COMPUTER

APPLICATIONS
IN

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HYDRAULIC
ENGINEERING

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Connecting Theory
to Practice
Seventh Edition

Table of Contents
Revision History..............................................................................................................xii
Foreword ........................................................................................................................xiv

CHAPTER 1

BASIC HYDRAULIC PRINCIPLES

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1.1 General Flow Characteristics..................................................................................1

Flow Conveyance.......................................................................................................1
Area, Wetted Perimeter, and Hydraulic Radius .........................................................1
Velocity......................................................................................................................2
Steady Flow................................................................................................................3
Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Reynolds Number ............................................3
1.2 Energy .......................................................................................................................5
The Energy Principle..................................................................................................5
The Energy Equation..................................................................................................6
Hydraulic Grade .........................................................................................................6
Energy Grade .............................................................................................................7
Energy Losses and Gains ...........................................................................................7
1.3 Orifices and Weirs....................................................................................................8
Orifices.......................................................................................................................8
Weirs ........................................................................................................................10
1.4 Friction Losses........................................................................................................13
Mannings Equation .................................................................................................14
Chzys (Kutters) Equation.....................................................................................14
Hazen-Williams Equation ........................................................................................15
Darcy-Weisbach (Colebrook-White) Equation ........................................................15
Typical Roughness Factors ......................................................................................16
1.5 Pressure Flow .........................................................................................................17
1.6 Open-Channel Flow. ..............................................................................................18
Uniform Flow...........................................................................................................18
Specific Energy and Critical Flow ...........................................................................20
1.7 Computer Applications..........................................................................................22
1.8 FlowMaster .............................................................................................................23
1.9 Tutorial Example ...................................................................................................24
1.10 Problems .................................................................................................................27

CHAPTER 2

BASIC HYDROLOGY

35

2.1 Rainfall....................................................................................................................35
Basic Rainfall Characteristics ..................................................................................35
Return Period and Frequency...................................................................................35
Types of Rainfall Data .............................................................................................36
2.2 Rainfall Abstractions and Runoff Volume...........................................................45

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

Watershed Area ........................................................................................................45

Rainfall Abstractions................................................................................................45
Determining Runoff Volume....................................................................................46
Horton Infiltration Equation.....................................................................................48
Runoff Coefficient....................................................................................................49
NRCS (SCS) Curve Number Method.......................................................................51
2.3 Computing Peak Runoff Flow Rate......................................................................56
Time of Concentration..............................................................................................56
The Rational Method................................................................................................60
NRCS (SCS) Peak Flow Estimation.........................................................................64
2.4 Computing Hydrographs.......................................................................................67
Creating Runoff (Effective Rainfall) Hyetographs...................................................69
Unit Hydrographs.....................................................................................................72
Discrete Convolution................................................................................................77
2.5 Problems..................................................................................................................82

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CHAPTER 3 INLETS, GRAVITY PIPING SYSTEMS,

AND STORM SEWER DESIGN
89

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3.1 Inlet Design Overview ............................................................................................89

3.2 Gutter Sections on Grade ......................................................................................90
3.3 Inlets on Grade .......................................................................................................92
Grate Inlets on Grade ...............................................................................................92
Curb Inlets on Grade ................................................................................................93
Combination Inlets on Grade ...................................................................................95
3.4 Inlets in Sag.............................................................................................................96
3.5 Inlet Design Overview ............................................................................................98
Inlet and Gutter Problems Using FlowMaster..........................................................98
Inlet and Gutter Network Problems Using StormCAD ............................................99
3.6 Gradually Varied Flow ..........................................................................................99
Flow Classification.................................................................................................100
Energy Balance ......................................................................................................103
3.7 Mixed Flow Profiles .............................................................................................104
Sealing Conditions .................................................................................................104
Rapidly Varied Flow ..............................................................................................104
3.8 Storm Sewer Applications ...................................................................................105
Hydrology Model ...................................................................................................105
3.9 StormCAD ............................................................................................................106
How Can You Use StormCAD?.............................................................................107
Analysis and Design...............................................................................................107
Profiles ...................................................................................................................107
3.10 Tutorial Examples ................................................................................................108
Tutorial 1 Design of a Network with Auto Design............................................108
Tutorial 2 Alternatives Analysis with Scenario Manager..................................113
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Bentley Institute Press

Tutorial 3 Cost Estimating ................................................................................114

3.11 Problems ...............................................................................................................116

CHAPTER 4

CULVERT HYDRAULICS

135

DETENTION POND DESIGN

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CHAPTER 5

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4.1 Culvert Systems....................................................................................................135

Culvert Hydraulics .................................................................................................136
4.2 Outlet Control Hydraulics...................................................................................136
Friction Losses .......................................................................................................138
Entrance Minor Loss ..............................................................................................138
Exit Minor Loss .....................................................................................................140
Gradually Varied Flow Analysis............................................................................140
4.3 Inlet Control Hydraulics......................................................................................140
Unsubmerged Flow ................................................................................................142
Submerged Flow ....................................................................................................142
4.4 CulvertMaster ......................................................................................................144
How Can You Use CulvertMaster?........................................................................144
4.5 Tutorial Example .................................................................................................144
4.6 Problems ...............................................................................................................147

