WELCOME TO THE TRAINING

ON KILN OPERATION &

OPTIMISATION

Raw mix characteristics

What is cement ?
Cement is a substance (often a ceramic) that by a chemical
reaction binds particulates aggregates into a cohesive structure.
( hydraulic binder). The quality of raw material is the main point
in maintaining of quality of cement. The mineral compounds
containing the main components of cement: lime, silica, alumina
and iron oxide are used in cement manufacturing process.
Therefore it is usually necessary to select a measured mixture of a
high lime component with a component which is lower in lime,
containing however more silica, alumina and iron oxide
(clay component). The purpose of calculating the composition
of the raw mix is to determine the quantitative proportions of the
raw components, in order to give the clinker the desired chemical
and mineralogical composition

Factors influencing the cement quality

1. Mechanical handling of clinker

2. Chemical and mineralogical
composition of raw mix
3. Chemical and mineralogical composition
of clinker
4. Burning process & cooling process
5. Chemical composition of fuels (ash)
6. Circulation phenomena (volatiles)

quality

Process flow sheet

CBA analyzer

CBA analyzer

X ray
analyzer

OPC, PPC, WC, OWC, SRC,SC

Cement quality type of cement

Ordinary portland cement,
Pozalona portland cement
White cement,
Oil well cement,
Sulfate resistant cement,
Slag cement
Other cements for special application

Gpsum&fly ash or
Other additive quality
Clinker quality
Fuel chemistry

Raw mix design

Characteristics of raw meal

Physical charateristics
Particle size & shape
particle size distribution
Homogenity

Chemical
characterictics
Chemical composition

Mineralogical
Morphology
( crystal size of
minerals &
Cystal distribution)

Chemical composition of cement raw materials and mix

lime
stone

marl

clay

sand

rawmix

Weight loss %
Ig loss

40-44

2 -42

1 - 20

Up to 5
%

32 - 36

SiO2

0.5 - 3

3 - 50

37 -78

80 - 99

12 -16

Al2O3+TiO2 0.1 - 1

1 - 20

7 -30

0.5 - 3

2 -5

Fe2O3
+Mn2O3

0.1 -0.5

0.5 -10 2 -15

0.5 - 2

Up to 2

CaO

52 - 55

5 - 52

0.5 2.5

0.1-3

40 -45

MgO

0.5 - 5

0.5 -5

Up to 5

Up to 0.5 0.3 - 3

SO3

Up to 0.1 0.1 0.4

Up to 3

Upto 0.5

Up to 1.2

K2O

Upto 0.3

0.1 - 4

0.5 - 5

Up to 1

0.2 1.4

Na2O

Upto 0.1

Upto
0.2

0.1 0.3

Up to 0.5 Up to 0.3

Cl

0.01 0.1

Physical characteristics
of Raw meal

Particle size & Particle size distribution

An efficient separator & efifcient grinding system narrow down
the particle distribution. Wide distribution means heterogenity in physical
and chemical characteristics of
raw meal.

Optical micrograph and super imposed size analysis

of quality audit standards

Minerals in a lime stone

Calcite-rhombo

Calcite-cubic

quartz

Silica sand

Kaolinite

Lime stone
Pure lime stone
only Calcite > 99 % CaCO3

Impure lime stone imbedded

with silicates and other minerals

temperature

pure calcite

Impure calcite
CO2

heat

time

Well developed quarry

In a well developed mine, the mines manager knows where what and how much is
available?
If quality is controlled in mines then the quality variation is minimised to a great
extent through mines blend program through griging or geostatics

Benches (10 M height)

Influence of efficient mining on quality

From mines
(input to stacker)

Outlet of mill
Output of
blending
System& input
To raw mill

Std
LSF

time

Control on chemistry

Std of LSF =1
SIM=0.2

Std of ,CaO < 0.2

Main parameters for raw mix design

Lime saturation factor = CaO / (2.8 SiO2+1.65Al2O3 + 0.65 Fe2O3)

( LSF)
Here we have apply the formula (as per British Standard)

LSF

Silica modulus

CaO-0.7SO3
(2.8*SiO2 + 1.2* Al2O3 + 0.65*Fe2O3)

= SiO2 / ( Al2O3+Fe2O3)

(SIM)

