Proceedings of The Conference: Common Ground

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONFERENCE
COMMON GROUND
DESIGN RESEARCH SOCIETY
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2002
HELD 5 -7 SEPTEMBER 2002, LONDON, UK
Edited by
David Durling PhD
Staffordshire University, UK
and
John Shackleton PhD
Brunel University, UK
Published by
First published 2002
This book (and accompanying CD-ROM) is copyright 2002 by David Durling and John
Shackleton. All rights reserved. Permission to quote from this book in part or in full is
granted with proper attribution and acknowledgement of sources.
Individual papers are copyright 2002 by the individual authors. Permission to quote from
this book in part or in full is granted with proper attribution and acknowledgement of
sources.
ISBN 1-904133-11-8
Printed in Great Britain

by Staffordshire University Press
Common Ground
Design Research Society International Conference 2002
Co-Chairs
David Durling , Staffordshire University, UK
John Shackleton, Brunel University, UK
Organised (on behalf of DRS) by
Advanced Research Institute, School of Art & Design, Staffordshire University, UK
Design Research Centre, Department of Design & Technology, Brunel University, UK
Supported by:
Brunel University
Design Issues
Design Journal
Design Studies
European Academy of Design
International Journal of Design and Innovation Research
Japanese Society for the Science of Design
Journal of Design Sciences and Technology
Korean Society of Design Studies
Staffordshire University
Studies in the Decorative Arts
Organising Committee:
Nigel Cross, Open University, UK
David Durling , Staffordshire University, UK
Victor Margolin, University of Illinois, USA
Deana McDonagh, Loughborough University, UK
Alec Robertson, De Montfort University, UK
Chris Rust, Sheffield Hallam University, UK
Necdet Teymur, METU, Turkey
Stephen Scrivener, Coventry University, UK
John Shackleton, Brunel University, UK
Administration
Linda Marshall, LM Conferences
Anna Mawson, ARi Staffordshire University, UK
International Review Committee

Omer Akin, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Pippa Ashton, ARi, Staffordshire University, UK
Michael A R Biggs, University of Hertfordshire, UK
John Broadbent, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
Richard Buchanan, Carnegie Mellon University, USA
Rachel Cooper, University of Salford, UK
Dennis Doordan, University of Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
Linda Drew, University of Brighton, UK
Robin Durie, ARi Staffordshire University, UK
Eckart Frankenberger, Heidelberger Druckmaschinen AG, Germany
Ken Friedman, Norwegian School of Management, Norway
John S Gero, University of Sydney, Australia
Gabriela Goldschmidt, Technion, Israel
Hilary Grainger, ARi Staffordshire University, UK
Akira Harada, Tsukuba University, Japan
Steve Harfield, University of Technology Sydney
Paul Hekkert, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
Ming-Chyuan Ho, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Ray Holland, Brunel University, UK
Jack Ingram, Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, UK
Bob Jerrard, Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, UK
Lorraine Justice, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
Pekka Korvenmaa, UIAH, Helsinki, Finland
Peter Kroes, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
John Z Langrish, University of Salford, UK
Cherie Lebbon, Royal College of Art, UK
Kun-Pyo Lee, KAIST, South Korea
Rungtai Lin, Mingchi Institute of Technology, Taiwan
Thu-Hua Liu, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
Terence Love, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
Rachael Luck, Reading University, UK
Ian Maclaren, De Montfort University, UK
Ezio Manzini, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Barbara Martinson, University of Michigan, USA
Janet McDonnell, University College London, UK
Graham McLaren, ARi, Staffordshire University, UK
Charles Owen, Institute of Design, IIT, USA
Mark Palmer, ARi, Staffordshire University, UK
Silvia Pizzocaro, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Sharon Poggenpohl, Institute of Design, IIT, USA
Melissa Lee Price, ARi, Staffordshire University, UK
John Redmond, Monash University, Australia
Erik Stolterman, Umea University, Sweden
Kazuo Sugiyama, Chiba University, Japan
Brynjulf Tellefsen, Norwegian School of Management, Norway
Seiji Wada, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Japan

Sue Walker, Reading University, UK
Makoto Watanabe, Chiba University, Japan
David Webb, ARi, Staffordshire University, UK
Ellen M. Young, Quantec, Australia
Khaldoun Zreik, University of Caen, France
Introduction
The Design Research Society has organised many national and international conferences
and other events since its inception in 1967. These have included one day events around
a closely focused theme, as well as larger events addressing broader topics such as design
management. Several of these past events have been landmark occasions.
DRS has also been active in helping other learned bodies promote conferences around the
world, by measures ranging from tacit support through to direct financing, using the
Society's digital means for advertising events, and a practical approach in assisting with
reviewing of papers and giving advice as part of international programme committees.
Following discussions with colleagues in the Asian societies - who host the very
successful Asian Design Conferences - DRS decided to organise an international
conference with the intention of showcasing excellence in broad based research across all
areas of design and from all parts of the world. This event is held every two years. The
2002 conference is being staged in the UK, but thereafter it is expected that it will be
hosted in several other countries. The asian design conferences will no doubt continue in
alternate years. So - annually there is now a world conference to celebrate the best in
international research in design, held somewhere in the world.
The theme for this year's DRS conference is 'Common Ground'. The aim was to bring
together many of the sub disciplines and sub-groups of the design research community to present current work, to explore areas of common interest, to connect, to argue, to
integrate, and to celebrate both the commonality and the diversity of our shared interests
and strengths. The larger purpose is to take a significant step forward and endorse the
new maturity of our international, interdisciplinary community.
In response to the call for papers, we received over three times more proposals than could
be presented at the conference. There were therefore many proposals that were otherwise
acceptable but had to be turned down, and consequently a number of disappointed
authors.
The response speaks well of the health of research in design, and the enthusiasm of
researchers both in the academy and in industry. Especially, this conference has clearly
struck a chord with the international design research community. It is hoped that future
events might be organised to accommodate a larger number of presenters.
The conference has been streamed into a number of parallel sessions with distinct themes.
The sessions cover the deep subject matter of several design domains. Some papers have
particularly addressed the theme of 'common ground' whereas others have been chosen
for a particular viewpoint, or to add to discussion of the issues. All have been chosen
carefully to attempt to provide some new and reliable knowledge for our field. Some will
challenge deep seated views. Many papers do not necessarily reflect the editors' views!
Many people around the world have co-operated in planning this conference. Our thanks
go first to members of the local organising committee - Nigel, Chris, Deana, Victor,
Alec, Necdet and Steve - and the DRS Council. They have all been constantly
supportive, and have helped us through many difficulties over some two years of
planning.
Thanks equally to the international review committee. Several have freely given advice
and support at every stage in the conference's development. All have been involved in
reviewing proposals for papers - often at short notice - and, where necessary, have
provided sometimes copious explanatory notes and advice on improving the papers, for
both successful and unsuccessful authors.
Thanks to Linda Marshall who, as the professional organiser, has been a backbone of
support for the co-chairs in organisational and financial planning, and in interacting with
authors and delegates.
Thanks to all the session chairs, for taking on this task and for managing their sessions.
Thanks to the authors, who kept their sense of humour throughout the technical
difficulties in transmission of their papers to us, and following our occasional harsh
judgements on their hard work.
Thanks also to many colleagues in the School of Art and Design at Staffordshire
University and the Department of Design at Brunel University. We appreciate the efforts
of the editing team, Anna, Jaqui, and Caroline, and Uzma for the CD-ROM.
These proceedings have been compiled for delegates as a handbook to gain an overview
and to choose from the different themes, sessions and paper presentations. The book
provides the necessary overview and help for delegates attending the conference, and the
enclosed CD-ROM has the full papers together with search facilities.
The CD-ROM is intended to be a no-frills approach: there are no 'designerly' gimmicks.
You will find clarity, freeform searching of contents, and the contents lists grouped in
several ways to make location of papers easier. It may be viewed on screen or printed to
paper. Please see the instructions on the CD-ROM for details.
We hope you enjoy the conference and find these proceedings a valuable resource in the
years to come.
David Durling, John Shackleton

Co-Chairs
Keynote speakers
Three keynote speakers were invited to address issues of concern to themselves and the conference
audience.
These topics ranged across theory, practice and research, and cultural aspects of design.
Professor Richard Buchanan

Carnegie Mellon University, USA
"The uses of theory in design"

As we explore the new common ground in design research, it is important to reflect on the longterm goals of our work and the diverse ways in which our work may be used to advance the
understanding and practice of design. More than most fields, design depends on an intimate
relationship between theory and practice. This paper will address how theory consolidates existing
design knowledge and how it may profitably extend our understanding into new areas and forms of
practice.
Biographical sketch
Because I am invited to many venues around the world to discuss design, design education, and
design research, I would like to provide some biographical information that may help to explain my
goals and the perspective that I bring to the field. Personal information of this kind has little place
in the substantive discussions of our field, and it certainly cannot substitute for the ideas and
methods that I explore in my work. But the environment within which we are formed does bear
some relationship to our work, so I share this much about my background.
I received my A.B. and Ph.D. from the University of Chicago, where I studied with distinguished
teachers, each of whom strongly influenced different aspects of my thought and work: philosopher
Richard McKeon, literary critic Wayne C. Booth, art historian Joshua C. Taylor, and philosopher of
education Joseph J. Schwab. They were important intellectuals in the twentieth century with great
accomplishment and influence in the United States and abroad, and I owe them a great debt for their
mentorship and friendship. My degree is from one of the uniquely Chicago interdisciplinary
committees, the Committee on the Analysis of Ideas and the Study of Methods. Within this
Committee, the focus of my studies was philosophy and rhetoric.
My work was formed in the tradition of American pragmatic philosophy, particularly as shaped by
John Dewey. Under the influence of my teachers, I have explored the philosophy of pragmatism,
participating in the development of what is sometimes known as "radical systematic pluralism." My
concern for pluralism is "radical" in the sense that I seek principles to explain the diversity of views
on design or any other subject in our culture, rather than espouse a vague, benign tolerance of other
views that amounts to being dismissive. The pluralism I investigate is "systematic" in the sense that
I seek reasonable patterns in what unites and divides individuals in their beliefs and actions. I have
come to regard such pluralism as the "ecology of culture," and my work could be regarded, in one
sense, as part of the philosophy of culture.
Since the early 1980s, I have focused my work in the field of design because I came to recognize
that the creation, planning, and realization of the human-made world has been surprisingly, almost
tragically, neglected in our culture. We have explored nature through the natural and mathematical
sciences; we have explored individual and collective behavior through history and the social
sciences; and we have explored literature and the fine arts through history, criticism, and theory.
But we have neglected the domain of practical human production the domain that, in fact, affects
most of what we experience in daily life and often determines what we can and cannot do in
exploring the other aspects of culture that I have just mentioned. Our understanding of design and
the human-made world remains only a whisper. A surprisingly small group of individuals in the
twentieth century has taken up the challenge of consciously designing the human-made world. And
a much smaller group has attempted to consciously understand the nature of design, the work of
practicing designers, and the problems of educating new designers. This situation is changing, but
there is a long way to go before design is commonly regarded as more than a trivial embellishment
of daily life.
Since entering the field, my work has been directed towards establishing design as a field of theory
and practice. This has involved work on three closely related problems. The first problem is design
knowledge and the foundations of the field of design. My objective has been to help build the field
through several activities: my own research; organizing and participating in conferences that draw
together the community of those who practice and reflect on design; and serving as an editor of a
journal that provides an international forum for reflection on design by individuals who hold sharply
different ideas about design and design practice. Currently, I also serve as President of the Design
Research Society, an international learned society founded in the United Kingdom and supporting a
multi-disciplinary network of researchers in thirty-five countries around the world. The second
problem is design education. My objective has been to influence the direction of design education
in ways that strengthen young professional designers who must practice in new circumstances that
are far different from the circumstances in which most of our schools were formed. At the same
time, my objective has also been to prepare a new generation of individuals who can contribute
effectively to serious reflection on design in what many of my colleagues and I now call "design
studies." The third problem is cultural understanding. My objective has been to explore the cultural
significance of design, with particular attention to pluralism and the international dimension of
design thinking, where cultural differences are vivid and strongly influence the place of design in
daily life.
In the course of my work I have given special attention to communication design and industrial
design. However, I am now deeply involved in the development of new areas of design thinking
and design practice. The focus of this work is human-centered interaction design, which I regard as
a fundamental change in the way design is practiced and understood in the contemporary world.
Interaction design is often associated with design for digital products, but it is much more.
Interaction design is fundamentally concerned with how people relate to other people, sometimes
through the mediating influence of digital products but more often through other kinds of products
in the analog world. To me, interaction design is more than a new branch of professional practice.
It is a foundational critique of design and the role of design in culture. I have developed a variety of
concepts that are relevant to interaction design, including a new concept of the nature of products
that embraces the traditional products of graphic and industrial design but also includes services and
structured activities as well as human systems, organizations, and environments. I often employ
concepts and methods drawn from the art of rhetoric, as that intellectual art has expanded from a
traditional art of words to a central art in the philosophy of culture. In essence, I am interested in
how products make arguments about how we should lead our lives. There are, of course, many
other ideas in my work, but these are some of the most important. The central motivation of my
work is a belief that the liberal and humanizing arts - the arts by which we connect and integrate
knowledge from many specialized subject matters, preserving continuity with the past yet adapting
our understanding to new problems and circumstances - are undergoing a revolutionary
transformation in world culture. I believe that design is one of the central places where a new
"Battle of the Books" is taking place between the old learning and the new learning. Through our
understanding of design we will contribute to the discovery of the new liberal arts of technological
culture, helping to form a new circle of learning that will shape world culture and the possibilities of
human experience in the twenty-first century.
I am certain there are many others who have more interesting personal accounts to give, and perhaps
with more relevance to the issues we hope to address in the field of design. However, this is the
perspective I bring, shaped by education, work as an editor of Design Issues, service as Head of a
school of design in a major research university in the United States, and my own research, writing,
and conference work, as well as consulting work with governmental organizations and industry.
What I believe is significant in this account is not my own life but how the cultural circumstances of
my environment have affected me, offered opportunities to grow and explore, and allowed me to
find a place in the field of design. Before anything else, design research begins in a personal story
and in a personal desire to understand and act responsibly in the world.
Richard Buchanan
Carnegie Mellon University
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
USA
Peter Butenschn
President, ICSID
"Worlds apart:
An international agenda for design"
Biographical sketch
Peter Butenschn is currently president of the International Congress of Societies of Industrial
Design (ICSID) and has interests in practice and research.
Professor Penny Sparke

Kingston University, UK
"Design and Culture Revisited"

Biographical sketch
Penny Sparke is the Dean of the Faculty of Art, Design & Music and Professor of Design History.
She studied French Literature at the University of Sussex from 1967 to 1971 and undertook research
for her PhD at the Polytechnic of Brighton between 1972 and 1975. Her thesis was on the subject of
British Pop Design in the 1960s. Since 1975 she has taught the History of Design to undergraduate
and postgraduate students at Brighton Polytechnic and, from 1981 to 1999, at the Royal College of
Art. She has also, since that time, participated in conferences, broadcast and published in the field of
Design History in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Her key publications include An
Introduction to Design and Culture in the Twentieth -Century (1986); Design in Context (1987)
Electrical Appliances (1988); Italian Design from 1860 to the Present (1989); Japanese Design
(1989); The Plastic Age. From Modernity to Post-Modernity (ed) (1990); and As Long as it's Pink:
The Sexual Politics of Taste (1995).
Durling D. & Shackleton J. (Eds.) Common Ground : Design Research Society International Conference 2002, UK. ISBN 1-904133-11-8
Authors and Titles

Full papers, listed alphabetically by first author
T. Abe et al
Teaching the writing and role of specifications via a structured

teardown process
R. S. Adams
Understanding design iteration: representations from an

empirical study
K. G. Ahmed et al
Design for the urban poor in Egypt: satisfying user needs or

achieving the aspirations of professionals? The case of the
Mubarak National Housing Project for Youth
K. Alexiou et al
A control based approach to artificial design and plan generation
M. Alrutz et al
Developing a method to support human centred designers in

forming arguments: intertwining practice and theory
N. S. Baba
Examining the transformation of the visual characteristics of the

Nubian ethnic motif using computer aided design
M. A. R. Biggs
The rhetoric of research
A. Blackler et al
Intuitive use of products
S. Boess et al
An Indian who doesn't know how to grow the maize
P. Boradkar
A very strange thing: commodity discourse in cultural theory

and design
J. Broadbent
Generations in design methodology
C. Burnette
Intentionality and design
C. Bussracumpakorn
The study of UK SMEs employing external organisations to

support innovative products
H. Casakin
Well-defined versus ill-defined design problem solving: the use

of visual analogy
C. Cerulli et al
Design rationale and information management in the

construction domain: the outcome of the ADS project and
suggestions for future research
C. D. Chen et al
Using visual communication resource shifts to inform CMC

design
C. H. Chen et al
Human factors considerations in Human-Webpad interaction a discussion on color application
R. Chen et al
Barrier free bus stop design for Taipei senior citizens and
weaker passengers
R. Cooper et al
Design behaviours: the innovation advantage - the multi-faceted

role of design in innovation
A. Crabbe
Contract research in design
C. Crouch
The study of design and the ethically reflexive student
D. P. Doordan
An interpretive framework for research on the history of

materials
C. Dowlen
Early car history - investigation of the establishment of a 'design

paradigm'
M. Fedeski et al
The use of the Internet by architectural practices in the UK
M. Fendl
MAPLE/D: a systematic method for the architect of the future
D. Formosa
Automobile instrument panels for the real world
J. Fraser
Designing within a computer-mediated-communications

environment: a current investigation
K. Friedman
Theory construction in design research. Criteria, approaches and

methods
F. Giannini et al
An innovative approach to the aesthetic design
G. Goldschmidt
'One-on-one': a pedagogic base for design instruction in the

studio
N. Gornick
The designer as strategist: response from MA alumni
J. Gotzsch
Product charisma
K. Hasuike et al
A method for designing and analyzing interaction design at

earlier phases of the design process - use of the scenario,
performance and description format
S. Horne-Martin et al
Design, risk and new product development
T. Howe et al
Folding, blending and implicate order: reconceptualisation in

design education
J. S. Jang
Comparison between communication instruments for people

with speech impediments and the efficiency of GUI
environments
W. Jonas
Common Ground - a product or a process?
L. Justice
The importance of explaining industrial design diversity
T. M. Karjalainen
On semantic transformation. Product design elements as brand

manifestations
S. Kim
A study in making a software development process visual
I. T. Klaasen
Urban and regional design: a practical science
J. Knight et al
Understanding the user-experience: tools for user-centred

design of interactive media
A. Kurtgozu
Deciphering myths in design: towards restoring the materiality

of the object through the technique of re-sketching
A. Larsson et al
Distributed design teams: embedded one-on-one conversations

in one-to-many
J-R. Lee et al
Understanding characteristics and typology of proportion in

product design
K-P. Lee
Remote usability testing for information appliances through

WWW - with the emphasis on the development of tools
L-C. Lee et al
Intervention strategies for alleviating problems in international

co-operative design projects
S. Little et al
Building on virtual common ground: design participation for the

network age
T. Love
Building better relationships between design research, design

research education, government, industry and the design
professions
T. Love
Are 'the reflective practitioner' and 'learning cycles' suitable

foundations for theories about designing and design cognition?
T. Loveday
The aesthetic of precision in virtual design. What are the

implications of precision in the use of computers in the
modelling of architecture and interior design?
R. Luck
Dialogue in participatory design
D-B. Luh
A product design process model that can redefine business

strategies
D. Mann
Common ground - integrating the world's most effective creative

design strategies
V. Margolin et al
A 'social model' of design: issues of practice and research
N. Morelli
The design of product/service systems from a designer's

perspective
Y. Nagai et al
A research into the thinking modes in creative design process
T-J. Nam
Designing information appliances: the evaluation of a design

process framework based on a designer-friendly prototyping
environment
H. Nelson et al
Design judgment: decision making in the 'real' world
R. Oxman
Designing conceptual mapping in cyberspace
D. Pallez et al
A geometric aid during the first stages of product collaborative

design
T. Y. Pan et al
Verbal language and sketching
S. Pizzocaro
Developing design research: the study of research as a tool for

research
V. Popovic
General strategic knowledge models and their interaction with

domain-specific knowledge in design
J. Portugali et al
SIRN (Synergetic Inter-Representation Networks): an approach

to design
A. T. Purcell et al
Is there a specific type of knowledge associated with design?
I. M. M. J. Reymen et al
Modelling the role of the design context in the design process. A

domain-independent approach
P. Rodgers et al
A comparative study of iconic influences amongst British and

Canadian design students
P. Rothstein
a(x 4): Combining ethnography, scenario-building, and design to

explore user experience
B. Sadler Takach et al
Putting it all together: Bringing interdisciplinary research to the

practice of designing interactive learning tools
G. Sandberg et al
Images of forces
S. A. R. Scrivener et al
Extending the design problem-solving process model:

requirements and outcomes
P. Seitamaa-Hakkarainen et al
Three orientations of weaving design
D. Sless
Designing philosophy
M. Stacey et al
A comparative programme for design research
P. K. Storkerson
Information and cognitive process: a communication theory for

design
E. Tamaru et al
A field study methodology using self-photography of workplace

activities
H-H. Tang et al
Inter-linkages in the design process: a holistic view towards

design knowledge and sketches
B. Tellefsen et al
Understanding designing and design management through

constituent market orientation and constituent orientation
A. Tomes et al
Design, words and history
B. Tuncer et al
Managing architectural analyses in a collaborative context
S. Turner et al
Telling tales: understanding the role of narrative in the design of

taxonomic software
J. Turns et al
Do we see within-subject change? Four cases of engineering

student design processes
P. E. Vermaas
A critical analysis of John Gero's function-behaviour-structure

model of designing
J. Verwijnen
Ontological depth of the designed object from instrumental

reason to reflective judgement
N. Wakabayashi et al
Three dimensional models: a study of a virtual aquarium

simulation in 3D WWW environments
T. Wiegers et al
Determining the effectiveness of shape manipulations by

observing designers at work
M. Wilkinson et al
Designing supply chain innovation
A. Woodcock et al
The role of interface mock ups in establishing common ground

in a distributed development team
T. Y. Wu et al
The study of shape elements in conveying pleasurable image
A. Yagou et al
Desperately seeking common ground: the emergence of design

management in Greece

teardown process
T. Abe Akita Keizai-Houka University, Akita, Japan
P. Starr University of Minnesota, USA
Abstract
The research objective is to develop teaching materials for learning engineering design at the
college-level where students are required to have basic engineering knowledge, but where no design
experience is needed. The method has the following features: Students realize that communicating
with a design specification is a core part of design tasks; that a hands-on exercise is crucial to
understanding the products features and functions; that to design a product is not only to create a
new product, but also to apply existing ideas; that by taking apart a real product, they can easily
realize the physical and mechanical principles imbedded therein; that to learn design principles is
not just to memorize them but to experience them. The method structures and interprets the takeapart activities from the perspective of the design process steps, with special emphasis on the
writing of specifications at increasing levels of detail. The take apart activity assists in identifying
technical descriptors or design variables, which are then given values, ranges or qualities that
become specifications. It employs a common consumer product of which many variations are
available.

teardown process
Introduction
Take-apart activities are becoming an accepted part of introductory design-oriented courses (Niku
1995) (Eggert 1996) (Sakamoto, Kusukawa and Jorgensen 1999) (Otto and wood 2001:197-257) in
Engineering. Such exercises provide students with hands-on experience with how things work and
how things are made. They illustrate how selected physical principles are employed in consumer
products and can motivate the application of an analysis method to describe phenomena such as
wear, fatigue, force amplification, motion, transfer, etc. Justification is sometimes related to the idea
of Experiential Learning (Kolb 1984:39-60) but it is also rooted in the realization that not too many
years ago, students entered engineering schools with much informal knowledge of how things were
made, gleaned from tinkering with consumer products such as radios, televisions and automobiles.
This informal knowledge provided a common hands-on backdrop that could be referenced as
meaningful examples in coursework and laboratories, but it is largely absent in the undergraduate
student of today. So, the take-apart activities fill a need of providing hands-on experience with
tools, functions, materials and assembly methods, and it is assumed that such experience assists in
developing design skills.
However, in the literature, there is rarely an explicit connection between take-apart activities and
the Design Process. It appears that the attitude is that it cannot hurt, but we are not sure how it
helps. In this work, the Design Process is used as a format to structure and interpret take-apart
activities, with special emphasis on the Design Process step of creating specifications.
Figure 1 shows a representative Design Process which is used as the format for the take-apart
activities, showing a sequence of six steps that are typical in a broad range of literature and have
stood the test of time (Asimov 1963) (Ulrich and Eppinger 1995: 14-32). The forthcoming ideas
and methods are not dependent on this particular diagram, but do require a process where there is a
statement of needs, creation of specifications, generation of alternatives, a selection and a
manufacturing step. For beginners, the process is comforting, showing the overwhelming task of
Design as a sequence of steps that transforms a need, expressed in words, to a physical product
that can meet the need. Each step is described with a verb-noun task format that gives direction as
to what to do and what to produce as the outcome. Certain skills are necessary to perform each step,
and in a typical curriculum with a capstone design project course, it is presumed or hoped that
various prerequisite courses provide some of the needed skills such as:
Course -----------------------------------Design Step
Materials Science --------------------- Create Concepts, Detail the Design
CAD------------------------------------- Detail the Design
Description of Physical Processes--- Create Concepts
Modeling and Analysis Techniques--Evaluate and Select

Component Design---------------------Create Concepts, Detail the Design
Statistics/Design of Experiments-----Evaluate and Select.
Whether or not such courses actually contribute to the skills is an ongoing discussion in our field,
but here we simply point out that none of the usual pre-capstone courses contributes to the step of
Defining Specifications. The capstone course may be the first time a student is asked to create
specifications.
Textbooks (Pahl and Beitz 1996:130-137) (Pugh 1991:44-66) (Ullman 1992:108-112) (Jones
1992:383-390) (Roozenburg and Ekkels 1995:131-155) (Cross 1989:72-83) describe the creation of
specification as a translation of needs, which are expressed in non-technical terms, into measurable
factors, which are generally technical and have specific units and numerical values. Various
categories are suggested such as Figure 2 (Hurst 1999:16-31), and the QFD (Ullman 1992: 112133), Quality Function Deployment method, which provides an effective format for naming the
specification, identifying their relationships to customer needs, prioritizing, and setting target
values. The problem for student designers is that the QFD procedure requires communication
between those who express the needs in non-technical terms and those who will design,
manufacture and pay for the manufacture of the proposed product. A design team that has expertise
in the relevant technologies and their manufacture and costing is not comprised of beginners. When
students in a capstone project write specifications, they may be coached through parts of the QFD
process, but it is generally seen as an isolated exercise, to be completed and handed in before one
can start the interesting part of designing, and never referred to again unless specifically required.
The central role of the specifications in guiding the development of concepts, in screening the
concepts to identify a promising alternative and in setting performance standards for testing is not
appreciated. Part of the difficulty is that we learn by repetition: it is unrealistic to expect students to
develop skills in utilizing the Design Process by being coached through it once in a capstone
course. The method described herein provides three opportunities to reinforce the connection
between specifications and product features.
We hypothesize that the product to be taken apart is the result of the Design Process of Figure 1, for
which the product is the outcome of the manufacturing step, and the sales material, which
accompanies the product and describes its features, expressing some of the needs. That is, we
presume to see the outcome of the first and last steps of the Design Process. We offer a method in
which the take apart activity is imbedded in a series of exercises, through which students develop
plausible specifications for the product. The method consists of six phases and is summarized in
figure 3. Each phase has specific Tasks for the students to perform and Outcomes to be produced.
There are also structured forms for the students to report selected outcomes. The take-apart
activity is one of the phases. Some outcomes correspond to Design Process steps, including a Bill of
Materials (BOM) and some detailed sketches, which are plausible outcomes of the Detail the
Design step, but other outcomes include identifying materials, loads and stresses, which would be
part of the Evaluate and Select outcome. Less obvious outcomes are descriptions of function and
structure and their relation to the BOM. The accompanying sales materials have phrases such as
easy to use, which are textbook examples of need statements, and serve to initiate the creation of
specifications.
The following sections will describe the phases in more detail, including numbering the outcomes.
Figure 3 shows how the numbered outcomes of each phase contribute to the development of
specifications, which are categorized as in Figure 2 as PR (Performance Requirements), MR
(Manufacturing Requirements), OR (Operating Requirements) and OT (Others). As students
proceed through the phases, more detail is added to the specifications by identifying functions,
metrics, units and values that are plausible technical descriptors (design variables) of the product
features that are described on the accompanying sales materials. The phases, Tasks, and Outcomes
of figure 3 have evolved through several take-apart experiments with small groups of students using
familiar consumer products such as a stapler, can-opener, electrical drill. These products have a
primary function, which students have experienced as customers, and the products have variations
such as the lightweight or compact versions, which are examined in the Benchmarking phase.
The first experiment (Abe 1996) was to examine the idea of Translation that is to convert
customers needs to an engineering requirements. It is considered to be core tasks of designing. An
experienced designer can write design specification easily. The translation tasks then are organized
as a systematical procedure for design education purpose. It initially had three phases, which
corresponds to the Phase II to IV in Figure 3, and the exercise in Phase IV were arranged stepwise
with more detailed examples in 1997(Abe 1997), and the version was tested for other product
(Stapler) (Abe 1998). Some improvements have done to the previous procedures in 1999 (Abe
1999), and was tested using an electrical drill in 2000 (Abe 2000). Figure 3 shows the latest version,
which introduced two phases: learning specification and redesign phases, and was tested in 2001.
The main features of the current version are to put more effort to communicate with specifications,
and to add a redesign phase to confirm the outcomes of studying all phases.
The following sections describe each phase in more detail followed by some remarks on outcomes
produced by students in the most recent experiments.
Phases, Tasks and Outcomes of the Design Structured Teardown Process

Initial Specification Phase
Students are introduced to the Design Process of figure 1 where the central role of specifications in
guiding the development of concepts, in the evaluation and selection of a concept and in evaluating
performance is introduced. The categories of specifications in figure 2 are discussed, and the
background required to effectively contribute to each requirement is described.
It is pointed out that the limited background of the students will necessarily limit the scope of the
specifications to a subset of figure 2. Students are shown a summary of results of Phases I-IV from
a previous group of students on a different product, where it is emphasized how the specifications
evolved as tasks were carried out.
The Tasks are: 1) Discuss the role of the specifications in the Design Process of figure 1; 2)
Identify the categories and typical phrasing of selected specifications of figure 2; 3) Study an
example which shows the outcomes of the first four phases applied to a different product.
The Outcomes are: 1) Narration of role of design specification in the Design Process; and 2)
Rephrasing the specifications from the example.
Observations and Practice Phase

Students are given the product and accompanying marketing material and create an initial version
of the specifications by interpreting the marketing material as needs that the product meets, by
examining how the product achieves its overall function and by operating the product. Comments
are expected on appearance, ease of use, comfort, standards that apply, weight, storage, possible
weaknesses, and a description of how the overall function is achieved.
The Tasks are: 1) Identify product features and categorize according to the relevant items of figure
2; 2) Sketch and describe the mechanism(s) that provide its primary function; 3) Operate the
product and comment on performance and weaknesses.
The Outcomes are: 1) Initial specifications; 2) Narration of product use; 3) Explanation of how
primary function is achieved; and 4) Possible weaknesses.
Tear Down Phase

The aim of this phase is to discover how the individual components of the product combine to
provide its overall function and how they form the basis of detailed specifications. A teardown
form provides a means of recording whenever components are separated and includes a part name
and role, a dimensioned sketch, material description, comments on the method of manufacture and
the teardown sequence.
The Tasks are: 1) Propose a sequence of teardown steps; 2) Take the product apart following the
steps; and 3) Record all information on the teardown form.
The Outcomes are: 1) Description of each component; 2) Diagrams of how components fit
together; 3) Comments on the means of joining components; and 4) Comments on how the product
was assembled.
Identify Design Variables Phase

This phase consists of six steps, each with its own Tasks and Outcomes. On figure 3, the
contribution from each step is identified with the letter s.
Step 1 Create a Bill of Materials (BOM) with associated functions.

The Tasks are: 1) Develop a BOM from the individual components, following general instructions
for its construction; 2) Identify sub-assemblies on the BOM and write a description of their
functions.
The Outcomes are: 1) Components and sub-assemblies arranged as a BOM and; 2) Functions of
sub-assemblies.
Step 2 Analysis of Mechanism and Structure

This is a closer examination of how the components are combined to provide sub-functions, which
then combine to provide the overall function for the user. This is a source of confusion and forces
the distinction between the overall product function as seen by a consumer, and the technical
functions of the components and assemblies. The functions that were identified with the BOM
assemblies are one view of this exercise, but they use the BOM structure to combine functions,
which may not be appropriate. Here, we define a structure as consisting of more than one part
that can transmit force or motion among parts, and a mechanism as a structure that provides a
function.
The Tasks are: 1) Express the overall function and lower level functions in written form; 2)
Identify the corresponding structures or mechanisms that provide the functions and diagram the
flow of force or motion; 3) Conceive of three other means of providing the same function, without
regard for practical implementation; 4) Develop a function tree by following a set of instructions
similar to those for the BOM.
The Outcomes are: 1) The functional structure of the product; 2) The structures and mechanisms
that contribute to the overall function; 3) The internal flows of force and motion; and 4)
Descriptions of alternative means to provide the functions.
Step 3 Structural Integrity Analysis

This step focuses upon the physical interconnections that allow the product to achieve its overall
function by annotating the BOM with symbols representing joint interfaces between the user and
product, between parts and assemblies, and between the product and its environment of application.
The Task is to: Annotate the BOM with different symbols representing the various interfaces.
The Outcome is to: Comment on the integrity of the interfaces in terms of wear, material
properties, force levels, friction, etc.
Step 4 Analysis of Performance Requirements

This step formally connects the information on mechanisms, structure, and function to the general
performance as expressed in the initial specifications.
The Task is to: Express the functions of all mechanisms and structures in terms that relate to the
expected performance as stated in the initial specifications.
The Outcomes are: Statements of the relationships between mechanisms, structures and
performance.
Step 5 Generate Design Variables

Plausible design variables are identified from the information created in the previous steps. The
design variables could be in a wide spectrum from very detailed ones, like factors describing a part,
to generic ones, like performance factors of the product itself. Here we confine the variables to: 1)
Those which define and control the function and the performance of a mechanism or a structure; 2)
Those which control the structural integrity of any connecting points.
The Task is to: Generate design variables out of the statements defined in the previous steps.
The Outcome is: List of plausible design variables and units.
Step 6 The Analysis of Design Variables.

This step creates specifications for the product by assigning numerical values or ranges or
identifiable qualities to the design variables. This may include performing tests to measure the
strength or other physical properties of selected components. For the simple products chosen for
these exercises, there are usually only a few components that need to be tested, so the students are
allowed to discover the need and procedures for such tests.
The Tasks are: 1) Define plausible values, ranges and qualities of the design variables; and 2)
Create a final version of plausible specifications.
The Outcome is: A plausible set of specifications for the take-apart product.
Benchmarking Phase
In this phase students examine a product that has the same overall function as the original product,
but is either an earlier version, a competitor or one that capitalizes upon a major feature such as
small and light weight (for camping), or low cost. The focus is to do an abbreviated pass through
Phases II, III and IV, and trace the connection between the features of the alternate product and its
corresponding design specifications. That is, it is presumed that the alternate product followed the
same Design Process as the original one, but due to slightly different needs and specifications, it
achieved the same overall function with different functions, structures, mechanisms and design
variables. Thus, students gain a second experience with developing specification in a now familiar
context.
The Tasks are the same as for Phases II, III and IV, but students now have experience with the
details of the individual tasks.
The Outcomes are: 1) Recognition of different structures and mechanisms providing the same
overall function; 2) Revised specifications for the alternate product; 3) Description of how the
revised specifications led to the alternate product.
Redesign Phase
Students are assigned the task of creating a variation of the original product that performs the same
overall function but is to accommodate additional needs, such as operable by a physically
handicapped person. The intention is to experience the connection between specifications and
product features on something that they have created. They are asked to perform the following
three steps, though they may not proceed in order. That is, the Design Process of figure 1 is not yet
part of their thinking process, so when asked to create a product variation, they respond with ideas
which are expressed as sketches and narratives of how it works. This is all right. Then they are
asked to explain how their concepts can meet the need, and they respond by naming the features
of their concept, and are then encouraged to rephrase the features as initial specifications. In the
final step they use the reporting formats from Phases III and IV to summarize their selected concept
and revise the specifications. This provides a third experience of writing specifications.
Step 1 Create Initial Specifications

The Tasks are: 1) Clarify the new need statement; and 2) Write revised specifications.
The Outcome is: Revised specifications for the student designed product variation.
Step 2 Develop, Select and Describe Product Concepts

The Tasks are: 1) Conceptualize and sketch the three design ideas for the new engineering
requirement and explain their features; 2) Choose the best idea and explain the reasons; 3) Make a
function tree of the selected revised product; 4) Describe the changes of the structure or mechanism
from the original product; 5) Diagram the flow of force or motion while the product is operated,
with emphasis on the connections.
The Outcomes are: 1) Sketches of the new concepts; 2) Functional structure of selected concept; 3)
Changes from the original product and 4) Internal force and motion flows.
Step 3 Detail the Design and Write Specifications.

