Unit 1 Heat and TemperatureThe Nature of Heat is a programed self-instructional course for refinery operators. This unit, “Heat and Temperature,” intro- duces heat as a form of energy, describes its effects on the phases of matter, introduces the differences between amount of heat and intensity of heat, and describes heat of transformation, Evaporation, pressure considerations, super heat, specific heat, the thermal properties of refinery products, and temperature measurements and expansion are also described.INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask, Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in thousandths of an inch. A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very differences in size. Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED ANVIL THIMBLE SPINDLE RATCHET CAP. FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the_______and the contact the object to be measured, small anvil; spindle‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. spindle A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done: Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. Move the mask down and check the response column, Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. The Exhibit for this program is placed in the center of the book so that it may be removed easily for reference. Please remove it now so that you will have it available when needed.3. 6. SECTION ONE PROPERTIES OF HEAT Heat as Energy Millions of years ago, the plants of the prehistoric forests were storing the energy of the sun in the chemicals they manufactured. ‘The deposits of oil found in the earth today were formed by layer upon layer of dead plants and animals com- pressed for millions of years beneath the surface of the earth. Today, as we burn oil to heat our homes, we are releas- ing this stored energy to do work for us. With heat we can do work. We can bring about all kinds of changes. Heat, like sound, or light, or falling water, has the ability to cause change, the ability to do work. Heat is a changer. Heat can do work. We can transform heat into light, sound, electricity, and mechanical energy. So heat is considered a form of energy. ‘Today it is recognized that heat, like sound, light, and electricity, is a form of —______. Because heat is a form of energy and can be transformed into other forms of energy, it has the ability to cause change, that is, it has the ability to do It takes energy to do work. A bowling ball rolling down the alley can do work on the pins. ‘Therefore, the moving ball must possess Any moving object has the ability to do work. All moving objects possess ____ because they ean do work while they are in motion. ‘This energy possessed by all moving objects is kinetic energy. ‘The word kinetic comes from the Greek word kinetikos, which means caused by motion. Kinetic energy is simply the energy an object has because it is in . The faster an object moves, the greater the amount of work it can do. A fast ball would possess (more/less) kinetic energy than a slow curve ball. energy work energy energy motion more8% 10. ll. 12. 18. Any object in motion has kinetic energy because of its motion. And the faster the object moves, the (greater/smaller) is its kinetic energy. Heat energy, like all other forms of energy, involves a kind of motion. So, the study of energy, specifically heat energy, requires the study of —____. But, when we study heat, the motion that we are inter- ested in is not the motion of an object as a whole, but the motion of molecules (the tiny units that make up the object). Suppose you were able to break down water until you finally arrived at a piece that could no longer be divided and still be water. You would have arrived at a single of water. unit, or a—___ All the matter you see around you is composed of these tiny units called —______.. Of course molecules are too small to be seen, but if you could somehow see the molecules in the air, you would see that they are all in constant motion. They are mov- ing randomly in all directions, running into one another, changing direction, and moving on. Because they are moving, they can do work on anything they run into. Because they are moving, they possess kinetie In the study of basic mechanics, the motion of a whole object and the kinetic energy of the whole object are of primary interest. But, in the study of heat, we are interested in the kinetic energy of the tiny units, or ______, that make up the matter. Oil being pumped through a pipeline has kinetic energy because the whole mass of oil is in Oil standing motionless in a tank also has kinetic energy. But this kinetic energy is due to the constant motion of the tiny units, or ________of oil. greater motion molecule molecules energy molecules motion molecules14. 1. 16. 1. 18. 19. When a barrel of oi] is heated, the molecules of oil move faster, and thus their kinetic energy increases. If the oil is cooled, the molecules will slow down, and their kinetic energy will (decrease/increase). Heat is a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules of a substance. So, the kind of motion involved in heat energy is the motion of the _____ that compose all matter. Heat energy can be defined as the total ___ energy of the molecules that make up all matter. Even at the lowest temperatures that can be produced, the molecules that compose all matter are always in motion. Thus all matter: (circle one) A. contains some heat energy B. contains the same amount of heat energy C. will have heat energy except when it is at low temperatures Even in an ice cube, the molecules are in motion. Thus, cold as it is, the ice cube contains some States of Matter Heat energy determines the state of matter of a given substance. You are familiar with three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. These three states of matter are not permanent, but depend upon the amount of heat energy contained by a given amount of a substance. From everyday examples like melting or freezing ice cubes, you are familiar with how heat influences the state of matter. If enough heat is added to melt an ice cube, it changes from the solid state to water, which is the (solid/liquid/ gas) state. decrease ‘molecules kinetic heat energy liquid20. 21. ag. 23. 2, 25. 26. 27. If more heat were added to the liquid water, it would boil and thus change state again into steam, which is the (solid/liquid/ gaseous) state. ‘The molecules in a solid move slowly and are very strongly held together by forces acting between each molecule and its neighbor. Heating a solid makes the molecules move (faster/ slower) and thus move farther apart. When enough heat energy is added to a solid, like the ice cube, its molecules have enough energy to partially overcome the forces hélding them together. ‘Then the molecules are able to move more freely and can slide past each other-the solid changes into the (solid/ liquid/ gaseous) state. Now, if more heat energy is added to the liquid, the molecules will have enough energy to completely over- come the forces holding them together. The liquid would change into the (solid/liquid/ gaseous) state. In solids, the molecules are rigidly held together and cannot move around very freely. Thus, solids have a rigid and dejinite shape. Liquids, on the other hand, can flow into any shape because their molecules move more freely and (can/eannot) slide past each other. A liquid poured into a round container will assume the round shape. Liquids have indefinite shapes. Solids (do/do not) assume the shape of the container that holds them. Solids have (definite /indefinite) shapes. Gases are composed of free molecules that are not held together by forces between molecules. So, gases will take on any shape, depending on the shape of the container that holds them, Gases, like liquids, have (definite/indefinite) shapes. Because gases are composed of free molecules, they will completely fill any size container. If a small amount of gas is placed into a large container, the space between the gas molecules will simply increase, and the gas will completely ______ the container. gaseous faster liquid gaseous can do not definite indefinite fill29. 30. 31. 33, Beeause gases completely fill any size container, they are said to have (definite/indefinite) volumes. On the other hand, a gallon of liquid will not fill a 100- gallon tank; nor will asJ-pound ice cube fill a cold storage bin. Unlike gases, both liquids and solids have (definite/ indefinite) volumes. Complete this table for the shape and volume charae- teristics of each of the three states of matter: STATE SHAPE VOLUME SOLID | 1. definite Liquip | 8, —____ GAS 5. 4 6. indefinite Matter can be changed from one state to another by either adding heat or taking heat away. If a glass of ice water is heated very gently, the ice in the water can be melted without increasing the tempera- ture of the water. This is true because the heat energy added to the glass is used to overcome the forces that hold the molecules of the solid ice rigidly together. ‘Thus, the added heat energy is used to change the ice into the (solid/liquid/gas) state, and the temperature of the water (does/does not) increase. Since it does not cause @ measurable or visible tempera- ture change, this added heat is thought of as hidden, or latent heat. Latent heat causes a substance to change (temperature/ state). When you boil water, you know, because the water is boiling, that its temperature is 212° F. If you want the water to continue boiling, you will have to continue adding heat. Will the water temperature tise above 212° F ? (yes/no) indefinite definite 2. definite 8. indefinite 5. indefinite liquid does not state no 4. definite34, 85. 36. 37. 38. 29. 40. 41. As you continue adding heat to the boiling water, its molecules move (faster/slower). And, as the molecules gain enough energy to overcome the binding forees, the water changes state into a called steam. Since the heat energy being added to the boiling water is used to overcome the forces holding the molecules together, the temperature of the boiling water (does/ does not) rise above 212” F. Because the heat added to the boiling water (does/ does not) cause a temperature change, it is called hidden or _’_____heat. If you were to heat a sample of water, and for every quantity of heat added you could sense or measure with a thermometer the rising temperature, this heat would not be called —_ heat. Another name has been given to the heat that causes a temperature change. This heat is called sensible heat because one can ___, or measure, the temperature change it causes. ‘Thus, the heat that changes the temperature of a sub- stance is sensible heat. The heat that changes the state of a substance is ____ heat. Whenever heat is added to an object, it will do one of two things, either : a) change state or b) increase in temperature The heat that changes the state of a substance but does not increase its temperature is called ____ heat. ‘When a liquid changes to a gas, it gains (latent/sensible) heat and its temperature remains the same. faster gas, does not, does not latent latent sense latent latent latent42. 43, 44, 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. When steam begins to condense, that is, when it begins to change state back into water, it loses latent heat. So, its temperature wil (circle one) A. increase B. decrease C. remain the same Steam is a gas and therefore contains (more/less) heat energy than the boiling water. This extra heat energy is _______heat, and the temperature of the boiling water is: (circle one) A. higher than the steam B. lower than the steam C. the same as the steam When a substance changes state by freezing or condens- ing, it loses _____ heat energy; its temperature (does/does not) change. When heat is added to a substance, it will either: a, show an increase in _______ (sensible heat), or b. change from one state to another ( heat) In the same way, the loss of heat from any substance will either cause a decrease in its or a change in its state of matter. For example, enough heat added to tap water will cause the temperature of the water to inerease up to the boiling point. At the boiling point, any additional heat will cause the water to change state, and the temperature (will/will not) increase over 212” F. ‘Temperature change is caused by the heat that can be felt or sensed. When the temperature of a substance changes, it either gains or loses (latent/sensible) heat. A change of state is caused by the ‘hidden heat’ that doesn’t cause a temperature change. When a substance changes state, it either gains or loses (latent/sensible) heat. more latent latent does not temperature latent temperature will not sensible latentHeat and Temperature 50. Suppose one(1) quart of tap water (container A) is heated 61. 52. over a gas flame until it boils, i. e., until it reaches 212° F, 15 minutes If three (3) quarts of tap water (container B) are heated over the same flame, it will take a longer time to boil the three (3) quarts. The larger quantity of water was on the flame longer than the smaller quantity. Which would receive the greater amount of heat? (circle one) A. Container A (1 quart) B. Container B (3 quarts) Both water quantities were heated to the same tempera- ture, ie., up to the boiling point (212° F ). But the larger quantity of water required more heat to reach the boiling point. So, although both quantities of water ended up at the same temperature, they contained (the same/different) amounts of heat. The amount of heat energy that an object contains depends on the amount of matter present. So, ten (10) gallons of oil at 70° F would contain (more/ less) heat than five (5) gallons of oil at the same temperature. different more53. 5B. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. Which of the two quantities of gasoline would contain the most heat? (circle one) A. 1,000 gallons at a temperature of 100° F. B. 750 gallons at a temperature of 100° F. One 5-pound sample of toluene with a temperature of 50° F would contain (more/less/the same) heat as any other 5-pound sample of toluene that had the same tem- perature of 50° F. But, if one 5-pound sample had a higher temperature, it would contain more heat. The sample below which contains the most heat is: (circle one) A. 5 pounds of toluene at 60° F. B. 5 pounds of toluene at 54° F. The amount of heat that an object contains depends upon both its temperature and its mass (amount of matter). So, if two equal amounts of oil had the same temperature they would contain (different/the same) amount(s) of heat. But, if one of the two equal samples had a higher tem- perature, it would contain (more/less) heat than the sample with a lower temperature Which would contain more heat? (circle one) A. 1,000 pounds of water at 90° F. B. 1,000 pounds of water at 120° F. If two objects have the same mass (amount of matter), then the one with the higher ______________ will con- tain more heat. If two objects have the same temperature, then the one that has the greater ______ will contain (less/more) heat. Heat and temperature are not the same. The amount of heat an object contains depends upon: 1. the _______ (amount of matter) of the object, and 2, ________ of the object. the same the same more temperature mass, more mass temperatureThis center page contains the exhibit. It may be pulled out of the book for easy reference without up- setting the frame sequence.EXHIBIT 1 100°C point of water {il torte} 32°F 492°R ore 213°K freezing point of water FAHRENHEIT RANKINE ‘CENTIGRADE KELVIN61. 62. 63. 64. 66. 