n1 



n1 
xn1

xnn1 

Ans. (a) 0 Hint: C3 C3 + C2 , take (a + b + c)

common)
(b) 8 abcd
(Hint: R2 + R1 , R3 + R1 , R4 + R1 , diagonal,
product of diagonal elements)
(c) (a b)(b c)(c a)
(Hint: a = b, a = c, b = c, & = 0. Assume
& = L(a b)(bc)(ca), determine constant
L = 1 by comparing the diagonal element)
(d) (a b)(a c)(a d)(bc)(b d)(c d)
(e)
(a b)(a c)(a d)(b c)(b d)
(c d)(a + b + c + d)
Hint: By Factor Theorem & = L(a
b)(a c)(a d)(b c)(b d)(c d) since at
a = b, a = c, a = d, b = c, b = d, c = d, the
determinant is zero. Since principal diagonal is
bc2 d 4 is of 7th degree, introduce a linear factor
(a + b + c + d), then determine L = 1.

Hint: Take a, b, c, d common from

R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 . Add R2 , R3 , R4 to R1 ,
take common 1 + a1 + b1 + 1c + d1 , subtract C1
from C2 , C3 , C4 .
 2

 a + x ab
ac
ad 

 ab b2 + x bc
bd 
6. Evaluate 
2
bc c + x
cd 
 ac
 ad
bd
cd d 2 + x 
Ans. x 3 (a 2 + b2 + c2 + d 2 + x)
Hint: Divide by abcd, multiply C1 , C2 , C3 , C4
by a, b, c, d. Take a, b, c, d common from
R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 . Add C2 , C3 , C4 to C1 , subtract
R1 from R2 , R3 , R4


 (b + c)2
a2
a 2 

(c + a)2
b2 
7. Find  b2
2
2
 c
c
(a + b)2 
Ans. 2abc(a + b + c)3
Hint: a, b, c, are factors (i.e. & = 0 when a =
0) (a + b + c)2 is factor since 3 columns are
equal, when a + b + c = 0. Principal diagonal
6th degree so (a + b + c) is also a factor.


a + b c
c 

b + c a  = 4abc
8. Show that  a
 b
b c + a
Hint: Expand into 8 determinants

chap-1

B.V.Ramana

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August 30, 2006

9:40

MATHEMATICAL METHODS

9.  Show that


 a b a b 


 b a b a 
2
2
2
2


 c d c d  = 4(a + b )(c + d )


d c
d
c 

Hint: Add C1 to C3 , C2 to C4 . Take 2 2 = 4

common. Then subtract C3 from C1 , C4 from
C2 expand


 2b1 + c1 c1 + 3a1 2a1 + 3b1 


10. Show that  2b2 + c2 c2 + 3a2 2a2 + 3b2 
 2b3 + c3 c3 + 3a3 2a3 + 3b3 


 a1 b1 c1 


= 31  a2 b2 c2 
 a3 b3 c3 
Hint: Expand into 8 determinants, 27D + 4D,
remaining six determinants are zeros
11. Findthe product
 of the
 determinants

 2 1 1 
1 3 4




 3 1 0  and  2 1 0 




 1 2 4 
0 1 3
Ans. (13)(13) = 169


 1

2 1 1




 2 0 1 



12. If A =  1 2 1 , B =  1 0 1 . Then com 0 1 0 
 1 2 3
2
pute 15A 2AB B 2 without calculating A
and B independently
Ans. 15 1 2 1 1 = 12



2 1 1 2 1 1




Hint: A2 =  1 2 1   1 2 1 
 0 1 0   0 1 0 


 6 5 1 


=  5 6 2  = 1
 1 2 1 



 0 1 7 




Similarly AB =  21 0 8  = 1,


 0 0 2 


 5 3 5 


B 2 = 41  3 2 2  = 1
 5 2 14 
 2

x
x 3 

13. Find the derivatives of 
2x 3x + 1 
Ans. 2x + 9x 2 8x 3

 2

x x + 1 3 


14. Find the derivative of  1 2x 1 x 3 
0
x
2 

Ans. 5 + 4x 12x 2 6x 5
 2

 b + ac bc c2





2ac bc
15. Evaluate  ab

2
 a2
ab b + ac 
Ans. 4a 2 b2 c2



 b c 0 2


Hint: |A| =  a 0 c 
0 a b

16. Obtain
equations.
 all solutions of the following

 1

3
x


(a)  2x 3 1 x 3x + 1  = 9x 28
 2
x
2 


 1 x x + 2 x 2 100 


 0 x x 2 x + 2 100 


(b)  0 0 x + 2 x 2 100  = 0
0 0
0 x 2 x + 2 

0 0
0
0 100 
Ans. (a) x = 1, 3i (b) x = 0, 2