The Tasks are: 1) Create a Phase III teardown form for the new product. This forces students to
think through many details including new design variables; 2) Revise the specifications.
The Outcomes are: 1) Teardown form for the new product; and 2) Revised specifications.
Analysis of the experiment

Two mechanical engineering students have performed the experiment and the teaching method is to
do a short instruction of each exercise with the sample answer for a stapler. Then students begin the
exercise. The experimental conditions are: 1) The subjects are sophomores in Japanese college; 2)
The location is Akita Prefecture Technology Center; 3) The period of experiment is six hours per
day for six days (August, 2001); and 4) The experimental teaching materials are U.S.-made can
openers (Jr. Portable, Swing-A-Way). The outcomes of the exercises are not analyzed here but
firstly the specifications written by the students are analyzed by focusing on the relations between
the content of specification statements and the exercises answers in the each phase. Secondly, the
results of the revised design assignment are evaluated.
The analysis of the specification

Because of the limited words, we analyze a crucial item in each category of the design specification
(Figure 2).
Function(s) in performance requirements

The functions in the design specification must be stated with specific performance statements so
that the designer can generate concrete concepts for the specification. Otherwise the design concept
will diversify. The two students answered To cut a cans lid as the primary function. And as for
the performance statements one student wrote It must be easy to use, reliable, nickel body and
steel cutter, soft grip and handy at the end of Phase II and the student added It must have a proper
shape of handle. This was revised a little at the end of the Phase IV as It must be easy to use,
reliable, the cutter for a small and middle size can, rustproof and the maximum opening of the
handle is twenty degree. Most of the performance statements are rather vague like customers
requirements, but after doing exercises the performance statements became a little more specific.
Many exercises are supposed to give hints for answering the functional requirements with their
performance rate in the specification. The step 6 in Phase IV does help students to describe the
variables in numerical terms but might not enough to test all items in analytical sense.
Method of assembly in manufacture requirements

Here in-house manufacturing facilities and outsourcing for production, and the method of assembly
are specified. The materials to be used and packing and shipment are specified too. A student
specified the facilities and outsourcing factors at the end of Phase IV but it is usually difficult for
the students since many of the factors are company policy and depend on the facilities that a plant
owns. In the experiment, students answered the item of materials, the method of assembly and
packing. A student, for example wrote about the method of assembly Crank and gear are attached
to the handle by a rivet and cutter is also attached to the other handle by a rivet. The two handles
then are jointed by a rivet at the fulcrum, and assemble a rivet for the guide lastly. The statements
are not changed at the end of the Phase IV because the method was clarified in the teardown form.
Students are asked to write in the new version of specification.
Safety in operation requirements

Here students specify any legislations and codes of practices in the area, which refer to all safety
aspects of the product. One student said, The parts edges should be rounded and have an
explanation sheet attached. The other student said, Even if users grip the handle too firmly, the
cutter should not harm anyones hand. Students are supposed to define any legislation but they did
not do so since they did not survey any regulations regarding safety. They think that the SG mark
designate a safe product. As a safety concern, students proposed to cover the gear, and made the
body section of the handle wider, shown in figure 5, section 3.2.3.
Disposal standard of others

Here students specify individual country or international standards for disposal. Especially in order
to reuse materials, almost all plastic materials used must be identified. One student said, The grip
cover is made of petroleum resin and the other components are all inflammable materials. The
other student made almost the same statements. They could have shown the kind of grip materials
to be used and checked the handbook of international standards for disposal since the product will
be sold internationally.
Conclusive remarks
There are many unfilled items in the acceptance standards and disposal headings in the figure 2.
These will be filled out if students do a data search from other sources such as standards books,
10
related product legislation and so forth, and there are unnecessary specification items depending on
the product for teardown. As teaching materials for beginners, it may not be necessary to go into
minor factors unless items are closely related to the product features and are considered to be
important to in redesign exercises. The instructor should judge whether the item is necessary or not.
The evaluation of the revised design

The additional need was to have the can opener be operable by a physically handicapped person.
Create initial specifications

Students rephrased new customer needs of the handicapped as the person who has minimum
eyesight for daily life and grasping force, and has same comprehensive ability as child. Revised
items of design specification are as follows: The weight of the performance requirements is
changed such as lighter than 150g and the materials of it such as larger diameter of the gear and
cutter, longer handle and crank These statements should be stated more clearly as design
specification.
Develop, Select and Describe product Concepts

The example of three sketches of the revised design are as follows: 1) Almost same design as
original one but has a longer crank; 2) The handles have the same shape as ordinary scissors; 3) The
gear is motor-driven one. The student selected the first one because of the product weight.
Detail the design and write specification

The students created a revised teardown form that had much more detailed information than the
original one, indicating that students skill at describing functions, structures and mechanisms, had
increased. In the detail design, figure 4 and figure 5 show the form written in Phase III and VI.
11
The same student wrote figure 4 and figure 5. Although the student did not specify the numerical
values in his specification, he expressed the revised design concept and specified the design
variables in his teardown form numerically. As the revised concept is stated in the initial
specification, he lengthened the handle from 150 mm to 195 mm and the crank from 70 mm to 75
mm, and made the handle wider and thicker for an easier grasp.
Conclusions
This work described an approach to teaching 1st and 2nd year engineering students how to create
design specifications using the context of a take-apart exercise of a familiar consumer product. We
call the approach the Design Structured Teardown Process. It consists of six phases, with
associated Tasks and Outcomes, and selected outcomes produce information that contributes to the
writing of specifications. The specifications evolve in scope and detail as students work through
the phases, operating the product, dismantling it, measuring, drawing, computing and identifying
materials, components and functions. In this way, information for design variables and their
quantitative and qualitative measures, is gathered and phrased as plausible specifications. Students
also analyze an alternate product with the same overall function, and create concepts for a new
product, having the same overall function but with different constraints. Thus they gain three
experiences in writing specifications and see how specifications can guide the development of three
different products, each providing the same overall function. The authors encourage instructors who
12
are using a take-apart exercise to consider adopting this six phases approach to integrate the
exercise into a larger design context and provide experience in writing specifications. The method
has been tested for several consumer products but we believe that the approach can be applied for
any product that has an assembly structure such as electrical and architectural artifacts.
13
References
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Abe, Tokio. 1997. A Learning Scheme for the Translation Task. The Journal of the Economics
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Abe, Tokio. 1999. The Teaching Experiment of the Design Scheme. The Journal of the
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Ulrich, Karl and Steven Eppinger. 1995. Product Design and Development. New York, NY.:
McGraw-Hill.
15

empirical study
R. S. Adams Center for Engineering Learning and Teaching, University of Washington, USA
Abstract
Design is a cornerstone of the engineering profession and a prominent feature in how we educate
engineers and accredit engineering programs. Design problems are often ambiguous, ill-structured,
and may have multiple solutions. As a result, a designers understanding of the problem or possible
solutions evolves through a process of iteration. Iteration is a symbolic feature in design models
that represents a process of revisiting and resolving design conflicts. Although iteration is
considered an integral part of design activity and a natural attribute of design competency, there is
little research that explicitly operationalizes or represents iterative activity. The purpose of this
paper is to provide and discuss theoretically meaningful representations of iteration in engineering
design. Representations were generated from empirical data from a comprehensive study of
cognitive processes in iterative design activity. The utility of these representations is evidenced in
their ability to emphasize empirical findings, highlight qualitative trends and patterns of behavior,
and distinguish differences in design success and levels of engineering experience. In addition,
these representations may be useful pedagogical tools for engaging design students and design
educators in discussions about effective iterative behaviors.

empirical study
Introduction
Design is a cornerstone of the engineering profession, a prominent feature in how we educate
engineers and accredit engineering programs, and one way of describing the competency of our
engineering graduates as practitioners (ABET, 1998; NRC, 1995; NSF, 1995; NSPE, 1992).
Iteration is a fundamental feature of design activity that signifies a goal-directed process of
revisiting aspects of a design task in which the goal is a solution that is internally consistent with an
understanding of the problem. Iterations mark an awareness that neither the problem nor the goals
are well-defined, and are the result of attempts to reconcile ambiguities and contradictions. In
cognitive models of design aspects of this process it is described as problem and solution coevolution (Adams; 2001; Braha and Maimon, 1997; Hybs and Gero, 1992). As such, the
mechanisms underlying iterative cycles can be described as transformational and evolutionary
processes that mark a designers journey from an under-specified starting point to an elusive target
goal (Hybs and Gero, 1992). For each adjustment, the designer must analyze not only the effects of
the change but also reevaluate the design task. From our own experiences, we refer to iterations as
another pass, moving in a new direction, the next version, inspiration, optimizing or even
starting over.
Iteration has been found to constitute effective design practice (Adams, Turns and Atman, in press;
Bucciarelli, 1996; Radcliffe and Lee, 1989) and provide mechanisms for supporting design
innovation (Dorst and Cross, 2001; Suwa, Gero and Purcell, 2000). For example, Suwa et al (2000)
found a significant relationship between invention and unexpected discoveries during design
sketching. In a comprehensive empirical study of iteration in engineering student design processes,
Adams (2001) found that iteration is a significant component of design activity that occurs
frequently throughout the design process; and measures of iterative activity were significant
indicators of design success (e.g., effective behaviors) and greater engineering experience.
Examples of effective iterative behaviors include: 1) more time iterating and more iterations, 2)
more time in iterative processes that involved a conceptual shift in understanding (transformative
processes), 3) more time in iterations triggered by self-monitoring and examining activities, and in
iterations that resulted in revisions coupled across problem and solution elements, 4) more time
iterating within and across conceptual design and problem setting activities, and 5) a greater
awareness of iterative strategies and processes for monitoring, detecting, and resolving design
failures. Observations from study data suggest iterative activity may facilitate learning by allowing
the designer to continually revisit and reflect upon each aspect of the design task (Adams, Turns
and Atman, in press).
Representations of iteration
Few studies operationalize or denote iterative behavior in engineering design, in particular how
iteration relates to experience or performance. Representations from studies of design activity
indicate iteration as cyclical processes of revisiting previous design decisions and these processes
occur predominantly during conceptual design. In a substantial study of engineering student design
processes Atman et al (1999) found that seniors made more transitions between steps of the design
process than freshmen, and that transition behavior related positively to final solution quality.
Representations of these design processes suggest iteration may be described as transitioning
backwards to previous design steps. Tjandra (1998) utilized representations for analyzing iteration
in design teams and observed both probabilistic or unplanned iterations and parallel task activities
of analysis and synthesis; however, no correlation between the quality of the solution and the
number of iterations was found. Goldschmidt (1996) created a graphical means to measure design
productivity as the interlinkability between conceptual aspects of design. Although greater

productivity was not an automatic consequence of a higher ratio of interlinkability, Goldschmidt
notes that the technique might be useful for indicating repetitive clarification and evaluation
processes. Badke-Schaub and Frankenberger (1999) utilized a graphical framework based on
critical situations to study factors that influence collaborative design work in practice. Critical
events were defined as situations in which the design process takes on a new direction on a
conceptual or embodiment design level. The authors found that critical events accounted for 88% of
the situations observed and identified mechanisms responsible for positive and negative outcomes
of different critical events.
A question remains: what does iteration look like? Representations of iterative activity may help
answer this question. Researchers have utilized graphical representations of data as a mode of
inquiry (Chimka and Atman, 1998; Larkin and Simon, 1987) and suggest that representations may
increase the variety of questions about educational situations (Eisner, 1997). Representations have
also been used as pedagogical devices (Turns and Atman, 2000). This paper was motivated by
representations derived from a comprehensive empirical study of iteration (Adams, 2001). In this
paper, representations generated from study measures are provided to emphasize and explore
iteration in engineering design (e.g., where iterations occur, relative frequency and duration, and
patterns of behavior). Representations include timelines of iterative cycles and processes and web
diagrams of iterative transition sequences. The utility of these representations is demonstrated in
their ability to illustrate theoretically meaningful measures and patterns of iterative activity. The
utility of these representations may be extended as educational tools: to educate students about
iteration in design and to engage design educators in discussions about improving the teaching of
design.
Extending an empirical study of iteration

The representations discussed in this paper were generated during a comprehensive study (N=32) of
iteration in engineering design (Adams, 2001). The purpose of this study was to 1) empirically
explore and identify iterative behaviors in engineering students design processes based on a
cognitive model of iteration, and 2) compare measures of iterative activity across differences in
performance and engineering coursework. The research design was a strategic comparison of
freshmen and senior engineering undergraduates and included exploratory and confirmatory
components. Pre-engineering freshmen completed the research task prior to enrolling in an
introductory engineering course, and seniors completed the task during their final semester before
receiving a baccalaureate degree in engineering. The purpose of the exploratory component was to
develop and utilize a coding scheme for analyzing iterative activity; hypotheses generated were
tested in the confirmatory analysis.
Methods
This study utilized a subset from an existing dataset of 50 engineering students solving a complex
design problem (Atman et al., 1999; Bursic and Atman, 1997). Eight subjects were selected for the
exploratory analysis (4 freshmen, 4 seniors) and 24 subjects for the confirmatory analysis (12
freshmen, 12 seniors). The research method was verbal protocol analysis in which subjects think
aloud as they perform an experimental task (Ericsson and Simon, 1993). The experimental task was
administered in a laboratory setting. Subjects were given three hours to design a fictitious
playground and all requests for additional information were catalogued. Existing data utilized in
the iteration study included: 1) protocols previously coded for design step activities, 2) final quality
scores based on criteria from expert playground designers, 3) information requested, and 4)
background information.
Operationalizing iteration
The framework for coding iterative activity was based on a cognitive model describing underlying
mechanisms of iteration as well as schemes for classifying iterative cycles and processes (Adams,
2001; Adams and Atman, 1999; 2000). Attributes of this framework were drawn from a synthesis
of research in design and complex problem solving. As illustrated in Figure 1, iteration is
operationalized as a goal-directed cognitive process that is triggered by an information processing
activity and concludes with a change to a design state (i.e., process, problem, or solution element).
INFORMATION
PROCESSING ACTIVITIES:
Monitor
Access
Clarify
Examine
PROCESSES:
Diagnostic
Transformative
CHANGES TO DESIGN STATE

Process
Proble m
Solution
Evaluate
Figure 1: A cognitive model of iteration in engineering design.

Information processing activities describe how information is being accessed, utilized, and
generated. Example triggering activities include monitoring self-understanding or progress,
clarifying the nature of the design problem, conceptualizing design elements, and evaluating
solution quality. Changes to a design state (the outcomes of an iteration) include redefining
problem requirements and evaluation criteria, proposing or modifying new solution elements, and
coupled changes across problem and solution elements. Information processing activities that
culminate in changes are defined as resolved or successful iterations; situations in which the process
does not yield an outcome are defined as unresolved or unsuccessful iterations.
Classifications for successful iterations were coded in terms of iterative cycles and iterative
processes. Iterative cycles are signified by the main outcome of the iteration and codes include:
problem scoping, solution revision, coupled cycles in which problem and solution elements are
simultaneously revised, and self-monitored cycles in which the iteration is triggered by an explicit
plan to revisit a previous design decision. As shown in Figure 1, iterations that connect information
processing and decision activities are defined as either diagnostic or transformative processes.
Diagnostic processes are defined as incremental revisions in which no major conceptual shift in
understanding occurs (e.g., result in corrective actions). Transformative processes are defined as
conceptual innovations in which new information is integrated into the process (e.g., result in
synthesis or generation actions). For example, iterations that included redefining the problem or
coupling revisions to problem and solution elements were coded as transformative; iterations that
included only reviewing the problem (without revision) or modifying a solution element (without
revising an understanding of the problem) were coded as diagnostic. A complete description of the
coding process is provided in previous work (Adams, 2001; Adams and Atman, 1999; 2000). Interrater reliabilities for coding protocols averaged greater than 85% and all differences were arbitrated
to consensus.
Problem
Definition
Gather
Information
Communicate
Generate
Ideas
Decision
Evaluation
Modeling
Feasibility
Figure 2: An idealized model of iterative transition sequences.

Because protocols were previously coded for design step activities there was a unique opportunity
to combine descriptive and cognitive models of design into an integrated framework for analyzing
iterations as movements located within a design process. Design step activity codes for the
descriptive model are shown in Figure 2 (see Atman et al., 1999; Atman and Bursic, 1998). The
links in the idealized web diagram represent iterations as transitions to previous design step
activities (e.g., Feasibility to Modeling, Modeling to Gather Information). Iterations can also occur
within design steps (e.g., Modeling). This combined framework provides a mechanism for
analyzing iterative activity in terms of where iterations are likely to be triggered as well as the
direction of an iterative sequence: links begin where an iteration is triggered and the direction of the
arrows signifies the goal of an iterative transition sequence.
Representations of iteration
Graphical representations of iteration in engineering design were generated in the process of
analyzing empirical measures. These representations include timelines of iterative cycles and
processes and web diagrams of iterative transition sequences within a model of design processes.
Timelines of iterative cycles and processes display coded behaviors from a chronological
perspective and were used to explore the history of iterative activity as well as the relative
frequency and duration of iteration. Web diagrams of iterative transition sequences illustrate
relationships between coded design step activities and coded cognitive activities that trigger and
resolve an iteration (see Figure 2). These diagrams provide insight into where iterations occur
within a model of design and the direction (or goal) of an iteration.
The following sections provide examples of iteration timelines and web diagrams for three subjects.
Subject A (a senior) is an example of subjects that received high quality scores and had greater
engineering experience. The representations for Subject A illustrate iterative behaviors that
correlated with higher quality scores (effective behaviors); and illustrate, although to a lesser extent,
patterns for freshmen that received the highest quality scores. Subject B (a canonical freshman) is
an example of subjects that received lower quality scores and had less engineering experience. In
general, representations for Subject B illustrate a reduction in time spent in effective iterative
behaviors as compared to those for Subject A. The representations for Subject B also exemplify
patterns for seniors that received the lowest quality scores. Subject C (a freshman) is an example of
subjects that received the lowest quality scores as well as had less engineering experience. The
representations for Subject C generally illustrate a dramatic reduction in effective iterative
behaviors as well as an increase in iterative behaviors that significantly correlated with lower
quality scores (ineffective behaviors). Freshmen and senior subjects in this study did not differ
significantly across academic and personal backgrounds on the following measures: high school
grade point averages, math and verbal scores on standard achievement tests (SAT), and parents
technical background. Therefore, it is not likely that differences in the representations can be
attributed to personal characteristics.
Illustrating iteration: timelines of iterative cycles and processes
Timelines of iterative cycles for the three example subjects are provided in Figure 3. Codes for
iterative cycles are listed on the left side of the timelines and the tickmarks represent time engaged
in coded activities at that point in time. In the timelines, time is presented as hr:min:sec:msec.
Codes for iterative cycles include: Problem Scoping (PS), Monitored Problem Scoping, Solution
Revision (SR), Monitored Solution Revision, Coupled Problem and Solution Revision (Coupled),
and Monitored Coupled Problem and Solution Revision. Coupled cycles refer to iterations in which
revisions to problem and solution elements are occurring simultaneously. Characteristics of
coupled iterations observed in the protocols include gathering information on a just in time basis,
qualifying or quantifying problem requirements by justifying or describing how a solution functions
or behaves, and evaluating solutions while clarifying evaluation commitments from multiple
perspectives.
CLOSED ITER Timeline

00:00:00:00
00:18:00:00
00:36:00:00
00:54:00:00
01:12:00:00
01:30:00:00
01:48:00:00
Problem Scoping (PS)

Monitored PS
Solution Revision (SR)
Monitored SR
Coupled
Monitored Coupled
A: High Quality SeniorTotal Time Iterating (39.9%), Quality Score (.585)

ITER TYPE CLOSED Timeline
00:01:00:00
00:17:00:00
00:33:00:00
00:49:00:00
01:05:00:00
01:21:00:00

Monitored PS
Monitored SR
Coupled
Monitored Coupled
B: Canonical FreshmanTotal Time Iterating (29.8%), Quality Score (.409)

closed iteration Timeline
00:01:00:00
00:16:00:00
00:31:00:00
00:46:00:00
01:01:00:00
01:16:00:00
01:31:00:00

Monitored PS
Monitored SR
Coupled
Monitored Coupled
C: Low Quality FreshmanTotal Time Iterating (23.0%), Quality Score (.373)

Figure 3: Representations of iteration timelines for (a) a senior with a high quality score, (b) a
canonical freshman, and (c) a freshman with a low quality score.
The timelines in Figure 3 reveal that iteration occurs frequently throughout the design process (an
average of 8 iterations every 5 minutes) rather than at specific points in the process such as
optimizing a design solution at the end of the process. The representations also communicate that
iteration occurs a significant portion of the time regardless of differences in quality or experience.
Freshmen and seniors, respectively, spent an average of 31.4% and 39.8% of their total design time
iterating. Comparing across Subjects A, B, and C these iterative cycle timelines emphasize a
general reduction in known effective iterative behaviors as levels of design success and engineering
experience decrease. These include a reduction in 1) the frequency (and number) of iteration, 2) the
levels of coupled and self-monitored coupled cycles, and 3) the likelihood of any self-monitored
iterative cycle.
The timelines in Figure 3 also highlight patterns of iterative activity associated with greater success
and engineering experience. Comparing from Subjects A to C illustrates a general reduction in
iterative problem scoping cycles early in the process. In addition, these cycles appear to be
replaced with iterative coupled cycles relatively early in the process suggesting that many students
(particularly freshmen) did not create a stable representation of the problem prior to developing
solutions. The timelines also indicate a relationship between the amount of iterative problem
scoping and solution revision cycles. In particular, those who spent a greater portion of time in
problem scoping cycles as compared to solution revision cycles received higher scores and
generally had more engineering experience. In addition, a pattern is evident in the timeline for
Subject A (but not for B and C) in which large packets of iterative coupled and self-monitored
cycles are closely grouped together. These may be design strategies in which iteration plays a
fundamental role.
In addition, the timelines draw attention to a noticeable pattern of iteration at the end of the design
process. From the protocols these were observed to be efforts to verify and optimize the quality of
final solutions (e.g., verification cycles). For Subject A these verification strategies were more
likely to be self-monitored solution revision cycles. Self-monitored cycles are driven by an explicit
plan to revisit design decisions and were observed in the protocols to be markers of metacognitive
strategies. For Subjects B and C these cycles were more likely to be coupled iterative cycles in
which new information was generated and integrated into the task during the final stages of the
process. Observations from the protocols suggest these may be efforts to rationalize design
solutions by justifying a new understanding of the design task. Finally, by comparing the size of
the tickmarks in the timelines it is evident that Subjects B and C were more likely to have iterations
of longer duration, whereas Subject A was more likely to have iterations of relatively short duration
(average of .68 minutes). As such, this suggests that levels of experience may play an important
role in how quickly designers can respond to critical situations.
Timelines of iterative processes for the three example subjects are provided in Figure 4. Codes for
iterative processes include Diagnostic and Transformative and are listed on the left side of the
timelines. Iterative processes were coded as transformative when revisions involved a conceptual
shift in understanding; otherwise, iterative processes were coded as diagnostic. From the empirical
study, time spent in transformative iterative processes positively related to higher quality scores and
correlated significantly with a higher number of information requests across more categories.
Transformative processes also highly correlated with the level of coupled iterative cycles.
The timelines in Figure 4 reveal that the bulk of iterative activity involves transformational
processes. This suggests that much of iteration can be characterized as generating and synthesizing
information into the design task rather than optimizing relatively stable solutions. The timelines
also suggest patterns regarding time spent in diagnostic and transformative iterative processes.
Comparing across Subjects, the ratio of time spent in transformative in relation to diagnostic
iterative processes approaches unity as the level of success and experience decrease. For Subject A
the ratio of time spent in transformative processes is noticeably greater than time spent in diagnostic
processes; for Subjects B and C the ratio approaches unity.
The timelines in Figure 4 also highlight differences regarding when diagnostic and transformative
processes occur. For the high quality example (Subject A), the timeline shows a high level of
transformative processes that decreases dramatically about an hour into the task and a related
increase in diagnostic processes for the remainder of the task. Such a pattern seems logical: as an
understanding of the problem stabilizes it would be more likely that later revisions would be at a
syntactic (e.g., diagnostic) level rather than a semantic (e.g., transformational) level. In other
words, for these revisions it would be less likely to require or elicit a conceptual shift in
understanding. In comparison, subjects with lower scores and less engineering experience were
more likely to spend time in transformative iterative processes later in the design task. From the
protocols, large quantities of diagnostic iterative processes early in the process were associated with
reviewing the design task and difficulties with bringing new information into the task to guide
design activities. Finally, the timelines in Figures 3 and 4 highlight a difference across final quality
scores and experience in the nature of final verification cycles. Whereas Subject A was more likely
to spend time in iterative diagnostic cycles at the end of the task, Subjects B and C were more likely
to spend time in transformative iterative cycles.
PROCESS CLOSED Timeline

00:00:00:00
00:18:00:00
00:36:00:00
00:54:00:00
01:12:00:00
01:30:00:00
01:48:00:00
Diagnostic
Tran formative
Tran formative*
A: High Quality SeniorTotal Time Iterating (39.9%), Quality Score (.585)

00:01:00:00
00:16:00:00
00:31:00:00
00:46:00:00
01:01:00:00
01:16:00:00
01:31:00:00
Diagnostic
Transformative
B: Canonical FreshmanTotal Time Iterating (29.8%), Quality Score (.409)

00:01:00:00
00:16:00:00
00:31:00:00
00:46:00:00
01:01:00:00
01:16:00:00
01:31:00:00
Diagnostic
Transformative
C: Low Quality FreshmanTotal Time Iterating (23.0%), Quality Score (.373)

Figure 4: Representations of iterative process timelines for (a) a senior with a high quality
score, (b) a canonical freshman, and (c) a freshman with a low quality score.
Overall, the timelines of iterative cycles and iterative processes bring to light empirical findings and
reveal patterns of iterative behavior associated with levels of design success and engineering
experience. For example, they are useful for emphasizing known effective iterative behaviors, the
relative amount of different kinds of iteration in design, and identifying strategies such as final
verification loops and early problem scoping activities. As such, these representations highlight the
importance of iteration in design as well as effective iterative behaviors that may be useful in the
teaching of design.
Illustrating iteration: Web diagrams of iterative sequences
Web diagrams of iterative transition sequences within a model of design processes for the three
example subjects are provided in Figure 5. The web diagrams illustrate time spent in iterative
activities in relation to design activities (e.g., iterating within Modeling and iterating across
Feasibility to Gather Information). The percentages shown in the diagrams refer to the amount of
total iteration time engaged in that activity. For the case of iterating within a design step,
percentages are located within the associated design step symbol. For iterating across design steps,
percentages are located on the arrow and the direction of the arrow is towards the goal of the
iterative transition sequence.
Problem
Definition
Problem
Definition
0.2%
2.6
%
1.7%*
*
Communicate
Decision
0.2
%
0.7
%
Gather
Information
4.4
%
2.9%*
*
Evaluation
13.9% *
*
Feasibility
(1.6%*)
(0.6%)
4.2%*
*
8.6%*
*
6.3
%
Gather
Information
Communicate
(0.2%**)
3.6
%
0.1%
*
1.1%
*
4.3%*
*
Modeling
14.7
%
12.7
%
Generate
Ideas
7.8
%
Decision
(3.8%)
21.6%
*
Evaluation
Feasibility
(3.2%*)
(a) High Quality Senior (Subject A)--Level of Iteration

(39.9%), Quality Score (.585), Number of Links (14)
3.6%*
*
10.4%
**
Modeling
0.9
%
(13.2%*)
9.9%*
*
0.9
%
Generate
Ideas
19.4
%
(14.6%*)
2.1%*
*
(b) Canonical Freshman (Subject B)--Level of Iteration

(29.8%), Quality Score (.409) Number of Links (11)
Problem
Definition
Gather
Information
Communicate
(1.5%)
(7.6%**)
4.0
%
Decision
Evaluation
0.7%*
*
21.3%
**
Generate
Ideas
Modeling
(58%*)
Feasibility
(c) Low Quality Freshman (Subject C)Total Time Iterating (23.0%), Quality (.373) Number of Links (3)
Figure 5: Representations of iteration web diagrams for (a) a senior with a high quality score, (b) a
canonical freshman, and (c) a freshman with a low quality score. Percentages represent percent of
total iteration time engaged in that activity. Percentages signified with ** represent known
effective iterative activities and those with * represent known weakly effective activities.
The web diagrams emphasize the variety of possible iterative transition sequences and reveal the
significant and positive relationship between the number of iterative transition sequences (and time
spent in effective behaviors) and greater design success and engineering experience. For example,
the web diagram for Subject A shows 14 different sequences; for Subject B there are 11, for Subject
C, only 3. Although the empirical findings identify that a greater number of iterative sequences
relates to design success and greater experience, the measure is not a powerful indicator on its
ownbut rather is limited by the number of sequences present in the web diagrams known to be
10
effective (e.g., the amount of time in effective iterative activities). As shown in Figure 5, effective
iterative behaviors from the empirical study (signified with **) include iterations within problem
scoping activities, within conceptual design activities, across conceptual design and problem
scoping activities, and across implementation and conceptual design activities. Subject A spent
35% of their total iteration time in effective activities; whereas Subjects B and C spent 20.4% and
29.6% of their total iteration time. Also, Subject A spent time in 7 of a possible 9 effective iterative
activities, whereas Subjects B and C spent time in 4 and 3.
The web diagrams also highlight the trade-off between time spent in known effective iterative
activities and iterative activities positively associated with success but not statistically significant
(weakly effective activities). Weakly effective iterative activities are signified with a * in Figure 5
and examples include time spent iterating within Modeling and Feasibility, and from Modeling to
Generate Ideas. Subject A spent approximately equal times in effective and weakly effective
activities (35% and 37.6% respectively). Subject B spent more time in weakly effective as
compared to effective activities (37.2% and 20.4%), and Subject C spent almost twice as much time
in weakly effective as compared to effective activities (58% and 29.6%). These trends suggest that
the process of acquiring design expertise may be associated with replacing weakly effective
strategies with considerably more effective strategies.
A comparison across web diagrams indicates a general increase in known ineffective behaviors as
quality scores and engineering experience decrease (e.g., iterating from Generate Ideas to Problem
Definition). Similarly, the web diagrams clearly reveal a relationship between an excessive level of
iterating within Modeling and lower quality scores and less engineering experience. Although time
spent iterating within Modeling was found to be a weakly effective iterative activity, an excessive
level was associated with lower quality scores. For example, Subject A spent 13.2% of their total
iteration time within the Modeling design step whereas Subject C spent 58% of their total iteration
time.
Finally, the web diagrams highlight the relationship between where iterations are triggered and the
goal driving the iterative activity: the goal of iterative sequences is more likely to be related to
problem scoping activities, in particular transitioning back to Gather Information. This indicates
that problem scoping activities represent not only a significant design goal but also occur
throughout the design task in qualitatively different ways as solutions are developed. An interesting
finding suggested in the empirical study but best represented in these web diagrams is a pattern of
iteration that can be characterized as a conversation across representational spaces: between
conceptual design and problem scoping, communication and conceptual design, and communication
and problem scoping. Aspects of this iterative activity may be conceptualized as design discourse
(Adams, Turns and Atman, in press; Mandershetty, 1995). For example, Mandershetty (1995)
created a cognitive model of design in which problem and solution representations developed
during conceptual design activities set up a universe of discourse that encourages the generation of
novel ideas or design breakthroughs. Observations of such conversations in the protocols were
described as problem scoping in context. As an example, a student begins with an abstract sense of
the design constraint be safe and as they move through the design process and develop solutions
they generate an understanding of safety in specific solution contexts and revise solutions based on
this new understanding. In the process they elaborate or expand a conception of safety at a more
generalizable level which can then be used to guide the improvement of other solution elements for
which safety might be an important constraint.
Such a dialectic is indicative of more expert like strategies found in other complex problem solving
domains and is believed to be a hallmark of expert task performance. In the context of expertise in
reading and writing, Scardamalia and Bereiter (1991) developed a model of skill acquisition as a
11
dialectic process between particular and general conceptualizations. In a study of writing as a

complex problem solving process Bryson et al., (1991) found that experts interpret the significance
of the topic on a more abstract level and transform it so that it can be placed in a more meaningful
epistemological perspective. The authors describe this as a dialectical interaction between content
and rhetorical goals in which a representation of the problem evolves recursively as cognitive
operations bridge the gap between initial and final states. In the context of expert actors, Noice and
Noice (1997, pg. 69) remark throughout, it was obvious that the participant (the expert) examined
the written text for the purpose of turning it into a living conversation.
Conclusions
Representations of iterative activity are effective and useful mechanisms for communicating
theoretically meaningful empirical findings and revealing qualitative characteristics of iteration in
engineering design related to performance and engineering experience. These representations
clearly indicate the extent to which design is an iterative process as well as the variety of iterative
strategies designers utilize. Similarly, activities captured in the representations help articulate the
meaning of empirical findings from a confirmatory study of iterative processes in design. From a
theoretical perspective, qualitative patterns evident in the representations illustrate design iteration
as a conversation across representational spaces. As a hallmark of expertise in the solving of
complex problems, aspects of dialectic iterative activity may be useful as markers of design
learning. The means for capturing these dialectic patterns may be extended to support similar
studies in other complex problem solving domains.
From a practical perspective these representations have high utility for encouraging a dialogue on
iteration in engineering design. For example, design educators could use the representations
presented in this paper to engage their students in a conversation about the role of iteration in design
and effective iterative activities. The representations also suggest that iterative activity should be
strongly encouraged in the teaching of design. Educators could use these representations to justify
pedagogical decisions such as increasing opportunities for students to iterate frequently in their
design activities, as well as offering instruction in iterative strategies and promoting an awareness
of iteration as a successful design strategy.
Acknowledgements
This research was made possible in part by a National Science Foundation grant RED-9358516, the
Engineering Coalition of Schools for Excellence in Leadership and Education (ECSEL), a National
Science Foundation Engineering Education Coalitions program, as well as a grant from the GE
Fund. I would also like to thank all of the students who participated in this study, Cindy Atman
who allowed me to use her data to tackle a unique and substantial project, Jennifer Turns for her
irreplaceable insight, and Jana Littleton for assisting in the coding of the transcripts and improving
the coding scheme.
12
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14

achieving the aspirations of professionals?
The case of the Mubarak National Housing Project for Youth
K.G. Ahmed Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales; Cardiff, UK
M. Parry Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales; Cardiff, UK
Abstract
As a result of the criticism of the conventional Western-inspired prototypical designs for lowincome public housing in Egypt, a new trend in design for this sort of housing, represented by the
Mubarak National Housing Project for Youth, has been adopted by the professionals in recent
years. If the main objective of any housing project is to meet user needs and preferences, has the
design of the Mubarak housing project achieved this goal? and to what extent does this project
differ from previous public housing schemes?. In an attempt to answer these questions, and
speculate on an appropriate design approach for low-income people in Egypt, multi research
methods have been adopted within the research discussed in this paper. The research reveals that
the Mubarak project is, to a large extent, designed in the same rigid way as previous public housing
schemes. The design process, in which any real changes should take place, remains intact. While it
has been argued that users' needs could not be met without their active participation in the design
process, this research indicates a wide gulf between this notion and the attitude of designers.
Despite this, a considerable percentage of the users involved in the research believe that their
participation in the design decision-making process is fundamental.

achieving the aspirations of professionals?
The case of the Mubarak National Housing Project for Youth
Introduction
Egypt is one of the developing countries that suffers from an acute housing problem, especially for
low-income people. To cope with this problem, since 1950s until the present, the Egyptian
government has adopted a policy of building mass housing for low-income people. The
conventional design of low-income public housing projects in Egypt is usually based on typical
housing units consisting of one, two or three roomed apartments, [Fig. 1(a)], in five story blocks
arranged in monotonous rows or round open spaces (Wilkinson and Tipple, 1987). These typical
housing units were designed according to predetermined standards for the size of units, number of
rooms, room size, plumbing fixtures with areas generally varied from 25 sq. m. to 85 sq. m. The
public housing neighbourhood layout, in contrast to the tightness and lack of space inside the
dwelling, normally has wide public open space between the blocks [Fig.1(b)]. (Wilkinson, Khattab,
Majo and Kardash, 1991).
The design of these projects has been criticized because their designers seemed overly concerned
with physical features, building standards, and economic factors, whereas the socio-cultural needs
of the occupants were widely ignored (Salama, 1998). Greger and Steinberg (1988) believe that the
static, behaviorist design of mass housing and neighbourhood planning were meant for the people
but not intended to change with them. Additionally, most of public spaces between the blocks have
been characterized as no mans land. These spaces have obviously failed to attract the typical
Egyptians' outdoor life. (Steinberg, 1991; Hyland, Tipple and Wilkinson, 1984).
These shortcomings have been blamed on Western-inspired designs based on high building
standard and codes that usually do not coincide with the way of life which Egyptian people,
particularly low-income stratum, normally lead (Wilkinson 1991). Choguill (1995: 406) maintains
that ''Whereas developed countries may well be able to afford high standards in construction and
layout to achieve perfectly understandable aims, it does not necessarily follow that a Third World
nation should adopt these Western standards which might be totally inappropriate to its own
climatic, cultural, and economic circumstances''.
The dominance of economic aspects over other determinants in the design process was identified as
another cause of the shortcomings of low-income public housing in Egypt. Tipple (1991), Mohd.,
Mahtab-uz-Zaman and Ganesan (1998) argue that low-income public housing has been handled
through a dominant economic approach rather than a comprehensive perspective that takes into
account the different aspects and needs of users. Thus, under the pressure of the need for mass
housing to satisfy housing provision, little effort has been exerted in design process to produce userresponsive designs.
As a result of this criticism, a new approach to design for low-income housing, as represented in the
Mubarak National Housing Project for Youth, has been adopted by the Egyptian government and
its professionals since 1996.
The Mubarak National Housing Project for Youth: an alternative design

approach for low-income housing in Egypt
The Mubarak national housing project is a mass low-income public housing project aimed at
producing more than 70,000 housing units in more than 15 new and existing cities in Egypt. The
beneficiaries of this project were to be the youth who belonged to disadvantaged, low-income
groups in Egyptian society. The project, which was completed in December 2000, aimed at
constructing housing units with areas of 100m2 in its first phase and 70m2 and 63m2 in its second
and third phases respectively (Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities, 2001).
Named after the Egyptian President Mubarak, this national housing project received a significant
degree of political support from the outset. In its reports about this project, the Egyptian ministry of
housing (1997) frequently announced that it was a direct commission from the President for the
ministry of housing to provide an appropriate and modern dwelling for low-income youth in Egypt.
GOPP [General Organization for Physical Planning] (2000) claimed that the Mubarak housing
project aimed at providing function, comfort and aesthetics as well as maintaining a balance among
cost, economic efficiency and socio-cultural requirements in a civilised residential environment.
President Mubarak announced his intention to continue this project so the Egyptian ministry of
housing began to develop a fourth phase (The Executive Agency for The Mubarak Youth National
Housing Project, 2000).
If the main objective of the design of any housing project is to meet its users' needs and preferences,
has the design of the Mubarak Housing project achieved this goal? In an attempt to answer this
question, and speculate on an appropriate design approach for low-income people in Egypt, multi
research methods have been adopted. Firstly, documentary research that aimed at defining the
process of the design of this project and defining its similarities and differences with previous
designs applied to low-income public housing. Secondly, semi-structured interviews were
undertaken with some of the key designers involved in the design of the Mubarak Housing Project.
Also, structured interviews were conducted with a random sample of one hundred and twenty
households selected from three case studies representing the three main prevailing patterns of lowincome housing environments in Cairo, namely, public housing, transformed public housing and
informal housing.
Design of the Mubarak housing project

