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Hydrocarbon Processings 2008 Refining Processes Handbook reflects the

dynamic advancements now available in licensed process technologies, catalysts
and equipment. The refining industry is under tremendous pressure to process
cleaner transportation fuels with varying specifications for a global market.
Refiners must balance capital investment and operating strategies that provide
the optimum profitability for their organization. Hence, refining organizations
will apply leading-edge technology in conjunction with best practices for
refining fuels and petrochemical feedstocks from crude oil.
HPs process handbooks are inclusive catalogs of established and emerging
refining technologies that can be applied to existing and grassroots facilities.
Economic stresses drive efforts to conserve energy consumption, minimize waste,
improve product qualities, and, most important, increase yields and throughput.
In further expansion, the process entries presented an expanded description
of the licensed technology including a process flow diagram, product description,
economic information and other vital information. Specific processing operations
to be emphasized include alkylation, biofuels, coking, (crude) distillation, catalytic
cracking (fluid and resid), gasification, hydrocracking, hydrotreating, hydrogen,
isomerization, desulfurization, lube treating, visbreaking, etc.
To maintain as complete a listing as possible, the 2008 Refining Processes
Handbook is available on CD-ROM and at our website for paid subscribers.
Additional copies may be ordered from our website.
Photo: Neste Oils Naantali special product refinery on the western coast of Finland.

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Processes Index
Alkylation
Aromatics
Biofuels
Catalytic cracking
Catalytic reforming
Coking
Deasphalting/asphalt
Desulfurization-fuels
Distillation-Crude
Distillation-Vacuum
Ethers
Gasification
Hydroconversion
Hydrocracking
Hydrodearomatization
Hydrofinishing
Hydrogen
Hydrogenation

Hydroprocessing
Hydrotreating
Isomerization
Isooctene/isooctane
Lubes
Olefins
Oxygen enrichment
Petrochemicals
Reactors
Sulfur recovery
Treating
Treating-acid gas
Treating-flue gas
Treating-fuels
Treating-offgas
Upgrading-heavy oil
Visbreaking
Waxes

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Company Index
ABB Lummus Global B.V.
Air Products and Chemicals Inc.
Akzo Nobel
Axens
Bechtel Corp.
Belco Technologies Corp.
CDTECH
Chevron Lummus Global LLC
Davy Process Technology
DuPont
ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
Foster Wheeler USA Corp.
GE Energy
Genoil Inc.
Goar, Allison & Associates, Inc.,
an Air Products Company
GTC Technology
Haldor Topse A/S
Hamon Research-Cottrell
KBR
Linde AG, Division Gas and Engineering

Lummus Technology, a CB&I company

Lurgi GmbH
Lyondell Chemical Co.
Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC,
Process Technology Division
Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC,
Gas Technology Products Division
Neste Jacobs OY
Quadrise Fuel International
QuestAir Technologies Inc.
Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC
Shaw
Shell Global Solutions International B.V.
Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem
TECHNIP
ThioSolv LLC
TOTAL
Uhde GmbH
UOP
Viscolube SpA
Worley Parsons

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ABB Lummus Global B.V.

Deep thermal conversion
Thermal gasoil
Visbreaking

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Air Products and Chemicals Inc.

Hydrogen-recovery
Olefins recovery

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Akzo Nobel
Emulsion residue upgrade

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Processes
Axens is a refining, petrochemical and natural gas market-focused
supplier of process technology, catalysts, adsorbents and services,
backed by nearly 50 years of commercial success. Axens is a world
leader in several areas, such as:
Petroleum hydrotreating & hydroconversion
FCC gasoline desulfurization
Catalytic Reforming
BTX (benzene, toluene, xylenes) production & purification
Selective Hydrogenation of olefin cuts
Sulfur recovery catalysts.
Axens is a fully-owned subsidiary of IFP.

Fluid catalytic cracking

Resid catalytic cracking
Resid cracking
Catalytic reforming
HydroconversionVGO and DAO
Hydrocracking
Hydrocracking-residue
Hydrotreating, diesel
Hydrotreating-resid
Isomerization
Lube oil refining, spent
Spent lube oil re-refining

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Bechtel Corp.
Lube extraction (2 processes)
Lube hydrotreating (2 processes)
Dewaxing
Dewaxing/wax deoiling
Wax hydrotreating

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Belco Technologies Corp.

NOX reduction, low temperature
SO2 removal, regenerative
Wet scrubbing system, EDV

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CDTECH
Alkylate, butanes to alkylate
Alkylation, low-temperature acid catalyzed
Ethers-ETBE
Ethers-MTBE
TAEE, from refinery C5 feeds
TAME, from refinery and steam cracker C5 feeds
TAME, from refinery C5 feeds
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation-benzene in reformate
Hydrogenation, selective for MTBE/ETBE C4 raffinate
Hydrogenation, selective for refinery C4 feeds
Hydrogenation-selective for refinery C5 feeds
Hydrotreating
Isomerization
Isooctene/isooctane, conversion of refinery MTBE units
Isobutylene, from MTBE decomposition

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Chevron Lummus Global LLC

Hydrocracking
Hydrocracking, resid
Hydrofinishing
Hydrotreating
Hydrotreating-RDS/VRDS/UFR/OCR
Dewaxing

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Davy Process Technology

Prereforming with feed ultra purification

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DuPont
Alkylation
Hydrocracking
Hydrotreating

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ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

Alkylation, sulfuric acid
Fluid catalytic cracking
Fluid catalytic cracking, high olefin
Fluid catalytic cracking, residual
Coking, fluid
Gasoline desulfurization, ultra-deep
Gasification
Hydrocracking, moderate pressure
Pressure swing adsorption-rapid cycle
Hydroprocessing, ULSD
Gas treatingH2S removal
Wet gas scrubbing (WGS), wet gas scrubbing plus
NOX abatement/SNCR
Catalytic dewaxing

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Processes
Foster Wheeler USA Corpration is a global engineering and construction contractor and power equipment supplier, with a reputation for delivering high-quality, technically-advanced, reliable facilities and equipment on time, on budget and with a world-class safety
record.
Our Engineering & Construction Group designs and constructs
leading-edge processing facilities for the upstream oil & gas, LNG &
gas-to-liquids, refining, chemicals & petrochemicals, power, environmental, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology & healthcare industries. Foster Wheeler is a market leader in heavy oil upgrading technologies,
offering world-leading technology in delayed coking, solvent deasphalting, and visbreaking, and providing cost-effective solutions for
the refining industry.
Services:
Market studies
Master planning
Feasibility studies
Concept screening
Environmental engineering
Front-end design (FEED)
Project management (PMC)
Engineering (E)
Procurement (P)
Construction (C) & construction management (Cm)
Commissioning & start-up
Validation
Plant operations & maintenance
Training
Our Global Power Group, world-leading experts in combustion
technology, designs, manufactures and erects steam generating and
auxiliary equipment for power stations and industrial markets worldwide, and also provides a range of after-market services.

Coking
Deasphalting
Crude distillation
Hydrogen-steam reforming
Visbreaking

Technical articles
Integrated hydrogen solutions: Combining
hydrogen recovery and optimized steam
Upgrade refinery residuals into value-added
products
Optimize turnaround projects
Drivers for additional delayed coking capacity in
the refining industry
When solvent deasphalting is the most appropriate technology for upgrading residue

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GE Energy
Gasification

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Genoil Inc.
Hydroprocessing-heavy oil and residue

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Goar, Allison & Associates, Inc., an Air Products Company

Sulfur processing
Sulfur recovery

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GTC Technology
Aromatics (3 processes)
Aromatics recovery
Benzene saturation
Paraxylene
Styrene recovery
Xylene isomerization
Desulfurization
Hydrotreating, pyrolysis gasoline
Carboxylic acid recovery
Dimethyl terephthlate

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Haldor Topse A/S

Fluid catalytic cracking-pretreatment
Diesel upgrading
Diesel-ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD)
Hydrocracking
Hydrodearomatization
Hydrogen-HTCR and HTCR twin plants
Hydrogen-HTER-p
HydrogenMethanol-to-shift
Hydrogen-Steam methane reforming (SMR)
Hydrotreating
Flue gas denitrification
Flue gas desulfurization-SNOX
Sour gas treatment
Spent acid regeneration

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Hamon Research-Cottrell
Wet gas scrubbing, wet gas scrubbing plus

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Processes
KBR is a leading global engineering, construction and services company supporting the energy, petrochemicals, government services and
civil infrastructure sectors. KBR has been delivering high yields and
efficiency to its customers in the hydrocarbon processing industry for
over 80 years, when Morris Kellogg founded the M.W. Kellogg Company. KBR is one of the few leading engineering and construction
companies to specialize in the development and licensing of process
technologies for petrochemicals, refining, ammonia production and
coal gasification, all founded on extensive research and development
at its Technology Center.
With thousands of successful projects worldwide, KBR also combines its technology expertise with full engineering, procurement
and construction services to help clients maximize the value of their
assets. This has become a critical factor as the worlds supply of conventional oil and gas resources is being depleted, and KBR technology continues to help customers transform low value hydrocarbons
into high value products with processes that produce some of the
highest yields, efficiencies and reliability available in the hydrocarbon
processing industry.
Email: [email protected]
Web: technology.kbr.com

Fluid catalytic cracking

Fluid catalytic cracking, high olefin
Fluid catalytic cracking, residual
Coking
Asphaltene pelletization
Deasphalting
Isooctene/isooctane
Heavy oil upgrading

Technical articles
To vacuum or not to vacuum
Unlocking current refinery constraints
Consider new technology to produce clean diesel
Holding the key

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Linde AG, Division Gas and Engineering

Oxygen enrichment for Claus units
Oxygen enrichment for FCC units

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Lummus Technology, a CB&I company

Alkylation
Fluid catalytic cracking
Fluid catalytic cracking for maximum olefins
Coking

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Lurgi GmbH
Biodiesel
Multipurpose gasification
Hydrogen (steam reforming)

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Lyondell Chemical Co.

Isomerization

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Processes - PTD

Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC is a world leader

in providing services for management of caustic streams; the development, engineering, fabrication, and sale of innovative technologies for treating H2S, mercaptans, and other impurities in gas and liquid hydrocarbon streams; and the production of catalysts for treating
processes and naphthenic chemicals for a variety of industries. With
research facilities in Houston, Texas, Merichem continues to create,
innovate, and support new technologies, services and products for
all the industries it serves. Headquartered in Houston, with offices in
Illinois, Alabama, United Kingdom and Japan, Merichem is actively
engaged meeting the customers needs throughout the world, giving
you access to unmatched technical knowledge, applications expertise, and worldwide service coverage.
Treating hydrocarbon streams and processing spent caustics
within the refinery

Treating-phenolic caustic
Treating-spent caustic deep neutralization
Treating-gases
Treating-coker LPG to low total sulfur levels
Treating-gasoline and LPG
Treating-gasoline desulfurization ultra deep
Treating-gasoline sweetening
Treating-jet fuel/kerosine
Treating-kerosine and heavy naphtha sweetening
Treating-propane
Treating-reformer products

Since 1974, MCRSs Process Technology Division (PTD) has been

providing technologies to the hydrocarbon process industry. The
most widely applied technologies employ the FIBER-FILM Contactor, which essentially eliminates the problems associated with conventional dispersive mass transfer methods to remove hydrocarbon
contaminants such as acid gases, sulfur, organic acids and basic compounds.
PTD is also engaged in the design and fabrication of modularized
process systems applying its proprietary technology. With a fabrication facility in Houston, PTD can manage the entire project, from
design to start-up.

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Processes - GTP
H2S removal (3 processes)
Meeting Todays Challenges for H2S Removal/Recovery
MCRSs Gas Technology Products division (GTP), with more
than 30 years of experience in H2S removal, provides a full line of
complementary hydrogen sulfide oxidation products: LO-CAT and
LO-CAT II and H2S scavenger process chemicals for use in its proprietary SULFUR-RITE and THE ELIMINATOR processes, along with its
ARI-100 mercaptan oxidation catalysts.
These processes are based on liquid and solid media desulfurization
technologies to sweeten natural gas, unconventional gas and syngas streams, as well as ventilation air containing virtually any levels
of hydrogen sulfide or mercaptans for streams of widely ranging
capacities. For any application, GTP offers engineering services and
complete turnkey systems with total system responsibility.

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Neste Jacobs OY
Isooctene/isooctane

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Quadrise Fuel International

Emulsion residue upgrade

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QuestAir Technologies Inc.

Pressure swing adsorption-rapid cycle

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Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC

Alkylation
Biodiesel
Hydrogenation/hydrodesulfurization
Olefin etherification
Isooctene/isooctane

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Shaw
Deep catalytic cracking
Fluid catalytic cracking
Resid catalytic cracking
Refinery offgas-purification and olefins recovery

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Processes
Shell Global Solutions provides business and operational consultancy, catalysts, technical services and research and development
expertise to the energy and processing industries worldwide. Shell
Global Solutions has approximately 5,000 staff located in an extensive network of offices around the world, with primary commercial
and technical centres operating in the USA, Europe and Asia Pacific.
Shell Global Solutions supports the Shell Groups business activities
in downstream manufacturing, downstream marketing, gas & LNG,
production and project management. Outside of the Shell Group, the
company successfully services refining, chemicals, gas, metals, pulp
and paper and motor-sport customers worldwide.

Fluid catalytic cracking

Crude distillation
Gasification
Hydrocracking
Reactor internals
Deep thermal conversion
Thermal gasoil
Visbreaking

Technical articles
Shell gasification technology: Generating profit
from the bottom of the barrel
Hydrocracking technology for clean fuels
Operating experience provides foundation for
innovative solutions
Market responsiveness through residue thermal
conversion technologies
Low NOx emission from FCC regenerators
Shells ultimate flexible FCC technology in
delivering diesel/propylene

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Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem

Ethers
Isooctene/isooctane
Isooctene/isooctane, conversion of refinery MTBE units
Butene-1 recovery
Isobutylene, high-purity

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TECHNIP
Crude distillation
Hydrogen

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ThioSolv LLC
Treating
Treating-sour water stripper gas

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TOTAL
Crude distillation

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Uhde GmbH
Aromatics extractive distillation
Vacuum distillation
Ethers-ETBE
Ethers-MTBE
Gasification-PDQ
Gasification-PSG
Hydrogen
Hydrofinishing/hydrotreating
Lube treating
Olefins-butenes extractive distillation
Olefins-dehydrogenation of light paraffins to olefins
Slack wax deoiling
White oil and wax hydrotreating

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Processes
UOP LLC, a Honeywell company, has been delivering cutting-edge
technology to the petroleum refining, gas processing, petrochemical production and major manufacturing industries for almost 100
years.
The companys roots date back to 1914, when the revolutionary
Dubbs thermal cracking process created the technological foundation for todays modern refining industry. Since then, UOP engineers
have generated thousands of patents, leading to a complete portfolio of licensed processes, catalysts, molecular sieve adsorbents and
key mechanical equipment that support the quality, efficiency and
profitability needs of customers around the globe. These products
are backed by a broad array of engineering and technical services
that facilitate successful installation and operations.
For more information, visit UOP online at www.uop.com.

Alkylation (2 processes)
Alkylation-HF
Green diesel
Fluid catalytic cracking
Catalytic reforming
Coking
Deasphalting
Hydrocracking
Hydroprocessing-resid
Hydrotreating (2 processes)
Hydrotreating/desulfurization
Isomerization (4 processes)
Treating-pressure swing adsorption
Visbreaking

Technical articles
Technology advancements in benzene saturation
Process and catalyst innovations in hydrocracking
to maximize high-quality distillate fuel

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Viscolube SpA
Lube oil refining, spent
Spent lube oil re-refining

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Worley Parsons
Sulfur recovery

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Alkylation
Alkylate, butanes to alkylate - CDTECH
Alkylation - DuPont
Alkylation - Lummus Technology, a CB&I company
Alkylation - Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC
Alkylation - UOP (2 processes)
Alkylation, low-temperature acid catalyzed - CDTECH
Alkylation, sulfuric acid - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
Alkylation-HF - UOP

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Aromatics
Aromatics - GTC Technology (3 processes)
Aromatics extractive distillation - Uhde GmbH
Aromatics recovery - GTC Technology
Benzene saturation - GTC Technology
Paraxylene - GTC Technology
Styrene recovery - GTC Technology
Xylene isomerization - GTC Technology

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Biofuels
Biodiesel - Lurgi GmbH
Biodiesel - Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC
Green diesel - UOP

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Catalytic cracking
Deep catalytic cracking - Shaw
Fluid catalytic cracking - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
Fluid catalytic cracking - KBR
Fluid catalytic cracking - Lummus Technology, a CB&I company
Fluid catalytic cracking - Shaw
Fluid catalytic cracking - Shell Global Solutions International B.V.
Fluid catalytic cracking - UOP
Fluid catalytic cracking for maximum olefins - Lummus Technology, a CB&I company
Fluid catalytic cracking, high olefin - KBR
Fluid catalytic cracking, residual - KBR
Fluid catalytic cracking-pretreatment - Haldor Topse A/S
Resid catalytic cracking - Shaw
Resid cracking - Axens

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Catalytic reforming
Catalytic reforming - Axens
Catalytic reforming - UOP

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Coking
Coking - Foster Wheeler USA Corp.
Coking - KBR
Coking - Lummus Technology, a CB&I company
Coking, fluid - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Deasphalting/asphalt
Asphaltene pelletization - KBR
Deasphalting - Foster Wheeler USA Corp.
Deasphalting - KBR

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Desulfurization-fuels
Desulfurizaton - GTC Technology
Diesel upgrading - Haldor Topse A/S
Diesel-ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) - Haldor Topse
Gasoline desulfurization, ultra-deep - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
Hydrogenation/hydrodesulfurization - Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC

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Distillation-Crude
Crude distillation - Foster Wheeler USA Corp.
Crude distillation - Shell Global Solutions International B.V.
Crude distillation - TECHNIP

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Ethers
Ethers - Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem
Ethers-ETBE - CDTECH
Ethers-ETBE - Uhde GmbH
Ethers-MTBE - CDTECH
Ethers-MTBE - Uhde GmbH
Olefin etherification - Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC
TAEE, from refinery C5 feeds - CDTECH
TAME, from refinery and steam cracker C5 feeds - CDTECH
TAME, from refinery C5 feeds - CDTECH

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Gasification
Gasification - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
Gasification - GE Energy
Gasification - Shell Global Solutions International B.V.
Gasification-PDQ - Uhde GmbH
Gasification-PSG - Uhde GmbH
Multipurpose gasification - Lurgi GmbH

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Hydrocracking
Hydrocracking - Axens
Hydrocracking - Chevron Lummus Global LLC
Hydrocracking - DuPont
Hydrocracking - Haldor Topse A/S
Hydrocracking - Shell Global Solutions International B.V.
Hydrocracking - UOP
Hydrocracking, moderate pressure - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
Hydrocracking, resid - Chevron Lummus Global LLC
Hydrocracking-residue - Axens

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Hydrogen
Hydrogen - TECHNIP
Hydrogen - Uhde GmbH
Hydrogen (steam reforming) - Lurgi GmbH
Hydrogen-HTCR and HTCR twin plants - Haldor Topse
Hydrogen-HTER-p - Haldor Topse
HydrogenMethanol-to-shift - Haldor Topse
Hydrogen-recovery - Air Products and Chemicals Inc.
Hydrogen-steam methane reforming (SMR) - Haldor Topse A/S
Hydrogen-steam reforming - Foster Wheeler USA Corp.
Prereforming with feed ultra purification - Davy Process Technology
Pressure swing adsorption-rapid cycle - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation - CDTECH
Hydrogenation, selective for MTBE/ETBE C4 raffinate - CDTECH
Hydrogenation, selective for refinery C4 feeds - CDTECH
Hydrogenation-benzene in reformate - CDTECH
Hydrogenation-selective for refinery C5 feeds - CDTECH

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Hydroprocessing
Hydroprocessing-resid - UOP
Hydroprocessing, ULSD - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Hydrotreating
Hydrotreating - CDTECH
Hydrotreating - Chevron Lummus Global LLC
Hydrotreating - DuPont
Hydrotreating - Haldor Topse A/S
Hydrotreating - UOP (2 processes)
Hydrotreating, diesel - Axens
Hydrotreating, pyrolysis gasoline - GTC Technology
Hydrotreating/desulfurization - UOP
Hydrotreating-RDS/VRDS/UFR/OCR - Chevron Lummus Global LLC
Hydrotreating-resid - Axens

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Isomerization
Isomerization - Axens
Isomerization - CDTECH
Isomerization - UOP (4 processes)

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Isooctene/isooctane
Isooctene/isooctane - KBR
Isooctene/isooctane - Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC
Isooctene/isooctane - Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem
Isooctene/isooctane, conversion of refinery MTBE units - CDTECH

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Lubes
Hydrofinishing/hydrotreating - Uhde GmbH
Lube extraction - Bechtel Corp. (2 processes)
Lube hydrotreating - Bechtel Corp. (2 processes)
Lube oil refining, spent - Axens
Lube treating - Uhde GmbH
Spent lube oil re-refining - Axens

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Olefins
Butene-1 recovery - Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem
Isobutylene, from MTBE decomposition - CDTECH
Isobutylene, high purity - Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem
Olefins recovery - Air Products and Chemicals Inc.
Olefins-butenes extractive distillation - Uhde GmbH
Olefins-dehydrogenation of light paraffins to olefins - Uhde GmbH
Refinery offgas-purification and olefins recovery - Shaw

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Oxygen enrichment
Oxygen enrichment for Claus units - Linde AG, Division Gas and Engineering
Oxygen enrichment for FCC units - Linde AG, Division Gas and Engineering

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Petrochemicals
Carboxylic acid recovery - GTC Technology
Dimethyl terephthlate - GTC Technology

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Sulfur recovery
Sulfur processing - Goar, Allison & Associates, Inc., an Air Products Company
Sulfur recovery - Goar, Allison & Associates, Inc., an Air Products Company
Sulfur recovery - Worley Parsons

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Treating
Treating-phenolic caustic - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division
Treating-pressure swing adsorption - UOP
Treating-spent caustic deep neutralization - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process
Technology Division

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Treating-acid gases
Gas treatingH2S removal - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
H2S removal - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Gas Technology Products Division (3 processes)
Treating - ThioSolv LLC
Treating-gases - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division
Treating-sour water stripper gas - ThioSolv LLC
Wet gas scrubbing (WGS), wet gas scrubbing plus - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Treating-flue gas
Flue gas denitrification - Haldor Topse A/S
NOX abatement - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Treating-fuels
Treating-coker LPG to low total sulfur levels - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC,
Process Technology Division
Treating-gasoline and LPG - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division
Treating-gasoline desulfurization ultra deep - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC,
Process Technology Division
Treating-gasoline sweetening - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division
Treating-jet fuel/kerosine - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division
Treating-kerosine and heavy naphtha sweetening - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC,
Process Technology Division
Treating-propane - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division
Treating-reformer products - Merichem Chemical & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division

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Treating-offgas
Flue gas desulfurization-SNOX - Haldor Topse A/S
NOX reduction, low temperature - Belco Technologies Corp.
SO2 removal, regenerative - Belco Technologies Corp.
Sour gas treatment - Haldor Topse A/S
Spent acid regeneration - Haldor Topse A/S
Wet scrubbing system, EDV - Belco Technologies Corp.

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Upgrading-heavy oil
Deep thermal conversion - Shell Global Solutions International B.V.
Emulsion residue upgrade - Quadrise Fuel International
Heavy oil upgrading - KBR
Hydroprocessing-heavy oil and residue - Genoil Inc.
Thermal gasoil - Shell Global Solutions International B.V.

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Visbreaking
Visbreaking - Foster Wheeler USA Corp.
Visbreaking - Shell Global Solutions International B.V.

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Waxes
Catalytic dewaxing - ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
Dewaxing - Bechtel Corp.
Dewaxing - Chevron Lummus Global LLC
Dewaxing/wax deoiling - Bechtel Corp.
Slack wax deoiling - Uhde GmbH
Wax hydrotreating - Bechtel Corp.
White oil and wax hydrotreating - Uhde GmbH

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Alkylate, butanes to alkylate

Application: With the conversion of butanes to high-value motor fuel alkylate using the CDAlkyPlus process, NGL producers now have another
route to upgrade butanes to gasoline blend stock. By using isobutylene
as the sole olefin source, the CDAlkyPlus technology allows for the profitable conversion of isobutylene and isobutane into high-value motor
fuel alkylate.

Recycle isobutane

n-Butane

Isobutylene/isobutane
feed

Fresh
sulfuric acid

n-Butane
isomerization

Product
fractionation

Description: The patented CDAlkyPlus process is a low-temperature sulfuric acid-catalyzed alkylation process coupled with a simple olefin pretreatment step. This combination provides significant benefits over direct
alkylation of isobutylene as well as other isobutylene upgrading processes such is isooctene production. Because isobutane and isobutylene
are incorporated together to produce a high-value alkylate product, the
CDAlkyPlus process produces two times the volume of gasoline blendstock compared with isooctene production. This process is ideal for use
downstream of an isobutane dehydrogentation process. The whole dehydrogenation unit product, a roughly 50/50 blend of isobutane and
isobutylene, is fed directly to the CDAlkyPlus process.
This technology also provides a unique opportunity for revamping an existing dehydrogenation unit-based methyl tertiary butyl ether
(MTBE) plant to produce alkylate. Much of the existing MTBE equipment can be used in the CDAlkyPlus process, thus reducing capital
requirements. For these retrofit cases, the isobutane recycle around
the dehydrogenation unit is essentially eliminated. This means the nbutane capacity of the complex can be doubled without expanding the
existing dehydrogenation unit.

Isobutane
dehydrogenation

Olefin
pretreatment
Alkylation
reaction

Separation

Alkylate product

Process advantages: The benefits of CDAlkyPlus process:

Compared to direct alkylation of isobutylene
Lower acid consumption
Compressor horsepower requirements reduced by 50%
Lower utilities
No caustic waste streams
Higher octane alkylate product
Lower vapor pressure product.
Compared to iso-octene product alternative
Twice the product volume.

Licensor: CDTECH.

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Alkylation
Application: To combine propylene, butylenes and amylenes with isobutane
in the presence of strong sulfuric acid to produce high-octane branched
chain hydrocarbons using the STRATCO Effluent Refrigeration Alkylation
process.

Propane
product

Products: Branched chain hydrocarbons for use in high-octane motor

2
3
1

n-Butane
product

fuel and aviation gasoline.

Description: Plants are designed to process a mixture of propylene,

butylenes and amylenes. Olefins and isobutane-rich streams along with
a recycle stream of H2SO4 are charged to the STRATCO Contactor reactor (1). The liquid contents of the Contactor reactor are circulated at high
velocities and an extremely large amount of interfacial area is exposed
between the reacting hydrocarbons and the acid catalyst from the acid
settler (2). The entire volume of the liquid in the Contactor reactor is maintained at a uniform temperature, less than 1F between any two points
within the reaction mass. Contactor reactor products pass through a flash
drum (3) and deisobutanizer (4). The refrigeration section consists of a
compressor (5) and depropanizer (6).
The overhead from the deisobutanizer (4) and effluent refrigerant
recycle (6) constitutes the total isobutane recycle to the reaction zone.
This total quantity of isobutane and all other hydrocarbons is maintained
in the liquid phase throughout the Contactor reactor, thereby serving to
promote the alkylation reaction. Onsite acid regeneration technology is
also available.

Product quality: The total debutanized alkylate has RON of 92 to 96

clear and MON of 90 to 94 clear. When processing straight butylenes,
the debutanized total alkylate has RON as high as 98 clear. Endpoint of
the total alkylate from straight butylene feeds is less than 390F, and less
than 420F for mixed feeds containing amylenes in most cases.

Alkylate
product

Olefin feed
START

i-Butane
START

Economics (basis: butylene feed):

Investment (basis: 10,000-bpsd unit), $ per bpsd
Utilities, typical per bbl alkylate:
Electricity, kWh
Steam, 150 psig, lb
Water, cooling (20F rise), 103 gal
Acid, lb
Caustic, lb

4,500
13.5
180
1.85
15
0.1

Installation: Over 850,000 bpsd licensed capacity.

Reference: Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 64, No. 9, September 1985,
pp. 6771.

Licensor: DuPont.
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Alkylation
Application: The AlkyClean process converts light olefins into alkylate
by reacting the olefins with isobutane over a true solid acid catalyst.
AlkyCleans unique catalyst, reactor design and process scheme allow
operation at low external isobutane-to-olefin ratios while maintaining
excellent product quality.
Products: Alkylate is a high-octane, low-Rvp gasoline component used

*TPCVUBOF

0MFmO
GFFE

for blending in all grades of gasoline.

Product: The C5+ alkylate has a RON of 9398 depending on processing

conditions and feed composition.

Economics:
Investment (2007 USGC basis 10,000-bpsd unit) $/bpsd
Utility and catalyst costs, $/gal (2007)

5,200
0.10

1SPEVDU
EJTUJMMBUJPO


*TPCVUBOF
GFFE
O#VUBOF
"MLZMBUF
QSPEVDU

Description: The light olefin feed is combined with the isobutane makeup and recycle and sent to the alkylation reactors which convert the
olefins into alkylate using a solid acid catalyst (1). The AlkyClean process
uses a true solid acid catalyst to produce alkylate, eliminating the safety
and environmental hazards associated with liquid acid technologies. Simultaneously, reactors are undergoing a mild liquid-phase regeneration
using isobutane and hydrogen and, periodically, a reactor undergoes a
higher temperature vapor phase hydrogen strip (2). The reactor and mild
regeneration effluent is sent to the product-fractionation section, which
produces n-butane and alkylate products, while also recycling isobutane
and recovering hydrogen used in regeneration for reuse in other refinery
hydroprocessing units (3). The AlkyClean process does not produce any
acid soluble oils (ASO) or require post treatment of the reactor effluent or
final products.

3FBDUPS
TZTUFN


)ZESPHFO

)ZESPHFO

$BUBMZTU
SFHFOFSBUJPO


Installation: Demonstration unit at Neste Oils Porvoo, Finland Refinery.

Reference: The AlkyClean process: New technology eliminates liquid
acids, NPRA 2006 Annual Meeting, March 1921, 2006.
DAmico, V., J. Gieseman, E. von Broekhoven, E. van Rooijen and
H. Nousiainen, Consider new methods to debottleneck clean alkylate
production, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 2006, pp. 6570.
Licensor: Lummus Technology, Albemarle Catalysts and Neste Oil.

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Alkylation
Application: The RHT-Alkylation process is an improved method to react
C3C5 olefins with isobutane using the classical sulfuric acid alkylation
process. This process uses a unique mixing deviceeductor(s)that
provides low-temperature (25F30F) operations at isothermal conditions. This eductor mixing device is more cost-effective than other devices being used or proposed. It is maintenance free and does not require replacement every two to three years. This mixing device can be a
retrofit replacement for existing contactors. In addition, the auto refrigeration vapor can be condensed by enhancing pressure and then easily
absorbed in hydrocarbon liquid, without revamping the compressor.

Description: In the RHT-Alkylation, C3C5 feed from FCC or any other

source including steam cracker, etc., with isobutane make-up, recycle

isobutene, and recovered hydrocarbons from the depropanizer bottom
and refrigeration vapors are collected in a surge drumthe C4 system
(5). The mixture is pumped to the reactor (1) to the eductor suction port.
The motive fluid is sent to the eductor nozzle from the bottom of reactor, which is essentially sulfuric acid, through pumps to mix the reactants
with the sulfuric-acid catalyst.
The mixing is vigorous to move the reaction to completion. The
makeup acid and acid-soluble oil (ASO) is removed from the pump discharge. The process has provisions to install a static mixer at the pump
discharge. Some feed can be injected here to provide higher OSV, which
is required for C3 alkylation. Reactor effluent is withdrawn from the
reactor as a side draw and is sent to acid/ hydrocarbon coalescer (2)
where most of the acid is removed and recycled to the reactor (1). The
coalescers are being used by conventional process to reduce the acid in
the hydrocarbon phase to 715 wppm. The enhanced coalescer design
RHT can reduce the sulfuric acid content in the hydrocarbon phase to
negligible levels (below <1 wppm).
After the coalescer, the hydrocarbon phase is heated and flashed
increasing the alkylate concentration in the hydrocarbon, which is sent
through the finishing coalescer (4) where essentially all of the remaining
acid is removed.

Mix olefin feed

C3 purge
Absorber

Condensed
C4s

5
C4 system

C3
removal

6
Depropanizer

C4s
Olefin/HC reactor feed

Reactor
feed
Acid makeup

Reactor
system

Reactor
effluent

2
HC/separation

Isobutane

7
Crude
Finishing alkylate Alkylate
coalescer
separation

n-Butane

Acid recycle
Acid return

Alkylate product

Spent acid

The hydrocarbon is sent to distillation column(s) (7), to separate alkylate product and isobutane, which is recycled. The butane is sent to offsites
or can be converted back to isobutane for processing units requirements.
The auto refrigeration occurs in the reactor at temperatures 2530F. The
isothermal condition lowers acid consumption and yields higher octane
product due to improved selectivity of 2,4,4 trimethylpentane.
The auto-refrigeration vapor is first enhanced by the ejector and
then absorbed in a heavy liquidalkylate, which provides a low-cost
option and then condensed. Some liquid is sent to depropanizer (6);
propane and light ends are removed. The bottoms are recycled to C4
system and sent to the reactor.
The major advances of RHT process are threefold: eductor mixing
device, advance coalescer system to remove acid from hydrocarbon (dry
system), and C4 autorefrigeration vapors recovery by absorption, making compressor redundant.
Continued

Alkylation, continued
Economics: For a US Gulf Coast unit 1Q 2006 with a capacity of 10,000
bpd alkylate unit
CAPEX ISBL, MM USD
29.5
Power, kWh
2,800
Water, cooling, m3/h
1,750
Steam, kg/h
25,600
FCC Feed (about 15% isobutelene in C4 mixed stream)

Product properties: Octane (R+M)/2:94.895.4

Commercial units: Technology is ready for commercialization.

References:
US patent 5,095168.
US Patent 4,130593.
Kranz, K., Alkylation Chemistry, Stratco, Inc., 2001.
Branzaru, J., Introduction to Sulfuric Acid Alkylation, Stratco, Inc.,
2001.
Nelson, Handbook of Refining.
Meyers, R. A., Handbook of Refining, McGraw Hill, New York,
1997.

Licensor: Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC.

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Alkylation
Application: The modified HF Alkylation technology is used with HF alkylation technology to reduce aerosol formation in the event of an HF
release, while maintaining unit operability and product quality. The UOP
Alkad Modified HF Alkylation process and the UOP ReVap Modified Alkylation process are both passive mitigation systems that will reduce
aerosol from any leak that occurs while additive is in the system.

Description: The additive stripper sends acid, water and light-acid soluble oils overhead and on to the acid regenerator. Heavy acid soluble
oils and the concentrated HF-additive complex are sent to the additive
stripper bottoms separator. From this separator the polymer is sent to
neutralization, and the HF-additive complex is recycled to the reactor
section. The acid regenerator removes water and light-acid soluble oils
from the additive stripper overhead stream. The water is in the form of
a constant boiling mixture (CBM) of water and HF.
There is no expected increase in the need for operator manpower.
Maintenance requirements are similar to equipment currently in standard operation in an HF alkylation unit in similar service.

HF to isostripper
(internal regeneration)
HF to Rx section
Additive
stripper
i-C4
recycled

HF from
Rx section

Acid
regeneration
column

Polymer to
neutralization

i-C4

HF additive to Rx section

i-C4

Light acid
soluble oils and CBM
to neutralization

Installation: Twelve units have been licensed at present. Three are in

operation.

Licensor: UOP.

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Alkylation
Application: The UOP Indirect Alkylation (InAlk) process uses solid catalysts to convert light olefins (mainly C4 but also C3 and C5) to alkylate.

Description: The InAlk process makes premium alkylate using a combination of commercially proven technologies. Iso-butene reacts with itself
or with other C3C5 olefins via polymerization. The resulting mixture of
higher molecular weight iso-olefins may then be hydrogenated to form
a high-octane paraffinic gasoline blendstock that is similar to alkylate,
but usually higher in octane, or it may be left as an olefinic high-octane
gasoline blending component.
Either resin or solid phosphoric acid (SPA) catalysts are used to polymerize the olefins. Resin catalyst primarily converts iso-butene. SPA
catalyst also converts n-butenes. The saturation section uses either a
base-metal or noble-metal catalyst.

Olefin
feed

Polymerization
reactors

Debutanizer
column

Saturation
reactor

Product
stripper

Offgas

Raffinate

1
2

Makeup hydrogen

Alkylate

Feed: A wide variety of feeds can be processed in the InAlk process.

Typical feeds include FCC-derived light olefins, steam-cracker olefins
and iC4 dehydrogenation olefins.

Installation: The InAlk process is an extension of UOPs catalytic condensation and olefin saturation technologies. UOP has licensed and designed more than 400 catalytic condensation units for the production of
polygasoline and petrochemical olefins and more than 200 hydrogenation units of various types. Currently, 10 InAlk units are in operation.
Licensor: UOP.

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Alkylation, low-temperature acid

catalyzed

Company Index

Propane to storage

DeC3

Application: The patented CDAlky process is an advanced sulfuric acidcatalyzed alkylation process for the production of motor fuel alkylate.

Description: The CDAlky low-temperature sulfuric acid alkylation technology reacts light olefin streams from refinery sources such as fluid
catalytic cracking units or from steam-cracking units with isoparaffins
to produce motor fuel alkylate. Central to the CDAlky process is a novel
scalable contactor/reactor design. The CDAlky process is available for
license to the petroleum refining and petrochemical industries.
The process flow diagram shows the basic configuration to process
a mixed-C4 olefin feed and produce a high-octane motor fuel alkylate,
without the need for a reactor effluent alkaline water wash. The CDAlky
process yields a higher quality product while consuming significantly
less acid than conventional sulfuric acid-based technologies. The flow
scheme is also less complex than conventional designs, which reduces
capital and operating costs.
Conventional sulfuric acid alkylation units use mechanical mixing in
their contactors, which are characterized by their high acid consumption. In addition, they are unable to take full benefit of operating at very
low temperature, which substantially improves alkylate quality and reduces acid consumption. This scalable, vertical reactor also reduces capital costs and plot space requirements. This process has also eliminated
the need for reactor effluent alkaline water wash, thus reducing caustic
waste. In addition, this dry fractionation section reduces the potential
for downstream corrosion and thereby reducing overall maintenance
costs.

iC4 recycle

Olefin feed

iC4 Makeup

Fractionator

Reaction
Separation

n-Butane to storage
Acid recycle
Fresh acid

Alkylate product to storage

Spent acid

Advantages. The benefits of the CDAlky process:

Lower acid consumption
Lower utilities
Reduced operating cost
Reduced environmental exposure
Higher octane product
Lower CAPEXsimpler flowsheet with fewer pieces of equipment
Highly flexible operation rangemaximum absolute product octane or maximum octane barrels
Lower maintenanceno mechanical agitator or complex seals
Less corrosion due to dry system
No caustic waste stream.

Licensor: CDTECH.
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Alkylation, sulfuric acid

Propane product

Application: ExxonMobils Research & Engineering (EMREs) autorefrigerated sulfuric-acid catalyzed process that combines butylene (and
propylene or pentylene if desired) with isobutane to produce high-octane gasoline components that are particularly attractive in locations
that are MON limited. Technology can be installed rassroots or retrofit
into existing alkylation facilities.

Refrigerant

Products: A low-sulfur, low-Rvp, highly isoparaffinic, high-octane (especially MON) gasoline blendstock is produced from this alkylation process.

Description: Olefin feed and recycled isobutane are introduced into the
stirred, autorefrigerated reactor (1). Mixers provide intimate contact between the reactants and acid catalyst. Highly efficient autorefrigeration
removes heat of reaction heat from the reactor. Hydrocarbons, vaporized
from the reactor to provide cooling, are compressed (2) and returned to
the reactor. A depropanizer (3), which is fed by a slipstream from the
refrigeration section, is designed to remove any propane introduced to
the plant with the feeds.
Hydrocarbon products are separated from the acid in the settler containing proprietary internals (4). In the deisobutanizer (5), isobutane is
recovered and recycled along with makeup isobutane to the reactor.
Butane is removed from alkylate in the debutanizer (6) to produce a
low-Rvp, high-octane alkylate product. A small acid stream containing
acid soluble oil byproducts is removed from the unit and is either regenerated on site or sent to an off-site sulfuric acid regeneration facility to
recover acid strength.

Yields:
Alkylate yield
1.8 bbl C5+/bbl butylene feed
Isobutane required
1.2 bbl/bbl butylene feed
Alkylate quality
97 RON/94 MON
Rvp, psi
3

Butane
product

Recycle
isobutane
1

4
5

Olefin feed
START

Recycle acid

Makeup
isobutane

Alkylate
product

Utilities: typical per barrel of alkylate produced:

Water, cooling, M gal
Power, kWH
Steam, lb
H2SO4, lb
NaOH, 100%, lb

2
9
200
19
0.1

Operating experience: Extensive commercial experience in both

ExxonMobil and licensee refineries, with a total operating capacity of
137 bpsd at 13 locations worldwide. Unit capacities currently range
from 2,000 bpsd to 30,000 bpsd. In addition, the worlds largest alkylation unit, with a capacity of 83,000 bpsd will be starting up in 2008 at
Reliance Petroleum Limiteds Export Refinery in Jamnagar, India. Another licensed unit is in the design phase with a capacity of 16,000 bpsd.
The larger units take advantage of the single reactor/settler trains with
capacities up to 10,000 bpsd.
Continued

Alkylation, sulfuric acid, continued

Technical advantages:
Autorefridgeration is thermodynamically more efficient, allows
lower reactor temperatures, which favor better product quality, and
lowers energy usage.
Staged reactor results in a high average isobutane concentration,
which favors high product quality.
Low space velocity results in high product quality and reduced
ester formation eliminating corrosion problems in fractionation equipment.
Low reactor operating pressure translates into high reliability for
the mechanical seals for the mixers, which operate in the vapor phase.

Economic advantages: Better economy of scaleReactor system is simple and easily expandable with 10,000 bpsd single train capacities easily
achievable

Reference: Lerner, H., Exxon sulfuric acid alkylation technology, Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, Second Ed., R. A. Meyers, Ed.,
pp. 1.31.14.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research & Engineering Co.

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AlkylationHF
Application: UOP HF Alkylation improves gasoline quality by adding
clean-burning, mid-boiling-range isoparaffins and reducing gasoline
pool vapor pressure and olefin content by conversion of C3C5 olefin
components to alkylate.

Cooling
water

Description: The alkylation reaction catalytically combines C3C5 olefins

with isobutane to produce motor-fuel alkylate. Alkylation takes place in

the presence of HF catalyst under conditions selected to maximize alkylate yield and quality.
UOP offers two configurations. Both ensure efficient contacting and
mixing of hydrocarbon feed with the acid catalyst. Our gravity flow design provides good mixing without the need for a catalyst circulation
pump. The forced circulation design reduces acid inventory and reaction
vessel elevations.
Acid regeneration occurs in the acid regenerator or via a patented
internal-acid-regeneration method. Internal regeneration allows the
refiner to shutdown the acid regenerator, thereby realizing a utility
savings as well as reducing acid consumption and eliminating polymer
disposal.

Feed: Alkylation feedstocks are typically treated to remove sulfur and

water. In cases where MTBE and TAME raffinates are still being processed, an oxygenate removal unit (ORU) may be desirable.
Selective hydrogenation of butylene feedstock is recommended to
reduce acid regeneration requirements, catalyst (acid) consumption and
increase alkylate octane by isomerizing 1-butene to 2-butene.

Saturate
feed

Olefin feed

Recycle
i-C4

n-C4
product

Forced circulation design

Propane
product
Alkylate

Efficiency: HF Alkylation remains the most economically viable method

for the production of alkylate. The acid consumption rate for HF Alkylation is less than 1/100th the rate for sulfuric alkylation units. And unlike sulfuric alkylation units, HF Alkylation does not require refrigeration
equipment to maintain a low reactor temperature.
Installations: Since 1942, UOP has licensed 216 alkylation units.
Licensor: UOP.

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Makeup H2
Reactor purge gas

Application: DX process converts ethylbenzene (EB) contained in the C8

aromatics feedstocks to high-purity benzene plus ethane and upgrades

mixed xylenes to premium grade. The feedstocks can be either pygas C8
or reformer C8 streams. The technology features a proprietary catalyst
with high activity, low ring loss and superior long catalyst cycle length.
This technology is partnered with Toray Industries, Inc.

Offgas

Light ends

Reactor

Description: The technology encompasses two main processing areas:

reactor section and product distillation section. In this process, C8 aromatics feed stream is first mixed with hydrogen. The mixed stream is then
heated against reactor effluent and sent through a process furnace. The
heated mixture is fed into the DX reaction unit, where EB is de-alkylated
at very high conversion and xylenes are isomerized to equilibrium.
The reactor effluent is cooled and flows to the separator, where the
hydrogen-rich vapor phase is separated from the liquid stream. A small
portion of the vapor phase is purged to control the recycle hydrogen
purity. The recycle hydrogen is then compressed, mixed with makeup
hydrogen and returned to the reactor.
The liquid stream from the separator is pumped to the deheptanizer
to remove light hydrocarbons. The liquid stream from the deheptanizer
overhead contains benzene and toluene and is sent to distillation section to produce high-purity benzene and toluene products. The liquid
stream from the deheptanizer bottoms contains mixed xylenes and a
small amount of C9+ aromatics. This liquid stream is sent to the PX recovery section. The mixed xylenes stream is very low in EB due to high
EB conversion in the DX reactor, which debottlenecks the PX recovery
unit.

Process advantages:
Simple, low cost fixed-bed reactor design
Flexible feedstocks and operation
High EB conversion per pass can be nearly 100wt%
DX products are isomerized to equilibrium composition of xylene,
which unloads the isomerization unit

Deheptanizer

Feed
Reduced EB product

Low ring loss at very high EB conversion

On-specification benzene with traditional distillation
Extremely stable catalyst
Low hydrogen consumption
Moderate operating parameters
Efficient heat integration scheme reduces energy consumption
Turnkey package for high-purity benzene, toluene and PX production available from licensor.

Economics: Feedrate (pygas basis): 100 thousand tpy (2,200 bpsd);

erected cost: $10 MM (ISBL, 2007 US Gulf Coast Basis)

Installation: Commercialized technology available for license.

Licensor: GTC Technology.

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Aromatics
Application: GT-STDP process technology produces benzene and paraenriched xylenes from toluene disproportionation. The technology features a proprietary catalyst with high activity and selectivity toward paraxylene.

Fuel gas
H2
Separator

Description: The technology encompasses three main processing areas:

reactor section, product distillation and paraxylene (PX) recovery. Fresh
toluene and recycled toluene from the product distillation area are mixed
with hydrogen. The hydrogen-to-toluene ratio is about 1 to 1.5. The
mixed stream is heated against reactor effluent and through a process
furnace. The heated vapor stream flows to the reactor, which produces
the benzene and xylenes. The toluene disproportionation reactions are
mildly exothermic.
The reactor effluent is cooled and flows to the separator, where the
hydrogen-rich vapor phase is separated from the liquid stream. A small
portion of the vapor phase is purged to control recycle hydrogen purity.
The recycle hydrogen is then compressed, mixed with makeup hydrogen
and returned to the reactor.
The liquid stream from the separator is pumped to the stripper to
remove light hydrocarbons. The liquid stream from the stripper bottoms
contains benzene, toluene, mixed xylenes and a small quantity of C9+
aromatics. This liquid stream is sent to product distillation section to obtain benzene product, toluene for recycle to the reactor, mixed xylenes
to the PX recovery section and C9+ aromatics. The PX in the mixed xylenes stream is over 90% purity, which permits low-cost crystallization
technology to be used for the PX purification.

Advantages:
Simple, low cost fixed-bed reactor design
Drop-in catalyst replacement for existing hydroprocessing reactors
Paraxylene enriched to over 90% in the xylene stream
On-specification benzene with traditional distillation

Reactor

Stabilizer

Heater

Benzene
Product
distillation

Toluene
Toluene recycle

PX recovery
(>90 wt % PX)
C9+ aromatics

Physically stable catalyst

Low hydrogen consumption
Moderate operating parameters; catalyst can be used as replacement for traditional toluene disproportionation unit or in grassroots designs
Efficient heat integration scheme; reduced energy consumption
Turnkey package for high-purity benzene and paraxylene production available from licensor.

Economics: Feed rate 1,000 thousand tpy (22,000 bpsd), erected cost
$25MM (ISBL, 2008 US Gulf Coast Basis)

Installation: GTC markets this technology on a select, regional basis.

There are two commercial applications of the GT-STDP process.
Licensor: GTC Technology.
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Aromatics
Application: GT-TransAlk produces benzene and xylenes from toluene
and/or heavy aromatics streams. The technology features a proprietary
catalyst and can accommodate varying ratios of feedstock while maintaining high activity and selectivity.

Process description: The technology encompasses three main processing areas: splitter, reactor and stabilizer sections. The heavy-aromatics
stream (C9+ feed) is fed to the splitter. The overhead C9/C10 aromatic
product is the feed to the transalkylation reactor section. The splitter
bottoms are exchanged with other streams for heat recovery before
leaving the system.
The aromatic product is mixed with toluene and hydrogen, vaporized and fed to the reactor. The reactor gaseous product is primarily
unreacted hydrogen, which is recycled to the reactor. The liquid product stream is subsequently stabilized to remove light components. The
resulting aromatics are routed to product fractionation to produce the
final benzene and xylene products.
The reactor is charged with zeolite catalyst, which exhibits both long
life and good flexibility to feed stream variations including substantial
C10 aromatics. Depending on feed compositions and light components
present, the xylene yield can vary from 25% to 32% and C9 conversion
from 53% to 67%.

Process advantages:
Simple, low cost fixed-bed reactor design; drop in replacement for
other catalysts
Very high selectivity; benzene purity is 99.9% without extraction
Physically stable catalyst
Flexible to handle up to 90+% C9+ components in feed with high
conversion

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Recycle plus
make-up H2

Toluene
(optional)

C9/C10
Charge
heater

Heavy
aromatics
Feed
splitter

Offgas

Reactor

Light HC

Stabilizer
Separator

C11+
Aromatics to
product
fractionation

Catalyst is resistant to impurities common to this service

Moderate operating parameters; catalyst can be used as replacement to other transalkylation units, or in grass roots designs
Decreased hydrogen consumption due to low cracking rates
Significant decrease in energy consumption due to efficient heat
integration scheme.

Economics: Feedrate 1,000 thousand tpy (22,000 bpsd); erected cost

$18 MM (ISBL, 2007 US Gulf Coast Basis).

Installation: Two commercial licenses.

Licensor: GTC Technology.

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Aromatics extractive distillation

Nonaromatics

Application: Recovery of high-purity aromatics from reformate, pyrolysis

Extractive
distillation
column

gasoline or coke oven light oil using extractive distillation.

Description: In Uhdes proprietary extractive distillation (ED) Morphylane

process, a single-compound solvent, N-Formylmorpholine (NFM), alters the
vapor pressure of the components being separated. The vapor pressure of
the aromatics is lowered more than that of the less soluble nonaromatics.
Nonaromatics vapors leave the top of the ED column with some solv
ent, which is recovered in a small column that can either be mounted on
the main column or installed separately.
Bottom product of the ED column is fed to the stripper to separate
pure aromatics from the solvent. After intensive heat exchange, the lean
solvent is recycled to the ED column. NFM perfectly satisfies the necessary solvent properties needed for this process including high selectivity,
thermal stability and a suitable boiling point.
Uhdes new single-column morphylane extractive distillation process
uses a single-column configuration, which integrates the ED column and
the stripper column of the conventional design. It represents a superior
process option in terms of investment and operating cost.

Economics:
Pygas feedstock:
Production yield
Benzene
Toluene

Benzene

Benzene/toluene

99.95%

99.95%
99.98%

30 wt ppm NA*

80 wt ppm NA*
600 wt ppm NA*

475 kg/t ED feed

680 kg/t ED feed**

Consumption
Steam

Aromatics
Stripper
column

Solvent+aromatics
Solvent

Reformate feedstock with low-aromatics content (20 wt%):

Benzene
Quality
Benzene

Quality
Benzene
Toluene

Aromatics
fraction

10 wt ppm NA*

Consumption
Steam

320 kg/t ED feed

*Maximum content of nonaromatics **Including benzene/toluene splitter

Installation: More than 55 Morphylane plants (total capacity of more

than 11 MMtpy). The first single-column Morphylane unit went
onstream in 2004.

References: Diehl, T., B. Kolbe and H. Gehrke, Uhde Morphylane Extractive DistillationWhere do we stand? ERTC Petrochemical Conference, October 35, 2005, Prague.
Continued

Aromatics extractive distillation, continued

Emmrich, G., U. Ranke and H. Gehrke, Working with an extractive distillation process, Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Summer 2001, p. 125.

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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Aromatics recovery
Application: GT-BTX is an aromatics recovery technology that uses extractive distillation to remove benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX) from
refinery or petrochemical aromatics streams such as catalytic reformate
or pyrolysis gasoline. With lower capital and operating costs, simplicity of
operation, and range of feedstock and solvent performance, extractive
distillation is superior to conventional liquid-liquid extraction processes.
Flexibility of design allows use for grassroots aromatics recovery units,
debottlenecking or expansion of conventional extraction systems.

Raffinate

Lean solvent

Extractive
distillation
column (EDC)

Hydrocarbon
feed

Solvent
recovery
column

Aromatics to
downstream
fractionation

Description: Hydrocarbon feed is preheated with hot circulating solvent

and fed at a midpoint into the extractive distillation column (EDC). Lean
solvent is fed at an upper point to selectively extract the aromatics into
the column bottoms in a vapor/liquid distillation operation. The nonaromatic hydrocarbons exit the top of the column and pass through a
condenser. A portion of the overhead stream is returned to the top of
the column as reflux to wash out any entrained solvent. The balance of
the overhead stream is raffinate product and does not require further
treatment.
Rich solvent from the bottom of the EDC is routed to the solventrecovery column (SRC), where the aromatics are stripped overhead.
Stripping steam from a closed-loop water circuit facilitates hydrocarbon
stripping. The SRC is operated under a vacuum to reduce the boiling
point at the base of the column.
Lean solvent from the bottom of the SRC is passed through heat
exchange before returning to the EDC. A small portion of the lean circulating solvent is processed in a solvent regeneration step to remove
heavy decomposition products.
The SRC overhead mixed aromatics product is routed to the purification section, where it is fractionated to produce chemical-grade benzene, toluene and xylenes.

Process advantages:
Lower capital cost compared to conventional liquid-liquid extraction or other extractive distillation systems

Aromatics-rich solvent

Energy integration options to further reduce operating costs

Higher product purity and aromatic recovery
Recovers aromatics from full-range BTX feedstock
Distillation-based operation provides better control and simplified
operation
Proprietary formulation of commercially available solvent exhibits
high selectivity and capacity
Low solvent circulation rates
Insignificant fouling due to elimination of liquid-liquid contactors
Fewer hydrocarbon emission sources for environmental benefits.

Economics:
Feedrate
ISBL capital cost

New unit
12,000 bdp reformate or pygas
$15 MM

Installations: Twenty-two.
Licensor: GTC Technology.
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Benzene saturation

Offgas
Offgas

Application: GTC Technologys GT-BenZap is a benzene saturation technology that allows refiners to achieve the upcoming benzene limit required by EPAs regulations under Mobile Sources Air Toxics Phase 2
(MSAT2). Benzene saturation is applied when the logistics of benzene
recovery and production are unfavorable, or where the economy of scale
for benzene production is not sufficient.

Description: GT-BenZap process features a reliable traditional design

paired with a proven nickel-based catalyst. The process consists of
hydrotreating a narrow-cut C6 fraction, which is separated from the
full-range reformate to saturate the benzene component into cyclohexane. The reformate is first fed to a reformate splitter where the C6
heart cut is separated as a side-draw fraction, while the C7+ cut and
the C5 light fraction are removed as bottom and top products of the
column.
The C6 olefins present in the C6 cut are also hydrogenated to paraffins, while the C5 olefins removed at the top of the splitter are
not, thus preserving the octane number. The hydrogenated C6 fraction from the reactor outlet is sent to a stabilizer column where the
remaining hydrogen and lights are removed overhead. The C5 cut,
produced from the splitter overhead, is recombined with the hydrogenated C6 cut within the GT-BenZap process in a unique manner that
reduces energy consumption and capital equipment cost. The light
reformate is mixed with the C7+ cut from the splitter column and together form the full-range reformate, which is low in benzene. GTC
also offers a modular construction option and the possibility to reuse
existing equipment.