153

5.1 Overview of Stormwater Detention ....................................................................153

5.2 Basic Design Considerations ...............................................................................154
Pre-Development versus Post-Development Criteria and Recurrence Frequency .154
Types and Configurations of Stormwater Detention Facilities ..............................155
5.3 Detention Pond Modeling Concepts ...................................................................156
5.4 Components of Detention Facilities ....................................................................157
Dam Embankments ................................................................................................158
Freeboard ...............................................................................................................158
Pond Bottoms and Side Slopes...............................................................................158
Outlet Structures.....................................................................................................158
Overflow Spillways................................................................................................159
5.5 Routing Data: Storage and Hydraulic Relationships........................................159
Stage versus Storage Volume.................................................................................159
Stage versus Discharge ..........................................................................................165
Composite Stage versus Discharge Relationships..................................................167
5.6 Storage Indication Method..................................................................................171
5.7 Stormwater Detention Analysis Procedure........................................................175
5.8 PondPack ..............................................................................................................180
What Is PondPack? ................................................................................................180
How Can You Use PondPack for Windows? .........................................................180
5.9 Tutorial Example .................................................................................................181
5.10 Problems ...............................................................................................................186

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

vii

CHAPTER 6 PRESSURE PIPING SYSTEMS AND

WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

195

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6.1 Pressure Systems ..................................................................................................195

Water Demands ......................................................................................................195
6.2 Energy Losses .......................................................................................................197
Friction Losses .......................................................................................................197
Minor Losses ..........................................................................................................198
6.3 Energy Gains Pumps.......................................................................................200
Variable-Speed Pumps ...........................................................................................201
Constant Horsepower Pumps .................................................................................202
6.4 Control Valves ......................................................................................................202
Check Valves (CVs)...............................................................................................202
Flow Control Valves (FCVs) .................................................................................202
Pressure Reducing Valves (PRVs) .........................................................................202
Pressure Sustaining Valves (PSVs) ........................................................................202
Pressure Breaker Valves (PBVs)............................................................................203
Throttle Control Valves (TCVs).............................................................................203
6.5 Pipe Networks.......................................................................................................203
Conservation of Mass Flows and Demands ......................................................203
Conservation of Energy..........................................................................................204
6.6 Network Analysis..................................................................................................205
Steady-State Network Hydraulics ..........................................................................205
Extended-Period Simulation...................................................................................205
6.7 Water Quality Analysis........................................................................................205
Age .........................................................................................................................206
Trace.......................................................................................................................206
Constituents............................................................................................................206
Initial Conditions....................................................................................................207
Numerical Methods ................................................................................................208
Discrete Volume Method .......................................................................................208
Time-Driven Method..............................................................................................208
6.8 Automated Optimization .....................................................................................209
Model Calibration ..................................................................................................210
System Design........................................................................................................210
6.9 WaterGEMS .........................................................................................................211
What Does WaterGEMS Do?.................................................................................211
How Can You Use WaterGEMS? ..........................................................................212
6.10 Tutorial Example..................................................................................................213
Tutorial 1 Three Pumps in Parallel......................................................................213
Tutorial 2 Water Quality .....................................................................................219
Tutorial 3 Pumping Costs....................................................................................228
Tutorial 4 Capital Cost Estimating using Darwin Designer ................................229
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Bentley Institute Press

Model Calibration using Darwin Calibrator...........................................................232

6.11 Problems ...............................................................................................................236

CHAPTER 7

SANITARY SEWER DESIGN

255

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7.1 Sanitary Sewer Systems .......................................................................................255

Common Sanitary Sewer Elements........................................................................256
7.2 Loading .................................................................................................................256
Common Load Types.............................................................................................257
Sanitary Unit Loading ............................................................................................259
Extreme Flow Factors ............................................................................................261
Common Variable Peaking Factors (PF)................................................................261
Wet-Weather Loading ............................................................................................263
7.3 Extended Period Simulations ..............................................................................264
Overview................................................................................................................264
Routing Overview ..................................................................................................264
Hydrologic and Hydraulic Time Steps...................................................................266
7.4 SewerCAD.............................................................................................................266
What Does SewerCAD Do? ...................................................................................266
How Can You Use SewerCAD? ............................................................................267
7.5 Tutorial Examples................................................................................................268
Tutorial 1 Pump Size for Peak Flows..................................................................268
Tutorial 2 24-Hour Simulation of Dry Weather Flow.........................................274
Tutorial 3 Constructing a Profile.........................................................................277
Tutorial 4 Capital Cost Estimating......................................................................278
7.6 Problems ...............................................................................................................281

CHAPTER 8

DYNAMIC MODELING

297

8.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................297
System of Units ......................................................................................................298
8.2 Dynamic Modeling ...............................................................................................299
St Venant Equations...............................................................................................299
Numerical Solution ................................................................................................300
Initial and Boundary Conditions ............................................................................301
8.3 Hydrograph Routing Effects ...............................................................................303
8.4 Simplified Routing Models ..................................................................................303
Diffusion Wave ......................................................................................................304
Kinematic Wave.....................................................................................................305
Muskingum Routing...............................................................................................305
Muskingum-Cunge Method ...................................................................................306
8.5 Why Use an Unsteady Flow Model? ...................................................................307
8.6 SewerGEMS .........................................................................................................308
What Does SewerGEMS Do? ................................................................................308
Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

ix

How Can You Use SewerGEMS?..........................................................................309

8.7 Tutorial Examples ................................................................................................310
Tutorial 1 Stormwater Conveyance System Performance...................................310
Tutorial 2 Pump Stations and Force Mains in a Sanitary Sewer System.............318
8.8 Problems................................................................................................................325

APPENDIX A HAESTAD METHODS SOFTWARE

341

A.1 Software Packages................................................................................................341

A.2 General Tips and Common Tools ......................................................................342
Online Help ............................................................................................................342
Graphical Editor .....................................................................................................342
Table Manager and Table Customization...............................................................344
FlexUnits ................................................................................................................345

