Refrigeration and Airconditioning

Prof. M. Ramgopal
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur
Lecture No. # 41
Cooling & heating Load Calculations
(Contd.)
(Refer Slide Time: 00:00:49 min)

Welcome back, the objectives of this particular lecture are to on discuss estimation of
steady state heat transfer rate through building walls or roofs, discuss estimation of
overall heat transfer coefficient of different types of walls and roofs then discuss
governing equations for unsteady state heat transfer through building walls and roofs and
finally estimation of unsteady heat transfer rate to the conditioned space using CLTD or
ETD values from tables.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:01:16 min)

At the end of the lecture you should be able to find steady state heat transfer rate through
building walls and roofs, calculate overall heat transfer coefficients of different types of
walls, write governing equations for unsteady state heat transfer through building walls
and roofs and finally estimate unsteady heat transfer rate to the conditioned space using
CLTD or ETD values from the tables.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:01:41 min)

Let me give a brief introduction to heat transfer through building structures due to
temperature different between indoors and outdoors.Hheat transfer takes place through
the walls and roof of the building this type of heat transfer is known as fabric heat gain or
loss. If the building is gaining heat you call it as heat gain, if it is losing heat it you call it
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as fabric heat loss. The fabric heat gain or loss is sensible heat transfer. That means it
does not involve any latent heat transfer process and the exact analysis of buildings to
estimate fabric heat transfer is very complicated. Because of the fact that the outdoor and
indoor conditions change continually and buildings are of diverse shape and orientation
and a wide variety of materials are used in construction. So because of these factors exact
analysis of buildings is very difficult.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:02:34 min)

First let us look at one dimensional steady state heat transfer through buildings heat
transfer through the building is assumed to be steady if the indoor and outdoor conditions
do not vary with time. So these are the assumptions under which you can apply one
dimensional steady state heat transfer though the buildings first requirement is that the
outdoor and indoor conditions should not vary with time. And the heat transfer is
assumed to be one dimensional if the thickness of the building wall is small compared to
the other two dimension that means the wall thickness is small compared to its width and
height then you can treat it as one dimensional steady state heat conduction problem. In
general all building walls are multi layered and non homogeneous and could be non
isotropic. Also first let us look at homogeneous walls then we'll we shall discuss non
homogeneous walls.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:03:21 min)

So homogeneous wall is subjected to radiation and convection heat transfer on both sides
while heat transfer through the wall is by conduction. So let me show a picture of this. So
this a homogeneous wall okay. So this is a wall and these are the outdoors and these, the
indoors and just for an example let us assume that the outdoor temperature T naught is
greater than indoor temperature Ti okay. And you have outdoor surface I mean the outer
surface of the wall is subjected to radiation heat transfer and it is also subjected to
convective heat transfer. So heat transfer takes place from the outdoor to the outer surface
of the wall by radiation and by convection.
Then heat transfer through the wall takes place by conduction. Then heat transfer from
the wall to the indoors from the inner surface of the wall takes place again by radiation
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and by convection okay. And since we are talking about steady state heat transfer
problem whatever heat enters the wall from the outside should be equal to heat leaving
the wall from the inner surface okay. So heat transfer at the outer surface is always equal
to heat transfer to the from the inner surface okay, that is why it is steady state.
Now the heat transfer rate per unit area of the wall under steady state is given by q
subscript in is equal to q subscript co plus q subscript ro which is equal to q subscript ci
plus q subscript ri what is q subscript co q subscript co is nothing but the convective heat
transfer from the outdoor air to the outer surface of the wall. And q subscript ro is the
radiation radiative heat transfer from the outer surface to the outer surface and q ci is the
convective heat transfer from the inner surface to the conditioned space and q ri is the
radiant heat transfer from the inner surface to the conditioned space.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:05:32 min)

By linearising the radiative heat transfer coefficient we can write the heat transfer rate as,
q in is equal to h naught into t naught minus T wo which is equal to hi into Twi minus Ti
where hi and hr h naught are inner and outer surface conductances okay. So these are
this is known as outer surface conductance and this is known as inner surface
conductance and T naught and Ti are the outer and inner dry bulb temperatures and T
subscript wo and T subscript wi are the temperatures of the outer surface of the wall and
inner surface of the wall respectively and from the resistance network the surface
conductances hi and h naught are given by; let me show the resistance network here.
Okay. So this again shows the wall and as I have mentioned this is the outer surface of
the wall and here you have radiation and you also have convection okay. So and these
two heat transfer modes takes place parallely okay. So you have one parallel path by
which radiation is taking place and another path through which convection is taking
place. So radiation is taking place form a radiant source at temperature T so and
convection is taking place from the outdoor dry bulb temperature T subscript o and one
by h ro. This is your radiative resistance to radiative heat transfer and this is a resistance
to convective heat transfer on the outer surface side. And through the wall the heat
transfer is by conduction. So this is the conduction resistance where delta x is thickness
of the wall and kw is the thermal conductivities of all material and again from the inner
surface to the conditioned space. That means to the indoors you have heat transfer by
radiation and convection. So you have radiation heat transfer and convection heat