67. 68. Suppose two equal amounts of water are returned to two cooling towers. Which of the quantities contains the greater amount of heat? (circle one) Tower A. water at 100° F, Tower B. water at 120° F. ‘Two objects that have the same temperature but contain different amounts of heat must contain (the same/ different) amounts of matter. Suppose you found that it took five (5) minutes to boil one (1) quart of water over a gas flame. Then, to bring three (3) quarts of water to the same temperature (the boiling point) over the same flame would take minutes. This is an example of: (circle one) A. two objects with different temperatures, but the same amounts of heat B. two objects with the same temperature, but dif- ferent amounts of heat From these results, you would conclude that to reach the boiling point, the larger amount of water required (more/less) heat than the smaller amount. . The larger amount of water has a (smaller/larger) capacity for heat than the smaller amount of water. So, the amount of heat required to boil a quantity of water depends upon the amount of water present. But you can see that it would also depend upon the temperature of the water. For example, if two equal samples of water are heated to the boiling point, it would take more heat to boil: (circle one) A. the sample with a temperature of 40° F. B. the sample with a temperature of 33° F. ‘Thus, a gallon of water, standing at 50° F, would contain (more/less) heat than a gallon of water at 38° F. If both gallons were boiling, however, they would contain the same amount of heat because they have the same ——________ (212° F) and the same (amount of matter). 10 Tower B different 15 more larger more temperature, mass69. 70. m1. 12. 73. 74. The Bri ish Thermal Unit (BTU) Therefore, to define a unit for measuring heat, both mass and temperature must be specified. If two samples of a substance have the same mass, then the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of each object by a specified amount, say, 1° F should be (the same/ different). Units of heat are defined in this way: as the amount of heat that will cause a specified temperature change in a specific amount of material. ‘The British thermal unit, the BTU, is defined as the amount of heat that will increase the of 1 pound of water by 1° F. In British thermal units, then, it would take 1 BTU to increase the temperature of 1 pound of water from 50° to 51° F. To heat 10 pounds of water from 50° to 51° F, it would take 10 BTU. To heat 100 pounds of water from 50° to 51° F, it would take __ BTU. The addition of 10 BTU of heat to 1 pound of water would result in a temperature increase of _____* F, How many BTU would be required to heat 5 pounds of water from 70° F to 72° F Heat of Fusion When a solid such as ice gains enough latent heat, it melts, Another word forthis melting is fusion. If enough latent heat is added to ice, it will fuse—it will change state and become a liquid. ‘The amount of latent heat required to fuse a substance is called the heat of fusion. One (1) pound of ice at 32° F must gain 144 BTU of heat in order to fuse into liquid water. Remember, heat of fusion involves a change in state from to Therefore, heat of fusion is (latent/sensible) heat. . The heat of fusion of 1 pound of ice is 144 BTU. So, ten (10) pounds of ice would have to gain BTU to change to water. 1 the same temperature 100 10 10 solid, liquid latent 1,44076. 77. 78. 79. 80, 81. 82, 83. 84. 85. The latent heat of fusion of one (1) pound of ice is BTU; the same formula applies to the reverse change of state. To solidify into ice, ten (10) pounds of water at 32° F would have to (gain/lose) ____(how many?) BTU. If one hundred (100) pounds of water at 32° F were to solidify into ice, the water would have to lose 7 BTU of (latent/sensible) heat. ‘To melt (or fuse) the one hundred (100) pounds of ice, you would have to add ______ BTU of latent heat energy to the ice. You can see that, for a given material, the latent heat of solidification (change from liquid to solid) is (smaller than/equal to/greater than) the latent heat of fusion. When you heat water up to the boiling point, you are adding heat to the water, which is causing the tem- perature of the water to increase. This is called (latent/ sensible) heat. Water does not change automatically to steam when it reaches 212° F. It takes energy to overcome the inter- molecular forces of the liquid. And this energy that changes the state of a substance is (latent/sensible) heat energy. Heat of Vaporization To change one (1) pound of boiling water into the gas, steam, we have to add 970 BTU of heat energy. ‘This (latent/sensible) heat that causes a change in state from liquid to gas is called the heat of vaporization. If one (1) pound of water at 212° F must gain 970 BTU of heat to vaporize into steam, how many BTU of heat would one (1) pound of steam have to lose to condense into the liquid state? ‘As it condenses into water, ten (10) pounds of steam will (gain/lose) _______ BTU of heat energy. 12 144 lose, 1,440 14,400 latent 14,400 equal to sensible latent latent 970 lose, 9,70086. 87. 88. 89. Suppose you have one (1) pound of water at 82° F. Let’s see how much energy is required to change all the water to steam, Before we can begin to change the water to steam, we must heat it up to its boiling point—212° F. So, our first step will be to figure out the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of the water to 212° F. This will be (latent/sensible) heat since it causes a temperature increase. First, you will be heating the water 180° F (from 32° F to 212° F), It takes one (1) BTU to heat one (1) pound of water 1° F. So, to heat one (1) pound of water 180° F, it will take BTU. To vaporize one (1) pound of boiling water, it takes BTU, So, by adding that figure to the sensible heat required to bring the water to the boiling point (180 BTU) you get the total heat energy required to change one (1) pound of water at 32° F. to steam. That total is BTU. How much heat energy is required to melt ten (10) pounds of ice, raise the temperature of the resulting liquid to 212° F, and evaporate (vaporize) the liquid completely? a. First the heat of fusion to change ten (10) pounds of ice to water = _____ BTU. b. Second, the heat required to raise the temperature of ten (10) pounds of water by 180° F = (10 x 180) or ______ BTU. ¢. Third, the heat of vaporization for ten (10) pounds of water at 212° F =____ BTU. a TOTAL = ____ BTU. sensible 180 970 1,150 a. 1,440 b. 1,800 ¢. 9,700 d. 12,94090. 91. 92. 93. 94, 95. 96. SECTION TWO WHAT HEAT DOES Evaporation ‘The molecules in a stream of water are in constant motion, moving randomly in all directions and with different speeds. At room temperature, some water mole- cules hardly move at all, while others move very rapidly. Even at room temperature, some of the molecules move so fast that they escape from the liquid. These molecules leave the liquid state as gas. Water left in an uncovered vessel will gradually decrease in quantity. This observation supports the fact that: (circle one) A. Water will vaporize (change state into vapor) only when at its boiling point. B. Water does not have to be boiling for some of its molecules to vaporize. Alcohol will evaporate (vaporize) rapidly when rubbed on the skin, Because the molecules that evaporate take heat energy away from the skin, alcohol has a (heating/cooling) effect on the skin. As any liquid evaporates, the molecules that manage to escape from the liquid are the ones that are moving the (Lastest /slowest). ‘Therefore, the molecules that escape an evaporating liquid are the ones with the (most/least) energy. ‘The molecules that escape an evaporating liquid are the ones with the most energy. Therefore, the liquid will be constantly losing energy, so its temperature will (increase/decrease) . Liquids can vaporize at all temperatures. During the evaporation, the liquid (gains/loses) energy as the mole- cules escape as gas. ‘Thus, evaporation causes the temperature of the liquid to (decrease/increase). When the temperature of a liquid is increased, the kine- tic energy of its molecules is increased, so the speed of it molecules will (increase/decrease). 14 cooling fastest most decrease loses decrease increase97. So, an increase in the temperature of the liquid will mean that a (greater/smaller) proportion of the molecules will greater have enough energy to escape from the liquid. 98. When the temperature of a liquid is increased, its rate of evaporation will (decrease/increase) . increase 99. When water is placed in a closed container, the molecules that evaporate cannot get far away from the liquid. The evaporating molecules moye randomly in all directions, running into one another and into the sides of the container. Eventually, some of the molecules slow down and return to the liquid. Finally a point will be reached where the number of mole- cules that are returning to the water equals the number that are evaporating. At this point, the liquid and its vapor (the gas molecules) are said to be in equilibrium. At the equilibrium point, the rate of evaporation is (less than/equal to/greater than) the rate of conden- equal to sation. 100. In a closed container, the liquid and the gas will even- tually come to equilibrium at all temperatures. Would the amount of liquid be decreasing when the liquid and gas are in equilibrium in a closed container? no 101. If the temperature of the liquid in a closed container is inereased, its molecules will move faster. And because they will be moving faster, there will be (more/fewer) molecules evaporating. more 102. When the temperature of the liquid is increased, the rate of evaporation becomes momentarily (greater/smaller) greater than the rate of condensation. 103. But eventually the liquid and the vapor would come to anew point for this higher temperature. 104. The vapor molecules moving around inside the container exert a force on the sides of the container and on the liquid below. ‘This force exerted by the vapor molecules is called vapor pressure. ‘The greater the energy possessed by the vapor molecules, the greater is the vapor pressure. So, by heating a liquid, we would (increase/decrease) its vapor pressure. increase 15105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110, i. 112. ‘The vapor pressure of a liquid depends upon the —_—________of the liquid. The higher the tem- perature, the (greater/smaller) the vapor pressure. Water, like all liquids, has a certain vapor pressure for each temperature. Its vapor pressure at 70° F would be (lower/higher) than its vapor pressure at 210° F. If exposed to the air, water would evaporate more rapidly: (circle one) A. at a temperature of 70° F. B. at a temperature of 210° F. Increasing the temperature of a liquid increases its vapor If the vapor is constantly removed from above the liquid, the rate of evaporation will (increase/ decrease). ‘When any liquid is allowed to evaporate, the temperature of the liquid will (decrease/increase) as molecules escape as gas. If a liquid is confined in a closed container, the molecules that escape will eventually equal those that slow down and return to the liquid; the point will be reached. The Cooling Tower The refinery cooling tower is designed to vaporize water. Its purpose is, of course, to cool water. But to do this, some of the water must be evaporated. The water mole- cules that leave the tower as gas take energy away from the remaining liquid water and thus reduce its tem- perature. Ina closed container the vapor cannot escape from above the liquid. Therefore, the liquid and its vapor eventually reach a point of where the number of mole- cules leaving the liquid as gas equals the number of gas molecules that return to the liquid. To accomplish the most cooling in a cooling tower, a (high/low) rate of evaporation is desired. 16 temperature greater lower pressure increase decrease equilibrium equilibrium high118. The more water that can be evaporated in a cooling tower, the (greater/smaller) is the amount of cooling greater that the tower can accomplish. 114. Look at the drawing. The lattice construction (or fill) in the cooling tower is designed to increase the evapora- tion rate by breaking up the water into a spray or into droplets, thus increasing the exposed surface area. If the exposed surface is increased, the evaporation rate “of a liquid will (increase/decrease). inerease 115. The fans in a mechanical draft cooling tower provide a constant circulation of air to remove the vapor from the water. So, by exposing maximum water surface to the air, and by constant removal of water , the cooling vapor tower evaporates water rapidly, which thus lowers the ______ of the remaining liquid. temperature 116. The heat of vaporization of water is 970 BTU per pound. For each pound of water that evaporates, the remaining liquid will (lose/gain) ____ BTU of heat. lose, 970 117, ,The removal of 970 BTU of heat from 970 pounds of water would result in a temperature decrease of °F. 1 118. How much would the temperature of 970 pounds of water decrease if one (1) pound of water were evaporated? °F 1 17119, 120. 121. 122, 123, To cool one (1) pound of water by 10° F, the one pound of water would have to lose __ BTU. So, to cool 9,700 pounds of water by 10° F, 97,000 BTU of heat would have to be removed. ‘The cooling tower works on the principle of evaporation, and each pound that evaporates removes 970 BTU. ‘Therefore, to remove 97,000 BTU of heat from the water, the cooling tower would have to evaporate pounds of water. Each 10° F. decrease in water temperature in a cooling tower represents an evaporation loss of approximately 1% of the water entering the tower. Water entering a tower at 120° F would normally be cooled to 90° F. ‘This temperature reduction of 30° F would require three times as much evaporation, or about (1% ; 3% ; 80%) of the water entering the tower. Absolute Pressure and Superheat Water, like all other substances, is always under the pressure of the atmosphere. Normal atmospheric pres- sure is about 14.7 pounds per square inch. This is usually written as 14.7 psia (pounds per square inch absolute). The refinery cooling tower utilizes the principle that water will vaporize at all temperatures. In the cooling tower, the rate of evaporation is increased by (inereasing/deereasing) the exposed surface of the water and by the constant removal of water from the tower. Increasing the temperature of a liquid also increases the rate of evaporation, because the temperature increase causes the liquid molecules to move (faster/slower) and thus the vapor pressure of the liquid (increases/ decreases) . ‘When water at normal atmospheric pressure is heated to 212° F, its vapor pressure is 14.7 psia. Normal atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia. So, water boils when its temperature is such that the vapor pressure is (less than/equal to) the external pressure on it. 18 10 100 3% increasing vapor faster increases equal to125, Water under a pressure of 20 psia begins to boil when its temperature is such that its ____—___ pressure reaches (14.7/20/40) 126. Water at a pressure of 20 psia begins to boil at a (higher/ lower) temperature than water at normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psia). 127. The temperature at which a liquid boils depends upon the external pressure exerted on the liquid. ‘The boiling point of a liquid can be defined as the tem- perature at which its ________is equal to the external pressure on the liquid. 