349

Overview ...............................................................................................................349
About This Appendix ...........................................................................................350
Before Haestad Methods: Distributed Scenarios...............................................350
With Haestad Methods: Self-Contained Scenarios ...........................................351
The Scenario Cycle...............................................................................................351
Scenario Anatomy: Attributes and Alternatives .....................................................351
A Familiar Parallel .................................................................................................352
B.6 Scenario Behavior: Inheritance...........................................................................353
Overriding Inheritance ...........................................................................................354
Dynamic Inheritance ..............................................................................................354
When Are Values Local, and When Are They Inherited?......................................354
Minimizing Effort through Attribute Inheritance ...................................................355
Minimizing Effort through Scenario Inheritance ...................................................356
B.7 A Water Distribution Example ...........................................................................357
Building the Model (Average Day Conditions) .....................................................357
Analyzing Different Demands (Maximum Day Conditions) .................................358
Another Set of Demands (Peak Hour Conditions) .................................................358
Correcting an Error.................................................................................................359
Analyzing Improvement Suggestions.....................................................................359
Finalizing the Project .............................................................................................360

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B.1
B.2
B.3
B.4
B.5

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APPENDIX B SCENARIO MANAGEMENT

APPENDIX C GRAVITY FLOW DIVERSIONS

363

C.1 What Are Diversions? ..........................................................................................363

What Happens to the Flow at a Diversion Node?...................................................363
Why Do Diversions Only Exist in Gravity Systems?.............................................364
Is a Surcharged Gravity Pipe Considered a Pressure Pipe?....................................364
How Can a User Model a Node as a Diversion? ....................................................364

Bentley Institute Press

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What Happens to the Diverted Flow? ....................................................................367

Are There Any Rules for the Diversion Target? ....................................................369
What Does a Diversion Look Like in the Drawing? ..............................................371
What Is the Diversion Network View? ..................................................................372
What Happens to Flow that Is Not Diverted? ........................................................373
What Is the Difference Between Local and Global Diversions in the Model?.......373
How Does a Diversion Node Split the Flow between Flow Being Piped Downstream
and Flow Being Diverted?......................................................................................374
C.2 Rating Curves .......................................................................................................374
How Many Data Points Do I Need to Describe a Rating Curve?...........................375
How Can the Values for the Rating Curve Be Determined? ..................................376
What If Flow Measurements Cannot Be Obtained?...............................................376
C.3 Special Cases.........................................................................................................377
What Can Be Done for Overflows Caused By a
Hydraulic Restriction Downstream? ......................................................................377
If a Hydraulic Restriction Causes an Overflow Upstream, Should the
Diversion Node Be at the Location of the Restriction or the Overflow? ...............378
How Can Parallel Relief Sewers Be Modeled? ......................................................378
How Can Diversions Be Used to Model Off-Line Storage? ..................................379
How Should the Models Be Used to Handle Basement Flooding? ........................379
In Some Cases, the Tailwater Depth in the Receiving Stream Can
Affect the Rating Curve. Can This Be Modeled?...................................................379
Can I Divert Water Uphill? ....................................................................................380
Where Can I Enter and View Data on Diversions in Scenario Manager? ..............380
How Can I Divert Flows Out of a Wet Well in SewerCAD?.................................380
C.4 Model Loading......................................................................................................380
Which Program, StormCAD or SewerCAD, Should I Use to
Model My Diversions?...........................................................................................380
SewerCAD Has the Ability to Calculate Extreme Flow Factors.
How Do Diversions Affect This?...........................................................................380

BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

381
387

xi

Revision History
During the development of each edition of CAiHE, we encourage feedback from the
hundreds of universities that have adopted this textbook and accompanying software. We
are interested in learning more about what professors and students want added to this
publication and the way it is being utilized within civil engineering curricula.
In the Second Edition, we added tutorial example problems with step-by-step instructions
for solving the problems using the included computer software. More problems to be
solved by students using the software were added. In addition, updates were incorporated
into the software on the CD-ROM.

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In the Third Edition, we added two new chapters: one chapter on drainage inlet design,
and the other on sanitary sewer design. These chapters included tutorials and problems.
Also, a brief discussion of weirs and orifices as an application of the energy equation was
added to Chapter 1. More problems were added to the existing chapters. The CD-ROM
enclosed with this text contained new versions of FlowMaster and StormCAD, as well as a
new product, SewerCAD. In addition, updates were incorporated into other software on the
CD-ROM.

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In the Fourth Edition, we added discussions on the use of hydrographs and hydrologic
routing to the sanitary sewer modeling chapter (Chapter 6). An extended-period simulation
problem was added to this chapter as well.
In the Fifth Edition, we added a chapter on basic hydrology and a chapter on detention
pond design, accompanied by the latest academic version of PondPack. Tutorials
throughout the text have been updated and expanded per the latest software versions, and
current updates have been incorporated into the software on the CD-ROM. In response to
requests from professors, the capacity of the software on the CD-ROM has been increased
so that students may work with more complex problems.
In the Sixth Edition, we revised the tutorials to reflect revisions to our software.
In this Seventh Edition, we have revised the Pressure Piping and Water Quality Analysis
chapter (Chapter 6) and updated the material for our newest software. We have also added
a brand new chapter 8 called Dynamic Modeling with full tutorials and problems.
Appendix C was deleted and replaced by the previous Appendix D. Appendix A was
modified to provide users with updated instructions on how to download the software
licenses for each program contained on the academic CD.

xii

Bentley Institute Press

The following table lists the software that accompanies each chapter.
Chapter
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8

Accompanying Software
FlowMaster
not required
StormCAD
CulvertMaster
PondPack
WaterGEMS
SewerCAD
SewerGems

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Contacting Haestad Methods

We welcome feedback regarding our products and services; we feel this is the best way for
us to continue providing software, training, publications, and support that are tailored to the
needs of professionals in the field of hydraulics and hydrology today.

