Aerodynamics

A study guide on aerodynamics for the

Piper Archer

Aerodynamics
The purpose of this pilot briefing is to discuss

the simple and complex aerodynamics of the

Piper Archer.
Please use the following references:

Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

Flight Theory for Pilots

Aerodynamics-Basics
These fundamental basics first must be

acknowledged:

Air is a fluid. It can be compressed &

expanded

The atmosphere is composed of

78% nitrogen
21% oxygen
1% other gasses
Most of the oxygen is below 35,000 feet. (WHY?)

Aerodynamics-Basics
Newtons Laws of motion:

Law 1 A body at rest will remain at rest. A

body in motion will remain in motion
Law 2 F=MA Force is equal to mass times
acceleration
Law 3 For ever action there is an equal and
Low
opposite reaction

Pressure

Bernoullis principle of
Pressure:
An increase in the speed of
movement or flow will cause a
decrease in the fluids pressure.
- Example: the Venturi

Aerodynamics-Basics
Bernoullis principle:

Air going over a wing. Notice the shape of a wing creates a

Venturi. Thus, the low pressure develops on top.

Aerodynamics-Basics
Because air is a fluid, it utilizes the properties

of the Coanda effect: the tendency for a fluid

to follow the object along its flow path.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvLwqRC

bGKY
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S-SAQtO

DAQw

Aerodynamics - Stalls
When does an airplane stall?

When it exceeds the critical angle of attack.

What is angle of attack?

Angle of attack is the angle
between the chord line and the
relative wind
Chord line=the line
from the leading edge
of the wing to the
trailing edge
Relative
wind=perpendicular to
lift, relative to the airfoil

Aerodynamic-Stalls
Stall speed vs. Ground speed
An airplane will stall at the respected Indicated airspeed. It does

NOT matter what the groundspeed is!

If you have a stiff enough headwind at altitude, on a given day,

you can stall an airplane with a negative groundspeed.

Indicated airspeed is the speed read directly from the airspeed

indicator; it is the speed the plane thinks it is at.

Groundspeed is the speed of travel over the ground. There is

minimal correlation with indicated airspeed; because

groundspeed is dependent upon outside wind velocities.

Aerodynamics-Stalls
A stall occurs first at the wing root, then works out

toward the tip. This design characteristic is so that

you still maintain aileron control as long as possible.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9eoboZNL9R8
Stall speed refers to straight and level, 1G,

unaccelerated flight. Regardless of airspeed, the

plane will ALWAYS stall when the critical angle of
attack is exceeded.

Aerodynamics-Stability
The balance of an airplane in flight depends,

therefore on the relative position of the center

of gravity (CG) and the center of pressure
(CP) of the airfoil (PHAK 2-7).
What is center of pressure (CP)
Answer: CP is the point
where the resultant force
crosses the chord line.
Because AOA changes,
pressure forces (positive
and negative) are
constantly changing. The
resultant force is the total
positive and negative
forces for each angle of

Aerodynamics-Stability
Therefore, if AOA increases, CP moves

forward. If AOA decreases, CP moves aft.

As the CG and CP get closer, the

aircraft becomes less stable. The

farther apart they are, the more stable
the aircraft is.

Because CP is located aft of the CG,

the aircraft wants to tumble forward, as it

rotates around the CG. Hence, the
horizontal stabilizer, counteracting the
flipping rotation by creating downward
lift.

The CG is usually forward of the CP.

Rotations around the different axis
(lateral, longitudinal, and vertical),
occur around the CG.

Aerodynamics-Stability
Stability=the tendency to correct back to the original

state
Maneuverability=the ability to change attitude and
withstand stresses
Controllability=the aircrafts response to pilot imputs
Types of Stability: Static & Dynamic
Static- the aircrafts initial response
Dynamic-the response over a period of time

Aerodynamics-Stability
Static Stability (initial tendency)
Positive Static=immediately return to the original state
Neutral Static=remain in the new position
Negative Static=continue away from the original state

Dynamic Stability (over time)

-Positive Dynamic=returns to original state
-Neutral Dynamic-Once displaced, the plane neither
increases or decreases in amplitude, stays the same
-Negative Dynamic=continues going away, becomes
more divergent if displaced

Aerodynamics-Stability
Static Stability:

Aerodynamics-Stability
Dynamic Stability:

Aerodynamics-Stability
Phugoid Oscillations- Result from the worse type
of stability (Positive static, neutral dynamic). They
are long oscillations, and very slow. Phugoid
oscillations occur with a close CG and CP
(inherently unstable).
Phugoid
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kh_
I25FmOrI

Above is a video of a case study done

on Japan Airlines flight 123.
-Caution- Long video

Aerodynamics-Stability
Dihedral- This is the angle that exists

between the wings and the fuselage. Dihedral

affects longitudinal stability
Yaw stability-developed from the vertical
stabilizer
Longitudinal stability-roll
Vertical stability-yaw
Lateral stability-pitch
*Through the CG*

Aerodynamics
Definition of Camber - curvature of the wing
Adverse Yaw You change
the camber of the wing with
the ailerons when executing
a turn. The upward wing has
more lift than the lower wing.
In adverse yaw, the aircraft
tends to slip towards the
upward wing due to the
difference in lift. An increase
in lift results in an increase
in drag. Therefore more
drag on the upward wing
causes the shift/twist around
the vertical axis resulting in
an uncontrolled turn.