Alumina modulus = Al2O3 / Fe2O3

AlM

Lime saturation factor on clinker basis

If MgO is below 2 %
LSF = 100( CaO free CaO+0.75 MgO)
(2.85 SiO2) + ( 1.18 Al2O3) +(0.65 Fe2O3)
If MgO is above 2 %
LSF = 100( CaO free CaO+1.5 MgO)
(2.85 SiO2) + ( 1.18 Al2O3) +(0.65 Fe2O3)
> 99 hard to burn, tendency to high free lime & C3S clinker , high early strength
high fuel consumption
< 99 , easy to burn , excess coating , excess liquid phase , possible brick infiltration
reduced cement strength , low free lime
acceptable standard deviation = 1.2

Effect of modulie
Effects: Higher LSF
Imparts harder burning & entails higher fuel consumption.
Tends to produce unsound cement.
Increases C3S content, reduces C2S content.
Causes slow setting with high strengths of cement.
Improves the grind ability characteristics of clinker.
Lower LSF:
Low lime contents, lower will be strength

Effects :High Ms
Results in hard burning & high fuel consumption.
Causes Unsoundness.
Difficulty in coating formation.
Deteriorates Kiln Lining.
Results in slow setting and hardening of cement
Lower Ms:
Increases liquid phase.
This improves burnability of the clinker and the formation of coating in kiln

Hydraulic modulus

HM= CaO/(SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3)

Limiting Range:- 1.7-2.3
The Hydraulic Modulus of good quality cements was approximately
2. Cement with HM<1.7 showed mostly insufficient
strength and cement with HM>2.3 and more had poor
stability of volume. It was found that with an increasing
HM, more heat is required for clinker burning.
The strengths, especially initial strengths step up and also the
heat of hydration rises. Simultaneously the
resistance to chemical attack decreases. At times
the Hydraulic Modulus is still used. Later for
a better evaluation of the cement, the Silica ratio,
Alumina ratio were introduced; to certain degree these
ratios supplement the hydraulic modulus.

Effects: Higher MA
Imparts harder burning & e tails higher fuel
consumption.
Increases the C3A and reduces C4AF contents
Increases both C3S and C2S (C3S>C2S)
Reduces the liquid phase and kiln output
Tends to render quick setting and strong at early ages.
Increases viscosity of liquid phase in raw mix
MA determines the role of Fluxes in raw mix
MA <1.23: - Al2O3 acts as Flux
MA >1.23: - Fe2O3 acts as Flux
Lower MA
If MA is too low and raw mix is without free silica,
clinker sticking and balling is high.
Parameters influencing the burnability:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Residue on 212-micron sieve.

Residue on 90 micron sieve
Size distribution of free silica
Degree of homogeneity (both chemical & mineral)
Liquid phase of clinkering temperatures.
Moisture content of raw meals

Characterization of kiln feed

1.
2.
3.
4.
6
7
8

Mineralogical Make-up
Reactivity and Burnability.
Volatility.
Optimum fineness & specific surface for effective burning.
Level of free quartz , calcite and its size distribution.
Sensitivity of free quartz content & size with KF burnability.
Minor elements level (Mg, Na ,K, S, P) & their effect on
kiln feed burn ability and volatility.

In homogeneous

homogeneous

Kiln feed uniformity index (KFUI)

KFUI= n
i-n

( C3S

actual

- C3S

target

)2

C3S actual = the calculated C3S of one instantaneous daily sample of kiln raw mix feed
C3S Target = the C3S target established for the mill product
n = number of samples ( calculation of average C3S is done monthly)
Target for KFUI is < 10
( an instantaneous sample is one made up of 5 consecutive increments taken at short intervals)

Homogenising systems

3.1 Variabilitv and standard deviation

The normally accepted method of measuring variability is in the form of a term called
standard deviation. The standard deviation of a property can be calculated by taking a
number of measurements on the property (such as LSF, SR etc.), and applying the
following formula:-

(X -X)
N-1

Where X is the measured variable (e.g. LSF)

X is the variable mean (or average)
N is the number of measurements or observations
Table 1 illustrates a worked example using actual kiln feed LSF data:Blending ratio = Std in/ Std out , = 1 for an ideal blending system.