128. Water at normal pressure of 14.7 psia boils at a tem- perature of 212° F. If the pressure were increased to 300 psia, the water (would/would not) boil at a temperature of 212° F. 129. At 417.5 ° F the vapor pressure of water is about 300 psia. ‘Therefore, if water were heated in a boiler under a pres- sure of 300 psia, it would not begin to boil until it reached a temperature of ______. 130. Water in a refinery boiler operating under a pressure of 300 psia will boil at 417.5° F. The steam produced in such a boiler will have a tem- perature of 131. The heat of vaporization of water is 970 BTU per pound. Itwould take 970 BTU of (latent/ sensible) heat to change one pound of boiling water into steam. So, if 970 BTU of heat were removed from the steam at this pressure, __________ pound(s) of the steam would condense. 132, If the steam produced by water boiling at 417.5° F were heated further until its temperature reached 467.5° F, it would be 50° hotter than the water that produced it ‘The steam would contain 8 F of superheat. 19 vapor higher vapor pressure would not A17.5° F 417.5° F latent one 50133. 134, 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. To condense the superheated steam, its temperature would first have to be lowered to__-___° F, the boil- ing point of the water that produced it (at 300 psia pressure). Before the condensation of one pound of the —______ steam could begin, the 50° of superheat would have to be removed. ‘The specific heat of superheated steam varies with the absolute pressure and the degrees of superheat. For our purposes, we can use an average value of 0.5 for the specific heat of superheated steam. Thus, to remove 50° of superheat from one pound of superheated steam, we would have to remove (50/25/10) BTU of heat. Therefore, before it would condense, the one (1) pound of steam would have to lose a total of: (circle one) A. 970 + 50(superheat) = 1020 BTU B. 970 ~ 50(superheat) = 920 BTU C. 970 + 25(superheat) = 995 BTU Suppose it is known that 1,000 BTU of heat will be lost from 40 pounds of steam during its transmission from the boiler to the process unit. If the steam is not superheated, this means that about (2/1/19) pound(s) of the steam will condense on the way to the unit and thus be lost as a useful heating medium. If the steam is produced at 417.5° F and superheated to 467.5° F before transmission, each pound of the steam will contain (100/1/50) degrees of superheat that will have to be removed before any steam is lost through condensation. If, during transmission, the steam loses 1,000 BTU, the temperature of the 40 pounds of steam will decrease by 50°. ‘This comes about in the following way: 1000 BTU divided by 0.5 (average specific heat of superheated steam) = 2000. Then, 2000 divided by 40 pounds = 50° ‘Thus, its temperature will be lowered to 417.5° F and (some/none) of the steam will be lost by condensation. 20 4175 superheated 25 50 none140. Superheated steam is vitally important to the refinery operation because it results in (more/less) condensation in steam transmission from the boiler house to the process units. 141. Steam is important as a heating medium in refinery processes because of its high latent heat of vaporization and condensation. ‘The heat of condensation of steam is 6.9 times as great as that of gasoline. This means that the heat from one (1) pound of steam as it condenses will vaporize (10/6.9/140) pounds of gasoline. 142. Butane has a heat of vaporization of 156 BTU per pound. ‘The heat of condensation of steam is about 6.2 times as great. ‘Therefore, the condensation of one pound of steam would release enough heat to vaporize about pounds of butane, Specific Heat 143. As you know from your own experience, different sub- stances heat up at different rates. A substance which requires only a small amount of heat to raise its tem- perature 1° F has a low specific heat. On the other hand, a substance which requires a large amount of heat to raise its temperature by 1° has a specific heat. 144, An aluminum pan will heat up very quickly. Aluminum requires only a small amount of heat to raise its tem- perature 1° F. ‘The specific heat of aluminum is (high/low). 145. The wooden handle on the aluminum pan heats up very slowly. It requires a large amount of heat to change the temperature 1° F. Therefore, it has a (high/low) specific heat. 146. The greater the amount of heat a substance will absorb before its temperature changes by 1° F, the (greater/ smaller) is its specific heat. 21 6.9 62 low high greater147. 148. 149, 150. 151. 152, 158, 154, So, if you were to choose a material for a handle on a piece of equipment to be used in a furnace, you would want one that heats up very slowly. Therefore, you'd choose one with (high/low) specific heat. Water has a specific heat of 1 (one). Thus, if one BTU of heat is added to one pound of water, the temperature of the water will increase by ____* F. So, to increase the temperature of 10 pounds of water by 1° F, ____ BTU of heat would have to be added, It takes only one-half (0.5) a BTU of heat to raise the temperature of one (1) pound of gasoline by 1° F. So the specific heat of gasoline is (1/0.5/2). The specific heat of gasoline is only 0.5. So, if 0.5 BTU of heat is added to one pound of gasoline, its temperature will increase by (1/0.5/2) degree (s). Therefore, if 1 (one) BTU is added to one pound of gasoline, its temperature will increase by (1/0.5/2) degree (s). It would take 100 BTU of heat to raise the temperature of ten (10) pounds of water by 10° F. ‘The specific heat of gasoline is only 0.5, How many BTU would be required to do the same to ten (10) pounds of gasoline? ‘There are two easy steps to follow to figure out how much heat is gained or lost when the temperature of a sub- stance increases or decreases. 1, Figure out how much heat would be required if the substance were water. 2. ‘Then multiply this result by the ______ heat of the substance, ‘Suppose you wanted to figure out how much heat would have to be removed from eight (8) pounds of erude oil to lower its temperature from 80° F to 60° F. This is a temperature reduction of _____°F. So, if the substance were water, you would have to remove (8 x 20) = _____ BTU of heat. 22 10 05 50 specific 160 Now turn th turn the boob155. But you are dealing with crude oil which has a different 156. 157. 158. specific heat than water, s BTU by the specific heat of © you must multiply the 160 crude oil. SUBSTANCE SPECIFIC HEAT water 1.000 gasoline 0.500 toluene 0.400 kerosene 0.500 crude oil 0.500 sulfuric acid 0.336 hydrochloric acid 0.600 coke 0.203 aluminum 0.224 carbon 0.165 copper 0.092 iron 0.122 lead 0.080 ‘mercury 0.033 sulfur 0.175 ‘The specific heat of crude oil is So the amount of heat you would have to remove from eight (8) pounds of crude oil to bring it from 80° F to 60° F is wee '5180 BEY How much heat must be removed to lower the tempera- ture of seven hundred (700) pounds of kerosene from 68° F to 65° F? aos BTU. Step 1—temperature change x weight of sample: ——— lbs. =. Step 2—Answer above x specific heat of kerosene. — Determine how much heat must be added to one thousand (1000) pounds of toluene to raise its temperature by °F. First, this 5° temperature many BTU in the standard ( So, for toluene, with a specific heat of temperature increase can BTU of heat. BTU change would require how water) ? be accomplished by adding 0.5 0.5, 80 3 x 700 = 2100 2100 x 0.5 = 1050 5,000 04 2000159. 160. Thermal Properties of Refinery Products A major goal in refinery operation is the economic and efficient use of heat energy. To attain this goal, the operating people must understand the basic thermal properties of the materials involved in refinery processes. The use of water as a cooling medium is a good example of this, Water is used because it has a high specific heat. ‘The basic thermal principle behind its use is the fact that the higher the specific heat of a substance, the more heat it takes to increase its temperature. In the case of water, this means that more heat can be removed from product streams before the water coolant becomes too hot for use. SPECIFIC MELTING — HOMLING SUBSTANCE HEAT: OINT water 970BTU/Ib. 1.000 32°F 212°F kerosene 108 0.50 425° F gasoline 140 0.50 220° F toluene 151 040 139° F 231° F benzene 172 0.450 4F 176° F decane 110 0486 © -22°F 345° F octane 128, 0.420 —70°F 258° F heptane 133 0415 -131° F 209° F hexane 156 0406-140" F 156° F pentane 158 0402-202 F 97 F butane 156 0396-217 F 31°F Distillation utilizes a basic thermal property—the boiling point. Differences in boiling points are used in distilla- tion to separate compounds into their components. If a selection had to be made between kerosene and toluene for use as a cooling medium, neglecting cost, the best choice would be (Kerosene/toluene) because it has the (highest/lowest) specific heat. s ‘The heat of vaporization of water is 970 BTU per pound. So, one (1) pound of steam would have to lose 970 BTU before it would condense. Pentane has a heat of vaporization of only ——___ BTU perpound. Therefore, the loss of _ BTU of heat from a sample of pentane vapor would cause one pound to condense. 24 kerosene highest 158 158161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 166. 167. 168, If the water used to condense gasoline is heated from 90° F to 120° F, each pound of water will remove BTU of heat from the gasoline. ‘The heat of vaporization and condensation of gasoline is 140 BTU per pound. One pound of cooling water will remove 30 BTU, so 4.67 pounds will remove about 140 BTU. Therefore, for every 4.67 pounds of cooling water, about pound(s) of gasoline will condense. Remember, the heat that is removed in condensing the gasoline is latent heat. So, the temperature of the con- densed gasoline will be (lower than/equal to/higher than) its boiling point, 220° F. To cool the gasoline to 100° F after it has condensed, some of the sensible heat would have to be removed. ‘The temperature reduction ftom 220° F to 100° F is a reduction of 120°. If the substance were water, this would require the removal of _________ BTU of heat for each pound. But the specific heat of gasoline is only 0.5. ‘Therefore, to lower the temperature of one (1) pound of gasoline by 120° F, only 0.5 X 120 BTU, or BTU of heat would have to be removed. ‘The specific heat of water is one (1). This means that the addition of one BTU of heat to one (1) pound of water will result in a temperature increase of. oF ‘The specific heat of gasoline is 0.5. This means that the addition of 0.5 BTU of heat to one (1) pound of gasoline will result in a temperature increase of ____* F, ‘The addition of one (1) BTU of heat to one (1) pound of gasoline would result in a temperature increase of (1/0.5/2)° F. 25 30 one equal to 120 60169, 170. 17h. 172. 173. 174. Gasoline is a mixture of several hydrocarbons, each of which has its own thermal characteristics, such as boiling point. For this reason, the boiling point of gasoline is dependent upon the relative proportions of the components, and thus gasoline: (cirele one) A. has a definite boiling point. B. has a boiling range rather than a definite boiling point. ‘The boiling points of orthoxylene, paraxylene, and meta- xylene are 292° F, 281° F, and 282.4° F, respectively. Because the boiling points are so nearly the same, sepa- ration by the process of _______ would be quite difficult. So, in order to separate a mixture of these components, another thermal property must be utilized—that of crystallization. The crystallization points are: paraxylene, +55.9° F orthoxylene, -13.3° F metaxylene, ~54.2° F ‘These different crystallization points would suggest that the best way to separate these components would be by (heating/chilling). Crystallization points: paraxylene, +55.9° F orthoxylene, —18.3° F metaxylene, —54.2° F If a mixture of orthoxylene, paraxylene, and metaxylene were chilled, the first component to crystallize would be the_________. The other two components would remain in solution. The process in which substances are separated by erys- tallization is based on the differences in the —_ points of their components. ‘The principle of crystallization is utilized in the process of dewaxing. Oil is diluted with a solvent, such as methyl- ethyl ketone (MEK), and (heated/chilled) to a specific temperature. At this temperature the wax is crystallized and, by filtering in a filter press can be from the oil. 26 distillation chilling paraxylene crystallization chilled separated115. The temperature to which the oil and solvent are lowered depends upon the desired pour point for the finished oil. More of the wax will be removed at lower temperatures. So, if an oil with a low pour point (low wax content) were desired, the temperature of the dewaxing process would be (lowered/increased) . 176. After oil has been dewaxed, the MEK solvent must be 17. 178. removed. Since there is a large enough difference between the boiling points of MEK and oil, the separation can be carried out by the process of SECTION 3 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE AND EXPANSION Thermometers Control of heat processes in the refinery requires accurate measurement of temperature. Temperature measurement depends upon detecting and measuring certain changes in a substance that occur when its temperature changes. The size of an object may change when its temperature changes; or its electrical properties may change; or its optical behavior may hange. Any one of these changes can be used to detect id measure temperature. Temperature measuring devices work because heat flows, Heat flows from objects of higher temperature to objects of lower temperature. ‘Thermometers work on the principle that a substance will contract when its temperature decreases and expand when its temperature (increases /decreases). ‘The liquid-filled expansion thermometer consists of a capillary tube filled with the expanding liquid. ‘Thus, when the liquid expands, it can move only upward in the tube. When its temperature is lowered, the liquid (expands/ contracts), and the level of the liquid column falls downward. 27 lowered distillation ‘increases contracts179. 180, 181. The two most common liquid-filled thermometers are the mercury thermometer and the alcohol thermometer. The liquid thermometer must, of course, be accurately scaled. This is done by marking the thermometer at two known temperature points and then dividing the distance between these points into units, or degrees. Water is commonly used as the standard for temperature calibration, and the two known points are the freezing point and the _____ point. When a mercury thermometer is placed in hot water, heat will flow from the (water/thermometer) to the (water/ thermometer). The heat flowing to the thermometer will cause the mercury column to______, and thus it will indicate a higher temperature. The mercury and aleohol thermometers are very accurate but fragile instruments and are used mainly in laboratory work. 250'F ——1,000°F =a taal at room temperature 2F 32°F 100° 30°F ALCOHOL MERCURY ‘The range of the mercury thermometer is —30° F to 1,000° F The alcohol thermometer has a range of —100° F to 250° F, The obvious choice for laboratory measurements of a series of very low temperature samples would be the thermometer. 28 boiling water thermometer expand, or rise alcohol182. 183. 184. 