C5-

Full-range
reformate

Stabilizer

C6- rich with

benzene

Reformate
splitter
H2
C7+

Low-benzene gasoline
blend stock

Process advantages:
Simple and reliable technology; low operating costs
An economical alternative to platinum-based systems
Ability to reduce the benzene in the reformate stream by over
99.9%
Minimized impact to hydrogen balance and octane loss.

Installation: Technology available for license.

Licensor: GTC Technology.

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Paraxylene
High-purity PX
production section

Application: CrystPX is a modern suspension crystallization technology

for production of paraxylene (PX). The process can be applied in a singlestage for concentrated PX feedstock or in two stages for equilibrium
xylenes feed. The technology has fewer pieces of equipment, simplified
flow schemes and a more reliable operation compared to traditional
crystallization methods.

Primary
centrifuge

Process advantages:
High PX purity and recovery
Crystallization equipment is simple, easy to procure and operationally trouble free
Compact design requires small plot size and lowest capital investment

PX wash

(Cake)

(Slurry)

Description: Suspension crystallization of PX in the xylene isomer mixture is used to produce PX crystals. The technology uses an optimized
arrangement of equipment to obtain the required recovery and product
purity. Washing the PX crystal with the final product in a high efficiency
pusher-centrifuge system produces the PX product.
When PX content in the feed is enriched above equilibrium, such
as streams originating from selective toluene conversion processes, the
proprietary crystallization process technology is even more economical
to produce high-purity PX product at high recoveries. The process technology takes advantage of recent advances in crystallization techniques
and improvements in equipment to create this cost-effective method for
paraxylene recovery and purification.
The design uses only crystallizers and centrifuges in the primary operation. This simplicity of equipment promotes low maintenance costs,
easy incremental expansions and controlled flexibility. High-purity PX is
produced in the front section of the process at warm temperatures, taking advantage of the high concentration of PX already in the feed. At
the back end of the process, high PX recovery is obtained by operating
the crystallizers at colder temperatures. This scheme minimizes recycling
excessive amounts of filtrate, thus reducing total energy requirements.

PX recovery section

(Slurry)

Secondary
centrifuge

PX melt

PX lean filtrate

(Cake)

PX rich feed
Feed
drum

PX product

Operation is flexible to meet market requirements for PX purity

System is easily amenable to future requirement for incremental
capacity increases
Feed concentration of PX is used efficiently through an innovative
flow scheme
Technology is flexible to process a range of feed concentrations
(2095 wt.% PX) using a single or multistage system
The aromatics complex using CrystPX technology is cost competitive with adsorption-based systems for PX recovery.
Economics: For 400 thousand tpy capacity from concentrated feed:

CrystPX
Other crystallization

technologies
ISBL Investment Cost
$35 MM
$45 MM
Paraxylene recovery
95%
95%
Electricity consumption
50 kwh/ ton PX
80 kwh/ ton PX
Operation mode
Continuous
Batch
Continued

Paraxylene, continued
Installation: Two commercial licenses.
Licensor: CrystPX is a proprietary process technology marketed and licensed by GTC Technology Inc., in alliance with Lyondell.
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Styrene recovery
Application: GT-Styrene is an extractive distillation (ED) process that directly recovers styrene from the raw pyrolysis gasoline derived from the
steam cracking of naphtha, gasoils and natural gas liquids (NGLs). The
produced styrene is high purity and suitable for polymerization at a very
attractive cost compared to conventional styrene production routes. If
desired, the mixed xylenes can also be extracted from the pygas, upgrading their value as a chemical feedstock. The process is economically
attractive for pygas feeds containing more than 15,000 tpy styrene.

C8 aromatics
Finishing
treatment
H2

Pygas C8 cut

Solvent

PA
hydrogenation

Description: Raw pyrolysis gasoline is prefractionated into a heartcut

C8 stream. The resulting styrene concentrate is fed to an ED column
and mixed with a selective solvent, which extracts the styrene to the
tower bottoms. The rich solvent mixture is routed to a solvent recovery
column SRC), which recycles the lean solvent back to the ED column
and recovers the styrene overhead. A final purification step produces a
99.9% styrene product containing less than 50-ppm phenyl acetylene.
The ED column overhead can be further processed to recover a highquality mixed-xylene stream. A typical world-scale cracker can produce
approximately 25,000 tpy styrene and 75,000 tpy mixed xylenes from
pyrolysis gasoline.

Process advantages:
Produces polymer-grade styrene at 99.9% purity
Allows the recovery of isomer-quality mixed xylenes for paraxylene
production
Upgrades pygas stream components to chemical value
Debottlenecks pygas hydrotreater and extends cycle length
Reduces hydrogen consumed in hydrotreating
Optimized solvent system and design provide economical operating costs

99.9+ wt%
Styrene
product

Heavies
Feed
pretreatment

Extractive
distillation

Solvent
recovery

Styrene
finishing

Economics: Basis: 25,000 tpy styrene capacity

Typical USGC capital cost
Styrene value in pygas
Styrene product sales value
Net processing
Gross margin
Pretax ROI

$25 million
$800/ton
$1,400/ton
$160/ton
$11 million/yr
44%

Installation: Two commercial licenses.

Licensor: GTC Technology.

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Makeup H2

Application: GT-IsomPX is GTCs xylene isomerization technology. It is

Reactor purge gas

available in two versions: EB isomerization type and EB dealkylation type.

Both versions gain high ethylbenzene (EB) conversion rates while producing equilibrium mixed xylenes. Catalysts that exhibit superior physical activity and stability are the key to this technology. The technology
and catalysts are used commercially in several applications.

Offgas

Light ends

Reactor

Description: For an EB dealkylation type of isomerization, the technology encompasses two main processing areas: reactor section and product
distillation section. In this process, paraxylene (PX)-depleted feed stream
is first mixed with hydrogen. The mixed stream is then heated against
reactor effluent and through a process furnace. The heated mixture is
fed into isomerization reaction unit, where m-xylene,o-xylene and PX
are isomerized to equilibrium and EB is de-alkylated to benzene.
The reactor effluent is cooled and flows to the separator, where the
hydrogen-rich vapor phase is separated from the liquid stream. A small
portion of the vapor phase is purged to control recycle hydrogen purity.
The recycle hydrogen is then compressed, mixed with makeup hydrogen
and returned to the reactor.
The liquid stream from the separator is pumped to the deheptanizer
to remove light hydrocarbons. The liquid stream from the deheptanizer
overhead contains benzene and toluene and is sent to the distillation
section to produce high-purity benzene and toluene products. The liquid
stream from the deheptanizer bottoms contains mixed xylenes and a
small amount of C9+ aromatics. This liquid stream is returned to the PX
recovery section.

Process advantages:

Deheptanizer

Feed

Deheptanizer bottom

Low H2/HC ratio, high WHSV and low xylenes loss

Long cycle length
Efficient heat integration scheme reduces energy consumption
Turnkey package for high-purity benzene, toluene and PX production available from licensor.

Economics: Feedrate: 4,000 thousand tpy (88,000 bpsd); erected cost:

$29 MM (ISBL, 2007 US Gulf Coast Basis).

Installation: Technology available for license.

Licensor: GTC Technology.

PX in xylenes reaches thermodynamic equilibrium after reaction

With the EB-dealkylation catalyst, the byproduct benzene is produced at high purity by simple distillation.

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Biodiesel
Application: Consumption of primary energy has risen substantially in
recent years, and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions have increased by
a substantial amount. To counter this trend, there is a global strong emphasis on regenerative energy such as biofuels to effectively reduce or
avoid such emissions.

Reactor 1

Transesterification

Oil

Description: The Lurgi biodiesel process is centered on the transesterification of different raw materials to methyl ester using methanol in the
presence of a catalyst. In principle, most edible oils and fatsboth vegetable and animal sourcescan be transesterified if suitably prepared.
Transesterification is based on the chemical reaction of triglycerides
with methanol to methyl ester and glycerine in the presence of an alkaline catalyst. The reaction occurs in two mixer-settler units. The actual
conversion occurs in the mixers. The separation of methyl ester as the
light phase and glycerine water as the heavy phase occurs in the settlers
due to the insolubility of both products and the difference in density.
Byproduct components are removed from the methyl ester in the downstream washing stage, which operates in a counter-current mode. After
a final drying step under vacuum, the biodiesel is ready for use.
Any residual methanol contained in the glycerine water is removed
in a rectification column. In this unit operation, the methanol has a purity, which is suitable for recycling back to process. For further refinement
of the glycerine water, optional steps are available such as chemical
treatment, evaporation, distillation and bleaching to either deliver crude
glycerine at approximately 80% concentration or pharmaceutical-grade
glycerine at >99.7% purity.

Economics: The (approximate) consumption figureswithout glycerine

distillation and bleachingstated below are valid for the production of
one ton of rapeseed methyl ester at continuous operation and nominal
capacity.
Steam, kg
320
3
Water, cooling (t = 10C), m
25
Electrical energy, kWh
12

Reactor 2

Glycerin
cross-flow
(patented)

Methanol

Catalyst

Methanol
recovery

Biodiesel

Wash
column

Closed washwater loop

Glycerin water
evaporation
Crude glycerin

Glycerin water

Methanol, kg
Catalyst (Na-methylate 100%), kg
Hydrochloric acid (37%), kg
Caustic soda (50%), kg
Nitrogen, Nm3

96
5
10
1.5
1

Installation: Lurgi has been building biodiesel plants for 20 years. Only in
the last five years, Lurgi has contracted more than 40 plants for the production of biodiesel with capacities ranging from 30,000 to 250,000 tpy.

Licensors: Lurgi GmbH.

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Biodiesel
Application: The RHT- Biodiesel process is optimized to produce biodiesel
from palm oil, rape-seed oil, vegetable and animal products that contain
fatty acids with even number of carbon atom (12 to 22). The lack of
sulfur in the biodiesel enables complying with many international fuel
specifications.
The biodiesel is comparable to petroleum-based diesel. Triglycerides
are reacted with methanol, ethanol or higher alcohols to yield biodiesel
within the acceptable boiling range. Methanol is most commonly used
for the biodiesel production since it is the most cost-effective of alcohols, and it can provide better economics for the biodiesel producers.
Biodiesel is produced by reacting vegetable oils and animal fats (triglycerides) with methanol in the presence of highly alkaline heterogeneous
catalyst at moderate pressure and temperature. Pretreatment may be
required if the vegetable oil has a high free-fatty acids content to
optimize methyl esters yield. If free fatty acids are present in the
feed, first step is esterfication of the free-fatty acid with methanol. However if the free-fatty acids concentrations are low, then
this step can be deleted.
The triglycerides and methanol are converted by transesterfication
reaction to yield methyl esters of the oils and fats, and glycerine is produced as a byproduct. The glycerine is separated from the methyl esters
(biodiesel) by phase separation via gravity settling. The methyl esters and
glycerine are purified to meet the product specifications.

Description: In the simplified process flow diagram (1), the feedvegetable oil or animal fatsis pumped from storage and is mixed with
methanol in the required molar ratio vegetable/methanol at moderate
operating pressure. The feed is heated to the reaction temperature and
is sent to esterification reactor. Free-fatty acids are pretreated if the concentration exceeds 3% percent of the feed. The reactor contains an acid
catalyst for this reaction and can remove 99.9 % of free-fatty acids from
the vegetable oils. (Note: the pretreatment is only required when the
feed contains free-fatty acids; otherwise, this step can be omitted.
The effluent from the first reactor (if free-fatty acids are present) or

Triglycerides

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Esterification Transesterification
reactor
reactor
LP

Methanol
Biodiesel

Purification

Biodiesel
product

Mixer
Gravity
separator

Water wash
MeOH/water for recovery

Water
MeOH/water for recovery
Purification

Glycerine product

Triglycerides

Esterification
reactor

Transesterification
reactors

Wash solvent

LP

Residual glycerine/wash solvent

Methanol
Biodiesel

Biodiesel product

Mixer
Gravity
separator
Water

Water wash
MeOH/water for recovery
MeOH/water for recovery

Purification
Glycerine product

the heated feed is sent to the transesterfication reactor, where 3 moles

of methanol react with the triglyceride to produce 3 moles of methyl
ester oil (biodiesel) and one mole of glycerine. The transesterfication reactor uses a highly alkaline heterogeneous catalyst and provides essentially 100% conversion. The transesterification reactor effluent is sent
Continued

Biodiesel, continued

Economics: The normal utilities for continuous biodiesel unit based on

to gravity separator/settler. The biodiesel product is taken from the top

of the separator, and is water washed. The washed biodiesel product is
taken from the top of the drum. Water washing removes excess methanol from the reaction products, which is recovered by normal distillation;
the pure methanol is recycled back to the reactor. The bottoms from the
separator/settler are sent to the purification unit to remove impurities
and residual methanol, which is recycled back. Pure glycerine product is
sent to storage.
Fig. 2 is an alternate flow scheme; a spare transesterification reactor
is added to remove glycerine from the reactor to sustain reaction rates.
Once the reaction rates are reduced the reactor is switched and washed
with hot solvent to remove residual glycerine and biodiesel. This extra
reactor patented mode of operation provides higher reactions rates and
onstream capability while enhancing yield and productivity. Glycerine
purity can exceed 99.8% after distillation.

Reaction chemistry: Transesterification reactions:

Triglycerides + 3 Methanol Methyl Ester of the oil (biodiesel) + Glycerol
Comparision of the Diesel/Biodiesel Properties
Fuel Property
Diesel
Biodiesel
Fuel standard
Fuel composition
Lower heating value, Btu/gal
Kinemetic Vis @ 40C
SG at 60F
Water, wppm
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Sulfur, wppm
Bp, F
Flash Pt, F

ASTM D 975
C10C21 HC
131
1.34.1
0.85
161
87
13
0
15500
380650
140175

ASTM P S 121
C12C22 FAME
117
1.96
0.88
500
77
12
11
0
370340
210140

heterogeneous catalyst for tph of biodiesel capacity are listed. This does
not include the glycerine purification utilities. The capital cost for the
ISBL Biodiesel plant on Gulf coast site basis based on 1Q 2006 is provided below.

CAPEX ISBL plant : USD/ton Biodiesel

Steam, lb/h
Water, cooling gpm
Power, kWh

235265
368
64
9

Licensor: Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC.

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Green diesel
Application: The UOP/Eni Ecofining process for the production of green
diesel fuel is UOPs solution to meeting the increasing demand for a sustainable high-quality renewable diesel using conventional hydroprocessing technology already widely used in refineries.

Feed

Makeup hydrogen

Reactor
system

Acid gas
scrubber

Description: The Ecofining process deoxygenates and then hydrogenates triglycerides and/or free fatty-acid feedstocks such as vegetable
oils and animal fats. The resulting paraffins are then isomerized to create
a high-quality hydrocarbon known as green diesel. If desired, the Ecofining process can also be designed to produce a slipstream of a paraffinic
green jet fuel stream in addition to the green diesel product.
A thermochemical process, the Ecofining process produces green
diesel fuel that is indistinguishable from traditional diesel fuel. It can be
used as a direct replacement fuel or as a valuable blendstock to enhance
the quality of the existing diesel pool. Blending of high-quality green
diesel will allow the use of lower quality diesel range refinery product
streams, ultimately reducing the cost of biofuel compliance and increasing the overall diesel pool.
Designed for feedstock flexibility, the Ecofining process works with
a wide range of pretreated biofeedstocksfrom vegetable oils and animal fats to second generation, non-food-based options such as jatropha
and algal oils.
The diesel yield and hydrogen consumption vary slightly according
to the feed-stock source and the required product cloud point. The hydrogen consumption may also vary between different feeds.

Experience: UOP introduced Ecofining in early 2007 as the first commercial offering from its Renewable Energy & Chemicals business group
dedicated to introducing new technology for processing renewable

CO2
Green propane and light ends

Separator
Green naphtha product
Green jet product

Water

Jet option
Green
diesel
product
Green diesel product

energy sources in existing or new petroleum refineries worldwide. The

Ecofining process is an extension of UOPs leading portfolio of hydroprocessing and isomerization technologies.

Installation: ENI has announced construction of the first Ecofining unit,

with startup due in 2010. A second unit was licensed in early 2008 amid
significant market interest.

Licensor: UOP.

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Deep catalytic cracking

Application: Selective conversion of gasoil and paraffinic residual feedstocks.

Products: C2C5 olefins, aromatic-rich, high-octane gasoline and distillate.

Description: Deep catalytic cracking (DCC) is a fluidized process for selectively cracking a wide variety of feedstocks to light olefins. Propylene
yields over 24 wt% are achievable with paraffinic feeds. DCC uses a
conventional traditional reactor/regenerator unit design with a catalyst
that has physical properties similar to traditional FCC catalyst. The DCC
unit may be operated in two operational modes: maximum propylene
(Type I) or maximum iso-olefins (Type II).
Each operational mode utilizes unique catalyst as well as reaction
conditions. Maximum propylene DCC uses both riser and bed cracking at relatively severe reactor conditions while Type II DCC uses only
riser cracking like a modern fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) unit at milder
conditions.
The overall flow scheme of DCC is very similar to that of a conventional FCC. However, innovations in the areas of catalyst development, process variable selection and severity and gas plant design
enables the DCC to produce significantly more olefins than FCC in a
maximum-olefins mode of operation.
This technology is quite suitable for revamps as well as grassroots
applications. Feed enters the unit through proprietary feed nozzles,
as shown in the schematic. Integrating DCC technology into existing
refineries as either a grassroots or revamp application can offer an attractive opportunity to produce large quantities of light olefins.
In a market requiring both propylene and ethylene, use of both
thermal and catalytic processes is essential, due to the fundamental
differences in the reaction mechanisms involved. The combination of
thermal and catalytic cracking mechanisms is the only way to increase
total olefins from light and heavy feedstocks while meeting the need
for increased propylene to ethylene ratio. A benefit associated with

DCC rather than steam cracking for propylene production is a direct

consequence of relative cost differences between DCC heavy feeds
and steam crackers light feeds. Additional capital and operating costsavings are achieved by the integration of the DCC unit and the adjacent steam cracker.

Products (wt% of fresh feed)

Ethylene
Propylene
Butylene
in which iC4 =
Amylene
in which iC5 =

DCC Type I DCC Type II FCC

6.1
20.5
14.3
5.4

2.3
14.3
14.6
6.1
9.8
6.5

0.9
6.8
11.0
3.3
8.5
4.3

Deep catalytic cracking, continued

Installation: A total of 15 DCC units have been licensed.
Reference: Dharia, D., et al., Increase light olefins production, Hydrocarbon Processing, April 2004, pp. 6166.
Licensor: Shaw and Research Institute of Petroleum Processing, Sinopec.
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Fluid catalytic cracking

Application: Conversion of gas oils and residues to light olefins, highoctane gasoline, and distillates using the compact, self supporting Orthoflow converter.

Description: Feed enters through the proprietary ATOMAX-2 feed injection system. Reaction vapors pass through a right angle turn and are
quickly separated from the catalyst in a positive pressure closed-cyclone
system. Closed cyclones minimize dry-gas make and increase gasoline
yield. Spent catalyst flows through a stripper equipped with Dynaflux
baffles to the regenerator where countercurrent flow of catalyst and air
contacting is carried out.
Catalyst flow from the regenerator to the external vertical riser is
controlled by riser outlet temperature, which regulates the regenerated
catalyst slide valve. A plug valve located in the regenerator bottom head
controls the level in the stripper by regulating the catalyst flow from the
spent catalyst standpipe.
Either partial or complete CO combustion may be used in the regenerator. Flue gas flows to an external plenum and then to the flue-gas
system. A Cyclofines Third Stage Separator may be used to remove particulates from the flue gas for protection of a power recovery expander
and/or compliance with particulate emissions standards.

Economics: The converter is a one-piece modularized unit that combines

the disengager, stripper and regenerator vessels into a single structure.
This unique design minimizes the cost of construction, and also reduces
the amount of field mechanical work and required plot space.

Installations: More than 150 grassroots units have been designed, resulting in a total of over 4 million bpsd fresh feed, with 12 of the latest
units since 1990.

References: Maximizing flexibility for FCCs designed to maximize

propylene, 2008 NPRA Annual Meeting, March 911, 2008, San Diego.
Optimize FCC Flue-Gas Emission ControlPart 2, Hydrocarbon
Processing, Vol. 81, No. 10, October 2002, pp. 8591.
New developments in FCC feed injection and stripping technologies, NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2000.
Licensors: KBR and ExxonMobil

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Fluid catalytic cracking

Application: Selective and high conversion of a wide range of feedstocks

into high-value products. Feedstocks include virgin or hydrotreated

gasoils that may also include lube oil extract, coker gasoil and resid.

Products: High-octane gasoline, light olefins and distillate. Flexibility in

unit operation allows for maximizing the most desirable product.

Description: The Lummus process incorporates an advanced reaction

system, high-efficiency catalyst stripper and a mechanically robust,
single-stage fast fluidized bed regenerator. Oil is injected into the
base of the riser via proprietary Micro-Jet feed injection nozzles (1).
Catalyst and oil vapor flow upwards through a short-contact time,
all-vertical riser (2) where raw oil feedstock is cracked under optimum conditions.
Reaction products exiting the riser are separated from the spent
catalyst in a patented, direct-coupled cyclone system (3). Product vapors are routed directly to fractionation, thereby eliminating nonselective post-riser cracking reactions and maintaining the optimum product
yield slate. Spent catalyst containing only minute quantities of hydrocarbon is discharged from the diplegs of the direct-coupled cyclones
into the cyclone containment vessel (4). The catalyst flows down into
the stripper containing proprietary modular grid (MG) baffles (5).
Trace hydrocarbons entrained with spent catalyst are removed in
the MG stripper using stripping steam. The MG stripper efficiently
removes hydrocarbons at low steam rate. The net stripper vapors are
routed to the fractionator via specially designed vents in the directcoupled cyclones. Catalyst from the stripper flows down the spentcatalyst standpipe and through the slide valve (6). The spent catalyst
is then transported in dilute phase to the center of the regenerator
(8) through a unique square-bend-spent catalyst transfer line (7). This
arrangement provides the lowest overall unit elevation. Catalyst is
regenerated by efficient contacting with air for complete combustion of coke. For resid-containing feeds, a catalyst cooler is integrated with the regenerator. The resulting flue gas exits via cyclones (9)






to energy recovery/flue gas treating. The hot regenerated catalyst

is withdrawn via an external withdrawal well (10). The well allows
independent optimization of catalyst density in the regenerated catalyst standpipe, maximizes slide valve (11) pressure drop and ensures
stable catalyst flow back to the riser feed injection zone.
The catalyst formulation can be tailored to maximize the most
desired product.

Economics:
Investment (basis: 30,000 bpsd including reaction/regeneration
system and product recovery. Excluding offsites, power recovery
and flue gas scrubbing US Gulf Coast 2006.)
$/bpsd (typical)
2,4003,500
Utilities, typical per bbl fresh feed:
Electricity, kWh
0.81.0
Steam, 600 psig (produced)
50200
Maintenance, % of investment per year
23
Continued

Fluid catalytic cracking, continued

Installation: Seventeen grassroots units licensed. Thirty-three units revamped, with five revamps in design stage.

Licensor: Lummus Technology, a CB&I company.

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Fluid catalytic cracking

Application: Selective conversion of gas oil feedstocks.
Products: High-octane gasoline, distillate and C3 C4 olefins.
Description: Catalytic and selective cracking in a short-contact-time riser
where oil feed is effectively dispersed and vaporized through a proprietary
feed-injection system. Operation is carried out at a temperature consistent
with targeted yields. The riser temperature profile can be optimized with
the proprietary mixed temperature control (MTC) system.
Reaction products exit the riser-reactor through a high-efficiency,
close-coupled, proprietary riser termination device RSS (riser separator
stripper). Spent catalyst is pre-stripped followed by an advanced highefficiency packed stripper prior to regeneration. The reaction product vapor may be quenched to give the lowest possible dry gas and
maximum gasoline yield. Final recovery of catalyst particles occurs in
cyclones before the product vapor is transferred to the fractionation
section.
Catalyst regeneration is carried out in a single regenerator equipped
with proprietary air and catalyst distribution systems, and may be operated for either full or partial CO combustion. Heat removal for heavier
feedstocks may be accomplished by using reliable dense-phase catalyst
cooler, which has been commercially proven in over 56 units. As an
alternative to catalyst cooling, this unit can easily be retrofitted to a
two-regenerator system (R2R) in the event that a future resid operation
is desired.
The converter vessels use a cold-wall design that results in minimum capital investment and maximum mechanical reliability and safety. Reliable operation is ensured through the use of advanced fluidization technology combined with a proprietary reaction system. Unit
design is tailored to the refiners needs and can include wide turndown
flexibility.

Available options include power recovery, waste-heat recovery,

flue-gas treatment and slurry filtration. Revamps incorporating proprietary feed injection and riser termination devices and vapor quench
result in substantial improvements in capacity, yields and feedstock
flexibility within the mechanical limits of the existing unit.

Installation: Shaw and Axens have licensed 34 grassroots FCC units and
performed more than 160 revamp projects.
Reference: Meyers, R., Handbook of Petroleum Refining Process, Third Ed.
Licensor: Shaw and Axens.

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Fluid catalytic cracking

Application: To convert heavy distillates and residues into high-value
products, including selective propylene production when required, using the Shell fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) process.

Description: In this process, Shells high-performance feed nozzle system feeds hydrocarbons to a short contact-time riser. This design ensures good mixing and rapid vaporization into the hot catalyst stream.
Cracking selectivity is enhanced by the feed nozzles and proprietary
riser-internals, which reduce catalyst back mixing while reducing overall
riser pressure drop.
Riser termination design incorporates reliable close-couple cyclones
that provide rapid catalyst/hydrocarbon separation. It minimizes postriser cracking and maximizes desired product yields, with no slurry clean
up required. Stripping begins in the staged stripper, equipped with highcapacity baffle structure.
A single-stage partial or full-burn regenerator delivers excellent performance at low cost. Proprietary internals are used at the catalyst inlet
to disperse catalyst, and the catalyst outlet to provide significant catalyst
circulation enhancement. Catalyst coolers can be added for more feedstock flexibility.
Cyclone-systems in the reactor and regenerator use a proprietary
design, thus providing reliability, efficiency and robustness. Flue gas
cleanup can be incorporated with Shells third-stage separator.
Shell Global Solutions FCC technologies are proven reliability champions due to simplicity of components and incorporation of Shells extensive
operating experience. The latest addition to the Shell Global Solutions
FCC technology is the MILOS process (Middle Distillate and Lower Olefins
Selective process). With this technology, refiners can produce more diesel

Shell FCC design

Shell MILOS-FCC design

To fractionator
Close
coupled
cyclones

Close
coupled
cyclones

Staged
stripping
Riser
internals
High
performance
feed nozzles

To fractionator

Cold-wall
construction

Staged
Catalyst stripping
circulation
enhancement
technology
Riser
Advanced
spent cat internals
inlet device
High
performance
feed nozzles

To fractionator
MILOS
catalyst
separator

MILOS
riser
reactor

Cold-wall
construction

with improved quality and more propylene from FCC units. The key element of MILOS is a separate riser to produce the additional propylene,
with its own optimal process conditions, while the existing FCC riser is
used for normal cracking or for enhanced light cycle oil (LCO) make.
This process option has a wide flexibility with respect to products, ranging
from the normal product slate to maximized propylene or diesel, which
can be achieved through operational measures.
Installation: Over 30 grassroots units designed/licensed, including 7 to
handle residue feeds, and over 30 units revamped.

Supplier: Shell Global Solutions International B.V.

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Fluid catalytic cracking

Application: Selectively convert gas oils and residue feedstocks into
higher value products using the UOP FCC process, the UOP Resid FCC
(RFCC) and the UOP PetroFCC process.

Reactor

Regenerator

Products: Light olefins (for alkylation, polymerization, etherification or

petrochemicals), LPG, high-octane gasoline, distillates and fuel oils.

Recycled catalyst standpipe

Description: UOPs process uses a side-by-side reactor/regenerator configuration and a patented pre-acceleration zone to condition the regenerated catalyst. Modern Optimix feed distributors inject the feed into
the riser, which terminates in a vortex separation system (VSS). A highefficiency stripper then separates the remaining hydrocarbons from the
catalyst, which is then reactivated in a combustor-style regenerator. With
RxCat technology, a portion of the catalyst that is pre-stripped by the
riser termination device can be recycled back to the riser via a standpipe
and the MxR chamber.
The reactor zone features a short-contact-time riser, state-of theart riser termination device for quick separation of catalyst and vapor,
with high hydrocarbon containment (VSS/VDS technology) and RxCat
technology, wherein a portion of the pre-stripped (carbonized) catalyst
from the riser termination device is blended with the hotter regenerated
catalyst in a proprietary mixing chamber (MxR) for delivery to the riser.
Unlike other approaches to increasing the catalyst-to-oil ratio, this
technology does not affect the total heat balance and, therefore, does
not increase coke yield. The reactor temperature can be lowered to reduce thermal cracking with no negative impact on conversion, thus improving product selectivity. The ability to vary the carbonized/regenerated catalyst ratio provides considerable flexibility to handle changes in
feedstock quality and shortens the time for operating adjustments by
enabling rapid switches between gasoline, olefins or distillate operating modes. Since coke yield can be decreased at constant conversion,
capacity and reaction severity can be increased, and CO2 emissions reduced. Furthermore, because the catalyst delivered to the regenerator
has a higher coke content, it requires less excess oxygen at a given tem-

MxR chamber

perature to sustain the same kinetic combustion rate. RxCat technology

has been licensed for use in four units, two of which are currently in
construction. The first unit to incorporate RxCat technology has been
operating successfully since the second quarter of 2005.
The combustor-style regenerator burns coke in a fast-fluidized environment completely to CO2 with very low levels of CO. The circulation
of hot catalyst from the upper section to the combustor provides added
control over the burn-zone temperature and kinetics and enhances radial mixing. Catalyst coolers can be added to new and existing units to
reduce catalyst temperature and increase unit flexibility for commercial
operations of feeds up to 6 wt% Conradson carbon. A recent study of
eight different combustor-style regenerators and 15 bubbling-bed regenerators clearly demonstrated that at a given excess oxygen level, less
NOx is emitted from the combustor-style regenerators than other available technologies.
Continued

Fluid catalytic cracking, continued

For heavier residue feeds, the two-stage regenerator is used. In the
first stage, upper zone, the bulk of the carbon is burned from the catalyst, forming a mixture of CO and CO2. Catalyst is transferred to the
second stage, lower zone, where the remaining coke is burned in complete combustion, producing low levels of carbon on regenerated catalyst. A catalyst cooler is located between the stages. This configuration
maximizes oxygen use, requires only one train of cyclones and one flue
gas stream, which avoids costly multiple flue gas systems and creates a
hydraulically-simple. The two stage regenerator system has processed
feeds up to 8.5 wt% Conradson carbon.
PetroFCC is a customized application using mechanical features such
as RxCAT technology for recontacting carbonized catalyst, high severity processing conditions and selected catalyst and additives to produce
high yields of propylene, light olefins and aromatics for petrochemical
applications.
UOPs Advanced Fluidization (AF) spent catalyst stripper internals
provide a family of options (trays, grids and packing) all with state of the
art efficiency. Often the optimal selection is dependent on the unique
configuration of the unit, site constructability and inspection issues.
Within residence constraints, the new designs can save about 10 feet in
length compared to 1990s units of the same capacity and diameter. The
benefits provided by the AF internals include reduced coke, lower regenerator temperature, higher catalyst circulation, lower dry gas make,

increased conversion, higher selectivity for desired products, the ability

to operate at high catalyst flux and increased capacity, and lower steam
consumption. One application of AF trays resulted in a 0.04 wt% reduction in coke, a 14F (8C) drop in the regenerator temperature, and a
2.3 LV% boost in conversion. Another FCC unit utilizes these trays to
handle a high catalyst flux rate of over 2-M lb/ft2 min. The installation
of AF grids in a small unit increased conversion and gasoline yield by 3.0
LV% and 2.8 LV% respectively, paying back the investment in less than
three months. UOPs stripper technology has been implemented in more
than 36 FCC units with a combined on-stream capacity exceeding 1MM
bpsd.

Installation: All of UOPs technology and equipment are commercially

proven for both process performance and mechanical reliability. UOP
has been an active designer and licensor of FCC technology since the
early 1940s and has licensed more than 225 FCC, Resid FCC and MSCC
process units. More than 150 of these units are operating worldwide. In
addition to applying our technology and skills to new units, UOP is also
extensively involved in the revamping of existing units. During the past
15 years, UOPs FCC Engineering department has undertaken 40 to 60
revamp projects or studies per year.

Licensor: UOP.
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Fluid catalytic cracking for maximum

olefins
Application: The Indmax FCC (I-FCC) process cracks a wide range of

feedstocks into light olefins. Feedstocks include virgin or hydrotreated

gasoil that may include lube oil extract, coker gasoil and resid.

Products: Light olefins (principally propylene, but also ethylene and

butylenes), high-octane gasoline, blending components, and distillate.
Flexibility of unit operation allows for maximizing propylene, propylene
plus ethylene, or propylene plus gasoline.




Catalyst: The Indmax catalyst is a unique, proprietary, multi-component,



multi-functional catalyst formulation that promotes selective component

cracking to provide very high conversion and yield of light olefins. It is
highly metals-tolerant and produces low delta coke and dry gas properties that are particularly important when processing residue to make
light olefins.



Description: The I-FCC unit is designed for and operated at Indmax

process conditions: riser reactor temperature from 560C to 600C,
catalyst-to-oil ratio from 12 to 20, and lower hydrocarbon partial
pressure compared to conventional FCC operations. The I-FCC process incorporates an advanced reaction system, high-efficiency catalyst stripper and a mechanically robust, single-stage fast fluidized bed
regenerator. Oil is injected into the base of the riser via proprietary
Micro-Jet feed injection nozzles (1). Catalyst and oil vapor flow upwards through a short-contact time, all-vertical riser (2) where raw oil
feedstock is cracked under optimum conditions.
Reaction products exiting the riser are separated from the spent
catalyst in a patented, direct-coupled cyclone system (3). Product
vapors are routed directly to fractionation, thereby eliminating nonselective, post-riser cracking and maintaining the optimum product yield slate. Spent catalyst containing only minute quantities of
hydrocarbon is discharged from the diplegs of the direct-coupled
cyclones into the cyclone containment vessel (4). The catalyst flows

down into the stripper containing proprietary modular grid (MG)

baffles (5).
Trace hydrocarbons entrained with spent catalyst are removed
in the MG stripper using stripping steam. The MG stripper efficiently removes hydrocarbons at low steam rate. The net stripper vapors
are routed to the fractionator via specially designed vents in the
direct-coupled cyclones. Catalyst from the stripper flows down the
spent-catalyst standpipe and through the slide valve (6). The spent
catalyst is then transported in dilute phase to the center of the regenerator (8) through a unique square-bend-spent catalyst transfer
line (7). This arrangement provides the lowest overall unit elevation.
Catalyst is regenerated by efficient contacting with air for complete
combustion of coke. For resid-containing feeds, the optional catalyst cooler is integrated with the regenerator. The resulting flue gas
exits via cyclones (9) to energy recovery/flue gas treating. The hot
regenerated catalyst is withdrawn via an external withdrawal well
Continued

Fluid catalytic cracking for maximum olefins, continued

(10). The well allows independent optimization of catalyst density
in the regenerated catalyst standpipe, maximizes slide valve (11)
pressure drop and ensures stable catalyst flow back to the riser feed
injection zone.

Economics:
Investment (basis: 30,000 bpsd including reaction/regeneration
system and product recovery. Excluding offsites, power recovery
and flue gas scrubbing US Gulf Coast 2006.)
$/bpsd (typical)
3,0004,000

Installation: Two grassroots units licensed. One demonstration-scale unit

is commercially operating.

Licensor: Lummus Technology, a CB&I company.

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Fluid catalytic cracking, high olefin

Application: MAXOFIN FCC offers refiners greater returns by maximizing
propylene yields from FCC feedstocks. Over 20 wt% propylene yield can
be produced from gasoils by combining the effects of enhanced ZSM-5
catalysts and proprietary hardware.

Description: This dual-riser design uses independent riser reaction conditions (cat/oil and temperatures) for heavy and light feedstocks. C4C6
nonaromatic naphtha cuts can be recycled to the light hydrocarbon riser.
In addition to processing light naphtha, the recycle riser can also accept
coker and light-straight-run naphthas from the refinery. Both risers can
operate at 100% gas oil/resid if market conditions dictate the need for
petroleum products instead of petrochemicals.
The recycle riser is an external, cold wall riser similar to the primary
riser. Products produced from both risers merge in the disengager vessel
and travel as a common stream to the main fractionator.

Yields: The following yields were produced from a pilot plant using a
hydrocracked gasoil feedstock:
Yields, wt% Run A Run B Run C Run D
Ethylene
3.2
3.9
6.4
8.2
Propylene
16.0
18.7
19.1
21.5
37.9
28.8
26.2
25.0
C5+ gasoline
Economics: Investment and operating costs are only slightly higher than
a conventional FCC with a single riser.

Installation: All elements of MAXOFIN FCC technology have been prov-

Reference: Maximizing Flexibility for FCCs Designed to Maximize

Propylene, NPRA 2008 Annual Meeting, March 911, 2008, San Diego.
Future refineryFCCs role in refinery/petrochemical integration,
NPRA 2001 Annual Meeting, March 2001.

Licensors: KBR and ExxonMobil.

en. Propylene yield was dependent upon constraints in the downstream

gas plant and not the converter section.

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Fluid catalytic cracking, residual

Application: Conversion of low-value residual feeds and deasphalted oils
from heavy crudes to high-valued light olefins, gasoline and distillates.

Description: The converter is a one-piece modularized unit that efficiently

combines KBRs proven Orthoflow features with ExxonMobils advanced
reaction design features. The regenerator is a single vessel that operates
in partial or complete CO combustion with a dense phase catalyst cooler
depending on the coke-forming tendencies of the feedstock.
The regenerator operates with a counter current flow of air and
catalyst featuring a (1) spent catalyst distributor that evenly distributes
the catalyst over the regenerator bed; and a (2) proprietary baffle that
limits back-mixing between the upper and lower portions of the bed,
effectively achieving a staged combustion in a single regenerator. The
counter-current regeneration also reduces NOx emissions compared to
other types of regenerators.

Economics:
Investment: (basis 50,000 BPSD fresh feed including converter, main
fractionator, vapor recovery unit, C3 splitter, and amine treating (no
power recovery), battery limit, direct material and labor, 2008 Gulf
Coast), $/bbl- 4900 to 5400.
Utilities, typical per bbl fresh feed
Electricity, kWh
0.71.0
Steam, 600 psig, produced, lb
40200
Maintenance: % of plant replacement cost/y
3
Installation: Since 1990, KBR has designed more than a dozen FCC units,
including those that process resid and have revamped more than 160
FCC units worldwide

Reference: Holding the key, Hydrocarbon Engineering, March 2008.

Niccum, P. K. et al., Optimize FCC Flue-Gas Emission Control
Part 2, Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 81, No. 10, October 2002, pp.
8591.
New developments in FCC feed injection and stripping technologies, 2000 NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2000.

Licensors: KBR and ExxonMobil.

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Fluid catalytic crackingpretreatment

Application: Topses FCC pretreatment technology is designed to treat
a wide variety of feedstocks ranging from gasoils through heavy-vacuum gas oils and coker streams to resids. This pretreatment process can
maximize FCC unit performance.
for meeting gasoline-sulfur specifications from the FCC products, to denitrogenation and metals removal, thus maximizing FCC catalyst activity. Additional objectives can include Conradson carbon reduction and
saturation of polyaromatics to maximize gasoline yields.

Description: The Topse FCC Pretreatment technology combines understanding of kinetics, high-activity catalysts, state-of-the-art internals and
engineering skills. The unit can be designed to meet specific processing objectives in a cost-effective manner by utilizing the combination of
processing severity and catalyst activity.
Topse has experience in revamping moderate- to low-pressure
units for deep desulfurization. Such efforts enable refiners to directly
blend gasoline produced from the FCC and meet future low-sulfur (less
than 15 ppm) gasoline specifications.
An additional option is Topses Aroshift process that maximizes the
conversion of polyaromatics which can be equilibrium limited at high
operating temperatures. The Aroshift process increases the FCC conversion, and the yield of gasoline and C3/C4 olefins, while reducing the
amount of light- and heavy-cycle oil. Furthermore, the quality of the
FCC gasoline is improved.
Topse has a wide variety of catalysts for FCC pretreatment service. The
catalyst types cover TK-558 BRIM, a CoMo catalyst with high desulfurization
activity, and TK-559 BRIM, a NiMo catalyst with hydrodesulfurization and
high hydrodenitrogenation activity. Topse offers a wide range of engineering scopes from full scoping studies, reactor design packages and
process design packages to engineering design packages.

Recycle gas
compressor

Makeup
hydrogen

Absorber

Furnace

Objectives: The processing objectives range from deep desulfurization

Company Index

Lean amine

Reactor
Rich amine
H2 rich gas

Fresh feed
START

Products to
FCC or fractionation

High-pressure
separator
Low-pressure
separator

Operating conditions: Typical operating pressures range from 60 to 125

bar (900 to 1,800 psi), and temperatures from 300C to 430C (575F
to 800F).

References: Andonov, G., S. Petrov, D. Stratiev and P. Zeuthen, MCHC

mode vs. HDS mode in an FCC unit in relation to Euro IV fuels specifications, 10th ERTC, Vienna, November 2005.
Patel R., H. Moore and B. Hamari, FCC hydrotreater revamp for lowsulfur gasoline, NPRA Annual Meeting, San Antonio, March 2004.
Patel, R., P. Zeuthen and M. Schaldemose, Advanced FCC feed pretreatment technology and catalysts improves FCC profitability, NPRA
Annual Meeting, San Antonio, March 2002.

Installations: Four units in the US.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.
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Resid catalytic cracking

Application: Selective conversion of gasoil and heavy residual feedstocks.

Products: High-octane gasoline, distillate and C3 C4 olefins.

Description: For residue cracking the process is known as R2R (reactor2
regenerators). Catalytic and selective cracking occurs in a short-contacttime riser where oil feed is effectively dispersed and vaporized through a
proprietary feed-injection system. Operation is carried out at a temperature consistent with targeted yields. The riser temperature profile can be
optimized with the proprietary mixed temperature control (MTC) system.
Reaction products exit the riser-reactor through a high-efficiency,
close-coupled, proprietary riser termination device RSS (riser separator
stripper). Spent catalyst is pre-stripped followed by an advanced highefficiency packed stripper prior to regeneration. The reaction product
vapor may be quenched to give the lowest dry gas and maximum gasoline yield. Final recovery of catalyst particles occurs in cyclones before
the product vapor is transferred to the fractionation section.
Catalyst regeneration is carried out in two independent stages
equipped with proprietary air and catalyst distribution systems resulting
in fully regenerated catalyst with minimum hydrothermal deactivation,
plus superior metals tolerance relative to single-stage systems. These
benefits are derived by operating the first-stage regenerator in a partial
burn mode, the second-stage regenerator in a full-combustion mode
and both regenerators in parallel with respect to air and flue gas flows.
The resulting system is capable of processing feeds up to about
6 wt% ConC without additional catalyst cooling means, with less air,
lower catalyst deactivation and smaller regenerators than a single-stage
regenerator design.
Heat removal for heavier feedstocks (above 6 CCR) may be accomplished by using a reliable dense-phase catalyst cooler, which has been
commercially proven in over 56 units.
The converter vessels use a cold-wall design that results in minimum
capital investment and maximum mechanical reliability and safety.

Reliable operation is ensured through the use of advanced fluidization technology combined with a proprietary reaction system. Unit design
is tailored to refiners needs and can include wide turndown flexibility.
Available options include power recovery, wasteheat recovery, fluegas treatment and slurry filtration.
Existing gasoil units can be easily retrofitted to this technology. Revamps incorporating proprietary feed injection and riser termination devices and vapor quench result in substantial improvements in capacity,
yields and feedstock flexibility within the mechanical limits of the existing unit.

Installation: Shaw and Axens have licensed 34 grassroots FCC units and
performed more than 160 revamp projects.

Reference: Meyers, R., Handbook of Petroleum Refining Process, Third Ed.

Licensor: Shaw and Axens.
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Resid cracking
Application: Selective conversion of heavy feedstocks into petrochemical products

Products: C3C4 olefins, in particular propylene; high-octane gasoline,

aromatics

Description: Based on the R2R resid fluid catalytic cracking (RFCC) process using a riser and a double regenerator for gasoline production, this
new petrochemical version is oriented toward light olefins, particularly
propylene, and aromatics. The process is characterized by the utilization
of two independent risers. The main riser cracks the resid feed under conditions to optimize fuels production; the second PetroRiser riser is operated to selectively crack specific recycle streams to maximize propylene
production.
The RFCC applies a short contact-time riser, proprietary injection system and severe cracking conditions for bottoms conversion. The temperature and catalyst circulation rates are higher than those used for a conventional gasoline mode operation. The main riser temperature profile can
be optimized with a mixed temperature control (MTC) system. Reaction
products are then rapidly separated from the catalyst through a highefficiency riser termination device (RS2).
Recycle feed is re-cracked in the PetroRiser under conditions, which
are substantially more severe than in the main riser. A precise selection of
recycle cuts combined with adapted commercial FCC catalysts and additives lead to high propylene yields with moderate dry-gas production.
Both the main riser and PetroRiser are equipped with a rapid separation system, and the deactivated catalysts are collected in to a single
packed stripper, which enhances steam stripping efficiency of the catalyst. Catalyst regeneration is carried out in two, independent stages to
minimize permanent hydrothermal activity loss. The first stage is operated
in a mild partial-combustion mode that removes produced moisture and
limits catalyst deactivation, while the second stage finishes the combustion at higher temperature to fully restore catalyst activity. The R2R system
is able to process residue feed containing high metals and CCR using this

regenerator configuration and even higher contents with the addition of

a catalyst cooler.
The recycle feeds that can be used in the PetroRiser are light and
medium FCC gasoline as well as olefin streams coming from a butenes
oligomerization unit. This last option is of particular interesting under
market conditions that favor propylene over C4 olefins.
The reaction and regeneration sections use a cold-wall design that results in minimum capital investment and maximum mechanical reliability
and safety. Units are tailored to fit the market needs (feedstock and product slate) and can include a wide range of turndown flexibility. Available
options include power recovery, waste-heat recovery, flue-gas treatment
and slurry filtration and light olefins recovery and purification.
Continued

Resid cracking, continued

Installation: PetroRiser technology is available for revamp of all RFCC
and FCC units. Axens and the Shaw Group have licensed more than 40
FCC units and performed more than 100 revamp projects since the alliance was created.

Reference: Fine-tune FCC operations for changing fuels market, Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2005.

Licensor: Axens and Shaw.

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Catalytic reforming
Application: Upgrade various types of naphtha to produce high-octane
reformate, BTX and LPG.
Description: Two different designs are offered. One design is conventional

Feed

where the catalyst is regenerated in place at the end of each cycle. Operating normally in a pressure range of 12 to 25 kg/cm2 (170 to 350 psig)
and with low pressure drop in the hydrogen loop, the product is 90 to 100
RONC. With their higher selectivity, trimetallic catalysts RG582 and RG682
make an excellent catalyst replacement for semi-regenerative reformers.
The second, the advanced Octanizing process, uses continuous catalyst regeneration allowing operating pressures as low as 3.5 kg/cm2 (50
psig). This is made possible by smooth-flowing moving bed reactors (13)
which use a highly stable and selective catalyst suitable for continuous
regeneration (4). Main features of Axens regenerative technology are:
S ide-by-side reactor arrangement, which is very easy to erect and
consequently leads to low investment cost.
T he RegenC-2 catalyst regeneration system featuring the dry burn
loop, completely restores the catalyst activity while maintaining its
specific area for more than 600 cycles.
Finally, with the new CR 601 (gasoline mode) and AR 701 (aromatics
production) catalysts specifically developed for ultra-low operating pressure and the very effective catalyst regeneration system, refiners operating Octanizing or Aromizing processes can obtain the highest hydrogen,
C5+ and aromatics yields over the entire catalyst life.

START

Yields: Typical for a 90C to 170C (176F to 338F) cut from light Arabian feedstock:
Conventional Octanizing/Aromizing
Oper. press., kg/cm2
Yield, wt% of feed:
Hydrogen
C5+
RONC
MONC

1015

37

2.8
83
100
89

34
8895
100105
8992

Reformate

Installation: Of 140 units licensed, 88 units are designed with continuous regeneration technology capability.

Reference: Fixed Bed Reformer Revamp Solutions for Gasoline Pool

Improvement, Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Summer 2000.
Increase reformer performance through catalytic solutions, Seventh ERTC, November 2002, Paris.
Squeezing the most out of fixed-bed reactors, Hart Show Special,
NPRA 2003 Annual.
Octanizing reformer options to optimize existing assets, NPRA
Annual Meeting, March 1517, 2005, San Francisco.
Octanizing reformer options, Petroleum Technology Quarterly,
Spring, 2006.
Boitiaux, J. P., et al., New developments accelerating catalyst research, Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2006, pp. 3340.

Licensor: Axens.
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Catalytic reforming
Application: The UOP CCR Platforming process is used throughout the
world in the petroleum and petrochemical industries. It produces feed
for an aromatics complex or a high-octane gasoline blending product
and a significant amount of hydrogen.

Stacked
reactor
Naphtha feed
from treating

CCR
regenerator

Combined
feed
exchanger

drogen gas and heat exchanged against reactor effluent. The combined
feed is then raised to reaction temperature in the charge heater and sent
to the reactor section.
Radial-flow reactors are arranged in a vertical stack. The predominant reactions are endothermic; so an interheater is used between each
reactor to reheat the charge to reaction temperature. The effluent from
the last reactor is heat exchanged against combined feed, cooled and
split into vapor and liquid products in a separator. The vapor phase is
hydrogen-rich. A portion of the gas is compressed and recycled back to
the reactors. The net hydrogen-rich gas is compressed and charged together with the separator liquid phase to the product recovery section.
This section is engineered to provide optimum performance.
Catalyst flows vertically by gravity down the reactor stack. Over
time, coke builds up on the catalyst at reaction conditions. Partially deactivated catalyst is continually withdrawn from the bottom of the reactor stack and transferred to the CCR regenerator.

Installation: UOP commercialized the CCR Platforming process in 1971

and now has commissioned more than 210 units (more than 4.7 million

Net gas
compressor

Fuel gas
Recovery
section

Separator

Description: Hydrotreated naphtha feed is combined with recycle hy-

Net H2
rich gas

Regenerated
catalyst

Light ends
Stabilizer

Fired heaters
Spent
catalyst

Aromatic
rich reformate

bpd of capacity) with another 50 in various stages of design, construction and commissioning.

Efficiency/product quality: Commercial onstream efficiencies of more

than 97% are routinely achieved in CCR Platforming units.

Licensor: UOP.

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Coking

%SZ
HBT
$$

 736

Application: Upgrade residues to lighter hydrocarbon fractions using the

Selective Yield Delayed Coking (SYDEC) process.

Description: Charge is fed directly to the fractionator (1) where it combines with recycle and is pumped to the coker heater. The mixture is
heated to coking temperature, causing partial vaporization and mild
cracking. The vapor-liquid mix enters a coke drum (2 or 3) for further
cracking. Drum overhead enters the fractionator (1) to be separated into
gas, naphtha, and light and heavy gas oils. Gas and naphtha enter the
vapor recovery unit (VRU)(4). There are at least two coking drums, one
coking while the other is decoked using high-pressure water jets. The
coking unit also includes a coke handling, coke cutting, water recovery
and blowdown system. Vent gas from the blowdown system is recovered in the VRU.

Operating conditions: Typical ranges are:

/BQIUIB

4UFBN
-JHIU
HBT
PJM
)FBWZ
HBT
PJM

'FFE
45"35

Utilities, typical per bbl feed:

Fuel, 103 Btu
Electricity, kWh
Steam (exported), lb
Water, cooling, gal

Heater outlet temperature, F 900950

Coke drum pressure, psig 15100
Recycle ratio, equiv. fresh feed
01.0
Increased coking temperature decreases coke production; increases
liquid yield and gas oil end point. Increasing pressure and/or recycle ratio increases gas and coke make, decreases liquid yield and gas oil end
point.

a total installed capacity over 2.5 million bpsd

Yields:

References: Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, Third Ed., Mc-

Operation:
Products, wt%
Gas
Naphtha
Gas oil
Coke

Max dist.
8.7
14.0
48.3
29.3

Anode coke
8.4
21.6
43.8
26.2

Needle coke
9.8
8.4
41.6
40.2

Investment (basis 65,00010,000 bpsd)

2Q 2005 US Gulf), $ per bpsd

Installations: Currently, 52 delayed cokers are installed worldwide with

Graw-Hill, pp. 12.3312.89.

Delayed coking revamps, Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2004.
Residue upgrading with SYDEC Delayed Coking: Benefits & Economics, AIChE Spring National Meeting, April 2327, 2006, Orlando.
Upgrade refinery residuals into value-added products, Hydrocarbon Processing, June 2006.

Licensor: Foster Wheeler USA Corp./UOP.

Economics:
6,70013,600

120
3
35
36

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Coking

Processes Index

Company Index

Vapors to recovery

Fuel gas

Application: The coking process involves cracking of heavy residual oils

into more valuable gasoil, distillate, naphtha and LPG products. Coke
is also produced. Normal feeds include vacuum bottoms, atmospheric
bottoms, asphaltenes from ROSE and other types of solvent deasphalting units, bitumen and other heavy oils, thermal and pyrolsis tars, decant oils, visbreaker and thermal tars.

VRU

Blowdown
Slop oil to
coker feed

LPG
Naphtha

Water

Water
Makeup
water

Hydraulic
decoking

Description: Delayed coking is a semi-batch thermal cracking process.

The process is comprised of coker heaters, coke drums, fractionation,
vapor recovery unit, hydraulic decoking, coke handling and blowdown
systems. Feed is normally routed via coker fractionator to remove light
fractions. Feed plus recycle from the fractionator are brought to coking
temperature in a specially designed heater and then sent to the coke
drum. The feed cracks into lighter fractions and coke in the coke drum.
Cracked material exiting from the overhead is quenched and sent to the
fractionator.
After the coke level in the drum has reached the maximum accepted
level, the feed is directed to the second drum. The drum with coke is
cooled, then cut with high-pressure water jets and removed to coke
handling area. The drum is then heated and put back in service when
the second drum fills up with coke.

Process applications: KBR has designed and delivered significant pilotplant work on coking of asphaltenes obtained from bitumen and other
heavy oils.
Comparison of coke produced from vacuum resid and asphaltenes:
Basis: Refinery Feed: 200,000 bpsd

Arab Heavy
VTB
Asphaltene

Coker Feed
Mbpsd
49.7
wt.% CCR
23.8
Coke make, Mtd 2.7

26.5
38
2.1

Maya
VTB
Asphaltene
63.6
31.2
4.4

49.1
38
4

Light GO
HGO
Steam
Coke
handling

Steam

BFW
BFW

Crushed coke
Resid feed

Process development:
KBR operates a large one bpd coker pilot plant at its Technology Center
in Houston. The pilot plant is used for process development and for running coker pilot tests for clients.

Experience: KBR has provided process technology for more than 15 cokers. The most recent design is for a bitumen vacuum resid coker, which
is expected startup in 2008.

Licensor: KBR.

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Coking
Application: Conversion of atmospheric and vacuum residues, hydro-

'VFM
HBT

treated and hydrocracked resids, asphalt, pyrolysis tar, decant oil, visbroken or coal tar pitch, solvent-refined and Athabasca bitumen.