Different stacking system

Stacking and reclaiming sytem is selected on the basis of material characteristics like
Moisture , variability in mines, size and size distribution of particles.

Circular stock pile

Reclaiming zone
Blended zone

Stacking zone

Longitudinal stock pile

End cone problem

Linear stock pile

End cone problems

Blending ratio = S

in

/S

out

Well blended slice without end cone

More variation, high std

Less variation, low std

Blending silo

Average clinker composition

95 %
CaO
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3

65.4
22.2
5.0
2.8

5%

MgO

1.80

SO3

0.54

K2O

0.63

Na2O

0.25

TiO2

0.27

Mn2O3 0.09
P2O5

0.14

Cl-

0.01

F-

0.08

LOI: 0.3 %

Milestones in clinker formation

Dehydration
Decarbonation

Belite formation
Liquid phase
formation

Alite
formation
200

400

800
600
1000
Temperature [C]

1200

1400

Clinker manufacture
Mineral phases in clinker

Calcite CaCO3
Dolomite
CaMg(CO3)2
Quartz SiO2
Clay minerals
Micas
Feldspars
Aluminum oxide
Pyrite
Iron oxide
Gypsum / anhydrite

Temperature
Pressure
Time

Mineral phases in raw meal

Alite
Belite
Aluminate
Ferrite
Free lime(un wanted)
Periclase(un wanted)
Alkali
sulfates(unwanted)

Potential clinker composition

The chemical analysis presents a picture of the composition of
the oxides in the clinker. There are four mineralogical phases
are C3S (alite), C2S (belite), C3A (Aluminate), C4AF (Ferrite) in
the clinker which can be derived from chemical analysis
according Bogue formula. Some other minute phases also
exist in clinker C2(A,F), Free lime, MgO (periclase)
(Note: C3S- gives initial strength, C2S- final strength,
C3A- setting time, C4AF- some setting property & color)
the clinker of Portland cement approximately contains the
following composition.

Microphotograph of clinker

Parameters for good clinker:

%
T.CaO
64-66

% FreeCaO

% MgO

%(K2O,
Na2O)

%SO3

<1.5

<2.0

<1.2

<0.5

MINEROLOGY:
Alite 45-55%, C3A 9-11%, C4AF 12%
Phase Stabilisation:
/ / only for belite and not significant for others.
Average Crystal size: 35-40 micron
Crystal Morphology:
Alite: prismatic hexagonal
Belite: round
C3A: Fine crystals in matrix.
Crystal Distribution:
Minimum clustering, total porosity: 25-30%
Litre weight: 1150-1350 g/l
Granulometry : not more than 15% below 0.5mm

To achieve the goal of smooth kiln operation it is necessary to know

which parameters in the raw mix influence kiln operation
How and why they influence operation
What can be done about it
Three concepts in the reation between raw meal characteristics and
Kiln operation is treated , namely.
the burnability of raw mix
the clinker formation treated as a physical agglomeration process and
The circulation phenomenon of volatile matter in a kiln system

Required burning zone temperature

RBT = 1300 OF+4.51C3S (3.74C3A +12.64 C4AF )
Clinker liquid phase ( % L.P)
At
At
At
At

1340 OC ,( AR< 1.38 )

1340 o C , (AR > 1.38)
1400 o C,
1450 O C

L.P = 8.2 A 5.22 F + M + K + N +S

L.P = 6.1 F + M + N +K + S
L.P = 2.95 A+2.20 F+M+N+K+S
L.P = 3.0 A +2.25 F+M+N+K+S

Potential free lime ( PFL)

PFL = ( 6.77+(0.05C3S))-((0.15C3A)+(0.56C4AF)
To make a good clinker the liquid content must be optimum
and with right viscosity.

Variation in % liquid phase at 1338 deg c

With change in Silica ratio and alumina ratio at 100 % LSF
3

Alumina ratio A/F

2.5

15 %

20%

40 %

1.5

35 %

30 %

25 %

15 %

1
0.5
1

1.5
2
Silica ratio S/ ( A+F)

2.5

Influence of minor components on liquid properties

Minor
Influence on liquid formation
components
MgO

Can increase the liquid phase present at burning zone

temperature

K2O , Na2O
and SO3

Forms a separate liquid to the main oxide flux at

around 1250 deg c . At higher temperatures it is partially
miscible and results in both a higher viscosity and
higher surface tension. Overall effect is to accelerate
the formation nodules at a lower temperature but restrict
their growth resulting in dustier clinker.