This demonstrates the need for a rudder.

Aerodynamics-CG
Center of Gravity (CG) is the center point where all

the weight acts through.

The center of gravity is a point at which an airplane

would balance if it were suspended at that point

The center of gravity is not necessarily a fixed point;
its location depends on the distribution of weight in
the airplane. (PHAK 8-2).
Longitudinal unbalance = too forward CG (nose

heavy) or too aft CG (tail heavy)

Aerodynamics-CG
What is the CG range in a Piper Archer?

Answer: 82-93 aft of datum.

Datum is right at the tip of the nose of the

plane. The datum is established by airplane
designers. Really, the Archer only has about
11 inches for CG adjustment.
Where is that located with
reference to you sitting in the
pilot seat?
Answer: right below your feet

Aerodynamics-CG
Characteristics of an aft CG:

Decreased stability Because when the CG

moves rearward, it causes an increase in
AOA.
More difficult to recover from stalls and spins.
Easy to overstress the airplane due to very
light control forces (PHAK 8-2).

Aerodynamics-CG
Characteristics of a forward CG:
Increased stall speed Because the critical
angle of attack is reached at a higher speed
due to an increased wing loading.
Increased cruise speed Due to decreased
drag because of a decreased AOA from the
nose down pitch tendency.
Difficulty in takeoff Struggles to raise the
nose with in a nose-heavy situation.
Difficulty in the flare Hard to raise the nose
in the flare.

Aerodynamics-Load Factor
Definition: Any force applied to an airplane to deflect

its flight from a straight line produces a stress on its

structure; the amount of this force is termed load
factor (PHAK 3-26).

Its a ratio of total airload : gross weight

Load factor is defined in Gs.
Example: the ratio = 3:1 therefore the load factor is 3,

and you are producing 3Gs.

Aerodynamics-Load Factor
Why is load factor important:
Dangerous overload that
is possible for a pilot to
impose on structures
(PHAK 3-26)
Increased load factor
increases the stalling
speed and makes stalls
possible at seemingly safe
flight speeds (PHAK 3-26)

Aerodynamics-Load Factor
What is the load factor in a 60 degree steep

turn?

Answer: 2Gs

What will I weigh in this type of

steep turn if I weigh 150lbs in
1G flight?
Answer: 300lbs

Aerodynamics-Load Factor
Load Factor and stall speed are proportional. The load factor squares as
the stalling speed doubles.

Therefore, in a Piper archer with a stall speed of 50 in 1G, unaccelerated

flight, what would the stall speed be in a 2G steep turn?
Answer: Approximately 73 kts

Aerodynamics-Va
What is maneuvering speed?

Practically, it is the speed that you slow to in

the event of turbulent situations.

Why is VA (maneuvering speed) a range?

What affects it?

Answer: weight affects maneuvering speed. The

heavier the plane is, the higher your maneuvering
speed should be (113). If you are lighter, Va
should be lower (89).

Aerodynamics-Va
How to calculate Va for any given flight:

Va = 113 * Sqrt (Current Weight/2550)

Example: You weigh 2200lbs

Va = 113 * Square root (2200/2550)

Va = 113 * Square root (.88)
Definition of Va:
Va = 113 * .938
At any speed below this
Va = 106
speed the aircraft cannot
be overstressed. It will stall
befor eth elimit load factor
is reached. Above this
speed, however, the
aircraft can exceed the limit
load factor before it stalls.

Aerodynamics-Drag
There are two main types of drag:
Induced
Parasitic:
Form drag
Skin friction
Interference drag

Definition of induced drag: This type of drag is based

upon efficiency. Because no machine is 100%
efficient, induced drag exists. With an increase in
efficiency, there will be a decrease in induced drag.
It is the drag due to lift.

* Drag is defined in pounds *

Aerodynamics-Drag
Parasitic Drag types:
Form Drag: Due to the shape of an aircraft,
form drag is a result of airflow going around it.
Consider a flat plate vs. a sphere when
being thrown
Interference Drag: This occurs a the
intersection of air currents. For example, the
wing root connected to the fuselage.
Skin friction: This drag is the aerodynamic
resistance from the contact of air with the
surface of the airplane.