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Included with this book are academic versions of our award-winning software,
WaterGEMS, SewerGEMS, SewerCAD, StormCAD, PondPack, CulvertMaster, and
FlowMaster. They have been included to assist you with working the problems contained in
this book, and to introduce you to the latest developments in computer-aided hydraulic and
hydrologic modeling.
We hope that once you try the companion software packaged with CAiHE, you'll discover
many ways in which it can enhance your work outside of this book. You can get more
product and upgrade information on any of our software by calling our Sales department at
+1-203-755-1666 or by visiting the Haestad Methods Web Site:
www.haestad.com/software
Haestad Methods also works to bring the global civil engineering community together with
our Online Forums. Get in touch with fellow professionals worldwide and discuss the latest
tips and tricks in hydraulic and hydrologic modeling. Post your engineering questions and
share your unique modeling experiences with an audience of thousands of professionals.
Participants from around the world include many industry-recognized experts and users like
you. Get connected today by visiting:
www.haestad.com/forums

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

xiii

If you have any comments regarding this publication and/or any of Haestad Methods
products and services, please contact us at:
Haestad Methods
27 Siemon Company Drive, Suite 200W
Watertown, CT 06795 USA
Voice: +1-203-755-1666
Fax:
+1-203-597-1488
Email: [email protected]
Internet: www.haestad.com

Foreword

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Since 1979, Haestad Methods, Inc. has been developing hydrology and hydraulics software
for civil engineers and providing textbooks, training, and technical support to tens of
thousands of professional civil engineers, modelers, and universities.

Why is this important?

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Along the way, we have learned a lot about our clients and their professional and
educational backgrounds. Now in its tenth year, our continuing education program offers
courses for professionals who need to quickly get up-to-speed with various numerical
methods and practices.
Our experience has shown us a great deal about the areas where engineers are being trained,
and it has also revealed a significant gap in this trainingthe link between hydraulic theory
and practical computer applications.
Hundreds of textbooks exist that offer enormous detail in the areas of engineering history,
equation derivations, and hand calculation methods. There are also hundreds of published
theses and articles that deal with computer applicationsunfortunately, most of these are
highly research-oriented, and are usually tied to a specific case study or an unusual set of
circumstances. Both of these publication types are very important to the civil engineering
industry, but in the majority of cases, they fail to address the issues most commonly
encountered by professionals in day-to-day practice.
This publication is intended as an introduction to the more common applications of water
resources engineering software, and it demonstrates the types of situations that an engineer
will most likely come across on a daily basis in the real world. It shows the true benefits of
computer software: increased efficiency, better flexibility, andmost importantan
increased ability to try different and better designs.
It is our hope that engineers, technicians, and students will find this book to be challenging,
but also easy to understand and very practical. Combined with standard hydraulic
references, we believe that this text provides many of the tools needed to successfully
proceed with a career in the fields of hydrology and hydraulics.
xiv

Bentley Institute Press

CHAPTER

1
Basic Hydraulic Principles

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1.1 General Flow Characteristics

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In hydraulics, as with any technical topic, a full understanding cannot come without first
becoming familiar with basic terminology and governing principles. The basic concepts
discussed in the following pages lay the foundation for the more complex analyses
presented in later chapters.

Flow Conveyance

Water travels downhill from points of higher energy to points of lower energy (unless
forced to do otherwise) until it reaches a point of equilibrium, such as an ocean. This
tendency is facilitated by the presence of natural conveyance channels such as brooks,
streams, and rivers. The waters journey may also be aided by man-made structures such
as drainage swales, pipes, culverts, and canals. Hydraulic concepts can be applied equally
to both man-made structures and natural features.

Area, Wetted Perimeter, and Hydraulic Radius

The term area refers to the cross-sectional area of flow within a channel. When a channel
has a consistent cross-sectional shape, slope, and roughness, it is called a prismatic
channel.
If the flow in a conveyance section is open to the atmosphere, such as in a culvert flowing
partially full or in a river, it is said to be open-channel flow or free-surface flow. If a
channel is flowing completely full, as with a water distribution pipe, it is said to be
operating under full-flow conditions. Pressure flow is a special type of full flow in which
forces on the fluid cause it to push against the top of the channel as well as the bottom
and sides. These forces may result from, for example, the weight of a column of water in
a backed-up sewer manhole or elevated storage tank.
A sections wetted perimeter is defined as the portion of the channel in contact with the
flowing fluid. This definition is illustrated in Figure 1-1.

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

Figure 1-1: Flow Area and Wetted Perimeter

The hydraulic radius of a section is not a directly measurable characteristic, but it is used
frequently during calculations. It is defined as the area divided by the wetted perimeter,
and therefore has units of length.

A
Pw

or
Rcircular =

where

R
A
Pw
D

=
=
=
=

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R=

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The hydraulic radius can often be related directly to the geometric properties of the
channel. For example, the hydraulic radius of a full circular pipe (such as a pressure pipe)
can be directly computed as:

D2 4 D
=
D
4

hydraulic radius (m, ft)

cross-sectional area (m2, ft2)
wetted perimeter (m, ft)
pipe diameter (m, ft)

Velocity
As shown in Figure 1-2, the velocity of a section is not constant throughout the crosssectional area. Instead, it varies with location. The velocity is zero where the fluid is in
contact with the conduit wall.

Figure 1-2: Velocity Distribution

Basic Hydraulic Principles

Chapter 1

The variation of flow velocity within a cross-section complicates the hydraulic analysis,
so the engineer usually simplifies the situation by looking at the average (mean) velocity
of the section for analysis purposes. This average velocity is defined as the total flow rate
divided by the cross-sectional area, and is in units of length per time.
V = Q/ A

where

V
Q
A

=
=
=

average velocity (m/s, ft/s)

flow rate (m3/s, ft3/s)
area (m2, ft2)

Steady Flow

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Speaking in terms of flow, the word steady indicates that a constant flow rate is assumed
throughout an analysis. In other words, the flow velocity does not change with respect to
time at a given location. For most hydraulic calculations, this assumption is reasonable. A
minimal increase in model accuracy does not warrant the time and effort that would be
required to perform an analysis with changing (unsteady) flows over time.