Mn2O3

Behaves similarly to Fe2O3 in increasing the level of

flux and reducing its viscosity

Cl, F

Lowers the liquid viscosity

Trace metals

Can either increase or decrease both liquid viscosity

and surface tension depending upon the
electronegativity of the ions and alumina ratio .

Raw material particles

Before the reaction

Raw material particles

during the reaction

Schematic illustration
Of clinker at 1400 deg C

Radial cross section of rotary kiln

Free board

Passive layer

Active layer

Higher the rpm more the area of active layer which reduces
free lime due to intense stirring there by improving
better heat exchange.It also improves nodulisation.

Influence of revolutions / minute on kiln operation

Lower rpm , high % filling , less active
Layer , high free lime, high radiation
losses

high rpm , low % filling , more active

Layer , low free lime and low radiation
losses

Optimum % filling = 9 11 with raw meal retention time of 20 -25 minutes

unfavorable

favorable

Influence of revolutions / minute on kiln operation

High degee of filling brings the surface of the charge closer to the flame
envelope. In this case there is a chance of chars trapped inside the charge causing
localised reduced conditions and increases volatile cycle.

unfavorable

favorable

Sequence of chemical reactions in cement rotary kiln,

temperature and energy input

Properties of liquid
Properties of the liquid phase Temperature has the most
pronounced effect on liquid-phase viscosity. Increasing the
burning temperature by 93degrees C (199degrees F), reduces
liquid viscosity by 70% for a regular Type 1 clinker. This simple fact
explains why hotter-than-normal temperatures are beneficial
to clinkering yet potentially harmful to the refractory
lining, as shown in Photo 1.MgO, alkali sulphates, fluorides,
and chlorides also reduce liquid-phase viscosity. Extreme caution
should be exerted when insufflating calcium chloride into the burning
zone as a way to reduce alkali in the clinker. The injection
of sodium carbonate into the burning zone also is detrimental
to the refractory lining.Free alkali and phosphorus increase
liquid-phase viscosity, but this effect is offset by MgO and SO3. Only
Clinkers with sulphate-alkali ratio lower than 0.83 and low MgO would
experience the negative effects of high liquid viscosity.

The liquid-phase viscosity increases linearly with the alumina-iron ratio.

For a given burning temperature, high C3A clinkers tend to nodulize
better than low C3A clinkers. Moreover, the liquid phase is considerably
less damaging to the refractory lining when the liquid is viscous.
Another important property of the liquid phase is its surface tension, or its
ability to "wet" the lining. The surface tension has a direct impact
on clinker fineness, coating adherence to the lining and clinker quality.
High surface tension values favor nodule formation and liquid penetration through
the nodules. The resulting clinker contains less dust
(fraction below 32 mesh) and lower free lime content. A liquid phase
with high surface tension has less tendency to wet the brick surface,
therefore reducing clinker coatability or adherence to the lining.
Alkali, MgO, and SO3 reduce liquid surface tension, as does temperature. Sulphur
and potassium have the strongest effects, followed by sodium
and magnesium. Therefore, MgO, SO3, and K2O are good coating promoters.
Conclusions Although the amount of liquid phase in the burning and transition zones of the kiln
is important to clinker formation and brick performance, the
rheological properties of the melt are even more important.
The rheological properties of the clinker melt control parameters,
such as clinker mineral formation, clinker coatability, clinker fineness,
cement strength, and refractory depth of infiltration.
It is then very important to keep fuel and raw materials properties and flame
temperature as steady as possible. Whenever introducing
drastic changes in raw material or fuel properties, the
refractory lining must be changed accordingly to meet the differences
in clinker coatability and burnability. This proves particularly true
when adding slags, kiln dust, or solid wastes to the kiln.