transfer. So you can see here that again one by h subscript ri is a resistance to radiation
heat transfer inside the conditioned space and this is resistance to convective heat transfer
okay.
So now we can write an equivalent circuit by combining these two parallel resistances
into a single resistance one by h naught and similarly for the inside surface side we can
combine these two resistances into a single resistance one by hi so this h naught and hi
are the equivalent resistances which consider both radiation as well as convection heat
transfer on the outer surface side as well as the inner surface side. So you can easily show
from the network that h subscript i. That is the inner surface conductance is equal to h
subscript ci plus h subscript ri into Twi minus Tsi divided by Twi minus Ti okay, where
as I said this is your inner convective heat transfer coefficient. This is the inner linearised
radiative heat transfer coefficient this is the temperature of the wall on the inner side and
this is the temperature of the conditioned space surface temperature of the conditioned
space okay.
So this is the dry bulb temperature of the conditioned space similarly for the outside
surface conductance you can write an equation of the which is of the similar form and
you see here that if, for example, if the inside surface temperature is same as the inside
dry bulb temperature then hi is simply equal to hci plus hri. Similarly for the outside if
the outside surface temperature t subscript s o is equal to outdoor dry bulb air temperature
then you will find that h naught is equal to simply hco plus hro.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:09:06 min)

Assuming inside air to be still normally in the conditioned space we have to maintain
very low temperatures, very low air velocities to avoid the problem of draft. So typically
the air velocities are of the order of point one five to four point two five meter per
second. So for all practical purposes you can treat air inside a conditioned space to be still
air. So if the air is still air then the heat transfer between the air and the surface will be
because of natural convection okay. So if want to estimate the convective heat transfer
coefficient in the condition inside the conditioned space you have to apply suitable
natural convective heat transfer correlations okay. A simple correlation is given here for
example h subscript ci is the natural convection heat transfer coefficient inside the
conditioned space. This is equal to one point four to multiplied by delta T by L to the
power of one by four where delta T is a temperature different between the surface and the
air and L is the length or height of the surface okay.
So this generally valid for atmospheric air okay. So if you know the surface temperature
and the air temperature and the dimensions of the wall you can calculate the heat transfer
coefficient and as for as the outside heat transfer coefficient is concerned normally due to
wind speed the heat transfer from the outside air to the outer surface of the wall is by
force convection okay. So once, hence one has to use suitable force convection heat
transfer correlation to estimate hco okay. So you have to use hm if it is horizontal wall
then you have to use force convection heat transfer coefficient for flow over horizontal
wall like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:10:44 min)

And the linearized radiative heat transfer coefficient hr is calculated from the equation.
This we have discussed while discussing fundamentals of heat transfer the linearized heat
transfer coefficient hr okay. So this is equal given by this expression where t one and t
two are the two surface temperatures between which radiation heat transfer is taking
place and epsilon is the absorbsity of the wall and this sigma is the Stefan Boltzmann
constant right. And the temperature should be in absolute scale okay. And typical values
of inner and outer surface conductances have been estimated for different conditions of
air motion direction of heat transfer orientation of the surface and emissivity of the
surface. Let me show you some typical values.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:11:33 min)

Okay. So this table shows as I said surface conductance values in watt per meter square
Kelvin for different orientations okay. Different air velocities and surface emissivity, for
example, take this is the orientation of the surface is horizontal and the air velocity is still
air. That means you have to you can apply this still air condition to the conditioned space
inside the building okay. And if the direction of the heat flow is upwards and if the
surface emissivity is point nine then the heat transfer coefficient is nine point four watt
per meter square Kelvin if the surface emissivity is point seven. Then the heat transfer
coefficient is five point two watt per meter square Kelvin and if the emissivity if point
five this is the heat transfer coefficient.
What you mean by horizontal and direction of heat flow is of you have a wall like this
okay. This is a horizontal wall right and you have air here and direction of heat transfer is
upward that means heat transfer taking place form the air to the wall in this direction
okay, where the gravity is in this direction okay. For this condition you can take these
values and as I said epsilon is the emissivity of this surface okay. And for the next
condition again you have the still air and the direction of heat flow is downwards that
means you have again the wall okay. And let us say that the air is here and heat transfer is
taking place from the wall to the air okay, in this direction okay. And g is acting in this
direction in downwards direction again for different values of surface emissivity you
have the values of heat transfer coefficient okay. Next comes vertical wall and still air

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that means you have a vertical wall like this okay. And you have air and heat transfer is
taking place between the wall to the air okay.
And again if the emissivity is point nine this is the heat transfer coefficient if emissivity is
point seven this is the heat transfer coefficient and for point five emissivity this is the heat
transfer coefficient okay. So as I said these three conditions are applicable for
conditioned space. That means inside the building okay, and next two conditions where
the air velocity is given as three point seven meter per second and six point four meter
per second here the this is applicable to any position because here the heat transfer rate is
mainly by force convection okay. One thing you can notice here is that when the air is
still for example for these conditions heat transfer rate is by natural convection and also
by radiation.
So emissivity is coming into picture okay, and typically the heat transfer coefficient
values are small right because of the convective heat transfer coefficient is generally
small in case of natural convection whereas when you have force convection. That means
when you have velocity of air at the rate of three point seven meter per second or six
point four meter per second heat transfer is mainly by force convection. When it is by
force convection the orientation of the surface is not very important okay. Similarly the
emissivity of the surface is also not very important because compared to the force
convection heat transfer the radiation heat transfer is negligible. So you can see that the,
for this case the heat transfer coefficient depends only on the velocity if the velocity is
three point seven meter per second. Then the heat transfer coefficient is twenty-three
point three watt per meter square Kelvin if it is six point four meter per second it is thirtyfive watt per meter square Kelvin okay.
So these are the typical values in absence of any correlations or any better data you can
use this data for estimating the inside and outside surface conductances. You must keep
in your mind that the surface conductance includes both a convective as well as radiative
heat transfer coefficients okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:15:07 min)