Description: Feedstock is introduced (after heat exchange) to the bottom of the coker fractionator (1) where it mixes with condensed recycle.
The mixture is pumped to one of two coke drums (3) through the coker
heater (2) where the desired coking temperature is achieved. Steam or
boiler feedwater is injected into the heater tubes to prevent coking in
the furnace tubes. Coke drum overhead vapors flow to the fractionator
(1) where they are separated into an overhead stream containing the
wet gas, LPG and naphtha and two gasoil sidestreams.
The overhead stream is sent to a vapor recovery unit (4) where the
individual light product streams are separated. The coke that forms in
one of at least two (parallel connected) drums is then removed using
high-pressure water. The plant also includes a blow-down system for
recovery of all vent gas and slop streams, coke handling and a water
recovery system.

Operating conditions:
Heater outlet temperature, F
Coke drum pressure, psig
Recycle ratio, vol/vol feed, %

Yields:


Middle East
Feedstock
vac. residue




$$
-1(
$PLFS
OBQIUIB

4UN
4UN


#'8

-JHIU
HBT
PJM

#'8
)FBWZ
HBT
PJM

'SFTI
GFFE
45"35

4UN

Products, wt%

900950
1590
0100

Gas + LPG
Naphtha
Gas oils
Coke

Vacuum residue of
hydrotreated
bottoms

Athabasca
bitumen

Gravity, API
Sulfur, wt%

7.4
4.2

1.3
2.3

2.5
5.7

Conradson
carbon, wt%

20.0

27.6

23.0

7.9
12.6
50.8
28.7

9.0
11.1
44.0
35.9

9.2
12.5
46.0
32.5

Economics:
Investment (basis: 20,000 bpsd straight-run vacuum residue feed,
US Gulf Coast 2008, fuel-grade coke, includes vapor recovery), US$
per bpsd (typical) 8,000

Continued

Installation: More than 60 units.

Coking, continued

Reference: Sieli, G. M., A. Faegh and S. Shimoda, The impact of de-

Economics (continued):
Utilities, typical/bbl of feed:

Fuel, 103 Btu

Electricity, kWh
Steam (exported), lb
Water, cooling, gal
Boiler feedwater, lbs
Condensate (exported), lbs

123
3.6
1
58
38
24

layed coker operating conditions on refinery operations, ERTC Coking

& Gasification Conference, April 1618, 2007.

Licensor: Lummus Technology, a CB&I company.

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Coking, fluid
Application: ExxonMobils Research & Engineering (EMREs) continuous
thermal conversion process with fluidized bed reactor to convert heavy
hydrocarbons (vacuum residuum, extra heavy oil or bitumen) to lighter
liquid products and fuel-grade coke. Attractive when markets available
for fuel-grade fluid coke, or if planned applications include present or
future addition of a fluid bed boiler for cogeneration of steam and power as this combination has both heat integration as well as SOx removal
benefits.

Reactor products
to fractionator
Flue gas to CO boiler
START

1
3
2

Air
blower

Products: Liquid products produced are similar in yields and quality to

Cold
coke

delayed coking. These products are upgraded through conventional

hydrotreating, hydrocracking or in a fluid catalytic cracker (FCC). Fluid
coke is used as a solid fuel, with particular advantages in cement kilns
or fluid bed boilers.

Description: A fluid coking unit is similar in operation to an FCC unit but

operates on much more difficult vacuum resid feeds. Instead of catalyst, fluid coke particles are circulated between the burner and reactor
to transfer process heat. Feed, typically 1,050F+ vacuum resid from
the bottom of the vacuum pipestill, is pumped without the need for a
preheat furnace directly to the scrubber (1) on the top of the reactor
(2). The scrubber (1) has several functions: i) to further heat the feed by
direct heat exchange with reactor effluent vapors, ii) to separate coke
particles for return to the fluid bed reactor and iii) to recycle the higher
boiling reactor effluent hydrocarbons (typically at 975+F, but this can
be adjusted to meet downstream gas oil processing requirements) back
to the reactor with fresh feed.
Specially designed nozzles in the reactor (2) produce droplets of
feed, which interact with the circulating coke particles. Gas and liquid
thermal conversion products are removed from the top of the scrubber
and a layer of coke is added to the circulating particles. Heat for the
thermal cracking reactions is supplied by burning a fraction of the coke
in the fluid bed burner (3). Hot coke circulates between the burner (3)
and reactor (2), and cold coke returns to the burner (3). About 20% of

Net coke

Air

Hot
coke

the coke is burned with air to supply process heat requirements, eliminating the need for an external fuel supply. The rest of the coke is withdrawn from the burner and either sold as a product or burned in a fluid
bed boiler in cogen projects.

Yields: Typical vacuum resid (~26 wt% Concarbon, 4.6 wt% sulfur, 125
Ni+V):

Component yield

wt%

Fuel gas (C2)

6.7
LPG, (C3/C4)
4.4
Total C4

Naphtha (C5-430F)
15.3
Distillate (430F 650F)
11.0
Gas oil (650F 975 F)
32.2
Total C5+ Liquids
Product coke
24.8
Consumed for process heat
5.5

wt%
11.1

58.6

Total reactor coke

30.3

Total:

100

100

Continued

Coking, fluid, continued

Competitive advantages:
Continuous fluid bed process, coke conveyed pneumatically and
contained in fluid solids and product silos.
Process very heavy feeds from tar sands bitumen to Venezuelan
heavy crudes.

Internally heat integrated, minimal use of fuel gas, and lower coke
production than delayed coking.
Combination of fluid coking and fluid-bed boilers for COGEN has
heat integration and SOx removal synergies.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Asphaltene pelletization
Application: The AQUAFORM unit is designed for pelletizing heavy hy-

Proprietary
high-capacity
feed distributor

drocarbons including asphaltenes from ROSE solvent deasphalting process.

Description: AQUAFORM has been designed for easy integration with

the KBR ROSE solvent deasphalting unit. Asphaltenes from the ROSE
asphaltene product drum are pumped through an exchanger to the
AQUAFORM pelletizing vessel. A rotating head inside the vessel produces small droplets of asphaltene, which are quenched in a water bath.
The pellets are removed on screen separators and then transferred to
storage using conveyer systems. The water is filtered, cooled and returned to the pelletizing vessel.
The unit is constructed of carbon steel metallurgy and operates at
moderate temperatures and at near atmospheric pressure. An asphaltene
pelletizing vessel is designed for up to 1,000 tpd of asphaltene feed. Pellet size can be controlled by adjusting key operating conditions.

Properties of pellets: The pellets have ~30% higher heating value than
petroleum coke. The crush strength is high thus allowing for storage
in silos.

Process applications: The asphaltene pellets can be stored at ambient

conditions and can be transported using bulk transporters. The pellets

Pelletizer
vessel

Surge
drum

Cooling water
Trim heat
exchanger

Hot liquid
asphaltene

Pellets and
water
Cooling
water pump

Feed pump
Solid pellets Conveyor belt
to storage
for pellet
transportation

Screen for
dewatering
drying

Water dump
Solids
filter

Fin fan
or water
cooler

are suitable for use in cement plants and steel mills. The higher heating
value of the pellets as compared to coke can help in the debottlenecking
of cement and steel mills. The pellets can be melted again after transportation for gasification and cracking in cokers.

Licensor: KBR.

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Deasphalting
Application: Prepare quality feed for FCC units and hydrocrackers from
vacuum residue, and blending stocks for lube oil and asphalt manufacturing.

Products: Deasphalted oil (DAO) for catalytic cracking and hydrocracking

7BDVVN
SFTJEVF
DIBSHF

feedstocks, resins for specification asphalts, and pitch for specification

asphalts and residue fuels.

)PU
PJM


%"0
TFQBSBUPS

&YUSBDUPS
1JUDI
TUSJQQFS

Description: Feed and light paraffinic solvent are mixed and then
charged to the extractor (1). The DAO and pitch phases, both containing
solvents, exit the extractor. The DAO and solvent mixture is separated
under supercritical conditions (2). Both the pitch and DAO products are
stripped of entrained solvent (3,4). A second extraction stage is utililized
if resins are to be produced.

%"0
TUSJQQFS

)PU
PJM
1JUDI

%"0

Operating conditions: Typical ranges are:

Solvent various blends of C3C7 hydrocarbons including light naphthas
Pressure, psig
300600
Temp., F
120450
Solvent to oil ratio: 4/1 to 13/1

Yields:

Feed, type
Gravity, API
Sulfur, wt%
CCR, wt%
Visc, SSU@210F
Ni/V, wppm
DAO
Yield, vol.% of feed
Gravity, API
Sulfur, wt%
CCR, wt%

Lube oil
6.6
4.9
20.1
7,300
29/100

Cracking stock
6.5
3.0
21.8
8,720
46/125

30
20.3
2.7
1.4

65
15.1
2.2
6.2

Visc., SSU@210F
165
Ni/V, wppm
0.25/0.37
Pitch
Softening point, R&B, F
149
Penetration@77F
12

540
4.5/10.3
240
0

Economics:

Investment (basis: 40,0002,000 bpsd)

2Q 2005, US Gulf, $/bpsd
Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, 103 Btu (hot oil)
Electricity, kWh
Steam, 150 psig, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

2,0008,000
56100
1.92.0
69
10
Continued

Deasphalting, continued
Installations: Over 50 units installed; this also includes both UOP and
Foster Wheeler units originally licensed separately before merging the
technologies in 1996.

References: Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, Third Ed., McGraw Hill, 2003, pp. 10.3710.61.

When Solvent Deasphalting is the Most Appropriate Technology

for Upgrading Residue, International Downstream Technology Conference, February 1516, 2006, London.

Licensor: Foster Wheeler USA Corp./UOP.

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Deasphalting
E-2

Application: KBRs ROSE (Residuum Oil Supercritical Extraction) solvent

Products: Lube blendstocks, synthetic crude, FCCU feed, hydrocracker

feed, coker feed, resins and asphaltenes.
Description: Resid is charged through a mixer (M-1), where it is mixed
with solvent before entering the asphaltene separator (V-1), which uses
special internals to achieve maximum benefit of counter current solvent
flow. The solvent extracts primarily non-asphaltenic, paraffinic deasphalted oil. The asphaltene-rich stream leaves from the bottom of the
separator. The extracted oils and solvent flow overhead (V-1) through
heat exchangers (E-1, E-4, E-6) so that the solvent reaches conditions
where it exists as a supercritical fluid in which the oil is virtually insoluble.
Recovered solvent leaves the separator top (V-3) to be cooled by heat
exchange (E-4, E-1) and a cooler (E-2). The only solvent vaporized is a
small amount dissolved in fractions withdrawn in the separators. This
solvent is recovered in the product strippers.
Alternately an intermediate resin rich product can be produced in
V2 and T2 as shown in the attached figure.
V-1, V-2 and V-3 are equipped with high-performance ROSEMAX

P-1

E-1

E-4

E-3
Residuum
S-1

M-1

Hot
oil
Hot
oil

T-3

V-3

T-2

T-1

START

V-2

E-6
V-1

deasphalting technology is used to extract maximum volumes of FCCU,

or hydrocracker/hydrotreater feedstocks from atmospheric and vacuum
resids, and in some special cases from whole crude oils. The extracted
deasphalted oil (DAO) yields can be adjusted to optimize integration
with downstream units. The ROSE DAO has order of magnitude lower
heptane insolubles content as well as lower metals and conradson carbon than from other solvent deasphalting processes. This lower heptane insolubles content allows refiners to achieve longer run lengths in
hydrotreating and hydrocracking units and reduced catalyst usage in
FCC units. Moderate operating temperatures almost alleviates the need
for 317SS metallurgy when processing high acid crude oils.
ROSE is also useful in production and upgrading of heavy oils. The
process is also used for debottlenecking of existing vacuum distillation
units and cokers.

Oils

P-2
Resins

Asphaltenes

internals. These high-efficiency, high-capacity internals offer superior

product yield and quality while minimizing vessel size and capital investment. These internals can also be used to debottleneck and improve
operations of existing solvent deasphalting units.

Yields: The solvent composition and operating conditions are adjusted

to provide the highest product quality and yields required for downstream processing or to meet finished product specifications. Solvents
range from propane through hexane and almost always are streams produced in refineries.
Economics:
Investment: (Basis: 30,000 bpsd, US Gulf Coast), $1,850 per bpsd
Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel absorbed, 103 Btu
Electricity, kWh
Steam, 150-psig, lb

80110
2.0
12

Continued

Deasphalting, continued
Installation: KBR has licensed 48 units with a combined capacity of over
900,000 bpd. More than 25 units are operating with several more expected to startup within the next two years.

Reference: Patel, V., R. Iqbal and O. Eng, To vacuum or not to vacuum,

Hydrocarbon Engineering, June 2007.
Iqbal, R., A. Khan, O. Eng and R. Floyd, Unlocking current refinery
constraints, PTQ, Summer 2008.

Licensor: KBR.
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Desulfurization

C5-

Application: GT-BTX PluS accomplishes desulfurization of FCC gasoline

Description: The optimum feed is the mid fraction of FCC gasoline

from 70C to 150C. This material is fed to the GT-BTX PluS unit,
which extracts the sulfur and aromatics from the hydrocarbon stream.
The sulfur-containing aromatic components are processed in a conventional hydrotreater to convert the sulfur into hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
Because the portion of gasoline being hydrotreated is reduced in volume and free of olefins, hydrogen consumption and operating costs
are greatly reduced. In contrast, conventional desulfurization schemes
must process the majority of the gasoline through hydrotreating units
to remove sulfur, which inevitably results in olefin saturation, octane
downgrade and yield loss.
FCC gasoline is fed to the extractive distillation column (EDC). In
a vapor-liquid operation, the solvent extracts the sulfur compounds
into the bottoms of the column along with the aromatic components,
while rejecting the olefins and non-aromatics into the overhead as
raffinate. Nearly all of the non-aromatics, including olefins, are effectively separated into the raffinate stream. The raffinate stream can be
optionally caustic washed before routing to the gasoline pool or to an
aromatization unit to further increase benzene, toluene and xylene
(BTX) production.
Rich solvent, containing aromatics and sulfur compounds, is routed
to the solvent recovery column (SRC), where the hydrocarbons and sulfur species are separated and lean solvent is recovered in columns bottoms. The SRC overhead is hydrotreated by conventional means and
either used as desulfurized gasoline or directed to an aromatics plant.
Lean solvent from the SRC bottoms is recycled back to the EDC.

Full-range
FCC naphtha

Aromatics/
sulfur-rich
extract

H2

Company Index

Desulfurized/de-aromatized
olefin-rich gasoline

GT-BTX PluS
Feed fractionation

with no octane loss and decreased hydrogen consumption by using a

proprietary solvent in an extractive-distillation system. This process also
recovers valuable aromatics compounds, which can be used as petrochemical feedstock.

Processes Index

H 2S

HDS

Aromatics
fractionation

Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes
C9+

Process advantages:
Eliminates FCC gasoline sulfur species to meet a pool gasoline
target of 10 ppm sulfur.
Rejects olefins from being hydrotreated in the HDS unit to prevent
loss of octane rating and to reduce hydrogen consumption.
Fewer components (only the heavy-most fraction and the aromatic
concentrate from the ED unit) are sent to hydrodesulfurization, resulting
in a smaller HDS unit and less yield loss.
Purified benzene and other aromatics can be produced from the
aromatic-rich extract stream after hydrotreating.
Olefin-rich raffinate stream (from the ED unit) can be directed to
an aromatization unit to produce additional BTX or recycled to the FCC
unit to increase the light olefin production.

Economics: Feedrate 1,000 thousand tpy (22,000 bpsd); erected cost

(including Fractionation and Hydrotreating) $30 MM (ISBL, 2007 US
Gulf Coast Basis).

Installation: Technology available for license.

Licensor: GTC Technology.
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Diesel upgrading
Application: Topses Diesel Upgrading process can be applied for improvement of a variety of diesel properties, including reduction of diesel
specific gravity, reduction of T90 and T95 distillation (Back-end-shift),
reduction of aromatics, and improvements of cetane, cold-flow properties, (pour point, clouds point, viscosity and CFPP) and diesel color
reduction (poly shift). Feeds can range from blends of straight-run and
cracked gas oils up to heavy distillates, including light vacuum gasoil.

Hydrogen makeup

Recycle gas
compressor
Upgrading
reactor

Furnace
Treating
reactor

Rich amine

Description: Topses Diesel Upgrading process is a combination of treating

and upgrading. The technology combines state-of-the-art reactor internals,
engineering expertise in quality design, high-activity treating catalyst and
proprietary diesel upgrading catalyst. Every unit is individually designed to
improve the diesel property that requires upgrading. This is done by selecting the optimum processing parameters, including unit pressure and
LHSV and determining the appropriate Topse high-activity catalysts and
plant lay-out. The process is suitable for new units or revamps of existing
hydrotreating units.
In the reactor system, the treating section uses Topses high-activity CoMo or NiMo catalyst, such as TK-575 BRIM or TK-576 BRIM, to
remove feed impurities such as sulfur and nitrogen. These compounds
limit the downstream upgrading catalyst performance, and the purified
stream is treated in the downstream upgrading reactor. Reactor catalyst
used in the application is dependent on the specific diesel property that
requires upgrading. Reactor section is followed by separation and stripping/fractionation where final products are produced.
Like the conventional Topse hydrotreating process, the diesel upgrading process uses Topses graded-bed loading and high-efficiency
patented reactor internals to provide optimal reactor performance and
catalyst utilization. Topses high-efficiency internals are effective for a
wide range of liquid loading. Topses graded-bed technology and the
use of shape-optimized inert topping material and catalyst minimize
the pressure drop build-up, thereby reducing catalyst skimming requirements and ensuring long catalyst cycle lengths.

Lean amine

Absorber

H2-rich
gas

Fresh feed

Product
fractionation

High-pressure
separator
Low-pressure
separator

References: Patel, R., How are refiners meeting the ultra-low-sulfur

diesel challenge? NPRA Annual Meeting, San Antonio, March 2003.
Fuente, E., P. Christensen, and M. Johansen, Options for meeting
EU year 2005 fuels specifications, 4th ERTC, November 1999.

Installations: A total of 16 units; six in Asia-Pacific region, one in the

Middle East, two in Europe and seven HDS/HDA units (see Hydrodearomatization).
Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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Dieselultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD)

Application: Topse ULSD process is designed to produce ultra-low-sulfur

Makeup hydrogen

diesel (ULSD) (550 wppm S) from cracked and straight-run distillates.

By selecting the proper catalyst and operating conditions, the process
can be designed to produce 5 wppm S diesel at low reactor pressures
(<500 psig) or at higher reactor pressure when products with improved
density, cetane, and polyaromatics are required.

Recycle gas
compressor

Furnace

Absorber

Reactor

Description: Topse ULSD process is a hydrotreating process that combines Topses understanding of deep-desulfurization kinetics, high-activity catalyst, state-of-the-art reactor internal, and engineering expertise in the design of new and revamped ULSD units. The ULSD process
can be applied over a very wide range of reactor pressures.
Our highest activity BRIM catalyst is specifically formulated with
high-desulfurization activity and stability at low reactor pressure (~ 500
psig) to produce 5 wppm diesel. This catalyst is suitable for revamping
existing low-pressure hydrotreaters or in new units when minimizing
hydrogen consumption.
The highest activity BRIM catalyst is suitable at higher pressure when
secondary objectives such as cetane improvement and density reduction
are required. Topse offers a wide range of engineering deliverables to
meet the needs of the refiners. Our offerings include process scoping
study, reactor design package, process design package, or engineering
design package.

Installation: Topse has licensed more than 50 ULSD hydrotreaters of

which more than 40 units are designed for less than 10 wppm sulfur in
the diesel. Our reactor internals are installed in more than 60 ULSD units.

Lean amine

Rich amine
H2 rich gas

Fresh feed
START

Product to
fractionation

High-pressure
separator
Low-pressure separator

Sarup, B., M. Johansen, L. Skyum and B. Cooper, ULSD Production

in Practice, 9th ERTC, Prague, November 2004.
Hoekstra, G., V. Pradhan, K. Knudsen, P. Christensen, I. Vasalos and
S. Vousvoukis, ULSD: Ensuring the unit makes on-spec. product, NPRA
Annual Meeting, Salt Lake City, March 2006.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

References:
Low, G., J. Townsend and T. Shooter, Systematic approach for the
revamp of a low-pressure hydrotreater to produce 10-ppm, sulfur-free
diesel at BP Conyton Refinery, 7th ERTC, Paris, November 2002.
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Gasoline desulfurization, ultra-deep

Application: ExxonMobils Research & Engineerings (EMREs) SCANfining technology reduces sulfur in FCC gasoline to levels as low as <10
wppm by selective hydrotreating to maximize octane retention with the
SCANfining technology.

Sour fuel gas

Hydrogen

Preheater
Feed

Description: The feed is mixed with hydrogen, heated with reactor effluent exchange and passed through a pretreat reactor for diolefin saturation. After further heat exchange with reactor effluent and preheat using
a utility, the hydrocarbon/hydrogen mixture enters the main reaction section which features ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co. (EMRE)
proprietary selective catalyst systems. In this section of the plant, sulfur
is removed in the form of H2S under tailored process conditions, which
strongly favor hydrodesulfurization while minimizing olefin saturation.
The feed may be full-range, intermediate or heavy FCC-naphtha
fraction. Other sulfur-containing streams such as light-coker naphtha,
steam cracker or light straight-run naphthas can also be processed with
FCC naphthas. SCANfining technology can be retrofitted to existing
units such as naphtha or diesel hydrotreaters and reformers. SCANfining
technology also features ExxonMobils proprietary reactor internals such
as Automatic Bed Bypass Technology for onstream mitigation of reactor
plugging/pressure drop buildup.
For high-sulfur feeds and/or very low-sulfur product, with low levels
of product mercaptans variations in the plant design from SCANfining I
Process to the SCANfining II Process for greater HDS selectivity, or addition of a ZEROMER process step for mercaptan conversion, or addition
of an EXOMER process unit for mercaptan extraction.
EMRE has an alliance with Kellogg Brown & Root (KBR) to provide SCANfining technology to refiners and an alliance with Merichem

SCANfining 1,
SCANfining 2,
or SCANfining with
ZEROMER reaction
section

Product
stripper

Pretreat
reactor
Low-sulfur naphtha

Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC to provide EXOMER technology to

refiners.

Yields: Yield of C5+ liquid product is typically over 100 LV%.

Installation: Thirty-seven units under design, construction or operation
having combined capacity of over 1.1 million bpsd.

References: Sapre, A.V., et al., Case History: Desulfurization of FCC

naphtha, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 2004.
Ellis, E. S., et al., Meeting the Low Sulfur Mogas Challenge, World
Refining Association Third European Fuels Conference, March 2002.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Hydrogenation/hydrodesulfurization
Application: The smart configuration can be applied for selective hydrogenation/hydroisomerization, aromatic saturation and hydrodesulfurization
(HDS) of gasoline, kerosine and diesel/distillate desulfurization. In addition, this process can be used for the selective hydrogenation of acetylene, MAPD, C3/C4/C5/C6/C7 and LCN, hydro-isomerization, benzene
saturation and hydrodesulfurization of gasoline, kerosine and diesel/distillate. Multiple catalyst types provide the best performance and lower
cost with optimum configuration. The RHT process operates the distillation and reaction units at optimum conditions and integrates the
stabilizer with the main distillation column thereby reducing CAPEX and
OPEX. By taking multiple draws off from distillation column, it is possible
to obtain the highest conversion, high selectivity with low operating
costs. The processes apply optimum catalyst and conditions to obtain
the best results. The process is optimized for energy consumption via
heat integration to provide low CAPEX and OPEX.

Description:
RHT-Hydrogenation: In the RHT- Hydrogenation process (flow diagram A), the hydrocarbon feed is sent to the distillation column where
the feed is treated and taken as a side draw or multiple draw offs. The
feed can be treated in an optimum way for catalyst/reactor utilization.
Additional liquid is needed to dilute the feed and to maintain reaction
temperature. The feed is mixed with sufficient hydrogen to maintain the
required for reaction before entering the reactor. The side draw is mixed
with liquid from the heat sink and is heated to the reactor temperature.
The reactor effluent is sent back to the distillation column to remove
light ends/hydrogen at top, and the product is taken as side draw after
the pasteurization section. The bottom product does not require further
treatment except in the isomerization option.
The process uses metal catalyst used for hydrogenation. Most commonly used catalysts are Pt/Pd, Pd/Ag, Pd, Ni, Ni/Mo, and Co/Mo on
silica or alumina base. (Catalysts such as zeolite/Pt can be used aromatic
saturation). The process can be optimized for multiple or single catalyst to provide best catalyst utilization and lower cost. The multiple side

Low pressure splitter

Hydrocarbons reformate1

(A)

Company Index

H2 recycle/vent
Light hydrocarbons

LP
Hydrogen
recycle2

H2

Hydrogenation
reactor

1 Hydrocarbons

from refinery/petrochemical
and other units
2 If recycle is required for excess hydrogen

FCC naphtha

(B)

Mixer

SHU
reactor

Heavy hydrocarbons
Gasoline
stripper 5

HDS Compressor
reactor
H2 recycle/vent
L cat naphtha

H2

Mid cut
naphtha

Recycle H2

H2

Recycle

Compressor

Vent

Makeup
H2

Flash
drum
Flash
drum

H2 to furnace

Furnace

draws allows heat sink and highest conversions and selectivity required
for the process/olefins or saturation. The process uses lower pressure
than conventional processes and can work in single phase or two phase
reactor operation.
RHT-HDS: FCC Gasoline: The RHT- HDS process (flow diagram B)
can be used for FCC gasoline. Processing scheme for straight-run naphtha, heavy gasoil and diesel is similar to conventional schemes. The FCC
Continued

Hydrogenation/hydrodesulfurization, continued
gasoline is mixed with hydrogen and is heated to moderate temperature. The feed is sent to the selective hydrogenation reactor to remove
diolefins to prevent the formation of gums and polymers and coking
on the HDS catalyst. The reactor operates in two phases or single phase
down-flow reaction mode. Reactor effluent is sent to the splitter where
light cut naphtha (LCN) is taken as side-draw overhead and heavy cut
naphtha (HCN) is taken from the bottom and medium cut naphtha
(MCN) is taken as side draw. The LCN is almost sulfur-free and contains
less than 3 to 5 wppm mercaptans and other sulfur compounds. DMS is
essentially eliminated or minimized.
The HCN is taken from bottom of the splitter and is mixed with hydrogen required for HDS and is heated to the desulfurization temperature
in the furnace. The feed is fed to the HDS reactor in down-flow mode.
The HDS occurs in the catalyst zone at high temperatures to support
high desulfurization rates HCN, which contains the maximum sulfur level and is the most refractory. The MCN is also mixed with hydrogen and
heated to the reactor temperature and is sent the HDS reactor around
the middle of reactor. The space velocity for HCN and MCN depends on
the total sulfur concentration in both streams and the sulfur-containing
species. Another consideration for the catalyst quantity is based on the
product specifications required. The reactor effluent is sent to stabilizer,
where residual sulfur is driven from the MCN and HCN product and is
taken as the bottom product from stabilizer.
The catalyst used for first reactor for selective hydrogenations are Pt/
Pd, Pd, Ni, Ni//W or Ni/Mo depending upon the feed and operating conditions selected. Catalyst required for HDS include Co/ Mo, Ni/W or Ni/

Mo. RHT processes do not use any internals. Additionally, if the capacity
must be increased for future processes with special internals become a
bottleneck and one has to install complete additional train, which is very
expensive.
RHT-HDS: Gasoil/diesel: RHT has a configuration to desulfurize the
crude and vacuum unit pumparound and main fractionators side draws
at the location with staggered pressures so that hydrogen can be spilled
into lower pressure unit, gasoil, diesel/kerosine/naphtha in that order.
The flow schemes are similar to conventional processes with reactor
internals designed to meet high-distribution efficiency. The catalyst is
same as mentioned above earlier, e.g., Co/Mo, Ni/W, Ni/Mo. Zeolite/Pt
catalyst and Ni is used for light cycle oil (LCO) aromatic saturation and
ring opening.

Economics: 1Q 2006 Gulf coast Basis;

RHT-Hydrogenation:
CAPEX (ISBL facility only), $/bbl
Utilities and catalyst, $/bbl

517
0.25

RHT-HDS:
Capex (ISBL facility only), $/bbl
Utilities and catalyst, $/bbl

980
1.26

Product properties: Hydrogenation stream meets the diolefin specification as required with high selectivity. For HDS, the product sulfur specifications are met below 10 wppm.

Installation: Technology is ready for commercialization.

Licensor: Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC.
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Crude distillation
Application: Separates and recovers the relatively lighter fractions (e.g.,

Light naphtha

naphtha, kerosine, diesel and cracking stock) from a fresh crude oil charge.
The vacuum flasher processes the crude distillation bottoms to produce
an increased yield of liquid distillates and a heavy residual material.

Heavy naphtha

Description: The charge is preheated (1), desalted (2) and directed to a

preheat train (3) where it recovers heat from product and reflux streams.
The typical crude fired heater (4) inlet temperature is on the order of
550F, while the outlet temperature is on the order of 675F to 725F.
Heater effluent then enters a crude distillation column (5) where light
naphtha is drawn off the tower overhead (6); heavy naphtha, kerosine,
diesel and cracking stock are sidestream drawoffs. External reflux for
the tower is provided by pumparound streams (710). The atmospheric
residue is charged to a fired heater (11) where the typical outlet temperature is on the order of 725 F to 775F.
From the heater outlet, the stream is fed into a vacuum tower
(12), where the distillate is condensed in two sections and withdrawn
as two sidestreams. The two sidestreams are combined to form cracking feedstock. An asphalt base stock is pumped from the bottom of
the tower. Two circulating reflux streams serve as heat removal media
for the tower.

Yields: Typical for Merey crude oil:

Crude unit products
wt%

API

Overhead & naphtha

Kerosine
Diesel
Gas oil
Lt. vac. gas oil
Hvy. vac. gas oil
Vac. bottoms

6.2
4.5
18.0
3.9
2.6
10.9
53.9

58.0
41.4
30.0
24.0
23.4
19.5
5.8

Total

100.0

8.7

Pour, F

*Softening point, F
Note: Crude unit feed is 2.19 wt% sulfur. Vacuum unit feed is 2.91 wt% sulfur.

85
10
20
35
85
(120)*

85

Flash gas

Kerosine

Diesel

Cracker feed

10

To vac. system

2
1
Crude

Lt. vac. gas oil

Stm.

Stm.
12
11

START

Hvy. vac.
gas oil
Vac. gas oil
Stm. (cracker feed)
Asphalt

Economics:
Investment (basis: 100,00050,000 bpsd,
2nd Q, 2005, US Gulf), $ per bpsd
1,6002,000
Utility requirements, typical per bbl fresh feed
Steam, lb
24
3
Fuel (liberated), 10 Btu
(80120)
Power, kWh
0.6
Water, cooling, gal
300400

Installation: Foster Wheeler has designed and constructed crude units

having a total crude capacity in excess of 15 MMbpsd.

Reference: Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design, MarcelDekker, 1997, pp. 230249.
Licensor: Foster Wheeler USA Corp.
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Crude distillation

FG

Application: The Shell Bulk CDU is a highly integrated concept. It separates the crude in long residue, middle distillates and a naphtha minus
fraction. Compared with stand-alone units, the total integration of a
crude distillation unit (CDU), hydrodesulfurization unit (HDS), high vacuum unit (HVU) and a visbreaker (VBU) results in a 50% reduction in
equipment count and significantly lowered operating costs. A prominent feature embedded in this design is the Shell deepflash HVU technology. This technology can also be provided in cost-effective process
designs for both feedprep and lube oil HVUs as stand-alone units. For
each application, tailor-made designs can be produced.

Description: The basic concept of the bulk CDU is the separation of the
naphtha minus and the long residue from the middle distillate fraction,
which is routed to a bulk HDS. After desulfurization in the HDS unit,
final product separation of the bulk middle distillate stream from the
CDU occurs in the HDS fractionator (HDF), which consists of a main atmospheric fractionator with side strippers.
The long residue is routed hot to a feedprep HVU, which recovers the waxy distillate fraction from long residue as the feedstock for a
cat-cracker or hydrocracker unit (HCU). Typical flashzone conditions are
415C and 24 mbara. The Shell design features a deentrainment section, empty spray sections to obtain a lower flashzone pressure, and a
vacuum gasoil (VGO) recovery section to recover up to 10 wt% as automotive diesel. The Shell furnace design prevents excessive cracking and
enables a five-year run length between decoke.

Yields: Typical for Arabian light crude

Products
Gas
C1C4
Gasoline
C5150C
Kerosine
150C250C
Gasoil (GO)
250C350C
VGO
350C370C
Waxy distillate (WD)
370C575C
Residue
575C+

wt, %
0.7
15.2
17.4
18.3
3.6
28.8
16.0

Rec

NHT

LPG
Tops

Crude

C
D
U

H
D
F

HDS

LR

H
V
U

Kero

Vac

LGO

VGO

HGO

Naphtha

Kero

WD

HCU
Storage
VBU

VBU
Flash column

GO
Bleed
Residue

Economics: Due to the incorporation of Shell high capacity internals

and the deeply integrated designs, a CAPEX reduction in the order of
30% can be achieved. Investment costs are dependent on the required
configuration and process objectives.

Installation: Over 100 Shell CDUs have been designed and operated
since the early 1900s. Additionally, a total of some 50 HVU units have
been built while a similar number has been debottlenecked, including
many third-party designs of feedprep and lube oil HVUs.

Licensor: Shell Global Solutions International B.V.

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Crude distillation
Application: The D2000 process is progressive distillation to minimize the

LPG

Feed

total energy consumption required to separate crude oils or condensates

into hydrocarbon cuts, which number and properties are optimized to fit
with sophisticated refining schemes and future regulations. This process is
applied normally for new topping units or new integrated topping/vacuum units but the concept can be used for debottlenecking purpose.

Light naphtha

START

Medium naphtha
Heavy naphtha

Products: This process is particularly suitable when more than two

naphtha cuts are to be produced. Typically the process is optimized to
produce three naphtha cuts or more, one or two kerosine cuts, two atmospheric gas oil cuts, one vacuum gas oil cut, two vacuum distillates
cuts, and one vacuum residue.

One or two kerosine cut

Stm.

1
2

Two kerosine cut

Vacuum gas oil

Distillate for FCC

Vacuum
residue

Description: The crude is preheated and desalted (1). It is fed to a first

dry reboiled pre-flash tower (2) and then to a wet pre-flash tower (3).
The overhead products of the two pre-flash towers are then fractionated as required in a gas plant and rectification towers (4).
The topped crude typically reduced by 2/3 of the total naphtha cut is
then heated in a conventional heater and conventional topping column
(5). If necessary the reduced crude is fractionated in one deep vacuum
column designed for a sharp fractionation between vacuum gas oil, two
vacuum distillates (6) and a vacuum residue, which could be also a road
bitumen.
Extensive use of pinch technology minimizes heat supplied by heaters and heat removed by air and water coolers.
This process is particularly suitable for large crude capacity from
150,000 to 250,000 bpsd.
It is also available for condensates and light crudes progressive distillation with a slightly adapted scheme.

Economics:
Investment (basis 230,000 bpsd including atmospheric and
vacuum distillation, gas plant and rectification tower) $750 to
$950 per bpsd (US Gulf Coast 2000).

Distillate

Utility requirements, typical per bbl of crude feed:

Fuel fired, 103 btu
Power, kWh
Steam 65 psig, lb
Water cooling, (15C rise) gal

5065
0.91.2
05
50100

Total primary energy consumption:

for Arabian Light or Russian Export Blend: 1.25 tons of fuel
per 100 tons of Crude
for Arabian Heavy
1.15 tons of fuel

per 100 tons of Crude

Installation: Technip has designed and constructed one crude unit and
one condensate unit with the D2000 concept. The latest revamp projContinued

Crude distillation, continued

ect currently in operation shows an increase of capacity of the existing
crude unit of 30% without heater addition.

Licensor: TOTAL and Technip.

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Vacuum distillation
Application: Process to produce vacuum distillates that are suitable for

Vacuum tower

Side strippers

lubricating oil production by downstream units, and as feedstocks to

FCC and hydrocracker units.

Vacuum gasoil

Feed: Atmospheric bottoms from crude oils (atmospheric residue) or

hydrocracker bottoms.

To vacuum system

Heater
Stm

Product: Vacuum distillates of precisely defined viscosities and flash points

Low visc.

Stm

(for lube production) and low metals content (for FCC and hydrocracker
units) as well as vacuum residue with specified softening point, penetration and flash point.

Medium visc.
High visc.

BFW

Metals cut

Description: Feed is preheated in a heat-exchanger train and fed to the

Vacuum resid.

fired heater. The heater outlet temperature is controlled to produce the

required quality of vacuum distillates and residue. Structured packings
are typically used as tower internals to achieve low flashzone pressure
and, hence, to maximize distillate yields. Circulating reflux streams enable maximum heat recovery and reduced column diameter.
A wash section immediately above the flash zone ensures that the
metals content in the lowest side draw is minimized. Heavy distillate
from the wash trays is recycled to the heater inlet or withdrawn as metals cut.
When processing naphthenic residues, a neutralization section may
be added to the fractionator.

Installation: Numerous installations using the Uhde (Edeleanu) propri

etary technology are in operation worldwide. The most recent reference
is a 86,000-bpd unit for a German refinery, which was commissioned
in 2004; the unit produces vacuum distillates as feedstock for FCC and
hydrocracker units.

Utility requirements (typical, North Sea Crude), units per m of feed:

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

Electricity, kWh
Steam, MP, kg
Steam production, LP, kg
Fuel oil, kg
Water, cooling, m

Feed

5
15
60
7
3
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Ethers
Raffinate C4

Application: The Snamprogetti Etherification Technology allows to produce high-octane oxygenates compounds such as methyl tert-butyl ether
(MTBE), ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE), tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME), tertamyl ethyl ether (TAEE) and etherified light cracked naphtha (ELCN).

2
4

Feed: C4 streams from steam cracker, fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU)

and isobutane dehydrogenation units, with isobutene contents ranging

from 15 wt% to 50 wt%, C5 and light cracked naphtha (LCNFCC light
gasoline 35C100C) from FCC Units.

C4 feed

Alcohol

Description: A typical MTBE/ETBE unit using FCC cut is based on a single-stage scheme with a tubular (1) and an adiabatic (2) reactor. The
front-end reactor uses the proprietary water cooled tubular reactor
(WCTR). The WCTR is a very flexible reactor and can treat all C4 cuts
on a once-through basis. It is the optimal solution for the etherification
reaction since it enables an optimal temperature profile with the best
compromise between kinetic and thermodynamic.
The reactor effluent is sent to the first column (3) where the product is recovered as bottom stream while the residual C4 are sent to the
washing column (4) to separate the alcohol. The water/alcohol leaving
the column is sent to alcohol-recovery column (5), to recycle both alcohol and water.
This scheme will provide a total isobutene conversion up to 95 wt%.
With the double-stage scheme, it is possible to reach more than 99
wt%.
The industrial experience has proven that this plant with the WCTR,
can be easily switched from ETBE to MTBE production, and vice versa, without stopping the plant and any reduction in feedrates. Process
schemes are similar for production of heavier ethers starting from C5 or
LCN streams.

Ether

Utilities: (Referred to a feedstock at 20 wt% isobutylene concentrate

light cracked naphtha).
Steam
0.8 0.9
Water, cooling
53 62
Power
8.4 9.2

t/t Ether
m/t Ether
kWh/ t Ether

Installation: Over 25 units including MTBE, ETBE, TAME and TAEE have
been licensed by Snamprogetti.

Licensor: Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem.

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Ethers, ETBE
Application: The CDEtbe catalytic distillation technology processes C4

streams from steam cracker, refining and isobutane dehydrogenation

units to produce ETBE.

Boiling point
reactor
Fresh ethanol

Product: The produced ETBE can be blended as a high quality bio-fuel.

Process advantages:
CDTECHs catalytic distillation offers:
Improved kinetics
High conversion (beyond fixed bed-equilibrium limit)
Low capital cost
Low utilities
Long catalyst life with sustained high conversion
Reduced plot space.

Ethanol
recovery
Catalytic C4 raffinate

Mixed C4s
Ethanol
and C4s

Description: ETBE is formed by the catalytic etherification of isobutylene

with ethanol. The patented CDEtbe process is based on a two-step reactor design, consisting of a fixed bed reactor followed by final conversion in a catalytic distillation column. The process utilizes an acidic
ion exchange resin catalyst in both its fixed bed reactor and proprietary
catalytic distillation structures.
The unique catalytic distillation column combines reaction and
fractionation in a single unit operation. It allows a high conversion of
isobutylene to be achieved simply and economically. By using distillation
to separate the product from the reactants, the equilibrium limitation
is exceeded and higher conversion of isobutylene is achieved. The ETBE
produced has a very low ethanol content that does not require additional downstream processing.

Catalytic
Ethanol
distillation
extraction
Recycle ethanol

Water

ETBE

CDTECHs boiling point reactor offers:

Simple and effective control
Elimination of hot spots
Long catalyst life
High flexibility
Low capital cost
Elimination of catalyst attrition
Most effective heat removal technique
Elimination of cooling water requirement.

Installation: CDTECH converted the first MTBE unit to produce ETBE in

2002, and continues to work with numerous licensors to retrofit other
existing MTBE units to produce ETBE.

Licensor: CDTECH

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EthersETBE
Application: The Uhde (Edeleanu) ETBE process combines ethanol and
isobutene to produce the high-octane oxygenate ethyl tertiary butyl
ether (ETBE).

ETBE
reactor

Debutanizer

Water
wash

Ethanol/water
separation

BB raffinate

Feeds: C4 cuts from steam cracker and FCC units with isobutene contents ranging from 12% to 30%.

Ethanol/water
azeotrope

Products: ETBE and other tertiary alkyl ethers are primarily used in gasoline blending as an octane enhancer to improve hydrocarbon combustion efficiency. Moreover, blending of ETBE to the gasoline pool will
lower vapor pressure (Rvp).

Description: The Uhde (Edeleanu) technology features a two-stage reactor system of which the first reactor is operated in the recycle mode.
With this method, a slight expansion of the catalyst bed is achieved that
ensures very uniform concentration profiles in the reactor and, most
important, avoids hot spot formation. Undesired side reactions, such as
the formation of di-ethyl ether (DEE), are minimized.
The reactor inlet temperature ranges from 50C at start-of-run to
about 65C at end-of-run conditions. One important feature of the twostage system is that the catalyst can be replaced in each reactor separately, without shutting down the ETBE unit.
The catalyst used in this process is a cation-exchange resin and is available
from several manufacturers. Isobutene conversions of 94% are typical for
FCC feedstocks. Higher conversions are attainable when processing steamcracker C4 cuts that contain isobutene concentrations of about 25%.
ETBE is recovered as the bottoms product of the distillation unit. The
ethanol-rich C4 distillate is sent to the ethanol recovery section. Water is
used to extract excess ethanol and recycle it back to process. At the top
of the ethanol/water separation column, an ethanol/water azeotrope is
recycled to the reactor section. The isobutene-depleted C4 stream may
be sent to a raffinate stripper or to a molsieve-based unit to remove
oxygenates such as DEE, ETBE, ethanol and tert-butanol.

C4 feedstock
Ethanol
ETBE product

Utility requirements: (C4 feed containing 21% isobutene; per metric

ton of ETBE):
Steam, LP, kg
Steam, MP, kg
Electricity, kWh
Water, cooling, m3

110
1,000
35
24

Installation: The Uhde (Edeleanu) proprietary ETBE process has been

successfully applied in three refineries, converting existing MTBE units.
Two other MTBE plants are in the conversion stage.

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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EthersMTBE
Application: To process C4 streams from steam cracker, refinery and isobutane dehydrogenation units to produce methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE).

Fresh
wash
Fresh methanol

Catalytic
Methanol
distillation
extraction
Recycle methanol

Methanol
recovery
C4 raffinate

Description: MTBE is formed by the catalytic etherification of isobutylene

with methanol. The patented CDMtbe process is based on a two-step
reactor design, consisting of a boiling point fixed-bed reactor followed
by final conversion in a catalytic distillation column. The process uses
an acidic ion-exchange resin catalyst in both its fixed-bed reactor and
proprietary catalytic distillation structures.
The unique catalytic distillation column combines reaction and
fractionation in a single unit operation. It allows a high conversion of
isobutylene to be achieved simply and economically. By using distillation
to separate the product from the reactants, the equilibrium limitation is
exceeded and higher conversion of isobutylene is achieved.

Boiling point
reactor

Methanol
and C4s
Water

Water

Mixed C4s

Water and
contaminants

MTBE

Products: MTBE synthesis is a highly selective process for removal of

isobutylene. It can be used for pretreatment to produce high-purity butene-1
or for recovery to make high-purity isobutylene via MTBE decomposition.

Process advantages: CDTECHs catalytic distillation offers:

Improved kinetics
High conversion (beyond fixed bed-equilibrium limit)
Low capital cost
Low utilities
Long catalyst life with sustained high conversion
Reduced plot space

CDTECHs boiling point reactor offers:

Simple and effective control
Elimination of hot spots
Long catalyst life
High flexibility
Low capital cost
Elimination of catalyst attrition
Most effective heat removal technique
Elimination of cooling water requirement.

Installations: With more than 20 years of experience and a total of 117

licensed ethers units, 88 units are MTBE, with 36 still in operation.
Licensor: CDTECH.

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EthersMTBE
MTBE reactor

Application: The Uhde (Edeleanu) MTBE process combines methanol

and isobutene to produce the high-octane oxygenatemethyl tertiary
butyl ether (MTBE).

Debutanizer

Water
wash

Methanol/water
separation
BB raffinate

Feeds: C4-cuts from steam cracker and FCC units with isobutene con-

tents range from 12% to 30%.

Products: MTBE and other tertiary alkyl ethers are primarily used in gasoline blending as an octane enhancer to improve hydrocarbon combustion efficiency.
Description: The technology features a two-stage reactor system of
which the first reactor is operated in the recycle mode. With this method, a slight expansion of the catalyst bed is achieved which ensures very
uniform concentration profiles within the reactor and, most important,
avoids hot spot formation. Undesired side reactions, such as the formation of dimethyl ether (DME), are minimized.
The reactor inlet temperature ranges from 45C at start-of-run to
about 60C at end-of-run conditions. One important factor of the twostage system is that the catalyst may be replaced in each reactor separately, without shutting down the MTBE unit.
The catalyst used in this process is a cation-exchange resin and is
available from several catalyst manufacturers. Isobutene conversions of
97% are typical for FCC feedstocks. Higher conversions are attainable
when processing steam-cracker C4 cuts that contain isobutene concentrations of 25%.
MTBE is recovered as the bottoms product of the distillation unit.
The methanol-rich C4 distillate is sent to the methanol-recovery section.
Water is used to extract excess methanol and recycle it back to process.
The isobutene-depleted C4 stream may be sent to a raffinate stripper
or to a molsieve-based unit to remove other oxygenates such as DME,
MTBE, methanol and tert-butanol.
Very high isobutene conversion, in excess of 99%, can be achieved
through a debutanizer column with structured packings containing additional catalyst. This reactive distillation technique is particularly suited

C4 feedstock
Methanol
MTBE product

when the raffinate-stream from the MTBE unit will be used to produce
a high-purity butene-1 product.
For a C4 cut containing 22% isobutene, the isobutene conversion
may exceed 98% at a selectivity for MTBE of 99.5%.

Utility requirements, (C4 feed containing 21% isobutene; per metric ton
of MTBE):
Steam, MP, kg
100
Electricity, kWh
35
Water, cooling, m3
15
Steam, LP, kg
900
Installation: The Uhde (Edeleanu) proprietary MTBE process has been
successfully applied in five refineries. The accumulated licensed capacity
exceeds 1 MMtpy.

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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Olefin etherification
Application: New processing methods improve etherification of C4C7

reactive olefins including light catalytic naphtha (LCN) with alcohol (e.g.,
methanol and ethanol). The processes, RHT-MixedEthers, RHT-MTBE,
RHT-ETBE, RHT-TAME and RHT-TAEE, use unique concepts to achieve the
maximum conversion without applying cumbersome catalyst in the column. The processing economics provide improvements over other available ether technologies currently available. The technology suite can
be applied to ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) production in which wet
ethanol can be used in place of dry ethanol. The drier can be eliminated,
which is approximately half the cost for an etherification unit. The RHT
ethers processes can provide the highest conversion with unique multiple equilibrium stages.

Description: The feed is water washed to remove basic compounds

that are poisons for the resin catalyst of the etherification reaction. The
C4 ethersmethyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)/ETBE), C5tertiary amyl
methyl ether (TAME/ tertiary amyl ethyl ether (TAEE) and C6/C7 ethers
are made in this process separately. The reaction is difficult; heavier
ethers conversion of the reactive olefins are equilibrium conversion of
about 97% for MTBE and 70% for TAME and much lower for C6/C7
ethers are expected.
Higher alcohols have similar effects (azeotrope hydrocarbon/alcohol
relationship decreases when using methanol over ethanol). The equilibrium conversions and azeotrope effects for higher ethers are lower, as is
expected. After the hydrocarbon feed is washed, it is mixed with alcohol
with reactive olefin ratio control with alcohol.
The feed mixture is heated to reaction temperature (and mixed with
recycle stream (for MTBE/ETBE only) and is sent to the first reactor (1),
where equilibrium conversion is done in the presence of sulfonated resin
catalyst, e.g. Amberlyst 15 or 35 or equivalent from other vendors.
Major vaporization is detrimental to this reaction. Vapor-phase reactive olefins are not available for reaction. Additionally at higher temperatures, there is slight thermal degradation of the catalyst occurs. The
reactor effluent is sent to fractionator (debutanizer or depentanizer) to

Water Wash column

trayed or packed

1st
Fractionator Condenser Finishing
reactor
reactor

Alcohol MeOH
or ETOH
Alcohol recycle
C4 or C5/C7
Wash water
C4 feed or
C5-C7*

Alcohol
Alcohol recovery
extraction
column

C4 or C5
raffinate OSBL

LPS

CW

CW
2

CW

MPS

MTBE/ETBE or mixed
ether product

Alcohol
recycle
to reactor

CW
6

5
Water

Water
purge

C4 or C5
raffinate**
Alcohol

LP

Water makeup

* No recycle reactor required. **only C5s

separate the ether and heavy hydrocarbons from C4 or C5 hydrocarbons,

which are taken as overhead. Single or multiple draw offs are taken from
the fractionation column. In the fractionation column, unreacted olefins
(C4 or C5) are sent to the finishing reactor (5). This stream normally does
not require alcohol, since azeotrope levels are available. But, some additional alcohol is added for the equilibrium-stage reaction. Depending
on the liquid withdrawn (number of side draws), the conversion can be
enhanced to a higher level than via other conventional or unconventional processes.
By installing multiple reactors, it is possible to extinct the olefins
within the raffinate. The cost of side draws and reactors can achieve
pay-off in 6 to 18 months by the higher catalyst cost as compared to
other processes. This process could provide 9799.9% isobutene conversion in C4 feed (depending on the configuration) and 9598+% of
isoamylenes in C5 stream.
Continued

Olefin etherification, continued

The ether product is taken from the bottom, cooled and sent to the
storage. The raffinate is washed in extractor column (6) with and is sent
to the OSBL. The water/alcohol mixture is sent to alcohol recovery column (7) where the alcohol is recovered and recycled as feed.
For ETBE and TAEE, ethanol dehydration is required for most of the
processes, whereas for RHT process, wet ethanol can be used providing
maximum conversions. If need be, the TBA specification can be met by
optimum design with additional equipment providing high ETBE yield
and conversion. Cost of ethanol dehydration is much more than the
present configuration for the RHT wet-ethanol process.
The total capital cost/economics is lower with conventional catalyst
usage, compared to other technologies, which use complicated structure, require installing a manway (cumbersome) and require frequently
catalyst changes outs.
The RHT ether processes can provide maximum conversion as compared to other technologies with better economics. No complicated or
proprietary internals for the column including single source expensive

catalyst. Distillation is done at optimum conditions. Much lower steam

consumption for alcohol recovery. For example, the C5 feed case requires
less alcohol with RHT configuration (azeotropic alcohol is not required)
and lowers lower steam consumption.

Economics:
CAPEX ISBL, MM USD (US Gulf Coast 1Q06,
1,000-bpd ether product)
9.1
Utilities Basis 1,000 bpd ether
Power kWh
45.0
3
Water, cooling m /h
250
Steam MP, Kg/h
6,000
Basis: FCC Feed (about 1520% isobutylene in C4 mixed stream)

Commercial units: Technology is ready for commercialization.

Licensor: Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC.
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TAEE, from refinery C5 feeds

Application: To process C5 streams from refinery units to produce ter-

tiary amyl ethyl ether (TAEE).

Fresh
wash
Fresh ethanol

CDTECHs boiling point reactor offers:

Simple and effective control
Elimination of hot spots
Long catalyst life
High flexibility
Low capital cost
Elimination of catalyst attrition
Most effective heat removal technique
Elimination of cooling water requirement.

Catalytic
Ethanol
distillation
extraction
Recycle Ethanol

Ethanol
recovery
C5 raffinate

Description: TAEE is formed by the catalytic etherification of isoamylene

with ethanol. The patented CDTaee process is based on a two-step reactor design, consisting of a boiling point fixed-bed reactor followed by
final conversion in a catalytic distillation column. The process uses an
acidic ion-exchange resin catalyst in both its fixed-bed reactor and proprietary catalytic distillation structures.
The unique catalytic distillation column combines reaction and fractionation in a single unit operation. It allows a high conversion of isoamylene (exceeding fixed-bed equilibrium limitations) to be achieved simply
and economically. By using distillation to separate the product from the
reactants, the equilibrium limitation is exceeded and higher conversion
of isoamylene is achieved. Catalytic distillation also takes advantage of
the improved kinetics through increased temperature without penalizing equilibrium conversion.

Boiling point
reactor

Ethanol
and C5s
Water

Water

Mixed C5s

Water and
contaminants

TAEE

Installation: With 20 years of experience, CDTECH has 120 licensed

ethers units.

Licensor: CDTECH.

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TAME, from refinery and

steamcracker C5 feeds

TAME

Application: The CD-Isotame process combines skeletal isomerization

and etherification steps to maximize the production of tertiary amyl
methyl ether (TAME) from refinery and steam-cracker C5 streams.

C5 olefin

Selective
hydrogenation
and CDTAME

Hydrogen

Description: TAME is formed by the catalytic etherification of reactive

C5 raffinate 1

Extract

the units use the TAME technology.

Process advantages include:

Licensor: CDTECH.

Selective hydrogenation of diolefins at minimum capital cost

High conversion of isoamylenes (>95%)
High conversion of normal pentenes (>70%)

Optional
recycle

Isomerate

isoamylenes with methanol. Skeletal isomerization increases TAME production from an olefinic C5 stream by converting normal amylenes to
isoamylenes. The combination significantly reduces olefin content while
also increasing octane.
This process provides the minimum capital cost at about 80% C5
olefin reduction. The olefinic C5 stream is fed to a selective hydrogenation step where dienes are converted to olefins. Removal of dienes
reduces color and gum formation in the TAME product. In addition, unreactive 3 methyl 1-butene (3MB1) is converted to reactive isoamylene
via hydroisomerization, thus increasing the TAME yield.
The primary TAME product is made in the first CDTame unit where
greater than 90% conversion of isoamylene is achieved. Raffinate 1
from this unit is fed to a skeletal isomerization unit (ISOMPLUS) where
n-pentenes are converted to isoamylenes at high yield and selectivity.
The vapor-phase reaction takes place over a robust catalyst with long
cycles between regenerations.
The isomerate is then fed to a second CDTame unit where additional
TAME is produced at greater than 95% conversion of isoamylenes. Even
higher conversion of normal pentenes to TAME can be achieved by an
optional raffinate 2 recycle to the skeletal isomerization unit. A purge
stream removes the saturated C5s from the recycle stream. A common
methanol recovery unit serves both CDTame units.

Fresh methanol

Lights
ISOMPLUS

C5 raffinate

Recycle
Methanol
recovery

Extract
Methanol

CDTAME

High selectivity of isomerization (>90%)

Isomerization of 3MB1 to reactive isoamylene
Improved C5 raffinate as gasoline feedstock due to reduced, color,
gum formation and olefin content
Increased TAME production
Increased gasoline pool octane
Decreased gasoline pool Rvp and olefins
Low capital and operating cost
Superior economics and performance over C5 alkylation
High-quality TAME product without objectionable odor or color.