Milestones in clinker formation (2)

Belite formation (700 1200 C)
2 CaO + SiO2
Ca2SiO4
Solid state reaction
Reaction rate depends on contact surface between reactants
(diffusion of Ca2+)
Raw meal fineness: 15 % R90&1.5% R212

Raw material

Marl

Limestone, sand

Fast

Slow

SiO2
CaO
Reaction rate

Ratio of 90 / 212 = 8 9 must never be distributed

Milestones in clinker formation (3)

Alite formation (1250 1450 C)

Ca2SiO4 + CaO

Ca3SiO4

Reaction rate depending on:

Quantity and viscosity of the melt
Diffusion distance between the reactants
Formation of liquid phase (1250 C)
Pure system Al2O3 CaO eutectic point at 1338 C
In clinker system other elements (e.g. MgO, Na2O) 1250 C

Milestones in clinker formation (3)

Alite formation (1250 1450 C)
Ca2SiO4 + CaO

Ca3SiO4

Reaction rate depending on:

Quantity and viscosity of the melt
Diffusion distance between the reactants
Formation of liquid phase (1250 C)
Pure system Al2O3 CaO eutectic point at 1338 C
In clinker system other elements (e.g. MgO, Na2O) 1250 C

Relevance of the liquid phase

Significance for
Clinker granulation
Coating (but also formation of rings)
Rate of alite formation

Typical amount 20 30 %
Dry:
23 %
Normal:
23 27 %
Wet
27%

Viscosity:
Decreases with increasing temperature
Depending on composition and minor elements
Reduced by Na2O, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, MnO
Increased by SiO2, Al2O3

What is free lime ?

Have you seen a clinker with 0 % free lime ?
Free lime exists ,Is it because mis match of stoichiometry ?
Or is it because of unreacted calcite ?
Is it possible to reduce the free lime by increasing the liquid % ?
Or by reducing the LSF ?
Is it possible to reduce the free lime by overburning or heating the kiln
beyond the reaction temperature ?
0.5 %

1600

C3S formation

1500

1.5

1400

1300

1100

1200

1300
1400
Liter weight, gms/liter

1500

2.5
1600

Free lime

temperature

1700

How to determine what constitutes a coarse grain?

The following particle sizes have been found critical for residual free lime

Quartz and silicates : + 45 microns

Calcite
: + 125 microns

It has been found that at 1400 deg C an increase in the amount of coarse
Particles results in the following increase in free lime
+ 1 % quartz + 45 microns leads to + 0.93 % free lime
+ 1 % Calcite + 125 microns leads to + 0.56% free CaO

The following formula may be used for estimating the free CaO at 1400 Deg C
CaO

1400

= 0.33.( LSF 95)+1.8.(Ms -2) + 0.93.SiO2(+45 mic) +0.56.caCO3(+125 mic)

Clinker/Kiln
Operation
Possible
Effects:

Cement
Performance
Possible
Effects:

BEFORE

AFTER burning harder

large variations
in free lime
poor belite
distribution

decrease in free lime

low porosity, difficult grindability
large alite
possible poor nodulization
variation in alkali sulfate
content
kiln on the hot side
increase in alkalis and sulfate in
kiln internal cycle, possible
surges, potential for buildups
low porosity makes it hard to
cool
lower clinker reactivity
color differences, brown clinker
center

possible erratic
expansion
results due to
free lime

increased water demand

decreased early strength and
increased
admixture incompatibility later
strength during periods where
alkalis
abnormalities in setting
behavior are decreasing
pack set due to static charge
(large alites)

Before

After burning harder

Clinker
Potential
Effects:

poor
distribution of
free lime and
belite

good distribution of free

lime
good distribution of belite
better clinker uniformity
kiln is easier to control

Cement
Performan
ce
Potential
Effects:

possible
erratic
expansion
results due to
free lime

less variability, more

uniformity
smaller alite crystals,
enhanced reactivity,
possibly allowing lower
cement fineness.

Effect of raw mix changes on resulting free lime

LSF = 98
MS= 2.5
CaCO3 125 =7.2 %
SiO2 = +44 =1.2 %
17% .4900

LSF = 98
MS= 2.5
CaCO3 125 =5 %
SiO2 = +44 =1.2 %
12% .4900

LSF = 98
MS= 2.5
CaCO3 125 =5 %
SiO2 = +44 =1.2 %
12% .4900

% estimated
8
7
6
5
4

CaCO3 125 =0.56 %

SiO2 = +44 =0.93 %

3
2
1
O

chemistry
1400

1450

1500

1550

Burnability index =

C3 S/ ( C3A + C4AF)