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When analyzing tributary and river networks, storm sewers, and other collection systems
in which it is desirable to vary the flow rate at different locations throughout the system,
the network can often be broken into segments that can be analyzed separately under
steady flow conditions.

Laminar Flow, Turbulent Flow, and Reynolds Number

Laminar flow is characterized by smooth, predictable streamlines (the paths of single
fluid particles). An example of this type of flow is maple syrup being poured. In
turbulent flow, the streamlines are erratic and unpredictable. Turbulent flow is
characterized by the formation of eddies within the flow, resulting in continuous mixing
throughout the section (see Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3: Instantaneous Velocity Distributions for Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Eddies result in varying velocity directions as well as magnitudes (varying directions not
depicted in Figure 1-3 for simplicity). At times, the eddies contribute to the velocity of a

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

given particle in the direction of flow, and at other times detract from it. The result is that
velocity distributions captured at different times will be quite different from one another,
and will be far more chaotic than the velocity distribution of a laminar flow section.
By strict interpretation, the changing velocities in turbulent flow would cause it to be
classified as unsteady flow. Over time, however, the average velocity at any given point
within the section is essentially constant, so the flow is assumed to be steady.
The velocity at any given point within the turbulent section will be closer to the mean
velocity of the entire section than with laminar flow conditions. Turbulent flow velocities
are closer to the mean velocity because of the continuous mixing of flow, particularly the
mixing of low-velocity flow near the channel walls with the higher-velocity flow toward
the center.

Re =
V =
R =
=

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where

4VR

Reynolds number (unitless)

average velocity (m/s, ft/s)
hydraulic radius (m, ft)
kinematic viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)

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Re =

To classify flow as either turbulent or laminar, an index called the Reynolds number is
used. It is computed as follows:

If the Reynolds number is below 2,000, the flow is generally laminar. For flow in closed
conduits, if the Reynolds number is above 4,000, the flow is generally turbulent. Between
2,000 and 4,000, the flow may be either laminar or turbulent, depending on how insulated
the flow is from outside disturbances. In open channels, laminar flow occurs when the
Reynolds number is less than 500 and turbulent flow occurs when it is above 2,000.
Between 500 and 2,000, the flow is transitional.
Example 1-1: Flow Characteristics
A rectangular concrete channel is 3 m wide and 2 m high. The water in the channel is
1.5 m deep and is flowing at a rate of 30 m3/s. Determine the flow area, wetted perimeter,
and hydraulic radius. Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
Solution
From the sections shape (rectangular), we can easily calculate the area as the rectangles
width multiplied by its depth. Note that the depth used should be the actual depth of flow,
not the total height of the cross-section. The wetted perimeter can also be found easily
through simple geometry.
A = 3.0 m 1.5 m = 4.5 m2
Pw = 3.0 m + 2 1.5 m = 6.0 m
4

Basic Hydraulic Principles

Chapter 1

R = A / Pw = 4.5 m2 / 6.0 m = 0.75 m

In order to determine whether the flow is likely to be laminar or turbulent, we must
determine the Reynolds number. To do this, first find the velocity of the section and a
value for the kinematic viscosity.
V = Q / A = 30 m3/s / 4.5 m2 = 6.67 m/s
From fluids reference tables, we find that the kinematic viscosity for water at 20C is
1.00 10-6 m2/s. Substituting these values into the formula to compute the Reynolds
number results in
Re = (4 6.67 m/s 0.75 m) / (1.0010-6) = 2107

The Energy Principle

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1.2 Energy

This value is well above the Reynolds number minimum of 4,000 for turbulent flow.

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The first law of thermodynamics states that for any given system, the change in energy
(E) is equal to the difference between the heat transferred to the system (Q) and the
work done by the system on its surroundings (W) during a given time interval.
The energy referred to in this principle represents the total energy of the system, which is
the sum of the potential energy, kinetic energy, and internal (molecular) forms of energy
such as electrical and chemical energy. Although internal energy may be significant for
thermodynamic analyses, it is commonly neglected in hydraulic analyses because of its
relatively small magnitude.
In hydraulic applications, energy values are often converted into units of energy per unit
weight, resulting in units of length. Using these length equivalents gives engineers a
better feel for the resulting behavior of the system. When using these length
equivalents, the engineer is expressing the energy of the system in terms of head. The
energy at any point within a hydraulic system is often expressed in three parts, as shown
in Figure 1-4:
Pressure head p
Elevation head z
Velocity head V 2 2 g
where

z
V

=
=
=
=

pressure (N/m2, lbs/ft2)

specific weight (N/m3, lbs/ft3)
elevation (m, ft)
velocity (m/s, ft/s)

CHAPTER

er
p

Pressure Piping Systems and

Water Quality Analysis

Ex
c

6.1 Pressure Systems

Pressure piping network analysis has many applications, including well pumping systems
and heating and cooling systems. This chapter deals primarily with the topic of pressure
piping as it relates to potable water distribution systems.
The main purpose of a water distribution system is to meet demands for potable water.
People use water for drinking, cleaning, gardening, and any number of other uses, and
this water needs to be delivered in some fashion. A secondary purpose of many
distribution systems is to provide water for fire protection.
If designed correctly, the network of interconnected pipes, storage tanks, pumps, and
regulating valves provides adequate pressure, adequate supply, and good water quality
throughout the system. If incorrectly designed, some areas may have low pressures, poor
fire protection, and even present health risks.