The designs of the housing units and blocks for the Mubarak project were chosen through national
architectural competitions held among Egyptian architects. The Ministry of Housing (2001) argues
that the chosen designs fulfill the targeted requirements of gross residential density of 120
person/acre and a maximum height of five floors for the residential blocks to allow for ample green
areas, parking spaces and various social services [Fig. 2]. In contrast to the attached blocks type
utilized previously in public housing projects, all residential blocks in Mubarak housing project are
separated from each other to give more room for larger faades. Thus each housing unit has two or
three faades. The building density in these cases does not exceed 50% and, in some cases, it could
be as little as 30%.
The Executive Agency for the Mubarak Youth National Housing Project (2000) argues that the
typical housing units were designed in accordance with the social characteristics and behaviour
codes of the typical Egyptian family. But actually the areas of the housing units were significantly
affected by economic circumstances and not the users needs. The design of the housing units began
with the three bedrooms 100m2 unit, which was envisaged as the most appropriate for the lowincome Egyptian family. Under changing economic circumstances the 100m2 units were built only
in the first phase of the project. Then, in the second phase of the project the government decided to
reduce the unit's area to 70m2 with only two bedrooms instead of three. To cope with this
significantly limited area and to achieve the ultimate use of internal living spaces the designers find
no way but to reduce the areas of corridors and lobbies inside the unit to a minimum. In an
interview with Dr. Hazem El-Queedi, who designed 9 of the 17 housing units prototypes in the
project [Fig.3], he stated that 'we began to look for ways of reducing the cost of public housing
units. There was no real choice but to reduce the housing unit area. The more the designer can
reduce the area of lobbies and corridors inside the housing unit the more he can enlarge the living
spaces. I managed to reduce the area of internal lobbies and corridors to be only 1 or 1.5 m2. As a
result I managed to reduce the total housing unit area to 73m2 without affecting the areas of living
spaces'.
President Mubarak asked the ministry of housing to decrease the housing unit area because not all
low-income people could pay 28 to 32 thousand pounds for the 73m2 unit. The ministry of housing
asked the designers to reduce the unit area to 63m2 in the third phase of the project. To achieve this
further reduction El-Queedi stated that 'this demand was a real challenge. Actually, we, as
designers, found that the only solution was to decrease the thickness of the external walls to 12cm
instead of 25cm. By doing so we saved about 10m2 from the housing unit reducing its total area
from 73m2 to 63m2. Thus we managed to keep the advantages of the external form and internal
spatial organization of the 73m2 units in these smaller units'.
As a result for these significant reductions the housing units of the Mubarak project ended up with
the same areas as the housing units in previous public housing schemes. As they are irresponsive to
the users needs most of the public housing units built in the 1950s and 1960s have been transformed
and changed by their users in order to increase their areas [Fig. 4]. With units of only 63m2, the
Mubarak housing project will inevitably face the same situation especially when the residents
became the owners of their units. Users actions taken in order to meet changing needs will lead,
unavoidably, to physical changes which would affect the interior and exterior of their housing units.
At the same time, in response to political demands more design thought has been given to forming
architecturally distinguished faades for residential blocks. GOPP (2000) claimed that the Mubarak
housing project is designed in a style inspired by authentic Arabic architectural traditions and at the
same time reflecting contemporary urbanism and architecture. This has been achieved through the
tailoring and adoption of a set of modern architectural elements and vocabularies, such as windows,
balconies, cantilevers and solar shades, which are originally derived from the Egyptian architectural
heritage and meant to express the tradition of Arab and Islamic architecture and urbanism. ElQueedi added that 'In my designs I used light and shadow to create visual character for the
residential blocks. While the structural system of the residential blocks is constant I created this
visual effect only by alteration of the slab forms'. [Fig. 5].
In order to maintain the architectural form of the residential blocks, residents are not legally
allowed to change their housing units either internally or externally. El-Queedi mentioned that in
many cases he avoided making balconies over one another, or to make their length similar to the
width of the rooms behind them, in order to prevent the users from using them to enlarge the room
space. He claimed that 'the design therefore is not flexible for users changes. These housing units
were, I believe, aesthetically successful. Therefore, through my designs I intended to provide the
user with his needs while preventing him from affecting the aesthetic aspects of the residential
blocks'.
Furthermore, no resident is allowed to change the function of the domestic unit to either a
commercial or an administrative activity. Flexibility was only considered in the formation of the
residential blocks where each housing unit was designed to provide orientation from more than one
direction. This, it is claimed, permits the best climatic orientation for the blocks depending on
where the housing project is to be developed. Additionally, this provides more variety in treatment
of the blocks' faades (The Executive Agency for the Mubarak Youth National Housing Project,
2000).
It appears that the intensive use of architectural features in the faades of the Mubarak project has
produced a more rigid housing environment than those previously built. The residents of the public
housing schemes of the 1950s and the 1960s managed to enlarge their units to accommodate their
changing needs, whereas the residents in the Mubarak housing project will likely face resistance to
any changes they may wish to undertake.
Providing shops on the ground floors is a new trend in the design of the public housing blocks in
this project. Previously all shops were gathered in one central neighbourhood shopping center. The
number, size, location and commercial activities of these shops were determined by the local
authorities. According to the general conditions set out by The Authority of New Urban
Communities (1998), the owners of these shops, or their successors, do not have the right to change
the predetermined commercial activity.
As a result, this research suggests that the Mubarak housing project is, to a large extent, designed in
the same rigid way as previous conventional public housing projects. The major changes are
superficial and cosmetic. In its 'expert-based' design process all the power of design process is still
in the hands of professionals. Ward (1987) believes that architects ordinary self-esteem and the
imperative to be socially useful, as well as their academic education and training for long years
have convinced them that they have something unique and indispensable to offer to the advantage
of housing design. This, according to Ward, was fine in the world of symbolic structures like town
halls, opera houses, etc., but in the housing it has been disastrous. Hamdi (1991) quotes J. M.
Richard's argument about architects persistent search for novelty, claiming that this has helped to
prevent the growth of an informed body of public opinion something on which a healthy
profession depends. The result has been the architects habit of only looking to each other for
approbation. Dayaratne (1991) maintains that when dwellings are designed in the conventional
expert-based approach of architect-designed, contractor-built, and people-consumed situations,
dwellings are perceived largely within the experiences of the architects themselves.
Design process for low-income housing in Egypt: the need for user involvement
It has been widely argued that users needs could not be met without their participation in the design
process. Bhatt and Navarrete (1991:11) argue that ''For a built environment to be socio-culturally
appropriate it should have, as primary element, the contribution of its future residents.'' According
to Wilkinson (1999) and Rice (1995), the involvement of users in the housing design process had
the potential for producing environments which were not only safer and cared for but also tailored
to the needs of users by the very fact that the residents were involved in making decisions relating
to the house and the direct dwelling environment. The importance of involving the local community
as a participant in housing decision-making process springs out not only from the short-term
benefits for this community but, most of all, from the future need to develop, operate and maintain
its settlement, such that it is fit for the new generation (Cockburn and Barakat, 1991). According to
Towers (1995), user participation, frees up the design process producing more appropriate and
sensitively designed housing. Housing that expresses a greater diversity of personal taste and
cultural identity. Cooper and Rodman (1991:5) quoted John Short's argument that ''Better cities can
be created if all citizens are both empowered and engaged''.
Designers attitudes towards user involvement in the design process of lowincome housing
Chait and Siep (1999) believe that an increasing numbers of planners and designers are embracing
participation as a means to assure and improve the outcomes of their work. In this research, the
'grounded theory' analysis method adopted for the semi-structured interviews conducted with the
designers has revealed that there is a wide gulf between the notion of user participation in design
processes and the attitude of the designers of the current low-income public housing in Egypt.
Regarding the interviewed designers' attitudes towards user participation in the urban design
process of low-income housing schemes many of them argued that the urban design of residential
neighbourhood should remain the task of the urban designers without direct involvement of
residents. They believe that Low-income people and professionals are not able to work together and
users' needs could be deduced from fieldwork research and by the analysis of relevant case studies.
In their opinion, by doing so, researchers could provide designers with very important indicators
concerning user needs. In justifying their opinion some professionals believe that low-income
people should not be consulted in the urban design process because they do not have the required
knowledge to be involved in this process. One of professionals claimed that You can not gain
helpful information through direct involvement as respondents will never give you clear responses.
They are not able to express themselves effectively. Some professionals argued that lay people
should only be asked about their opinions regarding the public utilities and services that need to be
considered in urban design but not about the urban design itself.
Other designers interviewed seem to be in favor of seeking user opinions and comments only on
their finished planning and urban designs. They mentioned that according to planning law in Egypt
any planning scheme must be approved by the local council in the area in which the scheme is to be
developed. Furthermore, the local council would not authorize any planning scheme before it had
been presented publicly for a whole month. During this period, any citizen can object to, or
comment on, anything in the considered scheme. Therefore, any citizen has the right to participate
by expressing his or her opinion and comments on the planning scheme. One of the designers
argued that, In my opinion this is the best way to involve users in planning and urban design
processes.
Regarding the designers' attitudes towards user participation in the design process of their
dwellings, professionals interviewed generally claim that they design what the users need so there is
no need for their direct participation. One of the designers mentioned that I am originally an
ordinary citizen. I was not one of the elite. Therefore, when I design, I design for my neighbour, my
sister and my father. I mean I am familiar with the real needs of low-income people because I am
one of them. Another added that In general, low-income people ask for no more than two
bedrooms housing units and this is what I design. We even made an assumption for the furniture of
rooms and baths. By doing so we consider the appropriate cultural and design criteria. People
participation would not enhance design. I believe that as long as we are not talking about luxury
houses people can live in one housing model as they have no practical opportunity for choice.
For other designers identifying user needs in the housing units designs should be through social
research and case study analysis. One of them argued that the best actions taken by the government
in terms of the design of low-income housing projects were those which commissioned a research
agency, such as our center, to design some housing 'models' for low-income people. According to
these designers, this is because lay people usually do not have sufficient knowledge or an
appropriate educational background, which is essential for their productive involvement in the
design process, or because they are unable to articulate their opinions and values. According to
them, this has resulted from government adopted political and social systems. They added that user
involvement in the design process is difficult practically. One of them asked how can users be
involved if you are designing for more than 70 thousand users. With whom can I sit down and
discuss the design?.
Users attitudes towards their involvement in the design process of their

residential environment
As opposed to attitudes of the designers, a considerable percentage of the users interviewed in the
research believe that their direct participation in the design process, particularly in the housing unit
design, is essential. In terms of the design process of urban spaces, 40.8% of the respondents
disagreed with the professional dominance of this process because they believe that
designers had committed technical mistakes, which could have been avoided if they had
participated. For example, one respondent said that They [professionals] made very wide streets
and open spaces while the open spaces between residential blocks are mostly narrow violating the
privacy of residents. Another resident added that, it is essential to link technology and science
with the real life experience. The planner or the architect has academic experience put lay people
have the real life experience and feeling towards these issues. That is why their opinions should be
considered.
10
One the other hand, 59.2% of the respondents felt that the urban design process should be left
totally to the professionals who are educationally and professionally qualified to carry out the
design for urban spaces believing that residents have no particular knowledge that can contribute to
this process. One of the residents argued that, it is essential to have professional intervention in the
determination of streets widths and locations. Government professionals do the right thing. They
make wide streets that could accommodate vehicle traffic and peoples activities. Wide streets are
also appropriate for ventilation.
In terms of the design process of dwellings, a significant number of respondents prefer to be
involved directly in the design process with professionals. 55% of respondents preferred to design
their dwellings with help from professionals because they think that professionals will give them
effective technical advice and support. Meanwhile 24.2% preferred to design their dwellings by
themselves without help from professionals. Many residents think that design alternatives might not
satisfy their preferences completely so that only 20.8% of the respondents preferred to choose from
design alternatives designed by professionals.
Towards a genuine change in the design for low-income people in Egypt: a

discussion
Many architects interviewed in the research argued that they could learn more about user needs
through the methods of social science researches and case study analysis. For them, the study of
man-environment relationship and the analysis of human behaviour in residential environments
have been the tools to develop methods for putting users' considerations into the design process. In
fact, it has been claimed that the outcomes of these trends were not as promising as had been
envisaged. Social architecture has been criticized by scholars such as Roonrakwit (1999: 40) who
argues that ''It can be an interesting exercise for architects to study the housing needs of low-income
communities, and to then produce ready-made house models designed to meet the needs and
affordability of the poor, based on that research. But standard designs produced in this way often
end up being scrapped by the poor.''
According to Lawrence (1982), the socio-cultural values of users are implicit in nature, therefore,
they are rarely revealed by traditional environmental psychological research methods. Lawrence
criticizes deterministic design methods used to interpret the relation between the social and the
physical worlds of people. He maintains that no series of paper and pencil tests, which have been
adopted by social scientists and designers to generate checklists or recipes for design, can
successfully define the diverse nature of physical cues, or the various social and personal roles
which serve as codes in the definition and use of architectural space. He adds that it is obvious that
there is no single design recipe, which can respond to the complex nature of the relationships
between people and their built environment. Sanoff (1990) claims that people have different needs,
hence, any attempt to create a single standard ideal environment works to everyones
disadvantage. Housing design programs, relied on such an idealised stereotype about the occupants
needs and preferences, do not always produce satisfactory projects. Even when institutional clients
rely on building committees to advocate the users point of view, unfortunately, these committees
are often far removed from the actual needs of those who actively use the housing units.
Accordingly, the design of low-income housing projects should be considered as a process and not
as an artistically rigid product. Such a process should give a real chance for the poor to participate
and not only be merely impressed by architecturally superficial expressions. In Egypt, as in most
developing countries, user needs have to be politically and professionally addressed as significant in
developing a new paradigm in low-income housing design. It is envisaged that user participation
could be achieved through a particular framework derived from the Egyptian socio-economic
context and related to its cultural heritage. At the same time, it has to benefit from the contemporary
11
expertise. Antonio (1985: 45) argues that ''Egypt is part of the world community and its intellectual
resources argue that specific solutions should be found, compatible with both, its cultural traditions
and contemporary issues.''
Conclusion
The Mubarak housing project, which the professionals have claimed to be a significant design
success, is, to a large extent, designed in the same rigid way as the previous conventional public
housing projects. The major changes are superficial and cosmetic. The 'Expert-based' design
process adopted in this project, in which any real changes should take place, remains intact. It is
proposed that these changes have originated substantially from the ambitions of politicians, which
architects have realized through their artistic expression, rather than as a reaction to real user needs.
Although it is argued that users' needs cannot be met without their direct involvement in the design
process, many designers of low-income housing in Egypt believe that user needs could, and should,
be deduced from field work research and by the analysis of relevant case studies without the
necessity of direct user involvement in the design process. In fact, the outcomes of social and
environmental behavior studies were not as fruitful as it has been anticipated. On the other hand, a
considerable percentage of the low-income residents involved in this research believe that their
direct participation in the design decision-making process is fundamental to satisfy their real needs
especially in the design of their dwellings.
As in the case of Egypt, most of the governments and design professionals in the developing
countries have adopted similar top-down design processes for housing the urban poor. Thus it might
be argued, not only in the case of Egypt but in most of the developing countries, that the results of
this research reveal a crucial need for developing a low-income housing design paradigm that
enables the poor to participate in decision making processes and not become mere recipients of a
housing product, which reflects superficial architectural expressions.
12
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14
A control based approach to artificial design and plan

generation
K. Alexiou Bartlett School of Graduate Studies, University of London, UK
T. Zamenopoulos Bartlett School of Graduate Studies, University of London, UK
Abstract
In this paper we discuss artificial plan designing as a research field that deals with the development
and use of computational models to support the generation of design descriptions in architecture
and urban planning. We discuss some crucial methodological issues and we present a model for
artificial design generation based on learning control methodologies. The design problem is defined
as a search for "coordinated" solutions (changes) that satisfy distributed domain requirements and
views expressed by human or artificial agents. The model is simulated for a land use and layout
plan design problem seen within the context of a hypothetical urban development assignment.
A control based approach to artificial design and plan

generation
Introduction
Designing is recognised to be a natural human activity and thus inherent in professional practice,
irrespective of the scientific domain (Simon 1996:111). In this paper, we are interested in designing
as it is seen in architectural and urban planning practice. In engineering and architecture there is a
significant body of research around different aspects of the design activity, but urban planning
practice seems somehow disconnected from research in design methods and processes. However, a
lot of researchers do suggest that design is an integral part of good planning, mainly underlining the
need for producing and evaluating alternative plans (Batty 1974, Harris 1998, Hopkins 1998a,
Alexander 1992, Schlager 1965). Urban development problems are typically in between the
architectural and urban scale and so are seen as a good paradigm for investigating common routes
in design methodologies and techniques developed in the different disciplines.
On the other hand, designing is also recognised to be a potential "artificial" task. Despite the
complex and elusive character of design, formal models and their computational counterparts have
been developed, for some 40 years now, to simulate or to support design "both as a cognitive
activity and as a domain"(Liddament 1999: 43). The use of computational models to generate
design descriptions seems to be a common ground among different research fields although their
meaning, the methods used and their scope varies. Different terms have been used to describe the
purpose or the nature of these models such as automatic (e.g. Steadman 1970, Cross 1977, Eastman
1973), generative (e.g. Brill, Flach, Hopkins and Ranjithan 1990, Chien and Flemming 2002) or
creative (e.g. Gero and Maher 1999). In urban planning a typical application addresses the problem
of land use-transportation plan design (e.g. Feng and Lin 1999, Aoki and Muraoka 1997, Anderssen
and Ive 1992), while in architecture the dominant example is in building layout design (e.g.
Mitchell, Steadman and Liggett 1976, Liggett 1985, Chakrabarty 1990, Jo and Gero 1998). In this
paper a model for simultaneous generation of facility location and building layout plan design is
presented. In the following, the terms "artificial plan designing" or "plan generation" will be used as
umbrella terms to refer to all these models.
Designing, whether it is based on "artificial constructs" or directly on human decision-makers,
points typically to the formulation of plans. Looking at the definitions of "plan" in different
disciplines (Alexander 1992, Schlager 1965, Hopkins 1998a, Dorst and Cross 2000, Houkes,
Vermaas, Dorst and de Vries 2002, and Kroes 2002), however diverse, can help us distinguish a
common view. A plan by and large represents decisions to be implemented in order to satisfy
current and future goals (and/or constraints); a plan is the design of actions that will lead to future
changes. However, the relation among designing processes, design artefacts (plans) and real world
artefacts varies across disciplines and according to the nature of the system to be designed (e.g. if it
is a building or a city). This variation reveals different interpretations of designing. In some cases,
designing is coupled directly with the real world artifact without the explicit mediation of a plan.
Christopher Alexander's (1979) work on "pattern language" actually sets up a plan that works more
like a social knowledge source, rather than a blueprint that is well established before its
implementation to the real world. More recently, research on the field of intelligent (kinetic)
buildings and robotics (e.g. Fox 2001), anticipate - to some degree - the reality of a tight coupling
between designing and real-world reformulation (Brazier, Jonker, Treur and Wijngaards 2001:
470). In parallel, plans in the context of urban development are very much part of the problem they
attempt to solve and the designing activity tends to be seen more as a positive-descriptive rather
than a normative-prescriptive activity. Naturally, formal design models mirror the discrepancies
among various interpretations of designing and thus a wide range of different methodologies have
been developed in relation to different views of the design problem.
In the following section we will discuss some theoretical and methodological issues pertaining to
artificial plan designing. The attempt will be to provide a broader picture in artificial plan designing
as a vehicle to discuss some key issues, which form the basis of the argumentation for the
development of the proposed model (presented in the last two sections). In this model, the
simultaneous generation of land-use (facility location-allocation) and layout plan design is
elaborated. The design problem is defined as a search for locations and physical layout proposals
that satisfy distributed and time-variant requirements or targets. Expert knowledge for this search is
not explicitly incorporated in the model but a Neural Network (NN) architecture is used instead to
discover and represent knowledge captured as interdependencies among decision variables
expressed by distributed sources (decision makers or their domain models). We present a modeltool that learns from user interaction and then uses this knowledge to search and generate design
proposals. For the simulation of this model we take a hypothetical urban development assignment
that aims to the development of a housing and retail unit. The attractive point in this framework is
that we have to consider a simultaneous and constant generation of alternative plans, both in the
architectural and the urban scale, from the preliminary stages of the plan design. Additionally,
requirements and targets are typically distributed among different teams and vary in time according
to the emergence of new conditions (Cadman and Topping 1985).
Artificial plan designing

Before we proceed with the presentation of the model it would be useful to see the broader picture
in artificial designing and discuss some crucial theoretical and methodological issues. We will
discuss in more detail three key hypotheses that form the basis of our argumentation: distribution,
coordination and learning.
Some typical methodological approaches in artificial plan generation

Optimisation has been the predominant approach to automated plan design, in urban planning as
well as in architectural and engineering design (Gero 1985, Harris and Batty 1993). The design
problem is translated into a search for design(s) that represent optimum solutions. Thus appropriate
methodologies need to be devised to generate and choose solutions that optimise some utility or
cost function under a number of constraints. There are different formulations that fit to this
paradigm which employ techniques ranging from mathematical programming (e.g. Anderssen and
Ive 1982, Mitchell et al 1976) to multi-objective (e.g. Balling, Taber, Brown and Day 1999,
Chakrabarty 1990) and genetic programming (e.g. Aoki and Muraoka 1997, Caldas and Norford
2002).
An extended view of the above paradigm includes the development of search-based or heuristic
models. The design problem and formulation emphasizes the exploratory view of designing. Those
approaches might include optimisation concepts and techniques but are mainly associated to the
concept of "systematically navigating in a space of possibilities" (Akin and Sen 1996: 421). For
instance, Akin's et al (1992) search based model puts into practice a quite comprehensive
interpretation of design problem solving based on a "generate and test" search paradigm. Another
early but lucid example includes Steadman's work (1970) on small-scale layout plans based on the
exhaustive search of all possible topological dissections of rectangular layout plans. Other heuristic
methods vary from the simple overlay of spatial constraints (Alexander 1962) to its more
sophisticated weighted analogue -the so-called potential surface technique- (e.g. Haubrich and
Sanders 2000), and to averaging conflicting factors based on probabilistic Markovian processes
(Batty 1974).
A third paradigm emphasizes the fact that plan design is a creative process. Evolutionary search,
based on the biological analogy of the natural evolution of species, has been the predominant
approach on creative design in architecture, art and engineering (e.g. Bentley 1999, O'Reily, Testa,
Greenwold and Hamberg 2001, Frazer 1995). The emphasis here is on replicating the creative
process of designing rather than replicating the searching activity, which more formally is
associated with a process of evolving the number of the decision variables together with their values
(Gero 1994, Bentley 1999: 38-42). Unfortunately, in the planning domain - as far as the authors are
aware - not much attention has been paid to creative aspects of plan generation. Evolutionary
algorithms in planning have been used mainly for optimisation rather than for creative search. For
example a tool called Sketch Layout Model (Feng and Lin 1999) combines a genetic algorithm with
multi-objective programming in order to produce a set of alternative land use plans. In the context
of planning the search for alternative plans that satisfy multiple criteria or objectives comes as a
consequence of the social nature of decision-making rather than as a quest for creativity. However,
research on sketch planning does signify an attempt to support in some formal way the intuitive and
innovative aspects of plan designing (Harris 2001, Hopkins 1998b, Singh 1999).
Shape grammars constitute a distinctive approach in artificial plan generation, based on generation
rules expressed as algebras or formal grammars. Typical shape grammars are founded on a
"vocabulary of shapes and arrangements of these shapes into spatial relations" (Knight 1994: 705).
This is another potential plan generation process based on selection, creative exploration and
emergence (Stiny 1994) but unlike the above paradigms the emphasis is on the morphology and
attributes of the design artifact itself rather that on the design or decision making process.
Arguably, creativity and innovation are important issues in plan designing which usually relate to a
task of employing known solutions to a new context (Gero 2000). Case Based Reasoning (CBR)
deals with such issues of creativity. CBR as has been used in design automation, starts from the
recognition that knowledge is distributed to design cases which can be adapted and reused in similar
contexts to support creative reasoning (e.g. Maher and Pu 1997, Yeh and Shi 1999). In this sense,
learning is also an implicit function supported by the continuous adaptation and re-evaluation of
cases.
Research in Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) has brought to light another critical issue in design; that is
the distributed and collaborative nature of the design activity. In most design projects, the
interaction of different experts and stakeholders, or more generally, the concurrent interplay among
different knowledge sources, is paramount. Even though other models such as CBR systems deal
with issues of design reasoning and knowledge distribution, these models do not "explicitly model
the reflective reasoning required for multi-agent distributed design" (Brazier, Moshkina and
Wijngaards 2001: 138). The concept of agency and the ideas behind MAS have been adopted to
model design activity (e.g. Gero and Fujii 2000, Brazier, Jonker, Treur and Wijngaards 2001, Liu,
Tang and Frazer 2001), usually by integrating knowledge level models. The focus is on the
development of autonomous design agents capable of reasoning about their own plans and targets,
and capable of reflective reasoning about other agents and needed interactions. A wide range of
issues is associated with the development of MAS such as emergence of new structures from local
interactions, coordination of conflicting partial plans, and learning.
The plethora of methodologies briefly reviewed in this section discloses a plethora of ways to
understand designing. In this paper we will consider plan designing as a search for "coordinated"
solutions (changes) that satisfy distributed domain requirements and views. Learning control is seen
as a method to search for solutions that direct partial descriptions to follow their (dynamic) targets
despite conflicting requirements. There are three hypotheses behind this view: the first is that
decision making is distributed among multiple agents, the second is that some kind of coordination
needs to be reached among these diverse requirements and purposes; and the third is that domain
knowledge cannot be defined a-priori in this context, but some learning mechanism needs to be
devised to capture distributed knowledge and effectively use it to generate plan designs.
Three critical hypotheses for the proposed model

The first hypothesis is related to methodological issues. Current practice in research related to
design and planning support indicates a shift from designing based on individual action to designing
based on collective-distributed action. Designing is a distributed activity that involves multiple
agents (human or artificial) which are sources of diverse and often conflicting knowledge, and
express individual views and goals. Design and planning as social phenomena have been typically
discussed in positive-descriptive terms. On the other hand, designing from the viewpoint of the
individual designer has been mainly addressed through normative approaches (Batty 1984: 280). As
Batty (1984) suggests, these two viewpoints are not necessarily in opposition. Designing as a
process of collective or distributed decision making implies that the normative activity of change is
set under the weight of a collective dynamic, which also underlines the fact that plans are not only
prescriptions for the future but they are also descriptions of future changes.
In this sense, it is probably fair to notice that we have moved from the use of computational models
and machines as automatic design devices to the use of computational models that support the
generation of designs through user interaction. In the context of multi-agent design this interaction
is distributed in networks as can be documented by current interest in collaborative design and
planning and Computer Supported Collaborative Work (CSCW) (e.g. Coyne, Sudweeks and
Haynes 1996, Simoff and Maher 2000, Kvan 2000, Dickey and Vernon 1998, Gordon,
Karacapilidis, Voss and Zauke 1997, Shiffer 1992). The hypothesis of the distribution of decision
making suggests that knowledge is also distributed, not only because plans are collectively formed
by communities (or multidisciplinary groups), but also because even expert reasoning is fragmented
into diverse goals, criteria and evaluations.
Naturally, in the context of distributed decision-making, plan design involves searching for
configurations that reduce or resolve conflict among distributed goals. Broadly speaking we can
distinguish three typical structures in distributed systems. The first appoints a collective function
that needs to be optimised for the sake of a "social welfare", the second leaves the dynamic among
the involved parts to determine the distribution of welfare, and the third directs the distribution of
welfare equally among the involved parts. In decision sciences formal definitions include concepts
of bargaining, negotiation, conflict resolution, social choice, consensus or cooperation (Kleindorfer,
Kunreuther and Schoemaker 1993). Similar approaches have been developed in the context of
artificial intelligence (Ossowski 1999) and some relevant examples in operational research can be
found in Batty (1984).
In this research, plan designing, in the light of distributed decision-making and conflict resolution,
is seen as a coordination problem. Coordination is extensively discussed in the context of
organisational decision support systems (Grandori 2001, Malone and Crowston 1990) and is a
recurring issue in the literature on distributed artificial intelligence and multi-agent systems
(Ossowski 1999, Jennings 1996). Whether talking about actors or agents, human or artificial,
coordination is what makes them act as a distributed system and reach solutions on the basis of
managing interdependencies among individual requirements. In the following we will introduce the
idea of coordination as a learning control problem. Learning corresponds to a process of capturing
interdependencies among decision variables, while control corresponds to a process of using this
knowledge to generate control actions (plans) that meet time-variant individual targets, despite
endogenous uncertainties or exogenous disturbances expressed by distributed agents. In this context
creativity and innovation lies in the possibility of unforeseen solutions emerging through agent
interaction and learning.
Finally, the third hypothesis relates to the question of how domain or descriptive knowledge about
the system to be designed is incorporated within the model. Very often, domain knowledge is
seamless with the proposed model. For instance, facility planning has been extensively addressed
with respect to studies on user behaviour, thus building models (e.g. gravity based models) that
represent this behaviour. So the design of optimum location-allocation plans is strictly depended on
this predefined formulation of user behaviour. On the other hand, in MAS this knowledge is
distributed to local agents and global patterns of behaviour emerge by local interaction. Thus,
knowledge about the system behaviour is not a priori defined but rather it emerges as the collective
design process progresses. In CBR systems domain knowledge is incorporated in cases and it is also
dynamically updated by user interaction. In those two last paradigms learning is an implicit function
of the system that supports the maintenance, reuse and adaptation of knowledge (Liu et al 2001). In
parallel, learning is also an implicit function of design especially when it is conceived as a problem
of coordination among distributed plan formulations. So, learning is a source of plan actions for
design, which is enhanced in the course of the design process. In this research, learning is seen as a
natural way to reduce conflict in distributed systems. Learning associations among decision
variables that keep design descriptions of individual agents (human or artificial) within their
dynamically defined targets, can be used as a mechanism to produce plan descriptions that
coordinate conflicting requirements and views. We use distributed neurocontrol as a paradigm for
artificial plan generation based on learning.
Plan description
We consider that plan descriptions are built on distributed domain problems and/or partial proposals
developed and controlled by agents (human or artificial). For instance, a trivial location and space
layout problem may involve various groups of agents: one that defines the appropriate location,
another that designs a suitable distribution of volumes, a third that designs a potential spatial
distribution of rooms and a last one that is involved in the structural engineering of the building.
Each agent is self-interested and represents a partial component of the overall description. Agents'
proposals are considered to be partial not only because they convey domain-specific knowledge
about the design problem, but also because these proposals are incomplete and change in time
according to changing situations and new knowledge gained in the process.
In the context of this paper, plan descriptions are generated within a virtual reality (VR) world and
are composed by aggregated objects introduced by users. Objects are justified on the basis of a
"purpose" for the design assignment. For the simulation described in this paper we used three
objects (initially in the form of three cuboids) located in a hypothetical virtual city, which represent
the preliminary development goals for a housing unit, a retail facility and an open space. Plan
descriptions (figure 1), and hence object specifications, are dynamically generated and modified
through the interaction between human actors (or their computational models) and artificial agents
that act as controllers. Controllers-agents are also justified on the basis of a "purpose" (namely the
"purpose" of the corresponding objects) and will be described in more detail in the next section. So,
plan descriptions work as an interface among human operators and artificial controllers-agents. The
extend to which the overall model for plan generation is working autonomously from human
operators, depends mainly from the degree to which formal models are incorporated as domain
knowledge sources. Apparently, another issue that relates to the autonomy of the model is the
definition of the objects. The way to which objects are defined determines the subject of control
wielded by human operators or their models. In other words, the "granularity" of the objects may
determine the scale to which we study the design artefacts, and the depth to which we manipulate
their characteristics through human-model interaction.
Figure 1: Evolution of plan description within a VR environment based on three objects that
represent development goals for a housing unit, a retail facility and an open space.
The objects within the VR environment are built on three classes of information: Structural,
Behavioural and Functional (SBF). The meaning of the SBF framework for the plan design has
been extensively discussed in literature and in a variety of different contexts (e.g. Gero 2000, Gorti,
Gupta, Kim, Sriram, and Wong 1998, Szykman, Racz, Bochenek and Sriram 2000, Narasimhan,
Sykara and Navin-Chandra 1997). In this paper we will only discuss briefly how this framework is
adopted in the context of urban development.
Formally, each object is specified as a row matrix: Ai = [Si, Bi, Fi]. The overall plan description is
the column matrix P = [Ai] of all these objects. Structural information specifies the elements of the
proposed plan, their attributes and their relations. For the simulations presented in this paper
structural information depicts the physical components of the objects and their topological relations.
So, for instance, for an object Ah (housing), structural information includes location [x y], volume
dimensions [zx zy zz] and relations with other objects such as: distance to other facilities - like retail
and open space - [dr, do] and adjacency to north, south, east and west, with other buildings.
Behavioural information specifies the way each object reacts to changes of its state and its
environment. Behaviour is a description of change of the design objects in order to reach their
intended functions. For instance new land uses tend to be developed close or far from other existing
land uses in order to fulfil their functional requirements. The Newtonian function of "motion" has
been used to model this behaviour, as will be described later. Also, other formulations (like fuzzy
inference systems) have been used to describe the tendency to develop more extended, detached
building surfaces facing south, or the tendency to maximize ground floor area for retail uses.
Development cost is also used in some cases to describe tendency to profit from cheap land prices
and exploit larger floor area. Finally, we consider that functional information represents the
ontology and purpose of the proposed objects expressed as land use in our case housing, retail,
and open space. The above formulations are given mainly as examples rather as strict definitions of
the SBF framework in the context of urban development.
Artificial plan designing as control-based coordination

The design problem is formulated as a coordination problem among self-interested agents (which
are represented as cuboids in the VR world) and is addressed via a distributed learning control
methodology. In general the idea can be summarised as follows: a learning algorithm is used to
train a neural network to discover associations among Structural, Behavioural and Functional
attributes (in this paper we use off-line training). This knowledge is then used to generate plan
descriptions, based on partial information presented to the NN, which will satisfy a temporal
(preliminary) reference target for the SBF attributes. For each agent we assign a control architecture
which seeks to stabilise SBF interdependencies under internal variations and external disturbances
presented by the other agents. Even though there are several different control-based formulations
that might be reasonable for coordination problems (for a different formulation refer to Alexiou and
Zamenopoulos 2001), we will present here one, which addresses coordination as a self-control
problem aiming to satisfy temporal targets, despite conflict expressed as disturbance in the control
framework.
More analytically, each self-interested agent carries out two combined control-based activities: the
first alludes to a synthesis-analysis-evaluation route expressed as a function among Structural
Decisions S, Expected Behaviour Be and Actual Behaviour Bs. The second activity alludes to an
evaluation-formulation-reformulation route expressed as a function of Actual Behaviour Bs,
Expected Function Fe and Actual Function Fb.
The objective of each agent is to find a suitable path of structures S that lead the behaviours Bs, to
follow a reference (expected) behaviour Be, despite uncertainties and despite exogenous
disturbances Sd produced by other agents decisions. The expected behaviour Be is defined by a
reference model, which is developed following a similar control process. The objective in that case
is to find the appropriate behaviours Be that lead the function Fb, to follow a reference (expected)
function Fe, despite uncertainties and despite exogenous disturbances Bd (figure 2). Hence, the
desired performance of the synthesis-analysis system is evaluated (denoted by E in the figure)
through the reference model (formulation-reformulation) which is defined by its input-output pair
{Fe, Be}. The control system attempts to make the plant model follow the reference output Be
asymptotically:
(1)
where _ is a positive integer.
Figure 2: Plan generation as a control process
To sum up, what we call synthesis is the control process that aims to stabilise the state space
(behaviour) of an agent according to a reference value for the behaviour Be; and formulation is the
control process that aims to stabilise the state space (function) of an agent according to a reference
value Fe. Evaluation is the process of measuring the degree of "matching" between the two control
systems. The control signals St,, St+n produced by this combined control process consist a set of
evolving plans (proposals) for the design and planning problem in hand. The process of artificial
generation of plans based on learning control is a process of self-adaptation of agents that leads to
coordination of their distributed descriptions.Going back to the methodological issues discussed in
the previous sections, we visualize here the possibility to formulate plan descriptions using
knowledge acquired and learned through the interaction of human and artificial agents. This can
potentially extend the role of "design tools that learn" (Gero 1998) to support collaboration and
coordination in distributed decision making environments.
Simulation
The above model is developed and simulated in a MATLAB-SIMULINK (Mathworks, Inc)
environment. We are experimenting with Adaptive Backthrough Control architectures. These
structures typically use two neural networks: the Controller (the system that controls) and the Plant
Model (a model of the system to be controlled) (figure 3). First, the plant model is trained to
approximate the plant by learning, on-line or off-line, input-output patterns of the agent behaviour.
Then, these patterns are used backwards as a guideline for the controller (Kecman 2001). In our
case the plant has been implemented as a compact block of three objects that represent the design
and planning reasoning of the three agents that stand for the different development goals. For the
purposes of this simulation we do not introduce human operators but we rest on formal descriptions
to represent them. The plant model identifies the behaviour of those agents and this knowledge is
used to train the controller to find appropriate patterns that can be used to satisfy the goals directed
by the reference model. The reference model is essentially a prototype of the system that produces
time-variant goals (target behaviours) for the controller, and corresponds in our case to the
formulation-reformulation phase of the design description. The structure of the reference model as
described previously, is a control architecture similar to the one focused on the synthesis-analysis
process.
Figure 3: The control model