185. When mercury thermometers are used in industry out- side of the laboratory, they usually have a metal guard over the bulb to protect them from breakage. A disadvantage of this metal guard is that it might interfere with heat flow from sample to thermometer. For this reason, the guard is often filled with a heat- transferring medium to make the heat transfer (slower/ more=rapid). Solids also expand when their temperature is increased. All metals do not expand the same amount when heated. This phenomenon is used in the bimetallic strip, or dif- ferential expansion thermometers. If a one (1) foot iron bar is heated from 32° F to 212° F,, its length will increase by about one-seventieth (1/70) of an inch. ‘The expansion of a liquid in all directions is called volume expansion. But this kind of expansion of metal strips is mostly expansion of the length so it would be called (volume/linear) expansion. If the temperature of a one (1) foot brass bar is increased from 32° F to 212° F, its length will increase about 11 times as much as did the length of the iron bar. For a given temperature change, the rate of expansion of various metals is (the same/different) . Look at the drawing. Suppose an iron strip is riveted side by side to a brass strip. IRON BRASS: If heated, the brass strip will lengthen (more/less) than the iron strip, and the whole strip will have to bend. 29 more rapid linear linear different more186. 187. 188, 189. 190. 191. So, when a bimetallic strip (two metals) is heated, the difference in the linear expansions will be indicated by the fact that the strip will ‘This bending is used in thermostats as a switch to make or break electrical contacts. When heated, the strip bends until the switch circuit is open. When the temperature drops, the strips cools and closes the electrical contact by: A. bending further in the same direction. B. bending back the opposite way and straightening. ‘The bimetallic strip can be coiled into a spiral or used as a straight strip. The bending motion can be used to move a pointer over a scale calibrated in degrees. Used in this way, the bimetallic strip would become a thermometer used to measure ‘The bimetallic strip thermometer of different expansion rates of it is often called the differential thermometer. rks on the principle ‘lar metals. Thus, Which metal in the bimetallic strip in frame 185 has the greatest expansion rate? A. The metal shown by the shaded strip. B. The metal shown in white. The Thermoelectric Pyrometer The most important temperature measuring device in refinery operations is not the volume expansion type or the differential expansion type of thermometer, but the thermoelectric pyrometer, or thermocouple, illustrated on the next page. The thermocouple is dependent on the electrical current changes that occur in metals with temperature changes. ‘The principle behind the thermocouple is that a low- voltage current will flow when two dissimilar metal wires are attached in a loop, or closed circuit. Most of the temperature measurements in the plant can be handled by the iron-constantan couple that measures temperatures up to 1,400° F or the chromel-alumel couples that are good for temperatures up to 1,800° F. For higher temperatures up to 2,930° F, a platinum- rhodium couple would be used. 30 bend temperature expansion192. = (ea) [a If one end of the thermocouple is heated and the other end is kept at a known temperature, the voltage (electro- motive force, emf) will increase. If the hot junction is heated hotter and hotter, the emf will become greater and greater in a regular manner. The emf generated will vary with the temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions. Now, if a millivoltmeter is installed between the cold and the hot junctions, the voltage changes can be observed on the meter. ‘These voltage changes are an indirect measure of the difference in between the hot and cold junetions. The millivoltmeter is installed between the hot junction and the cold junction to measure changes in ___ that occur when the temperature of the hot junction changes. 31 temperature voltage198. If the temperature of the hot junction is increased, the voltage will increase, and a higher reading will appear on the millivoltmeter. If the voltage reading on the meter decreases, this means that the temperature at the hot junetion has (inereased/ decreased). decreased 194. By measuring the voltage changes that result from changes in the temperature of the hot junction, the millivoltmeter indirectly measures the —__ of the hot junction. temperature 195, The millivoltmeter can be calibrated to a known tem- perature scale. ‘Then, the reading from the millivoltmeter would be in degrees rather than voltage. Thus, it becomes a direct measure of —____. temperature 196. The hot junction of the thermocouple can be quite a long distance away from the millivoltmeter. ‘Thus, very hot furnace temperatures can be read from a comfortable distance away. This (would/would not) would not be true of the direct-reading expansion types of ther- mometers. 197. The thermocouple has another advantage in that many separate temperature couples can be fed into one ___, and temperatures of a great many different millivoltmeter points can be read at one location. 198. The principle of all thermoelectric temperature-measur- ing devices is this: The voltage generated will vary with the differences in _ between the hot and temperature cold junctions of the wires. 199. The greater the temperature difference between the hot and the cold junetions, the (greater smaller) the voltage. greater 200. Since the refinery thermocouple is used to measure the temperature at the (hot/cold) junction, the temperature hot of the other junction is kept at a known temperature. 201. Thus, by keeping the cold junction at a certain tem- perature, any increase in voltage means that the tem- perature of the hot junetion has (increased/decreased). increased In the absence of a fixed-temperature cold junction, a cold junction compensation coil may be used to produce the same effect.202. 208. 204. Temperature Scales In 1714, the German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit con- structed a mercury thermometer. His real contribution to the scientific measurement of temperature was the addition of a graded scale to the thermometer tube so that, for the first time, temperatures could be read quan- titatively (in specific numbers). In developing his scale, he placed a mercury ther- mometer in a mixture of salt water and ice, and when the mereury had fallen to the lowest point, he marked a line on the tube, This temperature represented the lowest he could reach in his laboratory. This point he called 0. ‘The next calibration on his scale was the freezing point of water. He determined this point by marking the level of the mercury when the thermometer was placed in freezing water. He set this point at 82 on his scale. ‘The next calibration was the boiling point of water. Following the same procedure, he set this point at 212. Look at the exhibit. The main advantage of Fahrenheit’s thermometer was: (circle one) A. It was the first to use a capillary tube. B. It included a number scale calibrated to standard temperature points, ‘The boiling point of water under normal pressure is 212° F. On the Fahrenheit scale, the point at which water freezes is is So, on the Fahrenheit scale, there are ______ (how many?) degrees between the freezing point and boiling point? Another scale, the centigrade scale, is used in most laboratory and scientific work. This scale is also calibrated to the two standard tem- perature points, the ________ point and the _____ point of water at normal atmospheric pressure. On the centigrade scale, the numbers assigned to the standard temperature points are different. The freezing point is set at 0, and the boiling point is set at 100. On the centigrade scale, there are ______ (how many?) degrees between the freezing and boiling points of water. 32 180 freezing, boiling 100207. 208. 209. 210, 211. 212. There are more degree divisions between the freezing and boiling points of water on the Fahrenheit scale than there are on the centigrade scale. Therefore, the Fahrenheit degree or division must be (smaller/larger) than the centigrade degree. 180 Fahrenheit degrees = 100 centigrade degrees. 100 10 180 18 9. So, it is found that the Fahrenheit degree is only (5/9; 1/2; 4/9) as large as a centigrade degree. So, one F ° = By knowing this relationship, it is a simple matter to convert from F to C. Let us work through an example of this conversion, The water entering a cooling tower has a temperature of 118° F. ‘The freezing point on the F scale is 32° above the freez- ing point on the C scale. The first thing to be done is to (add/substract) 32° from the Fahrenheit reading of 113. At this stage in the conversion calculation, there are 113 — 82 = 81 Fahrenheit degrees. The Fahrenheit degree is only 5/9 as large as the centi- grade degree. Therefore, to get the answer in centigrade degrees, the 81 Fahrenheit degrees must be multiplied by 5/9 x 81 = 45. So, the water at a temperature of 113° F has a tem- perature of ° on the centigrade scale. To sum up the steps in converting Fahrenheit readings to centigrade readings: ‘The freezing point of water on the Fahrenheit scale is 82° higher than on the centigrade scale. So, the first step in the conversion is to (add/subtract) 82 (to/from) the Fahrenheit reading. STEP 1 Centigrade = Fahrenheit — STEP 2 The second step in the conversion is to mul- tiply the number of Fahrenheit degrees by 384 smaller 5/9 subtract, 5/9 45 subtract from 32 5/9218, 214, 215. 216, 217. 218. 219, 220. Putting the two steps together, the conversion formula becomes: Centigrade = Fahrenheit — x Suppose the cooling tower water temperature is read as 45° C and has to be recorded as degrees Fahrenheit. The first thing to be done is to determine how many Fahrenheit degrees are equal to 45 centigrade degrees. This will be a higher number, because the Fahrenheit degree is (smaller/larger) than the centigrade degree. ‘The Fahrenheit degree is equal to five-ninths of a cen- tigrade degree. The centigrade degree is the reverse of this and is equal to nine-fifths Fahrenheit degrees. If decimals are preferred rather than a fraction, then the centigrade degree would equal (0.9/0.5/1.8) Fahrenheit degrees. Now multiply the centigrade reading by 9/5 (or the decimal equivalent, 1.8) to determine the number of Fahrenheit degrees. Thus, 45 centigrade degrees equal (25/81/13) Fahren- heit degrees. But the freezing point of water is 0 on the centigrade seale and is set at 32 on the Fahrenheit scale. Therefore, 32 degrees must be (added to/subtracted from) the number of Fahrenheit degrees. So, the temperature of the cooling water would be ° Fahrenheit. In converting from centigrade to Fahrenheit, first mul- tiply the reading by and then add degrees. In the conversion of centigrade readings to Fahrenheit, the answer in Fahrenheit will always be a (higher/ lower) number than the centigrade reading. 35 82, 5/9 smaller 18 81 added to 113. 9/5 or 1.8, 82 higher221. Most refinery temperature readings are in Fahrenheit degrees. In cases where the product specifications are in centigrade, a thermometer is used that reads in centi- grade degrees. If there are occasions to make conversions from one seale to the other, it is more convenient to use conversion tables, which are available in engineering and laboratory manuals and handbooks. © F. -178 0 82.0 -W2 1 33.8 167 2 35.6 161 8 37.4 156 4 39.2 -150 0 6 41.0 -iM4 6 42.8 -139 7 44.6 “133 8 16.4 -128 9 48.2 —122 10 50.0 6.7 20 68.0 -11 80 86.0 44 40 104.0 10.0 50 © 122.0 15.6 60 140.0 211 70 158.0 26.7 80 176.0 322 90 194.0 87.8 100 212.0 933 200 392.0 The centigrade readings are printed on the left and the Fahrenheit readings on the right. ‘To convert a temperature reading, whether Fahrenheit or centigrade, your first step is to find that temperature in the middle column. If the centigrade equivalent is desired, it is found to the left of the center column, and Fahrenheit equivalents are found to the right. 36222. 223. 224, 225. To convert 30° C to Fahrenheit, find 80 in the middle column, and then read the equivalent in the column to the right. To convert Fahrenheit to centigrade, look to the left. 80° C equals_____° F. 100° C equals___._° F, 30° F is equal to_____° The Absolute Temperature Scales All matter contains some heat energy, and for this reason its molecules are in constant motion. At every tempera- ture that has actually been measured, this statement is true. But there is a theoretical point called absolute zero—the lowest possible temperature—where all molecular motion would cease and thus there would be no heat. Two temperature scales based upon this point are used in many engineering and scientific calculations. These two absolute seales are the Rankine scale and the Kelvin scale. Both start with zero for the lowest possible tem- perature, absolute zero. These scales are reproduced in Exhibit 1. The Kelvin Scale is based on the centigrade degree. Any centigrade reading can be converted to the absolute, Kelvin scale by adding 273 to the centigrade reading. ‘On the centigrade scale, water freezes wt —__<' on the Kelvin scale, water freezes at ‘Tuas, On the centigrade scale, water boils at 100° C. Thus, on the Kelvin scale, water boils at * ‘The lowest possible temperature is absolute zero. This is 0° on the Kelvin scale. In centigrade degrees, absolute zero ig ~______* There are 100 degrees between the freezing and boiling points of water on the Kelvin seale. So, the Kelvin degree is (smaller than/equal to/larger than) the centigrade degree. 37 86 212 -11 278 373 —273 equal to226. 227. 228. 229, 230. 231. 232, ‘The other absolute scale is based upon the Fahrenheit scale. Fahrenheit temperatures can be converted to absolute Rankine readings by adding 460 to the Fakren- heit reading. On the absolute Rankine scale, water freezes at # and boils at ______’. On the Fahrenheit scale, absolute zero, the (lowest/ highest) possible temperature, is —_____° F. ‘There are 180 degrees between the freezing and boiling points of water on the Rankine scale. ‘The Farenheit degree is (smaller than/equal to/larger than) the Rankine degree. ‘The lowest possible temperature is the theoretical point called, where an object would contain (no/very little) heat energy, and there would be no molecular motion. Linear Expansion From earlier discussion of the bimetallic strip ther- mometer, it was seen that various metals have different rates of linear expansion. Linear expansion is the lengthening of a pipe or bar caused by an increase in the _______‘-__of the material. ‘The coefficients of expansion for several metals are listed below. These coefficients tell how much a one (1) foot bar of the material will expand in length when its temperature is increased by 1° F. Aluminum . see + « 0,0000122 Copper... -. eee eee 0.000094 Steel . 0.000072 0.0000067 If each of the materials listed above were heated by 10° F, which one would show the greatest linear expan- sion? If the temperature of a one (1) foot steel bar were inereased by 1° F,, its length would increase by foot. 38, 492 672 lowest; —460 equal to absolute zero no temperature aluminum: 0.0000072234. 235. 236. 287. 288. 239. 240. 241. 