Water Demands
Just as storm sewer analysis is driven by the watershed runoff flow rate, water
distribution system analysis is driven by customer demand. Water usage rates and
patterns vary greatly from system to system and are highly dependent on climate, culture,
and local industry. Every system is different, so the best source of information for
estimating demands is directly recorded system data.
Metered Demand
Metered demands are often a modelers best tool, and can be used to calculate average
demands, minimum demands, peak demands, and so forth. This data can also be

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

compiled into daily, weekly, monthly, and annual reports that show how the demands are
influenced by weather, special events, and other factors.
Unfortunately, many systems still do not have complete system metering. For these
systems, the modeler is often forced to use other estimation tools (including good
engineering judgment) to obtain realistic demands.

Qt = At Qbase
Qt = demand at time t
= multiplier for time t
At
Qbase = baseline demand

Ex
c

where

er
p

Demand Patterns
A pattern is a function relating water use to time of day. Patterns allow the user to apply
automatic time-variable changes within the system. Different categories of users, such as
residential or industrial customers, will typically be assigned different patterns to
accurately reflect their particular demand variations. A diurnal curve is a type of pattern
that describes changes in demand over the course of a daily cycle, reflecting times when
people are using more or less water than average. Most patterns are based on a
multiplication factor versus time relationship, whereby a multiplication factor of 1.0
represents the base value (often the average value). In equation form, this relationship is
written as:

Using a representative diurnal curve for a residence (Figure 6-1), we see that there is a
peak in the diurnal curve in the morning as people take showers and prepare breakfast,
another slight peak around noon, and a third peak in the evening as people arrive home
from work and prepare dinner. Throughout the night, the pattern reflects the relative
inactivity of the system, with very low flows compared to the average. (Note that this
curve is conceptual and should not be construed as representative of any particular
network.)
There are two basic forms for representing a pattern: stepwise and continuous. A stepwise
pattern is one that assumes a constant level of usage over a period of time, and then
jumps instantaneously to another level where it again remains steady until the next jump.
A continuous pattern is one for which several points in the pattern are known and
sections in between are transitional, resulting in a smoother pattern. Notice that, for the
continuous pattern in Figure 6-1, the magnitude and slope of the pattern at the start and
end times are the same a continuity that is recommended for patterns that repeat.
Because of the finite time steps used in the calculations, most computer programs convert
continuous patterns into stepwise patterns for use by the algorithms, with the duration of
each step equal to the time step of the analysis.

196

Chapter 6

Figure 6-1: Typical Diurnal Curve

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Pressure Piping Systems and Water Quality Analysis

Friction Losses

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6.2 Energy Losses

The hydraulic theory behind friction losses is the same for pressure piping as it is for
open channel hydraulics. The most commonly used methods for determining head losses
in pressure piping systems are the Hazen-Williams equation and the Darcy-Weisbach
equation, both discussed in Chapter 1. Many of the general friction loss equations can be
simplified and revised because of the following assumptions that can be made for a
pressure pipe system:
Pressure piping is almost always circular, so the flow area, wetted perimeter, and
hydraulic radius can be directly related to diameter.
Pressure systems flow full (by definition) throughout the length of a given pipe, so the
friction slope is constant for a given flow rate. This means that the energy grade and
hydraulic grade drop linearly in the direction of flow.
Because the flow rate and cross-sectional area are constant, the velocity must also be
constant. By definition, then, the energy grade line and hydraulic grade line are
parallel, separated by the constant velocity head.
These simplifications allow for pressure pipe networks to be analyzed much more quickly
than systems of open channels or partially full gravity piping. Several hydraulic
components that are unique to pressure piping systems, such as regulating valves and
pumps, add complexity to the analysis.

197

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

Minor Losses
Localized areas of increased turbulence cause energy losses within a pipe, creating a drop
in the energy and hydraulic grades at that point in the system. These disruptions are often
caused by valves, meters, or fittings (such as the pipe entrance in Figure 6-2), and are
generally called minor losses. These minor losses are often negligible relative to friction
losses and may be ignored during analysis.
Although the term minor is a reasonable generalization for most large-scale water
distribution models, these losses may not always be as minor as the name implies. In
piping systems that contain numerous fittings relative to the total length of pipe, such as
heating or cooling systems, the minor losses may actually have a significant impact on
the energy loss.

V2
2g

Hm
K
V
g

minor loss (m, ft)

minor loss coefficient for the specific fitting
velocity (m/s, ft/s)
gravitational acceleration (m/s2, ft/s2)

=
=
=
=

er
p

Hm = K

Ex
c

where

The equation most commonly used for determining the loss in a fitting, valve, meter, or
other localized component is:

Typical values for the fitting loss coefficient are included in Table 6-1. As can be seen
with similar fitting types, the K-value is highly dependent on bend radius, contraction
ratios, and so forth. Gradual transitions create smoother flow lines and smaller head
losses than sharp transitions because of the increased turbulence and eddies that form
near a sharp change in the flow pattern. Figure 6-2 shows flow lines for a pipe entrance
with and without rounding.