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Now you can eliminate the surface temperature of the wall. That means T subscript wi
and T subscript wo and write the steady state heat transfer equation in this form using the
overall heat transfer coefficient U okay. If you are using overall heat transfer coefficient
U you can write the steady state heat transfer rate per unit area this is heat flux basically
watt per meter square that is equal to overall heat transfer coefficient multiplied by the
temperature difference between the outdoor air and indoor air okay. T naught minus Ti so
U is nothing but one by total resistance right so this is nothing but all the resistance are
summed up okay.
And the inverse of the resistance is your overall heat transfer coefficient okay. And the
we have seen that the expression for overall heat transfer coefficient for this
homogeneous wall is given by this is the resistance inner convective and radiative
resistance this is a resistance offered by the wall this is outer convective and radiative
resistance these three resistances are in series. So you add them up find out the r total and
inverse of r total will give you the value of U okay. Once you know the value of U and
outer and inner dry bulb temperatures you can calculate what is the steady state heat
transfer rate.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:16:20 min)

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Now let us look at non-homogeneous walls buildings may consist of non homogeneous
materials such as hollow bricks hollow bricks are quiet a very widely used in buildings.
Because hollow bricks are have better insulation properties compared to solid bricks
okay. That is the reason why hollow bricks are quite widely used the heat transfer
through materials such as hollow bricks involve simultaneous heat transfer by convection
conduction and radiation. So let me show a picture of hollow brick okay. So this shows a
picture of a hollow brick. So you can see here that in this case heat transfer takes place by
conduction here okay. Through the material of the wall this is by conduction heat transfer
through the solid material and through the air space you have heat transfer take taking
place by radiation as well as convection as well as conduction okay. So you have a multi
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mode heat transfer problem here okay. Conduction convection and radiation okay. So for
such problems what is done is all these affects like convection conduction and radiation
they are lumped into a single parameter and this single parameter is called as thermal
conductance c and the heat flux through the hollow brick is simply given as q is equal to
C into T w o minus T w i where T w o and T w i are the outer and inner surface
temperatures of the hollow brick and C is the conductance.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:17:53 min)

The heat transfer properties of common building materials have been measured and they
are available in tabular form okay let me show a typical values. You can see here that for
wide variety of common commonly used materials you have the property. For example
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for bricks okay, again under bricks you have common brick you have face brick you have
fire brick. So for all these types of bricks these are the specific heat values this is the
these are densities and these are the thermal conductivity values since these materials are
homogeneous materials you need not give conductance value thermal conductivity value
is enough.
And from the thickness of the brick and the thermal conductivity you can find out what is
the resistance next comes woods. So you have plywood hard wood soft wood and these
are the specific heat values these are the densities again these are the thermal conductivity
values because these are also homogeneous. When it comes to hollow clay tiles or hollow
concrete blocks the thermal conductivity values are not given. Because here the heat
transfer rate as I have discussed just now is by multi mode convection conduction and
radiation. So for these materials the conductance values are given these values are
generally obtained from experimental measurements.
So for different types of for example hollow concrete block of ten centimeter thick this is
your conductance value for twenty centimeter thick this is the conductance value for
thirty centimeter that is the conductance value. Similarly for foam concrete okay, this is
the density value and this is the thermal conductivity value similarly for glass and
similarly for insulting material okay. So this kind of properties is available in air
conditioning design data books such as ASHRAE data books or other air-conditioning
books. So looking at the tables you can take the properties like specific heat density
thermal conductivity or conductance and you can calculate if, for example if you are
calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient then you can use the either the
conductance value or thermal conductivity and thickness. And you can find out what is
the overall heat transfer coefficient and from the overall heat transfer coefficient and the
temperature difference you can find out what is the heat flux through the wall okay.
Now let us look at air spaces what is the air space buildings may consists of air spaces
between walls and air spaces may also be there. For example in the fall ceiling or in attic
space okay. And since air is a bad conductor of heat the air space provides effective
insulation against heat transfer. So this is one of the reasons why air spaces are used in
buildings okay. It provides good insulation against heat transfer so the load on the
building gets reduced. And heat transfer through the air space takes place by a combined
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mechanism of conduction convection and radiation. So again you have a multi mode heat
transfer in an air space okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:20:38 min)

So let me explain that, so you have this is a wall and this is the wall and been in between
these two walls you have the air space okay. So this is the air space, let us say that this
surface is at a temperature T one and this surface is at temperature T two okay. And for
the time being lets assume that T one is greater than T two okay. So heat transfer takes
place from this surface to this surface. So since you have air here you have air here, so
heat transfer takes place by conduction through the air by convection from the surface to
the air and from the air to the surface and directly by radiation from this surface to this
surface. So you have all three heat transfer modes taking place between one surface to the
other surface through the air film. So this is the air gap okay. So for this kind of air
spaces how do we calculate the heat transfer rate.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:21:33 min)

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Now heat transfer rate through the air spaces depends upon its width orientation and
surface emissivitys. Because radiation is involved so surface emissivity is also come into
picture and also the temperature difference between the two surfaces when the air gap is
more than two centimeters it is observed that the conduction heat transfer is negligible
and generally the convection radiation are the major modes by which heat is transferred
okay. When the gap is more than two centimeters and the heat transfer rate through air
spaces is given in terms of again we use conductance okay. So heat transfer rate q is
equal to C into T one minus T two per unit area. So watt per meter square where C is the
conductance of the air gap and T one and T two are the two surface temperatures.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:22:18 min)

