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Eukaryotic
Large ribosomes
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Linear DNA

Prokaryotic
Small ribosomes
No mitochondria
No Nucleus
Circular DNA
Plasmid / Flagellum

Nucleus
Nucleolus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi apparatus

Contains chromatin that makes chromosomes (DNA and protein)

Makes ribosomes
Makes proteins
Rough processes and folds proteins
Smooth processes and synthesises lipids
Processes and packages proteins/lipids
(e.g. add carbohydrate to make glycoprotein)
Makes lysosomes
Uses digestive enzymes destroy invading cells / inactive parts of cell
Protein cylinders that separate chromosomes during mitosis
Aerobic respiration ATP made
Double membrane Inside folds to form cristae
Matrix holds respiratory enzymes

Lysosomes
Centrioles
Mitochondria

1) Proteins made at rough endoplasmic reticulum

2) Transported to Golgi apparatus in vesicles
3) Proteins undergo further processing (addition of carbohydrates to form glycoproteins)
4) Proteins enter vesicles
5) Vesicles move around cell or are secreted by exocytosis
Tissue group of similar cells that carry out a particular function, making up an organ
Organ groups of different tissue that work together to carry out a particular function
System multiple organs working together for a function
Mitosis
1) Interphase DNA unravels and replicates energy increased
2) Prophase chromosomes condense- centrioles move to opposite ends spindle fibre forms
nuclear membrane breaks down
3) Metaphase chromosomes line up along middle of cell and are attached by centromere to
spindle
4) Anaphase centromeres divide separating pairs of sister chromatids spindles contract pulling
chromatids to opposite ends of the cell
5) Telophase chromatids reach opposite poles on the spindle uncoil and become long/thin
chromosomes nuclear membrane forms again - cytoplasm divides to form two identical cells

Asexual reproduction produce genetically identical organisms to the original parent, through
binary fission, fragmentation, sporulation and budding.
Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

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Root tip experiment
1) Cut root tip
2) Place in watch glass
3) Add hydrochloric acid
4) Add few drops of stain (Schiffs reagent)
5) Warm the watch glass
6) Place root tip on microscopic slide
7) Use mounted needle to break open cells
8) Add more stain
9) Warm gently to intensify stain
10) Observe mitosis through light microscope
Meiosis
1) DNA replicates to produce two identical copies of each chromosome called chromatids
2) DNA condenses to form double-armed chromosomes from two sister chromatids
3) Chromosomes arrange themselves in homologous pairs (crossing over occurs chromatids twist
around each other via chiasma parts break off and rejoin, so four daughter cells contain chromatids
with different combinations of alleles)
4) First division homologous pairs separate halving number of chromosomes
5) Second division pairs of sister chromatids separate
6) Four new cells (gametes) that are genetically different from each other are produced
(independently assorted- chromosome pairs split up in any way, so the cells produced can contain
any combination of maternal and paternal chromosomes with different alleles )
Mammal fertilisation
1) Sperm swims towards egg cell in the oviduct
2) Sperm makes contact with zona pellucida the acrosome releases digestive enzyme to digest it
3) Charge changes to positive inside to prevent more sperm
4) Sperm head fuses with the cell membrane triggering the cortical reaction
5) Cortical granules release contents to the space between cell membrane and zona pellucida to
make it impenetrable to other sperm.
6) Secondary oocyte becomes ovum when sperm penetrates oocyte membrane.
7) Only the sperm nucleus enters the egg cell the tail is discarded
8) The nucleus of the sperm fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell this is fertilisation

Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

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Flowering plant fertilisation
1) Pollen grain lands on the stigma
2) It absorbs water and then splits open
3) A pollen tube grows from the pollen grain down the style
4) The tube nucleus makes digestive enzymes that allow the pollen tube to travel
5) When the pollen tube reaches the ovary it grows through the micropyle and into the embryo sac
of the ovule
6) In the embryo sac the tube nucleus disintegrates where the tip of the pollen tube releases two
male nuclei
7) One male nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus to make a zygote which divides by mitosis to
become the embryo.
8) The second male nucleus fuses with two other polar nuclei which produce a cell with a large
nucleus that divides to become a food store for the mature seed.
9) This finishes the double fertilisation process

Specialisation of cells
A) Fertilised egg cell divides
B) Totipotent cells produced in embryo
C) Cells divide and differentiate
D) Pluripotent cells produced
1) Stem cells contain the same genes but not all of them are expressed because they are not all
active
2) Under certain conditions some genes are activated and others are inactivated
3) mRNA is only transcribed from the active genes
4)mRNA from active genes is then translated into proteins
5) Proteins modify the cell determining the cell structure and controlling cell processes e.g.
activating more genes to produce more proteins
6) Changes to the cell produced by these proteins cause the cell to become specialised
(differentiate)

For
Save lives
Improve quality of life
Unfertilised not viable ok to use

Against
Destruction of viable embryo
Fertilisation right to life (IVF)

Totipotency by tissue culture experiment

1) Single cell taken from a growing area on a plant e.g. shoot or root
2) Cell is placed in growth medium that contains nutrients and growth hormones
3) Plant cell will grow and divide into a mass of unspecialised cells.
4) If the conditions are appropriate the unspecialised cells will differentiate into specialised cells
5) Over time the cells will grow and differentiate into a new plant
Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

Cell wall
Middle lamella
Plasmodesmata
Pits
Chloroplast

Amyloplast
Vacuole and
Tonoplast

Plant cell
Surrounds plant cells supporting them
Adhesive sticking adjacent plant cells together to give the plant stability
Channels in the cell walls linking cells together that allows transport of
substances between cells
Thin regions of the cell wall that allows transport of substances between cells
Flattened structure surrounded by a double membrane containing thylakoid
membranes that form grana where photosynthesis takes place (or in stroma
the fluid)
Stores starch granules and converts it back to glucose when the plant needs it
Vacuole contains cell sap made of water, enzymes and minerals keeping the
cells turgid / for isolating unwanted chemicals.
The tonoplast controls what enters and leaves the vacuole.

