Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit
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1 Name
2 Variants
2.1 Vedic Sanskrit
2.2 Classical Sanskrit
3 Contemporary usage
3.1 As a spoken language
3.2 In official use
3.3 Contemporary literature and patronage
3.4 In music
3.5 In mass media
3.6 As a liturgical language
3.7 Symbolic usage
4 Historical usage
4.1 Origin and development
4.2 Standardisation by Panini
4.3 Coexistence with vernacular languages
4.4 Decline
5 Public education and popularisation
Sanskrit
sasktam
[smskr t m]
Region
Greater India
Era
Revival
Language
family
Indo-European
Early forms
Vedic Sanskrit
Indo-Iranian
Indo-Aryan
Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Writing
system
Official
language in
India
Language codes
ISO 639-1
sa
ISO 639-2
san
ISO 639-3
san
Glottolog
sans1269
(http://glottolog.org
/resource/languoid
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/id/sans1269)[3]
The Sanskrit verbal adjective sskta- may be translated as "put together, constructed, well or completely
formed; refined, adorned, highly elaborated". It is derived from the root word sa-skar- "to put together,
compose, arrange, prepare"[10] (cf. Norwegian: sammen skjr, Afrikaans: saamskaar, Hindi: saskr).
As a term for "refined or elaborated speech" the adjective appears only in Epic and Classical Sanskrit in the
Manusmti and the Mahabharata. The language referred to as saskta "the cultured language" has by
definition always been a "sacred" and "sophisticated" language, used for religious and learned discourse in
ancient India, in contrast to the language spoken by the people, prkta- "natural, artless, normal, ordinary".[11]
The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit, with the language of the Rigveda being the
oldest and most archaic stage preserved, dating back to as early as the early second millennium BCE.[12][13]
This qualifies Rigvedic Sanskrit as one of the oldest attestations of any Indo-Iranian language, and one of the
earliest members of the Indo-European languages, which include English and most European languages.[14]
Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pini, around the fourth century
BCE.[15] Its position in the cultures of Greater India is akin to that of Latin and Ancient Greek in Europe and it
has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in India,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Nepal.[16]
Vedic Sanskrit
Sanskrit, as defined by Pini, evolved out of the earlier Vedic form. The present form of Vedic Sanskrit can be
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Classical Sanskrit
As a spoken language
In the 2001 census of India, 14,135 people reported Sanskrit as their native language.[1] Since the 1990s,
movements to spread spoken Sanskrit have been increasing. Organisations like Samskrita Bharati conduct
Speak Sanskrit workshops to popularise the language.
Indian newspapers have published reports about several villages, where, as a result of recent revival attempts,
large parts of the population, including children, are learning Sanskrit and are even using it to some extent in
everyday communication:
1. Mattur, Shimoga district, Karnataka[22]
2. Jhiri, Rajgarh district, Madhya Pradesh[23]
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In official use
In India, Sanskrit is among the 14 original languages of the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution. The state of
Uttarakhand in India has ruled Sanskrit as its second official language. In October 2012 social activist Hemant
Goswami filed a writ petition in the Punjab and Haryana High Court for declaring Sanskrit as a 'minority'
language.[27][28][29]
In music
Sanskrit is used extensively in the Carnatic and Hindustani branches of classical music. Kirtanas, bhajans,
stotras, and shlokas of Sanskrit are popular throughout India. The samaveda uses musical notations in several of
its recessions.[34]
In Mainland China, musicians such as Sa Dingding have written pop songs in Sanskrit.[35]
In mass media
Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. Sudharma, a daily newspaper in
Sanskrit, has been published out of Mysore, India, since the year 1970, while Sanskrit Vartman Patram and
Vishwasya Vrittantam started in Gujarat during the last five years.[36] Since 1974, there has been a short daily
news broadcast on state-run All India Radio.[36] These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on
AIR's website.[37][38] Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet through the DD National channel at
6:55 AM IST.[39]
As a liturgical language
Sanskrit is the sacred language of various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. It is used during worship in
Hindu temples throughout the world. In Newar Buddhism, it is used in all monasteries, while Mahayana and
Tibetan Buddhist religious texts and sutras are in Sanskrit as well as vernacular languages. Jain texts are written
in Sanskrit,[40][41] including the Tattvartha sutra, Ratnakaranda rvakcra , the Bhaktamara Stotra and the
Agamas.