Aerodynamics-Drag
What are wingtip vortices?
This is the wake that is generated from the
wingtips. They are counter-rotating vortices
that are caused from air spilling over the end
of the wing.

This pressure differential triggers the rollup of

the airflow aft of the wing resulting in swirling air
masses trailing downstream of the wingtips
(PHAK 12-13).
The pressure difference the PHAK is referencing is
the Low pressure above the wing, countered with a
High pressure below the wing.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E1ESmvyAmOs

Aerodynamics-Drag

Always land beyond an aircraft generating significant wingtip vortices.

Rotate prior to their rotation point. ALWAYS give yourself plenty of
time to avoid them. Remember to sidestep upwind.

Problem: Have you ever seen a Piper Archer out climb a 727?
Probably Not. So, what good will it do to rotate prior to their rotation
point if you cant remain high above their climb out path? You will
eventually fly through them. Time will solve this problem so that they
can dissipate.

Aerodynamics-Drag
Imagine an infinite wingwould it have

wingtip vortices?

Answer: No. This is because an infinite wing

would not have wingtips, therefore it would not
develop wingtip vortices.

Wingtips generate induced drag. Therefore if

an infinite wing does not have wingtips, it
would not generate induced drag.

Aerodynamics-Drag
Ground effect- Fly an airplane just clear of

the ground (or water) at a slightly slower

airspeed than that required to sustain level
flight at higher altitudes (PHAK 3-7)

Ground effect alters:

Upwash
Downwash
Wingtip vorticies

Ground effect is a reduction of

induced drag

Aerodynamics-Drag
On entering ground effect:
1. Induced drag is decreased
2. Nose-down pitching moments occur
3.The airspeed indicator reads low
Upon leaving ground effect:
1. Induced drag is increased
2. Nose-up pitching moments occur
3The airspeed will read higher (correctly)
Page 72 Flight Theory for Pilots

Aerodynamics-Drag

According to the diagram, in ground effect, less thrust is required to

maintain any given velocity, compared with the thrust required out of
ground effect
Therefore, the wing will require a lower angle of attack in ground effect
to produce the same lift coefficient or, if a constant angle of attack is
maintained, an increase in lift coefficient will result (PHAK 3-7).

Aerodynamics-Airspeed
There are different types of airspeed:

Indicated
Calibrated
Equivalent
True

Aerodynamics-Airspeed

Indicated airspeed - simply the airspeed that is read

off the airspeed indicator. The raw speed.

Calibrated airspeed The airspeed corrected for

instrument and position error. Errors occur from
limitations where the pitot tube is located, or even
where the static port is placed.

Equivalent airspeed The airspeed after it is

calibrated for compressibility For the Piper Archer,
compressibility is not a factor due to the slow speeds it
cruises at. It becomes an issue above 250kts.

True airspeed The final airspeed that we calculate

flight planning at.

Aerodynamics-Airspeed

Callibrated can be either higher

or lower than indicated.
Equillivant is always lower than
Callibrated.
It is easy to remember with the
acronym: ICE T (like Ice Tea)
And with the square root symbol

True is always higher than

equilivant.

Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
The boundary layer is located a few

millimeters above the surface of the airfoil, at

the microscopic level.

Within the boundary layer airflow decreases

in velocity; it slows going over the wing due

to surface friction.

Interference occurs with the wing and the air

flowing around it.

Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer

The farther away from the

surface of the airfoil, the
higher the velocity of the
airflow is.

At the surface, the velocity of the air

equals 0.
As the distance increases above the
airfoil, the velocity increases, until it is
equivalent to free stream velocity.

Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
There are two types of airflow going over a wing:
Laminar Smooth, constant, uninterrupted airflow
Turbulent Rough, bumpy airflow

As you move farther back on the wing, the boundary

layer becomes thicker. This causes unstable airflow
(turbulent air).

Therefore, the airflow separates with the surface, due

to the increased boundary layer and decreased
velocity of airflow.

Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer

Airflow over a smooth ball

flying through the air

Separation exists, and at the

rear, airflow is not going over
the surface.

Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
It is bad for airflow to separate when going

over an airfoil. Recall Bernoulli's principle:

When air travels over the surface of a wing, it
creates lift.
If there is no airflow going over a wing, no lift

will be produced.

Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer
This is why turbulent airflow is important.
If the surface of the airfoil is disrupted (example

rivets), it will create turbulent airflow.

Turbulent airflow will continue to stick to the surface,

thus allowing lift to be produced.

Turbulent airflow is better than no airflow at all!

Aerodynamics-Boundary Layer

Consider a golf ball. It was developed with indents (dimples). Thus, it creates
turbulent air, allowing the airflow to stick to the airfoil longer than if it were
developed with a smooth surface.