% liquid

30
20

15

1300

1400

1500

Deg C

Formation and size of nodules and formation of C3S at various temperatures both
as a function of time.
D max

Dmm

time

Amount of C3S
T1

T2

T3

T1> T2> T3
time

Behaviour of volatiles

Chloride reacts primarily with alkalis forming NaCl and KCl . Any chloride in
In excess of alkali will combine with calcium to form CaCl2.
A part of the alkalis in excess of chloride combine with sulphur to form
Na2SO4, K2SO4 and double salts such as Ca2K2(SO4)2
Alkalis not combined with chloride or sulphur will be present as Na2O and
K2O embedded in the clinker minerals
Sulphur in excess of alklis combine with CaO to form CaSO4

Kiln process
Volatile matter
Burning zone

Back end etc

e

d
b

V
a

1.Evaporation factor

2.Valve

V = e / d = (a-c) / ( b-c)

3.Circulation factor

K=b/a

4 .Residual component

R=c/a

d/b = (b-c) / b = 1- c/b

Evoporation n factor = 1 - % within clinker

% at kiln inlet ( LOI free basis)
= 1 means all evoporates and nothing leaves with the clinker
= 0 means nothing evaporates and all leave with the clinker
Average evaporation factors of various compounds
KCl

Cl-free
K2O

Na2O

Cl

Alkali
SO3

Excess
SO3

Evaporatio 0.990 n factor

0.996

0.10
0.40

0.10
0.25

0.990
0.996

0.30
0.90

0.75

Pre heater 0.05

value

0.15

0.05
0.2

0.05

0.05
0.25

0.42

Filter
value

0 0.10

0 0.15

0 0.10

0 -0.20

0.80

0
0.10

Melting points and boiling points

Na

K
compound

Melting point Boiling point

( O C)
( O C)

Melting point Boiling point

( O C)
( O C)

- oxide

Decomp.

350

sublime

1275

- carbonate

894

Decomp.

850

Decomp.

- sulphate

1074

1689

884

- chloride

768

1411

801

1440

- hdroxide

360

1320

328

1390

ASR Alkali-Sulfur ratio

SO3
Alk

=
optimum

SO3
80
K2O
94

= 1.1

Na2O
+ 0.5 .
62

The sulphur and alkalis is the total input. If ratio exceeds 1.1 it is held that an
amount of sulphur is present in the kiln material which is not covered b alkalis
and as excess sulphur will form CaSO4.
The amount of excess sulfur ( E.S) is expressed in grams SO3 per 100 Kgs
And calculated according to the equation
E.S = 1000 .SO3 850 .K2O 650 . Na2O ( gr SO3/ 100 kg clinker)
The limit on excess sulfur is given to be in the range of 250 600 g / 100 Kg clinker

For easy burning raw mix the high value 600 gram SO3 / 100 kg clinker should
Present no problems for the kiln opeartion , but for hard burning raw mix the lower
Value is the limit. Above these limits , the sulphur will give rise to coating problems
In the pre heater tower.

The amount of excess sulphur ( E.S) is expressed in grams per 100 Kg clinker
And calculated according to the equation
E.S = 1000.SO3 - 850.K2O 650 .Na2O ( gr SO3/ 100 Kg clinker)
The limit on excess sulphur is given to be in the range of 250 600 g / 100 Kg clinker

Volatile Matter typical values for and V

symp K2O
ol

Na2O

Cl

SO3

0.20 0.4

0.10 0.25

0.9900.996

0.35 0.80

Wet module-op-kiln Vo

0.5

0.7

0.7

0.6

-Wet dust op-kiln

Vo

0.4

0.6

0.6

0.4

Long dry kiln

Vo

0.2

0.5

0.6

0.4

1-stage kiln

Vo

0.55

0.8

0.8

0.35

2-stages kiln

Vo

0.7

0.85

0.85

0.6

4-stages kiln

Vo

-1

-1

-1

-1

Evaporation factor
Kiln Value

sympol
Precalciner kiln

K2O

Na2O

Cl

SO3

-1

-1

-1

-1

Cyclone preheater
value

Vc

-1 stage

Vc

0.5

0.5

0.35

0.45

-2 stages

Vc

0.2

0.45

0.2

0.3

-4 stages

Vm

0.15

0.4

0.05

0.15-0.5

Dedusting cyclone
Value

Vkt

0.6

0.7

0.5

0.55

Raw mill value

Vt

0.6

0.8

0.7

0.3

Cooling tower value

-1

-1

-1

-1

Elec precipitator
value

0.4

0.7

0.3

0.5- 0.8

Hard-burnt clinker limits the early strength

potential and promotes the late strength
potential.