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And assuming heat transfer coefficient hc to be same for both the surfaces okay. So what
is the meaning of that so you have two surfaces okay. This is surface one and this is
surface two let us say, so you have air here so there is a heat transfer coefficient between
this surface and air and there is heat transfer coefficient between this surface and air. So
if you assume that this heat transfer coefficient between the air and surface one and air
and surface two are same okay, which is equal to hc right and the temperature is uniform.
That means there is no temperature gradient inside the air space right and these two plates
are infinite parallel plains.
Then the conductance is given by C is equal to hc by two plus hr you can derive this very
easily this expression under these assumptions okay. So the conductance value can be
obtained if you know the convective heat transfer coefficient and linearised radiative heat
transfer coefficient and the linearised radiative heat transfer coefficient is given by this
expression where F subscript one two this one this is called as view factor okay. View
factor or configuration factor or geometry factor okay. This we have discussed again
while discussing radiation heat transfer. So you can see that the view factor is a function
of emissivity of surface one epsilon one and emissivity of surface two epsilon two.
So if you know the emissivity of the surfaces one and two you can calculate the view
factor and if you know the surface temperatures T one and T two you can calculate
radiative heat transfer coefficient. And if you calculate the convective heat transfer
coefficient you can find out what is the conductance of the air space okay. And again
typical conductance values of air spaces are given in this table.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:24:03 min)

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Okay. So these are the typical conductance values of air spaces again you can see here
that since you have convection as well as radiation the orientation places a major role
because inside the air space convection heat transfer is by natural convection. So the
orientation and temperature difference become important for example for horizontal air
space that means you have air space like this okay. So this is your air space okay. And if
the heat transfer is upward that means heat transfer taking place from the bottom surface
to the top surface and if the air gap. That mean this gap is two point one centimeters this
is the conductance value if it is eleven point six centimeters the conductance value six
point two and the other hand for the temperature difference of ten degree centigrade. That
means T one minus T two of ten degree centigrade if the heat flow direction is
downwards that means you have two surfaces like this and heat is flowing in this
direction.
Then for different air gaps you have the conductance values five point seven five point
one four point eight okay. These things and for vertical that means you have surfaces like
this okay. And the temperature difference between these two surfaces is ten degrees and
the heat flows in the horizontal direction. That means in this direction then depending
upon the air gap you have the conductance value five point eight five point eight four air
gap of two point one and eleven point six centimeters okay. Similarly for thirty-two
degree centigrade these are the conductance values and if it is vertical these are the

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conductance values in general you can see that when the temperature difference increases
the conductance values increases okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:25:47 min)

Now let us look at a combined wall a multi layered composite wall so in general a
building wall or a roof consists of layers of homogeneous and non homogeneous wall
materials and air spaces. That means the same wall may consists of several layers one
layer may consist of a homogeneous material second layer may consists of a non
homogeneous material third layer may consist of an air space and so on okay. So this
kind of a wall is known as a composite wall or a multi layered wall. So for composite
wall or a multilayered wall the heat transfer rate per unit area are the heat flux is given by
q subscript in okay.
So this is equal to overall heat transfer coefficient U into temperature difference across
the wall T naught minus T i okay. T naught is the outdoor temperature T i is the indoor
temperature okay. Which is equal to T naught minus T i by R total with where R total is
the total resistance to heat transfer. So total resistance heat transfer for a multilayered
composite wall is given by this expression here this factor one by h subscript i is the
internal resistance due to inner conductance and this factor sigma i is one to n delta x by
kwi is the sum total of the conductance resistances offered by all the homogeneous walls
okay. So this holds for all homogeneous walls and this one takes care of all non
homogeneous wall as well as air spaces okay.

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And finally one by h naught this takes care of the outer resistance okay. Outer resistance
due to conduction and a convection and radiation okay. So if you know the individual
resistances or if you know the properties of the individual materials right then you can
calculate the individual resistance and from the individual resistances you can calculate
the total resistance and from the total resistance you can calculate the overall heat
transfer coefficient and from the overall heat transfer coefficient and temperature
difference you can find out what is the steady state heat transfer rate through a multi
layered or composite wall.
Sometimes a multi layered or composite wall may have parallel paths okay. Then you
have to draw a equivalent resistance network and from the resistance network find out
what is the total resistance and from the total resistance find the overall heat transfer
coefficient and so on okay. So it is always very useful to draw the resistance network first
and then evaluate each individual resistance and then add them up and find the total
resistance okay. That way you can find out the heat transfer rate under steady state
conditions okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:28:24 min)

Now let us look at unsteady state heat transfer through walls and roofs in general heat
transfer through building walls and roofs is unsteady due to variation solar radiation and
varying temperatures even though we have discussed. So far we have discussed steady
state heat transfer and how to calculate heat transfer rate under steady state condition you

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find that most of the times the heat transfer is not under steady state okay. Most of the
time heat transfer through the buildings is in an unsteady state okay. This is mainly
because of the variations in the solar radiation and variations in the outdoor and indoor
temperatures. If the building is air conditioned then the indoor indoor temperature may
remain constant. But the outdoor temperature will vary continuously throughout the day
and again it will vary from day form day right.
Similarly the solar radiation varies throughout the day. So because of the variation of the
solar radiation and outdoor temperature with time you have a problem where the heat
transfer is not steady. But it is unsteady okay here the unsteady state arises because of the
time varying boundary conditions and also because of the thermal storage properties of
the walls and roof okay in general the building walls and roofs have very large but finite
thermal capacity okay. Because the thermal capacity they store energy and similarly they
release energy. So this thermal storage effect gives rise to unsteady effects okay. For
example let me show a solar radiation and how the solar radiation varies.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:29:56 min)