Installation: Out of the 120 licensed ethers units, approximately half of

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TAME, from refinery C5 feeds

Application: To process C5 streams from refinery units to produce ter-

tiary amyl methyl ether (TAME).

Fresh
wash
Fresh methanol

Boiling point
reactor

Processes Index

Catalytic
Methanol
distillation
extraction
Recycle methanol

Methanol
recovery
C5 raffinate

Description: TAME is formed by the catalytic etherification of isoamylene

with methanol. The patented CDTame process is based on a two-step
reactor design, consisting of a boiling point fixed-bed reactor followed
by final conversion in a catalytic distillation column. The process utilizes
an acidic ion-exchange resin catalyst in both its fixed-bed reactor and
proprietary catalytic distillation structures.
The unique catalytic distillation column combines reaction and
fractionation in a single unit operation. It allows a high conversion
of isoamylene (exceeding fixed-bed equilibrium limitations) to be
achieved simply and economically. By using distillation also to separate
the product from the reactants, the equilibrium limitation is exceeded
and higher conversion of isoamylene is achieved. Catalytic distillation
also takes advantage of the improved kinetics through increased temperature without penalizing equilibrium conversion. Advanced process
control maximizes catalyst life and activity to provide high sustained
TAME production.

Company Index

Methanol
and C5s
Water

Water

Mixed C5s

Water and
contaminants

TAME

Installation: Out of the 120 licensed ethers units, approximately half of

units use the TAME technology.

Licensor: CDTECH.

CDTECHs boiling point reactor offers:

Simple and effective control
Elimination of hot spots
Long catalyst life
High flexibility
Low capital cost
Elimination of catalyst attrition
Most effective heat removal technique
Elimination of cooling water requirement.

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Gasification
Application: ExxonMobils Reserach & Engineerings (EMREs) continuous
fluid-bed coking with integrated steam gasification technology to convert heavy hydrocarbons (vacuum residuum, extra heavy oil or bitumen)
to lighter liquid products and a clean burning fuel gas, Flexigas, with
minimum coke production. Attractive when coking for complete resid
conversion with low or no fuel oil production is preferred and when
outlets for fuel coke are limited or not economic, and especially when
low-cost clean fuel gas is needed or where natural gas is high cost.

Low heating
value coke gas

Tertiary cyclones
Steam
generation

Reactor products
to fractionator

5
Direct
contact
cooler

5
START

1
Sour
water

Coke
fines

Products: Liquid product yields are similar to delayed coking and are
upgraded to transportation fuels in the refinery by hydrotreating,
hydrocracking, fluid catalytic cracker (FCC), or other processes. A large
quantity of clean fuel gas is produced, which can be burned in a variety
of grassroots or revamp furnaces and boilers in the refinery or in nearby
power plants with low SOx and NOx emissions.

Description: FLEXICOKING has essentially the same feed system and

fluid bed reactor (1) and scrubber (2) sections as FLUID COKING, and
also has the same process flexibility to directly process vacuum tower
bottoms without the need for a preheat furnace. It can also handle very
heavy feeds, and can adjust recycle cut point depending upon gasoil
product quality requirements. A steam/air gasification fluid bed reactor
(4) is added to convert coke produced in the reactor to a CO and H2-rich
fuel gas, diluted by N2.
The heater vessel (3) serves as a fluid solids heat exchanger to provide process heat for reactions in the heater and gasifier and to initially
cool and clean Flexigas from the gasifier. Flexigas overhead from the
heater (3) is cooled and cleaned in several steps (5) to remove fines and
is then treated with FLEXSORB hindered amine to reduce H2S to as low
10 wppm if needed. Typically 95 wt%97 wt% of the coke generated in
the reactor is gasified to produce process heat and Flexigas, depending
upon the amount of nickel (Ni) and vanadium (V) in the feed, A small
amount of purge or net product coke is withdrawn from the heater (3)
and fines removal system (5), which can be burned in cement kilns or

Steam
Cold
coke

Air
blower

Hot
coke
Air

used for recovery of V. Partial gasification with coke withdrawal can also
be used to provide additional process flexibility for increased capacity or
to make fuel grade coke if attractive markets are available.

Reactor yields: Typical 1,050F+ cut point vacuum resid (~26 wt% Conradson carbon, 4.6 wt% sulfur, 125 wppm Ni + V)
Component yield
wt%
wt%
Fuel gas (C2)
6.7
LPG, (C3/C4)
4.4
11.1
Total C4
Naphtha (C5-430F)
15.3
Distillate (430F 650F)
11.0
Gas oil (650F 975F)
32.2
Total C5+ liquids
58.6
Net product coke
1.7
Gasified coke
28.6
Total reactor coke
30.3
Total:
100
100

Continued

Gasification, continued
Fuel gas production: Steam and air gasification of coke produced in the
reactor generates a large fuel gas stream that is rich in CO/H2, which
can be used as fuel. Fuel gas production consistent with the above yields
for a 31,000 bpd FLEXICOKING Unit is:
Flexigas production:
1,580 MBtu/hr [460 MW (th)]
Flexigas heating value: 128 Btu/SCF
H2S content:
10 wppm

Competitive advantages:
Integrated coking and gasification technology that yields the same
valuable liquid products as other coking processes but produces clean
fuel gas instead of high-sulfur coke.
Fluid bed process with coke transferred pneumatically and contained within fluid solids reactors and product silos.

Environmental advantages with lower SOx, NOx, and particulates

emissions than conventional delayed coking processes
Much lower investment and more reliable than delayed coking
plus partial oxidation or direct gasification of solids or heavy feeds. Particularly attractive for SAGD tar sands upgrading with large fuel requirements.

Reference: Kamienski, P. W. , S. Massenzio and M. de Wit, Coking

without the coke, Hydrocarbon Engineering, March 2008.
Kamienski, P. W. , S. Massenzio and M. de Wit, FLEXICOKING: Integrated Coking and Gasification Technology, ERTC Coking and gasification Conference, Rome, April 2122, 2008.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Gasification
Application: To produce high-value products (hydrogen, fuel gas, chemical synthesis gas (CO + H2) and steam) from the lowest value residual
streams (resid, tar or coke), using GEs Gasification Process.
Sulfur is removed as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and metals are removed
in a filter cake, for further processing. If desired, up to 90% of the
carbon in the feed can be recovered as a purified carbon dioxide (CO2)
stream.
Typically, 80%90% of the energy in the feed is recovered in product and export steam streams. The fuel gas produced is well-suited for
combustion turbines.

Liquid wastes
(optional)
Steam

Economics:
Yields:
Feed
Type
API
Sulfur, wt%
Ni + V, ppm
Products, typical per bbl feed
Hydrogen, Mscf

Fuel gas

Sour
shift

Tar

Hydrogen

Oxygen
Gas
separation
Gasifier &
syngas
cooler

Soot
scrubber

Soot water

Description: Heavy feed is mixed with steam and/or hot soot water and
fed with oxygen to the gasifier, at pressures ranging from 400 psig to
1,250 psig and temperatures ranging from 2,300F to 2,700F, which
breaks down hydrocarbons into syngas (CO and H2) and minimal soot
and ash.
The cooled syngas is water-scrubbed to remove soot and ash. The
moisturized gas passes through a water-shift reactor; carbon monoxide
(CO) reacts with steam producing additional hydrogen and CO2. This allows the adjustment of the H2/CO ratio in the syngas to values greater
than 1. The dry syngas is then separated into various components using conventional methods (physical and/or chemical solvents, pressure
swing adsorption, etc.) Heat can be recovered as HP steam (up to 2,000
psig) from syngas cooling and water-shift reaction.

CO2

BFW

Acid gas
(to SRU)

Blowdown to SWS

Filtration

Filter cake
processing
(optional)
Ni/V ash

CO2, tons/bbl
Fuel gas, 106 Btu
Steam SH HP, export, lb

0.5
0.8
500

0.5
0.8
600

typical per bbl feed

Steam Satd LP, cons, lb
0
Power, kWh
12
Oxygen, tons
0.2
Water, cooling, gal
1,800

100
12
0.2
1,400

Utilities,

*Economics based on 2004 data.

Maya crude
SDA Tar
4.4
7
1,200

Oil sands
Visbr Tar
0
7
600

14

14

Installation: As of July 1, 2008, 63 units using GEs Gasification process

are operating worldwide; 13 in refinery applications, producing hydrogen, turbine fuel gas and syngas for chemicals manufacturing.

Licensor: GE Energy.
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Gasification
Application: The Shell Gasification Process (SGP) converts heavy refinery
residual liquid hydrocarbon streams with high-sulfur and metals content
into a clean synthesis gas (syngas) and marketable metal oxides. Sulfur (S)
is removed by normal gas treating processes and sold as elemental S.
The process converts residual streams with virtually zero value as
fuel-blending components into marketable, clean gas and byproducts.
This gas can be used to generate power in gas turbines and for making
hydrogen (H2) by the well-known shift and pressure swing adsorption
(PSA) technology. It is one of the few environmentally acceptable solutions for residual hydrocarbon streams.

Products: Synthesis gas (CO + H2), sulfur and metal oxides.

Oil
Process
steam
Oxygen

Syngas
Steam

Boiler

Reactor

Scrubber
Bleed to SWS

BFW

Effluent
boiler
Soot quench

Filtercake
work up

Ni/V ash

Filtration

Description: Liquid hydrocarbon feedstock (from very light such as natural gas to very heavy such as vacuum flashed cracked residue (VFCR) and
ashphalt) is fed into a reactor, and gasified with pure O2 and steam. The
net reaction is exothermic and produces a gas primarily containing carbon monoxide (CO) and H2. Depending on the final syngas application,
operating pressures, ranging from atmospheric up to 65 bar, can easily
be accommodated.
SGP uses refractory-lined reactors that are fitted with a gasification
burner and syngas effluent cooler, designed to produce high-pressure
steamover 100 bar (about 2.5 tons per ton feedstock). Gases leaving
the steam generator are at a temperature approaching the steam temperature; thus, further heat recovery occurs in an economizer.
Soot (unconverted carbon) and ash are removed from the raw gas
by a two-stage waterwash. After the final scrubbing, the gas is virtually
particulate-free; it is then routed to a selective-acid-gas-removal system.
Net water from the scrubber section is routed to the soot ash removal
unit (SARU) to filter out soot and ash from the slurry. By controlled oxidation of the filtercake, ash components are recovered as marketable
oxidesprincipally vanadium pentoxide. The (clean) filtrate is returned
to the scrubber.

Installation: Over the past 40 years, more than 150 SGP units have been
installed that convert residue feedstock into synthesis gas for chemical
applications. The Shell Pernis refinery near Rotterdam, The Netherlands,
uses the SGP process in a close refinery integration. This highly complex refinery depends on the SGP process for its H2 supply. Recently, ENI
refinery in Sannazzaro, Italy, has been successfully started-up. Similar
projects are underway in Canada and China.
The Shell middle distillate synthesis plant in Bintulu, Malaysia, uses
SGP to convert 100 million scfd of natural gas into synthesis gas that is
used for petrochemical applications.
A related processthe Shell Coal Gasification Process (SCGP)gasifies solids such as coal or petroleum coke. The reactor is different, but
main process layout and work-up are similar. The Demkolec Power plant
at Buggenum, The Netherlands, produces 250 mega watts based on the
SCGP process. In total, over 20 licenses are in different phases of project
execution using SCGP.
Continued

Gasification, continued
Reference: Shell Gasification Process, Conference Defining the Future, Bahrain, June 12, 2004.
Shell Gasification Process for Upgrading Gdansk Refinery, The
6th European Gasification Conference IChemE, Brighton, May 1012,
2004.
Overview of Shell Global Solutions Worldwide Gasification Developments, 2003 Gasification Technologies Conference, San Francisco,
Oct. 1215, 2003.

Zuideveld, P. and J. Wolff,New methods upgrade refinery residuals into lighter products, Hydrocarbon Processing, February 2006, pp.
7379.
Shell Gasification TechnologyOptimal disposal solution for refineries heavy ends, ERTC Gasification Conference, Paris, 2007.
Shell Gasification Technology: Generating Profit from the Bottom
of the Barrel, NPRA, Annual Meeting, San Diego, March 911,2008.
Shell Gasification TechnologyPart of refinery upgrading strategies, ERTC Gasification Conference, Rome, April 2123,2008.

Licensor: Shell Global Solutions International B.V.

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HOME

Feed dust

Application: The PRENFLO (PRessurized ENtrained-FLOw) direct quench

(PDQ) is an optimized design of the proven PSG gasification process for
all types of solid feedstock as petcoke, solid refinery residues, coal and
biomass for chemical applications (ammonia,methanol, hydrogen, synfuel.)

Processes Index

Cyclone filter
Lock hopper

PRENFLO
gasifier

Steam
drum

Steam
Boiler feed water

Feed bin
Raw gas

Oxygen

Scrubber

Description: First, the feed dust is prepared in the feed preparation unit.
Approximately 80% of the dust is smaller than 0.1 mm and has a water
content of approximately 1 wt%2 wt% in the case of hard coals, and
approximately 8 wt%10 wt% for lignite.
This feed dust is gasified in the PRENFLO gasifier using oxygen and
steam as the gasification agent. The gasification temperature is higher
than ash-melting temperature, which allows feedstocks containing ash
to be removed as slag. The cooled-type gasifier is equipped with multiple, horizontally arranged burners.
The raw gas produced, which contains mainly carbon monoxide and
hydrogen, is quenched with water in a direct quench in the gasifier vessel and then cleaned in a scrubber.

Direct
quench

Wash water
Slurry
filtration
Slag crusher/
collector
Slag lock
hopper

Filter cake
Waste water

Slag

Typical raw gas composition:

Economics:
Main process data:
Gasification pressure:
Gasification temperature:
Gas temperature at outlet of gasifier/quench:
Carbon conversion:

Company Index

40 bar and higher

>2,000C
200C250C
>99%

CO + H2
CO2
CH4

>85 vol%
68 vol%
<0.1 vol%

Installation: The PRENFLO PDQ process is under development for industrial-scale applications
Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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Processes Index

Steam

Boiler feed water

Application: The PRENFLO (PRessurized ENtrained-FLOw) process can be

used to gasify all types of solid feedstocks (petcoke, solid refinery residues, coal and biomass).

Feed
dust

Description: First, the feed dust is prepared in the feed preparation unit.
Approximately 80% of the dust is smaller than 0.1 mm and has a water
content of approximately 1wt%-2 wt% in the case of hard coals, and
approximately 8wt%-10 wt% for lignite.
This feed dust is then gasified in the PRENFLO gasifier using oxygen
and steam as gasification agents. The gasification temperature is higher
than the ash-melting temperature, which allows the feedstock containing ash to be removed as slag. The cooled-type gasifier is equipped with
multiple, horizontally arranged burners.
In the PRENFLO process with steam generation (PSG), the raw gas
produced, which contains mainly carbon monoxide and hydrogen, is
cooled in the waste-heat boiler and generates steam. The gas is dedusted in a candle filter and further treated in a scrubber unit.

Economics:
Main process data
Gasification pressure:
Gasification temperature:
Gas temperature at outlet of gasifier:
Carbon conversion:
Typical raw gas composition:
CO + H2
CO2
CH4

Company Index

> 40 bar
> 2,000C
1,350C1,600C
> 99%
> 85 vol.%
24 vol.%
< 0.1 vol.%

Steam
drum

Cyclone
filter

Lock
hopper
Feed bin
Oxygen

Filter
Fly
ash
lock
hopper

PRENFLO
gasifier

Scrubber
Fly
ash
feed
bin
Wash water

Slag crusher/
collector

Waste heat boiler

Fly ash

Slag lock
hopper
Slag

Ultimate
analysis

Coal Petcoke Mixture

C, wt%
36.3
H, wt%
2.5
N, wt%
0.8
O, wt%
6.6
S, wt%
0.9
Ash, wt%
41.1
Water, wt% 11.8
Total, wt% 100.0
LHV, MJ/kg
13.1

82.2
3.1
1.9

5.5
0.3
7.0
100.0
32.6

59.2
2.8
1.4
3.3
3.2
20.7
9.4
100.0
23.1

Raw gas analysis

CO2, vol%
CO, vol%
H2, vol%
N2 + Ar, vol%
CH4, vol%
H2S + COS, vol%
Total, vol%:
LHV, dry, MJ/m3n

Reference: PRENFLO technology has been successfully commercialized

in the worlds largest solid-feedstock based IGCC 300 MWe net power
plant in Puertollano, Spain.

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

Raw gas

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2.9
59.9
21.7
14.4*
<0.1
1.1
100.0
10.16

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Processes Index

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Multipurpose gasification
Application: Production of synthesis gas, essentially H2 and CO, from

a wide range of gaseous to extra heavy liquid hydrocarbons, as well as

emulsions and slurries. Recent new applications are in (chemical) waste
gasification. The main advantage over comparable processes is its extreme feedstock flexibility in the quench mode. A boiler mode for highest efficiency is also available.

Feedstock
O2/steam

Reactor

Operating conditions: Actual gasification temperatures of 1,200C to

1,500C, pressures from atmospheric to 70 bar (or higher, if economically
justified). Feedstock and oxidant preheat possible in a wide range from
100C to 600C, depending on type of feed. Product yields and composition vary with moderator rate and type of feed. Water quench is selected

Venturi
scrubber

MPboiler

Quench
water

C.W.

4
C.W.

Description: Continuous noncatalytic partial oxidation process. The

quench mode is shown above: hydrocarbon feedstock, moderator (H2O,
CO2 or N2) and oxidant (pure or diluted O2, air) are fed through a special
burner into the reactor (1), a refractory-lined pressure vessel. Operating
conditions are automatically controlled. Hot gas leaves the reactor at the
bottom, passing the quench where water is injected to lower the temperature near the saturation temperature. Quench water washes out
most particulates as unconverted carbon (soot) and ash.
Further cleaning occurs in a venturi scrubber (2) from where the gas
passes to a medium-pressure steam boiler (3) for heat recovery and to
the final cooler (4) before further processing. In hydrogen production,
the hot, wet gas from the venturi is passed directly to a raw gas shift
conversion. The soot/ash slurry from the process contains virtually all
metals and ashes from the feedstock. It is withdrawn via a slurry collector (5) and processed in the metals ash recovery system (MARS) (6).
There, soot/ash is filtered from the slurry and incinerated under controlled conditions, yielding a saleable metal/ash product. Filtered water
is returned for quenching. Excess water is stripped and sent to conventional wastewater treatment.

MP-steam

Quench
water

C.W.

BFW

Quench

Raw gas

6
Metals ash
recovery system MARS
(soot slurry treatment)

Alternative route to raw gas shift

5
Slurry
collector

Metals/ash

Waste water

for highest feedstock flexibility. At low-salt contents, the boiler mode can
recover heat as high-pressure steam, raising overall efficiency.

Economics: Characteristic consumption and production rates per ton of

heavy residue feedstock: 1 to 1.1 t O2 (100%), export 0.5 t MP steam
(quench) to 2.2 t HP steam (boiler mode), 2.2 t raw syngas (dry) equiv. to
2,600 Nm3 H2 + CO. Cold gas efficiency is 82% to 85%. In boiler mode,
thermal efficiencies including HP steam generated are about 95% based
on feedstock HHV. This makes the process attractive for syngas production and for an IGCC power plant. A highly integrated and efficient
power complex will be in the range of $1,200/kW total invested cost.

Installations: A large-scale industrial plant operates in Germany, demonstrating full feedstock and product flexibility by feeding to a methanol
Continued

Multipurpose gasification, continued

and IGCC complex. Another plant gasifies residue asphalt, producing
syngas for an ammonia plant.

Reference: Liebner, W. and C. Erdmann, MPGLurgi Multipurpose

GasificationRecent Applications and Experiences, World Petroleum
Congress 2000, Calgary, Canada, June 2000.

Licensor: Lurgi GmbH.

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HydroconversionVGO and DAO

Application: An ebullated-bed process H-OilDC is used for hydrocon-

version (hydrocracking and hydrotreating) of heavy vacuum gasoil and

DAO having high Conradson carbon residue and metal contents and
low asphaltene content. It is best suited for high severity operations and
applications requiring long run lengths.

Description: The flow diagram includes integrated mid-distillate hydrotreating for an ultra-low-sulfur-diesel product. The typical battery limits
scheme includes oil- and hydrogen-fired heaters, an advanced design
hot high-pressure separator and ebullating pump recycle system, a recycle gas scrubber and product separation and fractionation.
Catalyst in the reactor is replaced periodically without shutdown
and, for cases of feeds with low metal contents, the catalyst can be regenerated onsite to reduce catalyst consumption.
Various catalysts are available as a function of the feedstock and
the required objectives. An H-OilDC unit can operate for four-year run
lengths at constant catalyst activity with conversion in the 20-80% range
in once-through mode and to more than 95% in recycle mode with up
to 99% hydrodesulfurization.

Operating conditions:
Temperature, F
Hydrogen partial pressure, psi
LHSV, hr1
Conversion, wt%

750820
6001,500
0.53.0
2080 in once-through mode

Example: VGO + DAO feed: a blend of heavy VGO and C5 DAO con-

taining close to 100 ppm metals is processed at 80% conversion at an

overall desulfurization rate of over 96%.

Recycle hydrogen

Recycle hydrogen
compressor

Fixed-bed
HDS

Makeup hydrogen
VGO feed
START

Amine
absorber

Fuel gas
Ebullated
reactor

High
pressure
separator

Naphtha S=
<2 wppm
Stabilizer

Oil feed
heater

Diesel S=
<50 wppm
Gas-oil
stripper
Ebullating
pump

Hydrogen
heater

Economics: Basis2008 US Gulf Coast

Investment in $ per bpsd
Utilities, per bbl of feed
Fuel, 103 Btu
Power, kWh
Catalyst makeup, lb

FCC feed S=
1,000-1,500 wppm

2,8004,500
60
3
0.010.3

Installation: The H-OilDC process has two references, one in operation

and one under construction, with a total cumulative capacity of 139,900
bpsd. This technology has been commercially demonstrated based on
the ebullated bed reactor making a total of 11 references for residue
and VGO hydroconversion.
Licensor: Axens.
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Hydrocracking
Fuel gas

Application: Upgrade vacuum gas oil alone or blended with various

feedstocks (light-cycle oil, deasphalted oil, visbreaker or coker gasoil).

H2 makeup

Products: Jet fuel, diesel, very-low-sulfur fuel oil, extra-quality FCC

Heavy
naphtha

feed with limited or no FCC gasoline post-treatment or high VI lube

base stocks.
1

Description: This process uses a refining catalyst usually followed by

an amorphous and/or zeolite-type hydrocracking catalyst. Main features
of this process are:
High tolerance toward feedstock nitrogen
High selectivity toward middle distillates
High activity of the zeolite, allowing for 34 year cycle lengths and
products with low aromatics content until end of cycle.
Three different process arrangements are available: single-step/
once-through; single-step/total conversion with liquid recycle; and twostep hydrocracking. The process consists of: reaction section (1, 2), gas
separator (3), stripper (4) and product fractionator (5).

Product quality: Typical for HVGO (50/50 Arabian light/heavy):

Feed,
Jet

HVGO
fuel
Diesel
Sp. gr.
0.932
0.800
TBP cut point, C
405565
140225
Sulfur, ppm
31,700
<10
Nitrogen, ppm
853
<5
Metals, ppm
<2

Cetane index


Flash pt., C

40
Smoke pt., mm, EOR

2628
Aromatics, vol%, EOR

< 12
Viscosity @ 38C, cSt
110

PAH, wt%, EOR

Jet fuel

5
2

Diesel
Wild naphtha

Feed
Low-sulfur VGO

START

Installation: More than 67 references, cumulative capacity exceeding

2.7 million bpsd, conversions up to 99%.

Licensor: Axens.

0.826
225360
<10
<5

62
125

<8
5.3
<2
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Hydrocracking
Application: Convert naphthas, AGO, VGO, DAO, cracked oils from FCC

units, delayed cokers and visbreakers, and intermediate products from

residue hydroprocessing units using the Chevron Lummus Global ISOCRACKING Process.

H2S

Products: Lighter, high-quality, more valuable products: LPG, gasoline,

catalytic reformer feed, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel and feeds for FCC, ethylene cracker or lube oil units.

Water

Description: A broad range of both amorphous/zeolite and zeolitic

catalysts, including noble-metal zeolitic catalysts, are used to tailor the
ISOCRACKING Process exactly to the refiners objectives. In general,
the process involves a staged reactor system with an initial stage of
hydrotreating and partially hydrocracking the feed, and a subsequent
stage continuing the conversion or product upgrade process in a more
favorable environment.
Feeds can be introduced in between stages using Chevron Lummus
Global patented split-feed injection technology, or effluent flow paths can
be arranged to best utilize hydrogen and minimize quench-gas requirements
using proprietary SSRS (single-stage reaction sequenced) technology.
Most modern large-capacity flow schemes involving heavy sour gas
oils require two reactors (1, 4) and one high-pressure separation system
(2) with an optional recycle gas scrubber (5) and one recycle-gas compressor (8). The low-pressure separators (3), product stripper (6) and
fractionator (7) provide the flexibility to fractionate products either in
between reaction stages or at the tail-end, depending on desired product slate and selectivity requirements.
Single-stage options are used in once-through mode typically for
mild hydrocracking or when a significant quantity of unconverted oil is
required for FCC, lubes, or ethylene units. The single-stage recycle option is used for lower capacity units when economical. The reactors use
patented internals technology called ISOMIX for near-flawless mixing
and redistribution.

Hydrogenrich gas to
recovery

Light naphtha
FG, LPG
naphtha

Heavy
naphtha

Sour
water

START

Makeup hydrogen

Jet/kerosine
3

7
6

UCO to
lubes FCC or
ethylene unit

Yields: Typical from various feeds:

Feed
VGO

Diesel

VGO

VGO

VGO

Gravity, API
24.1
24.1
24.1
21.3
TBP range, F
7001,100 7001,100 7001,100 7001,100
Nitrogen, wppm
2,500
2,500
2,500
900
Sulfur, wt %
1.9
1.9
1.9
2.5
Mode
Max. Diesel Max. Jet Max. Mid- Max. Mid
Distillate Distillate

+ Lubes
Yields, vol %
Naphtha
22.8
30.8
14.0
18
Jet/kerosine

79.7
22.0
50
Diesel
85.5

73.0
35
UCO



10
Continued

Installation: More than 80 units worldwide with over two million-bpsd

Hydrocracking, continued
Feed
Product quality

VGO

total capacity.

VGO

VGO

Kerosine smoke, mm
2932
2932
Diesel cetane number 5864
5864
UCO BMCI
UCO Waxy V.I.
UCO Dewaxed V.I.

VGO
2932
5864
68
143145
131133

Economics: ISBL total installed cost of 50,000-bpsd unit at 100% conversion to middle distillates using Middle Eastern VGO feed (USGC, 2007
basis): $300 million.
Process fuel (absorbed), MMBtu/hr
180
Electricity, MW
10
CW, gpm
2,500
Steam (export at 150 psig), M lb/hr
22

Reference: Dahlberg, A., U. Mukherjee and C. W. Olsen, Consider using integrated hydroprocessing methods for processing clean fuels, Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2007, pp. 111120.
Mukherjee, U., J. Mayer and B. Srinivasan, Hydroprocessing InnovationSome Recent Applications, Petroleum Technology Quarterly,
Summer 2004.
Bridge, A. G. and U. Mukherjee, ISOCRACKINGHydrocracking
for Superior Fuels and Lubes Production, Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, McGraw Hill, Third Edition.
Licensor: Chevron Lummus Global LLC.
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Hydrocracking
Makeup hydrogen

Application: The IsoTherming process provides refiners an economical

means to upgrade gasoil, heavy gasoil, coker gasoils, deasphalted oil
and FCC cycle oils.

Products: Low-sulfur, low-nitrogen FCC feed, low-sulfur gasoline-ker-

GO/DAO
feed
To FG treating

osine type products, and low-nitrogen fuels and/or downstream feedstocks.

Light naphtha

Description: This process uses a novel approach to introduce hydrogen in

excess of reaction requirements into the reactor. It enables much higher
space velocities than conventional hydrocracking reactors. The IsoTherming process eliminates problems associated with flow mal-distribution,
gas-liquid mass transfer and catalyst wetting. The process eliminates the
need for some of the equipment in conventional hydrotreating thereby
lowering cost.
Fresh feed, after heat exchange, is combined with recycle product
and hydrogen in a mixer internal to the reactor. The liquid feed with
soluble hydrogen is fed to IsoTherming reactor/bed one where partial
desulfurization, removal of metals or mild hydrocracking occurs. The
stream is combined with additional hydrogen in a second mixer and fed
to the second IsoTherming reactor/bed where further mild hydrocracking
takes place. The treated oil from the second IsoTherming bed may then
be fed to additional IsoTherming beds to achieve the desired level of
conversion. At this time the technology is recommended for maximum
feed conversion of approximately 65%.
Treated oil is recycled back to the inlet of reactor one. This recycle
stream delivers more hydrogen to the reactors and also acts as a heat
sink; thus, a nearly isothermal reactor operation is achieved.

To FG treating

Heavy naphtha
Kerosine
ULSD diesel
FCC feed

Economics: Revamp investment is estimated to be half that of conventional hydrocracking due to the primary advantages offered by IsoTherming, which include:
Elimination of a recycle gas compressor, high-pressure flash drum
and separator, condenser and amine scrubber.
Smaller volume(s) of catalyst required for a given feed basis.

Installation: Three units are licensed for mild hydrocracking of heavy oils
with startups scheduled in 4Q08, 1Q09.
Licensor: DuPont

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Hydrocracking
Application: Topses hydrocracking process can be used to convert
straight run vacuum gas oils and heavy cracked gasoils to high quality
sulfur-free naphtha, kerosene, diesel, and FCC feed, meeting current
and future regulatory requirements. In addition, high VI lube stocks and
petrochemical feedstock can be produced to increase the refinerys profitability.

Hydrogen makeup

Furnace

Recycle gas
compressor
Hydrocracking
reactor

Pretreating
reactor
Process gas

Product: By proper selection of operating conditions, process configuration, and catalysts, the Topse hydrocracking process can be designed
for high conversion to produce high smoke point kerosine and high
cetane diesel. The process can also be designed for lower conversion/
upgrade mode to produce low sulfur FCC feed with the optimum hydrogen uptake or high VI (>145) lube stock. The FCC gasoline produced
from a Topse hydrocracking unit does not require post-treatment for
sulfur removal.

H2-rich
gas

Naphtha
Product
fractionator

Fresh feed
High-pressure
separator
Low-pressure
separator

Middle
distillate

Lube stock

Description: Topses hydrocracking process uses well proven co-current

downflow fixed bed reactors with state-of-the-art reactor internals and
catalysts. The process uses recycle hydrogen and can be configured in
partial conversion once-through feed mode or with recycle of partially
converted oil to obtain 100% conversion to diesel and lighter products. Topses zeolitic and amorphous hydrocracking catalysts have been
proven in several commercial hydrocrackers.

Installations: One operating licensed hydrocracking unit. Topse hydrocracking catalysts have been supplied to eight hydrocrackers.
Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

Operating conditions: Typical operating pressure and temperatures

range from 55 to 170 bar (800 to 2500 psig) and 340 to 420C (645 to
780F).

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Hydrocracking
Fresh gas

Application: To convert heavy vacuum gasoil (VGO) and other low-cost

cracked and extracted feedstocks into high-value, high-quality products,
such as low-sulfur diesel, jet fuel, high-octane light gasoline and reformer feed via the Shell Hydrocracking Process. Unconverted or recycle oil
are prime feeds for secondary processing in fluid catalytic cracking units
(FCCUs), lube base oil plants and ethylene crackers.

Recycle gas

Description: Heavy feed hydrocarbons are preheated with reactor effluent (1). Fresh hydrogen is combined with recycle gas from the cold highpressure separator, preheated with reactor effluent, and then heated in
a single-phase furnace. Reactants pass via trickle flow through multi-bed
reactor(s) containing proprietary pre-treat, cracking and post-treat catalysts (2). Interbed ultra-flat quench internals and high-dispersion nozzle
trays combine excellent quench, mixing and liquid flow distribution at
the top of each catalyst bed while helps maximize reactor volume utilization. After cooling by feed streams, reactor effluent enters a separator
system. Hot effluent is routed to fractionation (3).
Two-stage, series flow and single-stage unit design configurations
are available, capable of converting a wide range of heavy feedstocks,
especially heavy coker gasoils and deasphalted oils directly into clean fuels. The catalyst systems are carefully tailored for maximum yield of the
desired product slate at an optimum catalyst cycle length.

Process gas

Recycle
compressor

Quench gas

CHP
separator

Light naphtha
Heavy naphtha

Kerosine

HHP
separator

HLP
separator

Diesel
CLP
separator

Fractionator
FCC/lube
oil/ethylene

Feed

Installation: Over 30 new and revamp designs installed or under design.

Revamps have been implemented in own or other licensors designs
usually to debottleneck and increase feed heaviness.

Supplier: Shell Global Solutions International B.V.

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Hydrocracking
Application: Convert a wide variety of feedstocks into lower-molecular-

Makeup hydrogen

weight products using the UOP Unicracking process.

Wash
water

Feed: Feedstocks include atmospheric gasoil, vacuum gasoil, FCC/RCC cycle

oil, coker gasoil, deasphalted oil and naphtha for production of LPG.

Products: Processing objectives include production of gasoline, jet fuel,

diesel fuel, lube stocks, ethylene-plant feedstock, high-quality FCC feedstock and LPG.

Description: Feed and hydrogen are contacted with catalysts, which induce desulfurization, denitrogenation and hydrocracking. Catalysts are
based upon both amorphous and molecular-sieve containing supports.
Process objectives and feedstock properties determine catalyst selection
and process flow scheme for a specific unit. Product from the reactor
section is condensed, separated from hydrogen-rich gas and fractionated into desired products. Unconverted oil is recycled or used as lube
stock, FCC feedstock or ethylene-plant feedstock.

Yields: Example:

Feed type

30,000 bpsd typical vacuum gasoil feed

FCC cycle
Vacuum
Fluid coker
oil blend
gasoil
gasoil

Gravity, API
27.8
22.3
Boiling, 10%, F
481
690
End pt., F
674
1,015
Sulfur, wt%
0.54
2.4
Nitrogen, wt%
0.024
0.15
Yields, vol% of feed with principal product of diesel
Butanes
3.0
Light gasoline
6.6
Heavy naphtha
11.2
Distillate
92.3
H2 consump., scf/bbl 1,550

8.4
640
1,100
4.57
0.269

Flash gas

5
Fresh feed

To fractionator

START

Recycle oil

Sour water
To fractionator

Economics:
Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, 103 Btu
Electricity, kWh

70130
710

Installation: Selected for 190 commercial units, including several converted

from competing technologies. Total capacity exceeds 4.4 million bpsd.
Licensor: UOP.

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Hydrocracking, moderate pressure

tillates and blending stocks including LPG, high-octane gasoline, highquality reformer naphtha. Unconverted bottoms product from the MPHC
unit is very low in sulfur and is an excellent feedstock for fluid catalytic
cracking (FCC), lube-oil basestock production, steam cracking and lowsulfur fuel oil.

Operating conditions and yields: Typical operating conditions on a Middle East VGO for a once-through MPHC operation are shown:

Operation conditions:
Configuration
Nominal conversion, %
H2 pressure, psig

MPHC

MPHC

MPHC

35
800

50
800

50
1,250

Lean amine

Recycle
compressor

Absorber
HVGO
DAO
HCGO

Naphtha
Rich
amine

Kerosine

LPG/naphtha

Heater
Reactor

LTS

Diesel
Fractionator

HTS

FCC feed LSGO

Description: The process uses a multiple catalyst system in multi-bed

reactor(s) that incorporates proprietary advanced quench and redistribution internals (Spider Vortex). Heavy hydrocarbons and recycle gas
are preheated and contact the catalyst in the trickle-phase fixed-bed
reactor(s). Reactor effluent is flashed in high- and low-temperature
separators. An amine scrubber removes H2S from the recycle gas before it gets compressed and re-circulated back to the unit. An optimized, low cost stripper/fractionator arrangement is used for product
recovery.
When higher-quality distillates are required, the addition of a lowcost, highly integrated distillate post-treating unit (PTU) can be incorporated in the design to meet or exceed high-pressure hydrocracking
product quality at lower capital cost and hydrogen consumption

Company Index

Hydrogen

Application: Convert a wide variety of feedstocks including vacuum

deep-cut gas oil, coker gas oils, de-asphalted oil (DAO), and FCC cycle oils into high-quality, low-sulfur fuels using ExxonMobil Research
and Engineering Companys (EMRE) moderate pressure hydrocracking
(MPHC) process.
Products: Products include a wide range of high-quality, low-sulfur dis-

Processes Index

Stripper

Yields:
Naphtha, wt%
Kero/jet, wt%
Diesel, wt%
LSGO (FCC feed), wt%
H2 consumption, wt%

4
6
22
65
1.01.5

10
10
26
50
1.31.8

10
10
27
50
1.52.0

20200
1318
30500
4550

20200
1520
30300
4752

20200
1722
30200
5055

Product quality:

Kero sulfur, wppm

Kero smoke Pt, mm
Diesel sulfur, wppm
Diesel cetane no.
Utilities, per bbl of feed:

Continued

Hydrocracking, moderate pressure continued

Electric power, kW
Fuel (absorbed), Btu
Steam, MP (export), lb
Water, cooling, gal
Wash water, gal
Lean amine, gal

4.1
67,100
(15.9)
101
1.5
36.1

7.2
69,600
(21.1)
178
2.2
36.1

EMREs MPHC process is equally amenable to revamp or grassroots

applications. EMRE has an alliance with Kellogg Brown & Root (KBR) to
provide MPHC technology to refiners.

Installation: Four operating units; two in construction.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.
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Hydrocracking, resid
Application: Desulfurization, demetalization, CCR reduction and hydrocracking of atmospheric and vacuum resids using the LC-FINING Process.

Makeup hydrogen
LC-FINING
reactor

Products: Full range of high-quality distillates. Residual products can

be used as fuel oil, synthetic crude or feedstock for a resid FCC, coker,
visbreaker or solvent deasphalter.

Description: Fresh hydrocarbon liquid feed is mixed with hydrogen and

reacted within an expanded catalyst bed (1) maintained in turbulence by
liquid upflow to achieve efficient isothermal operation. Product quality is
maintained constant and at a high level by intermittent catalyst addition
and withdrawal. Reactor products flow to a high-pressure separator (2),
low-pressure separator (3) and product fractionator (4). Recycle hydrogen is separated (5) and purified (6).
Process features include onstream catalyst addition and withdrawal.
Recovering and purifying the recycled H2 at low pressure rather than at high
pressure can reduce capital cost and allows design at lower gas rates.

Operating conditions:
Reactor temperature, F
Reactor pressure, psig
H2 partial pressure, psig
LSHV
Conversion, %
Desulfurization, %
Demetalization, %
CCR reduction, %

Yields: For Arabian heavy/Arabian light blends:

725840
1,4003,500
1,0002,700
0.1 to 0.6
4097+
6090
5098
3580

Recycle H2

Steam
1

6
2
5

3
Hydrocarbon
feed

START

Products

Atm. resid
Vac. resid
Feed
Gravity, API
Sulfur, wt %
Ni/V, ppmw
Conversion, vol%
(1,022F+)

12.40
3.90
18/65
45

4.73
4.97
39/142
60

4.73
4.97
39/142
75

4.73
4.97
39/142
95

Products, vol%
C4
1.11
2.35
3.57
5.53
C5350F
6.89
12.60
18.25
23.86
350700F (650F)
(15.24)
30.62
42.65
64.81
700 (650F)1,022F (55.27)
21.46
19.32
11.92
1,022F+
25.33
40.00
25.00
5.0
C5+, API/wt% S
23.70/0.54 22.5/0.71 26.6/0.66 33.3/0.33

Continued

Installation: Six LC-FINING units are in operation, and three LC-FINING

Hydrocracking, resid, continued

Units are in engineering.

Economics:
Investment, estimated (US Gulf Coast, 2007)
Size, bpsd fresh feed
92,000
49,000
$/bpsd typical fresh feed
4,000
6,000
7,000
Utilities, per bbl fresh feed
Fuel fired, 103 Btu
56.1
62.8
69.8
Electricity, kWh
8.4
13.9
16.5
Steam (export), lb
35.5
69.2
97.0
Water, cooling, gal.
64.2
163
164

8,000
88.6
22.9
97.7

248

Reference: Gupta, A., Chevron Lummus Global Ebullated Bed Bottomof-theBarrel Hydroconversion (LC-FINING) Process, Handbook of Petroleum Refining Prcesses, McGraw Hill, Third Edition.
LC-FINING Options for Heavy Oil Upgrading, NPRA Annual Meeting, March 911, 2008, San Diego, Paper AM-08-33.
Licensor: Chevron Lummus Global LLC.
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Processes Index

Makeup H2

Application: H-OilRC is an ebullated-bed process for hydrocracking at-

mospheric or vacuum residue. It is the ideal solution for feedstocks having high metal, CCR and asphaltene contents. The process can have two
different objectives: at high conversion, to produce stable products; or,
at moderate conversion, to produce a synthetic crude oil.

Air
cooler

Inter stage
separator
(optional)

cludes oil and hydrogen fired heaters, an optional inter stage separator, an internal recycle cup providing feed to the ebullating pump, high
pressure separators, recycle gas scrubber and product separation and
fractionation (not required for synthetic crude oil production).
Catalyst is replaced periodically in the reactor, without shutdown.
Different catalysts are available as a function of the feedstock and
the required objectives. An H-OilRC unit can operate for three-year run
lengths at constant catalyst activity with conversion in the 5080%
range and hydrodesulfurization as high as 85%.

Operating conditions:
770820
1,6001,950
0.250.6
5080

Examples: Ural VR feed: a 540C+ cut from Ural crude is processed at

66% conversion to obtain a stable fuel oil containing less than 1%wt
sulfur, 25% diesel and 30% VGO. The diesel cut is further hydrotreated
to meet ULSD specifications using an integrated Prime-D unit. Arab Medium VR feed: a vacuum residue from a blend 70% Arab Light-30%
Arab Heavy containing 5.5wt% sulfur is processed at above 75% conversion to obtain a stable fuel oil with 2wt% sulfur.

Acid gas
removal and
HPU
V/L
separator

Heater

Sour
gas

Sour water

V/L
separator

Description: The flow diagram illustrates a typical H-OilRC unit that in-

Temperature, F
Hydrogen partial pressure, psi
LHSV, hr1
Conversion, wt%

Company Index

Sour gas
Fractionation
and
stabilization

Naphtha
Mid distillate

H-oil
reactor

Resid feed
Heater

V/L
separator

Vacuum
tower

Vacuum bottoms recycle (optional)

Economics: Basis 2008 US Gulf Coast

Investment in $ per bpsd
Utilities, per bbl of feed
Fuel, 103 Btu
Power, kWh
Catalyst makeup, lb

Vacuum gasoil

Vacuum residue

5,1007,400
70
11
0.20.8

Installation: There are nine H-OilRC units, seven in operation and two un-

der design, with a total capacity of 336,500 bpsd. Two additional references for H-OilDC, the ebullated bed technology for VGO and DAO, add
another 139,900 bpsd.

Reference: Resid hydrocracker produces low-sulfur diesel from difficult

feed, Hydrocarbon Processing, May 2006.
Licensor: Axens.
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Hydrodearomatization
Application: Topses two-stage hydrodesulfurization hydrodearomatization (HDS/HDA) process is designed to produce low-aromatics distillate products. This process enables refiners to meet the new, stringent
standards for environmentally friendly fuels.

Products: Ultra-low sulfur, ultra-low nitrogen, low-aromatics diesel, kerosine and solvents (ultra-low aromatics).

3FDZDMF
HBT
DPNQSFTTPS

.BLFVQ
IZESPHFO
)%4
TUSJQQFS

%JFTFM
GFFE
'JSTU
TUBHF

)%4
TFQBSBUPS

)%4
SFBDUPS

8BTI
XBUFS
)%4
TUSJQQFS

Description: The process consists of four sections: initial hydrotreating,

intermediate stripping, final hydrotreating and product stripping. The
initial hydrotreating step, or the first stage of the two-stage reaction
process, is similar to conventional Topse hydrotreating, using a Topse
high-activity base metal catalyst such as TK-575 BRIM to perform deep
desulfurization and deep denitrification of the distillate feed. Liquid effluent from this first stage is sent to an intermediate stripping section, in
which H2S and ammonia are removed using steam or recycle hydrogen.
Stripped distillate is sent to the final hydrotreating reactor, or the second
stage. In this reactor, distillate feed undergoes saturation of aromatics
using a Topse noble metal catalyst, either TK-907/TK-911 or TK-915, a
high-activity dearomatization catalyst. Finally, the desulfurized, dearomatized distillate product is steam stripped in the product stripping column
to remove H2S, dissolved gases and a small amount of naphtha formed.
Like the conventional Topse hydrotreating process, the HDS/HDA
process uses Topses graded bed loading and high-efficiency patented
reactor internals to provide optimum reactor performance and catalyst
use leading to the longest possible catalyst cycle lengths. Topses high
efficiency internals have a low sensitivity to unlevelness and are designed
to ensure the most effective mixing of liquid and vapor streams and maximum utilization of catalyst. These internals are effective at high liquid
loadings, thereby enabling high turndown ratios. Topses graded-bed
technology and the use of shape-optimized inert topping and catalysts
minimize the build-up of pressure drop, thereby enabling longer catalyst
cycle length.

4FDPOE
TUBHF

"NJOF
TDSVCCFS
0WFSIFBE
WBQPS

4PVS
XBUFS

1SPEVDU
EJFTFM
TUSJQQFS

)%"
SFBDUPS
)%"
TFQBSBUPS

8BUFS
8JME
OBQIUIB
4UFBN
%JFTFM
QSPEVDU
%JFTFM
DPPMFS

Operating conditions: Typical operating pressures range from 20 to 60

barg (300 to 900 psig), and typical operating temperatures range from
320C to 400C (600F to 750F) in the first stage reactor, and from
260C to 330C (500F to 625F) in the second stage reactor. An example of the Topse HDS/HDA treatment of a heavy straight-run gas oil
feed is shown below:

Feed
Product
Specific gravity
0.86
0.83
Sulfur, ppmw
3,000
1
Nitrogen, ppmw
400
<1
Total aromatics, wt%
30
<10
Cetane index, D-976
49
57
Continued

Hydrodearomatization, continued
References: Cooper, Hannerup and Sgaard-Andersen, Reduction of
aromatics in diesel, Oil and Gas, September 1994.
de la Fuente, E., P. Christensen, and M. Johansen, Options for meeting EU year 2005 fuel specifications, 4th ERTC, Paris, November 1999.

Installation: A total of seven units.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.
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Hydrofinishing
Application: Deeply saturate single- and multiple-ring aromatics in baseoil feedstocks. The product will have very low-aromatics content, very
high-oxidation stability and high thermal stability.

Makeup hydrogen

Process gas

Description: ISOFINISHING catalysts hydrogenate aromatics at relatively low reaction temperatures. They are especially effective in complete
polyaromatics saturationa reaction that is normally equilibrium limited.
Typical feedstocks are the effluent from a dewaxing reactor, effluent from
hydrated feeds or solvent-dewaxed feedstocks. The products are highly
stabilized base-oil, technical-grade white oil or food-grade white oil.
As shown in the simplified flow diagram, feedstocks are mixed with
recycle hydrogen and fresh makeup hydrogen, heated and charged to a
reactor containing ISOFINISHING Catalyst (1). Effluent from the finishing
reactor is flashed in high-pressure and low-pressure separators (2, 3).
A very small amount of light products are recovered in a fractionation
system (4).

Fresh dewaxed
feed

Light ends

4
3

START

Base oil product

Yields: For a typical feedstock, such as dewaxing reactor effluent, the

yield can be >99%. The chemical-hydrogen consumption is usually very
low, less than ~10 Nm3/m3 oil.

Economics:
Investment: For a stand-alone ISOFINISHING Unit, the ISBL capital is
about 3,0005,000 $/bpsd, depending on the pressure
level and size.
Utilities: Typical per bbl feed:

Power, kW
2.6

Fuel, kcal
3.4 x 103

Installation: Twenty-nine units are in various stages of operation, construction or design.

Reference: NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2004, San Antonio, Paper
AM-04-68.

Licensor: Chevron Lummus Global LLC.

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Hydrogen
Recycle H2

Application: Production of high-purity hydrogen (H2) from hydrocarbon

(HC) feedstocks, using the steam reforming process.

Feedstocks: Ranging from natural gas, LPG to naphtha as well as potential refinery offgases (ROG). Several modern hydrogen plants designed
by TECHNIP have multiple feedstock flexibility.

HC feedstock, ROG

Feed
pretreatment

Makeup fuel
Combustion air

APH
(Opt.)

Pre-reformer
(optional)
Steam
system

Fuel system
PG boiler

Reformer

Description: The generic flowsheet consists of feed pre-treatment,

pre-reforming (optional), steam-HC reforming, shift conversion and
hydrogen purification by pressure swing adsorption (PSA). However, it
is often tailored to satisfy specific requirements.
Feed pre-treatment normally involves preheating to 350C to
400C and catalytic removal of sulfur, chlorine and other contaminants
detrimental to downstream catalysts. The treated feed gas mixed with
process steam is sent to the fired steam reformer (or adiabatic prereformer upstream when applied) after necessary superheating.
The net reforming reaction is strongly endothermic. Heat is supplied externally by combustion of PSA purge gas, supplemented by
make-up fuel in multiple burners in a top-fired reformer. Reforming
severity is optimized for each specific case mainly in terms of S/C ratio
and outlet temperature. The reformer effluent is essentially an equilibrium mixture and is cooled though HP-steam generation in the PG
boiler before going for shift conversion, where a major portion of carbon monoxide (CO) further converts to hydrogen.
The process condensate resulting from heat recovery and cooling
is separated and generally re-utilized in the steam system after necessary treatment. The entire steam generation is usually on natural circulation, which adds to high reliability. The cooled process gas flows to
the PSA unit that provides high-purity hydrogen product (typically < 10
ppmv total carbon oxides and in some cases <1ppmv CO).
Typical specific energy consumptions based on feed + fuel export
steam range between 3 to 3.5 Gcal/KNm3 (330 to 370 Btu/scf) LHV,

Process steam
Compressor
pumping

Steam
coils

BFW

Process
coils

Shift
conversion

Shock
coils

Steam
Steam

Dosing

BFW preparation
system
Process
condensate
Cooling
train

Stack
Air

To steam
system

Export
steam

PSA

DMW
BFW to steam
system

Purge gas to
fuel system

Recycle H2
Hydrogen product

depending upon the feedstock, plant capacity, optimization criteria

and steam export conditions. Recent advances include gas turbine integration for steam-power synergy, environmental performance and
recuperative reforming for capacity retrofit.

Installation: TECHNIP, maintaining a leading market share, has designed

over 250 hydrogen plants worldwide covering a wide range of capacities ranging from 12 to 520 tpd (5220 MMscfd). Most of these installations are for refinery application with basic features for high reliability
(99.5%+ excluding forced outage) and optimized cost.

Licensor: TECHNIP

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Hydrogen
Application: Production of hydrogen for refinery applications and petrochemical and other industrial uses.

Feed: Natural gas, refinery offgases, LPG, naphtha or mixtures thereof

Steam reformer
Steam
drum

Fuel
Desulfurization

or any other feedstocks.

3
2

HT shift
4

CW

Product: High-purity hydrogen (typically >99.9%), CO, CO2, HP steam

and/or electricity may be produced as separate creditable byproduct.

Description: The plant generally comprises four process units. The feed is
desulfurized, mixed with steam and converted to synthesis gas in steam
reformer over a nickel containing catalyst at 2040 bar pressure and
outlet temperatures of typically 860C890C for hydrogen production.
The synthesis gas is further treated in the adiabatic carbon monoxide
(CO) shift and the pressure swing adsorption unit to obtain high-purity
hydrogen. Process options include feed evaporation, adiabatic feed prereforming and/or HT/LT shift to process, e.g., heavier feeds and/or optimize feed/fuel consumption and steam production.
Uhdes design enables maximizing process heat recovery and optimizing energy efficiency with operational safety and reliability. The
Uhdes steam reformer features a well-proven top-fired design with
tubes made of centrifugally cast alloy steel and a unique proprietary
cold outlet manifold system for enhanced reliability. AA special feature further speciality is Uhdes bi-sectional steam system for the environment-friendly full recovery of process condensate and production of
contaminant-free high-pressure export steam (3) with a proven process
gas cooler design.
The Uhde steam reformer concept also includes a modularized
shop-tested convection bank to maximize plant quality and minimize
construction risks. Uhde usually offers tailor-made designs based on either their own or the customers design standards. The hydrogen plant
is often fully integrated into the refinery, particularly with respect to
steam production and use of refinery waste gases. Uhde has extensive
experience and expertise in the construction of highly reliable reformers with hydrogen capacities of up to 220,000 Nm3/h (197 MMscfd).

Gas cooler
Steam export
PSA

Feed
Combustion air

Hydrogen

BFW

Recent developments include the reduction of CO2-emissions while

using removed CO2 for sequestration or enhanced oil recovery (EOR).

Economics: Depending on the individual plant concept, the typical consumption figure for natural gas based plants (feed + fuel steam) may
be as low as 3.05 Gcal /1,000 Nm3 (324 MMBtu/MMscf).

Installation: Uhde is currently executing several designs for hydrogen

plants. These include a 150,000 Nm/134 MMscfd plant for Shell in
Canada and a 91,000 Nm/h/81 MMscfd plant for Bayernoil in Germany. In addition, Uhde is building a multi-feedstock hydrogen plant for
an Italian refiner and a naphtha and natural- gas fed plant for Neste Oil
OYJ of Finland. Uhde has also successfully started up Europes largest
hydrogen plant for Neste Oil OYJ with a capacity of 155,000 Nm/h
(139 MMscfd). This plant features, among others, a unit to reduce CO2
emissions.
Continued

Hydrogen, continued
References: Ruthardt, K. and M. Smith, Reliability and availability, Hydrocarbon Engineering, February 2008.
Ruthardt, K., K. R. Radtke and J. Larsen, Hydrogen trends, Hydrocarbon Engineering, November 2005, pp. 4145.

Michel, M., Design and Engineering Experience with Large-Scale

Hydrogen Plants, Oil Gas European Magazine, Vol. 30 (2004) No. 2 in:
Erdl Erdgas Kohle Vol. 120 (2004) No. 6, pp. OG 8588.

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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Hydrogen (steam reforming)

Application: Hydrogen production from natural gas, refinery gas, associated gas, naphtha, LPG or any mixture of these. Appropriate purity product (up to 99.999%) can be used in refinery upgrade processes, chemical production and metallurgy (direct reduction). Possible byproducts are
export steam or electricity, depending on cost and/or efficiency optimization targets.

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Fuel

Processes Index

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Export

Feed
Desulfurization
Process steam
Pre-reforming
(optional)

Heat recovery

Steam reforming

Description: The hydrocarbon feedstock is admixed with some recycle

hydrogen and preheated to 350C380C. Sulfur components are totally converted to H2S at CoMo catalyst and then adsorbed on zinc oxide
by conversion to ZnS. The desulfurized feed is mixed with process steam
at an optimized steam/carbon ratio.
The desulfurized feed is mixed with process steam at an optimized
steam/carbon ratio, superheated to 500C650C and fed to the Lurgi
Reformer. The feed/steam mixture passing the reformer tubes is converted at 800C900C by presence of a nickel catalyst to a reformed gas
containing H2, CO2, CO, CH4 and undecomposed steam. The reformed
gas is cooled to approximately 330C in a reformed gas boiler.
The Lurgi Reformer is a top-fired reformer with a low number of
burners and low heat losses, almost uniform wall temperature over the
entire heated tube length and low NOx formation by very accurate fuel
and combustion air equipartition to the burners.
An adiabatic pre-reformer operating at an inlet temperature of
400C500C (dependent on feedstock) may be inserted upstream of
the feed superheater as a process option. Feedgas is partly converted to
H2, CO and CO2 with high-activity catalyst; all hydrocarbons are totally
converted to methane. The pre-reformer limits steam export to maximize heat recovery from the process and increases feedstock flexibility.
The CO in the reformed gas is shift-converted with an iron-chromium catalyst, increasing hydrogen yield and reducing CO content to below 3 vol.%. The shift gas is cooled to 40C and any process condensate
is separated and recycled to the process. The gas is then routed to the

Shift conversion

Demineralized
water
Flue gas

Pressure swing
adsorption

Hydrogen

PSA unit, where pure hydrogen is separated from the shift-gas stream.
Offgas is used as fuel for steam reforming.
Recovered waste heat from the reformed and flue gases generates
steam, which is used as process steam with the excess exported to battery limits.
Turndown rates of 30% or even less are achievable. The control
concept allows fully automatic operation with load changes up to 3%
of full capacity/minute.