242. If the temperature of the one (1) foot steel bar were increased by 1,000° F,, its length would inerease 1,000 times as much as it would with a 1° F increase. Its linear expansion would be _______ feet. The coefficient of linear expansion tells how much a one (1) foot bar of a material will lengthen when its tem- perature is increased by ______ Fahrenheit degree(s). If two feet of a particular material were heated by one (1) Fahrenheit degree, the amount it would lengthen would be — times its coefficient of expansion. Suppose the steel bar was 100 feet long and its tem- perature was increased by 1,000° F. ‘Then its length would increase 100 times as much as the one-foot bar that was heated by 1,000° F. ‘The bar would lengthen by 100 x 0.0072, or feet. When you ant to determine how much a pipe or bar will lengthen when heated, all you have to do is to mul- tiply its___of linear expansion times its and then multiply this times the increase in temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. Total linear expansion = coeflicient of expansion x of bar X temperature - Suppose a 1,000 foot steel pipe in the refinery were cooled from 200° F to 100° F. ‘The length of the pipe would decrease by (0.0000072 x 1,000 x 100) or ______ foot. This is over half a foot! You can see how important expansion bends are in refinery piping. These bends compensate for the linear ——______ of the pipe so that it will not break when heated and cooled. When pipe is installed on stanchions, movable hangers and shoes are used to allow for movement due to the of the pipe. ‘A hot oil pump is shimmed when it is set cold on its foundation so that, when the pump is in hot service and takes place, the pump will be level. 39 0.0072 0.72 coefficient length length, increase 0.72 expansion linear expansion expansion243. 244, 245. Because of the linear expansion, heat exchangers are manufactured with a fixed tube sheet and a floating tube sheet and head to allow for movement caused by and contraction. expansion Because of linear expansion and contraction, rapid changes in operation should be (avoided/used) to mini- avoided mize leaks. Volume Expansion When a liquid is heated and is free to expand, it will expand in all directions. For this reason, liquid expan- sion is called volume expansion. ‘To standardize the measurement of oil, its volume is always computed for a standard temperature of 60° F. ‘The volume expansion of oil varies for different API gravity ranges. These various gravity ranges have been assigned group numbers for identification. tn SEES enn anh WP 0 0.00035, upto 14.9 1 0.00040 15.0 to 34.9 2 0.00050. 35.0 to 50.9 3 0.00060 510 to 63.9 4 0.00070 64.0to 78.9 5 0.00080 79.0 to 88.9 6 0.00085 89.0to 93.9 7 0.00090 94.0 to 100.0 Determine the volume decrease if 1000 gallons of oil at ‘75° F were cooled to 60° F. If the oil is in group 3 (gasoline), its volume would contract by ________ for each degree it is cooled. 0.00060 ‘The cooling from 75° F to 60° F is a reduction of 15°. So, the coefficient of expansion must be multiplied by 16 40246. 247. 248, 15 X 0.00060 = 0.0090 But this figure is for only 1 gallon. So, the 1,000 gallons of oil would contract in volume by gallons if cooled from 75° F to 60° F. For more exact volume corrections, tables have been prepared by the National Bureau of Standards for each gravity range group. TEMPERATURE MULTIPLIER 50 1.0061 51 1.0054 52 1.0048 53 1.0042 54 1.0036 55 1.0030 56 1.0024 57 «| = 1.0018 58 1.0012 59 1.0006 60 1.0000 61 0.9994 62 0.9988 68 0.9982 64 0.9976 65 0.9970 66 0.9964 67 0.9958 68 oo ‘The multiplier for 69° F is 0.9945. ‘This means that 1 gallon of oil at 69° F is equal to only gallons of oil at the standard temperature of 60° F. To convert 1000 gallons of oil at 68° F to the volume at standard temperature, refer to the table in frame 247. ‘The multiplier is and there are 1,000 gallons ; so the answer is (1,000 x ______) or gallons. 41 9.0 0.9945 0.9951 0.9951; 995.1249. 250. 251. 252. Compensation for Volume Expansion Operators have experienced catching a sample of gaso- line when it is cold and then having the cork pop off the bottle when the gasoline has warmed to room tem- perature. - But the effects of volume expansion can be much more dangerous in the case of sample containers of propane or butane under pressure. If a pressure vessel is filled completely, the volume expansion of the material could rupture the vessel. And since the content is liquid under pressure, immediate vaporization would occur, which could cause an explosion, ‘The Natural Gas Processors Association has specified a 20% outage when filling pressure containers at tempera- tures above 0° F. ‘This means that in taking a sample, at least %e of the propane or butane should be withdrawn to leave enough vapor space for the volume ____ that will occur when the sample container is brought into a warm room. ‘Suppose that one pressure container is filled with propane at a temperature above 0° F, and that another con- tainer is filled with propane at a temperature below 0° F. If both containers are then brought into a laboratory and allowed to reach room temperature, the container filled at the lower temperature will expand the (least/ most). Therefore, in filling pressure vessels at temperatures below 0° F, (more/less) of the contents should be removed. ‘The outage specified by the NGPA for temperatures above 0° F is 20%. So, the outage for filling temperatures below 0° F would be: (circle one) A. less than 20%. B. 20%. C. more than 20%. 42 20 expansion, most more253. 254, Compensation for volume expansion must also be made when filling LPG pressure tank cars. The Interstate Commerce Commission has set specifications on how full a tank car can be loaded under specific conditions. Three conditions are taken into account: 1. The specific gravity of the LPG being loaded; 2. The season of the year for transport; 3. The temperature of the LPG being loaded. In the summer, a tank car loaded with LPG (specific gravity 0.51) at a temperature of 66° F. can be filled to 92.6% of its capacity. If the same LPG were loaded under the same conditions for transport in the winter, the contents would not be heated up as much during transport, so: (circle one) A. the tank ear could be loaded to slightly more than 92.6% capacity. B. the tank car could only be loaded to 92.6% capacity. ©. the tank car would have to be loaded to less than 92.6% capacity.Unit 2 Heat TransferThe economical operation of the modern refinery de- pends upon the efficient use of heat energy. This in- cludes not only efficient combustion but also the efficient transfer of heat energy from one place to another. In furnace firing, the more heat that is transferred to the oil, the less will be the overall fuel costs. In this unit, we will discuss the three methods of heat transfer—conduction, convection, and radiation—with reference to their function in the refinery.HERE ARE SOME SAMPLE ITEMS TO GIVE YOU PRACTICE WITH “PROGRAMED LEARNING.” First, we say something, like this: “A program may look very much like a test, or exami- nation, but it is not a test.” Next, we ask you for an interpretation, or we say more about what we have just said but leave something out for you to fill in, like this: “A program is not a Next, you fill in the blank, and then move down the mask at the right to see if your answer is correct. If your answer is wrong, review until you can see why it is wrong, and then go on to the next item. If your answer is right, go on at once. Instead of a blank to fill in, we may give ‘you a choice of two answers. Circle or underline the right one. “No one grades you on the answers you give in studying a program. However, filling in all the answers is impor- tant for your own learning and remembering. “It (is/is not) important to fill in all the answers as you study a program.” Here is one more example: “A program permits you to study at your own rate of speed. Take time to read each item carefully, because skimming and guessing make for poor learning. “In studying a program, it is (helpful/wasteful) to give ‘each item close attention.” Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down. The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other pages. Now, go on to Page 1 and begin. Before beginning, cover this column with the mask. test helpfulSECTION ONE THE TRANSFER OF HEAT The Flow of Heat An exhibit page is placed in the center of the book (follow- ing page 8) so that it may be removed for easy reference. Please remove it now so that you will have it when you need it. Early scientists thought of heat as a fluid. Today we know that heat is a form of energy and that heat energy is always transferred from (cold/hot) objects to (cold/ hot) objects. . The main problem in using heat energy is the move- ment, or transfer, of the heat energy from where it is generated to where it is to be used. In heating a home, the problem is to transfer the heat efficiently from the hot furnace to the ——<— rooms. . In the refinery a common problem is the efficient — of heat from hot product streams to colder streams. |. When you touch a hot object you feel the transfer of heat because of the temperature difference between your hand and the object. An object feels hot to the touch because of the transfer of heat: (circle one) A. from the hand to the object B. from the object to the hand . An object feels cold to the touch when heat is trans- ferred from the hand to the object. Heat energy will always be transferred between objects if there is a ______ difference between them. hot cold cold (cooler) transfer temperature6. Whenever there is a temperature difference: (circle one) A. heat will not be transferred B. heat will be transferred from the warmer object to the colder C. heat will be transferred from the colder object to the warmer 7. The flow of heat can be compared to the flow of water through the series of connected tanks, If water is poured into Tank A, it will flow into Tank B and Tank C until the water level is: A, the same in all three tanks B. the highest in Tank C / C. the highest in Tank A 8. This same kind of “flow” occurs when several objects of different temperatures are placed close together. ‘The heat energy will “flow” from the (hotter/colder) objects to the (hotter/colder) objects until all reach (the same/a different) temperature level. 9. Heat energy will be transferred when there is a between the objects. 10. If a large quantity of water is poured into Tank A above, the water level in Tank A will at first be much greater than the level in Tank B. ‘The greater the difference in water level between Tank A and Tank B, the (faster/slower) will be the flow of water from Tank A into Tank B. 11. This difference in water level in the series of tanks can be compared to the temperature difference between two objects. ‘The greater the temperature difference, the (faster/ slower) will be the transfer of heat from the warmer object to the cooler object. hotter colder the same temperature difference faster faster12, 13. 14, 16. 17. Conduction It will be easier to understand how heat is transferred if we briefly review the concept of heat energy. Heat energy is the energy an object has because the particles, or molecules, in the object are in motion. When an ob- ject is heated, the added energy causes its molecules to move more rapidly. When a metal spoon is placed into a cup of hot coffee, heat is transferred from the coffee to the spoon. This added heat energy causes the molecules in the spoon to move (faster/slower). You know from experience that the handle of the spoon will get hot. ‘This means that there has been a of heat through the spoon to the handle. This type of heat transfer can be compared to a bucket brigade in which a pail of water, passed from man to man, progresses from one end of the line to the other— even though none of the men moved from his position in the line, This is the way the heat energy is transferred through the spoon; none of the molecules moves along the spoon, but the heat energy is passed from to all the way to the handle. This type of heat transfer is called conduction. Conduction occurs when the motion of the 4 in an object is passed along from a hotter area to a = area. ‘When an iron poker is placed in a fire, the end in the flame heats up. ‘Thus, the molecules in the poker move (slower/faster). ‘Then the increased motion of the molecules in the end of the poker is passed along the poker until the other end also begins to heat up. This is the same way heat is transferred through a spoon, It is called heat transfer by the process of faster transfer, or movement molecule molecule molecules colder faster conduction18. 19. 20. 21. The conduction of heat from one end of the poker to the other will occur as long as there is a temperature difference between the ends. When both ends of the poker have reached the same temperature, the conduction of heat will: (circle one) A. be in the opposite direction, from cold to hot Bestop, ©. slow down When heat is transferred by a chain of molecules from the hot area of an object to a colder area, the process of heat transfer is called - Since the handle of a hot poker or spoon feels hot to the touch, there must be a transfer of heat from the spoon or poker to your hand. So when two objects are in contact, there is conduction of heat if there is a difference between them. Whenever you touch a hot object there is heat transfer by conduction, The reason thermometers indicate higher temperatures when placed in contact with hot substances is that heat is transferred by _________ from the hot substance to the colder thermometer. Convection We saw that when heat is transferred by conduction only the molecules of the matter move, and they move only a very short distance, passing along heat energy from molecule to molecule. In heat transfer by convection there is a movement of the entire mass of the hot matter from one place to another—from a warmer area to a colder area. When a pan of water is placed over a flame, the heat from the flame is transferred to the bottom of the pan. Then, by conduction, the heat is transferred through the pan from _____ to ____ in a chain like the bucket brigade, conduction temperature conduction molecule, molecule23, 24, 25. 26. 21. 29. 30. 81. ‘The next transfer of heat occurs when the pan begins to transfer some of the heat energy to the water in contact with the bottom of the pan. At first, only the layer of water in contact with the pan is heated. This transfer of heat also takes place by the passage of heat energy from molecule to molecule: it oceurs by (conduction/convection). When the bottom layer of water in the pan is heated, it expands. + Because it expands, it becomes less dense (lighter) and tends to (rise/fall) in the pan, ‘This movement of the warmed water is called a convec- tion current. A convection current is set up in a fluid because of two things: 1, the fluid (expands/contracts) when heated and thus 2. it becomes (more/less) dense and rises, Thus, the transfer of heat within the water occurs as the warmer water rises in a current and mixes with the cooler water. ‘The transfer of heat that involves the movement of warmed matter is called (convection/conduction). When any fluid (or gas) is heated, it expands, and its density (increases/decreases). Thus, the warmed fluid becomes (lighter/heavier) than the surrounding fluid and rises, setting up a convection current. A steam radiator or a space heater actually heats by convection. First, the air next to the heater warms; thus it (ex- pands/contracts) and becomes (lighter/heavier). ‘The lighter, warmer air is pushed upward by the sur- rounding heavier, cool air. In this way a —_ room. __ current is set up in the In a convection current the warmer air rises and mixes with the cooler surrounding air. Thus, the warm air is cooled and contracts. As it becomes (more dense/less dense), it falls back to the floor. conduction rise expands less convection convection decreases lighter expands, lighter convection more dense32, 33. When the warm air comes in contact with colder objects in the room, heat is transferred to the colder objects. Im this case the transfer occurs by the contact method of heat transfer called So the heating of a room by a space heater involves two kinds of heat transfer. First, the air next to the heater rises in a current, Then heat from the warmed air is transferred by to anything that comes into contact with the air. So far we have seen two ways in which heat transfer occurs; 1. Heat transfer by a current of warmed liquid or gas is called —___> 2, Heat transfer by a chain of molecules in the matter is called Radiation Heat energy can travel through matter, as in conduction, or can be carried along by moving matter, as in convec~ tion, Heat energy can also be transferred when no mat- ter is involved. This is the process of radiation. Heat and light energy are radiated to the earth from the sun, even though there is empty space between the earth and the sun. Radiant heat energy travels in waves in the same man- ner as light, the difference being that we see light and feel heat. When an clectrie heater is turned on, you can see the red glow given off, You can also feel the radiated heat. The red glow that you see is caused by the absorption of light waves by the eyes. ‘The warmth that you feel is caused by the absorption of heat by the skin. The transfer of heat energy from a heated body to a colder body by the emission (giving off) of heat waves is called —___ conduction convection conduction convection conduction waves, radiation3 38. 