Okay. So this is a typical variation of direct diffuse and total radiation incident intensity
on a horizontal roof under clear sky conditions and the data is for holds good for Kolkata
and the day is June twenty-first okay. It is a horizontal roof under clear sky conditions. So
you can see that it is zero from and these point it is zero because this before sunrise and
this is after sun set so solar radiation will be there only during the sun okay, during that

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day, so at this point sun rises. So gradually the diffuse radiation and direct radiation
increase with solar time they reach a peak at solar noon okay. Then again they gradually
decrease and again they gradually become zero at sunset. So it is zero at sunrise and zero
at sunset so it is continuously varying throughout the day. Because of this the outdoor
boundary condition the radiative boundary condition also varies continuously right which
time.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:30:58 min)

Similar to solar radiation the outdoor temperature also varies with time Noise due to as I
said due to large but finite thermal capacity of the building walls and roofs under
unsteady conditions at any instant the heat transfer rate at the outer surface is not equal to
the heat transfer rate at the inner surface. This is very important what it mean is, if I have
the wall let us say okay, this is outdoor okay this is in door. So heat transfer is taking
place to the outer surface of the wall by radiation okay. And also by convection let us say
similar heat transfer taking place from the inner surface of the wall by radiation and
convection you find out whatever heat transfer is taking place here okay, is not same as
whatever heat transfer taking place from inner surface to the, a conditioned space. That
means if here if this is q in and if this is q out then q in is not equal to q out okay.
This comes into picture because of the thermal storage capacity of the walls okay. And
what we do here is for the sake of simplicity we assume one dimension heat transfer and
we also assume that the temperature of the conditioned space remains constant that

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means typically we are carrying out this analysis for a building which is air conditioned.
Because it is possible to maintain the conditioned space temperature at a constant value
only by using an artificial method such as an air conditioning system okay. If you do not
have any air conditioning then inside temperature also will vary along with the outside
temperature okay. So for the sake of simplicity we assume that the building is air
conditioned so inside temperature remains constant whereas the outside temperature that
means surface temperature on the outer wall varies continuously okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:32:50 min)

Now what we do is we apply energy balance equation to the outer surface of the wall at
any instance of time theta okay. So let us take the outer surface of the wall okay. So this
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is your wall and this is the outer surface okay. So this is outer surface shown by this dash
line and we apply energy balance to the outer surface. So energy balance to the outer
surface since surface does not have any mass whatever energy enters the surface must
leave the surface whatever what is the energy entering the surface energy is entering the
surface by way of direct radiation okay. I subscript capital D multiplied by alpha d where
alpha d is your absorptivity of the surface for direct radiation and id is the intensity of
direct radiation.
Similarly you also have radiation reaching the surface because of diffuse radiation. So I
subscript small d is a diffuse radiation and alpha subscript small d is the absorptivity for
diffuse radiation and heat transfer also takes place from the outdoor air to the outer
surface of the wall by convection. So you also have convective heat transfer and heat
transfer may also take place by long wave radiation either from the wall to the
surrounding surfaces or from the surrounding surfaces to the wall that is given by this r
okay. So these are all the heat transfer rates from the outside to the surface of the wall
and this should be equal to the heat transfer from the surface to the wall okay. That is
given by okay, if since you are assuming that heat transfer through the wall is by
conduction this should be equal to q at x is equal to L L increases, x increases in this
direction and the thickness of the wall. Let us say that the thickness of the wall is l when
x is zero that means the inner surface of the wall x is L means outer surface of the wall.
So q subscript x is L is equal to sum total of all these things that should be equal to minus
k wall okay. Let me write here minus k wall dhow t by dhow x at x is equal to L where
this is the conductive heat transfer from the outer surface of the wall to the wall okay. So
this is the heat balance equation for the outer surface that is what is shown here q at x is
equal to L and any theta is equal to minus kw dhow t by dhow x this is nothing but your
Fouriers law of heat conduction which is equal to heat transfer by convection heat
transfer by direct radiation diffuse radiation and long wave radiation okay. So this is the
energy balance for outer surface similarly you can write an energy balance for the inner
surface inner surface does not have any solar radiation. So you do not have these terms
are not there. So simply whatever heat is transferred from the inner surface is, because of
combined effects of convection and internal radiations which are clubbed in hi so that is

25

equal to minus kw dhow t by dhow x at x is equal to zero and theta which is equal to hi
into Tx is equal to zero minus Ti okay.
And as I said due to because of the capacity of effect of the wall q at x is equal to L and
theta is not equal to q at x is equal to zero and theta. That means q in is not equal to q out
okay and ultimately what is the load on the building load on the building is nothing. But
what is the heat transferred from the wall to the conditioned space that is given by this.
So this is very important as far as the building cooling load is concerned okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:36:22 min)

Now for building load calculations we need to know the heat transfer rate at x is equal to
zero as I have already explained to you we need to know what is the heat transfer rate
from the inner surface of the wall to the conditioned space. That means from x is equal to
zero to the conditioned space this requires information regarding temperature distribution
inside the wall. That means we need to know how the temperature we distribution is there
inside the wall that is dhow T by dhow x. Because the heat transfer to the conditioned
space as I have said is given by this expression minus kw dhow T by dhow x at x is equal
to zero.
So if know T as a function of x okay then you can find out dhow T by dhow x at any
theta okay. Taking the value of x as zero so from this you can find out this parameter
okay. So how do you find the temperature distribution inside the wall. As I said for the
sake of simplicity let us assume that the wall is a homogeneous wall okay. If it the wall is