We have experimented with mathematical formulations that model agent behaviour (like motion,
shape transformation and costs) based on state space methodology, as well as with fuzzy systems.
As an example, the "moving behaviour" of the land use j is described by n equations (for n land
uses) as follows:
(2)
where mj is the floor area of the land use j, xj is position, kij is the interaction matrix between land
use j and i, and xj" is the second derivative of the distance. Fuzzy systems are built on the basis of
fuzzy IF-THEN rules, which for example may represent qualitative evaluations about the fitness of
a specific location based to criteria of proximity with neighbouring facilities (figure 4).
10
Figure 4: Agent reasoning as a fuzzy system

The Virtual Reality toolbox offered the possibility to visualise the evolution of the design-decision
space. We can directly retrieve and manipulate the location and shape variables of the three objects
and view the conflict as it evolves in the three dimensional space (figure 1).
So far we have focused on the interaction among the three objects within a neutral (void) space, so
the next step is to build an environment that allows interaction to be extended beyond the three
objects alone and poses further restrictions and requirements. We are currently working towards
two different directions: one is to connect the VR world with a spatial database, and the other is to
attach sensors to the three objects so that they can recognise their environment. Those two
directions represent two alternatives: to incorporate a model of the environment in a knowledge
base for the agent, or to equip agents with the ability to recognise their environment at any given
time.
Conclusions
We presented a model for artificial plan designing in architecture and urban planning based on
learning control methodologies. The control-based approach in artificial plan designing is
developed with the intention to address three crucial issues pertaining to current research on the
field: distribution of knowledge and decisions, coordination and learning. The work presented here
is a first attempt to develop a model that supports decision making and generation of design
descriptions using knowledge captured dynamically through agent interaction. The aim of this paper
is not to understand human design cognition or explain the design process, but rather to explore the
meaning and the scope of artificial plan designing in architecture and urban planning. To this end
common methodological routes are explored from the computational intelligence perspective.
Testing and validating such computational constructs is an important issue. One approach is to have
the resulting plan descriptions evaluated by domain experts. Another possible approach is to stage
different conflict scenarios and review the rationality of the results for each specific case. The
efficacy of the model is very much related to its learning performance and mode (e.g. on-line or offline), so further research has to be done to this direction.
11
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16
Developing a method to support human centered designers in

M. Alrutz Institute of Design, Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
B. Singer Institute of Design, Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
T. Wahlig Institute of Design, Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
Abstract
This paper describes a design research project that was undertaken using a human-centered design
approach. We first discuss why we believe our project combines an interesting mix of theory and
practice. We then establish the locus of our research around one piece of the human-centered design
process. To address a problem we call the analysis-synthesis gap, we present the Elito method as
a solution. We then describe our process and results of testing a prototype of this new method. We
conclude that our approach was one way of coming to rich conclusions about the theory and
practice of the Elito method in a short period of time.
Developing a method to support human centered designers in

Introduction
While candidates for the M.Des. degree at the Institute of Design, IIT, we spent fourteen weeks
researching and developing an immediately applicable design method for developing user-centered
design arguments. We refer to the method by its developmental code name Elito.
Our research and development process combined design practice with design theory. Accordingly,
we asked two questions: What activities occur as people use Elito? and Why does Elito support
those activities? To answer the first question, we employed human-centered design practices. With
an extended test of a contextual prototype, we looked for patterns of how Elito was used. To answer
the second question, we took our insights from the patterns of practice and used them to direct our
search for theories in design and other disciplines. We integrated research from the fields of
cognitive psychology, narratology and rhetoric. These theoretical works were influential in
developing the Elito method as was the practice of observing designers using a prototype of the
method.
We begin the review of our development process by discussing the specific area of human-centered
design process in which we are interested and for which we propose the Elito method.
In discussing important issues for the future of new design thinking Richard Buchanan has
offered the following:
It is no longer useful or appropriate to consider the audience of design as passive creatures who
may be manipulated by messages. We seek the active engagement of human beings in
experience, and we see communication as the creation of arguments which human beings are
called upon to evaluate and judge for themselves (Buchanan 1999: 4).
For the human-centered designer, the audience includes many people. It is essential that other
designers, teammates and clients be able to follow the logical arguments the designer constructs.
Human-centered designers construct stories or arguments that present a concept that solves a human
need. The outcome of this work is often a story or argument which describes the relationship
between a real user and the concept. In practice, these stories are about innovative businesses,
products, services or approaches; they must be evaluated and weighed against real business
constraints like cost and time. If a human-centered designer does not present a sound argument,
then people cannot judge the feasibility of the concept.
Analysis-synthesis gap
We conceptualize the process of user-centered design as a progression through four stages:
research, analysis, synthesis, and realization as pictured in Figure 1. It is important to note that
understand and create are on opposite sides of the horizontal axis. This implies, and our
experience supports, that the process of analyzing data is fundamentally different from the process
of creating ideas.
Figure 1: Human-centered design process
Human-centered design is defined, in part, as seeking to understand by way of observation the dayto-day lives of people and then creating products and services that extend from this understanding.
In keeping with these goals, building sound arguments to support these concepts with observation
and insight is critical, but difficult to do well.
Analysis methods that operate directly on observations are fairly well established and understood,
not only by designers, but also by anthropologists and ethnographers, who traditionally seek
understanding and description of human behavior. Synthesis methods for incorporating user
research are rare by comparison. Designers have identified difficulty in integrating social science
research into design practices (Melican 2001). We call this the analysis-synthesis gap. We
hypothesize that the analysis-synthesis gap contributes to the creation of unsound design arguments
and seek to examine how Elito aids the designer in creation of sound arguments for concepts
derived from observation.
Methods linking analysis to synthesis

In the initial phase of formulating a method, we looked for other methods or theories that attempt to
address the analysis-synthesis gap. Through interviews with experienced design practitioners, we
found that when faced with the integration of user research they improvised a personal ad hoc
method. While there were a variety of implementations, most of these improvised methods followed
a simple process to make explicit the links from observation to concept or prototype. We also found
two formalized approaches that link observation to concept in use at the Institute of Design.
The first of these examples is the User-Centered Case. The User-Centered Case is a theory for the
structure of a human-centered design argument, taught and researched by Associate Professor John
Grimes at the Institute of Design. It offers a rigorous outline for an argument drawn in part from the
study of rhetoric. The outline specifies the components of the argument and ideal relationships
between components. When a designer completes the outline, the resulting argument sets up a
sound rationale for a concept by building up from observations, contentions, and values. Elito
deliberately accommodates the core of the rhetorical elements of the User-Centered Case. However,
it should be noted that the full case is more comprehensive, containing many additional
components, specifying discussions such as scope, scale, competition, and solution scenarios
(Grimes 2001).
The User-Centered Case does not prescribe a working method for capturing and refining an
argument. In contrast, the use of the Elito method proposes a table structure in which to capture
ideas and to guide the refinement of those ideas. The structure promotes the separation of an
argument into its theoretically specified components, improving the ability to isolate and thus
improve the weaker elements in their context.
The second formal method that incorporates mechanisms for creating sound human-centered design
argument is Structured Planning. Structured Planning is an extensive and rigorous method of
developing a design plan, developed and taught at the Institute of Design by Research Professor
Charles Owen. The method is well respected for its ability to tackle very large-scale design
problems and for the use of custom computer programs for clustering ideas. Structured Planning is
implemented as a series of documents, each an empty form to be completed by the designer.
Perhaps the most important element, the Design Factor form, requires a discussion of insights taken
directly from observation and links these insights explicitly to named concepts (Owen 2001). The
Design Factor form thus documents the human-centered motivation for concepts in a holistic
manner.
Analogous to a Design Factor, Elito proposes to locate observation, insights and concepts close
together. In doing so it captures and documents the core of the human-centered design argument.
For designers who are engaged in building large systems, the Structured Planning process is one of
a few viable options, but for more routine planning exercises, Elito makes accessible the same
holistic approach to developing and supporting a concept found in the Design Factor.
Introduction to Elito
In Elito, the designer places the content generated by the four phases of the design process
(research, analysis, synthesis, and realization) into a single table, which gives the designer a holistic
view of his or her design problem and solution space. The content may have been gathered using
other methods and tools. For example, observation might have been gathered through video or field
notes, and early concepts might have been generated through brainstorming or culled from
secondary research. Elito helps designers make the links between these bodies of content explicit
during development and presentation of design concepts. The links are both visual and rhetorical.
In table format, the Elito method creates a visual field for the design content. By collocating the
stages of the design process, the grid creates a deeper structural view of the situation which
supports problem solving in two directions, getting a whole consistent picture, and seeing what the
structure of the whole requires for the parts (Wertheimer 1959: 212).
This table structure is also a device for creating a rhetoric. When the designer conscientiously
creates links between elements, he or she authors a line of thinking that can be considered a design
argument or narrative. The content of one row of the table can be likened to a classic syllogism
(Roberts 1994). To further this storytelling aspect, designers assign metaphoric labels to the row.
Figure 2: Example of student work in Excel spreadsheet
Using Elito
Elito is currently arranged as a table in Microsoft Excel as pictured in Figure 2. The columns are
defined as key metaphor, observation, judgment, value, and concept or criteria as described in
Figure 3. The designers task is to fill the rows and columns with content and then assign a short
evocative label to each cell he or she creates. We refer to the content of each cell as an entity and
the relationships between entities as links. An entire row is called a logic line. Although the
table format never changes, we have observed designers work in Elito very differently depending
on the stage of the design process in which they are engaged. Conceptually, Elito can be thought of
as simultaneously housing many activities of the research, analysis, synthesis, and realization
stages. Although for the purposes of this paper we discuss these phases as though they formed a
linear progression, we recognize that in practice designers move in and out of these stages nonlinearly.
Figure 3: Elito entities and relationships
Getting started in Elito

At the start of a design project, Elito serves as a repository for observations collected from primary
and secondary research. It allows the designer to collect early, undeveloped ideas, judgments and
values.
The designer should strive to capture every thought in coherent short phrases or sentences. A single
phrase should occupy a cell. These should be written so they are comprehensible to an outside
audience. This heuristic will help the designer share his or her work with other teammates and
clients. In addition, it helps the designer recall his or her own train of thought later.
During the early stages of using Elito, designers should avoid placing unrelated content in adjacent
cells. An Elito table makes a visual field of the design process; designers should be conscientious of
the visual gestalt. A line which is full from left to right may feel complete because it offers visual
closure, not because it is well considered (Wertheimer 1959).
Research to analysis
During analysis, designers begin to extend observations toward concepts. In Elito, the focus now is
on linking observations to judgments and values. During this phase, designers label entities and
build relationships between them. These critical exercises may inspire generation of new content as
the designer divides cells into smaller chunks or moves, repeats and cuts existing cells.
Labeling each entity with a compelling and metaphoric phrase requires designers to think critically
about the content of each entity. The quality of labeling is enhanced by working in teams. This
activity promotes communication between team members and contributes to a shared team
vocabulary for the duration of the project. Creating evocative labels at this stage recodes these
entities as chunks, enabling designers to better hold, compare, contrast, mix, and match ideas
simultaneously. As Miller suggests, the simplest (way to recode) is to group the input events,
apply a new name to the group, and then remember the new name rather than the original input
events (Miller 1956: 81-97).
Analysis to synthesis
When moving from analyzed data to synthesized concepts, the method and structure of Elito
support designers in a manner consistent with the non-linear design process. The burden of trying to
get from observation to concept is lessened by staging the creation of the logic line. Staging eases
the cognitive load required to solve the problem because designers may focus on the entity, the
relationship between two entities or the relationships across the entire line (Cooper 1998).
Synthetic activities in Elito include creating labels that link all the way across a row in a thematic
manner, exploring multiple user perspectives, and examining simultaneous value sets. Any of these
activities may yield new concepts or other entities.
During synthesis, designers should be critical of how complex logic lines are created. As illustrated
in Figure 4, a complex line is a logic line that has multiple entities in any one column. One
observation may yield several judgments and each judgment may have a different value or concept.
To preserve clarity of argument, the method requires every complex line to have a single entity for
at least one column.
Figure 4: Examples of complex logic lines

Complex lines may be constructed by examining multiple user perspectives. Design solutions affect
many people. In developing concepts for any particular product or service, the influencer,
purchaser, and user are not always the same person, nor do they always share the same point of
view. Marking these points of view can help the designer ensure that the different needs are
considered.
Grimes User-Centered Case examines the scale and scope of the problem by considering multiple
and possibly conflicting zones of values--personal, social and cultural values (Golden 2001). Elito
gives minor attention to this by asking designers to explore opposing or simply different values.
This activity may generate new ideas, validate existing ones or help prepare for counter-arguments.
The visual field of Elito serves two purposes during synthesis. The rows encourage completion and
the lack of visual hierarchy between entities serves to level the hierarchy of the content. At this
phase the only way to place more emphasis on the favored idea is to build it out by exploring
complex logic lines.
Synthesis to realization
In Elito, logic lines constitute a design story or argument. If the designer is generating a plan or
presentation, the content of a well-refined logic line can be used directly to create a compelling
story.
Once a set of lines has been completed, the designer can cluster lines to form a larger concept or
several larger concepts. We adopted two frameworks from the Doblin Group to help designers
compose these larger collections or systems of stories.
The Compelling Experience Framework organizes logic lines in chronological stages. Concepts are
clustered into the five chronological phases of Entry, Attraction, Engagement, Exit, and Extension
(Doblin Group 2002).
The Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive framework describes relationships between
categories where no two are expressing the same idea, yet all of the categories together create
complete coverage of the problem. To use this framework in Elito, the designer clusters similar
values together and then names the higher-level categories (Doblin Group 2002).
Prototype testing and results

Description of Elito test subjects and context
In order to find out more about how the method works in practice, we tested our prototype version
of Elito (using Microsoft Excel) with graduate students at the Institute of Design, Illinois Institute
of Technology, Chicago. Our central research question for testing the prototype was What
activities occur as people use Elito?
An associate professor at the Institute of Design invited us to share the Elito method with students
in a communication workshop for 15 weeks. The project for the semester was centered on
improving the experience of voting in United States national elections. Students were required to
use Elito in order to earn credit for the class.
The subjects for the prototype testing were candidates for the M.Des. professional design degree, a
2-year program. There were nine students in the workshop class, each at different points in the
graduate program. Figure 5 outlines student profiles. If a student has completed the yearlong
Foundation Program this indicates he or she did not have a strict design background prior to
entering the main M.Des. Program. Students #1 and #7 were part of the development team for the
Elito prototype and are authors of this paper. The table also shows the make-up of the teams for the
semester.
Figure 5: Communication workshop student profiles
Description of testing
We completed two phases of testing the prototype version of Elito and gathering results. Each phase
included teaching the subjects how to use the method, letting them apply the method to their project
and then collecting the spreadsheets they had filled out. Results include insights on three sets of
data: our observations of their activity, the contents of the spreadsheets, and interviews with the
subjects.
Hypotheses
Our general hypothesis was that the Elito method would help human-centered designers move
quickly from having a collection of raw observation data to forming a point of view about that data
and then creating strong design arguments to support that point of view.
Specifically, we hypothesized Elito would holistically support the following analytic and synthetic
activities: capturing, generating, refining, and linking observations to concepts.
Testing results
Teaching by example
At week 7 of the workshop, we realized that we had not trained our subjects well enough to use the
method in the manner we expected. We decided to facilitate a working session with each team to
walk them through the method step-by-step using content teams had generated themselves. During
the sessions, designers reported better understanding of how the method was supposed to work.
Student #3 from Team B was even able to help build a line of logic with content from Team E.
Following a facilitated work session, student #2 immediately applied Elito as the primary synthesis
method for generating a deliverable in another class. This indicated a new found deep
understanding of an ability to generalize the principles of Elito. Teaching by example was a crucial
element in fostering adoption of the method.
10
Capturing
We had several observations about the use of the Elito spreadsheet as a capture tool.
Although the inclusion of sketches and diagrams was encouraged, we observed only one designer
include one sketch. Excel provided an excellent prototyping tool for quick data capture in the form
of text; it is not designed to readily capture images.
Team C reported that revisiting an Elito spreadsheet they had filled in was like going back to that
moment to see exactly what you were thinking. The Elito spreadsheet captured a kind of design
memory.
At week 7, there was uneven use of the Elito spreadsheets with perhaps one student on each team
using it on an individual basis. One designer reported difficulty in typing and staying involved in
discussion at the same time. We speculated that asking designers to use Elito through a digital
spreadsheet might have been biased toward designers who already used personal computers for
much of their work.
Generating
Designers conducted generative activities by adopting the Elito method in a way we had not
anticipated. Teams B and C used the observation column to speculate on how the key metaphor
might be appropriate for thinking about voting (an observation on the key metaphor). These
designers used Elito to support free association exercises. Elito became a metaphor-centric
brainstorm tool. It is a result that seems to be a clear case of insufficient training and systematic, if
inaccurate, use of the spreadsheet template.
Nonetheless team C reported this as an enjoyable and productive method of working. They
generated over 150 rows of content. This indicates that the form of Elito was effective for
generating and capturing. It is also possible that the students derived some sense of security from
believing they were following a method and so did not censor themselves--a common stumbling
block for early generative activities.
Refining
We saw mixed results for the use of labeling as a mechanism for refining arguments. Teams applied
labeling to widely varying degrees. Teams B and C relegated the use of labels to the key metaphor
column while teams A and D used labels for every entity. Labeling requires creative energy and
effort toward team communication. Teams making the effort to complete labeling reported the
experience as important for helping them refine their content.
Linking observations to concepts
Team B was able to apply Elito to a set of data collected from primary field observations. Team B
presented over 20 well-defined observations-judgment-value sets and started clustering these rows
into four higher-level categories. Other teams that tried to put secondary research into the
observation column met with less success in developing design arguments quickly.
Teams B and C tried to fill the Elito spreadsheet out from left to right, beginning with the key
metaphor. This resulted in spreadsheets that were heavily populated on the left hand side and was a
barrier to creating links to concepts. The tendency to fill in from left to right could easily be
attributed to cultural bias for reading and writing from left to right.
11
Insights on the theory and practice of the Elito method

Observing the practice of the Elito method has lead to insights on our theory of how Elito works. In
addition, taking our theory and examining associated theories from other disciplines has led to
insights on why Elito works in the way it does. These insights in turn suggest future research
directions for creating new prototypes for testing.
Practice informs theory
Observing students using Elito spreadsheets as a structure for free association suggested two
principles in our theory about some of the ways in which Elito works concerning the relationship
between syntax and meaning and the way in which linked content creates rich meaning.
Syntax and meaning in Elito seem to work independently of each other. Placing content in the
surface structure of the spreadsheet does not guarantee the creation of a sound design argument.
Stephen Pinker (1994: 88) discusses a similar phenomenon in his book The Language Instinct when
he notes that it is possible for sentences to make no sense but still be recognized as grammatical.
The meaning of each entity is enriched, or weakened, by every other entity to which it is linked.
When a reader comes across separate entities of content that are structurally linked, for example by
proximity, yet whose content appear unrelated, the reader may assume the link is creating a
metaphorical relationship between the entities. In Page to Screen: Taking Literacy Into the
Electronic Era, Nicholas C. Burbules (1997) writes about the importance of carefully authoring
links in hypermedia to help readers make decisions about the soundness of an authors argument.
Burbules goes on to suggest that hypermedia authors borrow from traditional literary theory and use
tropes to organize sets of links.
Practice informs theory to inform practice
We still have little insight into the mechanisms designers use in order to come up with labels. The
labels designers generated suggest directions for future research into related theory from different
fields; this could help us establish our own theory about how labeling works. We can then start the
process of creating and testing a new prototype specifically aimed at observing the way in which
labeling works in practice.
We observed creative applications of labeling such as the use of colloquialisms and nursery rhymes.
Research into theories in the fields of metaphorical thinking and narratology may uncover some
insight into the generation of labels and their function in telling part of a story as an effective tool
for persuasion.
We observed designers using labels to successfully create short, memorable referents to their design
arguments. When a designer presents an argument using labels, he or she engages an audience in a
form of persuasion resembling a form of argument Aristotle called the enthymeme. "The
enthymeme must consist of few propositions, fewer often than those which make up the normal
syllogism. For if any of these propositions is a familiar fact, there is no need even to mention it; the
hearer adds it himself (Aristotle 1994). The field of narratology refers to this act of adding
propositions on the part of the hearer as a construction called metaphoric metonymy. The
construction of metaphoric metonymy is such that certain elements of communicating a narrative
may be omitted and yet the omissions do not confuse the audience. This indicates the reader is
engaged in a filling-in activity (Bal 1997:42). These observations suggest further study into the
relationship between rhetoric and narratology.
12
Practice informs practice

In two observations of practice, it is the case that practice indicated new prototypes to be developed
directly.
Our results indicated that facilitated use of the method was required before students were
independently able to use the method as intended. We would like to minimize the cost of acquiring
the working knowledge of the method as part of improving the overall return on effort invested.
Overall this may have stemmed as much from a failure of the teaching tools as a requirement of the
method and further study of alternate learning strategies could be explored through developing new
prototypes.
The method, in its current Excel prototype, often required collaborating over conventional keyboard
and screen computer interfaces. Subjects for whom this was less of a regular practice, reported that
the method seemed more of a chore and were less likely to use the method or more likely to work
alone. We encourage collaboration, especially for naming, and thus would alter a next generation
prototype to ease the restriction on collaborative behavior.
Conclusion
Elito started as a theory extrapolated from practice. We applied the theory as a loose practice in our
own work. Moving into a formal investigation, we attempted to specify its form and prototyped the
method with an appropriated generic software tool. This prototyped method was then characterized
through the work of students in an academic communications design project. Results have lead us
to conclusions about the method itself and the process we used in our investigations.
With such a small sample size, the best indication we have of the success of the method is the
number of designers (6 out of 9) who reported that they would use this method again in their future
work and/or have already started doing so. Also, two additional design practitioners and educators
(outside of this study) have adopted the method for use in teaching their graduate design classes.
This research project resulted in providing us with a large, general impression of the method in both
theory and practice. As next steps, the Elito method could be modified or decomposed into smaller
aspects that could be tested in the more quantitative manner of cognitive psychology for verification
of a model of the mechanisms that guide designers.
Extrapolating from the practice results, further secondary research could be pursued to explain the
mechanisms at play and in general to shed further light on what mechanisms would best help
designers effectively cross the analysis-synthesis gap.
Acknowledgements
We warmly thank our advisor, Skip Walter, for his patience, guidance, depth of knowledge, and
flexibility with working across long distances. We would like to thank Eli Elito Blevis who was
the early architect of the practice that we adopted. His teaching and insight were invaluable. We
thank Professor Sharon Poggenpohl for allowing us to introduce our unproven method into her
workshop. We would also like to thank Professors Charles Owens and John Grimes for their
contribution to our understanding of design and their clear answers to our earliest questions. Over
the months, we have had many conversations with many people while working on Elito but would
like to thank the collective network of professionals who helped us gain real world understanding,
especially Dr. Richard Beckwith, Dr. Kevin Brooks, Chris Edwards, Tom Mulhern, John Pipino,
Mark Rettig, and Jeff Tull. Lastly we thank our fellow communications students, who worked
openly with us as we conducted our investigation and disrupted their normal academic flow.
13
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14
Examining the transformation of the visual characteristics of

the Nubian ethnic motif using computer aided design
N. S. Baba The Nottingham Trent University, UK
Abstract
This paper is relevant to how the discourse of doctoral research can be circulated through a range of
platforms. It will pose the question: Is there a creative space where ethnic identity can be preserved
along with the production of new art forms?
The central point of this doctoral research is to discuss whether the cultures visual identity Nubian art in particular - can be preserved, since it may be absorbed, developed or combined within
a variety of influences of the modern melting pot (CAD). Also, in terms of experimental design
using new technology, it shows how such images can be integrated into areas of innovative design
and creativity. Ultimately, the main concern is to be able to produce new creative work without
changing the essence of Nubian visual culture.
Examining the transformation of the visual characteristics of

the Nubian ethnic motif using computer aided design
Introduction
This paper focuses on the development of the research project entitled, An Investigation of the
Potential Use of Nubian Motifs Through CAD in Textile Design.
The central points of the field of investigation focus on four main activities:
1. Examining the Nubian cultural context and the meaning and use of the palm tree, in the
material culture and in rituals and symbols with emphasis on visual aspects.
2. Looking comparatively at the symbolic use of the palm tree in western, Egyptian and
Nubian visual cultures.
3. Conducting interviews with everyday practitioners of Nubian crafts (especially house
decorators) and with experts on culture.
4. Exploring the possibilities of using CAD in design work with Nubian motifs.
The Nubian cultural context

Bernard tried to express visual culture by looking at how visual experience, what is seen, may be
defined and conceptualised (Barnard, 1998).
A visual culture has to be understood and charted, in terms of its historic way of life and the wider
cultural context. Nubian [1] culture and history is characterised by complexity brought about
through different historical experiences, from the Pharaonic to the Islamic period, mixed ethnic
origins and different languages. These elements are so tightly woven together into the fabric of
contemporary Nubian society that specific debts to the past can scarcely be identified (Fernea and
Gerster, 1973:8). In addition, Nubians [2] have lived in relatively isolated communities which were
poor in resources, but which abounded with the ruins and monuments of past civilisations.
Pharaonic temples, Christian churches, and pre-historic sites dot the Nubian landscape, providing a
storehouse of cultural resources for inspiration. The Nubian arts mirror this physical and social
landscape (Jaritz, 1973:49-50).
The palm tree in Nubia

Palm trees are part of the Nubian way of life: they represent property and wealth. The palm tree was
one of the most important flora of old Nubia, and hence, of Nubian culture. It not only provided
Nubians with one of their main type of food, dates, thus signifying life, but it was also used for
building homes and beds, weaving baskets and mats, making ropes and for many other crafts. No
part of the palm tree remained unused. The palm tree is also a symbol in Nubian rituals and
mythology (Kennedy, 1978), therefore it pervades Nubian material and cultural life.
For centuries Nubian houses have traditionally been decorated with drawings on their facades and
interiors. However, from interviews conducted in Nubia, in January 2001, it was discovered that the
palm tree is not always found in Nubian drawing. It does not appear where palm trees themselves
are plentiful, among the Fadija tribe for example. Rather it appears more often where the palm tree
is absent or lost in the immediate environment, as is the case with the Kenuz tribe, forced to move
to rocky marginal land even before the building of the Aswan Dam. In other words, it was not so
much the presence of the palm tree, as its actual absence and the desire for it, that underlay its
decorative use.
After the flood, the symbol united the Nubian people, as a whole, inasmuch as it is now a symbol
of loss; since the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, there has been a unity of feeling and
nostalgia in Nubia.
Finally, the aesthetic appearance of this motif justifies its use. It is a rich, elegant motif and is also
uplifting. It is recognizably a Nubian motif and has the potential to transform without losing its
visual character. The motif has variety in the thickness and length of lines, textures, and in the
diagonal and vertical directions of the form. The eye, instead of staying in one area, wants to
explore the whole form, like a journey of discovery.
The palm tree is central to this study for three main reasons: its centrality in Nubian material and
visual culture, its role as a symbol of loss and its aesthetic qualities.
The different characteristics of the palm tree in different visual cultures have been explored, for
example in Western art (e.g. Matisse, Edward Lear and David Hockney), its use in western
decoration and textiles (e.g. British Chintzes) and in Egyptian representation (e.g. Ancient Egyptian
art and folklore). This was important in order to define the specific visual character of the Nubian
palm tree motif.
The characteristics of the palm tree motif in different cultures

What is the specific visual character of the Nubian palm tree motif? Does it have different
characteristics compared with representations of palm trees in other cultures?
This part of the paper will discuss various examples of palm tree motifs, such as those used by
European painters, British textiles, ancient Egyptian decoration, and the Egyptian Tattoo. The
conceptual treatments of the shape and texture of the palm tree leaf and trunk are the principal
features that differentiate each style.
Palm trees in ornamental art in general

The palm tree is tall with radiating foliage; it grows in warm or tropical climates. There are five
main types of palm, the date, the coconut palm, the kentia palm, the fountain palm, and the phoenix
palm. Some of these can be used as decorative houseplants in a low to medium light area. In this
research, the palm tree is synonymous with the date tree, as befits the Nubian and Egyptian
tradition.
This motif is used in various ways in ornamental art not only in the Middle East and Nubia, but also
in southern and eastern parts of Europe. Sometimes its branches were used as a symbol of victory,
righteousness and peace (Fontana, 1993). Also, Meyer (1987;1894: 48) gives further details about
how the palm leaves were used as a symbol of peace in Christianity, in feasts in ancient Egypt, as
decoration in the late Renaissance, and in modern art on tombs.
The palm tree motif in western art

A few western artists used palm tree motifs. They can be classified into two categories. The first
group, e.g. Matisse, visited the east and viewed palm trees as a new source of texture and strong
colour. Edward Lear visited southern Egypt and painted Philea on the Nile (see fig.1). He painted
palm trees in the foreground and used strong colours to emphasise the natural phenomena of Philae
(Stevens: 1984).
Fig.1: Edward Lear painting, Philea on the Nile
Fig.2: Hockney, British painter,

made a print of the tree emerging from
surrounding mist
The second category includes David Hockney who was inspired by palm trees when living in Los
Angeles in 1973. He made two images (see fig.2) one of which depicts the tree emerging from
surrounding mist (Gilmour, 1981:70).
In the other, he uses a silhouette to depict the tree by drawing it without any details of the trunk and
leaves. His transformation of the motif includes a rigidity of the body of the trunk with the organic
or natural features of the leaves. The silhouette of the palm tree motif is sometimes used as a logo
on T-shirts, web sites and advertisements, changing the character of the trunk into a more elastic
form. These western versions of the tree do not show many natural features or details, including the
date.
The palm tree motif in western textiles

In the west, the palm tree motif is classified as one of the symbols of ethnic culture, various
designs, including Egyptian, Hawaiian, and South American, have an ethnic character.
Meller and Elffers noted a vogue in British chintzes of about 1815, where palms often appeared
incongruously with game birds, such as the pheasant (Meller and Elffers, 1991:348) (see fig 3).
British designers adapted this ethnic motif to their style and transformed it in inventive ways to
their taste. They repeated festoons on the body of the tree to express the texture of the trunk, not
using bright colours. The leaves were in an artificial style with a greater emphasis on richness. They
were more curvy than the real tree and looked like the Akanthos leaves found on Roman relief or
Renaissance ornaments.
Fig.3: The palm trees reflect a vogue

in British Chintzes of about 1815.
This example is classified in the
west as conversational style
Fig.4: Egyptian looking designs,

made by a French designer, 1888
The palm tree in ancient Egyptian art

The ancient Egyptians and Nubians relied on inspiration from the natural world for decorative
motifs. The palm tree motifs were developed from plants, which also had an important role in their
lives as they provided essential material and food.
The Egyptians aspired to express the essential nature of objects, rather than impressions from a
particular angle (Wilson, 1997:12). There is an enormous variety of ornaments with which the
Egyptians decorated the temples of their gods (Jones, O., 1988 (1856): 22), carving, painting, or
moulding the motif (see fig 6).
The Egyptian style is close to the trees natural form, with a wider base to the trunk and with the
emphasis on pure symmetry. As Jones noted, they could hardly fail to observe the same laws
which the works of nature ever display and we find, therefore, that Egyptian ornament, however
conventionalised is always true (Jones, O., 1988(1856):22). Their motif is more ornamental and
also combines geometrical and natural form, especially when they draw the dates.
Sometimes they use different types of lines to draw the spikes to express the trunk which is different
from the Egyptian Nubian style, where palm trees are drawn in a group of three. They are equal in
height, include minimal details of the trunk, and have a less authentic representation of the leaves.
Nubian drawings
Fahim (1983) observed how Nubians decorated the outside walls of the house with bright, bold,
colourful designs, along with modern symbols as trains and ships alongside natural symbols, such
as desert animals, insects, birds palm trees, stars, the sun, and the crescent.
Fig 5: Kenuz area: the palm tree motif as a potted

flower
Fig. 6: house decoration in the Arab area
To summarise a wide range of comparative material, the researcher has identified the following key
characteristics of the Nubian palm tree.
The drawings make a clear contrast between the motif being used and its background.
Usually, the motif is painted in white on a dark background, generally the mud of the wall.
Occasionally, the entire facade of a house is painted white (lime), along with one of the
available colours of the region.
The colours used come only from the oxidised colours of the natural environment. Bright
colours are not part of the Nubian palette.
Most walled surfaces are not smooth because of the very simple tools used in building.
Therefore, the surface texture is an integral part of the Nubian style.
It is the women who draw the designs and motifs, using rudimentary feather brushes,
wooden sticks, and other available implements. Although the lines look sharp from a
distance, on closer examination they are less precise.
The Nubian style is geometric, although most of the motifs come from the natural
environment. Perhaps unintentionally, the women traditionally work along the lines of
embroidery so their work can look more like a piece of needlework than painting.
However, these characteristics cannot completely describe the infinite variations in Nubian house
drawings. There are several variations in the palm tree trunk and different ways of depicting the
branches and fronds. Sometimes the patterns are repeated horizontally, sometimes not. Some
recorded drawings show ducks or birds between the palms; a zigzag is occasionally used to depict
the Nile. Finally, the drawings vary with each womans taste and character.
Generally, the Nubian palm tree motif emphasizes the top of the palm tree by drawing upward or
through rising lines ending in a filled circle. There are only a few examples where they do not
emphasise the top of the trees in this way, but they express the dates in a creative fashion.
So to summarise:
Nubian style uses the palm tree as an ensemble with a duck that is sometimes repeated
between the trees or in separated stripes at the top or bottom of the repeated trees and
zigzags.
It uses sharp, fine lines to outline any type of motif. Also, sometimes the motif is filled with
the same colour (or a different one). The tree bottom is sometimes put in a decorative
container or in a geometrical shape, such as a circle, triangle, or zigzag.
The branches in the Kenuz area are more curved and naturalistic in form, albeit simplified.
In Arab areas, diagonal lines are repeated on both sides to express the branches without
details.
The palm tree as an individual motif style is used with other motifs in a harmonious way.
Perhaps, without intention, the traditional women work along the lines of embroidery or
stitching, so their drawing looks like a piece of needlework rather than painting.
There is no detail on the palm tree trunk and occasionally a few festoons are added or some
rough short lines included on the trunk.
The Nubian women mainly represent the dates in their drawings as dots, abstract lines, or as
creative flowers. However, in the Arab area, they never draw dates with a grove of trees.
The colour of the palm tree is normally white in the Arab area and sometimes blue washing
powder is added to draw the dots. However, in the Kenuz area between one to three colours
are used to colour the trees.
Interviews
Visual culture can only be understood in the context of everyday experience. Hence, it was believed
to be necessary to understand the way of life of the Nubian people, and the values, beliefs, and
experiences which inform their art. The researcher conducted several interviews to discuss the
meaning of these motifs.
The first interviews took place in London in July 2000 with four people from the Kenuz area. The
aim was to ascertain: the meaning of the palm tree motif in the Nubian community; its role in old
Nubia; why it is drawn on houses; and whether this is exclusively womens work.
The researchers response to the first set of interviews, particularly to the lack of information
obtained about the style of decoration in some villages, was to plan a visit to a Nubian village in
Kom Ombo in January 2001.
The second set of interviews were conducted in Egypt in January 2001 (3 weeks of fieldwork).
Most of the interviews took place in Nubian villages in Kom Ombo with Nubians from different
tribes.
In each interview, photos from pre-flood Nubia, a list of questions, a small tape recorder, and a
notebook were used. The questions were modified according to peoples attitudes, customs, and the
researchers position inside the community. They were, thus, flexible and informal. The interviews
were conducted in Arabic.
The researchers central interests as a designer was to understand the practice of drawing as it
affected the visual character of the image; the kind of techniques and tools were employed; the
sources of inspiration and how the women create drawings with limited resources.
The importance of these questions is to define the characteristics of the Nubian motifs. Two
important questions are, How did the Nubian women correct their mistakes whilst drawing?, and
Why is their drawing so neat, without fault or blemish, given the inflexible surface of the wall?
An astounding description was given, answering both questions, by four women in the village of
Qurta (Kunz area). They explained how the whole village helped each other decorate and plaster
their houses before their resettlement. One of them added that, when she started her drawing, there
was another woman behind giving instruction and direction. If she noticed any mistake or blemish,
she immediately ordered the painter to erase the drawing by scraping the motif and the background.
The background was then painted again using white (as was the custom in this village) and the
drawing was restarted. This helps to understand the clarity and freshness of the line as a feature of
Nubian decoration.
Nevertheless, this method helped the researcher to unlock some of the mysteries of the old Nubian
culture.
Practical work
The aim of this section is to explore the relationship of traditional Nubian visual culture with
contemporary textile design. A central question is Can computer technologies help us to create a
new aesthetic without sacrificing the value and meaning of the original motifs?
The researchers aim is to use the benefits of CAD technology to preserve something of the
Nubian heritage, even in a new context. Tables can be produced, of original motifs and a wide
range of variations can be created, from which the designer can select motifs and as many
variations as s/he wishes for textile printing. The fast and accurate methods of image repetition
available using CAD is ideally suited to the repetitive nature of textiles (Bunce, 1996:33).
Background and initial work

Firstly, my background is in manual textile printing in Egypt, where textile design traditionally
looks to history or nature as a source of inspiration. My work as a lecturer in Art Education was to
teach printing methods such as batik, stencil, tie-dye, block printing, and silk-screen to create
innovative pieces of design, but my own practice has tended to be painting, rather than printing,
where the dyes are directly mixed onto the fabric.
I was not familiar with CAD and the potential of different software, and needed to decide which
functions of the available software to use. This section describes initial work done and its
development through two stages, on the basis of my personal response at the end of each stage.
Exploring the potential of the new technology added new dimensions to the ethnic motifs, and the
tables help to experience their aesthetics. These steps helped the researcher to engage gradually
with the visual experience, as well as to transform the shape, textures, and colour of the Nubian
motifs.
Stage 1
At the beginning of this stage, I dealt with the motif as a singular case in each cell. Rather than
following rules, I operated intuitively. I developed my motif using the possibilities of Photoshop to
enhance the line and texture qualities, for example by altering the colours, shapes, shadows, and
textures. I found that, if I exaggerated using the filters, the work produced tended to be artificial and
less of an ethnic representation (refer to the characteristics of the Nubian motifs). I think this work
is more graphic than conventional textile designs (see the example in Baba:2001).
The advantage of this stage was in shaping my awareness of the identity of the motif. In other
words, it crystallised the definition of the Nubian motif in my mind.
An important evaluation of this initial work with Photoshop concerns how far I could go with this
fascinating software without losing the essential identity of the motifs.
Stage 2
Table 1: Shows transformations of the motif with two diagonal lines and flowers.
Intention: To experiment and explore the potential of raster [3] and vector [4] programmes. This
stage was used to become more acquainted with the CAD and to define what the specific functions
of the software are.
Table 1: the tree and two diagonal lines and flowers