Economics: Consumption figures based on light natural gas feedstock/1

millon scfd of H2:
Feed + fuel, million scfd
Demineralized water, t
Water, cooling, m3
Electricity, kWh
Export steam, t

0.4
1.25
3.0
19
0.7

Continued

Hydrogen (steam reform), continued

Installations: More than 125 gas reforming plants, 33 being hydrogen
plants, with single-train capacities ranging from 1 million scfd to 200
million scfd.

Licensor: Lurgi GmbH.

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Processes Index

Company Index

HydrogenHTCR and HTCR twin

plants
Application: Produce hydrogen from hydrocarbon feedstocks such as:

S-removal

natural gas, LPG, naphtha, refinery offgases, etc., using the Haldor Topse Convective Reformer (HTCR). Plant capacities range from approximately 5,000 Nm3/h to 25,000+ Nm3/h (5 MM scfd to 25+ MMscfd) and
hydrogen purity from about 99.599.999+%. This is achieved without
any steam export.

Prereformer

HTCR Twin reformer

Shift

PSA

Steam

H2
3x

Description: The HTCR-based hydrogen plant can be tailor-made to suit

the customers needs with respect to feedstock flexibility. A typical plant
comprises feedstock desulfurization, pre-reforming, HTCR reforming,
shift reaction and pressure swing adsorption (PSA) purification to obtain
product-grade hydrogen. PSA offgases are used as fuel in the HTCR. Excess heat in the plant is efficiently used for process heating and process
steam generation.
A unique feature of the HTCR is the high thermal efficiency. Product
gas and flue gas are cooled by providing heat to the reforming reaction to about 600C (1,100F). The high thermal efficiency is utilized
to design energy-efficient hydrogen plants without the need for steam
export. In larger plants, the reforming section consists of two HTCR reformers operating in parallel.

Economics: HTCR-based hydrogen plants provide the customer with

a low-investment cost and low operating expenses for hydrogen production. The plant is supplied as a skid-mounted unit providing a short
installation time. These plants provide high operating flexibility, reliabil-

Combustion air

Feed
Flue gas

Offgas

Fuel

ity and safety. Fully automated operation, startup and shutdown allow
minimum operator attendance. A net energy efficiency of about 3.4
Gcal/1,000 Nm3 hydrogen (361 MMBtu/scf H2) is achieved depending
on size and feedstock.

Installations: Twenty-eight licensed units.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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Processes Index

Company Index

HydrogenHTER-p
Application: Topses proprietary and patented HTER-p (Haldor Topse Exchange Reformerparallel installation) technology is a revamp
option for production increase in a steam-reforming-based hydrogen
plant. The technology allows hydrogen capacity increases of more than
25%. This option is especially advantageous because the significant capacity expansion is possible with minimal impact on the existing tubular
reformer, which usually is the plant bottleneck.

Description: The HTER-p is installed in parallel with the tubular steam

methane reformer (SMR) and fed independently with desulfurized
feed taken upstream the reformer section. This enables individual adjustment of feedrate and steam- and process steam-to-carbon ratio to
obtain the desired conversion. The hydrocarbon feed is reformed over
a catalyst bed installed in the HTER-p. Process effluent from the SMR
is transferred to the HTER-p and mixed internally with the product gas
from the HTER-p catalyst. The process gas supplies the required heat
for the reforming reaction in the tubes of the HTER-p. Thus, no additional firing is required for the reforming reactions in the HTER-p.

Economics: An HTER-p offers a compact and cost-effective hydrogen

capacity expansion. The investment cost is as low as 60% of that for a
new hydrogen plant. Energy consumption increases only slightly. For a
25% capacity increase, the net energy consumption is 3.13 Gcal/1,000
Nm3 H2 (333 MM Btu/scf H2).

Prereformer

Tubular reformer HTER-p

Process
steam

Desulfurized feed
To CO shift
converter

To stack

Fuel

References: Dybkjr, I., and S. W. Madsen, Novel Revamp Solutions

for Increased Hydrogen Demands, Eighth European Refining Technology Conference, November 1719, 2003, London, UK

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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Processes Index

Company Index

HydrogenMethanol-to-Shift
Application: Topses proprietary Methanol-to-Shift technology is a revamp option for hydrogen production increase for a reforming-based
hydrogen plant. This technology can raise hydrogen production capacity by more than 25%. The capacity expansion is flexible and can
be changed in very short time; the technology is suitable for capacity
peak shaving and offers the refiner higher feedstock and product slate
flexibility.

Large methanol
storage tank

Methanol
day tank
Steam

Gas from prereformer

Tubular
reformer

Description: Additional hydrogen is produced by reforming of methanol

over Topses novel dual-function catalystLK-510. When installed in the
existing CO shift converter and fed simultaneously with methanol and reformed gas, the LK-510 catalyst promotes both the conversion of CO with
steam to H2 and CO2 and the reforming of methanol to H2 and CO2.
Methanol from a day tank is pumped to a steam-heated evaporator
and fed as vapor to the existing CO shift converter, now loaded with
the LK-510 catalyst. In most cases, it will be necessary to revamp the
PSA unit for the additional capacity and to check the equipment downstream of the CO shift converter and modify as required.

Economics: The Methanol-to-Shift revamp technology is a low-investment option for hydrogen capacity increase and is rapid to install. The
total investment cost is less than 40% of that of a new hydrogen plant.
Methanol consumption is approximately 0.54 kg/Nm3 hydrogen (0.03
lb/scf H2).

Methanol
evaporation

Steam export

CO shift
methanol
cracking

Waste heat
recovery and
purification
To stack
Fuel gas and
combustion air

References: Dybkjr, I., and S. W. Madsen, Novel Revamp Solutions

for Increased Hydrogen Demands, Eighth European Refining Technology Conference, November 1719, 2003, London, UK.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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Processes Index

Company Index

Hydrogenrecovery
Application: To recover and purify hydrogen or to reject hydrogen from
refinery, petrochemical or gas processing streams using a PRISM membrane. Refinery streams include hydrotreating or hydrocracking purge,
catalytic reformer offgas, fluid catalytic cracker offgas or fuel gas. Petrochemical process streams include ammonia synthesis purge, methanol
synthesis purge or ethylene offgas. Synthesis gas includes those generated from steam reforming or partial oxidation.

Nonpermeate product

Feed gas

3
Additional
H2 product

Product: Typical hydrogen (H2) product purity is 90%98% and, in

some cases, 99.9%. Product purity is dependent upon feed purity, available differential partial pressure and desired H2 recovery level. Typical H2
recovery is 8095% or more.
The hydrocarbon-rich nonpermeate product is returned at nearly
the same pressure as the feed gas for use as fuel gas, or in the case of
synthesis gas applications, as a carbon monoxide (CO) enriched feed to
oxo-alcohol, organic acid, or Fisher-Tropsch synthesis.

Description: Typical PRISM membrane systems consist of a pretreatment

(1) section to remove entrained liquids and preheat feed before gas enters the membrane separators (2). Various membrane separator configurations are possible to optimize purity and recovery, and operating
and capital costs such as adding a second stage membrane separator
(3). Pretreatment options include water scrubbing to recover ammonia
from ammonia synthesis purge stream.
Membrane separators are compact bundles of hollow fibers contained in
a coded pressure vessel. The pressurized feed enters the vessel and flows on
the outside of the fibers (shell side). Hydrogen selectively permeates through
the membrane to the inside of the hollow fibers (tube side), which is at lower
pressure. PRISM membrane separators key benefits include resistance to water exposure, particulates and low feed to nonpermeate pressure drop.

Optional
Hydrogen product

Membrane systems consist of a pre-assembled skid unit with pressure vessels, interconnecting piping, and instrumentation and are factory tested for ease of installation and commissioning.

Economics: Economic benefits are derived from high-product recoveries

and purities, from high reliability and low capital cost. Additional benefits include relative ease of operation with minimal maintenance. Also,
systems are expandable and adaptable to changing requirements.

Installations: Over 400 PRISM H2 membrane systems have been com-

missioned or are in design. These systems include over 80 systems in refinery applications, 210 in ammonia synthesis purge and 50 in synthesis
gas applications.

Licensor: Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.

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Hydrogensteam methane
reforming (SMR)

S-removal

Prereformer

Processes Index

Radiant wall
reformer

Company Index

CO shift
reactor

Application: Production of hydrogen from hydrocarbon feedstocks such

as: natural gas, LPG, butane, naphtha, refinery offgases, etc., using the
Haldor Topse radiant-wall Steam Methane Reformer (SMR). Plant capacities range from 5,000 Nm3/h to more than 200,000 Nm3/h hydrogen (200+ MMscfd H2) and hydrogen purity of up to 99.999+%.
Description: The Haldor Topse SMR-based hydrogen plant is tailor-made
to suit the customers needs with respect to economics, feedstock flexibility and steam export. In a typical Topse SMR-based hydrogen plant,
a mix of hydrocarbon feedstocks or a single feedstock stream is first desulfurized. Subsequently, process steam is added, and the mixture is fed
to a prereformer. Further reforming is carried out in the Haldor Topse
radiant wall SMR. The process gas is reacted in a medium-temperature
CO shift reactor and purified by pressure swing absorption (PSA) to obtain product-grade hydrogen. PSA offgases are used as fuel in the SMR.
Excess heat in the plant is efficiently used for process heating and steam
generation.
The Haldor Topse radiant wall SMR operates at high outlet temperatures up to 950C (1,740F). The Topse reforming catalysts allow operation at low steam-to-carbon ratio. Advanced Steam Reforming uses
both high outlet temperature and low steam-to-carbon ratio, which are
necessary for high-energy efficiency and low hydrogen production cost.
The Advanced Steam Reforming design is in operation in many industrial plants throughout the world.

Economics: The Advanced Steam Reforming conditions described can

achieve a net energy efficiency as low as 2.96 Gcal/1,000 Nm3 hydrogen
using natural gas feed (315 MM Btu/scf H2).

Feed

PSA
Steam export

H2

Flue gas

Combustion air
BFW
Fuel gas

References: Rostrup-Nielsen, J. R. and T. Rostrup-Nielsen, Large scale

hydrogen production, CatTech, Vol. 6, no. 4, 2002.
Dybkjr, I., and S. W. Madsen, Advanced reforming technologies
for hydrogen production, Hydrocarbon Engineering, December/January 1997/1998.
Gl, J.N., and I. Dybkjr, Options for hydrogen production, HTI
Quarterly: Summer 1995.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

Installations: More than 100 units.

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Hydrogensteam reforming
Application: Manufacture hydrogen for hydrotreating, hydrocracking or
other refinery or chemical use.

)ZESPDBSCPO
GFFE

4UFBN

Feedstock: Light saturated hydrocarbons: refinery gas or natural gas,

LPG or light naphtha.
Products: Typical purity 99.99%; pressure 300 psig, with steam or CO2

4UFBN


as byproducts.

Description: Hydrogen is produced by steam reforming of hydrocarbons

with purification by pressure swing adsorption (PSA). Feed is heated (1)
and then hydrogenated (2) over a cobalt-molybdenum catalyst bed followed by purification (3) with zinc oxide to remove sulfur. The purified
feed is mixed with steam and preheated further, then reformed over
nickel catalyst in the tubes of the reforming furnace (1).
Foster Wheelers Terrace Wall reformer combines high efficiency with
ease of operation and reliability. Depending on size or site requirements,
Foster Wheeler can also provide a down-fired furnace. Combustion air
preheat can be used to reduce fuel consumption and steam export.
Pre-reforming can be used upstream of the reformer if a mixture
of naphtha and light feeds will be used, or if steam export must be
minimized. The syngas from the reformer is cooled by generating steam,
then reacted in the shift converter (4) where CO reacts with steam to
form additional H2 and CO2.
In the PSA section (5), impurities are removed by solid adsorbent,
and the adsorbent beds are regenerated by depressurizing. Purge gas
from the PSA section, containing CO2, CH4, CO and some H2, is used as
fuel in the reforming furnace. Heat recovery from reformer flue gas may
be via combustion air preheat or additional steam generation. Variations
include a scrubbing system to recover CO2.

Economics:
Investment: 10100 MMscfd, First Q 2005, USGC $1060 million
Utilities, 50 MMscfd plant:

4UFBN


1SPEVDU
IZESPHFO


1VSHF
HBT
'VFM
HBT

Air
Steam

preheat generation

Natural gas, feed + fuel, MMBtu/hr
780
885

Export steam at 600 psig/700F, lb/hr
35,000
130,000

Boiler feedwater, lb/hr
70,000
170,000

Electricity, kW
670
170

Water, cooling, 18F rise, gpm
350
350
Installations: Over 100 plants, ranging from less than 1 MMscfd to 95
MMscfd in a single train, with numerous multi-train installations.

Reference: Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, Third Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003, pp 6.36.33.

Licensor: Foster Wheeler USA Corp.

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Prereforming with feed

ultra purification

Processes Index

Company Index

Steam

Application: Ultra-desulfurization and adiabatic-steam reforming of hydrocarbon feed from refinery offgas or natural gas through LPG to naphtha feeds as a prereforming step in the route to hydrogen production.

Description: Sulfur components contained in the hydrocarbon feed are

converted to H2S in the HDS vessel and then fed to two desulfurization
vessels in series. Each vessel contains two catalyst typesthe first for
bulk sulfur removal and the second for ultrapurification down to sulfur
levels of less than 1 ppb.
The two-desulfurization vessels are arranged in series in such a way
that either may be located in the lead position allowing online change
out of the catalysts. The novel interchanger between the two vessels
allows for the lead and lag vessels to work under different optimized
conditions for the duties that require two catalyst types. This arrangement may be retrofitted to existing units.
Desulfurized feed is then fed to a fixed bed of nickel-based catalyst
that converts the hydrocarbon feed, in the presence of steam, to a product stream containing only methane together with H2, CO, CO2 and
unreacted steam which is suitable for further processing in a conventional fired reformer. The CRG prereformer enables capital cost savings
in primary reforming due to reductions in the radiant box heat load. It
also allows high-activity gas-reforming catalyst to be used. The ability to
increase preheat temperatures and transfer radiant duty to the convection section of the primary reformer can minimize involuntary steam
production.

Operating conditions: The desulfurization section typically operates be-

Preheat

Preheat

Product
gas
HDS vessel
Hydrocarbon feed

Lead
desulfurization
vessel

Lag
desulfurization
vessel

CRG
prereformer

Installation: CRG process technology covers 40 years of experience with

over 150 plants built and operated. Ongoing development of the catalyst has lead to almost 50 such units since 1990.
Catalyst: The CRG catalyst is manufactured under license by Johnson
Matthey Catalysts.

Licensor: The process and CRG catalyst are licensed by Davy Process
Technology.

tween 170C and 420C and the CRG prereformer will operate over a
wide range of temperatures from 250C to 650C and at pressures up
to 75 bara.
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Processes Index

Pressure swing adsorptionrapid

cycle

Centralized cPSA
in H2 plant

Applications: Proper management of hydrogen molecules within the

LPG

Crude oil

Atmospheric
pipestill
Vacuum
pipestill

refineries and chemical plants is becoming increasingly important due

to the introduction of stringent product sulfur specifications. Hydrogen recovery/purification from fuel gas and hydrogen containing offgas
streams in refining and chemical processes offers many potential benefits, including product uplift, reduced H2 costs, avoided H2 plant expansion and emission reductions.
Rapid-cycle pressure swing adsorption (RCPSA) technology offers a
more-compact, less-expensive and more-energy-efficient solution for H2
recovery compared to conventional PSA (cPSA) technology. This technology has been jointly developed by ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co. (EMRE) and QuestAir Technologies. The RCPSA unit for hydrogen recovery/purification is marketed as the QuestAir H-6200.
Some of the potential applications of RCPSA are:

Company Index

Virgin
naphtha
HDT

Natural gas
Refinery gas
Propane
Butane

H2
plant

PSA

Cat
reformer

Jet fuel
HDT

Gasoline
Jet fuel

Hydrocracker

Diesel
HDT

H2 to
process
units

Diesel

CAT
feed
HDT

FCC

CAT
naphtha
HDT
Distributed RCPSA
in process loops

H2 recovery/purification from:

Fuel gas
Recycle gas loop in hydrotreater
Naphtha reformer hydrogen offgas
Hydrocracker offgas and purges
Steam cracker offgas.

Description: RCPSA technology overcomes the inherent disadvantages

of cPSA, namely, slow cycle speeds, relatively large adsorbent beads and
complex networks of individual switching valves. RCPSA uses two novel
proprietary technologies: structured adsorbentsreplacing conventional beaded cPSA adsorbentsand integrated rotary valvesreplacing
solenoid-actuated valves used in cPSA. Structured adsorbents provide
mass transfer coefficients that are up to 100 times higher than beaded
adsorbents used in cPSA; thus, significantly increasing the productivity
of a unit volume of adsorbent bed. The multi-port rotary valves are used
for rapid and efficient switching of gases between adsorbent beds, effectively capturing the increased capacity of the structured adsorbent.

Multi-bed RCPSA systems can be efficiently packaged in an integrated, modular rotating bed design. The net result is that large PSA
systems made up of multiple vessels of beaded adsorbent, complex process piping and multiple switching valves can be replaced with integrated modular skid-mounted QuestAir H-6200 plants that are a fraction
of the required footprint of a cPSA of equivalent capacity. In addition,
the RCPSAs modular skid mounted design reduces installation time and
cost. In the high feed pressure (p > 500 psig) applications, RCPSA can
be stably operated without a tail-gas compressor resulting in further
reduction of total installed cost in comparison to cPSA. Flexible product purity, enhanced recovery and better control of RCPSA can result in
capital and operating cost savings. The modular skid mounted design of
the RCPSA makes it possible for refiners to manage H2 molecules closer
to the processing units as needed, a new paradigm for distributed H2
recovery technology for refineries and chemical plants.
Continued

Pressure swing adsorption, rapid cycle, continued

Installation: The first commercial QuestAir H- 6200 unit was started-up
at an ExxonMobil Refinery in 2007. It is installed in the diesel hydrotreater
recycle loop to increase H2 purity that results in product uplift and minimizes valuable H2 loss from the hydrotreating unit.

Yields: Available upon request.

Utilities: Compact RCPSA technology results in significantly less inert gas
consumption in operation or in purging. Furthermore, since the switching valve function is controlled through an electric motor, instrument air
is only required for the operation of each modules product control valve
and automated isolation valves.

Nitrogen consumption: Estimated inert purge gas requirement: 40.4

Typical N2 consumption in normal start-up operation: 0.12 nm3/h

per H-6200 module
Instrument air consumption: 1.5 Nm3h estimated for operation per
H-6200 module
Power: 480600V 3ph, 50 or 60 Hz to suit local requirements, consumption: 37 kw/module

References: PSA technology hits the fast lane, Chemical Processing,

August 2003.
Recovery costs less, Hydrocarbon Engineering, November 2007.
Rapid Cycle Pressure Swing Adsorption (RCPSA), A new, low-cost
commercialized H2 recovery process NPRA Annual Meeting, March
911, 2008, San Diego.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co., and QuestAir

Technologies Inc.

nm3

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Hydrogenation

Processes Index

Hydrogen recycle

Application: The CDHydro process is used to selectively hydrogenate diole-

CW

fins in the top section of a hydrocarbon distillation column. Additional applicationsincluding mercaptan removal, hydroisomerization and hydrogenation of olefins and aromatics are also available.

Description: The patented CDHydro process combines fractionation

with hydrogenation. Proprietary devices containing catalyst are installed
in the fractionation columns top section (1). Hydrogen is introduced
beneath the catalyst zone. Fractionation carries light components into
the catalyst zone where the reaction with hydrogen occurs. Fractionation also sends heavy materials to the bottom. This prevents foulants
and heavy catalyst poisons in the feed from contacting the catalyst. In
addition, clean hydrogenated reflux continuously washes the catalyst
zone. These factors combine to give a long catalyst life. Additionally,
mercaptans can react with diolefins to make heavy, thermally-stable sulfides. The sulfides are fractionated to the bottoms product. This can
eliminate the need for a separate mercaptan removal step. The distillate
product is ideal feedstock for alkylation or etherification processes.
The heat of reaction evaporates liquid, and the resulting vapor is
condensed in the overhead condenser (2) to provide additional reflux.
The natural temperature profile in the fractionation column results in a
virtually isothermal catalyst bed rather than the temperature increase
typical of conventional reactors.
The CDHydro process can operate at much lower pressure than
conventional processes. Pressures for the CDHydro process are typically
set by the fractionation requirements. Additionally, the elimination of a
separate hydrogenation reactor and hydrogen stripper offers significant
capital cost reduction relative to conventional technologies.
Feeding the CDHydro process with reformate and light-straight run
for benzene saturation provides the refiner with increased flexibility to
produce low-benzene gasoline. Isomerization of the resulting C5/C6
overhead stream provides higher octane and yield due to reduced benzene and C7+ content compared to typical isomerization feedstocks.

Company Index

Offgas

2
Hydrogen

FCC C4+
MP steam

Reflux

Treated FCC C4s

FCC C5+ gasoline

Depentanizer

Economics: Fixed-bed hydrogenation requires a distillation column followed by a fixed-bed hydrogenation unit. The CDHydro process eliminates the fixed-bed unit by incorporating catalyst in the column. When
a new distillation column is used, capital cost of the column is only 5%
to 20% more than for a standard column depending on the CDHydro
application. Elimination of the fixed-bed reactor and stripper can reduce
capital cost by as much as 50%.

Installation: There are 50 CDHydro units are commercially licensed for

C4, C5, C6, LCN and benzene hydrogenation applications. Twenty units
have been in operation for more than five years and total commercial operating time now exceeds 100 years for CDHydro technologies.
Eleven units are currently in engineering/construction.

Licensor: CDTECH.
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Hydrogenation, selective for

MTBE/ETBE C4 raffinates

Processes Index

Company Index

MTBE/ETBE debutainzer
CW

Offgas

Application: To achieve selective hydrogenation of butadiene to n-butenes

in a catalytic distillation column.

Overhead
drum

Description: The C4 CDHydro catalytic distillation technology processes

C4 streams from refineries or steam crackers within an methyl tertiary

butyl ether (MTBE)/ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) debutanizer to produce a raffinate with a high butylenes content that is essentially butadiene-free. After methanol recovery, the treated C4 raffinate can be used
for butene-1 production or alkylation feed.
Selective hydrogenation increases butenes available for alkylation
or isomerization, reduces acid consumption in alkylation units, and
greatly improves the quality of HF alkylate. The process uses commercially available catalyst in its proprietary catalytic distillation structures
(CDModules).
The C4 stream is combined with hydrogen in the MTBE/ETBE
debutanizer. Treated C4 raffinate is taken overhead. The washing action
of the reflux minimizes oligomer formation, flushing heavy compounds
from the catalyst and promoting long catalyst life. Excess hydrogen and
lights are vented from the overhead drum. The catalyst is sulfur tolerant.
Feed sulfur compounds react with diolefins to form heavy compounds
that exit in the tower bottoms with the MTBE/ETBE product. The distillate product is essentually mercaptan-sulfur free.

Process advantages include:

Low capital cost
Low catalyst requirements
Low operating cost
High product yield (low saturation to paraffins)
No polymer recycle across catalyst
Use of reaction heat

Hydrogen
Reflux

Treated C4s
raffinate

C4s with MTBE/ETBE

and methanol/ethanol
LP steam

MTBE/ETBE

Sulfur tolerant catalyst

Essentially mercaptan-sulfur-free distillate product
Flexible butene-1/butene-2 ratio
Retrofit to existing C4 columns
All carbon steel construction.

Economics: Capital costs are considerably lower than conventional hydrotreaters since the single column design eliminates costs associated
with fixed-bed systems. The C4 CDHydro process would typically be installed in a conventional or catalytic MTBE/ETBE debutanizer, either as a
retrofit or in a new column.

Installation: There are 50 total commercially licensed CDHydro units,

11 of which are currently in design or construction.
Licensor: CDTECH.
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Hydrogenation, selective for

refinery C4 feeds

Processes Index

CW

Offgas

Application: To process C4 streams from refineries to produce a stream

with high butylenes content that is essentially butadiene-free, suitable

for methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) production, butene-1 production
or alkylation feed.

Description: The patented C4 CDHydro process achieves selective hy-

drogenation of butadiene to n-butenes in a catalytic distillation column.

Selective hydrogenation increases butenes available for alkylation or
isomerization, reduces acid consumption in alkylation units, and greatly
improves the quality of HF alkylate. The process uses commercially available catalyst in proprietary catalytic distillation structures.
The unique catalytic distillation column combines reaction and fractionation in a single unit operation. This constant pressure boiling system
assures precise temperature control in the catalyst zone. Low reaction
temperature and isothermal operation enhance selectivity and minimize
yield losses to paraffins. Isomerization of butene-1 to butene-2 can be
maximized to improve HF alkylate quality or minimized for increased
butene-1 recovery.
Refinery C4 streams are combined with hydrogen in the catalytic
column. Treated C4 products are taken overhead. The washing action
of the reflux minimizes oligomer formation, flushing heavy compounds
from the catalyst and promoting long catalyst life. Excess hydrogen and
lights are vented from the overhead drum. The catalyst will react acidic
sulfur compounds with diolefins to form heavy compounds which exit
in the tower bottoms. The distillate product is essentially mercaptansulfur-free.

Economics: Capital costs are considerably lower than conventional hydrotreaters since the single column design eliminates costs associated
with fixed-bed systems. Additionally, the ability to remove acidic sulfur
compounds eliminates the need for sweetening. The C4 CDHydro process would typically be installed in a debutanizer, either as a retrofit or
in a new column.

Company Index

Overhead
drum
Low-pressure
hydrogen
C 4+

Treated C4s
Reflux

LP steam

C5+

Process advantages include:

Low operating pressure
Low operating cost
High product yield (low paraffin make)
No polymer recycle across catalyst
No sweetening required
Essentially mercaptan sulfur-free distillate product
Flexible butene-1/butene-2 ratio
Retrofit to existing C4 columns
All carbon steel construction
Isomerization option
No hydrogen compressor.

Installation: There are 50 total commercially licensed CDHydro units,

11 of which are in design or under construction.

Licensor: CDTECH.
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Hydrogenationbenzene in reformate

Hydrogen recycle

Application: The CDHydro catalytic distillation technology processes re-

Benzene-toluene
splitter

formate streams from refineries to reduce benzene to levels required by

low-benzene gasoline specifications.

CW

benzene to cyclohexane in a catalytic distillation column. Hydrogenation

reduces benzene in the gasoline pool. The process uses commercially
available catalyst in proprietary catalytic distillation structures.

Low-pressure
hydrogen
Reflux
C5 C9 reformate

Selective hydrogenation: Reformate and hydrogen are fed to the catalytic

Economics: Capital costs are considerably lower than conventional hydrotreaters since the single-column design eliminates costs associated
with fixed-bed systems and operates at low enough pressure to avoid
the need for a hydrogen compressor. The CDHydro process would typically be installed in a benzene-toluene splitter, either as a retrofit or in a
new column.

Advantages:
Lower capital cost
High conversion

Offgas

Overhead
drum

Description: The patented CDHydro process achieves hydrogenation of

distillation column. Hydrogenation of benzene to cyclohexane can exceed

99%. Benzene conversion can easily be limited to lower levels through control of hydrogen addition. Washing action of the reflux minimizes oligomer
formation, flushes heavy compounds from the catalyst and promotes long
catalyst life. Treated C6 product is taken as overhead. Excess hydrogen and
lights are recycled and vented from the overhead drum. The C7+ product is
taken as bottom with essentially full recovery of heavy aromatics.
The unique catalytic distillation column combines reaction and fractionation in a single unit operation. This constant-pressure boiling system assures precise temperature control in the catalyst zone. Low reaction temperature and isothermal operation enhance safety.

Company Index

Treated C6s

MP steam

C7+

Low benzene
reformate

Simple operation
Low operating pressure
Low operating cost
Low capital cost
Low benzene in reformate
All carbon steel construction
No hydrogen compressor
Isothermal operation
Reduced plot area.

Installation: There are six operational units, the oldest in operation since
1995.

Licensor: CDTECH.

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Hydrogenation, selective for

refinery C5 feeds

Processes Index

CW

Offgas

Application: To process C5 streams from refineries to produce a stream

with high isoamylenes content that is essentially free of diolefins. The

treated C5 stream is suitable for tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) production or alkylation feed.
Description: The patented C5 CDHydro process achieves selective hydrogenates diolefins to amylenes in a catalytic distillation column. Selective
hydrogenation is a required pretreatment step for TAME production and
C5 alkylation, improving product quality in both, and reducing acid consumption in the latter.
The process uses commercially available catalyst in proprietary catalytic distillation structures. The unique catalytic distillation column combines reaction and fractionation in a single unit operation. This constant
pressure boiling system assures precise temperature control in the catalyst zone. Low reaction temperature and isothermal operation enhance
selectivity and minimize yield losses to paraffins. Non-reactive 3-methyl
butene-1 is isomerized to reactive 2-methyl butene-2, which increases potential TAME production. Pentene-1 is isomerized to pentene-2,
which improves octane number.
Refinery C5 streams are combined with hydrogen in the catalytic
column. Treated C5 products are taken overhead. The washing action
of the reflux minimizes oligomer formation, flushing heavy compounds
from the catalyst and promoting long catalyst life. The catalyst will react
acidic sulfur compounds with diolefins to form heavy compounds, which
exit in the tower bottoms. The distillate product is essentially mercaptansulfur-free.

Economics: Capital costs are considerably lower than conventional hydrotreaters since the single column design eliminates costs associated
with fixed-bed systems. Additionally, the ability to remove acidic sulfur
compounds eliminates the need for sweetening. The C5 CDHydro process would typically be installed in a depentanizer, either as a retrofit or
in a new column.

Company Index

Overhead
drum
Low-pressure
hydrogen
Light cat naphtha

Treated C5s
Reflux

LP steam

C6+

Process advantages include:

Low operating pressure
Low operating cost
High product yield (low paraffin make)
No polymer recycle across catalyst
No sweetening required
Essentially mercaptan sulfur-free distillate product
Flexible butene-1/butene-2 ratio
Retrofit to existing C4 columns
All carbon steel construction
Isomerization option
No hydrogen compressor.

Installation: There are 50 total commercially licensed CDHydro units,

11 of which are currently in design or construction.
Licensor: CDTECH.
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Hydroprocessingresid
Makeup H2

Application: The UOP SRC Uniflex process is a high-conversion residue

hydroprocessing process for the production of gasoil conversion unit
feedstocks, distillates and naphtha. The normal feedstock to a SRC Uniflex Process Unit is vacuum residue, although atmospheric residue and
other streams (SDA pitch) can be processed.

Description: The feed is heated to the desired temperature by separate

heating from the bulk of the recycle gas, which is heated to an elevated
temperature above the desired mix temperature. Small particulate catalyst is added continuously in the feed just before the feed heater. The
recycle gas is heated in its own heater then the feed plus the recycle
gas are mixed in the bottom zone of the reactor. Product and catalyst
leave the top of the reactor, are then immediately quenched then flow
to the hot high-pressure separator (HHPS) and to further fractionation.
The vapor stream from the CHPS is recycled back to the reactor after
combining with make-up hydrogen. HVGO is typically recycled to almost
extinction.

HHPS

Recycle
H2

Slurry
reactor

CHPS

C4Naphtha

Vacuum
column

Diesel

Catalyst
Vacuum
residue
feed

HVGO recycle

Stripper/
product
fractionator

Economics: The SRC Uniflex Process will result in very high refinery margins due to the high conversion to distillates and naphthas.

Experience: One has been in operation at the PetroCanada Montreal

Refinery.

Licensor: UOP.

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LVGO
HVGO

Pitch

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Hydroprocessing, ULSD

Recycle
compressor

Application: A versatile family of ExxonMobil Research and Engineering

Co. (EMRE) process technologies and catalysts are used to meet all current and possible future premium diesel requirements.
ULSD HDSUltra-deep hydrodesulfurization process to produce
distillate products with sulfur levels below 10 wppm.
HDHCHeavy-distillate mild-hydrocracking process for the reduction of T90 and T95 boiling points, and high-level density reduction.
MAXSATHigh-activity aromatics saturation process for the selective reduction of polyaromatics under low pressure and temperature
conditions.
CPIDiesel cloud point improvement by selective normal paraffin
hydrocracking (MDDW) or by paraffin isomerization dewaxing (MIDW).

Description: EMRE units combine the technologies listed above in

low-cost integrated designs to achieve the necessary product uplift at
minimum investment and operating cost. For ultra-low-sulfur-diesel
hydrodesulfurization (ULSD HDS), a single-stage single-reactor process
can be designed. A small cetane improvement, together with the reduction of polyaromatics to less than 11 wt.% or as low as 5 wt.%, can be
economically achieved with proper specification of catalyst, hydrogen
partial pressure, space velocity and the installation of high-performance
Spider Vortex internals.
The addition of heavy-diesel hydrocracking (HDHC) function to the HDS
reactor can achieve T95 boiling point reduction together with higher levels
of density and aromatics reduction and greater cetane improvement.
When feedstock aromatics are very high, or very low aromatics in
the product are desired, a second-stage aromatics saturation (MAXSAT)
system is specified to avoid very high design pressures required for a
single-step base-metal hydrotreating catalyst system. When the distillate product must also meet stringent fluidity specifications, EMRE can

Company Index

ULSD
reactor

Lean amine
Wash water

Heater
Cold
separator
Hot
separator

Gas oil feed

Absorber
Rich amine
Fuel gas
Sour
water

Product
stripper
Naphtha

Charge pump
Hydrogen

Steam
Makeup
compressor

Low-sulfur diesel

offer either paraffin isomerization dewaxing (MIDW) or selective normal

paraffin cracking-based dewaxing technologies (MDDW). These can be
closely integrated with ULSD HDS and other functions to achieve the full
upgrading requirements.
The EMRE ULSD technologies are equally amenable to revamp or
grassroots applications. EMRE has an alliance with Kellogg Brown &
Root (KBR) to provide these technologies to refiners.

Installation: Nineteen distillate upgrading units have applied the EMRE

ULSD technologies. Twelve of these applications are revamps.
Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Hydrotreating
LCN

Application: The CDHydro and CDHDS processes are used to selectively

desulfurize FCC gasoline with minimum octane loss.
CDHydro

Products: Ultra-low-sulfur FCC gasoline with maximum retention of

Hydrogen

olefins and octane.

FCC C5 + gasoline

Description: The light, mid and heavy cat naphthas (LCN, MCN, HCN)
are treated separately, under optimal conditions for each. The fullrange FCC gasoline sulfur reduction begins with fractionation of the
light naphtha overhead in a CDHydro column. Mercaptan sulfur reacts quantitatively with excess diolefins to produce heavier sulfur compounds, and the remaining diolefins are partially saturated to olefins
by reaction with hydrogen. Bottoms from the CDHydro column, containing the reacted mercaptans, are fed to the CDHDS column where
the MCN and HCN are catalytically desulfurized in two separate zones.
HDS conditions are optimized for each fraction to achieve the desired
sulfur reduction with minimal olefin saturation. Olefins are concentrated at the top of the column, where conditions are mild, while sulfur
is concentrated at the bottom where the conditions result in very high
levels of HDS.
No cracking reactions occur at the mild conditions, so that yield
losses are easily minimized with vent-gas recovery. The three product
streams are stabilized together or separately, as desired, resulting in
product streams appropriate for their subsequent use. The two columns
are heat integrated to minimize energy requirements. Typical reformer
hydrogen is used in both columns without makeup compression. The
sulfur reduction achieved will allow the blending of gasoline that meets
current and future regulations.
Catalytic distillation essentially eliminates catalyst fouling because
the fractionation removes heavy-coke precursors from the catalyst zone
before coke can form and foul the catalyst pores. Thus, catalyst life in

MCN

CDHDS
MCN/HCN

Hydrogen
HCN

catalytic distillation is increased significantly beyond typical fixed-bed

life. The CDHydro/CDHDS units can operate throughout an FCC turnaround cycle up to six years without requiring a shutdown to regenerate
or to replace catalyst. Typical fixed-bed processes will require a mid FCC
shutdown to regenerate/replace catalyst, requiring higher capital cost
for feed, storage, pumping and additional feed capacity.

Economics: The estimated ISBL capital cost for a 50,000-bpd CDHydro/

CDHDS unit with 95% desulfurization is $40 million (2005 US Gulf
Coast).

Installation: There are 38 CDHydro/CDHDS desulfurization units commercially licensed to treat FCC gasoline, of which 12 are currently in engineering/construction. Total licensed capacity exceeds 1.3 million bpd.
Licensor: CDTECH.

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Hydrotreating

Company Index

Makeup H2 gas
HP purge gas

Application: Hydrotreating of light and middle distillates and various gas

oils, including cracked feedstocks (coker naphtha, coker LGO and HGO,
visbreaker gas oil, and LCO) using the ISOTREATING Process for deep
desulfurization, denitrification and aromatics saturation and to produce
low-sulfur naphtha, jet fuel, ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD), or improvedquality FCC feed.

Lean amine

A
A

Description: Feedstock is mixed with hydrogen-rich treat gas, heated

and reacted over high-activity hydrogenation catalyst (1). Several CoMo
and NiMo catalysts are available for use in the ISOTREATING Process. One
or multiple beds of catalyst(s), together with Chevron Lummus Globals
advanced high-efficiency reactor internals for reactant distribution and
interbed quenching, are used.
Reactor effluent is cooled and flashed (2) producing hydrogen-rich
recycle gas, which, after H2S removal by amine (3), is partially used as
quench gas while the rest is combined with makeup hydrogen gas to
form the required treat gas. An intermediate pressure level flash (4) can
be used to recover some additional hydrogen-rich gas from the liquid
effluent prior to the flashed liquids being stripped or fractionated (5) to
remove light ends, H2S and naphtha-boiling range material, and/or to
fractionate the higher boiling range materials into separate products.

Operating conditions: Typical reactor operating conditions can range

from 6002,300 psig and 500780F, 3502,000 psia hydrogen partial
pressure, and 0.6-3 hr1 LHSV, all depending on feedstock(s) and product quality objective(s).

Yields: Depends on feedstock(s) characteristics and product requirements. Desired product recovery is maximized based on required flash
point and/or specific fractionation specification. Reactor liquid product
(350F plus TBP material) is maximized through efficient hydrogenation
with minimum lighter liquid product and gas production. Reactor liquid product (350F plus) yield can vary between 98 vol% from straightrun gas oil feed to >104 vol% from predominantly cracked feedstock

Wash
water

Rich amine
H2 and
light ends
4

Feed

Light ends
and naphtha

B
Product

Sour water

Stripping
steam

to produce ULSD (<10 wppm sulfur). Chemical-hydrogen consumption

ranges from 450900+ scf/bbl feed.

Economics: Investment will vary depending on feedstock characteristics and product requirements. For a 40,00045,000-bpsd unit for
ULSD, the ISBL investment cost (US Gulf Coast 2007) is $2,000$3,000/
bspd.
Installation: Currently, there are more than 50 units operating based on
ISOTREATING technology and an additional 17 units in various stages of
engineering.
Licensor: Chevron Lummus Global LLC.

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Hydrotreating
Application: The IsoTherming process provides refiners an economical
means to produce ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD), low-sulfur and lownitrogen feedstocks and other very low-sulfur hydrocarbon products. In
addition, IsoTherming can also be used for feed upgrading in a mild-to
partial-conversion hydrocracking mode in conjunction with or in lieu of
conventional hydrotreating.

Products: ULSD, low-sulfur FCC feed, low-sulfur gasoline-kerosine type

products.

Recycle
compressor

Makeup hydrogen
Heater

Not required
for grassroots
projects

Amine
treating

Heater

Fuel gas

IsoTherming
reactor

Grassroots
only
Separator

Trickle-bed
reactor

Feed
Recycle
pump

Legend:
Existing equipment
New equipment

Naphtha

Cold
separator

Description: This process uses a novel approach to introduce dissolved

hydrogen in excess of reaction requirements into the reactor. This approach allows operation at higher space velocities than conventional
trickle-bed reactors. The IsoTherming process eliminates problems associated with flow mal-distribution, gas-liquid mass transfer and catalyst
wetting. The process obviates the need for some equipment in conventional hydrotreating thereby lowering cost.
The technology can be installed as a pre-treat unit ahead of an existing hydrotreater reactor or a new stand-alone process unit. Fresh feed,
after heat exchange, is combined with recycled product and hydrogen in
a mixer internal to the reactor. The liquid feed with soluble hydrogen is
fed to IsoTherming reactor/bed one where partial desulfurization occurs.
The stream is combined with additional hydrogen in a second mixer and
fed to the second IsoTherming reactor/bed where further desulfurization
takes place.
Treated oil is recycled back to the inlet of reactor one. This recycle
stream delivers more hydrogen to the reactors and also acts as a heat
sink; thus, a nearly isothermal reactor operation is achieved.
The treated oil from the second IsoTherming reactor/bed may then
be fed to additional IsoTherming reactors/beds and/or a trickle-bed
hydrotreating reactor (revamp case only) acting in the polishing mode to
produce an ultra-low-sulfur product.

Purge gas

Grassroots
only

Hot
separator
Stripper
Product diesel

Operating conditions: Typical diesel IsoTherming revamp conditions are:

Treated product

IsoTherming from existing

Diesel pre-treat
conventional

feed
reactor
reactor
LCO, vol%
42
SR, vol%
58
Sulfur, ppm
4,300
451
7
Nitrogen, ppm
415
49
0
305
245
H2 Consumption, scf/bbl
1
LHSV, Hr *
4
2.1
Reactor DT
24
30
Reactor Pressure, psig
900
750
* Based on fresh feedrate without recycle

Continued

Hydrotreating, continued
Economics: Revamp investment (basis 15,00020,000 bpsd, 1Q2008,
US Gulf Coast) $500/bpsd diesel.

Installation: Six units have been licensed for ULSD; two units licensed for
mild hydrocracking; and one unit for gasoil desulfurization.
Licensor: DuPont.
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Hydrotreating
Application: Topse hydrotreating technology has a wide range of applications, including the purification of naphtha, distillates and residue,
as well as the deep desulfurization and color improvement of diesel fuel
and pretreatment of FCC and hydrocracker feedstocks.

Description: Topses hydrotreating process design incorporates our industrially proven high-activity TK catalysts with optimized graded-bed
loading and high-performance, patented reactor internals. The combination of these features and custom design of grassroots and revamp
hydrotreating units result in process solutions that meet the refiners
objectives in the most economic way.
In the Topse hydrotreater, feed is mixed with hydrogen, heated
and partially evaporated in a feed/effluent exchanger before it enters
the reactor. In the reactor, Topses high-efficiency internals have a
low sensitivity to unlevelness and are designed to ensure the most
effective mixing of liquid and vapor streams and the maximum utilization of the catalyst volume. These internals are effective at a high
range of liquid loadings, thereby enabling high turndown ratios. Topses graded-bed technology and the use of shape-optimized inert
topping and catalysts minimize the build-up of pressure drop, thereby enabling longer catalyst cycle length. The hydrotreating catalysts
themselves are of the Topse TK series, and have proven their high
activities and outstanding performance in numerous operating units
throughout the world. The reactor effluent is cooled in the feed-effluent exchanger, and the gas and liquid are separated. The hydrogen gas is sent to an amine wash for removal of hydrogen sulfide
and is then recycled to the reactor. Cold hydrogen recycle is used as
quench gas between the catalyst beds, if required. The liquid product
is steam stripped in a product stripper column to remove hydrogen
sulfide, dissolved gases and light ends.

Recycle gas
compressor

Makeup
hydrogen
Absorber

Furnace

Products: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel fuel, and clean feedstocks for FCC and
hydrocracker units.

Company Index

Lean amine

Reactor
Rich amine
H2 rich gas

Fresh feed
START

Products to
fractionation

High-pressure
separator
Low-pressure
separator

Operating conditions: Typical operating pressures range from 20 to 80

barg (300 to 1,200 psig), and typical operating temperatures range from
320C to 400C (600F to 750F).

References: Cooper, B. H. and K. G. Knudsen, Production of ULSD: Catalyst, kinetics and reactor design, World Petroleum Congress, 2002.
Patel, R. and K. G. Knudsen, How are refiners meeting the ultra-low-sulfur diesel challenge, NPRA Annual Meeting, San Antonio,
March 2003.
Topse, H., K. Knudsen, L. Skyum and B. Cooper, ULSD with BRIM
catalyst technology, NPRA Annual Meeting, San Francisco, March 2005.

Installation: More than 60 Topse hydrotreating units for the various applications above are in operation or in the design phase.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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Hydrotreating
Application: RCD Unionfining process reduces the sulfur, nitrogen, Conradson carbon, asphaltene and organometallic contents of heavier residue-derived feedstocks to allow them to be used as either specification
fuel oils or as feedstocks for downstream processing units such as hydrocrackers, fluidized catalytic crackers, resid catalytic crackers and cokers.

Feed: Feedstocks range from solvent-derived materials to atmospheric

and vacuum residues.

Guard
reactor

Resid charge
START

HHPS
Makeup
hydrogen

Recycle
gas comp.
Recycle
gas heater

Description: The process uses a fixed-bed catalytic system that operates at

moderate temperatures and moderate to high hydrogen partial pressures.
Typically, moderate levels of hydrogen are consumed with minimal production of light gaseous and liquid products. However, adjustments can
be made to the units operating conditions, flowscheme configuration or
catalysts to increase conversion to distillate and lighter products.
Fresh feed is combined with makeup hydrogen and recycled gas,
and then heated by exchange and fired heaters before entering the
units reactor section. Simple downflow reactors incorporating a graded
bed catalyst system designed to accomplish the desired reactions while
minimizing side reactions and pressure drop buildup are used. Reactor
effluent flows to a series of separators to recover recycle gas and liquid
products. The hydrogen-rich recycle gas is scrubbed to remove H2S and
recycled to the reactors while finished products are recovered in the
fractionation section. Fractionation facilities may be designed to simply
recover a full-boiling range product or to recover individual fractions of
the hydrotreated product.

Main reactors (2-4)

Gas
Fuel gas

Naphtha

Lean amine

Distillate

Rich amine
Amine
scrubber

Cold high
press. sep.

Cold low
press. flash

Hot low
press. flash

Treated
atm. resid
Fractionator

Economics:
Utilities, typical per barrel of fresh feed (20,000 bpsd basis)
Fuel, MMBtu/hr
Electricity, kWh
Steam, HP, lb/hr
Steam, LP, lb/hr

46
5,100
8,900
1,500

Installation: Twenty-eight licensed units with a combined licensed capacity of approximately one million bpsd. Commercial applications have
included processing of atmospheric and vacuum residues and solventderived feedstocks.

Licensor: UOP.
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Hydrotreating
Application: Hydrodesulfurization, hydrodenitrogenation and hydrogenation of petroleum and chemical feedstocks using the UOP Unionfining processes.

Light components
Makeup
hydrogen

Products: Ultra-low-sulfur diesel fuel; feed for catalytic reforming,

FCC pretreat; upgrading distillates (higher cetane, lower aromatics);
desulfurization, denitrogenation and demetallization of vacuum and atmospheric gas oils, coker gas oils and chemical feedstocks.
Description: Feed and hydrogen-rich gas are mixed, heated and contacted with regenerable catalyst (1). Reactor effluent is cooled and separated
(2). Hydrogen-rich gas is recycled or used elsewhere. Liquid is stripped
(3) to remove light components and remaining hydrogen sulfide, or fractionated for splitting into multiple products.

Operating conditions: Operating conditions depend on feedstock and

desired level of impurities removal. Pressures range from 500 to 2,000
psi. Temperatures and space velocities are determined by process objectives.

Yields:
Purpose
Feed, source

FCC feed Desulf.

VGO + Coker AGO

Desulf.
Desulf.
VGO VGO + LCO

Gravity, API
17.0
25.7
24.3
36.6
Boiling range, F 400/1,000 310/660 540/1,085 390/690
Sulfur, wt%
1.37
1.40
3
0.1
Nitrogen, ppmw 6,050
400
1,670
280
Bromine number

26

3.9
Naphtha, vol%
4.8
4.2
3.9
2.0
Gravity, API
45.0
50.0
54.0
55
Boiling range, F 180/400 C4/325
C4/356
C5/310
Sulfur, ppmw
50
<2
<2
<5
Nitrogen, ppmw
30
<1
<2
<2

Product
Feed

START

Distillate, vol%

97.2
Gravity, API
24.0
Boiling range, F 400+
Sulfur, wt%
0.025
H2 consump., scf/bbl 700

97.6
26.9
325/660
0.001
350

98.0
27.8
300+
0.002
620

Economics:
Utilities, typical per bbl feed:

100.3
38.6
310 +
0.001
310

Fuel, 103 Btu 40100

Electricity, kWh 0.51.5

Installation: Several hundred units installed.

Licensor: UOP.

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Hydrotreating, diesel
Application: Produce ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD) and high-cetane and
improved-color diesel fuel from a wide range of middle distillates feeds
including large amount of cracked stock (such as LCO, light coker/visbreaker gasoils or MHC-GO, AR/VRDS GO) using Axens Prime-D Toolbox
of proven state-of-the-art technology (including high activity/stability HR
Series catalysts and high-performances EquiFlow internals) and services.

3
Additional
catalyst
volume

7
4

Description: In the basic process, as shown in the diagram, feed and

hydrogen are heated in the feed-reactor effluent exchanger (1) and furnace (2) and enter the reaction section (3), with possible added volume
for revamp cases. The reaction effluent is cooled by the exchanger (1)
and air cooler (4) and separated in the separator (5). The hydrogenrich gas phase is treated in an existing or new amine absorber for H2S
removal (6) and recycled to the reactor. The liquid phase is sent to the
stripper (7) where small amounts of gas and naphtha are removed and
high-quality product diesel is recovered.
Whether the need is for a new unit or for maximum reuse of existing diesel HDS units, the Prime-D Hydrotreating Toolbox of solutions
meets the challenge. Process objectives ranging from low-sulfur, ultralow-sulfur, low-aromatics, and/or high-cetane number are met with
minimum cost by:
Selection of the proper combination of catalyst from HR Series and
ACT grading materials for maximized cycle length and performance. HR
626 catalyst covers the range of ULSD requirements with highly active
and stable catalysts. HR 626 CoMo exhibits high desulfurization rates at
low to medium pressures; HR 538/HR 548 NiMo have higher hydrogenation activities at higher pressures.
Use of proven, high-performance reactor internals, EquiFlow, that
allow near-perfect gas and liquid distribution and outstanding radial
temperature profiles (implemented in over 100 units).
Loading catalyst in the reactor(s) with the Catapac dense loading
technique for up to 20% more reactor capacity. Over 15,000 tons of
catalyst have been loaded quickly, easily and safely in recent years using
the Catapac technique.

Offgas

Low-sulfur
product

5
6

Feed

H2 recycle

Amine
absorber

New amine
absorber

PSA purified
hydrogen
H2S

Application of Advanced Process Control for dependable operation and longer catalyst life.
Sound engineering design based on years of R&D, process design
and technical service feedback to ensure the right application of the
right technology for new and revamp projects.
Whatever the diesel quality goalsULSD, high cetane or low aromaticsPrime-Ds Hydrotreating Toolbox approach will attain your goals
in a cost-effective manner.

Installation: Over 200 middle distillate hydrotreaters have been licensed

or revamped. They include 85 low- and ultra-low-sulfur diesel units, as
well as a number of cetane boosting units equipped with Equiflow
internals and loaded with HR series catalysts.

References: Getting Total Performance with Hydrotreating, Petroleum

Technology Quarterly, Spring 2002.
Continued

Hydrotreating, diesel, continued

Premium Performance Hydrotreating with Axens HR 400 Series
Hydrotreating Catalysts, NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2002, San
Antonio.
The Hydrotreating Toolbox Approach, Harts European Fuel News,
May 29, 2002.

Squeezing the most from hydrotreaters, Hydrocarbon Asia, April/

May 2004.
Upgrade hydrocracked resid through integrated hydrotreating,
Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2008.

Licensor: Axens.
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Hydrotreating, pyrolysis gasoline

Application: GTC Technology, in alliance with technology partners, of-

Description: The hydrotreating unit consists of three sections:

First stage hydrotreating section saturates di-olefins to olefins
Second stage hydrotreating section saturates olefins and desulfurizes the pygas
Fractionation section stabilizes the hydrotreated streams and recovers the C6C8 heart cut for further processing for aromatics extraction and the C9+ cut.
Raw pygas is first sent to the first stage hydrotreating section. The
pygas feed stream along with hydrogen is preheated by the recycle
liquid stream to the desired temperature and sent to the first stage
hydrotreating (HDT) reactor where most diolefins in the feed are selectively saturated into olefins onlypreserving the octane value of the
hydrotreated stream.
The reactor effluent is sent to the first stage product separator. Part
of the liquid from the bottom of the product separator is recycled back
to the front section of the first stage hydrogenator to control reactor
temperature rise. Excess hydrogen and light hydrocarbons are removed
at the top of the separator and sent to the recycle gas compressor. The
separator liquid is fed to a first stage stabilizer column. In the receiver,
H2 and light hydrocarbons are separated and drawn as a vapor product,
which is sent as offgas to the battery limit (B.L.). The liquid from the
receiver is fully returned as reflux to the column. The liquid stream from
the stabilizer bottoms is C5 + gasoline fraction and can be sent to the
gasoline pool. To produce benzene, toluene and xylene (BTX), this C5+
stream is sent to a fractionation section to obtain a C6C8 heat cut,
which will be further hydrotreated to saturate mono-olefins in the second stage hydrotreating section.

H2

Makeup H2
Offgas

2nd Stage HDT

Reactor purge gas
Offgas

Feed
C5

Stabilizer

Fractionation

fers an optimized technology for two-stage pyrolysis gasoline (pygas)

hydrotreatment in cases where di-olefins, olefins and styrene in the raw
pygas feed are saturated. The technology is simple and easy to implement into existing plant requirements. The process is applied to the C5+
fraction of raw pyrolysis gasoline.

1st Stage HDT

C9+

Stabilizer

C6-C8
product

Gasoline

In the second stage hydrotreating section, the C6C8 heart cut combined with a recycle vapor stream and makeup hydrogen is preheated
in the second stage feed/effluent heat exchanger before being heated
further to the desirable reaction temperature by a charge heater. The
feed mixture passes through the fixed catalyst beds in the second stage
HDT reactor where olefin species are saturated and sulfur species are
converted to hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
The reactor effluent is then cooled in the second stage feed/effluent heat exchanger and subsequently in an after-cooler before being
routed to a second stage product separator. In the product separator,
the unreacted hydrogen and other light components are separated from
the hydrotreated liquid products and recycled to the HDT reactor using
a recycle gas compressor. A small vapor stream is purged as offgas to
control impurities level in the recycle gas.
The hydrotreated liquid stream is fed to the second stage stabilizer
column. The column vapors are partially condensed in the overhead
Continued

Hydrotreating, pyrolysis gasoline, continued

condenser and sent to an overhead receiver. In the receiver, H2 and light
hydrocarbons are separated and drawn as a vapor product, which is
sent as offgas to the BL. The liquid from the receiver is fully returned as
reflux to the column. The bottoms product from the stabilizer, which is
the hydrotreated C6C8 cut is cooled further and sent to BL for further
processing for aromatics extraction.

Process advantages:
Process advantages:
Flexibility in prefractionator cut point and a proprietary vaporizer
allows control of polymerization potential in the hydrotreaters
Reactor operates at high liquid content with mixed phases to minimize polymer byproduct plugging
Optimized recycle scheme minimizes hydrocarbon vaporization
and thereby extends reactor run length

Catalyst exhibits high activity, stability, mechanical strength and

poison resistance
Aromatics saturation in second stage reactor is less than 1%
Efficient heat integration scheme reduces energy consumption
Turnkey package for high-purity benzene, toluene and paraxylene
production available from licensor.