198

Pressure Piping Systems and Water Quality Analysis

Chapter 6

Table 6-1: Typical Fitting K Coefficients

Fitting

K-value

Fitting

K-value

Pipe Entrance
Bellmouth

0.03 - 0.05

90 Smooth Bend
Bend radius / D = 4

0.16 - 0.18

Rounded

0.12 - 0.25

Bend radius / D = 2

0.19 - 0.25

Sharp Edged

0.50

Bend radius / D = 1

0.35 - 0.40

Projecting

0.80

Mitered Bend

Contraction Sudden

= 15

0.05
0.10

D2/D1 = 0.80

0.18

= 30

D2/D1 = 0.50

0.37

= 45

0.20

D2/D1 = 0.20

0.49

= 60

0.35

= 90

0.80

Contraction Conical
0.07

D2/D1 = 0.20

0.08

Expansion Sudden
0.16

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c

D2/D1 = 0.20

0.57

0.92

Expansion Conical
D2/D1 = 0.80
D2/D1 = 0.50
D2/D1 = 0.20

Line Flow

0.30 - 0.40

Branch Flow

0.75 - 1.80

Cross

D2/D1 = 0.80
D2/D1 = 0.50

Tee

0.05

D2/D1 = 0.50

er
p

D2/D1 = 0.80

0.03

Line Flow

0.50

Branch Flow

0.75

45 Wye
Line Flow

0.30

Branch Flow

0.50

0.08
0.13

Figure 6-2: Flow Lines in Minor Losses

199

CHAPTER

8.1 Introduction

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Dynamic Modeling

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It was a typical summer, but one accentuated with periods of extreme heat and intense
rainfall. One area in the city was nearing completion of a two-year beautification and
utility project that had local residents and merchants convinced would solve a history of
minor, inconvenience flooding. Unfortunately, one of the thunderstorms resulted in
damaging flooding at multiple locations. The headlines in the local paper the next
morning read 2.7 Inches of Rain in 70 Minutes: $50 Million to End Flooding. The
State Climatologist reported the event return period was between 5 and 10 years.
Certainly, a modern urban drainage system should accommodate runoff from such an
event, particularly since local regulations require sewer systems designed to
accommodate peak flows from a 25-year event. What happened? Why was there so
much flooding?
When they designed the local drainage system, engineers used traditional methods to size
the storm sewer pipes, culverts, and open channels to accommodate estimated peak
flows. They did not consider the impact of limited storage in conduits, and the additive
effects and timing of local inflows. Non-uniform flow profiles were determined to
delineate the floodplain. Otherwise, downstream boundary conditions and interactions
among the different drainage system components were not considered. All calculations
were performed assuming steady flows.
The crux of the problem was the steady flow methods did not account for the dynamic
response of the watershed and its internal drainage system. No true picture, i.e.
understanding of the drainage system performance was established. The results were
insufficient and potentially misleading. Consequently, there was a lack of adequate
planning and flood prevention measures.

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

To overcome these deficiencies, the city undertook a study to identify the causes of
flooding and possible solutions. That study included a hydraulic analysis of the drainage
system using a dynamic model. The results provided a clear understanding of the
performance of individual components and their interactions at a system wide scale.
The purposes for this chapter are to introduce dynamic modeling and demonstrate its
application to the analysis and design of hydraulic systems using the SewerGEMS
computer software. Example applications include stormwater conveyance systems and
wastewater pump station and sewer networks. The emphasis is on systems that include
elements of open channel flow.

System of Units

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p

The basis for the problems in this chapter is real world systems designed and constructed
using US Customary units. Those units are retained in these problems.

Ex
c

In response to the goal to convert to a globally consistent system of units, many agencies in
the United States changed their regulations to require engineering calculations and
measurements in the International System of units (SI). Even though a new design may
require SI units, likely the existing engineering system, of which the new design is to
become a part, was designed and constructed using U.S. Customary units. Consequently,
proper system evaluation will require the engineer to use both systems of units. This
requirement will persist for many years. Therefore, it is essential students, engineers,
regulators, and planners recognize and use contemporary units and, often, a dual system of
units.
The following statement by Drs. Andy Ward and Stanley Trimble in the introduction to
their book, Environmental Hydrology (Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 2004)
underscored this fact. Even though the rest of the world has converted to SI units, most
field-level work in the U.S. is still done in English units. Moreover, the wealth of
hydrologic data produced and held by the U.S. is mostly in English units. While most
scientific journals use SI units, several U.S. scientific journals have switched back to
English units so that published papers will have more applied impact. In any case, in the
U.S., we need to know how to use and convert quickly between both systems. It is quite
analogous to living in a bilingual nation. There, two languages must be spoken and
understood; similarly, we must be bimensural or bimetric.

298

Dynamic Modeling

Chapter 8

8.2 Dynamic Modeling

Simply stated, dynamic means change. Flow in sewers and open channels change in time
and space. Flow that changes with time is unsteady; flow that changes in space is
nonuniform. Dynamic models account for unsteady, non-uniform flow.
In unsteady open channel flow, the velocity and depth at any location (cross-section)
continually change due to changes in loading patterns and boundary conditions.
Unsteady open channel flow by nature is also non-uniform. Consequently, dynamic
models are also known as unsteady flow models.

St Venant Equations

er
p

Flows in stormwater conveyance systems and sewers are usually free surface open-channel
flows. The governing equations are the Saint Venant equations, based on the principles
for the conservation of mass and linear momentum.

Q ( A + Ao )
+
q =0
x
t

Ex
c

Q Q 2 / A
y

+
+ gA + S o + S f + S i + L = 0
t
x
x

where Q = discharge (cfs, m3/s)

x = distance along the longitudinal axis of the channel (ft, m)

A = active cross-sectional area of flow (ft2, m2)
Ao = inactive (off-channel storage) cross-sectional area of flow (ft, m)
t

= time (s)

q = lateral inflow or outflow (ft2/s, m2/s)

= coefficient for nonuniform velocity distribution in cross-section

g = gravitational acceleration constant (ft/s2, m/s2)
y = flow depth (m, ft)
So = slope of channel bed in longitudinal direction
Sf = friction slope
Si = slope due to severe local expansion an contraction effects
L = momentum effect of lateral flow (ft3/s2, m3/s2)

299

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

The first equation is the conservation of mass or continuity equation. It relates the
change in the cross-sectional area of flow at a point over time to the change in flow over
space.