Process: After using different software individually Photoshop was used to build these tables. Also,
it was easier to compare the other programmes to control the possibilities of this software, such as
in modifying the colours or adjustment layers. Also, Painter brushes (different sizes/types) were
used and the outline with textures was filled to re-shape the motifs and apply the filters.
Response: This stage explored the line and texture qualities of the motif by using different
software. Also, the table was created as a block print motif which could be repeated. It was
discovered that most of the raster software considered had the same functions, but each one had one
or more different features.
There are many similarities between the filters on Photoshop and Photo paint (see 1E and 1F), but
these differences are to do with application. All of them, even the CorelDraw (vector) software,
offer the same possibilities of changing, replacing and adjusting colours. However, the array of
brushes in Painter is greater than any other software, so too is art material, such as paper, wave and
textures. The Textures library in CorelDraw and Photo paint is varied but the mask function in
Photo paint is more effective than Photoshop and gives more possibilities. It was found that the
Photoshops layers were more powerful than the others and the replacement of colour using filters
was much easier and more straightforward.
At the beginning of this table (1A and B), I started to use the same line quality as the original motif.
After this, the thickness of the lines was changed using the Painter brush to explore changing the
motifs features. Also, as in the previous stage, the identity of the motif was lost when the
researcher exaggerated it using filters or changing its characteristics totally as in 1F, G and H.
The mixture of different software possibilities creates an exciting development in the motifs which
can be repeated for conventional designs. Before these applications were combined, each one was
used separately and the motif was developed and an acceptable result was gained. This decision
gave more variety and the researcher worked more intuitively, following my aesthetic responses,
and this gave a more satisfactory result
Stage 3
As a textile designer the researcher naturally concerned with final applications, so motifs were
systematically repeated, since one of the benefits of CAD is the ability to visualize designs in repeat
(Phillips and Bunce, 1993:14).
Two types of design repeating motif were produced. With the first the aim was to create a
traditional textile design using simple repeats and with the second the aim was to create wall
hanging designs.
Intention: To explore the possibility of using simple repeats of developed motifs and to determine
whether this method would be suitable for ethnic motifs. These interior design ideas are a selection
of work from the researcher design collection.
Response: New designs were created but it was felt that this direction was a dead end for the
identity of the Nubian motifs and provided little challenge. Moreover, it was feared that the essence
of the ethnic motif would be lost and traditional textile methods would have to be adhered to. Even
though they worked as textile designs, they lost their Nubian identity and were diffused by
repetition, so the direction of work was changed towards non-repeating fabrics.
Type 2: Wall hangings
Intention: To create wall hangings for printed textile designs using copies of the motif, but not
repeating them in a traditional manner.
10
Piece 1
Piece 2
Piece 1: CorelDraw was used with the triple-jointed palm tree and zigzags. Fill tools were used,
such as fountain fill for the motif and the rectangle shape, pattern fill for the zigzag, and postscript
fill for the background.
Piece 2: Photoshop was used to build this. The motif from piece 2 was repeated four times, then the
distort (Polar Coordinates) filter was used. The surface of the design was divided into a rectangle
and an oval and then a triangle shape was added. A scanned fabric was used as background. The
distorted motif was used to fill the foreground and background. The colours were changed in some
of the areas of the triangle or pyramid shape. The burn and dodge tools were used.
Reflection: Pieces 1 and 2 tended to be more open and symbolic. In piece 1, the motif was repeated
irregularly to portray the palm tree under the flood. Piece 2 was more complicated than the previous
one. The triangle shape was used because it is a common motif in Nubia. At the same time, the
researcher attempted to emulate the traditional technique of oil painting, which gave a special
dimension to the design. Using the distorted motif to fill the background as well as the foreground,
movement was added to the piece and this reduced the rigidity of the triangular form.
The outcome of the practical work and conclusions

The work has shown some of the advantages of CAD. A notion has developed about how to produce
new creative work without changing the essence of Nubian visual culture.
Conclusions include:
Changing the main feature of the palm tree motif can modify and even lose the visual
character of the motif.
Exaggerated use of blending filters and layers can completely alter the ethnicity of the motif.
Using symmetrical repeats of part of the motif can change its essential character, since it is no
longer a tree.
11
Changing the appearance of the motif and the textures of the background can change the
essential Nubian style and even make it disappear.
Traditional design methods can be used innovatively, yet they can create a dead end in the motifs
meaning.
The key aim of future practical work is to use visual culture and new technology to create designs
that maintain their ethnic identity. A test panel will be used to look at my tables and hanging designs
to assess whether computer technology can create a new aesthetic without sacrificing the value and
meaning of the original motif.
To answer my question: Is there a creative space where ethnic identity can be preserved along with
the production of new art forms? the researcher has decided to not rely on her responses and
aesthetic judgment. So, a solo exhibition will be given and a questionnaire used. People from
different ethnic backgrounds will be invited to answer as they study the work. The aims of the
questionnaire are firstly, to evaluate the motif transformations using CAD and to determine whether
there is a creative space where ethnic identity can be preserved along with new art forms, and
secondly, to evaluate the viewers visual perspective by examining the different backgrounds of the
respondents. Most of the questions will prompt qualitative responses rather than quantifiable
answers.
Footnotes
[1] First of all, the region known as Nubia stretches from the Niles First Cataract at Aswan in the
north to halfway between the Third and Fourth Cataracts in the south. A very large part of this area
was completely submerged by the building of the Aswan High Dam and the creation of Lake
Nasser. In 1963, Egyptian Nubians were forced to resettle to Kom Ombo, an area 40 kilometres
north of Aswan.
[2] In the northernmost region - from Aswan to Sebua - a Kenzi-speaking group, called Kenuz
was located. The Kenuz were considered to be the result of a compound of local nations in Nubia
with the Arab-Beja Beni Kenz tribe from the Middle Ages. Next to the Kenuz-area, from Wadi alArab to Kurusko, there was a small group of formerly nomadic, but later assimilated Arabs. The
society occupying this stretch of the Nile Valley was called Aleqat. However Arab was still their
mother tongue, but they were considered to be Nubians in concession of social formulation and
culture. Beside the Aleqat area there was a large region in which the usage of Fadija/ Mahasi clearly
prevailed. The ethnic dialect in Fadja-speaking areas were- from north to south-the fadija, the
Sukkot and the Mahas. Fadija is a terminology that was used to nominate the northernmost
group between Korosko and settlement of the 1960s (Poeschke, 1996:27-28).
[3] Raster images are displayed on screen as a series of dots or pixels. Each pixel can be lit up
independently from as few as 256 simultaneous colours to a maximum of a few million on screen at
any one time, enabling complex, high quality multicoloured imagery to be achieved when displayed
on higher resolution monitors (Aldrich, 1999:27).
[4] Vector images comprise lit vectors or line segment, which when joined together from fine
quality smooth lines, often displayed in one colour only. Outline shapes can be created very simply,
each made up of a number of control points which can be manipulated easily and effectively to alter
the image (Aldrich, 1999:28).
12
References
Aldrich, W., 1999, CAD in Clothing and Textiles, a Collection of Expert Views, Blackwell Science,
London.
Baba, N.S., 2001, The Transformative Effects of CAD on Nubian Motifs in Show R. and Mckay
J. (ed.), Digital Creativity: Crossing the Border, The proceedings of CADE 2001: The 4th
Computers in Art and Design Education Conference, The Glasgow School of Art Press.
Barnard, M, 1998, Art, Design and Visual Culture, an Introduction, Macmillan press, London.
Bunce, G, 1996, The Unexploited Potential of New Technology for Repeat Pattern Innovation in
Printed Textile Design, in Point, Art+ Design Research Journal, No.2, Summer1996, pp 32-36.
Fahim, H.M., 1983, Egyptian Nubian Resettlement and Years of Coping, University of Utah press,
USA.
Fernea, R A. and Gerster, G., 1973, Nubians in Egypt, Peaceful People, University of Texas, USA.
Fontana, D., 1993, The Secret Language of Symbols, a Visual Key of Symbols and Their Meaning,
Pavilion Books, London.
Gilmour, P., 1981, Artists in Print: An Introduction to Prints and Printmaking, British
Broadcasting Coroporation.
Jaritz, H., 1973, Notes on Nubian Architecture, in Fernea and Gerster (ed.), Nubians in Egypt,
Peaceful People, University of Texas, USA.
Jones, O., 1988 (1856) , The Grammar of Ornament, Omega books, London.
Kennedy, J. G., 1978, Nubian Ceremonial life, Studies in Islamic Syncretism and Cultural Change,
the American University in Cairo.
Meller, S. and Elffers, J., 1991, Textile Designs 200 Years of Patten for Printed Fabrics, Thames
and Hudson, London.
Meyer, F.S., 1987 (1894) , Meyers Handbook of Ornament, Omega Book, London.
Phillips, P. & Bunce, G., 1993, Repeat Pattern, Thames and Hudson, London.
Poeschke, R., 1996, Nubians in Egypt and Sudan, Constraints and Coping Strategies, Verlag Fur
Entwicklungspolitik Saarbucken, Germany.
Stevens, M A., 1984, The Orientalists: Delacroix to Matisse ,European Painters in North Africa
and the Near East, Royal Academy of Art, London.
Wilson, E., 1997, Ancient Egyptian Design, British Museum press.
13

M.A.R. Biggs University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
Abstract
In 1993 Christopher Frayling, the Rector of the Royal College of Art in London, published an
article about the nature of research in art and design. The present paper revisits his threefold
distinction of "research-in art, research-through art and research-for art", and considers why
Frayling found the third category to be problematic. The analytical methods used are linguistic (a
constructionist approach to the rhetorical effect of construing various prepositions with "research"),
and philosophical (a Wittgensteinian approach, distinguishing between socially agreed normative
criteria, and non-normative indicators or symptoms).
The paper argues that the instrumentality of terms such as "research" should be contrasted by
observations of how the register of artefacts is used in the advancement of the field. If one adopts a
constructionist approach then one is forced to be sceptical about the reification of publicly agreed
criteria. The paper uses Wittgenstein's distinction between criteria and symptoms to identify three
indicators of research that may point towards a solution to Frayling's problem through the redescription of his category "research-for" art as "a work-of" art.

This paper approaches the debate about the nature of research in art and design from a linguistic
point-of-view. It suggests that the way in which we employ language in our discussions affects the
connotative meanings of the words. This applies not only to the meanings of terms such as
"research", "practice" and "work" but also to their grammatical construal in phrases such as
"research into practice", "practice-based research" and "a work of art". To this extent we could say
that language constructs the concept of research rather than describing it. This would be a
constructionalist interpretation (Hall 1997: 25).
When Frayling (1993) wrote about "research-into art", "research-through art" and "research-for art",
he appeared to be reporting on three different activities within research, each having a different
relationship between the researching subject and his or her object. However, the constructionalist
approach would say that through this normative process, the three categories were brought into
existence. From this point onwards it became possible to differentiate and therefore to compare,
these categories. The constructionalist approach therefore implies another, bigger problem: to what
extent is our whole debate about research in art and design affected by language? In particular, to
what extent do some connotations affecting our judgement about what constitutes research arise
argumentum ex verbum rather than argumentum ex re.
Methodologically, Frayling does not approach the problem of "research in art and design" as a
"critical rationalist". Instead he paints us a picture, deriving his imagery from popular culture,
especially the cinema. This is not an inappropriate method for establishing how many of our
prejudices and assumptions have their roots in our use of language. Owing to the lack of an explicit
argument about what research is, we are left to sort out the possible relationships between the key
verbs, e.g. thinking, doing, writing, making, experimenting, reflecting, etc., and some value-laden
adverbs, e.g. emotional, cognitive, etc. The symptoms that Frayling identifies are; that the outcomes
of research must be explicitly communicable to others, that practice includes writing, design,
science, etc. and therefore cannot be used to differentiate these activities, and that it is the
relationship of "research" to "practice" as shown in the construal of the terms "research-into [a
practice]", "research-through [a practice]", and "research-for [a practice]" that can show us their
instrumental relationship (Frayling 1993: 1c, 5a).
It would perhaps be appropriate here to say something about the term "instrumental". Instruments
are of various kinds but in general they serve as tools with which to do something, e.g. a hammer, a
barometer, etc. When we regard words as instruments we focus on their use and on what is achieved
when we employ them. In this context we might regard the word "research" instrumentally if we
attend to what is meant by a community of users of that word, "not with a view to discovering
anything about the nature of the objects to which they seem to refer: rather, to find out whether
there are such objects, and if so which objects they are" (Hunter 1990: 157). This seems to be
Frayling's method: to consider the instrumental effect of cinematic representation on our perception
of scientific and artistic activity. In these cases we can see that, far from the terms "research",
"scientific" and "artistic" serving to focus on objective aspects of their manifestation on-screen, they
become implicated in a reciprocal act of definition and interpretation. For example, we call
Frankenstein a scientist, not because we see evidence of his scientific method but because his
stereotypical behaviour is associated with the label "scientist". Words as instruments therefore do
something: they modify our view of the world and, the constructionalist would say, construct our
perceptions.
Since Frayling is concerned to ensure that our understanding of the term "research" in the field of
art and design is reflected in its use by its inhabitants, it is appropriate that he should look at what
they actually do. For example, rather than accepting or rejecting Picasso's assertions about his
paintings qua research, Frayling considers how the actions of Picasso and others, e.g. Leonardo Da
Vinci, Stubbs and Constable, might be described. If we labelled their actions as research, how
would this affect our interpretation of these actions, and does this label need any qualification?
Frayling's conclusion is that the term "research" can be employed when qualified by a prepositional
triad of "into, through, for".
Frayling's examples of "research-into" art and design include historical and theoretical perspectives
(1993: 5a). His examples of "research-through" art and design include materials research and action
research. But he finds "research-for" art and design problematic because its examples would have to
include artefacts that embody the thinking but fail to make explicit their knowledge and
understanding. The problem that arises is an instrumental one: is it the case that there is no content
to the classification of "research-for art and design?" If the community values Picasso's
contribution, why is it not "research-for art"?
This brings us to the concrete proposal of this paper. Instrumentally the community needs a term
that describes and labels the activity that is equivalent to "research-for art and design". This is
because it needs to describe how the discipline is advanced and how knowledge arises through
practice, and this would seem to be unavoidably linked to the embodiment of thinking in objects.
However, the implications of the models provided by the construal "research-into" and "researchthrough" do not transfer into a useful instrument of "research-for". That is not a problem concerning
the extrinsic character of research in the field, i.e. argumentum ex re. It is a problem concerning the
intrinsic character of how it is described, i.e. argumentum ex verbum. Picasso was right to say
the spirit of research has poisoned those who have not fully understood all the positive and
conclusive elements in modern art (Frayling 1993: 2a).
Picasso claims that art is advanced or changed not by research, nor by unreflective practice, but by
the creation of works which come to have influence. Their influential status is demonstrated by the
effect they have on the field and not by what their creators intend or say about them.
Art and design is advanced using both text and artefacts. Agrest calls these "registers" (Agrest in
Allen, 2000: 164). Each has the capability to represent some aspects of a concept but not others.
These concepts are critically analysed by rewriting and remaking, etc. Agrest claims that neither of
these registers is comprehensive, which is why art and design uses them both. Practice-based
research also adopts this assumption. It assumes that neither writing alone, nor making alone, are
sufficient to represent a whole concept. It would be easy to act as though theory is synonymous
with text and practice is synonymous with artefacts. Allen (2000: xvii) recognises the potential
tension between theory and practice that comes from the recognition of different registers. In
response he argues that each register has the capacity to support both theory and practice, i.e. that
one can analyse theoretical concepts through making and practical concepts through writing. He
prefers the distinction between primarily "hermeneutic practices", i.e. those concerned with
"interpretation and the analysis of representations", and "material practices" that "transform reality
by producing new objects or organisations of matter". Because the publicly agreed criteria of
research include a need for the communication and dissemination of outcomes, research is
essentially a hermeneutic practice. This will be used later to explain the AHRB distinction between
practice and research.
This distinction recognises the different merits and capabilities of the register of artefacts and the
register of text. Text can state aims and other intentional activity, it can describe intangibles,
abstract concepts, generals and universals, conditionals, negation. This is partly because text has a
formalised syntax in a way that there is not a formalised syntax of objects (Wollheim 1980: 58). A
formalised grammar allows us to understand novel ideas. On the other hand, ideas embodied in the
expressive misuse of words, or the abuse of the conventional use of objects, may need an
accompanying critique to contextualise what is being done, to turn disruption into understanding.
Joyce's Ulysses was not accepted as a great work when first published. While its disruptive value
may have been highly regarded from the outset, its contribution to knowledge was recognised when
it was able to be placed in an historical, cultural and critical perspective. Whether one wishes to
then say that the contribution to knowledge was implicit in the work, or one prefers to say the
contribution was made by the critique that explicated it, is an example of different applications of
the criteria of research.
Criteria and instrumentality

This paper has claimed that Frayling's categories of "research-into", "research-through" and
"research-for" art can be conceived as instrumental rather than descriptive of the problem of
research in art and design. If this is the case, how might one proceed to discuss the concept of
"research-for" art and design? The problem may benefit from Wittgenstein's distinction between
criteria and symptoms.
Criteria function normatively and constitute the rules for the application for a term. These rules are
part of our form of representation. Confusions between criteria and symptoms arise when the form
of representation is applicable and supportive of one grammatical proposition, but not supportive of
another which appears to have the same structure. For example, first-person assertions of sensations
such as "I am in pain" are regarded by Wittgenstein as a symptom of pain for the utterer, because of
the lack of publicly available criteria. On the other hand, third-person assertions such as "she is in
pain" are made on the basis of observing pain behaviour. Such behaviour is one of many possible
criteria of her pain for us. Another criterion might be her avowal "I am in pain" (Biggs 1998: 9).
Thus we might distinguish between criteria for research, and symptoms of research. Criteria would
be the socially agreed definitions published by universities and research councils. Even if one
regards them as unsatisfactory, gaining an award requires one to conform to the publicly stated
criteria. They also give a means of appeal in cases of dispute. However, if we now want to criticise
the influence of these criteria from a constructionalist point-of-view, then we are forced to abandon
them because of their social instrumentality and look instead for non-socially agreed symptoms.
One criterion of research is that it is particular type of process. This is the model adopted by the UK
Arts and Humanities Research Board (AHRB):
The Board's definition of research is primarily concerned with the definition of research
processes, rather than outcomes. This definition is built around three key features and your
application must fully address all of these in order to be considered eligible for support:
- it must define a series of research questions that will be addressed or problems that will be
explored in the course of the research. It must also define its objectives in terms of answering
those questions or reporting on the results of the research project
- it must specify a research context for the questions to be addressed or problems to be explored.
You must specify why it is important that these particular questions should be answered or
problems explored; what other research is being or has been conducted in this area; and what
particular contribution this particular project will make to the advancement of knowledge,
understanding and insights in this area
- it must specify the research methods for addressing and answering the research questions. You
must state how, in the course of the research project, you are going to set about answering the
questions that have been set, or exploring the matters to be explored. You should also explain
the rationale for your chosen research methods and why you think they provide the most
appropriate means by which to answer the research questions.
The AHRB definition of research provides a distinction between research and practice per se.
Creative output can be produced, or practice undertaken, as an integral part of a research process as
defined above; but equally, creativity or practice may involve no such process at all, in which case
they would be ineligible for funding from the Board.
The final paragraph reinforces the difference between research and some kinds of practice. It does
so on the basis of whether or not the practice embodies the research process, rather than assuming
that only the register of text has that capacity. This complements Allen's view that both the register
of text and the register of practice have the capacity for theory and practice.
Implicit in the AHRB definition are a number of indictors or symptoms of research. For example, in
order to meet the above criterion the research method must be applied systematically. Systematic, in
this context, does not just mean organised and following a particular pattern or routine. Research is
systematic in the sense that it is comprehensive. At the end of a period of research one is entitled to
make claims because one has undertaken a rigorous enquiry that will have identified the current
state of knowledge and the key players and ideas, and have provided some critical commentary or
added to this. One can have confidence in the outcomes because an appropriate method will have
been applied systematically resulting in an analysis from a coherent point-of-view. The enquiry is
thus comprehensive from this point-of-view rather than necessarily aspiring to cover all that is
known or could be said about a particular issue. It becomes a symptom of art and design research
that a point-of-view or interpretational stance is made explicit, from whence the research can be
judged as systematic and comprehensive. Other research on the same topic may adopt a different
point-of-view. This is important for art and design because, contrary to the AHRB definition,
research in this field only aspires to answer research questions that arise in a particular
interpretational context. It does not aspire to provide answers on the "objective" scientific model.
A second criterion of research is an explicit and appropriate method. Within the research one might
expect to find a defence of the coherence and appropriateness of the method to the issue that is to be
investigated. For example, a problem of interpretation might be researched using a comparative
historical method based on case studies. A recent example from the University of Hertfordshire
investigated the use of allegory in sixteenth century painting and compared this with its
contemporary use. Two methods were immediately apparent. The first was to undertake a linguistic
analysis of the term "allegory" in these two periods and to use this knowledge as a method for
structuring an iconographic comparison. The second was the reverse: to undertake an iconographic
analysis and use this as a method for structuring a linguistic comparison. The outcome of the first
would be insights into imagery and the outcome of the second would be insights into the use of
words and concepts.
A linguistic analysis might show changes in both the meaning of allegory and its context as a mode
of explanation, between one period and another. This linguistic method would be the context
against which imagery could be evaluated, i.e. the relationship of the imagery to that which is to be
explained. An iconographic analysis, on the other hand, would begin with the signifying elements
of the imagery and conclude in observations about the use of the term. In either case, clarity about
what would constitute the evidence to be analysed either linguistically or iconographically is
essential for coherence. Equally authorities or counter-arguments that are relevant to each analysis
should not be transposed. One implicit symptom of the chosen method is therefore that it must be
appropriate to the kind of outcomes that are sought, and the evidence used, which in turn reflects
the audience that is targeted.
An explicitly identified audience is a third symptom of research. Research must identify an issue
that is consequential for an identifiable group in the field. This is why an investigation into one's
own practice is not necessarily research unless it can be shown that the outcomes are transferable to
other cases (the "research context" in the AHRB definition above). This need is reinforced by the
requirement for all research to have some form of dissemination. This dissemination, by publication
or exhibition, etc., would be irrelevant if there were not an audience for the content of the research.
Of course, the target audience may not know they are the audience, or may not know that they
would benefit from the outcomes of the research. One might say that the audience either would or
should read or view the research because if they did then the outcomes would have an influence on
their practice. This obligation should not be read as the moral benefit of being widely informed, but
the practical benefit of being specifically informed about developments in one's field. The size of
the group, especially if it can be explicitly identified, is an indicator of the potential impact of the
research. Funding bodies seek research that will be significant both in terms of qualitative and
quantitative impact. For example, the AHRB asks referees to comment on: "value for money"
The peer reviewers will assess the proposal on the basis of its academic merit, taking into account:
- the significance and importance of the project, and of the contribution it will make, if successful, to
enhancing or developing creativity, insights, knowledge or understanding of the area to be studied
- the appropriateness, effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed methodology, and the likelihood that it will
produce the proposed outcome in the proposed timescale
- the ability of the applicant(s) to bring the project to fruition, as evidenced not only in the application itself,
but in their previous track record, taking account of their 'academic age'
- value for money, and in particular the relationship between the funds that are sought and the significance and
quality of the projected outcome of the research.
With each explicit criterion there are a number of implicit symptoms. Criteria should present
necessary and sufficient conditions but as a result also operate instrumentally. Symptoms are
indicators that such conditions are being met. They are neither necessary nor sufficient, but because
of this tend not to operate instrumentally. Returning to the problem posed above, how can this
distinction be used to explain why Frayling's category "research-for" art is problematic? The
problem is that examples would include artefacts that embody the thinking but fail to make explicit
their knowledge and understanding. But we do have a term for such works: they are "works-of art".
A "work-of" is characterised by becoming the object of study and cited by researchers. A "work-of"
systematically employs a method that results in a novel point-of-view. It deploys it rather than
commentating on it. Thus it is embodied or deployed in the work rather than explicated by it. The
function of research is the opposite: to explicate rather than, or in addition to, embodiment; to make
explicit that which is implicit. This has the effect of demonstrating to the examiner or the consumer
of the research that the researcher understands what is embodied. This crosses over into the rle of
authorial intention since a "work-of" may embody any number of potential points-of-view, any or
none of which may have been the intention of the author. However the legitimacy of claiming
embodiment is not a claim of intention but a claim of coherence, and whether this point-of-view can
legitimately or coherently be explicated as being embodied or deployed in the "work-of". Such a
claim needs to be made explicit by "research-into" the "work-of", and may be undertaken by the
author of the work. The fact that notions of habitus are said by Bourdieu to be embodied in Kant's
Critique of Judgement does not require him to claim that this was Kant's intention.
"Works" that have a significant impact in a field may also be grounded in research, e.g. Bourdieu's
Distinction is a "work-of" aesthetics, but it is informed by thorough "research-into" the ethnography
of French-Algerian society. Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus is a detailed argument
in favour of a particular systematisation of knowledge, but it rarely places this argument in the
context of other thinkers. The lack of counter-arguments may be regarded as a symptom of a "workof" rather than "research-into" a particular issue, e.g. the logic of our language.
The reason why Frayling's category of "research-for" is an empty set in art and design is because
outcomes in this category are called "works-of". Such works advance the field and are likely to be
cited as the embodiment of the field's knowledge. However, because they do not communicate this
knowledge explicitly, Frayling's constructionist approach from the phrase "research-for" resulted in
his conclusion that nothing met the publicly agreed criteria, rather than recognising that "works-of"
exhibit appropriate symptoms instead.
Conclusion
A constructionist approach to language separates the material world from its symbolic
representation in words. Meanings are constructed and validated at this symbolic level, with no
necessary correspondence in the material world. This approach has been used to problematize the
nature of research in art and design. Encouraged by the rhetorical approach adopted by Frayling, his
category of "research-for" art has been reconsidered by distinguishing between the activities that are
conducted in the register of text and the activities that are conducted in the register of artefacts or
materials. It has been argued, from Allen, that these registers are not synonymous with theory and
practice respectively. Artefacts therefore have the capacity to advance both theory and practice, but
not necessarily on their own. Frayling is interested in the way in which the field of art and design is
advanced, particularly through practice and the production of artefacts. Frayling constructs
categories but then finds it difficult to account for the lack of content to the category "research-for"
because his constructionalist approach has combined two language elements: "research" and "for".
The criteria for research, and the implication of the rle of artefacts in the construal "research-for",
is found to have no counterpart in the material world, i.e. the world of practice.
This paper has concluded that the linguistic turn that constructed the category "research-for" was
misguided. It was led by a development of publicly agreed criteria rather than by underlying
indicators or symptoms of research. This paper does not reject these publicly agreed criteria, but it
does propose that they constructionally imply conclusions argumentum ex verbum rather than
argumentum ex re, e.g. Frayling's conclusion. By reconsidering the indicators from the world of
practice, and the need to find some equivalent to the category "research-for" by which the field is
advanced, this paper argues that a better starting-point would be the phrase "a work-of". This phrase
has the capacity to include the symptoms of research. It corresponds to how language is used in the
field and what material practices are regarded as advancing it. However, it frees the
constructionalist from the linguistic arguments that led commentators such as Frayling to conclude
that the advancement of the field through artefacts, the business of "research-for art", was a
problem.
References
Guidance notes. Arts and Humanities Research Board. http://www.ahrb.ac.uk/ [accessed April
2002].
Allen, S. 2000. Practice: architecture, technique and representation. Amsterdam: G+B Arts
International.
Biggs, M. 1998. "Wittgenstein: graphics, normativity and paradigms" in: Krger, W. and A. Pichler
(eds.) Arbeiten zu Wittgenstein. Skriftserie fra Wittgensteinarkivet ved Universitetet i Bergen,
No.15, 8-22. Bergen, Norway: University of Bergen Press.
Frayling, C. 1993. Research in Art and Design, Royal College of Art Research Papers, Vol. 1, No
1, 1-5
Hall, S. (ed.). 1997. Representation. London: Sage Publications.
Hunter, J. 1990. Wittgenstein on Words as Instruments. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Wollheim, R. 1980. Art and its Objects. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

A. Blackler Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
V. Popovic Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
D. Mahar Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
Abstract
The term intuitive use has been widely used with respect to various products and systems but has
not yet been adequately defined. Through an extensive literature review, it was concluded that
intuition is a cognitive process that utilises knowledge gained through prior experience. Intuitive
use of products involves utilising knowledge gained through other products or experience(s).
Therefore, products that people use intuitively should be those with features they have encountered
before. A set of experiments with a digital camera was conducted to test the thesis. The results of
these experiments support the thesis. It was found that prior knowledge of features or functions of
the camera allowed participants to use those features intuitively, whereas unfamiliar features or
functions had to be figured out, which was more time consuming and effortful.

Introduction
This study aims to explore the possible meanings and applications of intuitive use, what it is, how
and why it happens, and how design can facilitate it. Very little work has been done in this area, and
there is still limited published information on cognitive aspects of product use (Stanton and Baber
1996). However, intuitive use of products has been mentioned (although not fully addressed) by a
variety of authors in diverse literature.
For example, Rutter, Becka and Jenkins (1997) conducted a case study on the design of an
ergonomic chair. The design team wrote into the brief that the adjustment of the settings should be
intuitive in terms of the logic of their operation (p29), but no research into or definition of
intuitive is cited. Frank and Cushcieri (1997) wrote a case study about the design of an intuitive
mechanical surgical grasper for keyhole surgery, where movement of the fingers was replicated by
the movement of the grasper jaws. No reference is made to how they knew this was intuitive.
Thomas and van Leeuwen (1999) wrote a case study describing the design of two mobile phones.
One objective was for it to be intuitive to make a simple phone call. Therefore the concepts
developed supported conventional dialling behaviour and allowed users to apply their existing
experience, although again the authors do not define what they mean by intuitive, or how they
applied intuitive usability to these products. Okoye (1998) conducted a study on intuitive graphical
user interfaces. She does not detail in her thesis what intuition or intuitive use is.
The Principles of Universal Design were developed at the North Carolina State University Centre
for Universal Design. Principle Three is Simple and Intuitive Use. One of the authors of the
Principles said that we have not done any deep research in this area and the concept (of intuitive
use) makes so much sense to me I never questioned it (Story 2000, personal communication).
The concept of intuitive use is also mentioned extensively in product reviews and marketing
literature, but it is not defined. While one can assume that intuitive use implies use without
instruction, what is not clear from the existing literature is why and how this can occur. This paper
addresses what intuitive use might entail and details an exploratory experiment conducted to
investigate whether people can use products intuitively, what enables that process to take place and
how designers could facilitate it.
Background
Products are often difficult to use correctly and are frequently misused for a variety of reasons. This
situation could be alleviated by making products more intuitive to use. There are at least two
aspects of this issue; overimputation and the division of control.
Overimputation
Difficulties can arise from the natural human habit of imputing ones own knowledge to others
(Nickerson 1999). Surprisingly, this is generally an effective way of ascertaining another persons
knowledge. However, when a person knows something very well and/or over a long period, it is
difficult for them to put themselves in the position of a person who has none of that knowledge.
Nickerson calls this problem overimputation. Designers can overimpute their specialist knowledge
onto users (Norman 1988; Tognazzini 1989; Nickerson 1999). There could be two reasons for this:
The false consensus effect - the tendency to see oneself as more representative of others (in
various ways) than one really is (Nickerson 1999: 749).
The illusion of simplicity, whereby one mistakenly judges something to be simple only because it
is familiar (Nickerson 1999: 750).
Division of control
Further to the Industrial Revolution and consequent division of labour, which separated designers
from users to a large extent, the technological revolution has forced a division which may be called
the division of control. The user no longer has direct manipulation of or direct feedback from the
controls of many everyday products. This is all done through a digital electronic interface. The
terms opaque (Fischer 1991), lack of visibility (Norman 1988, 1993) and invisibility (Sade 1999)
have all been used to describe a system that does not allow its function to be perceived from its
structure.
In many electronic products, there is almost no physical and spatial relationship between the
controls, the indicators and the state of the system. Norman (1993) divides artefacts into two broad
categories according to their visibility; surface and internal artefacts. With surface artefacts, what
the user sees is all there is, but with internal artefacts, information is represented internally and
invisible to the user. Internal artefacts need interfaces to transform the information hidden within
their internal representations into surface forms. Therefore users are dependent on the design of the
device to make the information visible and usable.
Intuition research
Although intuition is a universal experience (Bastick 1982), research on intuition in
psychology and cognitive science is incomplete, and there is no general agreement on a definition
of intuition or how the process works (Bastick 1982; Fischbein 1987; Laughlin 1997). Good
overviews of the history of the concept and its intermittent study over the centuries are provided by
Boucouvalas (1997), Bastick (1982) and Fischbein (1987). Several researchers agree that intuition
is a process by which understanding or knowledge is reached without evidence of a reasoning
process (Noddings and Shore 1984; Fischbein 1987; Bastick 1982). The dictionary definition also
runs along these lines (Simpson and Weiner 1989).
It has been argued that the reasoning process is not in evidence when intuition is used as the
cognitive processing takes place outside the conscious mind so that the steps in processing are not
known (Agor 1986; Bastick 1982). Many researchers agree that the understanding or knowledge is
retrieved or assimilated from memory during the non-conscious processing. This suggests that
intuition relies on experiential knowledge (King and Clark 2002; Noddings and Shore 1984;
Bowers et al. 1990; Dreyfus, Dreyfus, and Athanasiou 1986; Agor 1986; Bastick 1982; Fischbein
1987). The intuitive process integrates the information that one already has with what is perceived
by the senses, and new associations between this information produce insights, answers, recognition
or judgements (Bastick 1982).
Rasmussen (1993) developed the SRK (skill, rule, knowledge) model of task performance.
According to this model, people operate on one of the levels (skill, rule or knowledge), depending
on the nature of the task and their degree of experience with the situation. Extremely experienced
people will process at the skill-based level. This is non-conscious, automatic processing. Those
familiar with tasks but lacking extensive experience process at the rule-based level. The cues in the
environment trigger rules accumulated from past experience, and previous successful solutions or
decisions (Schunn, Reder, Nhouyvanisvong, Richards and Stroffolino 1997; Rasmussen 1993;
Wickens, Gordon and Liu 1998). When the situation is novel, people will operate at the knowledgebased level, which is analytical processing using conceptual information. In a real world context, a
person might operate at the knowledge, rule or skill-based level and will switch between them
depending on task familiarity.
The SRK model was expanded into an information-processing model by Wickens et al. (1998).
Here they equate rule-based with intuitive processing. During intuitive or rule-based processing a
person must consider a variety of cues, which trigger retrieval of appropriate rules from memory
(Wickens et al. 1998). Therefore, people can only use intuitive processing if they have had previous
experience to draw on.
The dependence of intuition on previous experience is generally not recognized, and many people
assume intuition is instinctive or innate. However, an individuals experience gradually accrues
over time. A babys intuition is composed predominantly of instinctive responses to stimuli but
adults include more learned responses in their intuition as they develop (Bastick 1982).
If, as Nardi (1996) claims, all human experience is shaped by the tools and sign systems we use
(p10), the extent to which something is intuitive to use should be shaped by products people already
use. It is possible for a novel stimulus, ie one not previously experienced in a specific context, to be
highly associated with a group of recognised stimuli. It might be intuitively recognized as one of
the group because of its many associations with the group (Bastick 1982). Therefore, a stimulus
would not need to be identical to those previously experienced, just similar enough to allow the
association.
So, intuition is a type of cognitive processing that is often unconscious and utilises stored
experiential knowledge.
Factors of intuitive use

Intuitive use of a product or even a product feature is multi-faceted. Through initial observation of
people using electronic products, it became apparent that there would seem to be at least three
factors of intuitive use for each feature on a product
Location of the feature on the product.