26

homogeneous then heat transfer is by conduction okay. So if you want to find out what is
the heat transfer what is the temperature distribution inside the wall you have to solve the
conduction unsteady state conduction equation okay and for a plain wall.
We are talking about plain wall for the plain wall the unsteady state heat conduction
equation is given by this partial differential equation PDE the partial differential equation
dhow square T by dhow x square is equal to one by alpha dhow T by dhow theta where T
as you know is the temperature x is the space coordinate theta is the time coordinate and
alpha. As you know is the thermal diffusivity of the wall that is alpha is equal to k wall
divided by rho wall into Cp wall okay. K is the thermal conductivity rho is the density of
the wall Cp is the specific heat of the wall. So this is the equation that governs the heat
conduction equation through the wall under unsteady state conditions okay. So we have
to solve this equation you can see that this is a partial differential equation and it is
second order in space and first order in time. So you have to specify two boundary
conditions for space and one boundary condition for time okay, if you want to solve the
equation.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:38:36 min)

And the solution of the PDE subjected to the following initial and boundary conditions as
I said you have to specify these conditions only then you can solve the equation. So this
is your initial condition that means at some theta arbitrary value of time theta is zero the
temperature distribution inside the wall is given by this and we should we should know

27

this. That means this is known okay and this is specified as known boundary condition
for time or an initial condition okay.
Then you have to specify two boundary conditions. Because you have dhow square T by
dhow x square term. So two boundary conditions are for the inner surface that is x is
equal to zero one boundary condition is this minus kw dhow T by dhow x at x is equal to
zero into theta is hi into Tx is equal to zero minus Ti this is the boundary condition of the
inner surface. Similarly the boundary condition at the outer surface that is my x is equal
to L is given by this okay qx is equal to L theta is minus kw dhow T by dhow x at x is
equal to L theta. Which is equal to the heat transfer rate by conduction by I am sorry
convection heat transfer rate by direct radiation heat transfer rate by diffuse radiation this
is the long wave radiation right what is done here is the boundary condition at the outer
surface that means this one is written in terms of an effective or equivalent temperature
called as sol-air temperature.
Okay. So this is known as sol-air temperature so what we do is we club all these factors
and we write this boundary condition also similar to this boundary condition by
introducing a fictitious equivalent temperature called as T sol-air temperature. And if you
compare these two equations you find that the sol-air temperature T subscript sol-air is
given by T subscript o which is the dry bulb temperature of outdoor air plus this factor
okay. See you can see there when there is no radiation that means when there is no direct
radiation when there is no diffuse radiation when there is no long wave radiation sol-air
temperature is simply equal to outdoor dry bulb temperature of the air okay. On the other
hand when you have radiation when you have sun you may have solar direct radiation
you will have diffuse radiation.
Then the sol-air temperature can be much higher than the outdoor dry bulb temperature
okay. And during the night this will be zero and this will be zero whereas this can be
positive then it is possible that the sol-air temperature can be smaller than the outdoor
dry bulb air temperature and you can also see here that the sol-air temperature also
depends upon the outdoor surface conductance h naught okay. So the advantage of
defining sol air temperature is that you can write the outdoor boundary condition also as
h naught into T sol-air minus T wall temperature okay so the form looks simple but the

28

sol air temperature depends upon several factors like the radiation solar geometry and
outdoor convection and all that okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:41:42 min)

The governing heat can now how do we solve now we have define the governing
equation as we have seen for simple plane wall okay. Plane homogeneous wall the
governing equation is a partial differential equation and you let us say that we have also
specified the required initial and boundary conditions. So the problem is fully defined
now the question is how do we solve it you can solve this governing differential equation
either by using an analytical method or by using numerical methods or by using empirical
methods. So what are the typical characteristics of these methods analytical methods are
used for simple geometries with simple boundary conditions okay.
Simple geometries means you have a plane wall okay. Simple boundary conditions
means outside temperature or outside radiation varies as a simple harmonic okay. For this
kind of simple geometries and simple boundary conditions you can derive an analytical
expression or you can get an analytical solution okay. Whereas the numerical methods
are very powerful and they can tackle complex geometries with any boundary conditions.
So these advantages of numerical methods you can use the numerical method for any
type of any shape of the building or for any type of boundary conditions okay. However
numerical methods are in general more time consuming and accuracy also they are not
percent accurate unlike analytical methods.

29

(Refer Slide Time: 00:43:11 min)

And based on the form suggested by analytical methods the heat transfer rate to the
conditioned space at any time theta can be written as, so this, as I said, this is the form
suggested by the analytical method okay. By the analytical method you can write at any
time the heat transfer rate to the conditioned space that is Q x is equal to zero and theta
these, the transfer rate to the conditioned space. As I have said that is equal to UA where
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient of the wall A is the surface area of the wall
multiplied by T sol-air subscript m minus Ti plus UA into lambda into T sol-air theta
minus five minus T sol-air subscript M. So what are all these things this one T sol air
subscript m is what is known as mean sol air temperature. Let us say that you find the sol
air temperature for the twenty-four hours you calculate the hourly sol air temperature and
find an average of that, so that is the mean sol air temperature T sol air subscript m okay.
Then T i is the temperature of the conditioned space which we are assuming to be
constant right and this lambda okay, is what is known as decrement factor right I will
explain what it is and then this phi is what is known as phi is what is known as time lag
factor okay. And here T sol air look at this temperature what is this I am calculating heat
transfer rate at some time theta okay. So this is written as in terms of temperature at time
theta minus phi okay, where phi is the time lag. That means that let us say that I am
calculating heat transfer rate at six pm okay. On a particular wall I want to know what is