The second equation is the conservation of momentum equation based on Newton's

second law, which states if a net force is acting on a body, the momentum of that body
will change, where momentum is mass times acceleration. This equation was derived by
considering how forces applied to a control volume affect the movement of water through
the control volume. For example, if the driving forces on the control volume (due to
gravity and water surface slope) are greater than the resistive forces, the flow will
accelerate. The acceleration can be an increase in velocity at one point over time (local or
temporal acceleration), an increase in velocity over space (convective or spatial
acceleration), or both. Conversely, if the resistive forces are greater, the flow will
decelerate, meaning the flow slows and the depth increases, which frequently happens
upstream of undersized road cross-drains during periods of stormwater runoff.

Ex
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p

The local and convective acceleration terms (respectively, the first two terms in the
momentum equation) are inertial terms. The other terms are the various applied forces
(pressure imbalance, gravity, friction, and expansion/convergence effects), expressed as
slope terms. The friction slope generally is evaluated using an empirical equation in the
same way as the loss term in the energy equation when performing flow profile analyses.
The Manning equation is commonly used, but other similar equations may also be used.
This loss term encompasses not only the effects of boundary friction, but all processes
creating flow resistance, notably turbulence and internal shear.
The St Venant equations are also known as the shallow water or dynamic wave
equations. Two assumptions implicit in the derivation of these equations are: (a) the flow
is one-dimensional and (b) the flow is gradually varied. The first assumption means it is
only necessary to consider velocities in the downstream direction and not in the
transverse or vertical directions. This reduces the cross-sectional properties to single
parameters, i.e., cross-sectional area and average velocity. The second implies the
streamlines are nearly parallel. This means the vertical pressure distribution is essentially
hydrostatic, i.e., increases linearly with depth, and the friction slope term can be
approximated with one of the uniform flow formulae.

Numerical Solution
There is no known analytical solution to the St. Venant equations; therefore, they are
solved numerically. The solution method in SewerGEMS uses a finite difference scheme
that converts the system of partial differential equations to a system of algebraic
equations involving the unknowns at discrete points in time and space.
Specifically, a weighted four-point implicit scheme is used. An implicit scheme is
preferred over explicit since these schemes have the advantage of maintaining numerical

300

Dynamic Modeling

Chapter 8

stability for large computational time steps and exhibit robustness in modeling systems
that integrate the complex hydraulic interactions encountered in gravity sewer systems.
The scheme was chosen because it handles unequal distance steps, its stabilityconvergence properties can be conveniently modified, and the internal and external
boundary conditions can be easily applied.
The numerical analog uses the following four-point finite-difference quotients to
approximate the first and zero-order derivative terms:

f j +1 + f i +j1+1 f i j f i +j1
f
= i
t
t

f f i +j1+1 f i j +1 + (1 ) f i +j1 f i j
=
x
x

( f i j +1 + f i +j1+1 ) + (1 )( f i j + f i +j1 )

er
p

f =

Ex
c

in which f represents the unknown variables, Q and A, and is a weighting factor. The
weighted four-point implicit scheme is unconditionally stable for >0.5. The optimal
range of for maintaining stability and accuracy for large computational time steps is 0.6
to 0.8.
The finite difference equations are solved with a Newton-Raphson iteration routine that
includes an algorithm that iterates banded matrixes and is computationally efficiency.

Initial and Boundary Conditions

Solution of the dynamic wave equations requires initial and boundary conditions. Initial
conditions prescribe the state of the system for the first time step and usually are
specified as dry channel or baseflow. Boundary conditions are functional relationships
between depth (or area) and flow at the upstream and downstream ends of the reach of
interest. [Note: reach of interest indicates the length of channel or sewer through which a
hydrograph is being routed.] Effectively, boundary conditions are constraints the
numerical solution must meet, particularly if a stable and accurate solution is to be
obtained. Boundary conditions usually consist of the inflow hydrograph and a tailwater
condition at the outlet.
The numerical solution may use one or both sets of boundary conditions, depending on
flow classification. This is explained with the concept of characteristics, which are
mathematical expressions that describe the speed and path by which a physical
disturbance, or its influence, propagates though the x,t solution domain. A physical

301

Computer Applications in Hydraulic Engineering

disturbance is any change in the rate and/or depth of flow due to influences such as an
inflow hydrograph, flow constriction, etc.
There are two characteristics: forward and backward, indicated symbolically as C+ and Cand expressed mathematically as:

C+ :

dx
=v+c
dt

C :

dx
= vc
dt

and

er
p

where x,t are longitudinal distance and time, v is cross-sectional average velocity, and c
is the speed at which the wave effect created by the disturbance travels. This wave speed
is called celerity and is evaluated as

c = gy

Ex
c

where g is gravity and y is the depth of water.

For flow in a rectangular channel, the Froude number is expressed in terms of wave
celerity as

F=

gy

v
c

For subcritical flow, F <1, meaning c > v. The backward characteristic is non-zero and
negatively sloped, which means there is a mathematical basis for information to travel
upstream. That is, the influence of a downstream disturbance will propagate upstream
and affect the flow conditions there. A well-known example is the backwater curve that
forms upstream of an undersized culvert. This causes an increased depth of flow at the
culvert inlet as the headwater increases to a higher state of specific energy to overcome
the flow resistance. This influence propagates upstream, forming the backwater curve.
Determining the upstream conditions depends greatly on the downstream boundary
condition. In other words, accurate solution of the St Venant equations for subcritical
flow requires properly defined upstream and downstream boundary conditions.
For supercritical flow, F >1, meaning v > c. Both the forward and backward
characteristics are non-zero and positively sloped. Therefore, all physical disturbances
are swept downstream. As such, determining flow conditions in the reach of interest
depends only on the upstream boundary condition.

302