Appearance of the feature (eg structure, shape, colour, labelling).
Function of the feature, how it works.
Therefore, each factor of each feature would need to be considered when investigating how people
can use products intuitively.
Experimental approach
A set of experiments was designed to test the thesis that intuitive use of products is based on
previous experience with products or systems that have similar features to those on the product.
Relatively few experiments have been done specifically mentioning intuition (Bastick, 1982), so
there was no established procedure for measuring it. Based on the understanding of intuition
explained above, intuition was operationalised as relevant past experience. The experiment
objectives were to establish if relevant past experience of product features increased the speed
and/or ease with which people could use those features, and to establish if interface knowledge was
transferred from known products to new ones.
Participants
Queensland University of Technology staff were asked if they could volunteer to take part in the
study. Levels of expertise (the independent variable) were classified as expert, intermediate, novice
and nave with digital cameras. This is a generally accepted definition of participants commonly
used in usability research. The participants were chosen to represent the range of levels of expertise,
and a realistic distribution of gender and age groups. Five people per group (a total number of
twenty) were needed for this experiment. None of the participants had encountered the camera used
in the tests before the experiment began, and all participants were volunteers who received no
payment in return for their participation.
Procedure
Participants were first welcomed to the room and all the equipment to be used was explained
clearly. Intuition has been shown to be vulnerable to anxiety. Thus a calm and permissive
environment should be provided for experiments concerned with intuition (Bastick 1982).
Participants were encouraged not to worry about the experiment or their performance, and were
reminded that the product was being tested, not themselves.
The participants were asked to complete two operations, each of which consisted of a number of
tasks, and which between them involved use of most of the functions and features of the camera:
1
2
Use the camera to take a photograph in autofocus mode using the zoom function.
Find the picture you took. Erase your picture. Search through the other images stored in the
camera to find (a specified image). Zoom in on the image so that the details become larger.
Two digital video cameras were used to record the activity. As per Vermeeren (1999), one was
trained on the participants hands as they operated the Fuji camera, and the other recorded the
whole scene. However, observation alone would not provide enough data to draw meaningful
conclusions. In order to get the sort of data observation cannot provide for example, information
about the cognitive processing behind participants actions, a verbal protocol was used. Think
aloud, or concurrent verbal protocol, being concurrent with the actions, is commonly used in
usability testing and other types of research and eliminates many of the problems involved with
people forgetting details when using retrospective protocol (Ericsson and Simon 1984).
The manual for the camera was only available on request and participants were asked to try to work
out the operations for themselves. Referring to the manual would mask use of relevant past
experience. The experimenter answered questions and reminded participants to think aloud but
otherwise did not intervene during the operations.
Immediately after the completion of the operations, a technology familiarity questionnaire was
completed and a structured interview conducted. As part of the interview, participants were asked if
they had been anxious during the test, either because of the presence of the experimenter, the video
cameras and other equipment, or for any other reasons. None of the participants reported that they
were especially anxious, so it can be assumed that intuition was not inhibited by anxiety during any
of the tests.
Apparatus and measures

The Fuji 4700 zoom digital camera (Figures 1 and 2) was chosen for use in this experiment. This
particular product was chosen as it has a mix of features, some of which are unique to this model
and others of which should be familiar to some users as they have been employed in other cameras,
other digital cameras, and other products.
Figure 1: Fuji 4700 front
Figure 2: Fuji 4700 back
The variables measured through this experiment and the methods and tools used are shown in Table
1.
Dependent Variables
Time to complete all operations, and smaller
tasks or components of tasks
Correct, inappropriate and incorrect uses of
camera features
Conscious reasoning apparent during each use
Percentage of first or only uses of features per

participant that were intuitive
Percentage of uses of each feature that were
intuitive
Participants level of technological familiarity
Familiarity of each feature
Intuitiveness of each factor of each feature,
based on user expectations
Methods and measurement tools

Observation using Observer Video Pro
software
software
software
Concurrent protocol
software
Concurrent protocol
software
Concurrent protocol
Technology familiarity questionnaire
Structured follow up interview
Structured follow up interview
Table 1: Variables, methods and measurement tools

The technology familiarity questionnaire and the interview were designed to establish whether or
not relevant past experience is transferable between contexts. The technology familiarity
questionnaire was designed for this study to reveal information about the participants behaviour
with digital products other than digital cameras. Therefore, they were asked about whether and how
often they used certain products, and how much of the functionality of those products they used.
The products mentioned in the technology familiarity questionnaire were chosen as they were
examples of common consumer electronic products that employed similar features and devices to
the camera used in the study. The technology familiarity questionnaire was used to calculate the
technology familiarity score for each participant. A higher level of exposure to and depth of
knowledge of the various products in the questionnaire produced a higher technology familiarity
(TF) score.
During the interview, participants were asked to rate how familiar each feature was, from other
products they had used or from any other situations. Participants were also asked to assess how the
location, function and appearance of each feature they used on the camera conformed to their
expectations. Intuition has been equated with users expectations as expectations are associated with
remembered situations (Dreyfus et al. 1986), and adhering to users expectations is acknowledged
as desirable for ease of use and consistency (Nielsen 1989). This exercise was designed to reveal
how each of the three factors of the features compared with each other in terms of their
intuitiveness, based on users expectations from their past experience.
The audio-visual data obtained on the video and through the verbal protocol were coded with the
Observer software according to:
the feature used (one entry per use of any feature)

whether each use was correct, correct for the feature but inappropriate for the task or
incorrect
how much conscious reasoning seemed to be involved in each use
time on each task
time consulting the manual.
Since intuitive processing does not involve conscious reasoning or analysis (Noddings and Shore
1984; Fischbein 1987; Agor 1986; Bastick 1982), the less reasoning was evident for each use, the
more likely it was that intuition was being utilised. Conscious reasoning coding ranged from
intuitive (fast decision with no evident reasoning), through quick comment (enough reasoning to
verbalise a couple of words) and trial and error (random playing with buttons or exploratory
behaviour), to with working (thorough reasoning evident) and finally using manual (relevant past
experience masked). These data have been used to generate many of the results in the next section.
Intuition is defined by some writers as necessarily correct (some researchers have even
operationalised intuition as a correct answer), whereas most say it is only a useful guide that rarely
misleads (Bastick 1982). Bastick believes that intuition is always considered to be subjectively
correct but where there is an accepted answer for comparison (as in this case), intuition may not
always completely agree. Therefore, during the coding of feature uses, a few incorrect uses were
coded as intuitive. For example, several people tried to use the shutter as a confirm or OK button
and although this was incorrect it was affirmed during the interview that they had felt that was the
right thing to do as it was a confirm button for taking an image.
When calculating the statistics relating to the percentages of intuitive uses and intuitive first uses,
only correct or correct but inappropriate uses were counted, as incorrect intuitive uses do not
contribute to the successful use of the product. Correct but inappropriate uses are relevant as this
experiment was focussing on the features of the camera and these uses were correct uses of the
features.
Results
The data presented here were obtained from the variables detailed in table 1. Table 2 shows the
means and standard deviations for the variables time to complete operations and technology
familiarity score, for each level of expertise and overall. It can be seen that there are no significant
differences between the mean times and technology familiarity scores for each group.
Variable
TF score
Time (secs)
Expert
Mean SD
43.4
7.5
573
564.6
Intermediate
Mean SD
50.2
6.6
657
216.9
Novice
Mean SD
43.2
5.2
581
386.5
Nave
Mean
36.8
1031
SD
11.1
638.9
Total
Mean
43.4
710.5
SD
8.7
481.2
Table 2: Means and standard deviations for time and technology familiarity score
Figure 3 presents the relationship between time to complete the operations and the technology
familiarity score, and shows the strong negative correlation between these two variables, r(18) =
-0.69, p< 0.01 (NB all correlations are Pearsons product moment correlation coefficient). The
level of expertise of each participant is also shown.
Figure 3: Time plotted against technology familiarity score
Figure 4 presents a scatter plot of each participants time to complete the operations as a function of
their level of expertise. It suggests that no strong relationship exists between time and level of
expertise. No significant correlation existed between these two variables, r(18) = -0.1, p> 0.05.
Figure 4: Time plotted against level of expertise
Table 3 shows the percentages of correct, correct but inappropriate and incorrect uses for each level
of reasoning. It can be seen that the majority of intuitive, quick comment and with working uses
were correct, while the majority of trial and error uses were incorrect. It must be remembered that
these numbers represent all feature uses including re-uses.
Intuitive
Correct
64.5%
Inappropriate 31%
Incorrect
4.5%
Quick
comment
62.5%
12.9%
24.6%
Trial &
error
9.6%
7.9%
82.5%
With
working
79%
5.3%
15.7%
Using
manual
46.2%
23%
30.8%
Total
46%
19.3%
34.7%
Table 3: Level of reasoning and level of correctness for all feature uses.
The total percentage of correct and correct but inappropriate intuitive uses of the features was
compared with the familiarity of the features. It was found that the mean familiarity of the features
correlated strongly and positively with the mean of the percentage of intuitive uses of the features,
r(18) = 0.523, p<0.05. This is shown in figure 5.
So, features that were more familiar were intuitively used more often. For example, the power
button showed a high level of familiarity and a high percentage of intuitive uses. The navigate
function of the menu also showed a high percentage of intuitive uses and a high level of familiarity.
The DISP function, which controls the displays on the LCD screen, showed a very low level of
familiarity and a correspondingly low percentage of intuitive uses. Only experts who had used
similar digital cameras picked up this function easily.
Figure 5: Mean familiarity of features by mean percentage of intuitive uses of features
There was a strong positive correlation between the percentage of first or only feature uses that
were intuitive and the technology familiarity score, r(18) = 0.643, p<0.01. And a strong negative
correlation between the percentage of first or only uses that were intuitive, and the time on the
tasks, r(18) = -0.465, p<0.05. Therefore, participants who had a higher level of technology
familiarity were able to use more of the features intuitively first time and were quicker at doing the
tasks. This trend can be clearly seen in figure 6.
Figure 6: Technology familiarity score by percentage of correct or correct but inappropriate first or
only uses that were intuitive.
10
Intuitive use is based on relevant past experience, and people use their existing knowledge when
they are confronted with new systems or products (Kellogg 1989). During the interview,
participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with two statements. Statement 1 was I
use my knowledge of products that I am familiar with to guide me in using a new product of the
same type. 65% agreed strongly with this statement and 35% agreed. Statement 2 was I use my
knowledge of products that I am familiar with to guide me in using a new product of a different
type. 55% agreed strongly with this statement, 35% agreed, and 10% disagreed. The level of
agreement with statement two was compared with the time each participant took to complete the
operations. A strong positive correlation exists, r(18) = 0.567, p< 0.01. A less strong correlation
exists for the relationship of time to complete operations and level of agreement with statement one,
r(18) = 0.533, p<0.05. Figure 7 shows these relationships, and demonstrates that that those who
agreed less strongly with the statements took more time to complete the tasks.
Figure 7: Time plotted against responses to statements 1 and 2
When asked about the intuitiveness (based on expectations) of the three factors of each feature,
some participants rated one factor of a feature at one end of the scale and another factor of the same
feature at the other end. Ratings ranged from 1 (low, unexpected factor) to 6 (high, very familiar
and expected factor). For example, the camera icon had high means of 4.00 for function and 4.20
for appearance but a lower mean of 2.95 for location. This icon is located in an ambiguous position
so it could be a label for one of two or three different buttons on the interface. The power button
had a high mean of 5.15 for function, but lower means of 4.10 for appearance and 3.10 for location.
The power button is located inside the mode switch, and is not colour coded or very clearly
labelled, which made it difficult for many participants to find, although all knew they had to find a
power button or switch of some kind as the first step.
11
Discussion
From these results, it can be suggested that prior exposure to products employing similar features
helped participants to complete the operations more quickly and intuitively. The Fuji camera
borrows, or transfers, features from other digital products, so even expert users of digital cameras
who had limited experience with other digital products completed the tasks more slowly and
effortfully than novices with digital cameras who did have experience with the features employed in
the camera from using other products. This is shown in the strong negative correlation between time
and TF score.
The fact that there is no correlation between time and level of expertise with digital cameras also
supports this conclusion, and suggests that grouping participants into expert, intermediate, novice
and nave with the product seems to be less relevant when investigating intuitive use than some
other aspects of usability, because intuitive use involves applying knowledge from other contexts
and other products. A grouping based on technology familiarity score may be more relevant in this
situation.
The high percentage of intuitive uses that were correct seems to confirm Bastick's (1982) statement
that intuition is generally correct but not infallible.
Participants with little or no experience with digital cameras who had used other digital devices
seemed to be able to use familiar features intuitively. This conclusion is supported by the
correlations between familiarity of features and percentage of intuitive uses, and correct or correct
but inappropriate intuitive first uses and technology familiarity score. The first uses results are
particularly important as the participants had not yet had the opportunity to learn about the feature
but used it either correctly or correctly but inappropriately the first time they encountered it. They
could only base their actions on relevant past experience of similar features or things, so this result
offers strong support for the idea that including familiar features in a product will allow users to use
them intuitively first time.
The correlation between level of agreement by participants that they use knowledge gained from the
use of one product to help them learn about another and their time to complete the operations also
supports the hypothesis that intuitive use is governed by past experience. The more time a person
took to complete the task, the less strongly they believe that they use their knowledge of familiar
products when they are faced with an unfamiliar product, particularly of a different type. These
people were less likely to transfer knowledge from other products and apply it to the use of the
camera. Because the camera borrows so many features from other digital products, not primarily
from cameras, transferring knowledge from other types of products was necessary in order to
complete the tasks quickly and intuitively.
Through the interview process, it has been confirmed that location, function and appearance of
features on the product are factors that need to be separated for purposes of analysis. Also, as can be
seen from the analysis of the results above, this differentiation can show quite clearly which factor
of a feature may be responsible for usability problems This would allow designers to correct the
right problem (eg, location of the power button) not the wrong one (eg, function of the power
button).
12
Conclusion and relevance to design

These findings suggest that relevant past experience is transferable between products, and probably
also between contexts. The participants with relevant past experience with the different features
show faster and more intuitive use of those features, so it should be possible to conclude that
relevant past experience has contributed to that. Therefore, including familiar features and controls
in a product, in a way that is easy to follow and is consistent with the users expectations according
to her/his past experience, should increase the intuitive usability of those controls.
Intermittent users of inconsistent or counter-intuitive products, or users attempting to carry out new
tasks, would have problems, although more regular users may be able to use the product well once
they had learned it, suggests Kellogg (1987). Also, she found that users tend to see an inconsistent
software system as undependable and unfriendly. Counter-intuitive products could well be viewed
the same way.
In the current market place, there is a proliferation of electronic gadgets and a high turnover of
consumer electronics products, with new models and upgrades appearing constantly. Products
become more and more complex as new technology allows designers to include more functions.
There are many intermittent and casual users, and many available functions within these products
that are learned only when needed and not necessarily when the manual is available. Also, some
products, such as office machines and equipment, are shared or passed around, and manuals become
lost in the process. Therefore, designers need to make these products easier to learn and use if the
current trends are to continue.
This research could contribute significantly to the design and usability of various products for all
types of users. Issues that can be further explored in relation to intuitive use include how to use
design to make products more intuitive, how to ascertain which sorts of features will be familiar to
certain populations and applying these ideas outside the realm of products and to related fields such
as software.
13
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15
An Indian who doesnt know how to grow the maize

S. Boess Advanced Research Institute, Staffordshire University, UK
D. Durling Advanced Research Institute, Staffordshire University, UK
C. Lebbon Royal College of Art, UK
C. Maggs University College Worchester and University of Birmingham, UK
Abstract
In user-centred design, a common ground that emerges is an orientation towards research into the
needs and wishes of consumers. Hermeneutic phenomenology can be adopted by a designer to
investigate her/his own activity and use of knowledge in designing. A reflection of this kind is
presented here. It is based on design and research activities in the domain of product design, in
which the realization of user-centred design was sought by means of preliminary user research,
application of its results in design work, and evaluation of the outcomes through renewed user
research. The outcome of the reflection is the formulation of a generative metaphor for further
design and research. This generative metaphor is derived using analytic and exegetical approaches
from hermeneutic phenomenology. Thinking of the designer as an Indian who doesnt know how
to grow the maize, it is proposed, addresses questions of an integrative view on the design task; the
proximity between designers and consumers; and the use of projection to distinguish between users
present situation and a potential future one. In exemplarily presenting this metaphor, the paper
hopes to contribute to an already growing resource of knowledge in the discipline of design, and
user-centred design in particular, on the possibilities, responsibilities and implications of designers
professional activity.
An Indian who doesnt know how to grow the maize

Introduction
In design, and user-centred design in particular, efforts have been made to develop research
methods to support designers in their activity. This paper introduces a perspective to user-centred
design research methodology that has not so far been applied to it: hermeneutic phenomenology.
User-centred design is not a universally endorsed term. Pheasant (1996: 13) explicitly adopted it,
Dunne (1999: 30) critiques it, others use a variety of similar terms to describe their stances, e.g.
inclusive design or participatory design. While these may differ in historical roots and meaning,
what emerges as a common ground is an orientation towards research into the needs and wishes of
consumers (f. ex. Aldersey-Williams et al. 1999).
Based on reflections on design agency in the past decades, a conceptualisation of designing as a
communicative and intersubjective activity has arisen. There has been a call for metaphors that
designers could use to guide their activity (Coyne and Snodgrass 1991: 130, 1993: 111-113, Schn
1992: 137-163). Schn suggested that framing and re-framing (of a problem/ phenomenon) was
accomplished through generative metaphor:
We need [] to become aware of the generative metaphors which shape our perceptions of
phenomena. []. However, this is not as easy as it sounds, for generative metaphors are ordinarily
tacit. [] We may be helped [] by the presence of several different and conflicting stories about
the situation [...] mak[ing] it dramatically apparent that we are dealing not with reality but with
various ways of making sense of a reality. []
In order to bring generative metaphors to reflective and critical awareness, we must construct them,
through a kind of [] analytic literary criticism, from the givens of the problem-setting stories we
tell. (1992: 148-149)
In a reflection that is reported in this paper, Van Manens (1990) methodology is used in order to
develop a metaphor for actions of a designer, based on knowledge about users from research, that
might be seen as meaningfully related to projected outcomes for users. In the following, three sets
of research activities will be sketched and then discussed reflectively.
Research
A study
The goal of an initial study on bathing for older people, was to find out about users wishes and
needs prior to design work. Participants were residents of sheltered housing. The Wellbathing study
was entirely qualitative and comprised focus group interviews, individual interviews, photographic
recordings, and visual communication (Figure 1). Its methods were based on guidance from design
research, as well as other fields (f. ex. Zeisel 1981, McCracken 1988; Krueger 1994). A visual
tool was developed and used, similar to tools that have recently been used elsewhere (Jordan and
MacDonald 1998). With it, research participants collaged their ideal bathroom. The study
methods and activities have been described in Lebbon and Boess (1998) and Boess (2002).
Preliminary results will be discussed below.
Figure 1: a focus group session
Case studies
Later, design and teaching activities were accompanied by action research which, it has been said,
is usefully reported in the form of case studies (f. ex. Robson, 1993: 438-99; Schoen and Argyris
1991)
Case study assisted bathroom

The research outcomes of the Wellbathing Study were applied in the planning work of an assisted
bathroom. This type of room exists in most older peoples residences. Its main purpose is for caregivers to assist people in bathing who cannot do so in their own flats.
Sample results from the Wellbathing study. The participants of the Wellbathing study had various
experiences and evaluations to offer about the assisted bathrooms known to them. For example, the
opportunity to bathe at all was generally valued. But the time was often too short (ten minutes or
so), and in two of the three residences where it was present, the bathroom was rather far away
from most residents flats, so that it was perceived that too much public space had to be traversed to
get to it. In the one case where it was close, the bathroom was being enjoyably used by a couple
independently of care-givers. The windowless and soberly outfitted bathroom in one of the housing
complexes was dubbed the dungeon by residents (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Example of a soberly outfitted assisted bathroom.

Design. In response to the needs and wishes that had been identified, objectives were set that the
design should:
answer cultural needs (Im not into putting on the style, not at my age, but I would like
a nice peach bathroom and peach curtains [] and [] a few flowers in the
window)
realise usability: adaptability in use and low demands on the user; unobtrusive safety.
(Grab bars [are for] them, the disabled.) (Getting in and out, its difficult, you know)
provide for an overall relaxing atmosphere (I love a good soak. Get the Radox going
...),
The first author (Boess) mainly carried out the design intervention. Its scope was limited to tiling,
furniture, decoration, and placing of the sanitary objects in the room, and had to be coordinated with
the general interior design concept for the building. Examples of design considerations:
A local manufacturers traditional tiles were named in the group discussions as synonymous with
quality and style. Such tiles were then specified, alongside up-to-date equipment, informed by
statements like We like a bit of both, the old and the new.
The assisted bathroom had already been positioned far away from individual flats, within a sportsand sauna area that was recessed off the most public area of the complex. To compensate, it was
decided to make the washbasin area spacious and inviting to use, in contrast to the customary mini-
washbasin across from a toilet (f. ex. Goldsmith 1976). This should allow users to get dressed and
groomed at ease before re-entering the public area (Figure 3).
Figure 3: schematic of design considerations.

The design was evaluated by Boess, visiting again after it had been in use for a year. Traces of use
were noted; and short interviews with five residents, two care-givers and a longer interview with the
manager of the scheme were conducted. Some outcomes of the evaluation will be discussed below.
Case study learning module

A human factors learning module was planned and run at Staffordshire University. Its aims were
to convey skills and appreciation of research to students, as well as to look at research methods such
as the ones used during the Wellbathing study, from another perspective. A description and
evaluation of the module has been reported in Boess and Lebbon (1998). During the six-week
module, a group of design students and older people worked together, examining usability of and
preferences for the bathroom. The students discussed their design proposals in small groups with
U3A members. 3D full-size props were built by the students and appeared to be a valuable
additional communication tool (Figures 4 and 5) . Some problems and opportunities that were seen
to arise from the module will be discussed further below.
Figure 4: full size model situation
Figure 5: a student and users discuss proposals
Analysis
There is relatively little material in the domain of design on the theoretical ground of interpreting
research with users, though there are many reports of studies (f. ex. Scrivener et al. 2000). For
example, neither the MethodsLab (Aldersey-Williams et al. 1999) nor Poulson et al. (1996) even
mention data analysis, and Zeisels (1981) advice was rather technical and positivist in orientation.
While natural to use research methods have now been proposed for design (Aldersey-Williams et
al. 1999: 3), uncertainties when it comes to interpretation, it appears, have hardly been
problematized.
Methodological guidance for analysis of the Wellbathing study and the case studies, was initially
sought in a standard work for nursing science. A Grounded Theory perspective was adopted (Polit
and Hungler 1997: 377-398, Glaser and Strauss 1967). An assumption had been that knowledge of
the phenomenon under study could result in indications of what should usefully be done about it. The
recognition that this is not straightforward led to the evaluation that Grounded Theory has limitations
in this respect. Van Manens methodology, which has been mentioned, was then adopted for the
purpose of reflection. It will be reported in the following.
Discussion
This discussion reports on a reflection on how successful the use of knowledge generated from the
various research activities, has been in realising user-centred design. It follows Van Manens (1990)
methodological advice on structuring reflective writing. The reflection will employ two approaches:
what Van Manen calls an analytical approach, examining systematically the various themes that
[] narrative[s] reveal, in an ever-widening search for ground (1990: 170), and through what
Van Manen calls an exegetical approach, by taking recourse to previous literary and philosophical
material, in terms of a discussion of those texts and the structural themes that their authors have
already identified and discussed, and treat[ing] the[ir] works [] as incomplete conversational
scripts (1990: 171). As an outcome, a generative metaphor is developed (see introduction) that
could usefully inform user-centred designing: a metaphor for what a designer thinks she/he is doing
while designing, and how she/he thinks about others involved in the process. Finally, a reinterpretation of the initial Wellbathing study results is briefly sketched, in order to project how the
generative metaphor changes the authors perspective on possible design tasks. It does not
constitute a truer set of results, but a deepening of knowledge for design. Van Manen:
Phenomenology does not problem solve. [] Phenomenological questions [] ask for the
meaning and significance of certain phenomena. [] in some sense meaning questions can never be
closed down, they will always remain the subject matter of the conversational relations of lived life,
and they will need to be appropriated, in a personal way, by anyone who hopes to benefit from such
insight. (1990: 23)
Themes that emerged from deploying the research results in design

(analytic approach)
From the activities that have been mentioned, stories about situations have become available to the
authors (see Schoens comment in the introduction). The stories are presented as themes. Van
Manen notes:
phenomenological themes may be understood as the structures of experience [italic in orig.], []
ultimately the concept of theme is rather irrelevant and may be considered simply as a means to
get at the notion we are addressing. Theme gives control and order to our research writing. (1990:
79)
To analytically recover themes, we might, briefly said, ask questions like, is this plausible? Is it
possible? How is this experience lived? (Van Manen 1990: 91).
Theme: Integrating design issues towards user-centredness.

We like a bit of both, the old and the new
The design of the assisted bathroom, overall, was liked or at least praised by users. It was
apparently not being perceived as overly radical or innovative: nobody said I dont like it, or I
cant live with this. (see f. ex. Schrage 2000: 128). Shortcomings that became apparent were:
Specification problems. Grab bars had been selected because they were the standard choice for
functional requirements for a room of this kind. Users of the room found that this combination of
items which carried different associations for them (disability versus nice bathing), detracted
from the quality of the experience of using the room. The problem was not a matter of disparity in
the design as such: combinations of the old and the new had been expressed as desirable in the
Wellbathing study.
Problems of coordination. Design decisions made, influenced decisions others subsequently made.
For example, the management were so reluctant to damage the expensive tiles that a shower head
was subsequently mounted higher than would be conveniently usable in the bathtub.
Diverse use patterns. The research had focused primarily on one group of users of the room: the
senior residents who would bathe in it. The staffs needs had also been researched through
interviewing and interactive use of a scale model (Figure 6), but apparently not sufficiently so. For
example, there was not enough provision for the storage of cleaning equipment. It ended up being
left out in the open. This detracted from the aesthetic quality of the room for the bathers as well as
for the staff.
Figure 6: a scale model used interactively during planning sessions

A further observation was that some aspects of the design which were liked by the users, had not
been closely based on the research at all. The colour scheme, for example, did not try to answer
participants diverse expressed preferences which ranged from blue to pale pink to black and white.
Instead, a warm tone was used that would make skin look healthy. The students too encountered the
problem of handling diversity. One student made it his design theme, proposing a set of washbasins
in the shape of a cascade, to include diverse needs for height.
So there was, apparently, a problem of integrating a number of issues in designing. Some attempts
to answer needs even ended up counterproductive. How could a designer prioritise so that the main
goal of user-centredness would benefit? How could a designer account for those aspects of a design
which werent based on expressed needs at all, but on a necessity to make a decision though faced
with diversity? The problems which have been described, all seem to relate to a quality of design
activity which has been termed integration (Dorst 1998: 22). Dorst pointed to the importance of
integration, an activity of making decisions which link the elements of the problem or solution,
adequate in all relevant contexts (ibid.: 35). A generative metaphor to be developed will need to
promote this. How can a designer put her/him-self in a position/ positions in which he/she can
notice and integrate different relevant perspectives on one kind of use situation?
Theme: Getting close enough long enough to learn about daily life preferences
The room is lovely, but the bench isnt very useful
Having elicited potential users needs and wishes (more than is often done for the purposes of
designing), the first author worked out design solutions. The later evaluation showed that while
some needs and wishes had been correctly recognised (users reaffirmed them), the actual design
was not always successful. Two examples:
Opportunities to personalise the room had been given by providing ledges on the sides. Users kept
forgetting personal things on the ledges, and an extra table near the door was eventually brought in.
That turned out to be the place where personal things were usefully habitually deposited.
A bench had been custom-designed so that users could sit on it to undress. A custom-designed grab
bar that had been planned to go next to it, had been dropped. That meant it was not easy to get up
from the bench. An extra chair of a kind that had been popular with participants of the initial
research (it was represented in an image as part of the visual tool), was brought in later. The
relatively cheap rattan chair had integrated arm rests which were found to be conveniently usable as
supports.
In the evaluation, then, it became apparent that the design interpretation of users needs had
sometimes been too literal, and other times not literal enough. It was hampered by insufficient
knowledge of users daily life preferences.
During the learning module, Boess noticed that the students found it difficult to ask the older
participants questions relating to activities as private as using the toilet. During Wellbathing study,
Boess had experienced a similar inhibition, also on the part of the research participants: for
example, while a couple was being interviewed, the woman chided her husband for his half-joking
descriptions of his daily rituals: She [meaning the interviewer] doesnt want to know that, deselecting aspects of their life as inappropriate to the interview.
The elicitation methods had failed to reveal aspects which turned out relevant to the eventual
design. But if research got even closer to users, what would become of the problem of respectful
distance which seemed to come naturally to those involved? A theme that has occupied design
thinking (f. ex. Margolin 1995, Morrow 2001), is designers distance from consumers, thinking
their own experiencing is representative enough of others experiencing. Perhaps as an unfortunate
side effect of a respect for each others sphere, designs can end up inadaptable to situations
deviating from those of imagined normal users. A metaphor to be developed would have to suggest
how and why closer involvement between designers and users might be successful. How can a
designer come close enough to users to find out what he/she needs to know, while maintaining
a degree of proximity they and she/he feel comfortable with?
Theme: Distinguishing between an existing situation and a potential one.
I didnt like having to design for older people
The students confirmed that they had found the module of great learning value. But they said they
didnt like designing for older users. They said they preferred to design for themselves or people
like them. The designs they made in a follow-up module (not reported here), now free to choose the
prospective user, were mostly aimed at young mobile singles, celebrating values related to hipness,
technology or financial wealth. A similar phenomenon also applied to Boesss design activities.
Boess had set out with a partly ethically oriented motivation: of realizing user-centred design.
Possibly being preoccupied with problems of disability and dependence she sought to address, she
also ended up not making designs that would also be attractive to her.
While some participants of the Wellbathing study had said Everythings fine, Im happy [with my
disabled shower], some had also said things like this isnt home, Im ashamed of my
bathroom, So were stuck again. Some of the very arrangements which, one must presume, had
been made to support participants, were apparently perceived by them as oppressive or limiting.
What remarkably emerged from the Wellbathing study as well as the learning module, was that the
older participants too agreed that they didnt want design for old. How could a designer
distinguish between being the problem and being subjected to a problem? How or how much do
the things that surround users, determine their lives? (See also f. ex. Pantzar (1997) for a discussion
from a macro-economic perspective).
Nayaks motto is: Design for the young and you exclude the old. Design for the old and you
include the young (f. ex. in Coleman 1997: 29). But perhaps the problem that the students had
been set, and that the first author had set for herself, to design something for the old, hampered
the inclusion of the students and the designers own interests in their design work. Design research
reporting sometimes appears to treat this question in a the consumer was happy and everything
was fine kind of way (see f. ex. the case of Ray Driscoll in Smith et al. 2000. Design is done to
facilitate a consumers tacit intentions. Success is that the consumer liked it).
Schn (in Bennett 1996) reflected on characteristics of a designer-user relationship which would
result in products that serve the user well. He suggested a professional practice oriented on
outcomes that satisfied the designer and the client alike. What taste could they come to share? What
could the designer project into the situation he/she has experienced? How can a designer
distinguish the potential in peoples lived experience from circumstances constraining them
now?
Towards a generative metaphor (exegetical approach)

Each of the three themes into which the reflective stories have been grouped, integration, proximity
and projection, represents an aspect of the relation of a designer to a design situation which
generates knowledge in user-centred designing (the phenomenon studied), and has been shown to
have also been recognised in design-related literature as relevant in design practice. In order to now
develop a relevant generative metaphor that could inform a design activity, an exegetical reading of
two descriptions of relations is presented next.
The first description of a relation: Van Manen. Hermeneutic phenomenology, as Van Manen
describes it, has one important sine qua non: that the inquirer be in the relation that is described.
Having adopted the methodology as a research methodology, the question arose whether Van
10
Manens examples of such a relation, given throughout his work, might also be a way to look at a
designer within the design process.
The second description of a relation: Deleuze. In order to focus on spatial and perceptual aspects
that present themselves to a designer, another theorists material is also taken up: Deleuzes (2000)
small volume of essays discussing writing and art. Deleuze is not a phenomenological writer but a
poststructuralist one. Deleuze draws a lot, sometimes implicitly, on texts by Nietzsche, and on
Heideggers (later) thoughts about context- and perception-orientation. These writers also figure
prominently in Van Manens (1990) work and have each had an impact on phenomenology (see
also Spiegelberg 1994), leading the authors to cautiously assume that they can draw on Deleuzes
work for the purposes at hand.
Van Manen discusses the pedagogue in relation to the children in her/his care; Deleuze, the writer
in relation to the world she/he writes about. Van Manens and Deleuzes discussions have been
exegetically read for the way they depict the actors in a situation and their relatedness with others,
for the attention they give to perceptible elements of a situation, and for the actions they see an
author (designer) as undertaking. They were not compared against each other, but read for how they
can respectively deepen the reflection and shape a metaphor.
The exegetical reading can only be presented here in a summary which already constitutes the
generative metaphor which has been derived from it. The metaphor that has been developed, is that
of an Indian who doesnt know how to grow the maize. Deleuze (2000: 12) has proposed it for
the writer, based on a novel by Le Clezio. Admittedly the following might not seem quite
straightforward in this necessarily brief presentation. The metaphor specifies for the design process
that:
In order to put her/himself in a position in which she/he can integrate different perspectives on a
use situation, a designer becomes (Deleuze 2000: 13) Indian (Deleuze 2000: 12), i.e. part of a
people, though remaining aware of her/his difference (Deleuze 2000: 158). A writer (designer)
lives with and among those in a lifeworld (Van Manen 1990: 46), or the others that exist
(Deleuze 2000: 183) in a position of minority (Deleuze 2000: 15). She/he doesnt know how to
grow maize, a sustained and sustaining activity (Deleuze 2000: 12). Growing the maize is
interpreted for design to be an activity during which users discover and change products from
manufactured hypotheses into elements in a lifeworld or world of the existing. In order to
notice the characteristics of this situation, and how people live in it, metaphoric questions a designer
can ask are: in what way are they and I minor ones that are becoming a people of Indians?
What is growing the maize like?
In order to seek and establish sufficient proximity for what a designer needs to know about users
world, a designer seeks out the tone of those that fit with her/ him and sympathically shares with
them their discovering of world. The designer needs to be close enough in order to be able to share
a seeing and hearing with them (Deleuze 2000: 119). The experiential criterion of success is a
feeling of sympathy [note 1] that this partial outsider shares or comes to share with those in the
lifeworld (Deleuze 2000: 158 and 183, and similarly, Van Manen 1990: 46). This sympathy might
enable users and designers to share more aspects of daily life. Both must also be able to retreat, of
course. A designer can ask: what visions of theirs do I see arise, and what tones of theirs do I
hear, that make us stronger?
In order to distinguish between the potential in peoples lived experience, and the situation theyre
in, a designer projects images over that world of the Indians (Deleuze 2000: 169). A designer has an
inner world or cartography (Deleuze 2000: 85) that she/he brings to bear on the lifeworld studied,
11
which enables her/him to call up displaced linkages with it, to creatively inject ideas into it and
produce true visions (Deleuze 2000: 157). The process can also involve a minorisation of the
language of the Indians, to reveal its displacements of meaning (Deleuze 2000: 15/146). Good
design then would be to successfully, poetically, transform what it is like to be an older person
bathing etc. and to open up new ways of living it. A designer can ask: what images do I wish to
inject that produce a potential transformation of their (and partially, my) world?
Outcomes arising from the designers activities must be referred back to that lifeworld as the
ground of validity (Van Manen 1990: 46). That is why a design process should usefully be iterative
for this context. Participants who are not involved in the decisions that determine situations, must
have another chance to respond.
Sketch of re-interpreted data