30

the heat transfer rate from the wall to the conditioned space at six pm and let the wall as a
time lag of five hours okay.
Then T sol air subscript theta minus phi is the temperature of the wall or the sol air
temperature of the wall at six minus phi that is one pm okay so that is the meaning of
theta minus phi okay. And now coming to decrement factor what is the decrement factor
due to the large but finite thermal capacity of the wall the heat transfer to the conditioned
space is less than the heat transfer to the outer surface of the wall okay. As I have already
explained to you because of the thermal capacity of the wall Qin is not equal to Q out and
it may. So happen that Qin is much larger than the Q out so this introduces a factor called
as decrement factor okay. Similarly you have what is known as the time lag factor and
what is the time lag factor.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:46:03 min)

31

The time lag is the difference between the time at which the outer surface receives heat
and the time at which the inner surface senses it. So let me give an example let us say that
you have a wall here okay. Let say that this is the wall and this is the outdoor and this is
the indoor. Let us say that suddenly this wall experiences some heat transfer okay. Let
say that at this time, let say time is four pm okay at four pm this wall outer surface of the
wall is suddenly exposed to some heat transfer Qin okay. And because of the thermal
capacity of the wall you find that the inner surface does not sense this immediately okay.
Some time is required for the inner surface to sense this heat transfer let say that the time
lag is three hours okay.
Then you will find that this inner surface senses this heat transfer at four plus three that is
seven pm okay. So this is what is known as time lag this is the reason why if the outside
temperature is maximum say at three pm we find that the indoor temperature in an
unconditioned room is maximum at say seven pm or eight pm okay. For example at mid
noon at twelve o'clock outside may be the hottest but inside the inside the room
temperature will be very high not at twelve of clock but may at three o'clock or four clock
okay. So this is because of the thermal capacity of the wall okay. And this factor is
known as time lag factor right and the decrement and time lag factors depend on the
thermal capacity of the wall.
Obviously what is the thermal capacity of the wall the thermal capacity of the wall
depends upon the density of the wall thickness of the wall and specific heat of the wall

32

thicker walls with large thermal capacity have small decrement factor and large time lag
and vice versa okay. Let me show that variation of decrement and time lag factor. This
graph here shows the decrement factor as a function of wall thickness okay. These are
calculated for buildings material having a specific heat of eight forty joule per kg Kelvin
okay. So you can see that the decrement factor is one when the thickness is zero okay.
That means there is no wall and the decrement factor is one and as the wall thickness
increases the decrement factor reduces okay. So in general the decrement factor varies
between zero to one okay, thicker walls have lower decrement factors thinner walls have
higher decrement factors okay. Next this graphs show the variation of time lag with wall
thickness and for different types of walls having different densities okay. So you can see
that as the wall thickness increases the time lag increases okay. For example for four fifty
mm thick wall the time lag would be fifteen hours okay. Similarly for one fifty mm wall
the time lag is five hours like that okay.
As heat transfer to the conditioned space depends on time decrement and time lag it
varies with thermal capacity of the wall okay. So obviously the heat transfer rate as we
have seen depends upon the sol air temperature which in turn depends upon the
decrement and time lag factor and decrement and time lag factor depend upon the thermal
capacity of the wall. So finally you find that the heat transfer to the conditioned space
depends among other factors on the thermal capacity of the wall okay. So let me show a
typical variation of heat transfer rate okay this graph here
(Refer Slide Time: 00:49:46 min)

33

Shows the heat transfer to the conditioned space okay, not heat flux but heat total heat
transfer to the conditioned space as a function of solar time okay. For a thin wall a thick
wall okay, and a thicker wall. So you can see that the heat transfer rate increases from
about eight am that means slightly one or two hours after the sun rise for a thin wall the
heat transfer rate increases in this manner and it reaches the peak at about four pm and
then again it starts decreasing okay and it reaches a minimum at about eight am okay.
And for a thick wall again it starts increasing from about eight am it reaches a peak you
can see that around at mid night okay, not during the day time but during the night and
again it decreases and for still thicker wall you find that the peak heat transfer rate takes
place not at not during the day time at all. But it takes place at about four am that means
in the morning oaky.
So this is the effect of the thickness of the wall on the heat transfer to the conditioned
space at different times and you can also see that the total heat transfer rate that is nothing
but the area under this curve is much higher for the thin wall compared to the thick wall
okay. So one thing is that the peak heat transfer rate for the thin wall is very high and the
total heat transfer rate for the thin wall is also high compared to the thick walls.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:51:10 min)

34

So since the peak heat transfer rate and the total heat transfer to the conditioned space are
smaller for thick wall buildings the required cooling capacity of the system will be less
for thick wall building. So it is an advantage and energy required for the air conditioning
system is also less for thick walled buildings okay. So this also an advantage and you will
find that if the wall is sufficiently thick then it is possible to maintain reasonably comfort
temperatures comfortable temperatures inside buildings even without any artificial air
conditioning systems okay. Because of the small decrement factor and large time lag in
fact this is the principle behind the old temples and old forts or old buildings which have
very thick walls okay. You find that these buildings even without any air conditioning are
very comfortable even during peak summer okay. So this is because of the large thermal
capacity of the building which introduces small decrement factor and a large time lag
okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:52:07 min)