This clinker does not need microscopy to

state a very hard burning regime, a bad
grindability and a modest early strength
potential. The clinker had been sent to be
investigated because of client complaints
about long setting times: Initial setting
time 200 min, final setting time 450 min.

How to assess and understand burnability (cont.)

Characteristics considered to influence burnability:

Chemical composition
LS
SR (quantity of liquid phase)
AR (viscosity of liquid phase)
Other influences: F, P2O5, MgO, SO3, alkalis
Micro-homogeneity
Size and distribution of minerals in kiln feed
Mineralogical composition
difficult to
react

Easy to
react
Clay

Mica

Feldspar

Quartz

refractory minerals
(mullite, corundum)

Pictoral representation
Of clinker micrograph

Mgo

C4AF

CaO

C3S

C3A
C2S

What is portland cement clinker

Macroscopic
A gray, granulated, rocky material
Grain size 0 50 mm

Microscopic
A mixture of different mineral phases
Particle size 0 100 m

Uniform Nodule Sizes

Rather uniform-sized nodules are ingeneral an

advantage regarding burning efforts and uniform
degree of burning.

Quickly cooled clinkers are favourable for the early strength potential; no
alite is lost. The fine crystalline liquid phase prevents aluminate from an early
hydration. The influence of aluminate on the setting time is limited in quickly
cooled clinker.

Dusty Clinker

Elevated amount of clinker fines are especially common in high LS or

high SR clinkers. A low AR and high S content can also contribute to
clinker fines. These fines are a heat carrier in the kiln atmosphere and
contribute to a flat temperature profile.

The setting time is in tendency shortened by elevated amounts of coarse

crystalline aluminate and extended by high burning efforts; compensating
influences are possible. Decomposition effects due to slow cooling impair both
early and late strength potential.

Dusty clinker impairs the clinker grindability in tube mills

above Blaine values of > 2000.

Increasing free lime contents (

) which are still below the expansion
risk level lead to shortened setting times, to slightly elevated early
strength potentials and to a decrease of the late strength potential.

Free lime contents above 2% can create an expansion risk in concrete. Here we see crack
formations due to free lime hydration which are filled with portlandite. The volume increase
which accompanies the density change from 3.33 g/ccm of lime to 2.41g/ccm of portlandite
is visible.

Clinker Granulometry
Clinker granulometry

dust only

100
90

fine, dusty

80

normal, some dust

passing / %

70
60

coarse, no dust

50

very coarse, no dust

40
30
20
10
0
0.0

0.1

1.0

10.0

100.0

sieve size / mm
Graph: Stefan Gross

The clinker portion < 1mm is in general taken as an indicator of the dust load in
the burning process. Large kilns are more likely to have dusty clinkers. Highgrade corrective components or in general corrective components that are
difficult to grind or homogenize tend to contribute to elevated amounts of clinker
fines.

Reactions during clinker cooling

Resorption of alite
Liquid phase + C3S C2S + C3A + C2(A,F)

Decomposition of alite
very slow cooling
reducing conditions
C3S C2S + CaO

Crystallization of liquid phase

Slow cooling: large crystals improved reactivity

Cooling
Once the formation of the
C3S is complete,
there is no further value in
prolonging the process at
this elevated temperature.
The objective
now is to halt
further growth of
the C3S crystals
and to trap any
dis-solved MgO
present in the
amorphous
stage.

alit
alit
ee
belite
belite

aluminat
aluminat
ee

ferrite
ferrite
This final process is called
cooling, not just to reduce
the temperature, but to
freeze the crystal growth
and to convert the liquid
phase back to a solid for
easier transport.
At this point, C3A and C4AF
cool to form solids.

Influence of cooling on clinker phases

Fast cooling
Well distributed
small crystals

Slow cooling
Larger crystals

Clinker cooling

C3S

C3S

C2S

Clinker when it is quenched in cooler it creates micro cracks which

needs less energy for comminution during grinding.