It is also popular amongst the many practitioners of yoga in the West, who find the language helpful for
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Symbolic usage
In Nepal, India and Indonesia, Sanskrit
phrases are widely used as mottoes for
various national, educational and social
organisations:
Standardisation by Panini
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The oldest surviving Sanskrit grammar is Pini's Adhyy ("Eight-Chapter Grammar"). It is essentially a
prescriptive grammar, i.e., an authority that defines Sanskrit, although it contains descriptive parts, mostly to
account for some Vedic forms that had become rare in Pini's time. Classical Sanskrit became fixed with the
grammar of Pini (roughly 500 BCE), and remains in use as a learned language through the present day.[47][48]
Decline
There are a number of sociolinguistic studies of spoken Sanskrit which strongly suggest that oral use of modern
Sanskrit is limited, having ceased development sometime in the past.[50]
Sheldon Pollock argues that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead".[18]:393
Pollock has further argued that, while Sanskrit continued to be used in literary cultures in India, it was never
adapted to express the changing forms of subjectivity and sociality as embodied and conceptualised in the
modern age.[18]:416 Instead, it was reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and
any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses.[18]:398 A notable exception are the military references of
Nlakaha Caturdhara's 17th-century commentary on the Mahbhrata.[51]
Pollock's characterisation has been contested by other authors like Hanneder and Hatcher, who point out that
modern works continue to be produced in Sanskrit.[52]
On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is
quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read
will probably convince most people that it cannot be a dead language in the most common usage of
the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between
academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial
way, Sanskrit is dead."
Hanneder[53]
Hanneder has also argued that modern works in Sanskrit are either ignored or their "modernity" contested.[54]
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When the British imposed a Western-style education system in India in the nineteenth century, knowledge of
Sanskrit and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional
style into a form of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe.[55]
School curricula
The CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) of India, along with several other state education boards,
has made Sanskrit an alternative option to the state's own official language as a second or third language choice
in the schools it governs. In such schools, learning Sanskrit is an option for grades 5 to 8 (Classes V to VIII).
This is true of most schools affiliated with the ICSE board, especially in those states where the official language
is Hindi. Sanskrit is also taught in traditional gurukulas throughout India.[59]
In the West
St James Junior School in London, England, offers Sanskrit as part of the curriculum.[60] In the United States,
since September 2009, high school students have been able to receive credits as Independent Study or toward
Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit, as part of the "SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign
Language" program coordinated by Samskrita Bharati.[61] In Australia, the Sydney private boys' high school
Sydney Grammar School offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12, including for the Higher School
Certificate.[62]
Universities
A list of Sanskrit universities is given below in chronological order:
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Year Est.
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Name
Location
1791
Varanasi
1876
Sadvidya Pathashala
Mysore
1961
Darbhanga
1962
Tirupati
1962
New Delhi
1970
New Delhi
1981
Puri
1986
Nepal
1993
Kalady
1997
Ramtek
2001
2005
Somnath-Veraval
2008
Ujjain
2011
Bangalore
Many universities throughout the world train and employ Sanskrit scholars, either within a separate Sanskrit
department or as part of a broader focus area, such as South Asian studies or Linguistics. For example, Delhi
university has about 400 Sanskrit students, about half of which are in post-graduate programmes.[36]
European scholarship
European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth (16201668)
and Johann Ernst Hanxleden (16811731), is considered responsible for
the discovery of an Indo-European language family by Sir William Jones
(17461794). This research played an important role in the development
of Western philology, or historical linguistics.[63]
Sir William Jones was one of the most influential philologists of his
time. He told The Asiatic Society in Calcutta on 2 February 1786:
The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a
wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more
copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than
either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in
the roots of verbs and in the forms of grammar, than could
have been produced by accident; so strong, indeed, that no
philologer could examine them all three, without believing
them to have sprung from some common source, which,
perhaps, no longer exists.[64]
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British attitudes
Orientalist scholars of the 18th century like Sir William Jones marked a wave of enthusiasm for Indian culture
and for Sanskrit. According to Thomas Trautmann, after this period of "Indomania", a certain hostility to
Sanskrit and to Indian culture in general began to assert itself in early 19th century Britain, manifested by a
neglect of Sanskrit in British academia. This was the beginning of a general push in favor of the idea that India
should be culturally, religiously and linguistically assimilated to Britain as far as possible. Trautmann considers
two separate and logically opposite sources for the growing hostility: one was "British Indophobia", which he
calls essentially a developmentalist, progressivist, liberal, and non-racial-essentialist critique of Hindu
civilisation as an aid for the improvement of India along European lines; the other was scientific racism, a
theory of the English "common-sense view" that Indians constituted a "separate, inferior and unimprovable
race".[65]
Classical Sanskrit distinguishes about 36 phonemes; the presence of allophony leads the writing systems to
generally distinguish 48 phones, or sounds. The sounds are traditionally listed in the order vowels (Ac),
diphthongs (Hal), anusvara and visarga, plosives (Spara), nasals, and finally the liquids and fricatives, written
in IAST as follows:
a i u ; e ai o au
k kh g gh ; c ch j jh ; h h ; t th d dh n; p ph b bh m
y r l v; s h
The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit date to the first century BCE.