39. 40. a 43, . Heat waves, like light waves, can travel only in straight lines, ‘That is why standing in front of a campfire: (circle one) A. warms both sides of the body equally well B. warms only the back of the body away from the fire C. warms only the side of the body facing the fire An electric heater warms a room by use of all three types of heat transfer. First, the air in front of the heater is warmed by heat avaves in the process called ____. This warmed air expands and thus becomes (lighter/ heavier) than the surrounding air. ‘Then the warm air rises in a ____ current. Any object that comes into contact with the heated air will be warmed by the process of if there a difference between the object and the air. ‘The radiation of heat waves from an electric heater will not only warm the air in the room but will also heat up any object that absorbs the waves. When heat waves are absorbed by an object, they cause the temperature of the object to (increase/decrease). Heating a room with a space heater involves all three kinds of heat transfer: 1. (the transfer of heat in waves like light) 2. ___(the current of warmed gas) 3, ______(transfer by the contaet method by a chain of molecules) For heat transfer by radiation to occur, the object being heated must be directly in line with the source that radiates the waves. ‘This is so because heat radiation: (circle one) A. travels in circular lines B, travels only in straight lines C. involves some kind of matter to carry the heat energy radiation lighter convection conduction temperature increase radiation convection conduction44. Hect Transfer in the Refinery Furnace The refinery furnace shown below is a simple heat exchanger. It consists of a series of oil tubes inside a combustion chamber that is fired by rows of burners. SECTION 1 SECTION 2 290000000000 foe BURNER ROWS ‘The purpose of the furnace is to transfer heat from the to the ________ as efficiently as possible, In this furnace the burner rows are at the bottom of the combustion chamber. ‘The circles at the top of the furnace and all along the sides represent cross-sections of the . The furnace consists of two main sections: the convec- tion section and the radiant section. In the convection section heat is transferred from the burners to the oil tubes by a ____ current. of hot flue gas. burners, tubes oil tubes convectionEXHIBIT BOOK ae oroyiod s1ys Suoyo say THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK48, 49. In the radiant section of the furnace the tubes are heated by the absorption of heat waves, so the tubes must be able to “see” the burners. In the radiant section of the furnace the heat is trans- ferred to the oil tubes by ‘The hot flue gases produced by the burners at the bot- tom of the furnace will be lighter than the cooler air above. So the flue gas will (rise/fall) inside the furnace ina_ ____. current. The oil tubes in the convection section of the furnace are heated by the rising current of hot gases, so the convection section of the furnace is: (cirele one) A. the section at the top of the drawing in frame 44 B. the section at the bottom of the drawing in frame 44 In the lower part of the furnace shown in frame 44 the tubes are directly exposed to the radiation of heat waves from the burners. So this section of the furnace is called the section. The oil tubes are heated in two ways in the furnace: 1. by a current of hot gas—the process of 2. by heat waves—the process of —______ . When crude oil is pumped through the furnace, the first heat transfer to the tubes occurs when the hot flue gases rise and heat the tubes. ‘Thus, the oil tubes are heated first by the process of: (cirele one) A. conduction B. convection C. radiation . Once the outside surface of the tube is warmed, there will be a temperature difference between the outside and the inside. ‘Thus, there will be a transfer of heat from the (inside/ outside) of the tubes to the (inside/outside). . The transfer of heat through the metal of the tube takes place by passage of energy from molecule to molecule. Heat transfer through the tube takes place by the process of —______. radiation rise convection radiant convection radiation outside, inside conductionot S 58. 59, 60. 61. 62. Since the oil on the inside of the tube is in contact with the tube wall, the transfer of heat from the tube to the first layer of oil will take place by —____. As soon as the layer of oil in contact with the tube begins to get warm, it will expand. Thus, it will become (heavier/lighter) than the surrounding oil and will (rise/fall) into the flowing oil. . Once the oil begins to heat up, a ______ current of the warm oil will start. ‘This convection current inside the tubes may be very slow. Consequently heat transfer within the oil will be slow. Speeding up the flow of oil through the tubes to get turbulent flow will cause rapid mixing of the oil in the center of the tubes with oil next to the tube wall. In this way, by rapid mixing, heat transfer by the process of _______ is inereased. ‘The transfer of heat within the oil takes place by the process of : The transfer of heat from the tube to the oil in contact with it takes place by the process of Oil is pumped through a furnace from the coolest section of the furnace to the hottest section. ‘Thus, the oil is never in an area with a temperature lower than that of the oil. If this happened, heat would be transferred (from/to) the oil and thus be wasted. Oil flow from the coolest section to the hottest section is called counter-current flow. Counter-current flow through a furnace maintains the greatest temperature difference between the oil and the furnace and thus gives the (lowest/highest) heat trans- fer rate. ‘The transfer of heat from the burners to the oil takes place in three ways: 1. In the upper section of the furnace (Section A) the tubes are heated by the rising hot gases in a current. 2. In the lower section (B) the tubes are exposed to the burners; heat is transferred by “ 3. The transfer of heat through the tube and into the oil in contact with it is by . 10 conduction lighter rise convection convection convection conduction from highest convection radiation conduction63. 64. 66. 68. ‘The radiant section of the furnace (B) is the hottest section. About 50% of the heat released by the burners is transferred to the oil in this section. Since the flow of oil through the furnace is counter- current flow, the oil first flows through the: (cirele one) A. radiant section B. convection section ‘The convection section of the furnace in frame 44 is labeled (A/B/C). In this section about 25% of the heat from the burners is transferred by a________ current of hot flue gas. In the radiant section of the furnace, which is labeled (A/B/C), the tubes must be directly exposed to the burners, since heat waves travel in (straight/curved) lines. The flow of oil through the furnace will be from the coolest (convection) section to the hottest (radiant) section. This is called —__ - flow. ‘The oil will enter at (AB/CD) and leave at (AB/CD). Counter-current flow through the furnace is used to: (cirele one) A. Get the oil through the furnace as fast as possible B, Maintain the greatest temperature difference through the entire system ©, Slow down the oil flow through the furnace SECTION 2 HEAT TRANSFER RATE Temperature Difference Most heat exchange equipment involves heat transfer by all three methods: conduction, convection, and radia- tion, Often, however, only one or two types of transfer are important. In designing a refinery furnace, it is essential that calculations be made of heat transfer rate by conduction, convection, and radiation. ‘The primary and most obvious factor that determines heat transfer rate by any of the three methods is temperature difference. In general, the greater the temperature difference be- tween two objects, the (greater/smaller) will be the rate of heat transfer. i convection straight counter-current AB, CD greater69. In the case of a poker in a fire, if the temperature dif- ference between the hot end and the cool end were increased by increasing the heat of the fire, the rate of (conduction/convection) of heat through the poker would (increase/decrease). 70. When a fan is used to force circulation of the heated air in a room, a forced convection current is set up. In this case, doubling the temperature difference (by doubling the temperature of the heater) would cause the rate of heat transfer to: A. be twice as great B. be cut in half C. decrease a little bit 71. Temperature difference is usually written with two symbols, The Greek capital letter A (delta) means ifference,” and “t” stands for “temperature,” so At (delta t) stands for —____ in . Heat Transfer Rate by Conduction 72. Heat transfer rate by conduction depends upon four (4) factors: temperature difference, thermal conductivity, area, and thickness, The greater the At (temperature difference), the greats er/smaller) will be the rate of heat transfer, 73. You know from your own experience that different ma- terials conduct heat at different rates. For example, a wooden spoon will conduct heat more (slowly/rapidly) than a metal spoon. 74. The second factor that determines the rate of heat trans- fer by conduction is called thermal conductivity, Silver is a good conductor of heat; thus, it has a high thermal conductivity. Does wood have high or low thermal conductivity? (low/high) 7. The symbol for thermal conductivity used in heat trans- fer calculations is K. ‘The higher the K of a material, the (greater/smaller) will be the rate of heat transfer by conduction, 2 conduetion increase difference, temperature greater slowly low greater76. The first two factors that determine the rate of heat conduction are: 1. At, which means =, and 2. K, which means ‘77. Most metals are relatively good conductors of heat energy. ‘Thus, most metals have (high/low) thermal conductivity. Gases do not conduct heat well. Do they have high or low thermal conductivity? ——— 78. The Table below lists coefficients of thermal conductivity. ‘THERMAL arena Temp. conpUcTIVirY, x (PT?) (F/I Building Materials: Asbestos 0111 Asphalt 0.43 Building Brick 68 04 Brick, Insulating 392 0.05 Coke 212 34 Cork 86 0.025 Wood, Pine 59 0.087 Metals: Aluminum 212 119 “s] Brass 212 60 Copper 212 218. Cast Iron 212 30 Steel 212 26 Liquids: Gasoline 86 0.078 Kerosene 68 0.086 Toluene 68 0,086, Water 86 0.356 Gases: Air 212 0.0183 Ammonia 212 0.0185 Butane 212 0.0185 Carbon Dioxide 212 0.0183 ——— If bars of each of the metals in the Table were held in the same flame, which would most rapidly become too hot to hold? 13 temperature difference thermal conductivity high low copper79. 80. 81. 82, ‘The third factor determining rate of conduction is the area of the surface (in sq. ft.), PART: 1 PART 2 In part 2 of this illustration, the area through which the heat will pass is (14; 2 times; 3 times) as great as the area in part 1. ‘The greater the area through which the heat can pass, the greater will be the rate of heat conduction, So, the rate at which heat will be conducted through the material in part 2 will be _ as great as the rate for the material in part 1. ‘Three of the four factors that determine heat conduc- tion rate are: 1. At,or __differenee 2. Kor conduetivity 3. A, or surface ‘The fourth factor (L, length of the heat path) is the thickness of the material through which the heat must pass. [= heot flow “Thickness L | 1} heot flow ‘Thickness 2L Increasing the thickness of a material will cause the rate of heat conduction to. (decrease/increase). 4 2 times twice temperature thermal area decrease83. So, of the four factors, the only one that, when in- creased, will cause the rate of heat transfer to decrease is the L _ of the material. ‘thickness 84. Increasing At will: A. not affect the heat transfer rate B. decrease the heat transfer rate C. increase the heat transfer rate c 85, Increasing A will: not affect the heat transfer rate B. increase the heat transfer rate C. decrease the heat transfer rate B 86. Increasing L will: A. not affect the rate of heat transfer B. decrease the rate of heat transfer C, increase the rate of heat transfer B 87. When the thermal conductivity of the material is high: A. the heat transfer rate will be low _ B. the heat transfer rate will be high C. the rate of heat transfer will not be affected B 88. The drawing below shows the four factors that determine the rate of heat transfer by conduction, K=Thermal Conductivity Q=rote of ect flow Lite Temperature Difference Kx Atxa Thickness=L. u 1, Aton ee temperature difference K, or thermal —__. conductivity 3. A, or —< —_—__——. of the material surface area 4. L, the length of the heat path—the thickness of the material 1589. 90. a1. 93, 94. Which one of the four factors would cause the heat transfer rate to decrease, if the value of that factor were increased: (circle one) 1. At 2K BA 4. L The formula for calculating heat transfer rate (Q) by conduetion is: Heat Transfer Rate (Q) =Kx AtxA L Q stands for heat transfer rate in BTU per hour. The symbol for the area is _____, A K stands for ________ conductivity, thermal At stands for the ____ difference, temperature and L stands for the _______ of the material. thickness Increasing the thickness of a material causes the heat transfer rate to decrease, because the farther the heat must be conducted through the material the (longer/ shorter) will be the time required. longer . The rate of heat transfer by conduction would be great- est (fastest) in which case below: (circle one) A, a wall 8 inches thick B. a wall 4 inches thick B C. a wall 16 inches thick In which case below would the rate of heat transfer by conduction be the greatest? (all other factors are the same) (cirele one) A, The temperature at the two faces of a pipe (inside and outside) are 1200°F. and 200°F. B. The temperature difference is 100°F. C. The temperature at the two faces of a pipe (inside and outside) are 1200°F and 300°F. A To increase efficiency in the use of refinery heat trans- fer equipment, the highest possible heat transfer rate is desired. In the operation of the refinery furnace it is desirable to obtain the highest heat output from the burners so that the temperature difference between the inside of the tubes and the outside will increase. This will cause the rate of heat transfer to (decrease/increase). increase 1695. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. In a furnace, the area (A) for the heat transfer is in- creased by increasing the surface area of the tubes. ‘The greater the surface area of the tubes, the greater will be the ______________ rate. In a furnace, the oil picks up the heat from the tubes as it flows from tube to tube. One of the major design problems is to make sure that there will be an adequate heat transfer rate from the (outside/inside) of the tube to the (inside/outside). Factors that Decrease Heat Transfer in the Furnace In a fired furnace there is a gas film on the outside walls of the tubes and an oil film on the inside walls. Many liquids and most gases are poor conductors of heat, so this film buildup means that to transfer enough heat to get the oil up to the required temperature, the burner combustion will have to be (increased/decreased). Since gases are such poor conductors of heat, the tem- perature drop between the outside of the gas film and the tube is quite great. ‘Metals in general have high thermal conductivity, so the temperature drop through the metal of the tube is (small/large) compared to the drop through the gas film on the outside and the oil film on the inside, Remember, high flow velocities will cause turbulent flow, which tends to make this oil film much thinner. Thus, high flow velocity will (decrease/inerease) heat transfer rate, Suppose that a thin layer of coke is formed inside the tube. Coke is a very poor conductor of heat. ‘The formation of coke inside the tube will cause the heat transfer rate to (decrease/inerease). When a layer of coke forms next to the tube wall, there may be a heat build-up in the tube, since heat will not be conducted away from the tube as well as it would be normally. So, one indication of coke formation in furnace tubes is an abnormally (high/low) tube metal temperature. 17 heat transfer outside, inside increased small increase decrease high102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. Coking can be caused by too high heat input. Even ‘though higher heat input leads to greater heat transfer, too high heat input may mean that eventually, due to coking, the heat transfer rate will (deerease/inerease). Coking can also be caused by streamlined, or laminar, flow in which the oil flows smoothly through the tubes with very little mixing. ‘This can be avoided with turbulent flow, which can be set up by (increasing/decreasing) the flow velocity. Furnace design requires consideration of each of the four factors that determine the rate of heat transfer by conduction: 1. At, or ________ difference 2. K, or conductivity 3. A, or effective heating area 4, L, or ~________ of the material through which the heat must pass. Remember, the transfer of heat in a furnace takes place by all three methods of heat transfer: and In the top section of the furnace (see frame 44 on page 8), the tubes are heated by the hot flue gases that rise ina: current, Inside the tubes the oil is heated by convection because the heated oil tends to rise in the tubes. The rate at which the oil is pumped through the furnace also affects the heat transfer rate. The faster it is pumped, the greater will be the mixing, and the more turbulent the flow; thus, the heat transfer hy will increase. In the radiant section of the furnace, the tubes can “see” the flames; thus, they will absorb heat waves. ‘The more surface exposed to the radiation, the greater will be the absorption, Thus, the more tubes exposed to the heat radiation, the (greater/smaller) will be the heat transfer rate. 18 decrease increasing temperature thermal thickness conduction convection radiation convection convection greater Now tum the page, ‘turn the book over, ond go or109, 110. 1. 112, Heat Transfer Rate by Radiation Heat transfer rate by radiation depends upon four factors: 1. surface area temperature difference type of absorbing surface distance between object and heat source We have already seen that the greater the surface area of the absorbing material, the (greater/smaller) will be the heat transfer. Heat transfer by radiation also depends upon the type of surface that receives the radiant heat. Heat, like light, is partially absorbed and partially re- flected when it hits a surface. Im general, a bright shiny surface will reflect more heat waves than it will absorb. Which would heat up’ more rapidly when exposed to heat radiation: (circle one) A. a tank painted white B. a tank painted black A theoretical object called a black body is used in mak- ing radiation calculations. The black body has the perfect absorbing surface, Thus, it will absorb all the radiant heat that hits it, Carbon lampblack is about as close to the perfect black body as any surface. It will absorb 94.5% of the heat radiation and reflect only 5.5%. The more radiant heat that is absorbed by a surface, the tsmaller/greater) will be its temperature increase. ‘The table lists the absorption coefficients of several different surfaces compared to the perfect surface, the black body, that has a coefficient of 1. Aluminum Plate 0,039 Steel 0,79 Furnace Refractories 0.85 Carbon Lampblack 0,945 Which would get the hottest if all the materials in the table were exposed to the same cource of heat radiation? 19 greater greater carbon lampblack113. 114, 116. 17. 118. Storage tanks for petroleum products are usually painted either white, to prevent absorption of heat, or black, to allow absorption of heat radiation. White Lead Paint Light Cream Paint 0.35 ‘Aluminum Paint 0.55 Gray Paint 0.75 Black Matte Paint Which paint would be the best for a tank used for storage of volatile substances such as gasoline? It can be seen that the amount of heat transferred to an object depends in part upon the surface of the object. The more heat absorbed by the surface, the (smaller/ greater) will be the heat transfer. Which of the tanks below would heat up the most from the heat radiation from the sun? (See frame 113.) - In the burning of pure hydrogen, the oxygen reacts with The reaction equa- Hydrocarbons are combinations of hydrogen and carbon. When a hydrocarbon fuel burns completely the carbon in the fuel combines with _______to form carbon dioxide (CO,) and the hydrogen in the fuel combines with oxygen to form __ (H,0). 15 water 150,000 gross net. co; HO oxygen water98. 94, 95. 97. ‘The combustion reaction for methane is: CH, + 20, —> CO, + 2H.0 Methane 2 Oxygen Carbon 2 Water Dioxide ‘The complete and perfect combustion of methane yields two products A. CO and H,0 (carbon monoxide and water) B. CO, and 2H:0 (carbon dioxide and water) C. 0, and CO (carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide) Which reaction expresses the incomplete combustion of methane? A. CH, +20. —> CO, + 2H,0 B. CH, +3/2 0, —> CO +2H,0 A reaction equation expresses the relative proportions of the reacting substances and the products. The reac- tion equation for methane is: CH, + 20, —> C0, + 2H,0 b.+ 2 = 1+2 ‘The complete combustion of methane requires molecules of oxygen. The products formed are: one molecule of ______., and two molecules of (steam) Instead of referring to 1 molecule of methane, we can change it to 1 cubie foot, or any other volume. CH, + 20, —> CO, + 2H,0 Leu. ft. + 2 cu, ft. = 1 cu, ft. + 2 cu. ft. methane oxygen carbon water. dioxide One cubie foot of methane reacts with feet of oxygen to form one (1) of carbon dioxide and two cubie feet of (steam). cubic ‘The oxygen for fuel combustion comes from the air, which is about 1/5, or 21% oxygen by volume, ‘Then, 100 cubic feet (cu. ft.) of air would contain only 21 eu. ft. of oxygen. Ten (10) cu. ft. of air would contain 1/10 as much, or 21 + 10 = (210; 2.1; .21) cu, it, of oxygen. 16 two (2) carbon dioxide (COs) water (H,0) two (2) cubic foot water 21 Now turn the pag turn the book over cond go on98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. From this reaction equation for methane combustion: CH, + 20, —> CO, + 2H,0 Leu, ft. + 2 cu. ft. = 1 cu. ft. + 2 cu. ft. You can see that the complete combustion of 1 cu. ft. of methane would require cu. ft. of oxygen. ‘The exact amount of air (not oxygen) required can be calculated easily: 2 cu. ft. O, are theoretically needed. O, is 21% of air. Therefore, 2 cu. ft. -- 21% = 9.62 cu. ft. air In other words, to get the 2 cubie feet of oxygen required for complete combustion of one (1) cubic foot of methane, we need cubie feet of air. ‘The oxygen in the air is diluted with nitrogen, which does not enter into the combustion reaction but blocks many of the oxygen molecules from reacting. So under actual combustion conditions, a certain excess amount of, is always required to insure complete If the combustion of a fuel proceeds with an insufficient supply of oxygen, the fuel will not be completely burned and will contain wareleased energy. The incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels yields carbon monoide and water instead of earbon and water formed by complete combustion, Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of fuel combustion when incomplete combustion takes place due to: A. an insufficient amount of air (oxygen) B. too much air (oxygen) When combustion takes place with an insufficient supply of oxygen, not all the fuel energy is released. Some of the energy remains in the carbon __ formed as a product. The CO boiler on fluid catalytic cracking units takes advantage of the unreleased energy in carbon (monoxide/ dioxide) by burning it to generate steam. 2 (two) 9.52 air combustion dioxide monoxide monoxide105. 106. 108. 109. 2CO + 0, —> 200, + ENERGY ‘This reaction states that two (2) molecules of ——______ react with one (1) molecule of oxygen to form two (2) molecules of with release of energy. Carbon diowide is an end product of complete combustion and does not contain heat energy that can be released by ordinary combustion, ‘Therefore, carbon dioxide (is/is not) a combustible gas. However, carbon monoxide contains fuel energy so it (can/cannot) be burned to release the heat energy. The reaction of carbon monoxide with oxygen in a CO boiler is a combustion reaction because it involves the reaction of carbon with ______to release energy. Reaction Equations A reaction equation expresses two facts about a chemi- cal reaction: 1. what the reacting substances and products are; 2. how much of each substance is involved—the relative proportions of each substance involved. Atoms of different substances have different masses, or weights, and to express this difference each element has a specific atomic weight. The atomic weight is a number that expresses the relative mass of an atom compared to the standard. Chemists chose oxygen as the standard and set its atomic weight equal to 16. Hydrogen has a mass about 1/16 as great, so the atomic weight of hydro- gen is one(1) . The mass of a carbon atom is about % of the mass of oxygen (atomic weight of 16) So, the atomic weight of carbon is: A 9 B, 12 Cc 2 C+ 0:— > CO, In this combustion reaction for carbon, two atoms of oxygen are reacting, so the total molecular weight of oxygen in this reaction is carbon monoxide carbon dioxide is not can oxygen, heat 82110. 111. 112. 118. 14. 115. ‘The weight of a molecule of a compound is found by adding the atomic weights of its atoms. c=12 O=16 ‘Thus, carbon dioxide (CO.) has a molecular weight of When pure carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, 12 molecular weights or parts, or pounds, of carbon react with parts oxygen to form 44 parts of carbon dioxide. C+0,—> CO; 12482 = 44 If the oxygen necessary for the combustion of one pound of carbon is to be calculated from the equation, then 12 parts of carbon are equal to one pound. And since there are 82 parts of oxygen reacting, there will be (more/less) than one pound of oxygen in the reaction, c + 0. — > CO, 12 pts. + 32 pts. = 44 pts. 1 lb. + 2.66 Ibs. = 3.66 Ibs. ‘The reaction requires 32 parts oxygen. Since 12 parts are equal to one 82 parts of oxygen are equal to 82 + 12, or A. 2.66 pounds B. 1.80 pounds G. 2.00 pounds The reaction then is: (fill in blank) c + 0. — > CO: 1 1b. + 2.66 Ibs. = ______ Ibs. ‘The percentage of pure oxygen in the air by weight is 23%. (By volume it is 21%) This, means that in 100 pounds of air, there would be ~£_ pounds of oxygen. And in 1 pound there would be only 0.23 pounds. 32 44 32 more pound 3.66 23116. The complete combustion of 1 pound of carbon requires 2.66 pounds of pure oxygen. Cc + O—>CO, 1 Ib, + 2.66 Ibs. = 3.66 Ibs. It would then take 2.66 + 0.23, or 11.5 pounds of air, to supply the necessary _____ pounds of pure oxygen for complete combustion. 117. The incomplete combustion reaction of carbon and oxy- gen is as follows: Cc + %0.—>CO 1 Ib. + 1.33 Ibs. = 2.83 Ibs. In this reaction, not all the fuel is burned due to a deficiency of — _. The product of this com- bustion is 118. In this reaction c+ 1 Ib, + 1.88 Ibs. = 2.88 Ibs. if one pound of carbon is burned, only 16 -> 12, or 1.83, pounds of _________are consumed to yield 2.33, pounds of CO. 119. The 2.33 pounds of CO (carbon monoxide) contain fuel energy. If this CO is subsequently burned with an addi- tional 1.33 pounds of oxygen, the reaction will go to completion: CO + 140, —> CO, 2.88 Ibs. + 1.38 Ibs. = 3.66 Ibs. The combustion of the CO will give _____ pounds of carbon (monoxide/dioxide). 120. Whenever a hydrocarbon fuel is incompletely burned, the product formed is carbon (monoxide/dioxide) . But if the carbon monoxide is subsequently burned completely, it will go to carbon (dioxide/monoxide). 121. Which of these reactions expresses the complete com- bustion of carbon? A. C+% 0:—*CO B. C+0,.—> CO; Which reaction would liberate the most energy? (A/B) 2.66 oxygen (air) carbon monoxide (CO) oxygen 3.66 monoxide dioxide122, 128. 124, 125. 126. Principles of Combustion Control Fuel combustion is never 100% efficient, but heat losses can be kept to a minimum by controlling the conditions of the combustion. The main variable for combustion control is the amount of excess air supplied to the reaction. ‘There are four ways in which heat is lost during fuel combustion: 1. incomplete combustion loss 2. dry-gas loss, or stack loss 3. moisture loss 4, unaccountable loss, radiation When a fuel is completely burned, the carbon in the fuel combines completely with oxygen to form carbon dioxide: c+0.—> C+%0.—>co When a fuel is burned with insufficient oxygen, the product formed is carbon , which con- tains unreleased energy. Incomplete combustion is caused by too much (fuel/air) in relation to the amount of (fuel/air). Control of incomplete combustion loss would mean (inereasing/decreasing) the amount of excess air. The only way to determine exactly how efficiently a fuel is burning is to analyze the gases given off by combustion (flue gas), and thus determine the concen- tration of the different products formed by the com- bustion. If the flue gas analysis showed a very high percentage of carbon monoxide, this would mean that: A. The combustion was complete and efficient, B. Fuel was being wasted by incomplete combustion, It might seem that the answer to incomplete combustion loss would simply be to provide large amounts of excess for the reaction. monoxide fuel air increasing air127. Within limits, this solution (providing large amounts of excess air) to minimize incomplete combustion is correct. But if there is too much excess air, great quantitites of heat will be carried up the stack as the air passes through the furnace. ‘This type of heat loss is called (incomplete combustion/ dry-gas) loss. 128, So, too little excess air means tion loss, and too much excess air mean: loss—too much heat carried out the stack. 