Starch
Energy storage material
a-glucose
Amylose 20% - unbranched - coiled
Amylopectin 80% - branched side branches
for enzymes to get to glycosidic bonds for energy
release

Cellulose
Major component of cell walls
b-glucose
50-80 cellulose chains link together by a large
number of hydrogen bonds forming Microfibrils

Matrix of hemicellulose arabinose holds

cellulose chains together
Cellulose microfibrils net like arrangement strength of microfibrils laid densely with their
arrangement at different angles to each other allows the plant fibres to be strong
Secondary thickening productions of another cell wall between the normal cell wall and the cell
membrane which is thicker having more lignin giving the plant fibres a lot of strength

Xylem vessels
Transport water and mineral ions
Support
Inner region of stem - centre
Dead cells
Thickened with lignin
Hollow lumen no cytoplasm
No end walls

Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

Sclerenchyma fibres
Support
Outer region of stem outer edge
Dead cells
Thickened with lignin
Hollow lumen - no cytoplasm
No end walls

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Tensile strength experiment
1) Attach fibre to clamp stand and hang a weight on the other end
2) Keep adding weights until the fibre breaks
3) Record the mass required to break the fibre
4) The higher the mass the higher the tensile strength
5) Test using different fibres, all of the same length

Calcium ions
Magnesium ions
Nitrate ions
Water

Calcium pectate - growth

Chlorophyll pigment for photosynthesis
DNA / Proteins - growth
Photosynthesis / Structural rigidity / Transport minerals / Regulate temp.

Mineral deficiency experiment

1) Take 30 seedlings of the same plant and place them in separate pots
2) Create 3 different nutrient broths containing all the essential minerals but vary the concentration
of particular ions one low, one medium and one high concentration
3) Split the plants into three groups each group should be given only one of the three broths
4) Record the heights of the plants after a set period of time
Antibacterial properties of plants
1) Take extracts from plants to be tested by drying and grinding then placing them in ethanol
2) Filter off the liquid
3) Place some bacteria on an agar plate
4) Place discs of absorbent paper in the extracts
5) Have one disc of absorbent paper in only ethanol
6) Place the paper discs on the agar plate with the bacteria on it
7) Incubate the plate (cover it) to allow the bacteria to grow
8) Where the bacteria is prevented from growing there will be a clear area called the inhibition zone
9) The larger the inhibition zone the more effective the antibacterial properties of the plant extract
are

William Withering Trial and error

Foxgloves could treat dropsy
Identified digitalis as active ingredient

Testing varied concentrations of digitalis to see

how much would be harmful / ineffective

Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

Drug testing
Placebo double blind experiment
Computer models / Tissue / Animals
Phase 1 test a new drug on a small group of
healthy individuals to find safe dosage / side
effects / how the body reacts
Phase 2 Test drug on a larger group of people
who are patients to see how effective the drug is
Phase 3 Compare drug to existing treatments
on hundreds of patients

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Species diversity
Number of different species (species richness)
Abundance of each species
1)Random sample
2)Count number of species in area
3)Repeat for different areas
4) Estimate species richness/ abundance
5) Use Simpsons index of diversity

Genetic diversity
Variation of alleles within a species
Phenotype look at different phenotypes larger the number of different phenotypes
larger the genetic diversity
Genotype DNA
Sequence of base pairs
Order of bases in different alleles is different
Look for similarities / differences in alleles
Measure the number of different alleles a
species has for one characteristic is to see
how genetically diverse the species is
Larger the number of different alleles the
greater the genetic diversity

A niche describes the position of a species within its ecosystem including the habitat in which the
organism lives its interactions with other living organisms and its interactions with the non-living
environment.
Organisms can be adapted to their niche in ways that help them to survive and reproduce, such as
behavioural, physiological and anatomical adaptations.
1) Individuals within a population show variation in their phenotypes
2) Predation disease and competition create a struggle for survival.
3) Individuals with better adaptations are more likely to survive reproduce and pass on their
advantageous adaptations to their offspring.
4) Over time, the number of individuals with the adaptations increases so over generations the
adaptations become more common in the population through evolution.

Seedbanks
Seeds stored in cool dry conditions
Can be stored for long time
Viability tests
Less cost than conserving
Large numbers of plants can be stored
Less likely to be damaged

Zoo
Endangered species captured
Careful selection for interbreeding
Work with other zoos for outbreeding
Increase numbers in wild reintroduce
Adam Clarke www.brain-freeze.co.uk

Testing for viability can be expensive

Difficult to collect seeds from remote locations

Problems breeding outside natural habitat

Less genetic diversity
Bring new diseases / Behavioural dysfunctions