Fig.1: Alite decomposition into

belite and free lime. 250 X

How fast must clinker be cooled ?

Clinker cooling takes place in two stages, the first
cooling stage occurring within the kiln, the second in the clinker cooler.
The rate of cooling within the kiln depends upon the flame length, the position
in the kiln and the throughput and speed of the kiln charge. The temperature
of clinker at the outlet of the kiln is around between 1350 oC and 1200 oC.
If the flame is long, this part of the cooling process will be very slow and alite
and belite can grow into an excessive crystal size. In some cases,
(when the cooler efficiency is low) alite
partially decomposes into belite and free lime (see fig. 1).
The texture of the solidified liquid phase is quite dependent on the cooling
rate. During slow cooling, the crystals have time to grow. Ferrite and
aluminate form a coarsely grained matrix (see fig. 2). Alternatively, if the
cooling process proceeds quickly, the opposite is true - the crystals are fine
grained (see fig. 3).

Fig.2: Differentiated aluminate (grey) and ferrite (white)

caused by slow cooling. 640 X Fig.3: Finely grained aluminate
and ferrite duCooling can also proceed so quickly that the crystals can
only form in the submicroscopic range. Distinction between aluminate and
ferrite is no longer possible by microscopy but can be effected by X-ray
methods.
Why raw meals must be homogeneous?
If the raw meal is homogeneous enough, units of varying sizes will exist
which do not have the required chemical composition. It can be easily
deduced from the phase diagram for the system CaO - Al2O3 - Fe2O3 SiO2 the
phase compositions which can coexist assuming different volumes to have
different chemical composition. In figure A the different phase
assemblages in the system CaO - Al2O3 - SiO2 can be seen.

Minor components have major influence on

burnability and cement properties. Many of
them act as fluxes and mineralisers in
burning. They change the course of the
reaction , morphology of the clinker and
cement properties.

Mineralisers
Mineraliser accelerates the C3S formation , increases rate of
conversion from C2S to C3S

Influence of minor components on the burnability of rawmeal , process and

Quality of cement
element

Content volatile/nonvolatile

Influence on
manufacturing
process

Influence on
hydraulic
reactivity

Influence on quality
of cement, strength
Early late

MgO

0.8 2.5 , non -volatile

1 1.5 % good
burability
good grindability
max limit -2.0%

C3S if it is less
than 2.0%

early sterngth up if
< 2.0%
late strength down
if > 2.0

Periclase
causes
expansion

SO3

0.2 0.9 % volatile

Less the better

Max limit < 0.5 %
If it is > 0.5 % coating
in preheater & kiln

C3S
C2S
C3A

Setting accelearted
Early strength up
Late strength down

Alkali
sulfate is
easily
formed

P2O5

0.1 0.34 % volatile

0.1 0.3
Max=0.5. If more
than 0.5% coating in
preheater

C3S

Early strength
remarkably up if <
0.5%
Early and late
strength down if >
0.5%

Na2O,
K2O

0.1 0.5 %
0.4 1.2 %
volatile

0.2 0.4 % good

burnability.If it is >1%
coating in preheater

In adm amount
C3S
C2S
C3A

Setting accelerated
Early strength up
Final strength down

TiO2

0.2 0.6

0.2 -0.4 % good

burbality
If it is > 0.5 % coating
in preheater

In adm amount
C3S

Setting retarder
Contardictary
results on strength

element

Content
volatile/nonvolatile

Influence on
manufacturing
process

Influence on
hydraulic
reactivity

Influence on quality of
cement

Cl

50 80 ppm

If >100 ppm coating

in preheater.Good
burnability

C3A

Accelerate setting
Initial strength up
Late strength
undefinite

Good burability as it
is flux

C3S
C2S
C3A
C4AF

Initial strength up
Final strength - down

BaO reacts with Silica

earlier than Cao.
Hence free lime
increases

C3S
C2S

Early strength up
Late strength down

Max = 2%. If >2 %

coating in preheater
Burning improved

C3S

Initial strength up
Final strength down

Mn

SrO,
BaO

900 ppm

Cemen
t color
change
to
green
0r blue

Thank you for your

kind attention
K.P.Pradeep kumar