129. Flue-gas with an oxygen content between 2.5% and 8.5% usually indicates that the fuel is burning efficiently. (Exact O, percentages cannot be given because they depend on furnace and fuel.) Within the range of 2.5% to 3.5% of oxygen in the fiue-gas the combustion has enough excess air to mini- mize —_ and not too much excess air to cause excessive dry-gas or stack loss. 130, If analysis of the flue gas revealed an oxygen content of 10%, this would mean that: A. Fuel was being wasted by incomplete combus- tion B. The combustion was proceeding efficiently C. The dry-gas loss was too great; thus, fuel was being wasted 181. When the dry-gas loss is too great, as indicated by excessive amounts of oxygen in the flue gas, the amount of excess air should be (increased/decreased). 182. When incomplete combustion loss is excessive, the flue- gas analysis will reveal large amounts of _ This loss is controlled by (decreasing/increasing) the amount of excess air, 188. Normally, a flue-gas oxygen content between 2.5'% and 3.5% indicates efficient combustion. Incomplete combustion can be detected in two ways by flue-gas analysis: A. High percentages of _ B. Low percentages (less than 2.5%) of . 22 dry-gas incomplete ary-gas incomplete combustion decreased carbon monoxide increasing carbon monoxide oxygen184. Moisture loss is heat absorbed by moisture in the fuel and in the air. ‘This type of heat loss is determined by the moisture content of the fuel and the humidity of the —___ used for combustion. 135. The fourth type of heat loss, the unaccountable toss, refers to heat losses that cannot be controlled by com- bustion regulation. Unaccountable losses include such things as radiation loss. But the two major heat losses are incomplete combustion and dry-gas loss, and these are controlled by the relative amounts of _______ and mixed for combustion. Analysis of Combustion Products 136. To control heat loss in fuel combustion, it is necessary to make combustion caleulations to find out exactly how well a particular fuel is performing under actual com- bustion conditions. When methane is completely burned, two products are formed: carbon diowide (CO.), and water (steam). CH, + 20, —> CO, + 2H.0 If a sample of the combustion gases showed a high per- centage of carbon monoxide (CO), this would mean that: A. The fuel was not being completely burned B. Excessive heat was escaping up the stack 187. The complete combustion of one volume of methane (CH,) requires _____volume(s) of oxygen. 138. CH, + 20, —> CO, + 2H.0 1vol. + 2vol, = 1vol. + 2 vol. Leu. ft. + 2eu. ft. = Leu. ft. + 2eu. ft. ‘The combustion of one (1) cubic foot of methane would require_____cubie feet of oxygen. 23 air (oxygen) fuel, air two (2) two (2)139. 140. 141. 142, 143. ‘The volume of oxygen in air is 21%. The theoreti- cal amount of air required to supply 2 cubic feet of oxygen is: 2+ 0.21 = 9.52 cu, ft. The theoretical amount of air required is then 9.52 cubic feet. The amount of oxygen in this amount of air is 2 cubic feet, so the remainder (about 79%) would be mostly nitrogen. ‘The analysis of the air for the reaction would be: (by subtraction) 100% = 9.52 cu, ft. 21% O, = 2.00 cu. ft. 79% Ne cu. ft. After the combustion, the air will theoretically contain no oxygen, since the reaction will use all 2 cu. feet. In theory, the 2 cubic feet of oxygen will have reacted with the carbon in the fuel to form CH, + 20, —> CO: + 2H.0 leu. ft. + 2cu. ft. = Leu. ft. + 2cu. ft Since the nitrogen in the air does not enter into the reaction, the flue gas will contain: A. more than 7.52 cu. ft. nitrogen B. the original amount of nitrogen (‘7.52 cu. ft.) C. less than 7.52 cu. ft. of nitrogen ‘The water formed in the reaction will not show up in the analysis of the flue gas. The volume of the reaction products that can be analyzed would then be: volume of carbon dioxide (COz) 1.00 eu. ft. volume of nitrogen (Nz) 7.52 cu. ft. Total volume of products that can be analyzed ‘The percentage of CO, in the flue gas would then be calculated as follows: 1 gig * 100 = 11.7% ‘Theoretically then, with no excess air, flue gas from the combustion of methane (CH,) would contain CO, and the remaining 88.3% would be 24 152 carbon dioxide 8.52 1.7 nitrogen144. 145. 146. 147. 148, 149. In this theoretical situation, the flue gas would contain only CO, and nitrogen; so the analysis would be: CO, = 11.7% oO, 0.0% co = Since, in actual practice, not every molecule of oxygen will react with the fuel, it is necessary to supply an excess amount of air to the combustion. So, in actual practice, there (would/would not) be some )2 in the flue gas. Under actual combustion conditions, unless there is suf- ficient excess air, not all of the fuel will burn completely, so the flue gas could contain some —_ as well as carbon dioxide. It is important that the excess air is not too great. Too much excess air means (greater/smaller) heat loss to the atmosphere in the extra oxygen, nitrogen, and moisture. Too little air for combustion means fuel waste due to __— combustion. Inefficient fuel combustion can sometimes be detected by a smoky stack. But to control combustion accurately, quantitative analy- sis of the flue gas must be made to determine exactly how much carbon dioxide, oxygen, and carbon are present in the flue gas. We have seen that the theroetically perfect combustion of methane would yield a maximum CO, flue gas con- centration of 11.7%. In actual practice, the reaction would be supplied with some excess air. If the excess air were 13%, then the flue gas would show 2.6% Os. ‘The percentage of CO, under these conditions would be (more/less) than 11.7%. 25 0.0 would carbon monoxide greater incomplete monoxide less150. 151. 152. 158. 154. In the actual combustion of methane (CH,), the CO. concentration would be 10.8% with 2.6% oxygen in the flue gas. ‘The concentration of CO. in the flue gas depends upon the carbon-hydrogen ratio of the fuel being burned. So you would expect the combustion of propane (C;Hs) to yield (higher/lower) percentages of CO.. Under the same conditions of 18% excess air, the com- bustion of propane would yield 12.1% CO.. Compare the flue gas analysis figures for the combustion of methane (CH,) and propane (CsHs) (13% excess air) Methane Propane CO, = 10.8% C0. = 12.1% 0. = 26% O= 26% Which reaction would yield the most energy: A. the combustion of methane under the above conditions B. the combustion of propane under the above conditions As the carbon-hydrogen ratio of the fuel increases, the amount of CO, formed (increases/deereases) and thus, the amount of energy liberated by the combustion (increases /decreases). ‘Thus, no hard and fast rule ean be made for the optimum CO, concentration or for optimum 0, concentration. These factors are dependent upon the type of furnace being used and the ___- _____ratio of the fuel being burned. In refinery furnaces, continuous analysis of the flue gas can be made by gas analyzers that determine the O, content of the flue gas. Thus, the operator can have a frequent check on com- bustion performance. If the O. concentration rises too high, fuel is being wasted by: A. dry-gas, or stack loss—(excess air should be decreased) B. incomplete combustion—(exeess air should be increased) higher increases increases carbon-hydrogen155. 156. 157. If the continuous O, analyzer indicates that the oxygen concentration is too low, this means combustion loss. In this case, the amount of excess air should be (increased /decreased ) Orsat Analysis ‘The most important instrument for complete flue-gas analysis is the Orsat gas analyzer. ‘The Orsat analyzes flue gases by the process of absorp- tion, A measured sample of gas is first passed through a chemical that removes only the CO.. Then the gas volume is remeasured, the amount of volume missing from the sample being the amount of — in the original sample. After absorption of the CO,, the remaining gas is mixed with another solution that absorbs the oxygen from the sample. Again the gas is measured to determine exactly how much gas was absorbed by the 0, (oxygen) absorbing solution, This amount is the volume of —_____ in the sample. incomplete increased CO, (carbon dioxide) 02 (oxygen)158. This process is repeated a third time and the remaining gas is mixed with a solution that will absorb all the CO from the sample. In this way the total amounts of the three gases—CO:, » and can be determined. 02, CO 159. From the drawing in frame 156 you can see that the Orsat gas analyzer consists of a measuring burette connected to three absorption vessels, or pipettes. Each absorption pipette contains a different chemical solution for absorption of a specific type of gas from the sample. The first pipette contains a potassium hydroxide solution for absorption of COs. ‘The second pipette contains alkaline pyrogallol for ab- sorption of ‘The third pipette contains cuprous chloride, which ab- sorbs the co 160. The potassium hydroxide solution in the first pipette absorbs the CO. from the sample; it does not absorb the O, or the CO. ‘The pyrogallol solution will absorb CO., as well as O., so analysis for oxygen is always made (before/after) after the CO, absorption. 161. The cuprous chloride solution in the third pipette ab- sorbs CO; and 0. as well as CO. So, the analysis for CO is always carried out (first/last). last 162. Look at the drawing. to sole tbe te mole ate te verge ae vee coven ro sare Tune 2 oF To AIR 3. eLosD To AL CONNECTIONS ‘The measuring burette has a three-way valve at its top. In position 1 the burette is open to the gas sample tube. In position 2 it is open to the outside atmosphere. In position 8 it is closed to all outside connections. While the flue gas sample is being drawn into the burette, the valve is in position — 1 (one) When the gas sample is being forced into the pipettes, the valve must be in position 3 (three)168. ‘The measuring burette is permanently connected to each of the pipettes by a header. Each pipette has a needle valve or cock at the top. So, while 2 measured sample is being passed into the first pipette, the needle valve on the first pipette would be (open/closed) and the valves on the second and third pipettes would be (open/closed). 164. The flow of the gas sample from the measuring burette to the absorption pipettes is controlled by the water-filled leveling bottle. This bottle is connected by rubber tubing to the bottom of the burette. Thus, when the bottle is raised, the water level in the measuring burette will (rise/drop) and force the gas sample into one of the absorption pipettes, 165. After a gas sample has been drawn into the burette, the three-way valve is opened to the atmosphere, and the leveling bottle is raised until the water level in the burette reaches the zero mark. After each absorption, the gas is remeasured with the water in the leveling bottle exactly at the level of water in the burette. This is to insure that the volume measure- ment is always carried out under (the same/different) atmospheric pressure. 166. Before any of the gas is absorbed, the gas sample dis- places all the water in the measuring burette down to the zero mark. After some of the gas has been removed by absorption, there is more room for water in the burette, and the water level is (higher/lower) than the zero mark. 167. The first step in the gas analysis after the sample has been measured in the burette is to (raise/lower) the leveling bottle so that the gas sample is forced into the first absorption pipette by the water. 168. After a few seconds have passed to allow for the absorp- tion of the (CO./0./CO) by the potassium hydroxide solution, the leveling bottle is lowered to allow the gas to return to the measuring burette. open closed rise the same higher raise COs169. 170. 171 172. 178. 174, If the gas sample contained no CO., the volume of the sample would have (decreased/remained the same). The water level would still be at the zero mark, indicating that the percentage of CO, in the sample is ___%. Suppose the CO, content of the sample were 10%. Then, 1/10 of the sample volume would be removed by the potassium hydroxide solution. ‘The water level in the burette would rise to the 10 mark, indicating that % of the gas mixture was COs. (‘The absorption process should be repeated until a con- stant reading is obtained.) So, the Orsat analysis reveals that the gas contains 10% CO;, Next, the gas would be passed through the pyro- gallol solution for O, analysis. If after both the O, and the CO, have been absorbed, the reading on the burette is 14%, this means that the flue gas contains what percentage of O,? (Fill in the blank.) ‘The last step in the Orsat analysis is the exposure of the remaining gas to the cuprous chloride solution. This solution will remove all of the —__ from the flue gas sample. (Normally, we would not expect to find any CO in the flue gas if there were 4% O, present.) Interpretation of Flue Gas Analysis ‘The percentage of oxygen in the flue gas (4%) is slightly higher than the economical range of 2.5% to 8.5%. Therefore, the above analysis would indicate fuel waste bys A. Incomplete combustion B. Dry-gas loss (excessive heat loss through the stack) ‘To minimize the loss of heat through the stack, the amount of excess air should be (increased/decreased). 30 remained the same 0 (zero) 10 carbon monoxide decreased175. Suppose Orsat analysis revealed the following flue gas composition : ‘This high CO concentration would mean: A. Efficient combustion B. Excessive heat loss through the stack (dry-gas loss) C. Heat loss and fuel waste due to incomplete combustion 176. What should be done to improve the above combustion: A. Nothing, since it is proceeding efficiently B. The amount of excess air should be increased C. The amount of excess air should be decreased 177. A smoky stack indicates that fuel is being wasted by * incomplete combustion. ‘Thus, a smoky stack would mean (increasing /decreasing) the amount of excess air. 178. A deficiency of air means fuel waste due to combustion because unreleased energy is escaping in the ___________ going out of the stack. 179. The factors that indicate incomplete combustion are: 1. high percentages of in the flue gas 2, a__stack 8. (inereased/decreased) fuel consumption for the same heating requirement. ‘To control incomplete combustion loss, the amount of excess air must be (decreased/increased). 180. Too much excess air also means fuel waste due to heat being carried out the stack by the extra gases passing through the furnace. ‘The factors that indicate too much air are: 1. high percentages of _________in the flue gas 2. high stack temperatures (inereased/decreased) fuel consumption for the same heating requirement ‘To control dry-gas, or stack loss, the amount of excess air should be (decreased/increased). 31 increasing incomplete carbon monoxide carbon monoxide smoky increased increased 0; (oxygen) increased decreased181. There is no one correct answer to the amount of excess air that should be provided for efficient combustion. The correct amount of excess air is the amount that gives the most efficient furnace operation and the (maximum/minimum) fuel consumption for the given minimum heating requirement.