The data from the Wellbathing study have been re-examined for knowledge that might arise from
them.
On integration, the authors initial organizing perspective of users needs and wishes, the usercentred view, now comes to revolve around users idea of home. The home is something that
they re-establish, re-habitualize

embodies relatedness
can become a not quite home, especially with the absence of relatedness.
Participants variously live (grow the maize) by making technology fit with habits, by sharing
privacy, by maintaining independence and their own way of life, by adapting ad-hoc to health
events or by staying in accustomed roles.
On proximity, how a designer sympathizes with participants experience is not precisely
identifiable, it is in a indiscernible neighbouring zone (Deleuze 2000: 90). The researchers
sympathized particularly, in the encounter with them, with the tone that is audible of their
resilience, and with the visions that open up when they assert their preferences. The authors also
came to feel a sympathic sadness when visions are blocked, and the tone is numbed that could echo
into the future.
On projection, the author that was here concerned with design work (Boess) can now inject images
into the world she has encountered. They involve fictionalized versions of the participants and
their world, building on and extending the participants fabling relationship with their
environment, colouring them in and composing them into points of departure for design
(Deleuze 2000: 156-60). The author has composed points of departure briefly summarized as:
Wellness extra. Uses users wishes for wellness functionality as a first guiding motive
for design, rather than users (dis)abilities. Proposals might involve spa functions (e. g.
massage jets, steam bath), potential wellness functionality of plants, or use of colour and
sound.
- Soft tools. Looks at the handlability of smaller items in the bathroom. Functions are
seen in tterms of tools that can easily be manipulated and moved around, that are
pleasing to the hand and that have an easy-access place where they live. Items might
be grouped as toolboxes.
Nature. Refers to the bathrooms position in relation to the house and exterior space. A
connection with the time of day, with the weather, and the season of the year could be
established.
12
Fold-up. Physical objects as well as forms of organization are geared towards

adaptability to use at a particular time, in a particular place, by a particular person, yet
do not present an obstacle, e. g. through physical volume and weight, in the carrying out
of other tasks.
Walk-in. Makes available an open space that can be furnished with appropriate
functionality. Possibly also seating functionality set into a wall with water drain in the
floor, to provide for walk-in semi-bathing.
In the course of the reflection, the authors have come to acknowledge the authorship of participants
in the interaction stories with their own environment. Overall the elements of the generative
metaphor give the results a directedness towards users and their possibilities, moving on from the
situation they are in.
Conclusion
In employing the generative metaphor of an Indian who does not know how to grow the maize to
the process of knowledge generation about users during the design process, a designer becomes a
user who doesnt know how to use. A designer brings her/himself into an experiential situation
and is perceptively directed the sharing of an experience with another.
It is hoped that it has been shown in rough outline how the metaphor applies to tasks of designing
bathing environments for older people. It is a matter for further work to see what else it can do.
What has been described suggests a slightly different conceptualization to e.g. Rouses (1991: 34)
position that designers should talk to users because designers are not (presently) users. Designers
here become part-users, but not all-users. Conversely, the reflection has suggested that users might
also be part-designers (compare also f. ex. Demirbilek 1999).
User-centred design might become something like shared experience design or joint exploration
design, terms that are closer to Scriveners et al. (2000) Collaborative Design, but also reflect a
joint directedness towards environmental experience.
It seems that it would be fruitful to develop more methods that will make designers in general more
willing and enthusiastic about getting engaged with users lifeworld, and vice versa. Such
methods might evolve through collaborations.
Notes
[1] In e.g. French and German linguistic usage, sympathique or sympathisch translates into
English as sympathetic, engaging, likeable, nice, amiable (f. ex. Langenscheidt 1977), or, as
simpatico in U.S. English, as agreeable [], being on the same wavelength; congenial, rather
than the common English meaning of pitying (Merriam Webster 2000). Thats why in this text
we use sympathic and sympathical rather than sympathetic, to distinguish between the
meanings.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst), Germany, and to the Advanced
Research Institute, Staffordshire University, UK for each funding part of the first authors PhD
study period.
13
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16

and design
P. Boradkar Arizona State University, Arizona, USA
Abstract
This paper attempts to bring to design dialogue an expanded meaning of the term commodity by
revealing its presence and discussion in other disciplines via the writings of some of the
predominant thinkers through history. Particularly germane to design are the notions of commodity
fetishism and commodity aesthetics eloquently outlined in treatises by Karl Marx and Wolfgang
Haug. Experiments in generating innovative forms largely perceived as imperative creative
exercises in design are, according to Marxist thought, merely attempts to valorize capital. The
redesign of product forms is labeled by Marxists as aesthetic aging, and referred to as an activity
with sole purpose of forcefully outdating existing products. Also critical is the notion discussed by
Marx, and later by Walter Benjamin, that human (and maybe robotic) labor-power expended in the
making of the commodity is invisible to the consumer, thereby degrading as a value. By referring to
a commodity as a product (a visible, tangible termination of the process of design and manufacture),
designers align themselves at the other extreme of this idea. Modernist thinking emphasized the
visibility of function and means of manufacturing of products, revealing an interesting antithesis.
Theodor Adorno likens the production of culture to that of mass-produced objects. He therefore
portrays the commodity as a metaphor for culture by equating its means of generation, which relies
on standardized industry, to that of cultural production. Not habituated to fundamental discussions
of capitalism and political economy, the inclusion of such material will challenge existing
definitions of objects within the debate of design history.
A commodity appears at first sight an extremely obvious, trivial thing. But its analysis
brings out that it is a very strange thing, abounding in metaphysical subtleties and
theological niceties.
- Karl Marx (1967: 163)

and design
Introduction
Commodities are routinely studied, analyzed and debated by disciplines such as industrial design,
anthropology, political economy as well as media studies and cultural theory. Though scholars in
design, media studies and cultural theory regularly undertake examination of the commodity in
generating critical discourse in their respective fields, the language used and nomenclature adopted
differ and common points of convergence are rarely encountered. Terms such as form, use and
utility may often be employed to mean different things. The symbolic meanings and values attached
to commodities vary widely within these fields of study, and are at times in violent disagreement
with each other. Design discourse largely discusses processes, systems, and methodologies of
design construction and synthesis, whereas cultural theory and media studies typically deconstruct
materiality, drawing upon political, economic, sociological, and anthropological approaches to
analysis. Not habituated to fundamental discussions of capitalism and political economy, the
inclusion of such material will challenge existing definitions of objects within the debate of design
history. An understanding of the politics of power, central to cultural theory, can better inform
designers just as comprehension of the design process can educate cultural and social theorists. The
research project briefly outlined in this paper is a part of a larger study that aims to interrogate
respective methodologies, promote dialogue, and suggest avenues for research as well as teaching
across these fields. This may challenge existing definitions and parameters of our disciplines.
Design may become less instrumentally pragmatic, more informed by the social, political and
economic concerns central to cultural and media studies. Similarly, cultural and media studies
might supplement its analysis of institutions, texts, audiences, and technologies with a deeper
consideration of technological objects and the processes of their evolution.
Starting with issues related to commodity fetishism outlined by Karl Marx in Das Kapital (1887),
leading up to Robert Miklitschs From Hegel to Madonna: A General Economy of Commodity
Fetishism (1998), this paper will bring to design dialogue some of the positions of political
economists and cultural critics on the commodity from a perspective largely and generally alien to
design. Treatises by Theodor Adorno, Walter Benjamin, and Wolfgang Haug will also be discussed
and contrasted with contemporary issues in design.
Commodity as value
One of the most exceptional early discussions of the commodity is found in Karl Marxs Das
Kapital originally published in 1867. Marxs definition of the commodity as an object outside us, a
thing that by its properties satisfies human wants of some sort or another (1967: 35) is expansive
enough in its circumscription to be acceptable to this day to industrial designs resolute advocacy of
user satisfaction. However, further analyses reveal points of departure and contradiction that are of
interest. Marx viewed objects from two distinct perspectives, which he referred to as use-value and
exchange-value, the former responsible to the objects utility and the latter to its tradability. He
severed the worth of the object from its utility by postulating that when commodities are traded,
their exchange-value manifests itself as entirely independent of their use-value. In fact, he assigned
them antipodal forms, a physical or natural form and a value form by writing, the value of
commodities is the very opposite of the coarse materiality of their substance, not an atom of matter
enters into its composition (Marx 1967: 47). This dichotomy between materiality and value may
be likened to a similar schism that existed in design dialogue between form and function, albeit with
different understandings of the terms. To Marx, utility was more corporeal and inherently wedded
to the materiality of the commodity, but its exchange-value was more ephemeral. In contrast,
Modernist design thinking attached utility to the concept of function, a less tangible entity than its
earthly form, which was essentially the materiality of the commodity.
Figure 1: The commodity in Marxist theory and Design theory
The soul of the commodity

In his fascinating discussion of the fetishism of commodities, Marx attributes mystical character to
a table that has been fashioned from a natural, ordinary material wood. So soon as it steps forth
as a commodity, it is changed into something transcendent. It not only stands with its feet on the
ground, but, in relation to all other commodities, it stands on its head, and evolves out of its wooden
brain grotesque ideas, far more wonderful than table-turning ever was (Marx 1967: 71). This
mysterious quality of the commodity, according to Marx, is not born from its utility, but is derived
from the human labor expended in its creation. Marx gives the commodity a voice that speaks to the
consumer. In Capital (Das Kapital), he writes, Could commodities themselves speak, they would
say: Our use-value may be a thing that interests men. It is no part of us as objects (Marx 1967: 83),
suggesting that the commodity attracts the customer on account of its utility value. This notion is at
odds with the popular belief that in a market flooded with commodities that offer nearly identical
functionality, the commodity body (appearance) can provide the necessary enticement to the buyer.
For Wolfgang Haug, commodities are seen casting flirtatious glances at the buyers which they
use in courting the human objects of affection (1986: 19). In his description of the arcades in Paris
(shopping malls of mid 1800s), Walter Benjamin writes about the commodities and the spell they
cast on the stroller (flneur). The commodity itself is a speaker here... the commodity whispers to
a poor wretch who passes a shop-window containing beautiful and expensive things. These objects
are not interested in this person; they do not empathize with him (Benjamin 1973: 55). However,
in describing the strollers search for something new in the arcades, Benjamin disagrees with Marx
in saying that the novelty of a commodity does not lie in its use-value. In externalizing the thoughts
of the commodity, Marx, Haug, and Benjamin bestow on it an animate quality, albeit an amoral
one. Industrial designers too give voice to commodities by creating a visual/tactile language that
offers semantic cues to the user. This voice however, is that of reason, one that offers assistance on
how to interact with the object. The commodity is at once seductive and instructive; it lures and it
befriends.
The labor process in the commodity

According to Marx, the labor that is employed in the production of the commodity is invisible to the
user. In the finished product the labor by means of which it has acquired its useful qualities is not
palpable, has apparently vanished (Marx 1967: 183). This concealment was seen as negation of
human activity and likened to degradation of labor. Not unlike Marxs reactions to capitalist modes
of production were the pleas made by proponents of the Arts and Crafts movement (who were also
opposed to such dehumanization) by recalling craft ideals. Early protagonists of Modernism too,
through their emphasis on the removal of ornamentation, rallied for an honesty in the use of
materials and a proud and frank exhibition of working processes (Pevsner 1936: 30). It has been
suggested that Marxist arguments of labor were valid only within pre-industrialized methods of
production and cannot be used to study current practices. In fact, replacement of human labor with
the robotic arm of automated manufacturing has only added to the incognizance of commodity
production, and consumers are less aware than ever of how products are made.
Commodity aesthetics
One of the earliest discussions of product form in post-Marxist thought is seen in the work of
Wolfgang Haug in his book titled Critique of Commodity Aesthetics: Appearance, Sexuality and
Advertising in Capitalist Society, in which he coins the term commodity aesthetics. In the
equation of the use- and exchange-value, Haug introduces a third element, appearance of usevalue that which promises the buyer a certain use-value. He refers to this as an illusion and
defines commodity aesthetics as the sensual appearance and the conception of its use-value, a
device with the sole aim of accumulation of capital (Haug 1986: 17). Indeed, the practice of
industrial design partially grew of this very desire to increase sales of products in a market flooded
with too many goods. Meikle argues that industrial design was born of a lucky conjunction of a
saturated market, which forced manufacturers to distinguish their products from others, and a new
machine aesthetic (1979: 39). Though referred to by responsible designers as the stigma of
styling, modification of product form for increased profits and market differentiation is not
necessarily viewed as a vile practice in industrial design.
Over and above the function of capital gain, Haug attributes to aesthetics the ability to control
people through the device of sensuality. Cloaked in lascivious forms, these goods offer erotic
promise, exploit the libido, and empty the pockets of the unsuspecting onlooker, turning her into a
buyer. Ironically, this provocation by capitalists also stimulates illegal acquisition by thieves. On
the other hand, it is not unusual to find in the language of design such descriptors as sensuous and
sexy used in extolling the properties of a product. In fact, peddling beauty is often seen as the
primary goal of industrial design. A recent essay referring to designers as experts in the application
of beauty, emphasizes that regardless of how important the measure of innovation and
environmental impact are, beauty is the number one criteria for good design (Viemeister 2001:
39). Paradoxically titled Beautility, this essay equates beauty to culture and fulfillment, and
assigns it a position at the apex of a redesigned hierarchy of needs called Tuckers Hierarchy
(Viemeister 2001: 41). Though the dominant attribute assigned to aesthetics is that of control in
both industrial design and political economy, in the former it is accepted as a noble and rightful
goal, and in the latter as a deceptive trick. Such contrariety of opinion about the seductive nature of
the commodity reveals the extreme positions taken by the two disciplines in their study of the same
subject. Haugs critique of the aesthetics of commodities should be introduced into design
education to shift the locus of the curriculum from its current emphasis on consumption toward one
balanced by the hypercritical stare of political economy.
Commodity aging
Designing obsolescence into commodities, a practice rampant in developed countries and promoted
by designers, marketers, and salespeople, has been widely decried on grounds of environmental
responsibility. Aesthetic innovation, a routine activity of industrial design, takes on a manipulative
role when its purpose is to reduce the use-lifetime of the commodity under the guise of unsatisfied
need. Haug refers to this as product senility (1986: 40) that leads to a reduction of its use-value in
terms of quality as well as quantity. It is interesting to note that Victor Papanek (whose book
Design for the Real World was published the same year as Haugs first German edition of Critique
of Commodity Aesthetics) echoed his sentiments of the diminished value of a commodity forced
into senility. Papanek (1971) believed that objects designed to be discarded soon after production
led to a Kleenex culture, which would expand the notion of disposability to human values. The
critical notion of value, economic as well as social, therefore, surfaces in the discussion of
obsolescence.
Haug argues that the process of redesign subordinates the use-value of the commodity to a brand
name, thereby assuring a position in the market for the next new product through the illusion of an
ameliorated use-value. Designers continue to populate the world with commodities that are often
mere adjustments of form that sell because of the force of a pre-established brand identity. When
the image of the corporation has established itself with conviction in the buyers mind, use-value is
eclipsed entirely and, under the deception of brand loyalty, is not even missed. The promise of usevalue is replaced by the promise of brand ownership, which is a paradoxical situation since it is in
fact the buyer who is owned by the corporation. The process is then repeated with the next
commodity in an endless cycle of acquisition and devaluation. Aaron Betsky, in a catalog of iconic
products refers to them as solid shapes we can desire, use, wear down and throw out, only to look
for future targets for our object lust (1997: 202).
The commodity as desire

Aesthetic modification is akin to molting; as the skin ages, it is exfoliated. The novelty of the
commodity Benjamin talked about is referred to by Haug as its fetish character. Alluding to the
deceptive illusion presented by the commodity-body, Haug believes that appearance always
promises more, much more than it can ever deliver (1986: 50). The skin of the commodity, which
is at times the realm that industrial design is limited to, becomes the receptacle for its exchangevalue rather than its use-value. Creative operations are performed on the skin to stimulate desire and
to valorize capital, but are often justified as attempts to satisfy a wider range of user needs.
Equating the buyers gaze to voyeurism and the exchange-value to sexuality, Haug relegates the
role of commodity aesthetics to the sexing-up of the object, a term that also appeared in
Papaneks writing (1971: 151). Papanek attacked design in its effort to create object lust merely by
changing its skin, a process that has since been accelerated with the rapid replacement of
electromechanical components with digital ones.
Commodity as need
In the field of design, the expression of ideas is not the central issue. This lies in creating ideas in
the ever-changing disguises of protean capital (Haug 1986: 92). Under the pretense of appeasing
the desires of society, corporations fill their coffers, carefully selecting only those needs that can be
satisfied, making the designer a pawn in the scheme of capital valorization. Corporations are likely
to take this attitude a step further by creating needs rather than satisfy existing ones, as is
exemplified in Sonys perceived design philosophy. Wolfgang Schmittel writes Sonys concept of
creating a market instead of merely filling a demand, has become a fundamental policy, and
governs the promotion and sales of all Sony products (1975: 174). As design methodology has
evolved, the role of ethnographic research and observation of users has taken center stage.
Designers routinely watch and study people to identify opportunities where a new commodity can
be inserted. Though not all such activity can be dismissed as capital driven, it certainly generates
new needs adding to the proliferation of gadgets, meanwhile satisfying one primary need that of
the capitalist.
The commodity as a part of the culture industry

Referring to culture as an industry, Theodor Adorno, who was one of the leading members of the
influential Frankfurt School of sociology, likens its production to that of commodities, making it a
part of the capitalist economy. For Adorno, if the commodity combines use- and exchange-value,
exchange-value deceptively takes over possession of use-value. This is distinctly visible in objects
whose worth rises exponentially through design (either of the form or advertising) in spite of the
lack of enhancement in its utility value. The more inexorably the principle of exchange value
destroys use values for human beings, the more deeply does exchange value disguise itself as the
object of enjoyment (Adorno 1991: 34). This process of the destruction of use-value and its
subordination by exchange-value is hastened by industrial design. Function is out. Form is in.
From radios to cars to toothbrushes, America is bowled over by style, proclaims the sub-heading
of an article titled The Rebirth of Design in Time magazine (Gibney and Luscombe, 2000). The
cover features Mark Berthiers lime-green Rubber radio, photographed in a goldfish bowl,
charming and seductive, but assigned the existence of an ornamental fish trapped in the living room.
Commodity as use, exchange, and sign

Marxs discussion of political economy is questioned by Jean Baudrillard through the argument that
polar terms (use and exchange) are generally biased toward one extreme, in this case the exchangevalue, which is the force behind the circulation of the commodity. He instead emphasizes use-value
as a necessary principle that has to be established before the possibility of any economic exchange
can be realized. Where Marx saw the use-value as concrete, Baudrillard explains it as an abstraction
of a system of needs (1981: 131). He further expands the discourse by overlaying the commodity
system with structural semiotics, and referring to the commodity, which, like a sign-form, is a code
managing the exchange of values. Robert Miklitschs account of commodity fetishism attempts to
include, into the use- and exchange-value equation, sign-value as well, thereby creating by
extension, the commodity-body-sign an entity that is expressive of this triadic relationship. His
economic account addresses the specific allure, produced today via packaging and advertising,
marketing and publicity, that is the hieroglyphic of the postmodern (art-) commodity (1998: 78).
He too, like Marx and Benjamin, treats the commodity as an object that is lusted after, exemplifying
how design plays a significant role in every stage of its development cycle from form generation
to the creation of point-of-purchase material.
Conclusion
The debate presented here about the commodity is derived predominantly from its economic
function, and assumes a capitalist structure, where production is fueled by a desire for capital gain.
The structures of industry, labor, and economy have changed significantly since Das Kapital, and
so have patterns of consumption. Though a dissection of the commodity that reveals merely useand exchange-values might seem trifling, it is a model that can broaden the understanding of the
object of design and present it as an object of political economy as well.
Industrial design has continued to be a slave to the manufacturing power and capital, though many
changes have been observed in the profession as it has evolved. It is heartening to see that an
emphasis on responsible design that goes beyond aesthetic adjustments is being practiced and seen
in such areas as design for need, design for special populations, user-centered design, and
sustainable design. This discourse offers a perspective largely ignored in design dialogue, and
attempts to make design less design-centric.
References
Adorno, Theodor. 1991. The Culture Industry: Selected Essays on Mass Culture. London:
Routledge
Baudrillard, Jean. 1981. For A Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign. St. Louis: Telos Press
Benjamin, Walter. 1973. Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism. London:
NLB.
Betsky, Aaron. 1997. Icons: Magnets of Meaning. San Francisco: Chronicle Books.
Gibney Jr., Frank and Belinda Luscombe. 2000. The Redesigning of America. Time, Vol. 155
(11): 66-75
Haug, Wolfgang. 1986. Critique of Commodity Aesthetics: Appearance, Sexuality and Advertising
in Capitalist Society. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Marx, Karl. 1967. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume 1. New York: International
Publishers Co., Inc.
Meikle, Jeffrey. 1979. Twentieth Century Limited: Industrial Design in America, 1925-1939.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
Miklitsch, Robert. 1998. From Hegel to Madonna: Towards a General Economy of Commodity
Fetishism. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Papanek, Victor. 1971. Design for the Real World: Human Ecology and Social Change. New York:
Pantheon Press.
Pevsner, Nikolaus. 1936. Pioneers of the Modern Movement: From William Morris to Walter
Gropius. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, Ltd.
Schmittel, Wolfgang. 1975. Design Concept Realisation. Zurich: ABC Verlag.
Viemeister, Tucker. 2001. Beautility. Innovation Winter 2001: 38-41.

J. Broadbent University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Abstract
The relationship between design and science is examined through the lens of design methodology.
The purpose is to foresee the next generation of design methodology and its attributes. Four
generations in design methodology are recognized craft, design-by-drawing, hard systems
methods and soft systems methods and each is characterized in terms of its benefits and
limitations in respect of design practice. To the extent that each new generation overlays the
preceding one, a system of design methodologies is created which, being more inclusive of the real
world, should be increasingly useful to design practice.
The change process between generations appears to be a double exponential, suggesting that a fifth
generation in design methodology is now emerging. Reasons are presented why this will likely be
an evolutionary systems methodology. Such a development will position design as an evolutionary
guidance system for socioculture, a much more central role in human affairs. It also has the
potential, as we better understand the evolutionary nature of biological and sociocultural
phenomena, to generate a profound and comprehensive relationship between design and science.

Introduction
The relationship between design practice and science is ever-changing. Cross (2001) noted, perhaps
playfully, a 40-year cycle of interest in this relationship, starting with attempts by the Modernists
during the 1920s to produce works of design based on the seeming objectivity and rationality of
science. A second wave of interest in the design/science relationship was embodied in the design
methods movement of the 1960s. According to Cross: We might expect to see the re-emergence
of design-science concerns in the 2000s(p. 16). A contemporary review of the relationship would
seem timely indeed in view of the very substantial changes in our understanding of both design and
science in the intervening 40 years.
In this account, this changing relationship is examined through the lens of design methodology.
Checkland (1999: A32) described methodology as a body of methods used in a particular activity.
It is thus a meta level with respect to method, it is about method. It is this more strategic approach
that is adopted here.
The intent of this review is to determine whether changes through time in the relationship between
design and science, as reflected through design methodology, exhibit patterns. If such exist, they
may be helpful in discerning how design methodology could most likely develop in the near-future.
Four generations of design methodology are reviewed craft, design-by-drawing, hard systems and
soft systems primarily in terms of what they have offered design practice. These generations of
design methodology are then compared to establish possible trends through time. These trends are
extrapolated to define the most likely features of the next generation in design methodology.
Craft methods
The skilled craftsman was the earliest initiator of change in human-made things (Jones 1970: 15).
Although crafted stone artifacts date from about 2.5 million years ago (Deacon and Deacon
1999:1), Banathy (2000:79) suggests that it was not until the Middle Stone Age, some 250,000
years ago, that designlike thinking emerged; this coincided with the evolution of consciousness
(Laszlo 1996: 131). Such design was unconscious, in the sense that craftsmen learnt intuitively and
informally - a process described well by Sturt (1923: 19): There was nothing for it but practice and
experience of every difficulty. Reasoned science for us did not exist What we had to do was to
live up to the local wisdom of our kind; to follow customs, and work to the measurements, which
had been tested and corrected long before our time in every village shop all across the country.
Jones (1970: 19-20) listed the characteristics of this design methodology as follows:
craftsmen did not, and often could not, draw their works and neither could they give
adequate reasons for the decisions they took
product information was instead stored in the form of the product itself and was transmitted
through apprenticeship
as neither the product nor the reasons for its form were recorded symbolically (e.g. by
drawing), change could only occur through experimentation
as a result, responsiveness to environmental change tended to be gradual
thus, the form of an artefact was modified by trial-and-error over many centuries, in a slow
and costly process
The incremental processes of change in products during this period have been viewed by some as
possessing an evolutionary nature (e.g. Jones 1970; Norman 1988: 142). It led to high levels of
product fitness for local circumstances and to considerable product diversity.
Design-by-drawing methods
Supplementation of craftsmanship with design-by-drawing occurred systematically (in architecture)
from the mid-1450s (Perez-Gomez and Pelletier 1997: 17), making possible revolutionary changes
in design practice (Jones 1970: 20-24):
design became separate from production

a division of labour within design emerged, especially for large and/or complex projects
the perceptual span of designers greatly increased; they could not only manipulate the
design as a whole but could also easily import work from elsewhere
for these reasons, design changes could be more substantive and accomplished in shorter
time frames
The overlaying of crafting with drafting allowed design to keep pace with accelerating
technological and sociocultural change. Major limitations to this development were that:
initial development of drawings, during which critical decisions were made, was done
mostly by a single designer. This was an increasing constraint as products became more
complex and the needed expertise no longer resided in one person
drawing has limited capacity to represent dynamic physical relationships (Heath 1984: 12)
Hard system methods (HSMs)

Introduction
The design methods movement, through which hard systems methods were introduced into design,
came out of the work of Rittel and others at the Hochschule fr Gestaltung, Ulm, West Germany in
the 1950s (Moore 1973: 246). Its public emergence in Britain was through the First Conference on
Design Methods, held in London in 1962 (Cross 1984a: viii). In the United States and Canada, the
movement received its strongest support from Rittel, who had moved to Berkeley in 1963, and
Alexander and others at Harvard/MIT (Moore 1973: 246). Crosss compendium of twenty-one
articles broadly written around design methods, with excellent overview sections for each thematic
collection, provides a rich picture of hard systems methods in design. The following account draws
on several works used by Cross, but adopts a different perspective.
Hard systems methods have been described as systematically-ordered thinking concerned with
means-definition in well-structured problems in which desirable ends can be stated (Checkland
1983: 667). Their origin can be located in the emergence of operational research/management
science (OR/MS) about 1935. Initially applied to military matters, OR found commercial and
industrial applications, including engineering design, in the period 1945 1975 (Checkland 1978;
Keys 1995a&b). It was during the late 1950s/early 1960s that these methods were applied in
design (Rittel 1972).
Perceived benefits and limitations

Today, with the help of hindsight, we can reflect more clearly on the benefits and limitations of this
period in the relationship between design and science. We can identify more readily the role which
the methods of this era have come to play in design practice. It should be noted that the insights
collated below were largely of their time, were drawn only from the design community, and may
not fully reflect current perceptions. The key point is, though, that these insights provided an
incentive for the ongoing development of design methodology to the present.
The response of the design community to hard systems methods (HSMs) was swift.
The benefits of HSMs to design practice were seen to be largely procedural (Table 1).
Improve response to growing complexity of design task, by:

changing design emphasis from individual products to product
systems
broadening design purview from local improvements to the total
situation
more effectively incorporating other inputs into design process, e.g.
ergonomics
allowing a more structured search of rapidly growing search spaces
managing better the interdependency between system levels
Help concurrent/collaborative design, by:

making design thinking explicit
engaging other minds at critical stages in design process
Help designers to better meet shorter timelines, by:

reducing design error
making easier the anticipation of side effects
lessening possibility of unintended omissions
Table 1: Hard systems methods: perceived benefits

(Sources: Archer 1965; Luckman 1967; Jones 1970; Alexander 1971; Rittel 1972)
By contrast, criticisms of hard systems methods were trenchant, centering on what were perceived
as the very different roles of design and science in society (Table 2).
Different intentions of scientific and design methodologies:

science seeks objective truth, design aims to satisfice
scientists seek global solutions, designers seek local ones
science is traditionally more concerned with theory, design with action
hard systems methodology, which seeks to optimize, may lessen sociocultural
diversity
the reductionist nature of HSMs may stifle emergence
scientific methodology is well suited to determinate(tame) problems, whereas
design methodology addresses ill-defined, unique and context-dependent
(wicked) problems
Different approaches of science and design to problem solving:
scientific observers seek objective detachment from the problem, whereas
designers participate in the process
scientific method favours a linear process of inquiry, whereas the often complex,
intertwined nature of design problems tends to defy such approaches
some aspects of the design process are not conscious, and so are not amenable to
systematic processes
the conjecture-analysis approach of science is very different from the analysissynthesis approach of design
science uses inductive reasoning, while design prefers abductive logic
science operates in a theoretical, systematic setting, whereas design operates in a
real-world, intuitive setting
sequential, structured analysis sits uneasily with creative thought
science promotes an expert-knows-best approach, whereas design favours
participatory practice
quantitative approaches are preferred in science, while qualitative considerations
are often important in design
Table 2: Hard systems methods: perceived limitations

(Sources: Esherick 1963; Reed and Evans 1967; Alexander 1971; Hillier, Musgrove and
OSullivan 1972; Rittel 1972; Rittel and Webber 1973; Akin 1979; Broadbent 1979; Lawson 1979;
Daley 1982; Buchanan 1992; Cross 2001)
Hard systems methods proved largely unable to address the unbound complexity of the real world
(Reed and Evans 1967). Doubts about the applicability and relevance of these methods became
widespread in architectural education from the mid-1960s (Fowles 1977).
Design applications
Despite this unfavourable response, HSMs today play a significant role in the design process, e.g.
CAD, ecodesign, collaborative design, ergonomics, anthronomics (Robinson and Nims 1996),
virtual design, design information systems and knowledge management, quality management, user
interface design. Nonetheless, these contributions remain largely procedural and are centred very
much on the progressive computerization of design process; they do not address higher order
attributes of the design activity.
Conclusions
In a scathing assessment of hard systems approaches to design problem solving, Alexander (1971:
4) observed: In short, my feeling about [hard systems] methodology is that there are certain
mundane problems which it has solved and I mean incredibly mundane Most of the difficulties
of design are not of the computable sort. With the benefit of hindsight, such criticism seems too
harsh. The First Conference on Design Methods in 1962 sought to allow, indeed encourage, the
fullest use of all the critical and creative faculties (Slann 1963: xii). Jones (1963: 53) recognized
the need for a systematic approach to design practice that was empathetic with creative practices,
and was seeking a unified system of design that lies between the traditional methods, based on
intuition and experience, on the one hand, and a rigorous mathematical or logical treatment, on the
other. While this ambitious agenda of the design methods movement was never realised, this
period can be seen as the time when a new generation of design methods was defined. Even so, the
idea of a monumental edifice of knowledge had to be surrendered and, with it, a positivist science
approach to design practice (Hillier et al. 1972: 29-3-4).
Soft Systems Methods (SSMs)

Introduction
Concern with hard systems methods centred on so-called wicked problems, a term borrowed from
Popper and re-contextualised by Rittel in the mid-1960s. Churchman (1967: B141) defined wicked
problems as a class of social system problems which are ill-formulated, where the information is
confusing, where there are many clients and decision makers with conflicting values, and where the
ramifications in the whole system are thoroughly confusing. Khisty (2000: 121) more succinctly
described wicked problems as a combination of uncertain goals and objectives and uncertain
technologies or strategies. Cross (1984b: 102) more pithily still observed that stating the problem
is the problem.
According to Rittel and Webber (1973: 162-164), wicked problems were seen, inter alia:
to be unique and context-specific

to offer a host of courses for action
to be without solution, only the opportunity to do better
to rely upon political judgement for resolution
Many in the design community recognized that such problems are experienced by most people for
most of the time in everyday life (e.g. Archer 1979: 17).
Simon (1973) suggested that the existence of wicked problems reflects our state of knowledge
rather than something more intractable. It could, indeed, be argued that wicked problems arise only
when the methods to tame them dont exist. Such thinking led to proposals by Rittel (1972) for
another generation of design methods. He believed that the methods of Churchman, Popper and
Boulding provided a basis for this next generation. Rittel and Webber (1973: 162) elaborated this
proposal by observing that the next generation of design methods should be based on a model of
planning as an argumentative process in the course of which an image of the problem and of the
solution emerges gradually among the participants, as a product of incessant judgement, subjected
to critical argument. Rittel nevertheless acknowledged a considerable hangover from the hard
systems methods in that designers (and others) were reluctant to engage with formal methods
again.
The change process

Rittels commitment to developing a new design methodology found expression as the Issue-Based
Information System (IBIS) methodology in the early 1970s (Kunz and Rittel 1970). This was
intended to support the argumentative reasoning structure of designers (Noble 1997a: 2497). The
need to develop a new methodology was also recognized by some in the operational
research/management science (OR/MS) community, from whom the design community had earlier
adopted hard systems methodology. This need was responded to by Checkland (1999: A4) from
1972, Ackoff from 1973, and Churchman throughout the 1970s. It was not until the 1980s that
systems-based approaches really emerged (e.g. Checkland, 1981). By 1990 several hundred
applications of SSM had been made by a wide range of people in many different countries
(Checkland and Scholes 1990). A survey by Mingers and Taylor (1992) into the use of SSM found
that, at that time, it was established as a practical methodology but was used by particular
individuals who have some previous experience of it, rather than being a standard approach to the
repertoire of OR groups (p. 331). It was only in the mid-1990s that Keys (1995c: 335) felt able to
observe that there is now a sufficiently critical mass of distinctive and mutually informative work
emerging to see this as a significant development. Even today, this change has not been reflected
fundamentally in OR practice.
It had become clear through this period that problem complexity in organizational settings had
again outstripped the capabilities of the available methods. Problem solving had shifted from
tame problems toward the increasingly wicked problems of larger systems, to which SSMs were
seen as an appropriate methodological response. There was also growing recognition of the
breakdown of societal consensus(Toffler, 1970), which led to a desire to involve more diverse
stakeholders in decision-making processes.
The holistic, systemic thinking of SSMs can be traced back to biology and medicine in the second
half of the 19th century (Checkland 1983: 668). By the 1920s organismic biologists were arguing
that reductionism was unsuited to understanding biological phenomena; this was a defining point in
our understanding of the scientific endeavour. By the 1940s biologists like von Bertalanffy were
generalizing this view to all systems (e.g. General Systems Theory). By the late 1940s systemic
thinking was spreading into diverse fields, although it was not until the 1970s that it started to
influence OR.
One reason why it took so long to adequately characterize and implement soft-systems
methodology in OR was the transformative nature of the change. Indeed, it was not until the early
1980s that a clear distinction between hard and soft systems was made (Checkland 1999: A9).
The extent of this development is evident from Table 3, in which characteristics of HSMs and
SSMs are contrasted. Jackson(1982) and Checkland (1983) provide seminal accounts of the
conceptualization of soft-system methodology.
HSMs
SSMs
Grounded in natural sciences
Grounded in social sciences(action

research)
Holistic, purposeful, judgemental, intuitive,
descriptive, conjectural, normative, a
matter of perception
Subjective, wisdom/values-based,
experiential, empirical, pragmatic,
phenomenological, hermeneutic, actionbased
Abductive, inferential, intuitive,
top-down and bottom-up
Suitable for highly interactive, complex
systems/
problems; wicked problems
Simulates real-world through models;
epistemology-dependent
Iterative, non-linear
Emergent
Largely guided by informal human
judgement, situation-driven
Satisfices, pluralist outcomes
Evolutionary
Address common human situations
Interactive
Internalized by system
Systematic and systemic
Tacit; implicit
Reductionist, determinist, testable
Objective, theory-based, positivist,

functionalist
Inductive, logical, rational, methodical,

bottom-up
Suitable for isolated, relatively simple
systems/ highly specific problems; tame
problems
Directly involved in real-world;
ontological; views systems as real
Stepwise, linear, sequential
Surprise-free
Methodology-driven, prescriptive
Optimizes, singular outcomes
Static
Address rare human situations
Intervention-based
Externally applied to system
Systematic
Explicit
Table 3: Comparison of HSMs and SSMs

(Sources: Checkland 1983, 1999; Vicente, Burns and Pawlak 1997; Khisty 2000)
Benefits and limitations

In view of the limited experience to date with soft systems methodology in design practice (see
below), we must instead rely on evaluations from its application most especially in organizational
design, information systems design, performance evaluation and education. SSMs seem highly
consonant with many core aspects of designing (Table 4). They foster participation and the
inclusion of beliefs, viewpoints, values etc; they are both systematic and systemic; they promote the
emergence of fresh insights so central to design. In particular, they are well-suited to fuzzy, illdefined or wicked problems, unlike HSMs. They also seek to satisfice rather than optimize
problem situations, in the knowledge that the systems under study are typically open, thus
interacting constantly with their environment and hence evolving over time (Jackson and Keys
1984: 475).
Process characteristics
a systemic as well as systematic approach to problem-solving
oriented to learning rather than just goal-seeking
provides structure to fuzzy, ill-defined situations with differing perceptions
and views
makes beliefs and viewpoints open and explicit, thus admitting a number of
viewpoints into the problem space
tends to generate shared understandings of problems
identifies emergent potential in problem situations
embodies Schons notion of reflection in action
Problem characteristics
assumes that the world will remain problematical, but can be better
understood and interacted with by using system models
thus talks about issues and accommodations rather than problems and
solutions
is well-suited to the resolution of complex problems
Scope of method
draws attention to cultural aspects of a problem
inclusive of all stakeholders in a problem situation
keeps in touch with the human content of problem situations (Checkland
1985: 765)
thus extends the problem solving capabilities of HSMs into the social and
psychological domains
Table 4: Soft systems methodology: perceived benefits

(Sources: Checkland 1985, 1999; Checkland and Scholes 1990; Mingers and Taylor 1992)
SSMs markedly broaden the role of the sciences in problem-solving, by introducing the social,
psychological and, to some extent, behavioural sciences. They also particularly focus on
understanding the wider situation in which a problem exists (Rowley 1998: 158). In these ways,
SSMs may meet Crosss (1986: 436) requirement: that design methods must be based on the
ways of thinking and acting that are natural in design, a view shared by others (e.g. Sless, 2002).
SSMs are widely seen as a front-end to hard systems methodology (e.g. Platt and Warwick 1995:
21). They thus let individuals with an interest in a problem become involved before hard systems
methods are applied.
Challenges worldviews
requires participants to see the world through different perspectives, which
can be difficult
can thus confront the worldviews of participants
can challenge the power structure and politics of a problem situation
Less formal
is subjective; it is never independent of the user, unlike the perceived
objectivity of HSMs
does not produce final answers; accepts that inquiry is never-ending
thus aims to satisfice rather than optimize
is interpretive rather than functionalist
Unfamiliar
requires a way of thinking which is not always immediately evident to users
the methods can be time consuming and need considerable experience to
apply
Table 5: Soft systems methodology: perceived limitations

(Sources: Checkland 1983, 1985, 1999; Mingers and Taylor 1992)
Some would view these considerations as benefits rather than limitations!
Design applications
Despite its development in the early 1970s, use of the Issue-Based Information System (IBIS)
method of Kunz and Rittel (1970) was, as of 1997, still limited to academic experiments and a
small persistent group of planners (Noble 1997b: 2485). Likewise Checklands soft systems
methods appear to have entered traditional design practice only in the late 1990s, initially in visual
communication and product design (e.g. Rowley 1998; Presley, Sarkis and Liles 2000). Maybe this
is the embodiment of the design-science concerns in the 2000s anticipated by Cross (2001: 16).
SSM should find particular application in complex design projects in which diverse stakeholders
are perceived to have varied but legitimate interests in the outcome.
Conclusions
Just as hard-systems methodology is grounded in reductionist science, soft-systems methodology
has been spawned by the sciences of complexity. SSM copes better with problem-solving in the illdefined world of wicked problems so familiar to designers, but it does so with a worldview very
different from that of hard systems methodology. The mainstream adoption of SSM in design
practice seems to be a matter of time, as is a fuller appreciation of their benefits and limitations in
this application. It is clear that SSM should be seen as a still-maturing methodology, certainly in
respect to its use in design. It also seems clear that SSM has yet to demonstrate the fullness of its
application, with recent initiatives extending beyond its accepted business/ industrial applications
into wider societal use (e.g Liebl, 2002).
Evolutionary Systems Methodology: the next generation?