Economics: Feedrate 500 thousand tpy (11,000 bpsd); erected cost

$26MM (ISBL, 2007 US Gulf Coast Basis).

Installation: Commercialized technology available for license.

Licensor: GTC Technology.
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Hydrotreating/desulfurization
Application: The UOP SelectFining process is a gasoline desulfurization

Recycle gas

technology developed to produce ultra-low-sulfur gasoline by removing

more than 99% of the sulfur present in olefinic naphtha while:
Minimizing octane loss
Maximizing liquid yield
Minimizing H2 consumption
Eliminating recombination sulfur.

Makeup H2
Di-olefin reactor

Light ends

Heater

Description: The SelectFining process can hydrotreat full boiling-range

(FBR) olefinic naphtha or, when used in conjunction with a naphtha splitter, any fraction of FBR naphtha.
The configuration of a single-stage SelectFining unit processing
FBR olefinic naphtha (Fig. 1) is very similar to that of a conventional
hydrotreater. The operating conditions of the SelectFining process are
similar to those of conventional hydrotreating: it enables refiners to reuse existing idle hydroprocessing equipment.
Since FBR olefinic naphtha can contain highly reactive di-olefins
(which may polymerize and foul equipment and catalyst beds), the SelectFining unit may include a separate reactor for di-olefin stabilization.
Incoming naphtha is mixed with a small stream of heated hydrogen-rich
recycle gas and directed to this reactor. The stabilized naphtha is then
heated to final reaction conditions and processed in the units main reactor over SelectFining catalyst.
Effluent from the main reactor is washed, cooled and separated into
liquid and gaseous fractions. Recovered gases are scrubbed (for H2S removal) and recycled to the units reactor section, while recovered liquids
are debutanized (for Rvp control) and sent to gasoline blending.

Process chemistry: While the principal reactions that occur in a

hydrotreater involve conversion of sulfur and nitrogen components,
conventional hydrotreaters also promote other reactions, including
olefin saturation, reducing the feeds octane. UOPs S 200 SelectFining
catalyst was developed to effectively hydrotreat the olefinic naphtha
while minimizing olefin saturation. It uses an amorphous alumina sup-

Main
reactor

Feed

Product

port (with optimized acidity) and non-noble metal promoters to achieve

the optimal combination of desulfurization, olefin retention and operating stability.
In addition to processing FBR naphtha, the SelectFining technology
can also be used in an integrated gasoline upgrading configuration that
includes naphtha splitting, Merox extraction technology for mercaptan
removal and ISAL hydroconversion technology for octane recovery.

Economics: A SelectFining unit can preserve olefins while desulfurizing FBR naphtha from a fluid catalytic cracking unit. When producing a 50-wppm sulfur product (~98% HDS), the additional olefin retention provided by the single-stage SelectFining unit corresponds to a
2.5 (R+M)/2 octane advantage relative to conventional hydrotreating.
This advantage increases to 3.5 (R+M)/2 when a two-stage unit is used.
Based upon an octane value of $0.50 per octane-bbl, hydrogen cost of
Continued

Hydrotreating/desulfurization, continued
$6 per 1,000 SCFB and 20,000 BPSD naphtha throughput, the resulting
savings in processing costs can range from $8 to $12 million per year
depending upon the SelectFining process flowscheme applied.

Installation: UOPs experience in hydroprocessing and gasoline

desulfurization is extensive with approximately 200 Unionfining units

and more than 240 Merox units (for naphtha service) in operation. The
first commercial SelectFining unit has been operating successfully since
2006.

Licensor: UOP in cooperation with PDVSA-INTEVEP.

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HydrotreatingRDS/VRDS/UFR/OCR
Application: Hydrotreat atmospheric and vacuum residuum feedstocks

Makeup hydrogen

to reduce sulfur, metals, nitrogen, carbon residue and asphaltene contents. The process converts residuum into lighter products while improving the quality of unconverted bottoms for more economic downstream use.

Reactors

Description: Oil feed and hydrogen are charged to the reactors in a

once-through operation. The catalyst combination can be varied significantly according to feedstock properties to meet the required product
qualities. Product separation is done by the hot separator, cold separator
and fractionator. Recycle hydrogen passes through an H2S absorber.
A wide range of AR, VR and DAO feedstocks can be processed. Existing units have processed feedstocks with viscosities as high as 6,000
cSt at 100C and feed-metals contents of 500 ppm.
Onstream Catalyst Replacement (OCR) reactor technology has been
commercialized to improve catalyst utilization and increase run length
with high-metals, heavy feedstocks. This technology allows spent catalyst to be removed from one or more reactors and replaced with fresh
while the reactors continue to operate normally. The novel use of upflow reactors in OCR provides greatly increased tolerance of feed solids
while maintaining low-pressure drop.
A related technology called UFR (upflow reactor) uses a multibed
upflow reactor for minimum pressure drop in cases where onstream
catalyst replacement is not necessary. OCR and UFR are particularly well

Unstabilized
naphtha

Recycle gas H2S

scrubbing

Products: Residuum FCC feedstock, coker feedstock, SDA feedstock or

low-sulfur fuel oil. VGO product, if separated, is suitable for further upgrading by FCC units or hydrocrackers for gasoline/mid-distillate manufacture. Mid-distillate material can be directly blended into low-sulfur
diesel or further hydrotreated into ultra-low-sulfur diesel (ULSD).
The process integrates well with residuum FCC units to minimize
catalyst consumption, improve yields and reduce sulfur content of FCC
products. RDS/VRDS also can be used to substantially improve the yields
of downstream cokers and SDA units.

To gas recovery

H 2O

Cold HP
separator

Product
stripper
Diesel
Steam

Sour water

Product

Fresh feed
Filter

Hot HP
separator

LP
separator

suited to revamp existing RDS/VRDS units for additional throughput or

heavier feedstock.

Installation: Over 26 RDS/VRDS units are in operation. Six units have extensive experience with VR feedstocks. Sixteen units prepare feedstock
for RFCC units. Four OCR units and two UFR unit are in operation, with
another six in engineering. Total current operating capacity is about 1.1
million bpsd

References: Reynolds, Resid Hydroprocessing With Chevron Technology, JPI, Tokyo, Japan, Fall 1998.
Reynolds and Brossard, RDS/VRDS Hydrotreating Broadens Application of RFCC, HTI Quarterly, Winter 1995/96.
Reynolds, et al., VRDS for conversion to middle distillate, NPRA
Annual Meetng, March 1998, Paper AM-98-23.

Licensor: Chevron Lummus Global LLC.

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Hydrotreatingresid
Application: Upgrade and/or convert atmospheric and vacuum residues

Feed

using the Hyvahl fixed-bed process.

Products: Low-sulfur fuels (0.3% to 1.0% sulfur) and RFCC feeds (removal of metals, sulfur and nitrogen, reduction of carbon residue). Thirty
percent to 50% conversion of the 565C+ fraction into distillates.

HDM-HDS
reaction
section

Description: Residue feed and hydrogen, heated in a feed/effluent exchanger and furnace, enter a reactor sectiontypically comprising of a
guard-reactor section (PRS), main HDM and HDS reactors.
The guard reactors are onstream at the same time in series, and they
protect downstream reactors by removing or converting sediment, metals and asphaltenes. For heavy feeds, they are permutable in operation
(PRS technology) and allow catalyst reloading during the run. Permutation frequency is adjusted according to feed-metals content and process
objectives. Regular catalyst changeout allows a high and constant protection of downstream reactors.
Following the guard reactors, the HDM section carries out the remaining demetallization and conversion functions. With most of the
contaminants removed, the residue is sent to the HDS section where the
sulfur level is reduced to the design specification.
The PRS technology associated with the high stability of the HDS
catalytic system leads to cycle runs exceeding a year even when processing VR-type feeds to produce ultra-low-sulfur fuel oil.

Yields: Typical HDS and HDM rates are above 90%. Net production of

Product
Guard reactors

References: Plain, C., D. Guillaume and E. Benazzi, Residue desulphurisation and conversion, Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Summer
2006.
Plain, C., D. Guillaume and E. Benazzi, Better margins with cheaper
crudes, ERTC 2005 Show Daily.
Option for Resid Conversion, BBTC, Oct. 89, 2002, Istanbul.
Maintaining on-spec products with residue hydroprocessing,
2000 NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2628, 2000, San Antonio.

Licensor: Axens.

12% to 25% of diesel + naphtha.

Installation: In addition to three units in operation, four more were licensed in 2005/07. Total installed capacity will reach 370,000 bpsd.
Two units will be operating on AR and VR feed, five on VR alone.

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Isomerization
Application: C5/C6 paraffin-rich hydrocarbon streams are isomerized to

produce high RON and MON product suitable for addition to the gasoline pool.

Description: Several variations of the C5/C6 isomerization process are

available. The choice can be a once-through reaction for an inexpensivebut-limited octane boost, or, for substantial octane improvement and as
an alternate (in addition) to the conventional DIH recycle option, the Ipsorb Isom scheme shown to recycle the normal paraffins for their complete conversion. The Hexorb Isom configuration achieves a complete
normal paraffin conversion plus substantial conversion of low (75) octane methyl pentanes gives the maximum octane results. With the most
active isomerization catalyst (chlorinated alumina), particularly with the
Albemarle/Axens jointly developed ATIS2L catalyst, the isomerization
performance varies from 84 to 92: once-through isomerization -84,
isomerization with DIH recycle-88, Ipsorb-90, Hexorb-92.

Operating conditions: The Ipsorb Isom process uses a deisopentanizer

(1) to separate the isopentane from the reactor feed. A small amount of
hydrogen is also added to reactor (2) feed. The isomerization reaction
proceeds at moderate temperature producing an equilibrium mixture of
normal and isoparaffins. The catalyst has a long service life. The reactor
products are separated into isomerate product and normal paraffins in
the Ipsorb molecular sieve separation section (3) which features a novel
vapor phase PSA technique. This enables the product to consist entirely
of branched isomers.

CW

Offgas

C5/C6 feed
START

1
2

Isomerate

Hydrogen
Recycle

Installation: Of 35 licenses issued for C5/C6 isomerization plants, 14

units are operating including one Ipsorb unit.

Reference: Axens/Albemarle, Advanced solutions for paraffin

isomerization, NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2004, San Antonio.
Paraffins isomerizatioin options, Petroleum Technology Quarterly,
Q2, 2005.

Licensor: Axens.

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Isomerization
2

Application: Convert normal olefins to isoolefins.

C4s to MTBE unit

Description:
C4 olefin skeletal isomerization (IsomPlus)

A zeolite-based catalyst especially developed for this process provides near equilibrium conversion of normal butenes to isobutylene at
high selectivity and long process cycle times. A simple process scheme
and moderate process conditions result in low capital and operating
costs. Hydrocarbon feed containing n-butenes, such as C4 raffinate, can
be processed without steam or other diluents, nor the addition of catalyst activation agents to promote the reaction. Near-equilibrium conversion levels up to 44% of the contained n-butenes are achieved at
greater than 90% selectivity to isobutylene. During the process cycle,
coke gradually builds up on the catalyst, reducing the isomerization activity. At the end of the process cycle, the feed is switched to a fresh
catalyst bed, and the spent catalyst bed is regenerated by oxidizing the
coke with an air/nitrogen mixture. The butene isomerate is suitable for
making high purity isobutylene product.

C5 olefin skeletal isomerization (IsomPlus)

A zeolite-based catalyst especially developed for this process provides near-equilibrium conversion of normal pentenes to isoamylene at
high selectivity and long process cycle times. Hydrocarbon feeds containing n-pentenes, such as C5 raffinate, are processed in the skeletal
isomerization reactor without steam or other diluents, nor the addition
of catalyst activation agents to promote the reaction. Near-equilibrium
conversion levels up to 72% of the contained normal pentenes are observed at greater than 95% selectivity to isoamylenes.

Economics: The IsomPlus process offers the advantages of low capital

investment and operating costs coupled with a high yield of isobutylene
or isoamylene. Also, the small quantity of heavy byproducts formed can
easily be blended into the gasoline pool. Capital costs (equipment, labor
and detailed engineering) for three different plant sizes are:

3
4

C5+
MTBE unit raffinate

Total installed cost:

Feedrate, Mbpd

ISBL cost, $MM

10
8
15
11
30
20
Utility consumption: per barrel of feed (assuming an electric-motordriven compressor) are:
Power, kWh
3.2
Fuel gas, MMBtu
0.44
Steam, MP, MMBtu
0.002
Water, cooling, MMBtu
0.051
Nitrogen, scf
57250

Installation: Two plants are in operation. Two licensed units are in various stages of design.
Licensor: CDTECH and Lyondell Chemical Co.

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Preheater
(for startup only)

is one of managing benzene production from the catalytic reformer. The

two primary strategies to accomplish this goal include the minimization
of benzene and benzene precursors in the catalytic reformer feed, or
elimination of the benzene from the reformate after it is formed. The
UOP BenSat process can be applied in either of these strategies. The
process can operate in stand-along mode or in conjunction with C5C6
isomerization such as the UOP Penex-Plus process configuration.
stand-alone option to treat C5C6 feedstocks that are high in benzene.
Benzene is saturated to C6 naphthenes. The catalyst used in this process
is highly selective for benzene saturation to C6 naphthenes.
Makeup hydrogen is provided in an amount slightly above the stoichiometric level required for benzene saturation. The heat of reaction
associated with benzene saturation is carefully managed to control temperature rise across the reactor. Use of a relatively high space velocity in
the reactor contributes to the units cost-effectiveness.

Feed: Typical feeds include hydrotreated light straight-run (LSR) naphtha

Company Index

Makeup hydrogen

Application: For more refiners, the issue of benzene in the gasoline pool

Description: The UOP BenSat process was developed as a low-cost

Processes Index

Light ends
to FG
Stabilizer
Reactor

Feed/effluent
exchanger
Product

Feed

hydrogen consumption is minimized and is near the stoichiometric level

of three moles of hydrogen per mole of benzene saturated. The BenSat
process saturates benzene without an increase in Rvp.

or light reformate streams. The Ben Sat process is designed to handle 30

vol% or more benzene in the feed. Sulfur suppresses activity, as expected for any noble-metal-based catalyst. However, the suppression effect
is fully reversible by subsequent processing with clean feedstocks.

ditional units have been commissioned either as a stand-alone unit or

integrated with the Penex process in a Penex-Plus configuration. Several
additional units are in design and construction.

Yields: For feeds with 510 vol% benzene, the C5+ volumetric product

Licensor: UOP.

yields are 101106% of the feed. Because of high catalyst selectivity,

Installation: The first BenSat unit was started in 1994. Since then 13 ad-

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Makeup gas

Application: The UOP Par-Isom process is an innovative application using high-performance nonchlorided-alumina catalysts for light-naphtha
isomerization. The process uses PI-242 catalyst, which approaches the
activity of chlorided alumina catalysts without requiring organic chloride
injection. The catalyst is regenerable and is sulfur and water tolerant.

Offgas

Stabilizer

Description: The fresh C5/C6 feed is combined with make-up and recy-

cle hydrogen which is directed to a heat exchanger, where the reactants

are heated to reaction temperature. The heated combined feed is then
sent to the reactor. Either one or two reactors can be used in series, depending on the specific application.
The reactor effluent is cooled and sent to a product separator where
the recycle hydrogen is separated from the other products. Recovered
recycle hydrogen is directed to the recycle compressor and back to the
reaction section. Liquid product is sent to a stabilizer column where light
ends and any dissolved hydrogen are removed. The stabilized isomerate
product can be sent directly to gasoline blending.

Rx
Product
separator

Reactor feed
Isomerate

Feed: Typical feed sources for the Par-Isom process include hydrotreated
light straight-run naphtha, light natural gasoline or condensate and light
raffinate from benzene extraction units.
Water and oxygenates at concentrations of typical hydrotreated
naphtha are not detrimental, although free water in the feedstock must
be avoided. Sulfur suppresses activity, as expected, for any noble-metal
based catalyst. However, the suppression effect is fully reversible by subsequent processing with clean feedstocks.

Installation: The first commercial Par-Isom process unit was placed in

operation in 1996. There are currently 13 units in operation. The first
commercial application of PI-242 catalyst was in 2003. There are several
units in operation with PI-242 catalyst successsfully meeting all performance expectations.
Licensor: UOP.

Yield: Typical product C5+ yields are 97 wt% of the fresh feed. The

product octane is 81 to 87, depending on the flow configuration and

feedstock qualities.

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Isomerization
Application: Most of the implemented legislation requires limiting
benzene concentration in the gasoline pool. This has increased the
demand for high-performance C5 and C6 naphtha isomerization technology because of its ability to reduce the benzene concentration in
the gasoline pool while maintaining or increasing the pool octane. The
UOP Penex process has served as the primary isomerization technology
for upgrading C5/C6 light straight-run naphtha.

Makeup hydrogen

Gas to scrubbing
and fuel
Reactors

Dryer

Stabilizer

Description: UOPs innovative hydrogen-once-through (HOT) Penex process results in subtantial savings in capital equipment and utility costs by
eliminating the need for a product separator or recycle-gas compressor.
The Penex process is a fixed-bed process that uses high-activity chloride-promoted catalysts to isomerize C5/C6 paraffins to higher-octanebranched components. The reaction conditions promote isomerization
and minimize hydrocracking.
Typically, two reactors, in series flow, are used to achieve high
onstream efficiency. The catalyst can be replaced in one reactor while
operation continues in the other. The stabilizer separates light gas from
the reactor effluent.

Products: For typical C5/C6 feeds, equilibrium will limit the product to
83 to 86 RONC on a single hydrocarbon pass basis. To achieve higher
octane, UOP offers several schemes in which lower octane components
are separated from the reactor effluent and recycled back to the reactors. These recycle modes of operation can lead to product octane as
high as 93 RONC, depending on feed quality.

Yields:
Penex process:
Penex process/DIH:
Penex process/Molex process:
DIP/Penex process/DIH:

Octane 86
Octane 90
Octane 91
Octane 93

Dryer
Penex isomerate

C5/C6 charge

Feed: Penex process can process feeds with high levels of C6 cyclics and
C7 components. In addition, feeds with substantial levels of benzene
can be processed without the need for a separate saturation section.
Installation: UOP is the leading world-wide provider of isomerization technology. More than 140 Penex units are in operation. Capacities range
from 1,000 bpsd to more than 25,000 bpsd of fresh feed capacity.

Licensor: UOP.

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Isomerization
Application: The widely used UOP Butamer process is a high-efficiency, cost effective means of meeting the demands for the production of
isobutane by isomerizing normal butane (nC4) to isobutane (iC4).
Motor-fuel alkylate is one blending component that has seen a substantial increase in demand because of its paraffinic, high-octane, lowvapor pressure blending properties. Isobutane is a primary feedstock for
producing motor-fuel alkylate.

Description: UOPs innovative hydrogen-once-through (HOT) Butamer process results in substantial savings in capital equipment and utility costs by
eliminating the need for a product separator or recycle-gas compressor.
Typically, two reactors, in series flow, are used to achieve high
onstream efficiency. The catalyst can be replaced in one reactor while
operation continues in the other. The stabilizer separates the light gas
from the reactor effluent.
A Butamer unit can be integrated with an alkylation unit. In this
application, the Butamer unit feed is a side-cut from an isostripper column, and the stabilized isomerate is returned to the isostripper column.
Unconverted n-butane is recycled to the Butamer unit, along with n-butane from the fresh feed. Virtually complete conversion of n-butane to
isobutane can be achieved.

Feed: The best feeds for a Butamer unit contain the highest practical
n-butane content, and only small amounts of isobutane, pentanes and
heavier material. Natural gas liquids (NGL) from a UOP NGL recovery unit
can be processed in a Butamer unit.

(BT
UP
TDSVCCJOH
BOE
GVFM

3FBDUPS
4UBCJMJ[FS
%SZFS

O#VUBOF
%SZFS
.BLFVQ
IZESPHFO

*TPNFSBUF

Installation: More than 70 Butamer units have been commissioned, and

additional units are in design or construction. Butamer unit feed capacities range from 800 to 35,000+ bpsd (74 to 3,250 tpd).
Licensor: UOP.

Yield: The stabilized isomerate is a near-equilibrium mixture of isobutane

and n-butane with small amounts of heavier material. The light-ends
yield from cracking is less than 1 wt% of the butane feed.

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Isooctene/isooctane
Application: Conversion of isobutylene contained in mixed-C4 feeds to

isooctane (2,2,4 tri-methyl pentane) to produce a high-quality gasoline

blendstock. The full-range of C4 feeds can be processedfrom refinery
FCC, olefin-plant raffinate and isobutane dehydrogenation processes.
The NExOCTANE process is specifically developed to minimize conversion costs of existing MTBE units and offers a cost-effective alternative
to MTBE production.

Products: Isooctene and isooctane can be produced, depending on the

refiners gasoline pool. Flexibility to retain MTBE/ETBE production capability is also possible for a multipurpose swing plant. Typical product
properties using C4 feed from FCC are:

RONC
MONC
(R+M)/2
Specific gravity
Vapor pressure, psia
Distillation ASTM D86
T50, F
T90, F
EP, F

Isooctene Isooctane
101.1
99.1
85.7
96.3
93.4
97.7
0.73
0.70
1.8
1.8
221
238
380

216
234
390

Description: In the NExOCTANE process, reuse of existing equipment

from the MTBE unit is maximized. The process consists of three sections.
First, isobutylene is dimerized to isooctene in the reaction section. The
dimerization reaction occurs in the liquid phase over a proprietary acidic
ion-exchange resin catalyst, and it uses simple liquid-phase fixed-bed
reactors. The isooctene product is recovered in a distillation system that
generally can utilize the existing fractionation equipment. Recovered
isooctene product can be further hydrogenated to produce isooctane. A
highly efficient trickle-bed hydrogenation technology is offered with the
NExOCTANE process. This compact and cost-effective technology does

C4 raffinate to
alky or dehydro

C4 feed/
isobutylene

Isobutylene
dimerization

Isooctene

Isooctene
product recovery

TBA recycle
Hydrogenation

Isooctane

Hydrogen

not require recirculation of hydrogen. In the refinery, the NExOCTANE

process fits as a replacement to MTBE production, thus associated refinery operations are mostly unaffected.

Process efficiency: The NExOCTANE process is optimized to minimize

revamp costs but can also be designed for flexibility to multiple products
(isooctene, isooctane, MTBE or ETBE) or to maximize product yield. In
fact, >99% conversion of isobutylene with a selectivity of over 91% to
isooctene can be achieved.

Economics: Investment cost for revamps depend on the existing MTBE

plant design, capacity and feedstock composition.
Utilities, typical per bbl isooctene product
Steam, 150-psig, lb
700
Electricity, kWh
2.0
3
Water, cooling, ft
150
Continued

Isooctene/isooctane, continued
Installation: The NExOCTANE process has been in commercial operation
since 2002. Current installed production capacity is over 37,000 bpd in
both refinery and dehydrogenation applications. Recent projects include
MTBE unit conversions at Valeros Corpus Christi refinery and the BP
Carson refinery.

Reference: Hunszinger et al. Case History: Converting an MTBE Unit to

Isooctane Operation, Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2003, pp.
5762.
Halinen et al., Economic Evaluation of Production and Blending of
Iso-octene and Iso-octane Produced by Isobutylene Dimerization, 2005
NPRA Annual Meeting. March 1315, 2005, AM-05-28, San Francisco.

Licensor: KBR and Neste Jacobs OY.

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Isooctene/isooctane

Water wash
column

Application: New processes, RHT-isooctene and RHT-isooctane, can be

used to revamp existing MTBE units to isooctene/isooctane production.
Feeds include C4 iso-olefin feed from FCC, steam crackers, thermal
crackers or on-purpose iso-butylene from dehydrogenation units. The
processes uses a unique configuration for dimerization. A new selectivator is used, together with a dual-bed catalyst.
The configuration is capable of revamping conventional or reactive
distillation MTBE units. The process provides higher conversion, better
selectivity, conventional catalyst, and a new selectivator supports with
longer catalyst life with a dual catalyst application.
The process is designed to apply a hydrogenation unit to convert
isooctene into isooctane, if desired, by utilizing a dual-catalyst system,
in the first and finishing reactors. The process operates at lower pressure
and provides lower costs for the hydrogenation unit.

3
Water wash
2

Processes Index

Mixer

1st Debutanizer
reactor

Finishing Isooctene
reactor
column C raffinate
4

Selectivator
recycle IPA

12

LP

H2

13
11

10
C4 feed (1)
1

4
14

Isooctene
product

Water to treatment (1) 1

to 3% propylene in feed
Mixer

Isooctene

1st reactor

5
6
H2

KO drum

Isooctene
stripper

CW

7
1

Description: The feed is water washed to remove any basic compounds

that can poison the catalyst system. Most applications will be directed
toward isooctene production. However as olefin specifications are required, the isooctene can be hydrogenated to isooctane, which is an
excellent gasoline blending stock.
The RHT isooctene process has a unique configuration; it is flexible
and can provide low per pass conversion through dilution, using a new
selectivator. The dual catalyst system also provides multiple advantages.
The isobutylene conversion is 9799 %, with better selectivity and yield
together with enhanced catalyst life. The product is over 91% C8 olefins,
and 59% C12 olefins, with very small amount of C16 olefins.
The feed after water wash, is mixed with recycle stream, which
provides the dilution (also some unreacted isobutylene) and is mixed
with a small amount of hydrogen. The feed is sent to the dual-bed reactor for isooctene reaction in which most of isobutylene is converted
to isooctene and codimer. The residual conversion is done with singleresin catalyst via a side reactor. The feed to the side reactor is taken as
a side draw from the column and does contain unreacted isobutylene,
selectivator, normal olefins and non-reactive C4s. The recycle stream

Company Index

6
Vent
11

Finishing
reactor

9
3
Hydrogen

10

Isooctene product

provides the dilution, and reactor effluent is fed to the column at multiple locations. Recycling does not increase column size due to the
unique configuration of the process. The isooctene is taken from the
debutanizer column bottom and is sent to OSBL after cooling or as is
sent to hydrogenation unit. The C4s are taken as overhead stream and
sent to OSBL or alkylation unit. Isooctene/product, octane (R+M)/2 is
expected to be about 105.
If isooctane is to be produced the debutanizer bottom, isooctene
product is sent to hydrogenation unit. The isooctene is pumped to the
required pressure (which is much lower than conventional processes),
mixed with recycle stream and hydrogen and is heated to the reaction
Continued

Isooctene/Isooctane, continued
temperature before sending it the first hydrogenation reactor. This reactor uses a nickel (Ni) or palladium (Pd) catalyst.
If feed is coming directly from the isooctene unit, only a start-up
heater is required. The reactor effluent is flashed, and the vent is sent
to OSBL. The liquid stream is recycled to the reactor after cooling (to
remove heat of reaction) and a portion is forwarded to the finishing
reactorwhich also applies a Ni or Pd catalyst (preferably Pd catalyst)
and residual hydrogenation to isooctane reaction occurs. The isooctane
product, octane (R+M)/2 is >98.
The reaction occurs in liquid phase or two phase (preferably two
phases), which results in lower pressure option. The olefins in isooctene
product are hydrogenated to over 99%. The finishing reactor effluent is
sent to isooctane stripper, which removes all light ends, and the product
is stabilized and can be stored easily.

Economics:

CAPEX ISBL, MM USD
(US Gulf Coast 1Q 06, 1,000 bpd)

Isooctene

Isooctane1

8.15

5.5

Utilities basis 1,000-bpd isooctene/isooctane

Power, kWh
65
105
3
154
243
Water, cooling, m /h
Steam, HP, kg/h
3,870
4,650
Basis: FCC feed (about 1520% isobutelene in C4 mixed stream)
1These utilities are for isooctene/isooctane cumulative.

Installation: Technology is ready for commercial application.

Licensor: Refining Hydrocarbon Technologies LLC.
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Isooctene/isooctane
Application: The Snamprogetti dimerization/hydrogenation technology
is used to produce isooctene/isooctanehigh-octane compounds (rich
in C8) for gasoline blending.

Oxygenate feed

isobutane dehydrogenation units with isobutene contents ranging from

15 wt% to 50 wt %.

C4 raffinate
Oxygenate
to reactors

1
C4 feed
4

Description. Depending on conversion and investment requirements

various options are available to reach isobutene conversion ranging from
85 wt% to 99 wt%.
Oxygenates, such as methanol, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE)
and/or tert-butyl alcohol (TBA), are used as selectivator to improve selectivity of the dimerization reaction while avoiding formation of heavier
oligomers.
A high conversion level of isobutene (99 wt%) can be reached with
a double-stage configuration where, in both stages, water cooled tubular reactors (WCTR), (1) and (2), are used for the isobutene dimerization
to maintain an optimal temperature control inside the catalytic bed.
The reactors effluents are sent to two fractionation columns (3) and
(5) to separate the residual C4 from the mixture oxygenate-dimers. At
the end, the oxygenates are recovered from raffinate C4 (6) and from
dimers (column 4) and then recycled to reactors.
The isooctene product, collected as bottom of column (4), can be
sent to storage or fed to the hydrogenation unit (7) to produce the saturate hydrocarbon streamisooctane.
Due to a joint development agreement between Snamprogetti and
Catalytic Distillation Technologies (CDTech) for the isobutene dimeriza-

Oxygenate
to reactors

Feed: C4 streams from steam cracker, fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) and

Products: Isooctene and Isooctane streams contain at least 85 wt% of

C8s with less than 5,000 ppm of oligomers higher than C12s.

Isooctene

Isooctane

tion (Dimer8 process) the plant configuration can be optionally modified

with the introduction of a catalytic distillation (CD Column), to have an
alternative scheme particularly suitable for revamping of refinery MTBE
units.

Utilities: (Referred to a feedstock from isobutane dehydrogenation at

50% wt isobutylene concentrate)
Steam
1
Water, cooling
65
Power
15

t/t isooctene
m/t isoocetene
kWh/t isooctene

Installation: Five industrial tests have been carried out with different
feedstock, and two units have been licensed by Snamprogetti.

Licensor: Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem.

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Isooctene/isooctane, conversion
of refinery MTBE units
Application: The Dimer8 process uses a fixed-bed reactor followed by

catalytic distillation to achieve final isobutene conversion at high dimer selectivity. The Dimer8 process is the most attractive technology for
converting a refinery-based methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) unit to
isooctene/isooctane production.

Description: The selective dimerization of isobutenes over acidic ionexchange resin produces isooctene or di-isobutylene (DIB). Oxygenates
such as methanol, MTBE, water or tert-butyl-alcohol (TBA) are used
as selectivators for the dimerization reaction, to prevent formation of
heavier oligomers. The Dimer8 process uses a fixed-bed reactor followed
by catalytic distillation to achieve final isobutene conversion at high dimer selectivity.
The primary fixed-bed reactor can utilize a boiling point reactor or a
water-cooled tubular reactor (WCTR) design depending on the finished
product and operational requirements of the refiner. Either reactor can
be used to achieve high isobutylene conversion with excellent dimmer
selectivity.
The unique catalytic distillation (CD) column combines reaction and
distillation in a single unit operation. Continuous removal of heavier
dimer product from the reaction zone enables further conversion of
isobutene without loss of dimer selectivity. The use of CD eliminates the
need for any downstream reaction/fractionation system to achieve such
performance.
Isooctene can be used as a gasoline blendstock due to its excellent
characteristics. Should olefin restrictions require a paraffinic product, the
isooctene product can be saturated to isooctane in a trickle-bed hydrogenation reactor. Hydrogenation uses a base or noble metal catalyst
depending on the feed contamination level.

Feed
wash

Processes Index

Primary
reactor

Makeup oxygenate

Oxygenate
recycle

Catalytic
distillation
column

Company Index

Oxygenate
recovery
column

C4 raffinate

Water

C4 feed

Isooctene
Offgas
Wastewater

H2 feed

Olefin
saturation unit

Isooctane

Process advantages include:

E asy implementation, minimum revamp changes, low capital cost,
short schedule
90+% isobutylene conversion
80+% C8 selectivity
High flexibility
Simple control
High octane/low Rvp blend stock
Low utilities.

Licensor: Jointly licensed CDTECH and Snamprogetti.

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Hydrofinishing/hydrotreating
Application: Process to produce finished lube-base oils and special oils.

Reactor

Stm
Reactor
feed heater

Feeds: Dewaxed solvent or hydrogen-refined lube stocks or raw vacuum

distillates for lubricating oils ranging from spindle oil to machine oil and
bright stock.

Description: Feedstock is fed together with make-up and recycle hydrogen over a fixed-bed catalyst at moderate temperature and pressure.
The treated oil is separated from unreacted hydrogen, which is recycled.
Very high yields product are obtained.
For lube-oil hydrofinishing, the catalytic hydrogenation process is
operated at medium hydrogen pressure, moderate temperature and low
hydrogen consumption. The catalyst is easily regenerated with steam
and air.
Operating pressures for hydrogen-finishing processes range from
25 to 80 bar. The higher-pressure range enables greater flexibility with
regard to base-stock source and product qualities. Oil color and thermal
stability depend on treating severity. Hydrogen consumption depends
on the feed stock and desired product quality.

Utility requirements (typical, Middle East crude), units per m3 of feed:

Electricity, kWh
Steam, MP, kg
Steam, LP, kg
Fuel oil, kg
Water, cooling, m3

15
25
45
3
10

Vent gas
to heater

Stm
HP separator

Products: Finished lube oils (base grades or intermediate lube oils) and
special oils with specified color, thermal and oxidation stability.

Stripper

Makeup
gas comp.

Recycle
gas comp.

To fuel
gas (H2S
absorption)

Drier
Stm

LP separator

Makeup
hydrogen

Sour water
Slop oil

Feed

Oil product

Installation: Numerous installations using the Uhde (Edeleanu) proprietary technology are in operation worldwide. The most recent reference
is a complete lube-oil production facility licensed to the state of Turkmenistan.
Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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Lube extraction
Application: Bechtels MP Refining process is a solvent-extraction pro-

cess that uses N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) as the solvent to selectively remove the undesirable components of low-quality lubrication oil,
which are naturally present in crude oil distillate and residual stocks.
The unit produces paraffinic or naphthenic raffinates suitable for further
processing into lube-base stocks. This process selectively removes aromatics and compounds containing heteroatoms (e.g., oxygen, nitrogen
and sulfur).

Products: A raffinate that may be dewaxed to produce a high-quality lube-base oil, characterized by high viscosity index, good thermal
and oxidation stability, light color and excellent additive response. The
byproduct extracts, being high in aromatic content, can be used, in
some cases, for carbon black feedstocks, rubber extender oils and other
nonlube applications where this feature is desirable.
Description: The distillate or residual feedstock and solvent are contacted in the extraction tower (1) at controlled temperatures and flowrates
required for optimum countercurrent, liquid-liquid extraction of the
feedstock. The extract stream, containing the bulk of the solvent, exits
the bottom of the extraction tower. It is routed to a recovery section
to remove solvent contained in this stream. Solvent is separated from
the extract oil by multiple-effect evaporation (2) at various pressures,
followed by vacuum flashing and steam stripping (3) under vacuum.
The raffinate stream exits the overhead of the extraction tower and is
routed to a recovery section to remove the NMP solvent contained in
this stream by flashing and steam stripping (4) under vacuum.
Overhead vapors from the steam strippers are condensed and combined with solvent condensate from the recovery sections and are distilled at low pressure to remove water from the solvent (5). Solvent is
recovered in a single tower because NMP does not form an azeotrope
with water, as does furfural. The water is drained to the oily-water sewer. The solvent is cooled and recycled to the extraction section.

Feed
START

4
5

Stm.

Stm.

Water
Refined oil
Extract

Economics:
Investment (Basis: 10,000-bpsd feedrate

capacity, 2008 US Gulf Coast), $/bpsd

Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, 103 Btu (absorbed)
Electricity, kWh
Steam, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

6,000
100
2
5
600

Installation: This process is being used in 15 licensed units to produce highquality lubricating oils. Of this number, eight are units converted from phenol or furfural, with another three units under license for conversion.

Licensor: Bechtel Corp.

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Lube extraction
Application: Bechtels Furfural Refining process is a solvent-extraction
process that uses furfural as the solvent to selectively remove undesirable components of low lubrication oil quality, which are naturally present in crude oil distillate and residual stocks. This process selectively removes aromatics and compounds containing heteroatoms (e.g., oxygen,
nitrogen and sulfur). The unit produces paraffinic raffinates suitable for
further processing into lube base stocks.

2
Feed
START

4
6

Stm.
Stm.

Products: A raffinate that may be dewaxed to produce a high-qual-

Stm.
Water

ity lube-base oil, characterized by high viscosity index, good thermal

and oxidation stability, light color and excellent additive response. The
byproduct extracts, being high in aromatic content, can be used, in
some cases, for carbon black feedstocks, rubber extender oils and other
nonlube applications where this feature is desirable.

Refined oil
Extract

Description: The distillate or residual feedstock and solvent are contacted in the extraction tower (1) at controlled temperatures and flowrates
required for optimum countercurrent, liquid-liquid extraction of the
feedstock. The extract stream, containing the bulk of the solvent, exits
the bottom of the extraction tower. It is routed to a recovery section to
remove solvent contained in this stream. Solvent is separated from the
extract oil by multiple-effect evaporation (2) at various pressures, followed by vacuum flashing and steam stripping (3) under vacuum. The
raffinate stream exits the overhead of the extraction tower and is routed
to a recovery section to remove the furfural solvent contained in this
stream by flashing and steam stripping (4) under vacuum.
The solvent is cooled and recycled to the extraction section. Overhead vapors from the steam strippers are condensed and combined with
the solvent condensate from the recovery sections and are distilled at
low pressure to remove water from the solvent. Furfural forms an azeotrope with water and requires two fractionators. One fractionator (5)
separates the furfural from the azeotrope, and the second (6) separates
water from the azeotrope. The water drains to the oily-water sewer. The
solvent is cooled and recycled to the extraction section.

Economics:
Investment (Basis: 10,000-bpsd feed rate capacity,

2008 US Gulf Coast), $/bpsd

Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, 103 Btu (absorbed)
Electricity, kWh
Steam, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

6,200
120
2
5
650

Installation: For almost 60 years, this process has been or is being used
in over 100 licensed units to produce high-quality lubricating oils.
Licensor: Bechtel Corp.

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Lube hydrotreating
Application:The Bechtel Hy-Finishing process is a specialized hydrotreating
technology to remove impurities and improve the quality of paraffinic
and naphthenic lubricating base oils. In the normal configuration, the
hydrogen finishing unit is located in the processing scheme between the
solvent extraction and solvent dewaxing units for a lube plant operating
on an approved lube crude. In this application, the unit operates under
mild hydrotreating conditions to improve color and stability, to reduce
sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen and aromatics, and to remove metals.
Another application is Hy-Starting, which is a more severe hydrotreating process (higher pressure and lower space velocity) and upgrades
distillates from lower-quality crudes. This unit is usually placed before
solvent extraction in the processing sequence to upgrade distillate quality and, thus, improve extraction yields at the same raffinate quality.

Offgas
1
3
Feed
Unstable naphtha

START

2
H2

5
Wax product

Description: Hydrocarbon feed is mixed with hydrogen (recycle plus

makeup), preheated, and charged to a fixed-bed hydrotreating reactor (1). Reactor effluent is cooled in exchange with the mixed feed-hydrogen stream. Gas-liquid separation of the effluent occurs first in the
hot separator (2) then in the cold separator (3). The hydrocarbon liquid
stream from each of the two separators is sent to the product stripper (4)
to remove the remaining gas and unstabilized distillate from the lube-oil
product. The product is then dried in a vacuum flash (5). Gas from the
cold separator is amine-scrubbed (6) to remove H2S before compression
in the recycle hydrogen compressor (7).

Economics:
Investment (Basis 7,000-bpsd feedrate capacity,
2008 US Gulf Coast), $/bpsd
Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, 103 Btu (absorbed)
Electricity, kWh
Steam, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

Licensor: Bechtel Corp.

7,700
20
5
15
400
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Lube hydrotreating
Application: Hy-Raff is a new process to hydrotreat raffinates from an
extraction unit of a solvent-based lube oil plant for upgrading standard
Group I lube-base oils to produce Group II base oils. Sulfur is reduced to
below 0.03 wt% and saturates are increased to greater than 90 wt%.
The integration of this process into an existing base oil plant allows
the operator to cost-effectively upgrade base-oil products to the new
specifications rather than scrapping the existing plant and building an
expensive new hydrocracker-based plant.
The product from the Hy-Raff unit is a lube-base oil of sufficient
quality to meet Group II specifications. The color of the finished product is significantly improved over standard-base oils. Middle distillate
byproducts are of sufficient quality for blending into diesel.
Description: Raffinate feed is mixed with hydrogen (recycle plus make-

Makeup H2

7
1
6

Feed

Amine

START

Unstable naphtha

Stm.

5
Lube oil

up), preheated, and charged to a fixed-bed hydrotreating reactor (1).

The reactor effluent is cooled in exchange with the mixed feed-hydrogen
stream. Gas-liquid separation of the effluent occurs first in the hot separator (2) then in the cold separator (3). The hydrocarbon liquid stream
from each of the two separators is sent to the product stripper (4) to
remove the remaining gas and unstabilized distillate from the lube-oil
product, and product is dried in a vacuum flash (5). Gas from the cold
separator is amine-scrubbed (6) for removal of H2S before compression
in the recycle-hydrogen compressor (7).

Economics:
Investment (Basis 7,000-bpsd feedrate capacity,
2008 U.S. Gulf Coast), $/bpsd
Utilitiies, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, 103 Btu (absorbed)
Electricity, kWh
Steam, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

Licensor: Bechtel Corp.

10,700
70
5
15
200
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Lube oil refining, spent

Water, gasoline

Application: The Revivoil process can be used to produce high yields of

premium quality lube bases from spent motor oils. Requiring neither
acid nor clay treatment steps, the process can eliminate environmental
and logistical problems of waste handling and disposal associated with
conventional re-refining schemes.

Description: Spent oil is distilled in an atmospheric flash distillation

column to remove water and gasoline and then sent to the Thermal
Deasphalting (TDA) vacuum column for recovery of gas oil overhead
and oil bases as side streams. The energy-efficient TDA column features
excellent performance with no plugging and no moving parts. Metals
and metalloids concentrate in the residue, which is sent to an optional
Selectopropane unit for brightstock and asphalt recovery. This scheme
is different from those for which the entire vacuum column feed goes
through a deasphalting step; Revivoils energy savings are significant,
and the overall lube oil base recovery is maximized. The results are substantial improvements in selectivity, quality and yields.
The final, but very important step for base oil quality is a specific
hydrofinishing process that reduces or removes remaining metals and
metalloids, Conradson Carbon, organic acids, and compounds containing chlorine, sulfur and nitrogen. Color, UV and thermal stability are
restored and polynuclear aromatics are reduced to values far below the
latest health thresholds. Viscosity index remains equal to or better than
the original feed. For metal removal (> 96%) and refining-purification
duty, the multicomponent catalyst system is the industrys best.

Product quality: The oil bases are premium products; all lube oil base
specifications are met by Revivoil processing from Group 1 through
Group 2 of the API basestocks definitions. Besides, a diesel can be obtained, in compliance with the EURO 5 requirements (low sulfur).

Light ends
Water and
lights removal

Gas oil

Hydrotreated gas oil

TDA
column
Hydrofinishing

Base
oils

Spent oil

DAO

Hydrogen

(Optional)
Selectopropane

Asphalt

Health & safety and environment: The high-pressure process is in line

with future European specifications concerning carcinogenic PNA compounds in the final product at a level inferior to 5 wppm (less than 1
wt% PCA - IP346 method).

Economics: The process can be installed stepwise or entirely. A simpler

scheme consists of the atmospheric flash, TDA and hydrofinishing unit
and enables 70%80% recovery of lube oil bases. The Selectopropane
unit can be added at a later stage, to bring the oil recovery to the 95%
level on dry basis. For two plants of equal capacity, payout times before
taxes are two years in both cases.

Installation: Ten units have been licensed using all or part of the Revivoil
Technology.

Licensor: Axens and Viscolube SpA.

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Lube treating
Application: Process to produce lube oil raffinates with high viscosity

Raffinate
flasher
stripper

index from vacuum distillates and deasphalted oil.

Feeds: Vacuum distillate lube cuts and deasphalted oils.

Extraction
tower

Raffinate
mix buffer

Raffinate

Stm

Products: Lube oil raffinates of high viscosity indices. The raffinates contain substantially all of the desirable lubricating oil components present
in the feedstock. The extract contains a concentrate of aromatics that
may be utilized as rubber oil or cracker feed.

Extract
mix
settler

Description: This liquid-liquid extraction process uses furfural or N-

Stm

Extract
flasher
stripper

Extract
flash
system

Stm

Furfural
stripper
buffer

Solvent
drying
system

Extract

methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) as the selective solvent to remove aromatics and other impurities present in the distillates and deasphalted oils.
The solvents have a high solvent power for those components that are
unstable to oxygen as well as for other undesirable materials including color bodies, resins, carbon-forming constituents and sulfur compounds. In the extraction tower, the feed oil is introduced below the top
at a predetermined temperature. The raffinate phase leaves at the top
of the tower, and the extract, which contains the bulk of the furfural, is
withdrawn from the bottom. The extract phase is cooled and a so-called
pseudo raffinate may be sent back to the extraction tower. Multistage solvent recovery systems for raffinate and extract solutions secure
energy efficient operation.

Installation: Numerous installations using the Uhde (Edeleanu) proprietary technology are in operation worldwide. The most recent is a complete lube-oil production facility licensed to the state of Turkmenistan.

Utility requirements (typical, Middle East crude), units per m3 of feed:

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

Electricity, kWh
Steam, MP, kg
Steam, LP, kg
Fuel oil, kg
Water, cooling, m3

Feed
deaerator

Decanter

Feed

Water
stripper
Stm

Stm
Sewer

10
10
35
20
20

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Spent lube oil re-refining

Water, gasoline

Application: The Revivoil process can be used to produce high yields of

premium quality lube bases from spent motor oils. Requiring neither
acid nor clay treatment steps, the process can eliminate environmental
and logistical problems of waste handling and disposal associated with
conventional re-refining schemes.

Description: Spent oil is distilled in an atmospheric flash distillation

column to remove water and gasoline and then sent to the Thermal
Deasphalting (TDA) vacuum column for recovery of gas oil overhead
and oil bases as side streams. The energy-efficient TDA column features
excellent performance with no plugging and no moving parts. Metals
and metalloids concentrate in the residue, which is sent to an optional
Selectopropane unit for brightstock and asphalt recovery. This scheme
is different from those for which the entire vacuum column feed goes
through a deasphalting step; Revivoils energy savings are significant,
and the overall lube oil base recovery is maximized. The results are substantial improvements in selectivity, quality and yields.
The final, but very important step for base oil quality is a specific
hydrofinishing process that reduces or removes remaining metals and
metalloids, Conradson Carbon, organic acids, and compounds containing chlorine, sulfur and nitrogen. Color, UV and thermal stability
are restored and polynuclear aromatics are reduced to values far below the latest health thresholds. Viscosity index remains equal to or
better than the original feed. For metal removal (> 96%) and refiningpurification duty, the multicomponent catalyst system is the industrys
best.

Product quality: The oil bases are premium products; all lube oil base
specifications are met by Revivoil processing from Group 1 through
Group 2 of the API basestocks definitions. Besides, a diesel can be obtained, in compliance with the EURO 5 requirements (low sulfur).

Light ends
Water and
lights removal

Gas oil

Hydrotreated gas oil

TDA
column
Hydrofinishing

Base
oils

Spent oil

DAO

Hydrogen

(Optional)
Selectopropane

Asphalt

Health & safety and environment: The high-pressure process is in line

with future European specifications concerning carcinogenic PNA compounds in the final product at a level inferior to 5 wppm (less than 1
wt% PCAIP346 method).
Economics: The process can be installed stepwise or entirely. A simpler
scheme consists of the atmospheric flash, TDA and hydrofinishing unit
and enables 70%-80% recovery of lube oil bases. The Selectopropane
unit can be added at a later stage, to bring the oil recovery to the 95%
level on dry basis. For two plants of equal capacity, payout times before
taxes are two years in both cases.

Installation: Ten units have been licensed using all or part of the Revivoil
Technology.

Licensor: Axens and Viscolube SpA.

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Processes Index

Company Index

Butene-1 recovery
Application: The Snamprogetti butene-1 recovery technology allows extracting a C4 cut as a very high-purity butene-1 stream that is suitable as
a comonomer for polyethylene production.

Light ends

Feed: Olefinic C4 streams from steam cracker or fluid catalytic cracking

(FCC) unit can be used as feedstock for the recovery of butene-1.

Description: The Snamprogetti process for butene-1 is based on proprietary binary interaction parameters that are specifically optimized after
experimental work to minimize investment cost and utilities consumption. The plant is a super-fractionation unit composed of two fractionation towers provided with traditional trays.
Depending on the C4 feed composition, Snamprogetti offers different possible processing schemes. In a typical configuration, the C4 feed
is sent to the first column (1) where the heavy hydrocarbons (mainly
n-butane and butenes-2) are removed as bottom stream. In the second
column (2), the butene-1 is recovered at the bottom and the light-ends
(mainly isobutane) are removed as overhead stream.
This plant covers a wide range of product specifications including
the more challenging level of butene-1 purities (99.3 wt%99.6 wt%).

C4 feed

Heavy ends

Butene-1

Installation: Four units have been licensed by Snamprogetti.

Licensor: Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem.

Utilities:
Steam
Water, cooling
Power

4
110
43

t/t 1-butene
m/t 1-butene
kWh/t 1-butene

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Isobutylene, from MTBE

decomposition
Application: To decompose commercial-grade methyl tertiary butyl ether

MTBE

(MTBE) feed to high-purity isobutylene and commercial-grade methanol.

Isobutylene purity of greater than 99.9% is achievable.

Description: By utilizing the CDIB technology, commercial MTBE feedstock is first fractionated to remove light ends and heavies. The highpurity MTBE is then fed to the decomposition reactor where MTBE is
converted to isobutylene and methanol. The decomposition reaction
takes place in vapor phase and is performed with high selectivity. Heat
of reaction is supplied by medium-pressure steam. The methanol is extracted from the reactor effluent in a water wash. The aqueous stream
is fractionated to recover the wash water and MTBE for recycle, and to
produce high-quality methanol. The water-washed reactor effluent is
fractionated to remove heavies (including MTBE for recycle) and light
ends, leaving a high-purity (>99.9%) isobutylene product.

Economics: The CDIB technology can be provided in a stand-alone unit

or can be coupled with a CDMtbe unit to provide a very efficient integrated unit. Capital and operating costs are reduced when compared
to separate units. Isobutylene product purification can be simplified by
providing recycle to the MTBE unit. CDIB methanol recovery can be simplified by combining it with MTBE unit methanol recovery in common
equipment.

Process advantages include:

Simple and effective control
High MTBE conversion

Methanol
recovery

Lights
MTBE

Prefractionation

Methanol/
MTBE/water
MTBE

Reaction

Heavies

MTBE
isobutylene
methanol

Methanol

Washwater

Product
purification

Fuel
High-purity
isobutylene

MTBE

High isobutylene selectivity

High flexibility
Low capital cost
High purity isobutylene
No corrosion problems
Significant operating experience.

Installation: There are three operational units at present; two are in operation since 1987 and 1989.
Licensor: CDTECH.

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Processes Index

Isobutylene, high-purity

Company Index

Light ends

Application: The Snamprogetti methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) crack-

Ether

ing technology allows producing high-purity isobutylene, which can be

used as monomer for elastomers (polyIsobutylene, butyl rubber), and/
or as intermediate for the production of chemicals (MMA, tertiary-butyl
phenols, tertiary-butyl amines, etc.)

MTBE feed

Feed: MTBE can be used as the feedstock in the plant; in case of high level

1
2

of impurities, a purification section can be added before the reactor.

MeOH

High-purity
isobutene

Description: The MTBE cracking technology is based on proprietary catalyst and reactor that carry out the reaction with excellent flexibility, mild
conditions as well as without corrosion and environmental problems.
With Snamprogetti consolidated technology, it is possible to reach
the desired isobutylene purity and production with only one tubular reactor (1) filled with a proprietary catalyst characterized for the right balance between acidity and activity.
The reaction effluent, mainly consisting of isobutylene, methanol
and unconverted MTBE, is sent to a counter-current washing tower (2)
to separate out methanol and then to two fractionation towers to separate isobutylene from unconverted MTBE, which is recycled to the reactor (3) and from lights compounds (4). The produced isobutylene has a
product purity of 99.9+ wt%.
The methanol/water solution leaving the washing tower is fed to the
alcohol recovery section (5) where high-quality methanol is recovered.

Utilities:
Steam
Water, cooling
Power

5
186
17.4

t/t isobutylene
m/t isobutylene
kWh/t isobutylene

Installation: Four units have been licensed by Snamprogetti.

Licensor: Snamprogetti, a company of Saipem.

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Olefins recovery
Application: Recover high-purity hydrogen (H2) and C2+ liquid products

from refinery offgases using cryogenics.

Description: Cryogenic separation of refinery offgases and purges containing 10%80%

H2 and 15%40% hydrocarbon liquids such as eth
ylene, ethane, propylene, propane and butanes. Refinery offgases are
optionally compressed and then pretreated (1) to remove sulfur, carbon
dioxide (CO2), H2O and other trace impurities. Treated feed is partially
condensed in an integrated multi-passage exchanger system (2) against
returning products and refrigerant.
Separated liquids are sent to a demethanizer (3) for stabilization
while hydrogen is concentrated (4) to 90%95%+ purity by further
cooling. Methane, other impurities, and unrecovered products are sent
to fuel or optionally split into a synthetic natural gas (SNG) product and
low-Btu fuel. Refrigeration is provided by a closed-loop system (5). Mixed
C2+ liquids from the demethanizer can be further fractionated (6) into
finished petrochemical feeds and products such as ethane, ethylene,
propane and propylene.

Operating conditions: Feed capacities from 10 to 150+ million scfd. Feed

pressures as low as 150 psig. Ethylene recoveries are greater than 95%,
with higher recoveries of ethane and heavier components. Hydrogen
recoveries are better than 95% recovery.

Economics: Hydrogen is economically co-produced with liquid hydrocarbon products, especially ethylene and propylene, whose high value
can subsidize the capital investment. High hydrocarbon liquid products
recovery is achieved without the cost for feed compression and subsequent feed expansion to fuel pressure. Power consumption is a function
of hydrocarbon quantities in the feed and feed pressure. High-purity
hydrogen is produced without the investment for a back-end PSA
system. Project costs can have less than a two-year simple payback.

3FmOFSZ
PGGHBTTFT


4/(
PS
GVFM

)JHIQVSJUZ
IZESPHFO

$

QSPEVDU
$
$

$

Installations: Five operating refinery offgas cryogenic systems processing

FCC offgas, cat reformer offgas, hydrotreater purge gas, coker offgas
and refinery fuel gas. Several process and refrigeration schemes used
since 1987 with the most recent plant startup in 2001.

Reference: US Patents 6,266,977 and 6,560,989.

Trautmann, S. R. and R. A. Davis, Refinery offgasesalternative
sources for ethylene recovery and integration, AIChE Spring Meeting,
New Orleans, March 14, 2002, Paper 102d.

Licensor: Air Products and Chemicals Inc.

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Processes Index

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Olefinsbutenes extractive distillation

Application: Separation of pure C4 olefins from olefinic/paraffinic C4 mix-

C4 paraffins

tures via extractive distillation using a selective solvent. BUTENEX is the

Uhde technology to separate light olefins from various C4 feedstocks,
which include ethylene cracker and FCC sources.

Description: In the extractive distillation (ED) process, a single-compound solvent, N-Formylmorpholine (NFM), or NFM in a mixture with
further morpholine derivatives, alters the vapor pressure of the components being separated. The vapor pressure of the olefins is lowered
more than that of the less soluble paraffins. Paraffinic vapors leave the
top of the ED column, and solvent with olefins leaves the bottom of the
ED column.
The bottom product of the ED column is fed to the stripper to
separate pure olefins (mixtures) from the solvent. After intensive heat
exchange, the lean solvent is recycled to the ED column. The solvent,
which can be either NFM or a mixture including NFM, perfectly satisfies
the solvent properties needed for this process, including high selectivity,
thermal stability and a suitable boiling point.