35

And now let us look at empirical methods for cooling load estimation heat transfer rate to
the conditioned space can be written as we have seen by this expression okay. And this is
written in terms of UA into some delta T effective where this delta T effective is called
as equivalent temperature difference ETD or cooling load temperature differences CLTD
and from this expression you can easily find that the equivalent temperature difference or
cooling load temperature difference is given by this expression. So it includes the sol-air
mean sol-air temperature the time lag and the decrement and it also includes the inside
temperature okay. So all these factors are included.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:52:49 min)

36

So you can find that the ETD or CLTD depends on decrement and time lag factors solar
radiation and ambient temperature through sol-air temperature and inside temperature Ti
okay. And tables of ETD and CLTD have been prepared for fixed values of inside and
outside temperatures. For example they are available in ASHRAE hand books for
different latitudes orientations and different types of walls and roofs okay. So let me
show typical tables.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:53:20 min)

Okay. So this is the CLTD table for a flat roof without suspended ceilings. And this is
taken from ASHRAE hand books and here you have four different types of roofs three
four five six and the description of the roofs are given here type three is hundred mm
thick light weight concrete type four is one fifty mm thick light weight concrete type five
is hundred mm thick heavy weight concrete type six is roof terrace system and the
properties are given here mass per unit area. Okay and the heat capacity and the CLTD
values are given as function of solar time we can see that for this wall. For example type
three wall at seven solar time minus two is the CLTD value at eight am this is one degree
at nine am this is five degrees and this is at ten am eleven degrees like that okay.
Similarly for different times of different types of roof at different solar times.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:54:14 min)

37

And this table gives the CLTD values for vertical D type wall and the description of the
D type wall is given D type wall means hundred mm face brick with two hundred
concrete block and interior finish or hundred mm face brick and hundred mm concrete
block with interior finish. Since it is a vertical wall the orientation comes into picture
where it is north facing or north east facing right this north facing north east facing east
facing south east facing like that okay. And at different solar time right so these are the
temperatures in Kelvin and you can also see here the maximum CLTD value. For
example for east facing wall eighteen degrees Kelvin is the maximum CLTD and for
south east wall also it is eighteen degrees and for the west facing wall it is twenty-three
degrees like that okay. So this kind of tables are available in ASHRAE hand books now
what is the validity of ASHRAE hand books.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:55:07 min)

38

The ASHRAE hand books have ASHRAE hand books have ASHRAE tables have been
obtained for inside temperature of twenty-five degree centigrade and maximum outside
temperature of thirty-five degree centigrade with an average value of twenty-nine
centigrade and a daily range of twelve degree centigrade. What is daily range daily range
means, maximum outdoor temperature minus minimum outdoor temperature okay. The
so that value is taken as twelve degree centigrade now for inside and average outside
temperatures other than the above the following adjustment has to be made to CLTD
values obtained from ASHRAE tables okay. So if you are your values are different, for
example the inside temperature okay is not twenty-five degrees but something else okay.
Similarly the outside temperature average temperature not twenty-nine but let us say
thirty-two. Then you have to make an adjustment to the values obtained from the table
that adjustment is given by this equation the adjusted CLTD values is equal to tabular
values plus twenty-five minus Ti plus T average minus twenty-nine. So as I said let us
say that your Ti value is twenty-five then this will this adjustment will not be there but if
the average temperature is higher than twenty-nine then you have to add that to the values
that you obtained from the table so that is why you get the adjusted CLTD values okay.
And solar this data is also applicable to solar radiation typical of July twenty-first at forty
degree north latitude but in the absence of more accurate data the tables can be used
without significant error for zero degrees to fifty degrees north latitude for summer
months okay. And data also available for other types of walls and roofs and for different

39

latitudes and adjustments are also suggested for walls and roof with insulation wetted
roofs etcetera okay. So if you look at the ASHRAE hand books or other air-conditioning
hand book all these tables are given either CLTD tables if you look at other hand books
they give what is known as effective temperature difference tables okay. As function of
the type of the wall orientation solar time and all that for a fixed conditions. And they
also suggest adjustments for other conditions. So if you have the table and your specific
conditions then you can get the tabular value applied the adjustment and get the adjusted
value of CLTD or ETD okay. That one must use for calculating the heat transfer rate
okay.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:57:30 min)

And thus from the knowledge of CLTD or ETD overall heat transfer coefficient and area
of the wall or roof one can easily calculate the heat transfer rate of the conditioned space
as Qin is equal to UA into CLTD or UA into ETD so CLTD value get from the table U
value calculate from the specifications of the wall and A is the surface area of the wall
okay. Now the empirical methods based on CLTD or ETD are widely used by air
conditioning engineers however since these methods are subjected to several limitations a
safety factor is always assumed to account for these okay. So they are not hundred
accurate all these empirical method. So to take care of this a safety factor is always
assumed more accurate estimates can be made by using numerical methods which
however are time consuming and expensive okay.

40

If your building is having a different shape or if you want more accurate results you have
to apply the numerical methods numerical methods the advantage is that you can take
care of any shape or any boundary condition but the problem is that they are expensive
and they are also time consuming. So that is the reason why most of the time the air
conditioning engineers use the empirical methods and provide a safety factor to take care
of the inaccuracies okay. So at this point I end this lecture and in the next lecture I shall
discuss the actual estimation of cooling loads on the buildings.
Thank you.

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