They are in the Brahmi script, which was originally used for Prakrit, not
Sanskrit. It has been described as a paradox that the first evidence of
written Sanskrit occurs centuries later than that of the Prakrit languages
which are its linguistic descendants.[66] In northern India, there are
Brhm inscriptions dating from the third century BCE onwards, the
oldest appearing on the famous Prakrit pillar inscriptions of king
Ashoka. The earliest South Indian inscriptions in Tamil Brahmi, written
Illustration of Devanagari as used for
in early Tamil, belong to the same period. When Sanskrit was written
writing Sanskrit
down, it was first used for texts of an administrative, literary or scientific
nature. The sacred texts were preserved orally, and were set down in
writing "reluctantly" (according to one commentator), and at a comparatively late date.[67][68]
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Romanisation
Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been transliterated
using the Latin alphabet. The system most commonly used
today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit
Transliteration), which has been the academic standard
Sanskrit in modern Indian and other Brahmi scripts:
since 1888. ASCII-based transliteration schemes have also
May iva bless those who take delight in the
evolved because of difficulties representing Sanskrit
language of the gods. (Klidsa)
characters in computer systems. These include
Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS, a transliteration scheme that
is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as
rendering issues. With the wide availability of Unicode-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online.
It is also possible to type using an alphanumeric keyboard and transliterate to Devanagari using software like
Mac OS X's international support.
European scholars in the 19th century generally preferred Devanagari for the transcription and reproduction of
whole texts and lengthy excerpts. However, references to individual words and names in texts composed in
European Languages were usually represented with Roman transliteration. From the 20th century onwards,
because of production costs, textual editions edited by Western scholars have mostly been in Romanised
transliteration.[71]
The Sanskrit grammatical tradition, Vykaraa, one of the six Vedangas, began in the late Vedic period and
culminated in the Adhyy of Pini, which consists of 3990 sutras (ca. fifth century BCE). About a century
after Pini (around 400 BCE), Ktyyana composed Vrtikas on the Pini stras. Patanjali, who lived three
centuries after Pini, wrote the Mahbhya, the "Great Commentary" on the Adhyy and Vrtikas.
Because of these three ancient Vykarains (grammarians), this grammar is called Trimuni Vykarana. To
understand the meaning of the sutras, Jayaditya and Vmana wrote a commentary, the Ksik, in 600 CE.
Pinian grammar is based on 14 Shiva sutras (aphorisms), where the whole mtrika (alphabet) is abbreviated.
This abbreviation is called the Pratyhara.[72]
Sanskrit verbs are categorized into ten classes, which can be conjugated to form the present, imperfect,
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imperative, optative, perfect, aorist, future, and conditional moods and tenses. Before Classical Sanskrit, older
forms also included a subjunctive mood. Each conjugational ending conveys person, number, and voice.
Nouns are highly inflected, including three grammatical genders, three numbers, and eight cases. Nominal
compounds are common, and can include over 10 word stems.
Word order is free, though there is a strong tendency toward subjectobjectverb, the original system of Vedic
prose.
Indic languages
Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base; for
instance, Hindi is a "Sanskritised register" of the Khariboli dialect. All modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well
as Munda and Dravidian languages, have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words),
or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at
roughly fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary forms of
Malayalam and Kannada.[16] Literary texts in Telugu are lexically Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous
extent, perhaps seventy percent or more.[73]
In popular culture
Satyagraha, an opera by Philip Glass, uses texts from the Bhagavad Gita, sung in Sanskrit.[77][78] The closing
credits of The Matrix Revolutions has a prayer from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The song "Cyber-raga"
from Madonna's album Music includes Sanskrit chants,[79] and Shanti/Ashtangi from her 1998 album Ray of
Light, which won a Grammy, is the ashtanga vinyasa yoga chant.[80] The lyrics include the mantra Om
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shanti.[81] Composer John Williams featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for Indiana Jones and the Temple of
Doom and in Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace.[82][83] The theme song of Battlestar Galactica 2004 is
the Gayatri Mantra, taken from the Rigveda.[84] The lyrics of "The Child In Us" by Enigma also contains
Sanskrit verses.[85].
Devanagari
Sanskrit numerals
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Maurer, Walter (2001). The Sanskrit language : an introductory grammar and reader. Surrey, England:
Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-1382-4.
Sanskrit edition of
Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Wikiquote has quotations
related to: Sanskrit
For a list of words relating
to Sanskrit, see the
Sanskrit language
category of words in
Wiktionary, the free
dictionary.
Wikibooks has a book on
the topic of: Sanskrit
Wikivoyage has a
phrasebook for Sanskrit.
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Sanskrit.
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