Economics:
Consumption per metric ton of FCC C4 fraction feedstock:
Steam, t/t
Water, cooling (DT = 10C), m3/t
Electric power, kWh/t

0.50.8
15.0
25.0

C4 olefins
Extractive
distillation
column

C4
fraction

Solvent

Stripper
column

Solvent + olefins

Installation: Two commercial plants for the recovery of n-butenes have

been installed since 1998.
Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

Product purity:
n-Butene content
Solvent content

99.+ wt.% min.

1 wt.ppm max.

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Olefinsdehydrogenation of light
paraffins to olefins
Application: The Uhde STeam Active Reforming (STAR) process produces
(a) propylene as feedstock for polypropylene, propylene oxide, cumene,
acrylonitrile or other propylene derivatives, and (b) butylenes as feedstock for methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), alkylate, isooctane, polybutylenes or other butylene derivatives.

Feed: Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) from gas fields, gas condensate
fields and refineries.

Product: Propylene (polymer- or chemical-grade); isobutylene; n-butylenes;

high-purity hydrogen (H2) may also be produced as a byproduct.
Description: The fresh paraffin feedstock is combined with paraffin recycle and internally generated steam. After preheating, the feed is sent
to the reaction section. This section consists of an externally fired tubular
fixed-bed reactor (Uhde reformer) connected in series with an adiabatic fixed-bed oxyreactor (secondary reformer type). In the reformer, the
endothermic dehydrogenation reaction takes place over a proprietary,
noble metal catalyst.
In the adiabatic oxyreactor, part of the hydrogen from the intermediate
product leaving the reformer is selectively converted with added oxygen
or air, thereby forming steam. This is followed by further dehydrogenation
over the same noble-metal catalyst. Exothermic selective H2 conversion
in the oxyreactor increases olefin product space-time yield and supplies
heat for further endothermic dehydrogenation. The reaction takes place
at temperatures between 500C and 600C and at 46 bar.
The Uhde reformer is top-fired and has a proprietary cold outlet manifold system to enhance reliability. Heat recovery utilizes process
heat for high-pressure steam generation, feed preheat and for heat required in the fractionation section.
After cooling and condensate separation, the product is subsequently compressed, light-ends are separated and the olefin product is
separated from unconverted paraffins in the fractionation section.

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Processes Index

Company Index

HP steam
Air
Fuel gas
Star
reformer

Feed
preheater

Raw gas
compression

Fuel gas

O2/air
Oxy
reactor

Gas
separation

Heat
recovery

Hydrocarbon feed

Olefin
product

Boiler feed water

Fractionation

Process condensate
Process steam

Hydrocarbon
recycle

Apart from light-ends, which are internally used as fuel gas, the
olefin is the only product. High-purity H2 may optionally be recovered
from light-ends in the gas separation section.

Economics: Typical specific consumption figures (for polymer-grade

propylene production) are shown (per metric ton of propylene product,
including production of oxygen and all steam required):
Propane, kg/metric ton
1,200
Fuel gas, GJ/metric ton
6.4
3
Circul. cooling water, m /metric ton
170
Electrical energy, kWh/metric ton
100

Installation: Two commercial plants using the STAR process for dehydrogenation of isobutene to isobutylene have been commissioned (in
the US and Argentina). A STAR process oxydehydrogenation plant for
the production of 350,000 tpy propylene will go on-stream in Egypt in
Continued

Olefins, continued
2009. More than 60 Uhde reformers and 25 Uhde secondary reformers
have been constructed worldwide.

References: Heinritz-Adrian, M., S. Wenzel and F. Youssef, Advanced

propane dehydrogenation, Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Spring
2008, pp. 8391.

Heinritz-Adrian, M., STAR process Advanced propane dehydrogenation for on-purpose propylene production, CMT 5th Middle East
Olefins & Polyolefins Conference, Dubai, November 2007.
Wenzel, S., STAR processUhdes oxydehydrogenation technology, 9th International Petrochemicals & Gas Conference and Exhibition, London, 2007.

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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Refinery offgaspurification
and olefins recovery

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ROG from
refinery

Processes Index

Amine wash

Application: Purification and recovery of olefins from FCC, RFCC and

Products: Hydrogen, methane, ethylene and LPG.
Description: Refinery offgas (ROG) streams from fluid catalytic cracker
(FCC) units, deep catalytic cracking (DCC) units, catalytic pyrolysis process (CPP) units and coker units are normally used as fuel gas in refineries. Most FCC type units recover their propylene separately. But the ROG
steam (typically C2 and lighter) may, in certain cases, also contain a portion of propylene. However, these streams contain significant amounts
of olefins (ethylene and propylene), which can be economically recovered. In fact, many such streams can be recovered with project payout
times of less than one year. As FCC type units use more zeolitic type
catalysts, the respective proportion of both propylene and ethylene will
increase.
Offgas-recovery units can be integrated with existing olefins units
or, if the flows are large enough, stand-alone units may be feasible.
ROG recovery units can be broken down into sections including feed
contaminant removal, ethylene recovery and propylene recovery. Feed
contaminants including acid gases, O2, NOx, arsine, mercury, ammonia,
nitrites, COS, acetylenes and water must be removed. The ROG feedstock pretreatment is critical since many of the trace components in the
ROG streams can impact the ultimate product purity, downstream catalyst performance and operational safety.
The ethylene recovery section can be a stand-alone unit where either dilute ethylene or polymer-grade ethylene (PGE) is produced; or a
unit where partially recovered streams suitable for integration into an
ethylene plant recovery section are produced.
Integration of treated ROG into an ethylene plant involves compression and treatment/removal of contaminants. If an ethylene product is required (dilute ethylene or PGE), an additional section is needed
that cryogenically separates hydrogen, nitrogen and methane in a cold

DeOxo
steam
heater

DeOxo feed/
effluent cross
exchanger

DCC offgas.

Company Index

DeOxo
reactor

Dry feed
drum

Reactor effluent
cooler
Treated ROG to
ethylene plant

ROG from
refinery

Arsine
removal bed

Amine
wash

Caustic
wash

Dryer/mercury
removal beds

RSH/COS
removal beds

DeOxo feed/
effluent cross
exchanger
Reactor effluent
cooler

DeOxo
steam
heater
Dry feed
drum

DeOxo
reactor

Dryer/mercury
removal beds

Fuel gas
Dilute or
polymer-grade
ethylene plant

RSH/COS
removal beds
Arsine/
polishing bed

Cold box/expander
compressor

box, followed by a demethanizer, a deethanizer; and for PGE and C2

splitter.
Removal of contaminants including acid gases, COS, RSH, NO2, NH3,
HCN, H2O, AsH3 and Hg is achieved by established processing methods,
depending on the concentrations in the ROG feed. The difficult contaminants to remove in the ROG are the O2 and NOx, which are typically
removed by hydrogenation to H2O and NH3 (DeOxo unit). Commercially
available hydrogenation catalysts cause significant loss of ethylene to
ethane. BASF together with Shaw have developed a copper-based DeOxo catalyst (R3-81), which in sulfided form is capable of complete hydrogenation of the O2 and NOx.
Continued

Refinery offgaspurification and olefins recovery,

continued

DeOxo reactor. The DeOxo Reactor, in which the sulfided-copper catalyst (R3-81) is used, serves a dual function. By removing the O2, NOx and
acetylene, it provides necessary purification of olefins but is also vital
toward the safety of the process. Without it, the formation of explosive
deposits in and around the downstream cold box can become an issue.
An additional, economic benefit of the Shaw Stone & Webster solution,

comes from the superior selectivity of the special catalystallowing

deep removal of O2 and NOx, with negligible ethylene loss.

Installation: Three such latest DeOxo units are currently operating. Several units are under construction, and many units are under design.

Licensor: Shaw.
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Oxygen enrichment for Claus units

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Processes Index

Liquid oxygen tank

Application: Increase the capacity of Claus plants and decompose haz-

Claus plant process

control system

Vaporizer

ardous materials such as ammonia

Company Index

Controller

Description: As clean fuels regulations become effective, refiners

must recover more sulfur in their Claus plants. As a byproduct of deep
desulfurization, ammonia is generated and typically must be decomposed in the Claus plant. To upgrade the sulfur recovery units (SRUs)
accordingly, oxygen enrichment is an effcient and low-cost option.
Oxygen enrichment can increase sulfur capacity substantially and is
capable of decomposing ammonia from sour-water stripper gas very
efficiently.
Oxygen addition can be done in three levels, depending on the
required capacity increase:
1. Up to approximately 28% oxygen. Oxygen is simply added to
the Claus furnace air. This can raise sulfur capacity by up to 35%.
2. Up to approximately 40% oxygen. The burner of the Claus furnace must be replaced. Up to 50% additional sulfur capacity can be
achieved by this method.
3. Beyond 40% oxygen. The temperature in the Claus furnace is
elevated so high that the product gas must be recycled to maintain
temperature control. This process is expensive and, therefore, rarely
applied.
Oxygen sources can be liquid oxygen tanks, onsite ASUs or pipeline supply. Oxygen consumption in Claus plants fluctuates widely in
most cases; thus, tanks are the best choice due to ease of operation,
flexibility and economy. For oxygen addition into the CS air duct, a
number of safety rules must be observed. The oxygen metering device
FLOWTRAIN contains all of the necessary safety features, including
flow control, low-temperature and low-pressure alarm and switch-off,
and safe standby operation. All features are connected to the Claus
plants process control system.
An effcient mixing device ensures even oxygen distribution in the
Claus air. A proprietary Claus burner was developed especially for application for air- and oxygen-enriched operations. This burner provides

Measuring and
control unit
FLOWTRAIN

Steam

Process gas
to catalytic
reactors

Air
Onsite ASU

3
Oxygen pipeline

Acid gas plus sour

water stripper gas

BFW

1 Alternative oxygen sources

2 FLOWTRAIN with all required safety features
3 Oxygen injection and mixing device
4 Claus reaction furnace with burner for air and/or oxygen enriched operation

for a short and highly turbulent flame, which ensures good approach
toward equilibrium for Claus operation and for the decomposition of
ammonia.

Economics: As oxygen enrichment provides substantial additional

Claus capacity, it is a low-cost alternative to building an additional Claus
plant. It can save investment, manpower and maintenance. Installed
cost for oxygen enrichment per level 1 is typically below $250,000.
For level 2, the investment costs range from $200,000 to $500,000
and depend on the size of the Claus plant. Operating costs are varied
and depend on the duration of oxygen usage. Typically, annual costs
of oxygen enrichment are estimated as 10% to 40% of the operating
cost for a Claus plant, providing the same additional sulfur capacity.
Due to improved ammonia destruction maintenance work, as cleaning
Continued

Oxygen enrichment for Claus units, continued

of heat exchanger tubes from ammonium salts and the respective corrosion become substantially less.

Installations: Over 10, plus numerous test installations to quantify the

effects of capacity increase and ammonia decomposition.

Reference: Reinhardt, H. J. and P. M. Heisel, Increasing the capacity of

Claus plants with oxygen, Reports on Science and Technology, No. 61
(1999), p. 2.

Contributor: Linde AG, Division Gas and Engineering.

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Oxygen enrichment for FCC units

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Economics: Oxygen enrichment in FCC regeneration is economically

favorable in many plants. For example, one refinery increased throughput by 15%. The net improvement was a 26% increase in higher-value

Offgas

Vaporizer
Steam

version in FCC units; process heavier feeds; overcome blower limitations, also temporarily.
demand for transport fuels continually shifts toward more kerosine and
diesel. The reason is that the regulations and the change in demand are
totally independent developments. But both contribute to the requirement of more flexibility in fluid catalytic cracking units (FCCUs). Consequently, FCCUs require more flexibility to treat a wider range of feeds,
especially heavier feeds, and increasing throughput capacity. Both goals
can be achieved via oxygen enrichment in the FCC regeneration.
In the FCC reactor, long-chain hydrocarbons are cleaved into shorter
chains in a fluidized-bed reactor at 450550C. This reaction produces
coke as a byproduct that deposits on the catalyst. To remove the coke
from the catalyst, it is burned off at 650750C in the regenerator. The
regenerated catalyst is returned to the reactor.
Oxygen enrichment, typically up to 27 vol% oxygen, intensifies catalyst regeneration and can substantially raise throughput capacity and/or
conversion of the FCC unit. Oxygen sources can be liquid oxygen tanks,
onsite ASUs or pipeline supply. Oxygen consumption in FCC units fluctuates widely in most cases; thus, tanks are the best choice with respect to
ease of operation, flexibility and economy.
For oxygen addition into the CS air duct, a number of safety rules
must be observed. The oxygen metering device FLOWTRAIN contains all
necessary safety features, including flow control, low-temperature and
low-pressure alarm and switch-off, and safe standby operation. All of
these features are connected to the FCC units process control system.
An efficient mixing device ensures even oxygen distribution in the air
feed to the FCC regeneration.

Company Index

Liquid oxygen tank

Application: Increase the throughput capacity by up to 50% and/or con-

Description: Clean fuels regulations are being implemented. Plus, the

Processes Index

Crack gas

7
Steam

2
1

Gasoline

5
8

Gas oil
Residue

Onsite ASU

Air

4
Oxygen pipeline

Vacuum gasoil

1 Alternative oxygen sources

2 Process control system for FCC unit
3 FLOWTRAIN for dosing oxygen with all
required safety features
4 Oxygen injection and mixing device

Cycle oil

5 FCC reactor
6 Regenerator
7 Steam boiler
8 Fractionator
9 Cycle oil separator

products, such as naphtha. Likewise, lower value products increased

only 5%, as fuel gas. The net profit increased substantially. Installed cost
for oxygen enrichment is typically below $250,000.
Operating costs will depend on the cost for oxygen and the duration
of oxygen enrichment. Economical oxygen usage can be calculated on
a case-by-case basis and should include increased yields of higher-value
products and optional usage of lower-value feeds.

Installations: Currently, four units are in operation, plus test installations

to quantify the effects of higher capacity and conversion levels.

Reference: Heisel, M. P., C. Morn, A. Reichhold, A. Krause, A. Berlanga,

Cracking with Oxygen, Linde Technology 1, 2004.
Contributor: Linde AG, Division Gas and Engineering.
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Carboxylic acid recovery

Application: The GT-CAR recovery process combines GTCs liquid-liquid
extraction technology with distillation to recover and concentrate carboxylic acids from wastewater. Using a high-boiling solvent enables the
process to attain the lowest energy use of any commercially available
process with minimal capital costs. The recovered acids have sufficient
purity to be sold as glacial grade or recycled back to the process. The
biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the resulting wastewater stream is
greatly reduced. The process is economical for any aqueous stream generated in the production of dimethyl terephthalate (DMT), acetic acid,
pulp/paper, furfural and other processes.

Process description: Acid-containing aqueous stream is fed to an extraction column, which operates using a proprietary, phosphine oxidebased solvent, highly selective to carboxylic acids. The acid-rich solvent
stream is carried overhead from the extraction column for regeneration.
In the two-stage regeneration step, surplus water is removed (dehydration) and the acids are recovered by acid stripping. The solvent is routed
back to the extraction column for reuse. Final processing of the concentrated acids is determined on a plant-by-plant basis. The treated wastewater stream, containing acid levels on the order of <2,000 ppm, exits
the system to the plants wastewater treatment area.

Advantages:
Up to 98% of the acids can be recovered
Acid concentrations as low as 0.5%+ can be economically
recovered
Low capital investment results in typical ROI up to 40%
Modular systems approach enables minimal disruption
of plant operation and shorter project schedule

First-stage
distillation
removes
water

Acids-containing
water stream

Acid-rich solvent
stream

Water

Solvent
stripper

Liquid-liquid
extractor
High-selectivity
solvent removes
acids from the
water by liquid
extraction
To wastewater
treatment <0.2%
acids content

Recovered
acids

Dehydrator

Lean solvent

Second-stage
distillation
to recover acids
and regenerate
the solvent

Use of high-boiling solvent yields high-acetic recovery and

substantial energy savings
Solvent is easily separated from water, giving a solvent-free
(<20 ppm) wastewater exit stream
Acetic acid product purity allows for recycle or resale
High acid recovery provides environmental benefits, unloading the
biological treatment system

Installation: Two licensed units.

Licensor: GTC Technology.

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Dimethyl terephthalate
Application: Modifications to the traditional process for manufacturing
dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) can significantly improve results including capacity increase, yield improvements, reduced energy consumption
and upgrade of byproduct quality for increased commercial value.
The technology is flexible and may be implemented in increments.
GTC can optimize the design or configuration to maximize use of existing equipment.

Description: The common method for the production of DMT from paraxylene (PX) and methanol consists of four major steps: oxidation, esterification, distillation and crystallization. A mixture of PX and PT-ester
is oxidized with air in the presence of a heavy metal catalyst. All useful
organics are recovered from the offgas and recycled to the system. The
acid mixture resulting from the oxidation is esterified with methanol
(MeOH) to produce a mixture of esters. The crude ester mixture is distilled to remove all the heavy boilers and residue produced; the lighter
esters are recycled to the oxidation section. The raw DMT is then sent
to the crystallization section to remove DMT isomers, residual acids and
aromatic aldehydes. This purification produces DMT that meets worldmarket specifications and is preferred in some polyester applications.
Byproducts are recovered for sale or burned for fuel value and usable
intermediate materials are recycled.
The GTC process improvements enhance the traditional process in
each of the four sections through changes in process configurations
and operating conditions, alteration of separation schemes, revision of
recovery arrangements, increase in the value of byproducts and reduction in the total recycles in the plant. The upgrade options may be implemented individually, combined or through a series of revamps over a
period of time.

Process advantages:
Reduction in use of raw materials (p-xylene and methanol)
Higher specific throughput

ATM
PX
recovery

Processes Index

Company Index

Low acids
recovery
MeOH recycle

MeOH

WW
DMT

Crystallization

WW
PX
MPT
Air
Catalyst
Residue

MeOH

Methy p-toluate
to oxidation
Pure DMT
To filtrate recovery
and isomer removal

Residue
treatment

PX recycle
Methyl benzoate
removal

Catalyst recovery/recycle

Residue removal

Residue recycle

Lower energy consumption/ton DMT produced

Flexible application for revamp projects
Accumulated technical expertise available through engineering
packages and follow-up services

Oxidation section
Improved oxidation reduces side reactions and more effectively
uses reaction volume, resulting in lower PX consumption.
New and more efficient scheme for the catalyst recovery in the
plant helps reduce residue formation.
Improved recovery of PX and removal of methyl benzoate: Product is upgraded to food or perfume grade.
Carboxylic acid recovery: Recovery of formic and acetic acid as
byproducts, upgrading value and reducing load in biotreatment unit.
Continued

Dimethyl terephthlate, continued

Distillation section
Improved distillation scheme increases purity of DMT to crystallization and reduces plant recycles.
Improved residue treatment can increase the yields of the plant by
recovering valuable materials.

Crystallization
Typical double-crystallization scheme is simplified to increase
throughputs and minimize equipment.
New single-stage crystallization offers a low-cost alternative in revamps.

Improved methanol recovery and handling system reduces plant

losses.
Improved isomer removal system helps reduce DMT losses.

Esterification
Improved reactor design gives higher throughputs and improved
methanol usage.

Installation: Five licensed units.

Licensor: GTC Technology.
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Reactor internals
Application: A suite of proprietary reactor internals that offer uniform
gas and liquid distribution to increase catalyst utilization and efficiently
quench highly exothermic hydroprocessing catalytic reactions. The stateof-the-art reactor internals take up less space, thus enabling high reactor volume utilization while helping maximize catalyst run length. The
designs are simple and robust and allow easy access to the reactor and
efficient maintenance and catalyst change-out activities.

Description: Shell Global Solutions high-dispersion (HD) trays help to

optimize catalyst utilization by achieving highly uniform vaporliquid
distribution and excellent thermal distribution. Each tray nozzle is customized so that gas flow momentum is used to disperse the liquid into a
mist of small droplets. This operating concept differentiates the technology from conventional downcomers or bubble caps because the nozzles
fully and uniformly wet the entire catalyst surface and make efficient use
of the top part of the catalyst bed.
Our reactor internals system also includes the following technology:
Top-bed scale-catching trays to trap fouling material and prevent
it from entering the catalyst beds
Ultra-flat quench (UFQ) interbed internals for uniform process and
quench mixing at the interbeds
Catalyst support grids
Compact bottom baskets to help maximize the catalyst volume in
the bottom domes.

Performance data:
ActivityShell Global Solutions reactor internals can produce
30%50% activity gains through improved catalyst utilization and extra
volume for loading catalyst.
EfficiencyHD trays can help to utilize nearly 100% of the catalyst inventory.
Operating windowHD trays offer high flexibility of feedrate:
typically +50% to 70% for liquid as well as gas.
Anti-fouling capacityShell Global Solutions top-bed filters can

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Processes Index

Company Index

efficiently remove fouling materials yet take up virtually no valuable reactor volume
Robust designNuts and bolts are not used for any fixing. We offer global manufacturing options, and units are designed to withstand
tilting and fouling.

Business value: The HD tray results in improved liquid and thermal distribution, so ensuring maximum use of the catalyst bed. Refiners may
double their cycle lengths as a result of using the new tray. These longer
cycle lengths are due to the slower catalyst deactivation; the lower inlet
temperatures required to produce high-specification products; and the
better thermal distribution that the HD trays offer. The anti-fouling trays
have resulted in increases in cycle length of up to 200%.

Installation: All Shell Global Solutions internals have been commercially

proven through more than 230 hydroprocessing applications.
A South Korean refiner was experiencing hot spots in the catalyst
beds of its lube-oil hydrotreater. Shell Global Solutions and its affiliate
Criterion Catalysts & Technologies worked together to resolve the problem. HD trays were applied in combination with UFQ interbed internals
to improve quenching and mixing between the catalyst beds. As a result, catalyst utilization improved significantly, and helped to facilitate a
longer cycle and more severe operation.
Shell Global Solutions and Criterion Catalysts & Technologies tailored a system for JSC Naftan refinery when it converted a hydrotreating
reactor for use as a mild hydrocracker. The system incorporated stateof-the-art internals and new-generation pre-treatment and cracking
catalysts. The revamped unit was able to achieve conversion of the
370C+ vacuum gasoil fraction at levels up to 50% higher than the
design target.

Licensor: Shell Global Solutions International B.V.

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Sulfur processing
Application: The DGAASS Sulfur Degassing Process removes dissolved
Air+H2S

H2S and H2Sx from produced liquid sulfur. Undegassed sulfur can create
odor problems and poses toxic and explosive hazards during the storage
and transport of liquid sulfur.

Description: Degasification is accomplished in a pressurized vertical vessel where undegassed sulfur is efficiently contacted with pressurized
process air (instrument or clean utility air). The contactor vessel may be
located at any convenient location. The undegassed sulfur is pumped to
the vessel and intimately contacted with air across special fixed vessel
internals.
Operation at elevated pressure and a controlled temperature accelerates the oxidation of H2S and polysulfides (H2Sx) to sulfur. The degassed sulfur can be sent to storage or directly to loading without additional pumping. Operation at elevated pressure allows the overhead
vapor stream to be routed to the traditional incinerator location, or to
the SRU main burner or TGTU line burnerthus eliminating the degassing unit as an SO2 emission source.

Sulfur
rundowns
from SRU

Sulfur
degassing
pump

Degassing
contactor
Air

Degassed
sulfur
Sulfur
pit

sulfur without using catalyst. Elevated pressure results in the following

benefits: low capital investment, very small footprint, low operating cost
and low air requirement. Operation is simple, requiring minimal operator and maintenance time. No chemicals, catalysts, etc., are required.

Nasato, E. and T. A. Allison, Sulfur degasificationThe DGAASS

process, Laurance Reid Gas Conditioning Conference, Norman, Oklahoma, March, 1998.
Fenderson, S., Continued development of the DGAASS sulfur degasification process, Brimstone Sulfur Recovery Symposium, Canmore,
Alberta, May 2001.

Installations: Over 65 licensed units with total capacity over 35,000 long

Licensor: Goar, Allison & Associates, Inc., an Air Products Company.

Economics: DGAASS achieves 10 ppmw combined H2S/H2Sx in product

ton per day (LTPD).

Reference: US Patent 5,632,967.

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Sulfur recovery
Application: The COPE Oxygen Enrichment Process allows existing Claus
sulfur recovery/tail gas cleanup units to increase capacity and recov
ery, can provide redundant sulfur processing capacity, and can improve
combustion performance of units processing lean acid gas.

Description: The sulfur processing capacity of typical Claus sulfur re

covery units can be increased to more than 200% of the base capacity
through partial to complete replacement of combustion air with pure
oxygen (O2). SRU capacity is typically limited by hydraulic pressure drop.
As O2 replaces combustion air, the quantity of inert nitrogen is reduced
allowing additional acid gas to be processed.
The process can be implemented in two stages. As the O2 enrich
ment level increases, the combustion temperature (1) increases. COPE
PhaseI, which does not use a recycle stream, can often achieve 50%
capacity increase through O2 enrichment to the maximum reaction fur
nace refractory temperature limit of 2,700F2,800F. Higher O2 enrich
ment levels are possible with COPE Phase II which uses an internal pro
cess recycle stream to moderate the combustion temperature allowing
enrichment up to 100% O2.
Flow through the remainder of the SRU (2, 3, and 4) and the tail
gas cleanup unit is greatly reduced. Ammonia and hydrocarbon acid
gas impurity destruction and thermal stage conversion are improved at
the higher O2 enriched combustion temperatures. Overall SRU sulfur
recovery is typically increased by 0.5% to 1%. A single proprietary COPE
burner handles acid gas, recycle gas, air and O2.

Operating conditions: Combustion pressure is from 6 psig to 12 psig;

combustion temperature is up to 2,800F. Oxygen concentration is from
21% to 100%.

Economics: Expanded SRU and tail gas unit retrofit sulfur processing
capacity at capital cost of 15%25% of new plant cost. New plant sav

Acid gas feed

Motive steam

Recycle gas

HPS

Oxygen

1 RF

Air

W.H.
boiler

LPS
Claus
reactor
C2

SL

BFW

HPS

BFW

RH2
RH3

LPS

LPS

2 R1
C1

BFW

Air blower

HPS

RH1

SL

HPS
LPS

3 R2
R3

To tail gas cleanup

4 R3

C3
BFW

SL

C4
BFW

SL

ings of up to 25%, and redundant capacity at 15% of base capital cost.

Operating costs are a function of O2 cost, reduced incinerator fuel, and
reduced operating and maintenance labor costs.

Installations: Thirty-two COPE trains at 19 locations.

Reference: US Patents 4,552,747 and 6,508,998.
Sala, L., W. P. Ferrell and P. Morris, The COPE processIncrease
sulfur recovery capacity to meet changing needs, European Fuels Week
Conference, Giardini Naxos, Taormina, Italy, April 2000.
Nasato, E. and T. A. Allison, COPE EjectorProven technology,
Sulphur 2002, Vienna, Austria, October 2002.

Licensor: Goar, Allison & Associates, Inc., an Air Products Company.

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Sulfur recovery
Application: Sulfur recovery from typical Claus gas rich in hydrogen sul-

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Processes Index

LP steam
Acid gas
plus
MP steam
SWS gas

MP steam
LP steam

fide (H2S) from industrial gases, and sour-water stripper (SWS) gas.

Fuel Air

V01A
2A

Description: DEGsulf is an improved Claus process plus tail-gas treatment that allows sulfur recovery rates of 99.8+% with just two catalytic reactors. Downstream of the Claus furnace and waste-heat boiler
(1) are two catalytic reactors (3A / B) integrating the Claus step and
a sub-dewpoint tail-gas treatment. Its main feature is the use of internally cooled reactors, which control the reaction temperatures by
special welded plate-heat exchangers in the catalyst beds. The first bed
(3A) operates at high temperatures, the second bed (3B) below the
sulfur dew point. This reactor adsorbs sulfur and must be regenerated
eventually, which is done by switching the cool second reactor to the
position of the hot first reactor and vice versa. The use of proprietary
4-way valves (2A / B) makes the switch-over between adsorption and
regeneration simple and reliable. The produced sulfur is recovered in
the sulfur condenser (4) and collected in the sulfur pit (7). Prior to entering the 2nd reactor the process gas is reheated (5). The desulfurized
gas is incinerated (6).
Conventional Claus catalysts are applied. They ensure up to 99.85%
sulfur recovery. In no-operating mode, there are no dead pipes. This
avoids the related problems of corrosion and sulfur plugging.
Typical feed gas is Claus gas rich in H2S. DEGsulf is capable of handling wide fluctuations of feed gas flows and compositions. Turn-down
ratios up to 6/1 have been realized. Sulfur recovery rates up to 99.8+%
were observed. The process operates fully automatic, including the
switch-over.

LP steam

Company Index

5
1
D03A
F01/ E01

E03

D03B
R01B

3A

R01A

F02

D01
V01B

E02

D02

2B

Plant air

3B

LP BFW

MP BFW LP BFW
supply
supply
Sulfur

Economics: Capital cost depends on the amount of feed gas and on

the required sulfur recovery rate. Products are bright yellow sulfur and
steam. Utility consumptions are very low, as in a conventional Claus
process.

Installation: More than 10 units have been built, both 1-reactor and
2-reactor plants.

Reference: Kunkel, J. and M. Heisel, Clinsulf-SDP makes its debut,

SULPHUR, no.243.

Licensor: Worley Parsons.

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Treatingphenolic caustic

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Processes Index

CO2

Application: ECOMERICAT treating systems removes phenols from phenolic caustics by neutralization in conjunction with solvent washing using a FIBER-FILM Contactor.

Company Index

Sweetened hydrocarbon

Untreated hydrocarbon

Description: An ECOMERICAT system contacts the spent caustic with a

slipstream of sweetened gasoline containing CO2 whereby neutralizing
the spent caustic, springing the phenols, absorbing the phenols into
the sweetened gasoline yielding neutral brine with minimal phenolic
content.

Competitive advantages:
Minimizes spent caustic disposal cost
Reduces the phenol content of spent caustic and increases the
phenol content of sweetened gasoline thus adding value
Operates over a wide pH range
Simple to operate
No corrosion problems due to the buffering effect of CO2.

Oxidation air
Mericat

Fresh caustic (batch)

Catalyst in

Ecomericat

Batch
Low phenols
content neutralized
brine to storage

Phenolic caustic

Phenolic
caustic

Installation: Two installation worldwide.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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TreatingPressure swing adsorption

Application: Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) process selectively adsorbing impurities from product streams. The impurities are adsorbed in a
fixed-bed adsorber at high pressure and desorbed by swinging the
adsorber from the feed to the tail gas pressure and by using a highpurity purge. Typically, the desired component is not adsorbed and is
recovered at high purity.

Product

Co-current
depressurization

Repressurization
Purge

Description: A PSA system operates as a batch process. However, multiple adsorbers operating in a staggered sequence are used to produce
constant feed, product and tail gas flows.
Step 1: Adsorption. The feed gas enters an adsorber at a high pressure, impurities are adsorbed and high-purity product is produced. Flow
is normally in the upwardly direction. When an adsorber has reached
its adsorption capacity, it is taken offline, and the feed automatically
switched to a fresh adsorber.
Step 2: Co-current depressurization. To recover the product trapped
in the adsorbent void spaces, the adsorber is co-currently (in the direction of feed flow) depressurized. The product gas withdrawn is used
internally to repressurize and purge other adsorbers.
Step 3: Counter-current depressurization. At the end of the co-current depressurization step, the adsorbent is partially regenerated by
counter-currently depressurizing the adsorber to the tail-gas pressure,
and thereby rejecting the impurities.
Step 4: Purge. The adsorbent is purged with a high-purity stream
(taken from another adsorber on the cocurrent depressurization step) at
a constant pressure to further regenerate the bed.
Step 5: Repressurization. The repressurization gas is provided from
the co-current depressurization step and a slipstream from the product.
When the adsorber has reached the adsorption pressure, the cycle has
been completed. The vessel is ready for the next adsorption cycle.

Offgas
Feed gas

Counter-current
depressurization

UOPs Polybed PSA system offers:

High reliability (greater than 99.8% onstream time)
Minimal manpower requirements due to automatic operation
Reduced equipment costs and enhanced performance based on
high performance adsorbents and advanced PSA cycles
Lower operating and equipment costs for downstream process
units
Flexibility to process more than one feedstock
Modular construction for improved delivery times and low installation costs
Minimal feed pretreatment and utility requirements
Adsorbents last for the life of the mechanical equipment (more
than 30 years).
Continued

Treatingpressure swing adsorption, continued

Installation: Since commercialization in 1966, UOP has provided over
800 PSA systems in more than 60 countries in the refining, petrochemical, steel and power-generation industries. The Polybed PSA System has
demonstrated exceptional economic value in many applications, such
as hydrogen recovery from steam methane reforming, refinery offgas,
monomer recovery in polyolefin plants, hydrogen extraction from gasification syngas, helium purification for industrial gas use, adjustment of
synthesis gas for ammonia production, methane purification for petrochemicals productions, and H2/CO ratio adjustment for syngas used in
oxo-alcohols production. Feed conditions typically range from 100 to

1,000 psig (7 to 70 kg/cm2g) with concentrations of the desired component typically in the range of 30 to 98+ mole%. System capacities
range from less than 1 to more than 350 MMscfd (less than 1,100 to
more than 390,000 Nm3/hr). UOP provides unit and complex integration
development support to ensure the PSA system meets the end-users
processing objectives and worldwide service and technical support after
startup.

Licensor: UOP.
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Treatingspent caustic deep

neutralization

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Fuel gas or nitrogen

Company Index

Offgas to sulfur plant

Application: MERICON systems neutralize spent caustics containing sul-

Fresh caustic

fides, mercaptans, naphthenic acids, and phenols.

Description: A MERICON system neutralizes spent caustic with acid to

a low pH. The sprung acid oils are separated from the acidic brine. The
resulting acid gases (H2S and mercaptans) flow to a sulfur plant. The
sprung acid oils are returned to the refinery for processing. The acidic brine is further stripped with fuel gas to remove traces of H2S and
mercaptans. Finally, the acidic brine is mixed with caustic to return it to
a neutral pH for final disposal.

Neutralized
brine to WWTP

Acid oils to storage

Sulfuric acid
Spent caustic feed

Acid brine

Competitive advantages:
Minimal operator attention and 100 % onstream factor between
turnarounds
Minimal capital investment
Maximum COD reduction
Non-odorous neutralized brine product
Recovery of valuable hydrocarbons.

Installation: Twenty-five installations worldwide.

Reference: Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Spring 2001, p. 55.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Gas treatingH2S removal

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Treated gas

Application: ExxonMobils Research & Engineering (EMREs) FLEXSORB

SE and SE Plus removes H2S selectively, or remove a group of acidic impurities (H2S, CO2, COS, CS2 and mercaptans) from a variety of streams,
depending on the solvent used. FLEXSORB SE technology has been used
in refineries, natural gas production facilities and petrochemical operations.
FLEXSORB SE or SE Plus solvent is used on: hydrogenated Claus plant
tail gas to give H2S, ranging down to H2S <10 ppmv; pipeline natural
gas to give H2S <0.25 gr/100 scf; or FLEXICOKING low-Btu fuel gas. The
resulting acid gas byproduct stream is rich in H2S.
Hybrid FLEXSORB SE solvent is used to selectively remove H2S, as
well as organic sulfur impurities commonly found in natural gas.

Processes Index

Lean amine
Feed gas

Acid gas
to Claus

Rich amine
2

Description: A typical amine system flow scheme is used. The feed gas
contacts the treating solvent in the absorber (1). The resulting rich-solvent bottom stream is heated and sent to the regenerator (2). Regenerator heat is supplied by any suitable heat source. Lean solvent from
the regenerator is sent through rich/lean solvent exchangers and coolers
before returning to the absorber.
FLEXSORB SE solvent is an aqueous solution of a hindered amine.
FLEXSORB SE Plus solvent is an enhanced aqueous solution, which has
improved H2S regenerability yielding <10 vppm H2S in the treated gas.
Hybrid FLEXSORB SE solvent is a hybrid solution containing FLEXSORB SE
amine, a physical solvent and water.

Economics: Lower investment and energy requirements based primarily

on requiring 30% to 50% lower solution circulation rates, compared to
other selective solvents.

Installations: Total gases treated by FLEXSORB solvents are about 2 billion scfd and the total sulfur recovery is about 900 long tpd.
FLEXSORB SE31 plants operating, three in design
FLEXSORB SE Plus19 plants operating, nine in design
Hybrid FLEXSORB SEtwo plants operating, three in design
Over 60 plants operating or in design.

Reference: Garrison, J., et al., Keyspan Energy Canada Rimbey acid gas
enrichment with FLEXSORB SE Plus technology, 2002 Laurance Reid
Gas Conditioning Conference, Norman, Oklahoma.
Adams-Smith, J., et al., Chevron USA Production Company, Carter
Creek Gas Plant FLEXSORB tail gas treating unit, 2002 GPA Annual
Meeting, Dallas.
Connock, L., et al., High recovery tail gas treating, Sulphur, No.
296, November/ December 2004.
Fedich, R., et al., Selective H2S Removal, Hydrocarbon Engineering, May 2004.
Fedich, R. B., et al., Solvent changeover benefits, Hydrocarbon
Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 5, May 2005.
Gas Processes 2006, Hydrocarbon Processing, January 2006.
Fedich,R, et al., Selective cleanups, Hydrocarbon Engineering,
February 2008.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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H2S removal

Sweet gas

Application: ELIMINATOR technology consisting of a full line of ELIMINATOR products removes hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and light mercaptans
from a variety of process gas streams in a safe, efficient, environmentally
friendly and easy to operate manner.

Description: The ELIMINATOR technology is extremely versatile, and its

performance is not sensitive to operating pressure. In properly designed
systems, H2S concentrations of less than 1 ppm can easily be achieved
on a continuous basis.
A number of different treatment methodologies may be used to
treat sour gas streams.
Line injectionELIMINATOR can be sprayed directly into a gas
stream with removal of the spent product in a downstream knockout
pot.
Sparge towerSour gas is bubbled up through a static volume of
ELIMINATOR. A lead-lag vessel arrangement can be installed to allow for
the removal of spent solution and the addition of fresh solution without
shutting down. This arrangement also results in the optimum utilization
of the solution.
Packed towerSour gas is contacted with circulating solution of
ELIMINATOR in a counter, packed-bed scrubber.

Inlet
knockout
pot

Sour gas

Absorber

Drains
Spent scavenger

Economics: Operating costs are very favorable for removing less than
250 kg/d of H2S.

Installation: Fifteen units in operation.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Gas Technology
Products Division.

Products: A full line of ELIMINATOR products can treat any type of gas
streams.

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H2S removal

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Sweet gas

Application: LO-CAT removes H2S from gas streams and produces el-

emental sulfur. LO-CAT units are in service treating refinery fuel gas,
hydrodesulfurization offgas, sour-water-stripper gas, amine acid gas,
claus tail gas and sulfur tank vent gas. Sulfur capacities are typically less
than 25 ltpd down to several pounds per day. Key benefits of operation
are high (99.9%) H2S removal efficiency, and flexible operation, with virtually 100% turndown capability of H2S composition and total gas flow.
Sulfur is recovered as a slurry, filter cake or high-purity molten sulfur.
The sulfur cake is increasingly being used in agriculture, but can also be
deposited in a nonhazardous landfill.

Sulfur filter

Spent air
Fe3+
2

Filtrate

Oxidizer
Sour gas
Fe2+
Absorber

Description: The conventional configuration is used to process combustible gas and product gas streams. Sour gas contacts the dilute, proprietary, iron chelate catalyst solution in an absorber (1), where the H2S is
absorbed and oxidized to solid sulfur. Sweet gas leaves the absorber for
use by the refinery. The reduced catalyst solution returns to the oxidizer
(2), where sparged air reoxidizes the catalyst solution. The catalyst solution is returned to the absorber. Continuous regeneration of the catalyst
solution allows for very low chemical operating costs.
In the patented autocirculation configuration, the absorber (1) and
oxidizer (2) are combined in one vessel, but separated internally by baffles. Sparging of the sour gas and regeneration air into the specially
designed baffle system creates a series of gas lift pumps, eliminating
the external circulation pumps. This configuration is ideally suited for
treating amine acid gas and sour-water-stripper gas streams.
In both configurations, sulfur is concentrated in the oxidizer cone
and sent to a sulfur filter, which can produce filter cake as high as 85%
sulfur. If desired, the filter cake can be further washed and melted to
produce pure molten sulfur.

Company Index

Air blower

Operating conditions: Operating pressures range from vacuum conditions to 1,000 psi. Operating temperatures range from 40F to 140F.
Hydrogen sulfide concentrations range from a few ppm to 100%. Sulfur loadings range from a few pounds per day to 25+ tons per day. No
restrictions on type of gas to be treated; however, some contaminants,
such as SO2, may increase operating costs.

Installations: Presently, 180 licensed units are in operation with four

units under construction.

Reference: Nagl, G., W. Rouleau and J. Watson,, Consider optimized

Iron-Redox processes to remove sulfur, Hydrocarbon Processing, January 2003, pp. 5357.
Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Gas Technology
Products Division.

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H2S removal
Applications: Sulfur-Rite is a solid-bed scavenger for removal of H2S from

aerobic and anaerobic gas streams. Suitable applications are generally

sulfur loads below 200 lb/d sulfur, and/or remote refinery locations. Sulfur vents, loading and unloading facilities, or backup insurance for other
refinery sulfur-removal systems are examples.
The spent media is nonpyrophoric, and is suitable for disposition in
nonhazardous landfills.

Description: Single-bed (shown) or dual lead-lag configurations are

possible. Sour gas is saturated prior to entering media bed. Gas enters
vessel top, flows over media where H2S is removed and reacted. Sweet
gas exits the bottom of vessel. In the single-vessel configuration, when
the H2S level exceeds the level allowed, the vessel must be bypassed,
media removed through the lower manway, fresh media installed and
vessel returned to service.
For continuous operation, a dual lead-lag configuration is desirable. The two vessels operate in series, with one vessel in the lead position, the other in the lag position. When the H2S level at the outlet of
the lead vessel equals the inlet H2S level (the media is completely spent),
the gas flow is changed and the vessels reverse rolls, so that the lag
vessel becomes the lead vessel. The vessel with the spent media is
bypassed. The media is replaced, and the vessel with fresh media is returned to service in the lag position.

H2O inject
Inlet
knockout
pot

Sour gas

Sweet gas
Drains

Operating conditions: Gas streams up to 400F can be treated. Gas

streams should be at least 50% water saturated.

Installations: Sixteen units installed.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Gas Technology
Products Division.

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Treating
Application: The AMMEX process integrates sour water stripping and
sour gas scrubbing in a single simple process. It can be used without
supplemental ammonia (NH3) to remove some of the hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) from a gas stream, for instance to unload an existing amine unit.
Adding a substoichiometric amount of NH3 allows AMMEX to reduce
H2S in the scrubbed gas to low concentration, eliminating the need for
a separate amine system for gas treating. AMMEX is especially attractive
when the sour water stripper gas is converted to ammonium thiosulfate
in ThioSolvs SWAATS process.

Description: ThioSolv developed this process by modeling in PRO/II 8.1

using electrolyte thermo. Water in contact with refining process gases
readily dissolves essentially all of the NH3 from the gas. The NH3 solution, in turn, dissolves roughly equimolar amounts of H2S, which is typically present in excess. The molar ratio of H2S/NH3 in the feed to the sour
water stripper is therefore typically about 1. Because the vapor pressure
of H2S over water increases faster with temperature than the vapor pressure of NH3, the ratio of H2S/NH3 in the sour water stripper reflux liquid
is about 1/3. When liquid from the reflux drum is cooled, excess NH3 in
solution allows the liquid to absorb more H2S from a gas stream.
Sour feed gas (1) is fed to a first contact zone A, where it is scrubbed
with a stream of cooled liquid (2) from the reflux drum C of a sour-water
stripper D (SWS). The high ratio of NH3 to H2S in the liquid allows it to
dissolve H2S from the gas. Rich liquid (3) from the bottom of the first
contact zone is preheated by exchange (X) and combined with the partially-condensed stream from the SWS condenser E. Heat removal from
the condenser is modulated to control the temperature of the combined
stream to the reflux drum. The gas leaving the first contact zone, containing some NH3 stripped from the recycle liquid and some H2S, enters
a second contacting zone B, where it is washed with cooled, recycled
sour water (4), which dissolves some H2S and essentially all of the NH3
from the gas, carrying it into the first zone A. If the intent is to reduce
the H2S concentration in the scrubbed gas to meet a specification, rather than simply to remove most of the H2S, a small amount of NH3 (6)

X
P

P
2

A
1

S
T
3

is added to the second contacting zone B. The refinery sour water (8)
feeds the stripper conventionally, with the net stripped water (9) leaving
the system. Net H2S and NH3 leave the reflux drum C as sour water stripper gas (7). Heat for stripping is provided by LP steam S.
The SWS acid gas may be fed to a conventional sulfur recovery process, but more favorably would be converted to ammonium thiosulfate
(ATS) fertilizer in ThioSolvs SWAATS process.

Economics: AMMEX is highly energy efficient. Most of the H2S is re-

moved from the feed gas by the circulation from the reflux drum, using
latent heat of condensation that would normally be rejected to atmosphere to reheat the rich liquid and flash out excess H2S. Circulation of
the reflux liquid costs only pump power and some cooling water. The
recycle rate of stripped water required to remove NH3 from the gas in
the second contactor adds only a relatively small load to the sour water
Continued

Treating, continued
stripper. Because the amount of H2S in the gas entering the second zone
B is small compared to the amount in the feed gas, the moles of NH3
addition required to reduce the H2S concentration to <100 ppm is less
than the total moles of H2S captured.

cle of 14 gpm of stripped sour water for washing. By contrast, scrubbing

the fuel gas with MDEA would require six times as much circulation.
The sour water stripper gas produced can be converted to ATS in a
SWAATS unit at negligible operating cost.

Installation: None. Patent pending.

Licensor: ThioSolv, LLC.

Example: A refinery makes 10 tpd of sulfur as H2S, 90% in sour fuel gas

and 10% in sour water. Sour fuel gas containing 6% H2S and 0.6% CO2
can be treated to <20 ppm H2S using 4.6 tpd of NH3 addition and recy-

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Treatinggases
Application: AMINEX and THIOLEX systems extract COS and H2S from

gases with amine or caustic solution using FIBER-FILM Contactor technology.

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Untreated gas
Treated gas

Fresh caustic or lean amine

from regeneration unit

Description: In an AMINEX system, the amine phase flows along the fibers of the FIBER-FILM Contactor as it preferentially wets the fibers. The
gas phase flows through the Contactor parallel to the amine-wetted
fibers as the COS and H2S is extracted into the amine. The two phases
disengage in the separator vessel with the rich amine flowing to the
amine regeneration unit and the treated gas flowing to its final use.
Similarly, a THIOLEX system employs the same process utilizing caustic and caustic/amine solutions to preferentially wet the fibers as the
COS and H2S is extracted into the caustic phase. The rich caustic flows
to sulfidic caustic storage and the treated gas flows to its final use.

Competitive advantages: FIBER-FILM Contactor technology requires

Spent caustic to disposal or

rich amine to regeneration unit

smaller processing vessels thus saving valuable plant space and reducing
capital expenditures.

Installation: Four installations worldwide in THIOLEX service.

Reference: Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 63, No. 4, April 1984, P. 87.
Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Treatingsour water stripper gas

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Processes Index

Claus reactors
and condensers

AAG

Application: The sour water ammonia to ammonium thiosulfate

(SWAATS) process diverts sour water stripper gas (SWSG) from the
Claus to convert the ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to
ammonium thiosulfate (ATS) solution, thus freeing up Claus capacity
and improving operability. SWAATS also can treat Claus tail gas to low
emissions at low cost. For plants producing small amounts of sulfur,
SWAATS can be designed to capture all of the refinery H2S. The cost of
supplemental ammonia (0.54 ton NH3/ton sulfur) is justified by having
only one unit that can process both SWSG and amine-acid gas (AAG)
with low emission rates.
High chemical selectivity of the process enables it to economically
remove H2S or SO2 from gas mixtures including carbon dioxide. The
process has been recognized by EPA as best available control technology
(BACT) for control of sulfur oxide (SO2) emissions.

Claus
thermal reactor

Tail
gas

Company Index

Sulfur

Incinerator

Burner

X
Rx

SWSG

X
WHB

SWAATS
reactor

SWAATS
absorber

ATS

Description: Ammonia and a stoichiometric amount of H2S are selec-

tively absorbed from SWSG. The reject H2S and Claus tail gas, if desired,
are selectively oxidized to convert all sulfur species to SO2, which is then
scrubbed from the combustion gas in a low pressure drop system to
yield a vent gas with very low SOx concentration and no reduced sulfur
requiring incineration:
6NH3 + 4SO2 + 2H2S + H2O

3(NH4)2S 2O3(ATS)

SWAATS may be controlled to import or export H2S to balance on

the NH3 available in the SWSG, or supplemental NH3 may be added to
capture additional H2S.
The chemistry and internal circulation rates provide for robust operation, resistant to upsets in the feedstreams. They also prevent or reverse sulfur precipitation by converting any elemental sulfur in the Claus
tail gas to thiosulfate. Control is based on simple inline analyzers (pH,
combustion gas O2) and requires little attention.

Economics: Each ton of SWSG sulfur diverted from Claus to SWAATS

frees up Claus capacity for about three tons of AAG sulfur. Remov-

ing NH3 from the Claus feed also greatly improves Claus operability
and extends the service life of the catalyst. With SWAATS, the SWSG
ammonia is an asset; the value of the process increases as higher
severity hydrotreating for ultra-low-sulfur diesel production increases
denitrification to over 90%, greatly increasing ammonia production.
CAPEX for SWAATS to process SWSG and Claus tail gas is about a
quarter of the CAPEX for construction of an equivalent amount of new
Claus and tail-gas treating capacity. SWAATS OPEX is typically negative
due to credit for export of MP steam, substantially lower than the OPEX
for oxygen enrichment or for amine-based tail gas treatment. SWAATS
consumes no external chemicals or reducing gas. Licensor removes the
ATS produced.

Installation: The first unit is operating since June 2007, using supplemental NH3 to capture all of the refinery sulfur to eliminate need for a
second type of sulfur-recovery unit. Two more SWAATS units have been
licensed and designed as of June 08.
Continued

Treatingsour water stripper gas, continued

Reference: US Patent 6,534,030 and other patents pending.
Berry, R., Treating hydrogen sulfide: When Claus is not enough,
Chemical Engineering, Oct. 6, 1980, p. 92.
Anderson, M.C., Increasing SRU capacity, Sulphur, SeptemberOctober 2007, p. 52.

Licensor: ThioSolv, LLC.

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Wet gas scrubbing (WGS), wet gas

scrubbing plus

ATM
Stack
CO boiler

Application: ExxonMobils Research & Engineerings (EMREs) can reduce

fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) particulate (catalyst) and sulfur oxides
(SOx) and nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions to achieve compliance with
environmental regulationsgenerally NSPS (New Source Performance
Standards) and consent decrees (in the US). The technology can also be
adapted for other refinery applications, e.g., coke calciners when flue
gases must be treated to reduce SOx and particulate emissions.

Description: The WGS process takes dirty gas from FCCUs and simultaneously removes particulate matter and SOx via direct contact with a
buffered liquid. Particulate removal is accomplished via inertial impaction
of the particulate with the scrubbing liquid. SO2 removal is accomplished
via absorption into and reaction with the buffered scrubbing liquid. SO3
removal is accomplished via a combination of nucleate condensation,
absorption and inertial impaction. All of this can be accomplished with
low-pressure (3-in. of water column) or no pressure drop. This is important when aged heat recovery systems are involved.
The liquid purge from the WGS system is further treated in either the
refinery wastewater system or in a segregated system, either of which
will remove solids for landfill disposal and will reduce the chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the stream to meet local discharge requirements.
NOx can be removed by adding an additional
Operation of WGS systems demonstrates:
Flexible/forgiving performance under a wide range of FCCU operations/upsets
Service factors equal to or better than FCCUs with runs exceeding
12 years
Low/zero pressure drop
Ability to meet stringent emission regulations, e.g., consent decree requirements.

Company Index

FCCU
regenerator
or third
separator
Air
Oxidation
blower

Venturi
scrubbers
Makeup water

Disengaging
drum

Oxidation
tank
Caustic

Slurry circulation
pumps

Treated purge
Circulation
pump and spare
Filter press
Filter feed
Dry solids dumpster
pump and spare

Dry solids

Performance: All WGS facilities are in compliance with their permitted

values. Compliance has been achieved for the current consent decree
particulate limits that can require emission of less than -lb of particulates /1,000 lb of coke burned. They are also in compliance with consent
decree SO2 requirements of 25 vppmd @ 0% O2 and SO3 consent decree emission requirements of less than 10 vppmd. In addition, the WGS
has recorded run lengths in excess of 12 years without affecting FCCU
throughput.

Installation: More than 25 operating plants have over 500 years of operating experience. Several additional units are in various stages of engineering.
Continued

Wet gas scrubbing (WGS), wet gas scrubbing plus,

continued

Technology owner: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

Licensor: Hamon Research-Cottrell, GN-Hamon, LLC.

Reference: 1991 AIChE Spring National Meeting, Paper No. 62c.

1990 National Petroleum Refiners Association Annual Meeting, Paper No. AM-90-45, March 1990.
1996 National Petroleum Refiners Association Annual Meeting, Paper No. AM-96-47, March 1996.

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Flue gas denitrification

NO, NO2

Application: The Topse SCR DeNOx process removes NOx from flue

gases through reactions with an ammonia-based reducing agent over

a specially designed fixed-bed monolithic catalyst. By carefully selecting the catalyst parameters, channel size and chemical composition, the
process covers a wide range of operating conditions and flue-gas dust
contents and may be applied to practically all types of refinery units including furnaces, boilers, crackers and FCC units.

QI
From furnace
Compressed air
SCR
reactor

PI
FI
PI

Products: The Topse SCR DeNOx converts NOx into inert nitrogen and

Caustic ammonia

Soot blower

water vapor. The process may be designed for NOx reductions in excess
of 95% and with an ammonia leakage of just a few ppm.

Steam
To stack

Description: The reducing agent such as ammonia or urea, aqueous or

pure, is injected into the flue gas stream in stoichiometric proportion to
the amount of NOx in the flue gas, controlled by measurement of flue
gas flow and NOx concentration. The injection takes place in a grid over
the entire cross-section of the flue-gas duct to ensure a uniform distribution of NOx and ammonia upstream the SCR catalyst vessel.
The process incorporates Topses well-proven corrugated monolithic DNX catalyst. DNX is manufactured in small units, which may be
combined into larger modules to match any requirement in terms of
vessel dimensions and pressure drop, and in both horizontal and vertical
vessel configurations.
The DNX catalyst is based on a fiber-reinforced ceramic carrier, which
gives a unique combination of a high strength and a high micro-porosity. The high micro-porosity provides a superior resistance to catalyst
poisons and low weight. The fibers add flexibility to the catalyst so that
it can tolerate a wide range of heating and cooling rates.

QI

QI

NH3

NO

Control
unit

Installation: More than 50 refinery units use Topse SCR DeNOx catalyst
and technology. The applications range from low-dust furnaces to highdust FCC units and temperatures up to 500C (930F).
References: Damgaard, L., B. Widroth and M. Schrter: Control refinery NOx with SCRs, Hydrocarbon Processing, November 2004.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

Operating conditions: Typical operating conditions range from 300C to

500C (570930F), up to 3 bar (44 psia) and up to 50 g/Nm3 of dust in

the flue gas.
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NOx abatement/SNCR
Application: Flue gases are treated with ammonia: ExxonMobils Research & Engineerings (EMREs) proprietary selective noncatalytic NOx
reduction technologySNCR THERMAL DeNOx (TDN). NOx plus ammonia (NH3) are converted to elemental nitrogen and water if temperature
and residence time are appropriate. The technology has been widely
applied since it was first commercialized in 1974.

Products: If conditions are appropriate, the flue gas is treated to achieve

NOx reductions of 40% to 70%+ with minimal NH3 slip or leakage.

Description: The technology involves the gas-phase reaction of NO with

NH3 (either aqueous or anhydrous) to produce elemental nitrogen if conditions are favorable. Ammonia is injected into the flue gas using steam
or air as a carrier gas into a zone where the temperature is 1,600F
to 2,000F. This range can be extended down to 1,300F with a small
amount of hydrogen added to the injected gas. For most applications,
wall injectors are used for simplicity of operation.

Yield: Cleaned flue gas with 40% to 70%+ NOx reduction and less than
10-ppm NH3 slip.
Installation: Over 135 applications on all types of fired heaters, boilers
and incinerators with a wide variety of fuels (gas, oil, coal, coke, wood
and waste). The technology has also been applied to full and partialburn FCCU regenerators.
Reference: McIntyre, A. D., Applications of the THERMAL DeNOx process to utility and independent power production boilers, ASME Joint
International Power Generation Conference, Phoenix, 1994.

Heater load
NH3 flow
controller

Pressure
controller

NOx
analyzer

Injectors
Anhydrous NH3
storage

NH3
vaporizer

Heater

Flow controller
Heater load
Fuel

Carrier supply

Combustion air

McIntyre, A. D., The THERMAL DeNOx process: Liquid fuels applications, International Flame Research Foundations 11th Topic Oriented
Technical Meeting, Biarritz, France, 1995.
McIntyre, A. D., Applications of the THERMAL DeNOx process to
FBC boilers, CIBO 13th Annual Fluidized Bed Conference, Lake Charles,
Louisiana, 1997.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co., via an alliance with

Engineers India Ltd. (for India) and Hamon Research-Cottrell (for the rest
of the world).

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TreatingCoker LPG to low total

sulfur levels

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Treated coker LPG

Total sulfur < 2ppm-wt

Coker LPG

Application: AMINEX/THIOLEX and REGEN ULS treating processes are

used to remove COS, H2S and mercaptans from LPG streams with high
mercaptans levels and produce treated streams with less than 2 ppm-wt
of total sulfur.

Description: The removal of COS and H2S can be achieved utilizing an

AMINEX treating unit using an amine solution or with a THIOLEX treating

unit using a caustic solution. When using the THIOLEX unit, mercaptan
impurities are removed with a caustic solution, and the caustic is regenerated to previously unachievable purity levels in the REGEN ULS system.
The combination of THIOLEX/REGEN ULS results in minimal back extraction of disulfide oil (DSO) into the treated product. Thus, the treated
product will meet specifications of less than 2 ppm-wt of total sulfur.

Lean amine or
Caustic/MEA
Rich amine or
Spent caustic/MEA

Solvent
Air
Solvent/DSO

Installations: One under installation.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Treatinggasoline and LPG

Company Index

Treated hydrocarbon

Application: THIOLEX/REGEN systems extract H2S and mercaptans from

gases and light liquid hydrocarbon streams, including gasolines, with

caustic using FIBER-FILM Contactor technology. It can also be used to
hydrolyze and remove COS from LPG and propane.

Description: In a THIOLEX system, the caustic phase flows along the

fibers of the FIBER-FILM Contactor as it preferentially wets the fibers.
Hydrocarbon flows through the caustic-wetted fibers where the H2S and
mercaptans are extracted into the caustic phase. The two phases disengage and the caustic flows to the REGEN where the caustic is regenerated using heat, air and catalyst. The disulfide oil formed in this reaction
may be removed via gravity separation, FIBER-FILM solvent washing or
a combination of the two. The regenerated caustic flows back to the
THIOLEX system for continued re-use.
COS is removed from LPG or propane by either employing AMINEX
technology using an amine solution or THIOLEX technology using an
MEA/caustic solution to hydrolyze the COS to H2S and CO2 which are
easily removed by amine or caustic.

Competitive advantages: FIBER-FILM Contactor technology requires

smaller processing vessels thus saving valuable plant space and reducing
capital expenditures.

Installation: At present, 373 installations worldwide.

Oxidation air

Offgas

Untreated
hydrocarbon

Fresh solvent

Spent
caustic
Catalyst

Fresh caustic
Solvent/DSO

References: Oil & Gas Journal, August 12, 1985, p. 78.

Hydrocarbon Engineering, February 2000.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Treatinggasoline desulfurization,
ultra deep

HOME

To outside
disposal

Or

Application: EXOMER extracts recombinant mercaptan sulfur from selectively hydrotreated FCC gasoline streams with a proprietary treating
solution. FIBER-FILM Contactor technology is used for mass transfer efficiency to obtain a maximum reduction in total sulfur content. EXOMER
is jointly developed with ExxonMobil Research & Engineering Co.

Processes Index

Spent treating
solution cleaning
plant

Treated FCC naphtha

Hydrotreated FCC naphtha

Rich treating solution

Description: In an EXOMER system, the lean treating solution phase

Economics: EXOMER allows refiners to meet stricter sulfur specifications while preserving octane by allowing the hydrotreater severity to be
reduced. The capital expenditure for a grass roots EXOMER is 3550%
of the cost of incremental hydrotreating capacity. Operating costs per
barrel are about 6070% less than hydrotreating.

Cleansed treating solution to

wastewater treatment plant

Spent treating
solution storage

flows along the fibers of the FIBER-FILM Contactor along with the hydrocarbon phase, allowing the recombinant mercaptans to be extracted
into the treating solution in a non-dispersive manner. The two phases
disengage in the separator vessel with the treated hydrocarbon flowing
to storage.
The separated rich treating solution phase is sent to the regeneration unit where sulfur-bearing components are removed. The removed
sulfur is sent to another refinery unit for further processing. The regenerated lean treating solution is returned to the EXOMER extraction step
for further use.

Company Index

Mercaptan
extraction
system

Fresh treating
solution
Regenerated
treating solution

Treating solution
regeneration
system

Treating solution purge

Sulfur-rich
stream

Installation: Three installations worldwide.

Reference: Hydrocarbon Processing, February 2002, p. 45.
Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Treatinggasoline sweetening
Application: MERICAT systems oxidize mercaptans to disulfides by react-

Sweetened gasoline

Untreated gasoline

ing mercaptans with air and caustic in the presence of catalyst using
FIBER-FILM Contactor technology.

Description: In a MERICAT system, the caustic phase flows along the fibers of the FIBER-FILM Contactor as it preferentially wets the fibers. Prior
to entering the FIBER-FILM Contactor the gasoline phase mixes with air
through a proprietary air sparger. The gasoline then flows through the
caustic-wetted fibers in the Contactor where the mercaptans are extracted and converted to disulfides in the caustic phase. The disulfides
are immediately absorbed back into the gasoline phase. The two phases
disengage and the caustic is recycled back to the FIBER-FILM Contactor
until spent.

Competitive advantages: FIBER-FILM Contactor technology uses smaller

Oxidation air

Catalyst
Spent caustic

Fresh caustic

processing vessels while guaranteeing the sodium content of the product. This saves valuable plant space and reduces capital expenditure.

Installation: At present, 144 installations worldwide.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Treatingjet fuel/kerosine
Application: NAPFINING/MERICAT II/AQUAFINING systems eliminate
naphthenic acids and mercaptans from kerosine to meet acid number
and mercaptan jet fuel specifications. Caustic, air and catalyst are used
along with FIBER-FILM Contactor technology and an upflow catalyst impregnated carbon bed saturated with caustic.

Air

Catalyst in (batch)

Untreated
jet fuel
START

Description: In the NAPFINING system, the caustic phase flows along

the fibers of the FIBER-FILM Contactor as it preferentially wets the fibers. The kerosine phase simultaneously flows through the caustic-wetted fibers where naphthenic acids react with the caustic phase to form
sodium naphthenate. The two phases disengage and the naphthenic
acid-free kerosine flows to the MERICAT II where the mercaptans react
with caustic, air, and catalyst in the FIBER-FILM Contactor to form disulfides. The two phases disengage again and the kerosine flows upwards
through a catalyst impregnated carbon bed where the remaining heavy
mercaptans are converted to disulfides.
An AQUAFINING system is then used to water wash the kerosine
downstream of the MERICAT II vessel to remove sodium. Salt driers and
clay filters are used downstream of the water wash to remove water,
surfactants and particulates to ensure a completely clean product.

Installation: 199 installations worldwide.

Competitive advantages: FIBER-FILM Contactor technology requires

References: Hydrocarbon Technology International, 1993.

smaller processing vessels thus saving valuable plant space and reducing capital expenditure. Onstream factor is 100% whereas electrostatic
precipitators and downflow fixed-bed reactors onstream factors are unpredictable.

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technol-

Treated
jet fuel

Water in
Caustic out

Caustic in

Water out

Petroleum Technology Quarterly, Winter 1996/97.

ogy Division.

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Treatingkerosine and heavy naphtha

sweetening

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Untreated kerosine

Company Index

Treated kerosine

Application: MERICAT II treating unit oxidizes mercaptan sulfur to disulfides to reduce product odor. The streams treated are jet fuel, kerosine,
natural gasoline and selectively hydrotreated FCC gasolines.

Air in

Description: A MERICAT II system consists of two treaters. The FIBER-

Catalyst in

FILM Contactor section removes hydrogen sulfide and naphthenic acids

while converting some mercaptans to disulfides with air, oxidation catalyst and caustic solution. The partially treated hydrocarbon exits the FIBER-FILM Contactor and passes upflow through a catalyst-impregnated
carbon bed saturated with caustic to convert the remaining high-boiling
mercaptans to disulfides.

Spent caustic

Fresh caustic

Competitive advantages:
Minimal caustic and catalyst consumption
Operating simplicity
Minimal capital investment
Recausticizing of the carbon bed without interruption of treating.
The FIBER-FILM section keeps organic acids from entering the carbon
bed. This conserves caustic and avoids fouling of the bed with sodium
naphthenate soaps. Competitive downflow reactors need frequent carbon bed hot water washings to remove these soaps whereas MERICAT
II does not require hot water washes.
The MERICAT II onstream factor is 100% while competitive systems
requiring periodic cleaning have unpredictable onstream factors.

Installation: Thirty-nine installations worldwide.

Reference: Hydrocarbon Technology International, 1993.
Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Treatingpropane
Application: AMINEX treating system extracts H2S and COS from pro-

pane with an amine solution using FIBER-FILM Contactor technology.

Untreated LPG

Treated LPG

Description: In an AMINEX system, the amine phase flows along the fibers of the FIBER-FILM Contactor as it preferentially wets the fibers. The
propane phase flows through the amine-wetted fibers as the H2S and
COS are extracted into the amine phase. The two phases disengage in
the separator vessel with the rich amine flowing to the amine regeneration unit and the treated propane flowing to storage.

Competitive advantages: FIBER-FILM Contactor technology requires

smaller processing vessels thus saving valuable plant space and reducing
capital expenditure.

Rich amine to regenerator

Lean amine from regenerator

Installation: Twenty-six installations worldwide.

Reference: Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 63, No. 4, April 1984, p. 87.
Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Treatingreformer products
Application: CHLOREX treating system removes inorganic chloride compounds from liquid and gas reformer products using a FIBER-FILM Contactor and an alkaline water treating solution.

Untreated reformate

Treated reformate
Recycle

Description: The CHLOREX system uses an alkaline water solution to

extract chloride impurities contained in the reformate stabilizer feed or
the stabilizer overhead product. CHLOREX can also be used to remove
chlorides from reformer offgas. Fresh caustic and fresh process water are
added to the system to maintain the proper pH of the recycle solution.

Separator

Competitive advantages: CHLOREX produces an easily handled waste

when compared to disposal of sacrificial solid bed absorbents.

Spent alkaline water

Fresh water

Installation: Four installations worldwide.

Fresh caustic

Licensor: Merichem Chemicals & Refinery Services LLC, Process Technology Division.

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Flue gas desulfurizationSNOX

Application: The SNOX process treats boiler flue gases from the combustion of high-sulfur fuels, such as heavy residual oil and petroleum
coke. The SNOX process is a combination of the Topse WSA process
and the Topse SCR DeNOx process. The process removes SO2, SO3 and
NOx as well as dust. The sulfur is recovered in the form of concentrated
commercial-grade sulfuric acid. The SNOX process is distinctly different
from most other flue gas desulfurization processes in that its economy
increases with increasing sulfur content in the flue gas.

Cleaned gas
Boiler

Blower

Petcoke

Air

SCR DeNOx
and SO2 reactor

WSA
condenser

Flue gas
Filter

Description: Dust is removed from the flue gas by means of an electrostatic precipitator or a bag filter. The flue gas is preheated in a gas/gas
heat exchanger. Thereafter, it is further heated to approximately 400C
and ammonia is added, before it enters the reactor, where two different
catalysts are installed. The first catalyst makes the NOx react with ammonia to form N2 and water vapor, and the second catalyst makes the SO2
react with oxygen to form SO3. The second catalyst also removes any
dust traces remaining. During the cooling in the gas/gas heat exchanger,
most of the SO3 reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid vapor. The
sulfuric acid vapor is condensed via further cooling in the WSA condenser, which is a heat exchanger with vertical glass tubes.
Concentrated commercial-grade sulfuric acid is collected in the
bottom of the WSA condenser and is cooled and pumped to storage.
Cleaned flue gas leaves the WSA condenser at 100C and can be sent
to the stack without further treatment. The WSA condenser is cooled by
atmospheric air. The cooling air can be used as preheated combustion
air in the boiler. This process can achieve up to 98% sulfur removal and
about 96% NOx removal.
Other features of the SNOX process are:
No absorbent is applied
No waste products are produced. Besides dust removed from the
flue gas, the only products are cleaned flue gas and concentrated
commercial-grade sulfuric acid.

Heat
Flue gas
blower exchanger
Air
preheater

Support
heat

NH3

Acid cooler
Product acid

High degree of heat efficiency

Modest utility consumption
Attractive operating economy
Simple, reliable and flexible process.

Installation: Six SNOX units have been contracted for cleaning of a total
of more than five million Nm3/h of flue gas. Additionally, 65 WSA plants
have been contracted. These are similar to SNOX plants, only smaller,
and some without NOx removal, for other applications than flue gas
cleaning.
Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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NOx reduction, low-temperature

Application: The LoTOx low-temperature oxidation process removes NOx

from flue gases in conjunction with BELCOs EDV wet scrubbing system.
Ozone is a very selective oxidizing agent; it converts relatively insoluble
NO and NO2 to higher, more soluble nitrogen oxides. These oxides are
easily captured in a wet scrubber that is controlling sulfur compounds
and/or particulates simultaneously.

EDV scrubber stack

EDV quench

Purge

Description: In the LoTOx process, ozone is added to oxidize insoluble

NO and NO2 to highly oxidized, highly soluble species of NOx that can
be effectively removed by a variety of wet or semi-dry scrubbers. Ozone,
a highly effective oxidizing agent, is produced onsite and on demand
by passing oxygen through an ozone generatoran electric corona device with no moving parts. The rapid reaction rate of ozone with NOx
results in high selectivity for NOx over other components within the gas
stream.
Thus, the NOx in the gas phase is converted to soluble ionic compounds in the aqueous phase; the reaction is driven to completion, thus
removing NOx with no secondary gaseous pollutants. The ozone is consumed by the process or destroyed within the system scrubber. All system components are proven, well-understood technologies with a history of safe and reliable performance.

Operating conditions: Ozone injection typically occurs in the flue-gas

stream upstream of the scrubber, near atmospheric pressure and at
temperatures up to roughly 150C. For higher-temperature streams, the
ozone is injected after a quench section of the scrubber, at adiabatic
saturation, typically 60C to 75C. High-particulate saturated gas and
sulfur loading (SOx or TRS) do not cause problems.

Reagent

LoTOx
injection

Installation: The technology has been developed and commercialized

over several years, winning the prestigious 2001 Kirkpatrick Chemical
Engineering Technology Award. Currently, there are 11 commercial applications, including boilers and 5 FCC units. Many other EDV scrubbers
have been designed for future LoTOx application. Pilot-scale demonstrations have been completed on coal- and petroleum-coke fired boilers, as
well as refinery FCC units.

Reference: Confuorto, et al., LoTOx technology demonstration at Mar-

athon Ashland Petroleum LLCs refinery at Texas City, Texas, NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2004, San Antonio.

Licensor: Belco Technologies Corp.

Economics: The costs for NOx control using this technology are especially low when used as a part of a multi-pollutant control scenario.
Sulfurous and particulate-laden streams can be treated attractively as no
pretreatment is required by the LoTOx system.
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SO2 removal, regenerative

Application: Regenerative scrubbing system to recover SO2 from flue gas

containing high SO2 levels such as gas from FCC regenerator or incinerated SRU tail gas and other high SO2 applications. The LABSORB process
is a low pressure drop system and is able to operate under varying conditions and not sensitive to variations in the upstream processes.

Reclaimed SO2

Quench column
pre-scrubber

Condenser

Cleaned
gas

Stripper

Absorber

Vapor/
liquid
separator

Products: The product from the LABSORB process is a concentrated SO2

stream consisting of approximately 90% SO2 and 10% moisture. This

stream can be sent to the front of the SRU to be mixed with H2S and
form sulfur, or it can be concentrated for other marketable uses.

Flue gas

Heat
exch.

Description: Hot dirty flue gas is cooled in a flue-gas cooler or wasteheat recovery boiler prior to entering the systems. Steam produced can
be used in the LABSORB plant. The gas is then quenched to adiabatic
saturation (typically 50C75C) in a quencher/pre-scrubber; it proceeds
to the absorption tower where the SO2 is removed from the gas. The
tower incorporates multiple internal and re-circulation stages to ensure
sufficient absorption.
A safe, chemically stable and regenerable buffer solution is contacted with the SO2-rich gas for absorption. The rich solution is then
piped to a LABSORB buffer regeneration section where the solution is
regenerated for re-use in the scrubber. Regeneration is achieved using
low-pressure steam and conventional equipment such as strippers, condensers and heat exchangers.

Economics: This process is very attractive at higher SO2 concentrations

or when liquid or solid effluents are not allowed. The systems buffer
loss is very low, contributing to a very low operating cost. Additionally,
when utilizing LABSORB as an SRU tail-gas treater, many components
normally associated with the SCOT process are not required; thus saving
considerable capital.

LP
steam

Buffer
makeup

Buffer tank

Particulates

Condensate
Oxidation
product removal

Installation: One SRU tail-gas system and two FCCU scrubbing systems.
Reference: Confuorto, Weaver and Pedersen, LABSORB regenerative
scrubbing operating history, design and economics, Sulfur 2000, San
Francisco, October 2000.
Confuorto, Eagleson and Pedersen, LABSORB, A regenerable wet
scrubbing process for controlling SO2 emissions, Petrotech-2001, New
Delhi, January 2001.

Licensor: Belco Technologies Corp.

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Sour gas treatment

Application: The WSA process (Wet gas Sulfuric Acid) treats all types of
sulfur-containing gases such as amine and Rectisol regenerator offgas,
SWS gas and Claus plant tail gas in refineries, gas treatment plants,
petrochemicals and coke chemicals plants. The WSA process can also be
applied for SOx removal and regeneration of spent sulfuric acid.
Sulfur, in any form, is efficiently recovered as concentrated commercial-quality sulfuric acid.

Combustion air

Stack gas

SO2
converter

H2S gas

Blower
Interbed
cooler

Incinerator

Steam
system
Superheated
steam

Air

WSA
condenser

Interbed
cooler
Gas
cooler

Description: Feed gas is combusted and cooled to approximately

420C in a waste heat boiler. The gas then enters the SO2 converter
containing one or several beds of SO2 oxidation catalyst to convert
SO2 to SO3. The gas is cooled in a gas cooler whereby SO3 hydrates to
H2SO4 (gas), which is finally condensed as concentrated sulfuric acid
(typically 98% w/w).
The WSA condenser is cooled by ambient air, and heated air may
be used as combustion air in the incinerator for increased thermal efficiency. The heat released by incineration and SO2 oxidation is recovered
as steam. The process operates without removing water from the gas.
Therefore, the number of equipment items is minimized, and no liquid
waste is formed. Cleaned process gas leaving the WSA condenser is sent
to stack without further treatment.
The WSA process is characterized by:
More than 99% recovery of sulfur as commercial-grade
sulfuric acid
No generation of waste solids or wastewater
No consumption of absorbents or auxiliary chemicals

Blower

Acid cooler
Product acid

Efficient heat recovery ensuring economical operation

Simple and fully automated operation adapting to variations in
feed gas flow and composition.

Installation: More than 70 units worldwide.

Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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Spent acid regeneration

Application: The WSA process (Wet gas Sulfuric Acid) treats spent sulfuric acid from alkylation as well as other types of waste sulfuric acid
in the petrochemical and chemicals industry. Amine regenerator offgas
and/or refinery gas may be used as auxiliary fuel. The regenerated acid
will contain min. 98% H2SO4 and can be recycled directly to the alkylation process.
The WSA process is also applied for conversion of H2S and removal
of SOx.

Description: Spent acid is decomposed to SO2 and water vapor in an

incinerator using amine regenerator offgas or refinery gas as fuel. The
SO2 containing flue gas is cooled in a waste-heat boiler and solid matter
originating from the acid feed is separated in an electrostatic precipitator. By adding preheated air, the process gas temperature and oxygen
content are adjusted before the catalytic converter converting SO2 to
SO3. The gas is cooled in the gas cooler whereby SO3 is hydrated to
H2SO4 (gas), which is finally condensed as 98% sulfuric acid.
The WSA condenser is cooled by ambient air. The heated air may be
used as combustion air in the burner for increased thermal efficiency. The
heat released by incineration and SO2 oxidation is recovered as steam.
The process operates without removing water from the gas. Therefore, the number of equipment items is minimized and no liquid waste
is formed. This is especially important in spent acid regeneration where
SO3 formed by the acid decomposition will otherwise be lost with the
wastewater.

Stack gas
Dust
removal

Spent acid
+ fuel

DENOX

SO2
converter

Air

Incinerator
Export steam

WSA
condenser

Heat exchange system

Cooler
Acid

The WSA process is characterized by:

No generation of waste solids or wastewater
No consumption of absorbents or auxiliary chemicals
Efficient heat recovery ensuring economical operation
Simple and fully automated operation adapting to variations in
feed flow and composition.

Installation: More than 70 WSA units worldwide, including 10 for spent

acid regeneration.
Licensor: Haldor Topse A/S.

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Wet scrubbing system, EDV

Application: EDV Technology is a low pressure drop scrubbing system,

Cleaned gas

to scrub particulate matter (including PM2.5), SO2 and SO3 from flue
gases. It is especially well suited where the application requires high reliability, flexibility and the ability to operate for 47 years continuously
without maintenance shutdowns. The EDV technology is highly suited
for FCCU regenerator flue-gas applications.

Stack
Droplet
separators
Filtering
modules

Products: The effluents from the process will vary based on the reagent selected for use with the scrubber. In the case where a sodiumbased reagent is used, the product will be a solution of sodium salts.
Similarly, a magnesium-based reagent will result in magnesium salts.
A lime/limestone-based system will produce a gypsum waste. The EDV
technology can also be used with the LABSORB buffer thus making
the system regenerative. The product, in that case, would be a usable
condensed SO2 stream.

Reagent addition

Absorber
Flue gas

Quench
Slipstream to purge treatment unit
Recirculation
pumps

Description: The flue gas enters the spray tower through the quench
section where it is immediately quenched to saturation temperature.
It proceeds to the absorber section for particulate and SO2 reduction.
The spray tower is an open tower with multiple levels of BELCO-GNozzles. These nonplugging and abrasion-resistant nozzles remove
particulates by impacting on the water/reagent curtains. At the same
time, these curtains also reduce SO2 and SO3 emissions. The BELCOG-Nozzles are designed not to produce mist; thus a conventional mist
eliminator is not required.
Upon leaving the absorber section, the saturated gases are directed to the EDV filtering modules to remove the fine particulates and additional SO3. The filtering module is designed to cause condensation of
the saturated gas onto the fine particles and onto the acid mist, thus
allowing it to be collected by the BELCO-F-Nozzle located at the top.
To ensure droplet-free stack, the flue gas enters a droplet separator. This is an open design that contains fixed-spin vanes that induce a
cyclonic flow of the gas. As the gases spiral down the droplet separator, the centrifugal forces drive any free droplets to the wall, separating them from the gas stream.

Economics: The EDV wet scrubbing system has been extremely successful in the incineration and refining industries due to the very high
scrubbing capabilities, very reliable operation and reasonable price.

Installation: More than 200 applications worldwide on various processes including more than 60 FCCU applications, heater applications,
SRU tailgas unit, fluidized coker application and coal-fired boilers.

Reference: Confuorto and Weaver, Flue gas scrubbing of FCCU regenerator flue gasperformance, reliability, and flexibilitya case history, Hydrocarbon Engineering, 1999.
Eagleson and Dharia, Controlling FCCU emissions, 11th Refining Technology Meeting, HPCL, Hyderabad, 2000.

Licensor: Belco Technologies Corp.

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Deep thermal conversion

Gas

Application: The Shell Deep Thermal Conversion process closes the gap
between visbreaking and coking. The process yields a maximum of distillates by applying deep thermal conversion of the vacuum residue feed
and by vacuum flashing the cracked residue. High-distillate yields are
obtained, while still producing a stable liquid residual product, referred
to as liquid coke. The liquid coke, not suitable for blending to commercial fuel, is used for speciality products, gasification and/or combustion,
e.g., to generate power and/or hydrogen.

Naphtha

4
Steam

Yields: Depend on feed type and product specifications.

Feed, vacuum residue
Viscosity, cSt @100C

Middle East
615

Products in % wt. on feed

Gas
Gasoline, ECP 165C
Gas oil, ECP 350C
Waxy distillate, ECP 520C
Residue ECP 520C+

3.8
8.2
19
22.8
46.2

Economics: The typical investment for a 25,000-bpd unit will be about

$1,900 to $2,300/bbl installed, excluding treating facilities. (Basis: Western Europe, 2004.).

HGO

Description: The preheated short residue is charged to the heater (1)

and from there to the soaker (2), where the deep conversion takes place.
The conversion is maximized by controlling the operating temperature
and pressure. The soaker effluent is routed to a cyclone (3). The cyclone
overheads are charged to an atmospheric fractionator (4) to produce the
desired products like gas, LPG, naphtha, kero and gasoil. The cyclone
and fractionator bottoms are subsequently routed to a vacuum flasher
(5), which recovers additional gasoil and waxy distillate. The residual liquid coke is routed for further processing depending on the outlet.

LGO

2
Feed

Steam

5
Vacuum flashed
cracked residue

Utilities, typical consumption/production for a 25,000-bpd unit,

dependent on configuration and a sites marginal econmic values for
steam and fuel:
Fuel as fuel oil equivalent, bpd
417
Power, MW
1.2
Net steam production (18 bar), tpd
370
Installation: To date, six Shell Deep Thermal Conversion units have been
licensed. In four cases, this has involved revamping an existing Shell
Soaker Visbreaker unit. Post startup services and technical services for
existing units are available from Shell Global Solutions.
Reference: Hydrocarbon Engineering, September 2003.
Licensor: Shell Global Solutions International B.V. and ABB Lummus
Global B.V.
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Emulsion residue upgrade

Application: The Akzo Nobel/Quadrise emulsion residue enhancement
process converts highly viscous, low-value, uncut residues from vacuum
unit operations to an emulsion fuel for onward sale to third parties. Refiners benefit from term contract offtake of residue and release of HFO
cutter-stock back to the refinery, for higher value realization. Quadrise
typically purchases the residue at a price higher than its intrinsic value,
and assume responsibility for the emulsion fuel sales.
Enhancements include moving to deeper vacuum unit cuts and increasing visbreaker severity or visbreaker vacuum flasher recovery to increase yields of lighter products. Enhancements are achieved without
the normal penalty of increased cutter-stock addition to the resulting
heavier residues. A combination of modifying process conditions and
processing heavier, cheaper, crude oils leads to significantly lower quality
residues in terms of density, CCR and viscosity. The technology handles
these low-quality residues and produces a transportable emulsion fuel
with a viscosity of 2001,000cSt at 50C.

Description: Residues from a vacuum unit, visbreaker, visbreaker vacuum

flasher or solvent de-asphalter (1) are taken from the refiners run-down
system after process heat has been extracted, but prior to cutter stock
addition. The residue stream is processed to a 70:30 oil-in-water emulsion in a proprietary skid-mounted package (2) supplied by Quadrise under license from Akzo Nobel. Various commercial options are available
including licence; BOO/BOOT by Quadrise or JV with refiner.

Operating conditions: The residue temperature is adjusted to give a viscosity of around 300cSt for supply to the emulsification process. The
maximum supply temperatures are 190C (standard unit) and 260C
(high-temperature unit). The emulsion fuel run-down temperature to
conventional HFO storage tanks is less than 65C.
Residue viscosities of up to 100,000cSt (standard unit) and
60,000,000cSt (high-temperature unit) measured at 100C can be handled, without impacting the quality of the emulsion fuel. The standard
unit operates at less than 10 bars.

Distillates (cutter-stock recovery)

START

Residue

Emulsion fuel

Process water + surfactants

Economics: Margin improvement to the refinery varies according to its

configuration, crude supply and location but typically lies in the range of
$0.25$1.5/bbl of crude input.

Installed cost: $3000/bbl of residue (USGC 2008) for a unit of 4,000 bbl
residue feed. Units are modular; installed system lead-time is typically
12 months.

Utilities: typical per barrel of feed (detail available on request)

Water, cooling
Process water
Power
Chemicals

Dependent on feedstock temperature

0.300.45 bbl
<1kWh
Dependent on feedstock.

Installation: One unit currently operating for emulsion fuel production.

Licensor: Akzo Nobel through Quadrise Fuels International.
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Heavy oil upgrading

Application: Process designed for upgrading heavy oils including the

Diluent return

Athabasca bitumen into a easily transportable synthetic crude oil.

Description: This process uses various proven and established refining

Heavy oil

S
p
e
c
i
a
l

D
R
U

Naphtha
hydrotreater
Diesel
hydrotreater

Synthetic
crude

technologies.
Bitumen with diluent is brought to the upgrader. The diluent is recovered in the diluent recovery unit (DRU) and returned to the production site. The bottom of the DRU is sent to a high deasphalted oil lift
ROSE solvent deasphalting unit. The DAO is then sent to a special purpose Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU). The FCCU operates at low
conversion, normally between 30% and 60% and uses low cost low
activity catalyst.
The metals in DAO are rejected with the spent catalyst. The carbon
(CCR) is burnt in regenerator to produce steam. The FCCU products
can be blended into synthetic crude oil. Alternately the products can be
hydrotreated to produce low-sulfur synthetic crude oil. Steam produced
in the FCCU is used within the complex. The asphaltenes from ROSE
unit can be pelletized using KBRs AQUAFORM pelletizing technology
for ease of transportation to end users. Alternately the asphaltenes can
be gasified to produce hydrogen, steam and power for bitumen production and upgrading.

The synthetic crude oil of following composition can be produced by the

above scheme:
C5-350F:
1530 vol.%
Distillate:
4065 vol.%
Gas oil:
2030 vol.%

Applications: This scheme can be used for upgrading of bitumen and

Economics: KBR estimates that the above scheme will have several per-

ROSE pilot results:

Feed: Athabasca Bitumen
Feed
Solvents
Full
nC4 to C6
ATB
C3 to nC5
VTB
iC4 to nC5

ROSE*

Aquaform
Pellets

Gasifier

other heavy and very heavy oils.

KBR has performed extensive pilot plant testing to confirm the viability of the scheme. Given below are pilot test results for KBRs ROSE
portion of the scheme.

V
R
U

F
C
C

GO
hydrotreater

Steam+power
*Residuum oil supercritical extraction

cent higher rate of return on investment when compared with traditional heavy oil upgrading schemes.

Reference: KBR KLEEN Upgrading Process, Conrad Conference, Feb.

23, 2005, Calgary, Alberta.
Licensor: KBR.

DAO yield, vol.%

7082
4087
1765

CCR in DAO, wt.%

710
19
514

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Hydroprocessingheavy oil
and residue
Application: Conversion of heavy petroleum residues or crude oil into

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Feed

Genoil
hydroconversion
unit

lighter and higher value materials.

Processes Index

Naphtha
Diesel
Gasoil
Offgas

Acid gas

droconversion unit (GHU) and an integrated gasification and combined

cycle (IGCC) section. By integrating with gasification and balancing pitch
conversion with hydrogen and utility demands, the GHU and the overall
upgrader becomes a truly bottomless, self-sufficient facility that is suitable to be added into an existing refining complex or as a merchant
upgrader near a remote oil field.
Based on a fixed-bed hydrogenation technology and using special
mixing devices to ensure full catalysts utilization and higher efficiency,
the GHU converts the heavy petroleum feed into lighter products such as
naphtha, diesel and low-sulfur gasoil that can be used as fuel-oil blend
or FCCU feed. The unconverted portion will be removed as vacuum residue (VR) and fed to the IGCC units. In comparison to the traditional residue treating processes such as visbreaking and delayed coking, the GHU
offers a significantly higher conversion to valuable petroleum products.
The IGCC will use partial oxidation and gasification technologies to
convert the VR into hydrogen, fuel gas and power. The hydrogen will be
recovered and fed to the GHU to support the hydrogenation reactions,
whereas fuel gas, steam and power are used to run the overall Genoil
upgrader.

Process: In general, the Genoil upgrader consists of these processing

units (see diagram):
Genoil hydroconversion unit (GHU)
Syngas unit (SGU)
Air separation unit (ASU)

Sulfur
recovery

Sulfur

Vacuum
residue
Hydrogen

Products: Low-sulfur content naphtha, diesel and gasoil

Description: The Genoil Upgrader consists of the proprietary Genoil hy-

Company Index

Air
separation

O2

Gasification

Syngas

Acid gas
removal

Fuel gas

Hydrogen
recovery

Combined
cycle

Steam
Power

Acid-gas removal unit (AGR)

Hydrogen recovery unit (HRU)
Combined-cycle unit (CCU.)
The GHU is similar to normal hydrotreating units consisting sections
such as: feed preparation and preheat, reactions, effluent cooling and
separation, gas recycle and product fractionation. The reactor section
consists of a series of four reactor beds: guard, hydrodemetalization
(HDM), hydrodesulfurization (HDS) and hydrodenitrogenation (HDN).
The syngas unit converts the VR under a partial oxidation processing
condition in the gasifier to produce syngas, which is a mixture of H2, CO
and CO2. The sulfur and nitrogen content in the residue will be converted to H2S, NH3 and HCN. After purification and cooling, the syngas
will be sent to the AGR unit.
The ASU uses refrigeration and distillation to separate oxygen from
ambient air. The oxygen product stream consisting over 95% oxygen is
fed to the gasifier in the SGU as combustion air.
Continued

Hydroprocessingheavy oil and residue, continued

The AGR performs these operations: Remove the H2S from the
syngas, GHU offgas and sour condensate using MDEA absorption technology; Convert CO into more H2 using high temperature shift and remove CO2 from sweetened gas using DGA absorption technology.
The HRU recovers H2 using pressure swing adsorption (PSA) technology. The sulfur recovery unit (SRU) uses a three-stage Claus Unit followed by an amine tail gas recovery plant to recover over 99.5% of the
sulfur in the AGR offgas.
The CCU consists of gas turbine generator (GTG), heat-recovery
steam generator (HRSG). Part of the steam produced will be used in the
Upgrader and the reminder is sent to a steam turbine generator (STG) to
produce more electrical power.

Performance: 85+% HDS, 50+%HDN, 812 API increase, 50% pitch

conversion (to balance conversion and utilities requirement)

Yields: Product yields depend on the quality of feed. For a typical AR

feed, the liquid yields are: 3% Naphtha, 26% Diesel and 57% Gasoil, all
based on the mass of crude feed.

Installation: At present, there is no commercial Genoil Upgrader in operation. A feasibility study has been completed for the installation of a
19,500-bpd unit in the ZJSH Refinery in Hebei, China. Commissioning of
the unit is scheduled on the first quarter of 2010.

Reference: Is bottomless-barrel refining possible? Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2007, pp.8192.

Oilsands Review, October 2007 and March 2007.
Opportunity Crudes 2008, HP Company.

Licensor: Genoil Inc.

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Thermal gasoil
Application: The Shell Thermal Gasoil process is a combined residue and
waxy distillate conversion unit. The process is an attractive low-cost conversion option for hydroskimming refineries in gasoil-driven markets or
for complex refineries with constrained waxy distillate conversion capacity. The typical feedstock is atmospheric residue, which eliminates the
need for an upstream vacuum flasher. This process features Shell Soaker
Visbreaking technology for residue conversion and an integrated recycle
heater system for the conversion of waxy distillate.

Gas
Naphtha

Description: The preheated atmospheric (or vacuum) residue is charged

to the visbreaker heater (1) and from there to the soaker (2). The conversion takes place in both the heater and soaker and is controlled by
the operating temperature and pressure. The soaker effluent is routed
to a cyclone (3). The cyclone overheads are charged to an atmospheric
fractionator (4) to produce the desired products including a light waxy
distillate. The cyclone and fractionator bottoms are routed to a vacuum
flasher (6), where waxy distillate is recovered. The combined waxy distillates are fully converted in the distillate heater (5) at elevated pressure.

Yields: Depend on feed type and product specifications.

Feed atmospheric residue
Middle East

Viscosity, cSt @ 100C

31

Products, % wt.
Gas
Gasoline, ECP 165C
Gasoil, ECP 350C
Residue, ECP 520C+

6.4
12.9
38.6
42.1

Economics: The typical investment for a 25,000-bpd unit will be about

$2,400 to $3,000/bbl installed, excluding treating facilities. (Basis: Western Euope, 2004.)

Steam

2
Charge

Gasoil

Waxy
distillate

5
Steam

6
Vacuum flashed
cracked residue

Utilities, typical consumption/production for a 25,000-bpd unit,

dependent on configuration and a sites marginal economic values for
steam and fuel:
Fuel as fuel oil equivalent, bpd
675
Power, MW
1.7
Net steam production (18 bar), tpd
370

Installation: To date, 12 Shell Thermal Gasoil units have been built. Post
startup services and technical services for existing units are available
from Shell Global Solutions..

Licensor: Shell Global Solutions International B.V., and ABB Lummus

Global B.V.
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Visbreaking
Application: Manufacture incremental gas and distillate products and simul-

(BT

taneously reduce fuel oil viscosity and pour point. Also, reduce the amount
of cutter stock required to dilute the resid to meet the fuel oil specifications.
Foster Wheeler/UOP offer both coil and soaker type visbreaking processes. The following information pertains to the coil process.

Products: Gas, naphtha, gas oil, visbroken resid (tar).

Description: In a coil type operation, charge is fed to the visbreaker
heater (1) where it is heated to a high temperature, causing partial vaporization and mild cracking. The heater outlet stream is quenched with
gas oil or fractionator bottoms to stop the cracking reaction. The vapor-liquid mixture enters the fractionator (2) to be separated into gas,
naphtha, gas oil and visbroken resid (tar). The tar may also be vacuum
flashed for recovery of visbroken vacuum gas oil.

(BTPMJOF
3FEVDFE
DSVEF
DIBSHF

4UFBN

45"35

(BT
PJM
5BS

Operating conditions: Typical ranges are:

Heater outlet temperature, F
850910
Quenched temperature, F
710800
An increase in heater outlet temperature will result in an increase in
overall severity, further viscosity reduction and an increase in conversion.

Yields:
Feed, source
Light Arabian
Type
Atm. Resid
Gravity, API
15.9
Sulfur, wt%
3.0
Concarbon, wt%
8.5
Viscosity, CKS @130F
150

CKS @ 210F
25
Products, wt%
Gas
3.1
Naphtha (C5330 F)
7.9
Gas oil
14.5
Visbroken resid
74.5 (600F+)

Light Arabian
Vac. Resid
7.1
4.0
20.3
30,000
900

Economics:
Investment (basis: 40,00010,000 bpsd, 2Q 2005, US Gulf),
$ per bpsd
1,8003,500
Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, MMBtu
0.1195
Power, kW/bpsd
0.0358
Steam, MP, lb
6.4
Water, cooling, gal
71.0

Installation: Over 50 units worldwide.

Reference: Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, Third Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2003, pp. 12.9112.105.

2.4
6.0
15.5
76.1 (662F+)

Licensor: Foster Wheeler USA Corp./UOP.

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Visbreaking
Gas

Application: The Shell Soaker Visbreaking process is most suitable to reduce the viscosity of vacuum (and atmospheric) residues in (semi) complex
refineries. The products are primarily distillates and stable fuel oil. The total fuel oil production is reduced by decreasing the quantity of cutter stock
required. Optionally, a Shell vacuum flasher may be installed to recover
additional gas oil and waxy distillates as cat cracker or hydrocracker feed
from the cracked residue. The Shell Soaker Visbreaking technology has
also proven to be a very cost-effective revamp option for existing units.

Description: The preheated vacuum residue is charged to the visbreaker

heater (1) and from there to the soaker (2). The conversion takes place
in both the heater and the soaker. The operating temperature and pressure are controlled such as to reach the desired conversion level and/
or unit capacity. The cracked feed is then charged to an atmospheric
fractionator (3) to produce the desired products like gas, LPG, naphtha, kerosine, gas oil, waxy distillates and cracked residue. If a vacuum
flasher is installed, additional gas oil and waxy distillates are recovered
from the cracked residue.

Yields: Vary with feed type and product specifications.

Feed, vacuum residue
Viscosity, cSt @100C
Products, wt%
Gas
Gasoline, 165C EP
Gas oil, 350C EP
Waxy distillate, 520C EP
Residue, 520C+

Middle East
615
2.2
4.8
13.6
23.4
56

3
2

Naphtha
Steam

Gas oil
Vacuum system

Residue charge
START

Steam

Vacuum gas oil

1
4

Visbroken residue

Cutter stock

bpd unit, dependent on configuration and a sites marginal economic

values for steam and fuel:
Fuel as fuel oil equivalent, bpd
400
Power, MW
1.2
Net steam production (18 bar), tpd
370

Installation: More than 70 Shell Soaker Visbreakers have been built. Post
startup services and technical services for existing units are available from
Shell Global Solutions.

Licensor: Shell Global Solutions International B.V. and ABB Lummus

Global B.V.

Economics: The typical investment for a 25,000-bpd unit will be about

$1,200 to $1,500/bbl installed, excluding treating facilities. (Basis: Western Europe, 2004.)
Utilities, typical consumption consumption/production for a 25,000-

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Catalytic dewaxing
Application: Use ExxonMobils Research & Engineerings (EMREs) Selective Catalytic Dewaxing (MSDW) process to make high VI lube base
stock.

HDW
Rxr

bright stocks). Byproducts include fuel gas, naphtha and low-pour diesel.

Waxy feed

Description: ExxonMobils Research & Engineerings (EMREs) MSDW is

targeted for hydrocracked or severely hydrotreated stocks. The improved
selectivity of MSDW for the highly isoparaffinic-lube components results
in higher lube yields and VIs. The process uses multiple catalyst systems with multiple reactors. Internals are proprietary (the Spider Vortex
Quench Zone technology is used). Feed and recycle gases are preheated
and contact the catalyst in a down-flow-fixed-bed reactor.
Reactor effluent is cooled, and the remaining aromatics are saturated in a post-treat reactor. The process can be integrated into a lube
hydrocracker or lube hydrotreater. Post-fractionation is targeted for client needs.

Operating conditions:
Temperatures, F
Hydrogen partial pressures, psig
LHSV
Conversion depends on feed wax content
Pour point reduction as needed.

550 800
500 2,500
0.4 3.0

Water
wash

M/U

Products: High VI / low-aromatics lube base oils (light neutral through

Fuel gas to LP absorber

Purge

Makeup H2

HDT
Rxr

Wild naphtha
HP
stripper

Rec
Water
wash
LT
HT sep
sep

Company Index

Sour water

MP steam
Vacuum system
Water

Vac
strip.

Sour
water

Oily
water

Distillate
MP steam
Lube product

Vac
dryer

Yields:

Lube yield, wt%
C1C4, wt%
C5400F, wt%
400FLube, wt%
H2 cons, scf/bbl

Light neutral
94.5
1.5
2.7
1.5
100300

Heavy neutral
96.5
1.0
1.8
1.0
100300

Installation: Eight units are operating and four are in design.

Licensor: ExxonMobil Research and Engineering Co.

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Dewaxing
Application: Bechtels Dewaxing process is used to remove waxy components from lubrication base-oil streams to simultaneously meet desired low-temperature properties for dewaxed oils and produce slack
wax as a byproduct.

Description: Waxy feedstock (raffinate, distillate or deasphalted oil) is

mixed with a binary-solvent system and chilled in a very closely controlled
manner in scraped-surface double-pipe exchangers (1) and refrigerated
chillers (2) to form a wax/oil/solvent slurry.
The slurry is filtered through the primary filter stage (3) and dewaxed
oil mixture is routed to the dewaxed oil recovery section (5) to separate
solvent from oil. Prior to solvent recovery, the primary filtrate is used to
cool the feed/solvent mixture (1). Wax from the primary stage is slurried
with cold solvent and filtered again in the repulp filter (4) to reduce the
oil content to approximately 10%.
The repulp filtrate is reused as dilution solvent in the feed chilling
train. The wax mixture is routed to a solvent-recovery section (6) to remove solvent from the product streams (hard wax and soft wax). The
recovered solvent is collected, dried (7) and recycled back to the chilling
and filtration sections.

4
Refrigerant

Refrigerant

Solvent
recovery
Water

Steam
Waxy feed

Slack wax

Dewaxed
oil

Steam
Water

Refrigerant
Process stream

Economics:
Investment (Basis: 7,000-bpsd feedrate
capacity, 2008 US Gulf Coast), $/bpsd
Utilities, typical per bbl feed:
Fuel, 103 Btu (absorbed)
Electricity, kWh
Steam, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

17,000
160
15
35
1,100

Installation: Over 100 have been licensed and built.

Licensor: Bechtel Corp.
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Dewaxing
Application: Selectively convert feedstocks waxy molecules by isomeriza-

Makeup hydrogen

Process gas

tion in the presence of ISODEWAXING Catalysts. The high-quality products can meet stringent cold flow properties and viscosity index (VI) requirements for Group II or Group III baseoils.

Naphtha
1

Description: ISODEWAXING Catalysts are very special catalysts that convert feedstocks with waxy molecules (containing long, paraffinic chains)
into two or three main branch isomers that have low-pour points. The
product also has low aromatics content. Typical feeds are: raffinates,
slack wax, foots oil, hydrotreated VGO, hydrotreated DAO and unconverted oil from hydrocracking.
As shown in the simplified flow diagram, waxy feedstocks are mixed
with recycle hydrogen and fresh makeup hydrogen, heated and charged
to a reactor containing ISODEWAXING Catalyst (1). The effluent will
have a much lower pour point and, depending on the operating severity,
the aromatics content is reduced by 5080% in the dewaxing reactor.
In a typical configuration, the effluent from a dewaxing reactor is
cooled down and sent to a finishing reactor (2) where the remaining
single ring and multiple ring aromatics are further saturated by the ISOFINISHING Catalysts. The effluent is flashed in high-pressure and lowpressure separators (3, 4). Small amounts of light products are recovered
in a fractionation system (5).

Yields: The base oil yields strongly depend on the feedstocks. For a typical low wax content feedstock, the base oil yield can be 9095%. Higher
wax feed will have a little lower base oil yield.

Economics:
Investment: This is a moderate investment process; for a typical size
ISODEWAXING/ISOFINISHING Unit, the capital for ISBL
is about $8,000/bpsd.

Jet

Diesel

Light base oil

Fresh feed

Medium
base oil

6
4

Heavy base oil

Utilities: Typical per bbl feed:

Power, kWh
Fuel , kcal
Steam, superheated, required, kg
Steam, saturated, produced, kg
Water, cooling, kg
Chemical-hydrogen consumption, Nm3/m3 oil

3.3
13.4 x 103
5.3
2.4
192
30~50

Installation: More than 14 units are in operation and 7 units are in various stages of design or construction.

Reference: NPRA Annual Meeting, March 2005, San Francisco, Paper

AM-05-39.

Licensor: Chevron Lummus Global LLC.

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Dewaxing/wax deoiling
Application: Bechtels Dewaxing/Wax Fractionation processes are used
to remove waxy components from lubrication base-oil streams to simultaneously meet desired low-temperature properties for dewaxed oils
and produce hard wax as a premium byproduct.
Description: Bechtels two-stage solvent dewaxing process can be expanded to simultaneously produce hard wax by adding a third deoiling
stage using the Wax Fractionation process. Waxy feedstock (raffinate,
distillate or deasphalted oil) is mixed with a binary-solvent system and
chilled in a very closely controlled manner in scraped-surface doublepipe exchangers (1) and refrigerated chillers (2) to form a wax/oil/solvent
slurry.
The slurry is filtered through the primary filter stage (3) and dewaxed
oil mixture is routed to the dewaxed oil recovery section (6) to separate
solvent from oil. Prior to solvent recovery, the primary filtrate is used to
cool the feed/solvent mixture (1).
Wax from the primary stage is slurried with cold solvent and filtered
again in the repulp filter (4) to reduce the oil content to approximately
10%. The repulp filtrate is reused as dilution solvent in the feed chilling
train. The low-oil content slack wax is warmed by mixing with warm
solvent to melt the low-melting-point waxes (soft wax) and is filtered in
a third stage filtration (5) to separate the hard wax from the soft wax.
The hard and soft wax mixtures are each routed to solvent recovery sections (7,8) to remove solvent from the product streams (hard wax and
soft wax). The recovered solvent is collected, dried (9) and recycled back
to the chilling and filtration sections.

5
Refrigerant

Refrigerant

8
Hard wax

Solvent
recovery
Water

Steam
Waxy feed

Soft wax

Dewaxed
oil

Steam
Water

Refrigerant
Process stream

Utilities, typical per bbl feed:

Fuel, 103 Btu (absorbed)

Electricity, kWh
Steam, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

230
25
25
1,500

Installation: Seven in service.

Licensor: Bechtel Corp.

Economics:
Investment (Basis: 7,000-bpsd feedrate
capacity, 2008 US Gulf Coast), $/bpsd

20,000

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Slack wax deoiling

Application: Process to produce high-melting and low-oil containing

Wash solvent from

solvent recovery

hard wax products for a wide range of applications.

Gas holder

Refrigeration
unit

Feeds: Different types of slack waxes from lube dewaxing units, includ-

From heat
exchangers

ing macrocrystalline (paraffinic) and microcrystalline wax (from residual

oil). Oil contents typically range from 525 wt%.

Scraped
exchangers

Feed

Products: Wax products with an oil content of less than 0.5 wt%, except
for the microcrystalline paraffins, which may have a somewhat higher
oil content. The deoiled wax can be processed further to produce highquality, food-grade wax.

Stm

Description: Warm slack wax is dissolved in a mixture of solvents and

cooled by heat exchange with cold main filtrate. Cold wash filtrate
is added to the mixture, which is chilled to filtration temperature in
scraped-type coolers. Crystallized wax is separated from the solution in
a rotary drum filter (stage 1). The main filtrate is pumped to the soft-wax
solvent recovery section. Oil is removed from the wax cake in the filter
by thorough washing with chilled solvent.
The wax cake of the first filter stage consists mainly of hard wax and
solvent but still contains some oil and soft wax. Therefore, it is blown off
the filter surface and is again mixed with solvent and repulped in an agitated vessel. From there the slurry is fed to the filter stage 2 and the wax
cake is washed again with oil-free solvent. The solvent containing hard
wax is pumped to a solvent recovery system. The filtrate streams of filter
stage 2 are returned to the process, the main filtrate as initial dilution to
the crystallization section, and the wash filtrate as repulp solvent.
The solvent recovery sections serve to separate solvent from the
hard wax respectively from the soft wax. These sections yield oil-free
hard wax and soft wax (or foots oil).

To refrigeration unit

Feed/
filtrate
exchangers

Rotating
vacuum
filter 1
To
refrigeration
unit

Feed
vessel
1

Rotating
vacuum
filter 2
Feed
vessel
2

Initial
dilution

Hard wax/solvent
mix to solvent
recovery

Soft wax/solvent mix

to solvent recovery

Utility requirements (slack wax feed containing 20 wt% oil, per metric
ton of feed):

Steam, LP, kg
Water, cooling, m3
Electricity, kWh

1,500
120
250

Installation: Wax deoiling units have been added to existing solvent dewaxing units in several lube refineries. The most recent reference includes the revamp of a dewaxing unit into two-stage wax deoiling; this
unit went onstream in 2005.

Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

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Wax hydrotreating
Application: Hydrogen finishing technology has largely replaced clay
treatment of low-oil-content waxes to produce food- and medicinalgrade product specifications (color, UV absorbency and sulfur) in new
units. Advantages include lower operating costs, elimination of environmental concerns regarding clay disposal and regeneration, and higher
net wax product yields.
Bechtel has been offering for license the Wax Hy-Finishing process.
Bechtel now is marketing a line of modular, standard hydrogen finishing units for wax treatment. Standard sizes are 500, 1,000, 2,000 and
3,000-bpsd feedrate.
The core of the unit is standardized; however, individual modules are
modified as needed for specific client needs. This unit will be fabricated
to industry standards in a shop environment and delivered to the plant
site as an essentially complete unit. Cost and schedule reductions of at
least 20% over conventional stick-built units are expected. The standard
licensors process guarantees and contractors performance guarantees
(hydraulic and mechanical) come with the modules.

Description: Hard-wax feed is mixed with hydrogen (recycle plus makeup), preheated, and charged to a fixed-bed hydrotreating reactor (1).
The reactor effluent is cooled in exchange with the mixed feed-hydrogen
stream. Gas-liquid separation of the effluent occurs first in the hot separator (2) then in the cold separator (3). The hydrocarbon liquid stream
from each of the two separators is sent to the product stripper (4) to
remove the remaining gas and unstabilized distillate from the wax product, and the product is dried in a vacuum flash (5). Gas from the cold
separator is either compressed and recycled to the reactor or purged
from the unit if the design is for once-through hydrogen.

Offgas
1
3
Feed
Unstable naphtha

START

2
H2

5
Wax product

Utilitiies, typical per bbl feed:

Fuel, 103 Btu (absorbed)

Electricity, kWh
Steam, lb
Water, cooling (25F rise), gal

30
5
25
300

Licensor: Bechtel Corp.

Economics:
Investment (Basis 2,000-bpsd feedrate capacity,

2008 US Gulf Coast), $/bpsd

11,000
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White oil and wax hydrotreating

Makeup hydrogen

Application: Process to produce white oils and waxes.

Purge
Tailgas

Feeds: Nonrefined as well as solvent- or hydrogen-refined naphthenic or

Reactor

paraffinic vacuum distillates or deoiled waxes.

H2
recycle

Oil
stripper

Reactor

Purge
H2
recycle

Products: Technical- and medical-grade white oils and waxes for plasticizer, textile, cosmetic, pharmaceutical and food industries. Products are
in accordance with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations and the German Pharmacopoeia (DAB 8 and DAB 9) specifications.

Stm

Food or
medicinalgrade
white oil

Description: This catalytic hydrotreating process uses two reactors. Hydrogen and feed are heated upstream of the first reaction zone (containing a
special presulfided NiMo/alumina catalyst) and are separated downstream
of the reactors into the main product and byproducts (hydrogen sulfide
and light hydrocarbons). A stripping column permits adjusting product
specifications for technical-grade white oil or feed to the second hydrogenation stage.
When hydrotreating waxes, however, medical quality is obtained
in the one-stage process. In the second reactor, the feed is passed
over a highly active hydrogenation catalyst to achieve a very low level
of aromatics, especially of polynuclear compounds. This scheme permits each stage to operate independently and to produce technical- or
medical-grade white oils separately. Yields after the first stage range
from 85% to 99% depending on feedstock. Yields from the second
hydrogenation step are nearly 100%. When treating waxes, the yield
is approximately 98%.

Stripped oil

Feed
First stage
Technical white oil
or fully refined wax

Second stage
Food or medicinalgrade white oil

Technical grade white

oil or fully-refined wax

Installation: Four installations use the Uhde (Edeleanu) proprietary technology, one of which has the largest capacity worldwide.
Licensor: Uhde GmbH.

Utility requirements (typical, Middle East Crude), units per m3 of feed:

1st stage for
2nd stage for Food-grade

techn. white oil
med. white oil
wax
Electricity, kWh
Steam, LP, kg
Water, cooling, m3
Hydrogen, kg

197
665
48
10.0

130
495
20
2.6

70
140
7
1.6

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