Methodological advances will always be found wanting for, in further exposing the complexity of
the real world, they provide the rationale for the next methodological generation. Rittel (1986: 371)
put this well when he observed there cannot exist anything like the design method which
smoothly and automatically resolves all difficulties. Those people who claim the existence of
10
such a device postulate nothing less than the solution of all present and future problems of the
world. It seems reasonable, then, to ponder the nature of this next generation of design
methodology. If we chart the emergence of the four generations in design methodology described
above against time (Table 6), we find that change is occurring exponentially.
Generation
Emergence in
design
(years before
present)
Crafts
Design-by-drawing
Hard systems
Soft systems
250,000
550
40
20
Table 6: Generations in design methodology

Kurzweils (2001) observations on this phenomenon are interesting, if sobering. He believes that
all dynamic systems change exponentially over time (although he is particularly interested in
technology): a serious assessment of the history of technology shows that technological change is
exponential Exponential growth is a feature of any evolutionary process, of which technology is
a primary example Indeed, we find not just simple exponential growth, but double exponential
growth, meaning that the rate of exponential growth is itself growing exponentially. Kurzweil
continues: [Today], paradigm shifts occur in only a few years time. The World Wide Web did not
exist in anything like its present form just a few years ago, it didnt exist at all a decade ago.
Kurzweil predicts that technological change over the 21st century will be equivalent to what would
take some 200 centuries to achieve at todays rate of change! He also makes the interesting
observation that the returns of an evolutionary process (e.g. speed, cost-effectiveness) also
increase exponentially over time.
What are the implications of such observations for design methodology, indeed for all aspects of the
phenomenon of design? If Kurzweil is correct, we may conclude that:
the next generation of design methodology should have emerged already

subsequent generations should appear at ever shorter time intervals
these new generations should be increasingly useful to humanity
It is suggested that the emerging generation in design methodology is most likely evolutionary
systems methodology (ESMs), because:
the notion of societal evolution is a mature one, having existed since Herbert Spencer, in
1874, set forth the idea of evolution as a cosmic process (Banathy 2000: 21)
the transition from evolutionary consciousness to conscious evolution has been proposed by
eminent observers for almost 4 decades. Sir Julian Huxley (1964: 37), for example,
proposed that: mans [sic] true destiny emerges in a startling new form. It is to be the chief
agent for the future of evolution on this planet. Only in and through man can any further
major advance be achieved
observers of design have advocated a more central role for design in human affairs for some
three decades. Jantsch (1975: 101), for example, noted that Design is the core of purposeful
and creative action of the active building of relations between man and his world
11
such a methodology already exists (Banathy 1996, 2000), although it seems likely that this
will be refined as our understanding of related phenomena improves
conscious evolution may be conceptually the means by which we transition effectively from
the uncontrolled processes of double exponential change described Kurzweil, which seem
now to be approaching a critical juncture
We can extrapolate from past generations of design methodology to predict the features of the
newly-emerging generation (Table 7).
Methodology
Feature
Emerging
cognitive state
Scale
Craft
Reflective
consciousness
Local
Design-by-drawing
Reductionist
science
Usually
regional/national
Mathematical
Sciences
Hard systems
Structured
systems thinking
National/global
Soft systems
Holistic systems
thinking
National/global
Next generation
Evolutionary
systems thinking
Global and local
Mathematical and
Natural Sciences
Holistic and
reductionist
sciences
Extensive
electronic
support
Knowledge
management/
information
visualization/
artificial
intelligence
Inclusive of all
stakeholders
Grounding in
science
Mostly prescientific; trialand-error
Typical design
cycle
Technological
support
Centuries
Decades/years
Years
Mathematical,
Natural and
Social Sciences
(reductionist)
Years/months
Simple hand
tools
Manual/
mechanical
Mechanical/
electronic
Mostly
electronic
Knowledge base
Largely
personal, tacit
Tacit and explicit;

limited
Extensive
information
flows, mostly
text-based
Huge
information
flows, mostly
electronic
Interdisciplinarity
Mostly prediscipline
Within design
discipline
Interdisciplinary,
across
professions
Interdisciplinary,
across
professions and
wider
community
Months/weeks
Table 7: Features of four generations in design methodology, extrapolated to define the next such
generation
These trends suggest that design may soon be realizing a fuller societal purpose, that of an
evolutionary guidance system (Banathy, 1987). Buchanan (1998) recognized an historical
progression in the societal role of design in his proposal for four orders of design communication,
construction, strategic planning, and systemic integration. We should be asking what fifth-order
design might be. This account suggests that evolutionary systems design may be the next logical
step in the broadening sociocultural role of design.
General conclusions
Cross (1972: 185) observed, in respect of design methodology: That there should be cycles of
development to come, with the death of each cycle looking like a minor catastrophe at the time,
ought not to have surprised us, but of course it did, and does. Indeed, we should not be surprised
because change, indeed accelerating change, seems to characterize design methodology.
It appears, from the trends described above, that consecutive generations of design methodology
have been towards more complex, higher level, and more influential roles for design in society, as
might be anticipated from Laszlos (1996) General Evolution Theory. Further if we subscribe to
12
Laszlos (1996: 1-2) view that evolution refers to all things that emerge, persist, and change or
decay in the known universe, we should expect that, in time, the reductionist and holistic sciences
will together largely, perhaps completely, account for the design activity of humans.
13
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17

C. Burnette The University of the Arts, Philadelphia, USA
Abstract
This paper suggests that: a model of Intentionality is required in any theory of design thinking; that
intending is systematically informed and constrained by experience; that it is cognitively
structured in terms of the source-path-goal schema; and that this schema frames, threads and
manages other modes of thinking during design. The philosophical roots, cognitive structure and
operational requirements of intentional thinking are indicated and a computational model of design
thinking which would enable Intentionality in design to become more accessible as a subject of
research is referenced.
What use would thinking be at all, unless we could relate each things details to our plans and
intentions (Minsky 1985:88)

Introduction
Designing is a purposeful act, yet philosophical issues of Intentionality (Searle 1983),
Intentional stance (Dennett 1996), intentional programming (Simonyi 1996) and memetic
entailments from prior experience (Dawkins 1976) regarding the designers intentions and activities
have not received adequate consideration by design researchers. This is despite design research
topics such as situated thinking (Gero 1998) and the application of strategic knowledge (Gero and
Hori 2001), that depend on the designers intention for their apprehension, interpretation and
implementation. Similarly, implications from cognitive science regarding purposeful thought have
not been viewed through the lens of design thinking. Is intending a distinct mode of thought? If so
what are its operational characteristics? What differentiates it from other modes of thought during
design? How might it be apprehended in operational, computational terms?
Every designer brings to the task of design their background understandings and a desire to address
the contingencies of the design task. Their intentions largely depend on how they understand what
the task is about, and what they think or do under the conditions they encounter. What designers
learn through education and experience influences what they do and helps to build the meanings
their thoughts and actions have for them. Although the personal history that informs a designers
vision is usually considered when they are chosen for a project, this background is usually not
correlated to the activities of designing. Understandings between designer, client and others
interpretations influenced by their own intentions and backgrounds are often poorly grounded and
illusory during design. Important issues (such as creative expression) not implicit in the design
problem or process but dictated by the personal and cultural histories through which the design task
is interpreted remain largely inaccessible to research.
Although Schn (1987) has provided an influential treatise on reflective thinking during design,
techniques of protocol analysis yielding cognitive models of prior experiences have been developed
(Zachary and Ryder 1996) and research on the application of design strategies by individual
designers (Cross 2001: Kruger and Cross 2001) has been undertaken, there appears to be little
theory-based research concerning how purposes and goals become established and operate in the
minds of designers. The shifts in intent and focus which redirect specific thoughts and actions to
achieve a persistent but changing objective are not well understood. Assumptions in the designers
approach to a design task are rarely made explicit and no computational model of intention and its
interaction with other modes of design thinking has been fully implemented. (Burnette 1982, 1984,
1999, 2001c) Instead, the problem statement, design brief, strategy or procedural rationale is
accepted as explication enough.
The intent in writing this paper is to illuminate the concept of Intentionality and to suggest how the
representation of human intentions can be made more explicit and useful during design. The
treatment proposed is part of what is, apparently, the first model of designing which attempts to
represent intentional thought in operational terms suitable for implementation in a computational
design support system.
Intentionality and meaning

Intentionality has been defined (Johnson 1987:177) as the capacity of a mental state or some kind of
representation (concept, image, word, sentence) to be about, or directed at, some dimension or
aspect of ones experience. John Searle (1983) understood Intentionality to depend on a network
of meanings a background that was not intentional. Johnson has argued (against Searle) that
Intentionality cannot be divorced from the conditions that give it context and meaning; that this
background is always part of meaning and therefore of Intentionality; and that the meaning of an
experience to an individual must be both intentionally established and mediated by human
understanding because otherwise there would be no relation between symbolic representations and
experience. Something becomes meaningful by pointing beyond itself to event structures
representing prior experience or toward possible future structures. (Johnson 1987:177-178)
The view presented here accepts Johnsons argument while recognizing that Intentionality and the
background knowledge that informs it are different, unique to the mind of the individual and
distinct from situated experiences (such as design projects) which they respectively address and
assimilate. Intentionality involves the interaction between various aspects of mental or physical
experience and that part of the web of meanings in the individuals mind that constitute their
understandings regarding that experience. Intentional phenomena are basically semantic in that
they address how processes in a brain become symbolic of something beyond themselves. (Miller
1985:10)
Although intentions are informed by and help generate meanings they also motivate actions to
change a situation to have a desired meaning or to suit an understanding. Such imaginative
projections and transformative actions necessarily rely on the understandings that constitute the
individuals background knowledge. Like a design project, an intention is directed, pursued and
managed until the experience with which it is concerned becomes represented in the meanings
that constitute the individuals understanding of the experience. The new understandings that
emerge in the mind as an intention is pursued are further indexed, organized and generalized in
dynamic memory (Schank 1999) to constitute knowledge accessible to future intentions.
In this context, the basic questions to be addressed regarding Intentionality are: how do intentional
interactions arise and how are prior understandings adjusted to circumstances (and vice-versa). The
ontological and operational problems for design thinking lie in how the designers understanding
and skill are mapped to the contingencies of the design task. These contingencies have been
categorized at a high level of abstraction (Burnette 1982, 1994, 2001a) as informational, conceptual,
representational, operational, and evaluative the designer needs relevant information, ideas,
representations, actions, and criteria to direct and realize his or her intentions. All such contingent
domains constitute aspects of a situated experience that specify and qualify what the designer
thinks about and does in the subject context. Each involves a different mode of thought requiring
different cognitive skills. For example, the use of information requires lexical and linguistic skills,
having ideas requires associative and analytic skills, generating and interpreting representations
requires formulative and mediative skills, executing actions require procedural and operational
skills, and experiential assessment requires monitoring and evaluative skills. Although these five
modes of thought have different goals and address different aspects of an individuals actual (or
imagined) experience to shape his or her understanding of it, they are neither intentions nor the
background knowledge that informs intention, both of which are unique to the designers mind, not
to the circumstances of the design task.
In this theory the five objective modes of thought provide the substantive content for the Intending
and Integrating modes of thinking that respectively manage the current experience and reference
prior experience. Operating at a higher level of cognition, the Intending and Integrating modes are
free to focus, adapt, apply and build meaning and understanding in the mind of the individual
considering information from either current or prior experience. The distinction between the five
domains of thought contingent on the design task and the two domains manifesting Intention and
Knowledge is of both philosophical and practical consequence. Intentionality depends on
background knowledge but is distinguished from it by its capacity to specify what newly generated
meaning is about. It also helps to generate new understandings by relating current experience to
prior knowledge. The five modal domains provide the objective context and aspectual structure
needed to map intentions and background knowledge to each other and to experiences in the world.
Fig 1: Metacognitive and situated modes of thought in an intentional frame

As Figure 1 suggests, Intending and Integrating are understood to interact with experiential
information through mediating devices such as symbolic representations, perceptual gestalts, and
image schema which focus, frame and structure attention.
The Intentional Frame

Intending is the mode of thought assumed to be responsible for establishing a mental space
(Fauconnier 1997) or frame of mind (Minsky 1985) capable of containing and developing a
thought (expression, task, project, etc) through to its conclusion. Such framing is how the mind
deals with complexity and the richness of the world and is essential to the apprehension of meaning,
the direction of thought and action, and the application of language, communication, and skill. The
importance of framing to thought cannot be overstated: Our minds are always automatically
applying a rich variety of frames to guide us through the worldA frame provides a world view:
It carves the world into defined categories of entities and properties, defines how these categories
are related to each other, suggests operations that might be performed, defines what goal is to be
achieved, provides methods for interpreting observations in terms of the problem space and other
knowledge, provides criteria to discriminate success from failure, suggests what information is
lacking and how to get it, and so on.Because the world cannot supply to the system what the
system needs first in order to learn about the world, the essential kernels of content specific framing
must be supplied initially by the architecture. (Barkow, Cosmides and Tooby, 1992:107) I have
suggested elsewhere an architecture of frames (Burnette 2001b) based on cognitive schema
(Burnette 2001a) implementing modes of design thinking (Burnette 1982) that reflects these
considerations.
Because framing is essential to the apprehension of thought and meaning, a fundamental role of
Intending is to create, focus and configure the intentional frame. Some capability is also required
within the frame to support the process of resolving meaning or outcome and to resolve and/or
terminate a frame. The philosophical, and cognitive rationale outlining a structure for Intentionality
that supports these capabilities follows.
Fig 2: Processing agencies and levels within an intentional frame
The Structure of Intentions

If Intentionality is understood to be about something and about doing something in an
experiential context based on understandings gained from prior experience, then how are intentions
generated and how can they be apprehended, represented and managed to fulfillment? Dennett
(1996) has argued that designing can be understood as the act of applying an intention to quickly
arrive at an acceptable solution from many possible ones. He has defined Intentional stance as
the strategy of interpreting the behavior of an entity (person, animal, artifact, whatever) by treating
it as if it were a rational agent who governed its choice of action by a consideration of its
beliefs and desires. (Dennett 1996:27) The implication is that intentions are grounded in
beliefs and desires which are mental constructs based on prior experiences. We read the
Intentional stance of other people and understand their behavior using inferences from such
constructs. Within this context, he has defined Design stance as behavior in which one predicts
that an entity is designed as they suppose it to be and will operate according to that design.
Similarly, Dennett defines Physical stance as behavior in which one predicts based on the laws of
physics and the physical constitution of things. Thus, an Intentional stance is one in which the
thinker makes assumptions based on past experience in the world. A Design stance is one in
which the thinker predicts events based on perceived patterns or cues relating form to behaviors
known to be associated with such forms, while a Physical stance is one in which the thinker
predicts outcomes based on the experienced properties of things. Although for Dennett all three
stances are directed at entities to help explain them, one might characterize the designers frame of
mind (desires, meanings, assumptions, perceptions, capacities, goals, and relevant knowledge)
regarding the design task as their Intentional stance, their mind set regarding what to do and
expect as their Design stance and their appreciation of properties of the problem as their
Physical stance. The Intentional stance is thus declarative and directive, the Design stance
prescriptive and procedural, and the Physical stance experiential and descriptive regarding states
of mind and the world they represent. Although thought may proceed from Intentional stance
(desire) to Design stance (proposal) to Physical stance (execution and testing), it may fail to
progress from one stance to another. (As, for example, when a desire or belief is overridden by a
predicted outcome, or expectation failure.) All three stances within an intentional frame may
remain purposefully focused and persistent over many disjunctive events until the conditions of
satisfaction for the intention are met, changed or dismissed.
Minsky (1985) has noted that it is useful to distinguish interactive levels of thinking in order to
reduce complexity. It is suggested that intentional thought has three levels: the highest level
associated with Intentional stance and concerned with establishing the scope and direction of a
thought; the intermediate level, associated with Design stance and concerned with managing
pursuit of the intention through pattern finding and knowledge based propositions and the lowest
level associated with Physical stance and concerned with empirical assessment of status and
confirmation of fulfillment. This hierarchy implies that an interim direction or goal must be
declared before a Design stance is taken and a Design stance must be taken before a goal can
be satisfied. This serial processing implication is overcome by assuming default values
(expectations) for each stance based on a prior experience. In this way an initial approach and goal
is always available even if it does not fit the situation being addressed (i.e prejudice, bias, false
assumptions, etc.) and processing can be initiated from any stance.
This model recalls Kants three part categorization of mental faculties, as willing, feeling and
knowing (conative, affective and cognitive). However, here the model is conceived as a three
level structure of intentional cognition in which affective faculties are distributed across all stances
and levels: willing (feeling about) is associated with bringing an intention into being, feeling
(feeling engaged) with the process of pursuing the intention, and knowing (feeling informed) with
its experienced fulfillment. This is consistent with the understanding that Emotions are, in essence,
impulses to act. (Goleman 1996:6 ) and thus inherent to Intentionality in all its aspects. In this
regard, Pinker (1997:373) has noted that Once triggered by a propitious moment, an emotion
triggers the cascade of goals and sub goals that we call thinking and acting. Because the goals and
means are woven into a multiply nested control structure of sub goals within sub goals within sub
goals, no sharp line divides thinking from feeling...."
Cognitive structure
The cognitive structure of Intentionality is best represented by the source-path-goal image schema
(Lakoff 1987, Johnson 1987). (Image schema are generalized cognitive structures that organize
information obtained from the body, through the senses or from other mental constructs. They
operate at a level of generality and abstraction above mental images and constitute cognitive
structures for organizing experience and comprehension.) The source-path-goal image schema is
basic to understanding all processes that go from an initial state to a desired state as well as for the
metaphorical translation of meaning from an understood source to a less understood target. In this
proposal, the Intentional stance is identified as the source agency, addressing stimuli,
background, and direction; the Design stance as the path agency addressing issues of process,
persistence and prediction while the Physical stance functions as the goal agency registering
outcome, difference and value. Although collaborating in the agency of Intentionality, each sub
agency has certain responsibilities.
The Source agent

How might an intentional source agent in a hierarchically structured source-path-goal schema
operate? Intentionality is a natural consequence of being in the world. The brain automatically
compares new information flowing into it to what it knows and makes predictions about what to
expect based on that knowledge. Errors and conflicts are detected during this process and cause the
brain to search for resolution. Background knowledge and incoming information regarding a
situation never match exactly. However, if the match is sufficient, resolution is automatic, the
expected actions and outcomes occur and there is no expectation failure and no problem to solve. If
a mismatch cant be automatically interpreted or transformed using the referenced information the
process of intentional (often conscious) goal attainment is initiated. This switch in mental focus
establishes the intentional frame in which the problem between incoming and background
information is ultimately resolved (displaced either by passing it to episodic memory when
resolution is achieved or by subordinating, deferring or dismissing resolution (through
reprioritization, etc). Thus, the source agent must be able to index knowledge from prior experience
in dynamic response to new information coming into an intentional frame from the world of
concern. To do this efficiently the source agent must generate an intentional frame that shares a
common aspectual structure with incoming information and memory (Burnette 2001a, 2001b).
A metaphor occurs when the designer attempts to understand a focal situation in terms of what they
already understand. The mapping of the source situation to whatever target information is
recognized as relevant (semantically, structurally, figurally, operationally, or evaluatively) gives
structured content to the intentional frame. For example, a semantic apprehension of the focal
situation as fragmented, directs one to consider the structure of fragmentation, suggests many
prototypes of fragmented things, processes for how things fragment and come together and asserts a
value of wholeness against which fragmentation can be judged. Thus, the metaphor both frames
the intention and generates the instruments for interactive transformation of the information it
references. In this regard, Schns (1979) concept of generative metaphor has all the elements
required of the source agent in an intentional frame: it semantically expresses the problem of an
unfamiliar situation, sets the direction in which to seek resolution, establishing structures and
strategies for selective attention, references normative models or prototypes as mediating
representations, invokes actionable questions and processes and establishes appreciative values.
Thus the source of an intention (what it is about) lies in the interaction between prior knowledge
and incoming information. Directedness (what to do, what path to follow, what approach to take,
what Design stance to assume) and what outcome to anticipate (what comparisons to make, what
criteria to employ, what goals to attain) are determined through metaphorical projection within an
intentional frame. At minimum this implies indexing, threading and prioritizing functions in the
source agency, subjects extensively studied in the field of artificial intelligence and case based
reasoning (Schank 1999, Kolodner 1987).
The Path agent

Basic to understanding how information in an intentional frame is resolved at the Path level of
cognitive processing is the notion that designing is purposeful, persistent and directed a goal
driven activity with conditions of satisfaction. Designers know from experience that a design is not
usually immediately apparent, especially if the contingencies involved in the project are complex,
ill determined, and emergent, or if the designer is inexperienced or lacking relevant information or
expertise. The process of solving a problem or creating a design is highly interactive and dynamic,
constantly referencing and adapting the thinkers knowledge in a process Schn (1987) has called
reflection in action. It is suggested that this persistent, goal directed interactivity is conducted
through the path agent operating in the Design stance. Processing at this level of agency is
invoked when the source agent establishes a project or task by framing a metaphor between some
understood source and the focal information.
As Minsky (1985:78-79) noted A goal-driven system does not seem to react directly to the
stimuli or situation it encounters. Instead it treats the things it finds as objects to exploit, avoid, or
ignore, as though it were concerned with something else that doesnt yet exist. When any
disturbance or obstacle diverts a goal-directed system from its course, that system seems to try to
remove the interference, go around it, or turn it to some advantageWhat kind of process inside a
machine could give the impression of having a goal of purpose, persistence and
directedness.The difference engine scheme remains the most useful conception of goal, purpose,
or intention yet discovered. The idea of a difference-engine embodies a representation of some
outcome and a mechanism to make it persist until the outcome is achieved. (it) must contain a
description of a desired situation. It must have subagents that are aroused by various differences
between the desired situation and the actual situation. Each subagent must act in a way that tends to
diminish the difference that aroused it. It is this last requirement that necessitates ways to shift
attention to different aspects of an experience, different understandings or memories until reframing

or reinterpretation of the intention results in an acceptable resolution. This is the strength of the
Design stance in which something which behaves in the manner required is proposed through
conjecture, hypothesis, or similar means. While a mismatch, choice, or goal is instrumental in
launching an intentional frame and proposition and prediction in processing it, measurement and
prioritization are necessarily involved in managing the goal attainment process. These depend on
the assessment of predictions and outcomes.
The Goal agent

Although the pursuit of an intention is goal directed, and a goal is always available in an intentional
frame by default or as a result of metaphorical projection and development, a supporting agency is
required to monitor status relative to the goal, and confirm that the goal has been attained, changed
or dismissed. A comparative assessment is involved in which there is a reference entity or criteria
(the goal) and an expectation or predicted outcome resulting from the resolution process. The
resolution must also involve assimilation into the network of meaning that represents the design
objective for the individual, supports their memories regarding it, and facilitates the abstraction,
generalization and indexing of knowledge for future use as preferences, expectations, rules of
thumb, etc. Intentionality, it will be recalled, always interprets and assimilates outcomes in terms of
the background experience of the individual thinker.
Although not fully defined, these component agents, structures, forms, processes and criteria are
posited as the roots of Intentionality - aboutness, directed action and assessment. Together they
permit focusing on what to attend, ignore, act on, learn, and remember.
A Computational Proposal
An operational definition of Intentionality requires a computational model that can represent the
richness of referencing, processing, and management that has been indicated. As an illocutionary
act, intending commands, asserts, questions, expresses, activates, prioritizes, and commits. If such
operations are understood as computational in nature then a programming architecture suited to the
task is needed. Charles Simonyi (1996), principle software architect at Microsoft, has articulated the
concept of intentional programming in which intentions are expressed as a powerful ecology of
abstractions which can be extended to support many outcomes. In such a view the abstractions and
their relationships specify an ontology of potential experiences distinct from their application.
Entailments extending from the abstractions act to structure thought as do constraints in the
situation being addressed. The users intentions become expressed through the content, structure
and interactions afforded through the component abstractions of the computational system.
It has been suggested that Intending (the initiation, processing and management of goal directed
thought and action) and Integrating (accessing, adapting and applying knowledge derived from
situated experiences) are modal components of higher level thinking. These two components
manage and resolve purposeful thinking in terms of five subordinate modes that address different
aspects of a situated experience. All seven modes of thinking are treated as components in a
collaborative enterprise framework that implements a distributed computing system (Kobryn 2000).
Each component is thought of as an enabling abstraction an intentional object model
representing an aspect of experience that can be instantiated in a great many ways. The
instantiation and processing of these components is managed through the Intending Component,
the collaborative outcome (the design) is presented through the Mediating component, and
knowledge of the experience is maintained in the Integrating component (adaptive memory).
Although a computational specification of these components is beyond the scope of this paper,
Figure 3 provides a diagram using the conventions of the Universal Modeling Language for
software development (UML) to characterize a distributed component enterprise framework and the
computational interactions between all seven modal components. It will be seen that each mode of
thinking, including Intending and Integrating, is to be implemented as a distinct computational
agency in a collaborative framework. A more extensive treatment of this internet oriented
distributed processing model is presented elsewhere (Burnette 2001c).
Fig. 3: Component Enterprise Framework for distributed design computing
In summary, the Intending component in a computational model of design thinking should

provide a three level, hierarchically structured interactive process to 1) initiate an intentional frame
2) index situated information to the frame 3) index relevant and well configured knowledge in
episodic memory to the situated information 4) compare the situated and recalled information 5)
resolve mismatches to approximate goal criteria 6) accept, replace, reprioritize, defer or dismiss the
outcome 7) and transfer frame control to an Integrating adaptive memory as appropriate. While the
issues involved have been explored in the field of artificial intelligence, they have not been
formulated or implemented as indicated in Figure 3.
Discussion
This paper has focused on Intentionality and its interactive relationship with background
knowledge. Some philosophical points and theoretical suggestions regarding the structural
representation and operational modeling of these agencies have been made and relevant literature
has been cited. It is hoped that the presentation has made the point that Intentionality serves as the
headwater for the flow of design thinking and that no theory or model of design thinking can afford
to ignore it. The implication for design research and practice is that more attention should be paid to
the dynamic matching of prior knowledge to the focus of current concern. While this does happen
to some degree, for example, when an architect asks a client for magazine clippings to learn what
they like, or when an ethnographic researcher attempts to understand user behavior in the context of
need, or when a designer uses hypothetical scenarios to better anticipate user behavior, such
techniques are not fully integrated into design thinking, or computational support systems. Until
they are we will be unable to study and improve the process as a whole.
10
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Solving Methods in Engineering Management, edited by S. Olsen, NY: Wiley
Burnette, C. 1994. Structuring Case Histories to Support Design Management Education and
Practice, in Proceedings, Sixth International Forum on Design Management Education and
Research, Paris: Paris School of Management, Education Department
Burnette, C.. 1999. Final Report: Advanced Driver Interface Design/Assessment, Project # 92-16,
Harrisburg, PA: Division of Research, Department of Transportation, Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania
Burnette, C. 2001a. The Cognitive Structure Of Spatialization; Image schema and their conceptual
extension to support design thinking: available from author
Burnette, C. 2001b. A Frame Theory of Conceptual Structure: Cognitive indexing of concepts,
percepts and memories: available from author
Burnette, C. 2001c. A Computational Framework for Creative Design, available from author
Cross, N. 2001.Strategic Knowledge Exercised by Outstanding Designers in J.S. Gero and K.
Hori, eds 2001, Strategic Knowledge and Concept Formation III, Sydney: Key Centre of Design
Computing and Cognition, University of Sydney: 17-30
Dawkins, R. 1976, r 1989. The Selfish Gene, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Dennett, D. 1996. Kinds of Minds, NY: Basic Books
Fauconnier, Gilles, 1997. Mappings in Thought and Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
Gero, J. 1998. Conceptual designing as a sequence of situated acts, in I. Smith (ed.) Artificial
Intelligence in Structural Engineering, Berlin: Springer: 165-177
Gero, J. and K. Hori. (eds) 2001. Strategic Knowledge and Concept Formation III, Sydney: Key
Centre of Design Computing and Cognition, University of Sydney
Goleman, D. 1996. Emotional Intelligence, London: Bloomsbury
Johnson, M. 1987. The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination and Reason ,
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
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ACM, 43(10), 3138.
Kolodner. J. 1993. Case Based Reasoning, San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann
Kruger, C and Nigel Cross. 2001. Modeling Cognitive Strategies in Creative Design, in J.S. Gero
and M. L. Maher, (eds) 2001, Computational and Cognitive Models of Creative Design V, Key
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Searle, John. 1983. Intentionality, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Schank, R. 1999. Dynamic Memory Revisited, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Schn, D. 1979. Generative Metaphor: A Perspective on Problem Setting in Social Policy,
Andrew Ortney, ed, Metaphor and Thought, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Schn, D., 1987. Educating the Reflective Practitioner, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers
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<http:// research.microsoft.com/ip/ifipwg/ifipwg.htm> and at <http://www.edge.org>
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Philadelphia, PA.
12
The study of the UK SMEs employing external organisations

to support innovative products
C. Bussracumpakorn Design Department, Goldsmiths College, UK
Abstract
Product innovation is a vital strategy for organisations to grow and survive (e.g. Coyne ,1996; Trott
1998). The recent study of 100 CEOs found that companies that did not keep creating novel
products and depended on extensional products showed poor growth rates (PA consulting quoted
by Perry, 2001). Unquestionably, product innovation is an activity which contains high risk and
uncertainty. Either is it hard to define the final result or the achievement of the result is in market.
The research aims to investigate general viewpoints of how, why, with whom and which way
the UK SMEs link with other organisations in supporting new products. One hundred and thirty
eight innovative product case studies, the winners of Millennium Products Awards during 19972000 were selected from the results of the first study by the Design Council regarding the 26
innovation issues/processes. The case studies employed the issue of Links with other organisations
in the contribution to their design and innovation successes. The postal questionnaires were
directed to Company Directors or Managers who were involved with the winning product. 55.8
percent is the response rate.
The paper presents the result of the external sources that the organisations linked with, and at which
stage of innovation process the organisations linked with other organisations. In general, the
research result presents 88 percent of innovative products which show a degree of radical changes
in design. Research institutions (47%) universities and laboratories and production suppliers
(42%) new technologies of components and systems are the most frequently chosen of external
resources in comparison with governmental specialist organisations (18%) and design consultants
(16%). The average number of links of external sources is one or two. Four stages during the
innovation process: research and development, concept testing, idea and concept generation and
manufacture show the important value of employing external organisations.
The study of the UK SMEs employing external organisations

to support innovative products
Importance of innovative products
This paper defines innovative products as new changes of industrial products. However, new
changes of industrial products could be interpreted in many degrees of innovativeness. According
to Booz Alan & Hamilton, innovative products are defined into six categories: new to the world
products, new product lines, improvement of existing products, additions to existing product lines,
cost reductions, and repositioning. Following six categories, innovative products which are
mentioned in this paper do not include the categories of; additions to existing product lines, cost
reductions, and product repositioning. In addition, innovative products need to emphasise either
solving problem of existing products or applying new knowledge to create new product concepts.
It has been shown that the activities involving innovative products encounter high risk and
uncertainty during the product innovation process and the result of end products within market.
Nonetheless, the importance of innovative products has been also proved by many successful
industrial enterprises that it is central to sustained wealth creation and maintaining competitive
advantage. For example, Akio Morita (1992), chairman of the Board of the Sony Corporation, is a
successful industrial innovator in the area of many electronic developments, especially for the
domestic audio-visual market and the miniaturisation of radio-receivers. Dr. William E. Coyne
(1996), Senior Vice President Research and Development of 3M is with the concept of providing
products which give customers startling, new and valuable innovations. He mentioned the reason
behind the success of 3M is that innovative products provide delight to customers and that delight
is the basis for long lasting customer loyalty. Moreover, the recent study of 100 CEOs found that
companies that did not keep creating novel products and depended on extensional products showed
poor growth rates (PA consulting quoted by Perry, 2001). In short, innovative products play a
significant part for industrial enterprises in sustaining their competitive advantage, wealth, and
long-term survival and growth.
Problems of UK SMEs
The critical problems of UK SMEs in creating innovative products are their internal constraints,
such as financial insufficiency, labour skills, and lack of management, marketing and sales skills
(Cosh and Hughes, 2000, cited by Hughes 2001) in comparison with larger enterprises. Following
the qualitative data from DTI (2001), large firms tend to employ more workers, have higher skill
levels, pay higher wages and offer more stable prospects to their workforce which means that they
have the power and the capability to innovate consistently (Technology, Productivity, and Job
Creation, OECD, 1966 cited by DTI, 2001). On the contrary, small firms tend to have more
limited financial and human resources, less ready information and shorter time horizons. In
addition, they are generally more risk averse and reluctant to engage outside help expect for the
very specific short-term. (Managing National Innovation Systems, OCED, 1999 cited by DTI,
2001; ENSR, 2000). Moreover, these constraints effect SMEs performance in producing innovative
products. The UK innovation survey of 2,344 enterprises, conducted by the Office for National
Statistics on behalf of the DTI during 1994-1996, revealed that larger enterprises were more likely
to innovate than SMEs. Particularly, in the manufacturing sector where 83 percent of large
enterprises, but only 48 percent of SMEs were innovators - an enterprise that introduced any
technologically new or improved products, processes, or services (DTI, 1999). Moreover, large
firms were approximately three times more likely to be novel innovators than SMEs. Inevitably,
these lead thus to the low rate of growth and survival of SMEs due to their internal constraints
which are related to poor performance of introducing innovative products.
As mentioned in the previous section, the importance of innovative products sustains industrial
enterprises to grow and survive. Unfortunately, the critical constraints of SMEs are mainly from
their internal sources. Certainly, these affect the result of rapid birth and dead rate of SMEs.
Generally, statistical data over recent years in the West Country indicated that less than 50 percent
of SMEs survive for five years. Only 5 percent of SMEs are high-growth firms in terms of general
business expansion (Burton-Jones, 1999). Moreover, in Europe-19, referring to the latest data
available in 1995, showed that almost 2 million new enterprises arose, while over one and a half
million enterprises ceased to exist (ENSR, 2000). In short, from the low rate of growth and survival
of SMEs it might be assumed that they lack many skills and resources in developing their new
products.
External resources and innovative products

It has been widely claimed that links with external resources are so crucial in sustaining innovative
products for industrial enterprises in many ways, such as spreading high costs and risks, access to
market strengths, accruing technological capabilities and know-how knowledge, and being able to
generate product differentiation (Hkansson, 1989; Grabher, 1993; Johnston and Lawrence, 1991;
Nooteboom, 1999; Pilkington, 1999). Moreover, the research, conducted by UMIST on the topic of
Risks and Rewards of Collaboration (Littler, 1993 cited by Tidd et al 1997), revealed reasons for
collaboration of the UK SMEs with other external resources that they wanted to respond to key
customer needs, a market need, technology changes, competitors, and a management initiative. In
addition, the research pointed out that collaboration assisted SMEs to reduce risks and costs of
R&D, to broaden product range, and to improve time to market. In short, industrial enterprises
which know how to gain benefits from external resources indicate the benefits of reducing risk and
uncertainty, responding to key demands and fulfilling their internal incapability. From this
viewpoint, these reinforce the idea of encouraging SMEs to employ external resources in order to
expand their opportunities in creating and developing their innovative products.
The recent studies reveal that most industrial enterprises which attain the achievement of creating
innovative products in response to market needs are employing external linkages with other
organisations. Three well-known forms of business networks are: supplier-buyer relations in
automotive industry, regional networks in fashion and textile industry and global strategic alliances
in high technology industry. For example, in automotive industry, supplier-buyer relations have
been used as a way to share resources and capabilities in manufacturing process and design &
development of new products (Pilkington, 1999). In computer industry, there is collaboration
between various technological organisations to bring in a wide range of technologies to develop
new products (Nordwall, 1991). In textile industry in the northern part of Italy, social network and
linkages of family businesses play a significant part in creating new products (Perry, 1999). In
short, the paper assumes that these ways of business networks will play a crucial part as new
models for industrial enterprises to initiate innovative products in the beginning of 21st century.
Aims
According to the importance of innovative products, the problems of the UK SMEs, and the
relationship between external resources and innovative products, these are driving forces which
push an idea on this research. In order to broaden the idea of external resources and the
achievement of innovative products, the research aims to explore further general viewpoints of
how, why, with whom and which way the UK SMEs link with other organisations with
regard to innovative products.
Case studies
The Design Council awarded the Millennium Product Awards, during 1997-2000, for the UK
enterprises which had the achievement of most innovative, well-designed products and services.
There are 1012 innovations which won the Awards. One hundred and thirty eight industrial
products were selected from the initial research by the Design Council, namely Innovation Stories.
The Innovation Stories, an analysis of 1012 innovations, revealed 26 innovation issues/processes.
The innovation issue/process, links with other organisations, was selected.
Research methodology
The study chose a postal questionnaire as means of this investigation. The survey was done during
March-August 2001. The questionnaires were sent out to Managing Directors, Project Managers,
Technical/Engineering Managers, Product/Design Managers, or managers who were involved with
the award winning innovations.
Questionnaire design
A postal questionnaire was designed, entitled links with other organisations sustaining innovative
design. It was divided into two main sections: (1) Design/Company Information and (2)
Design/Company Visions. In the former section, the study wanted to gather SMEs real experience
in links with other organisations in supporting innovative products. The latter section was to ask
about SMEs visions and beliefs about the main idea of links with other organisations which will
contribute new changes in design and will change the way SMEs do their business in the future.
Results
One hundred and thirty eight postal questionnaires were sent out. Seventy-seven questionnaires
were returned. The response rate was 55.8 percent. The results, which are revealed in this paper,
are an extraction from a whole outcome. The paper reveals the results from the questions one, four,
and seven. Questions one and four were designed by providing a list of constructed responses.
Question seven was designed providing a Likert-style rating scale on a four-point scale. Therefore,
the paper presents two ways of analysis: (1) mode, on questions one and four and (2) mean, on
question seven.
Question one
Question one was aimed to investigate characteristics of innovative products that the UK SMEs
created by employing links with other organisations. The study designed a list of five responded
answers. There were three choices which are defined as innovative products: (1) offering
completely new, unique and different design, (2) offering highly innovative design for specific
users, and (3) combining user needs and technology availability to offer new improved products.
The result reveals that 88 percent of SMEs can achieve innovative products in a level of radical
changes in design. The rest, twelve percent presents benefits of design improvement and an
updated version of the previous product. The entire result is shown in Table 1.
A list of responses
1. Offering completely new, unique and different design
Score (N)
20
Percentage
26
Rank
3
2. Offering highly innovative design for specific users
22
29
3. Combining user needs and technology availability to offer new improved design
25
32
4. Highly improving functions, appearance and quality in your design
5. Offering an updated version of the previous product
6. Others: new concept
Remark: N (A total number of the responded answers) = 77
Table 1: shows different types of industrial products that UK SMEs exploited from strategic linkages
Question four
Question four was aimed to investigate which external sources were linked by the UK SMEs in
supporting the achievement of innovative products. It was designed by providing a list of fifteen
external resources. In general, an average number of external resources with which SMEs
connected are one or two as shown in Table 2.
A number of external sources
10
A total number of organisations (N)

1
10
22
22
Table 2: shows an average number of the external resources with which SMEs connected
Research institutions, including universities and laboratories are the main external resources with
which 47 percent of SMEs connected. Production suppliers, providing new technology components
and systems, are in the second place with 42 percent. Legal advisors, competitors, marketing
research organisations, and financial institutions show less benefit in supporting innovative
products. The entire results are shown in Table 3.
External sources
Research institutions (Universities and Laboratories)
Score (N)
35
Percentage
47
Production suppliers (New technologies of components and systems)
31
42
Distributors
17
23
User groups
15
20
Government specialist organisations
13
18
Knowledgeable organisations as co-suppliers
12
16
Design consultants
12
16
Professional designers
11
15
Retailers
11
Innovation Centres
11
Legal advisors
Competitors
Market research organisations
Financial institutions
*Customers

* (Asterisk) means the study separates customers from user groups. This is because user groups are defined as a group of users
who use products and customers are defined as a group of customers who exploit from selling or buying products
Table 3: shows the percentage of external resources with which the UK SMEs linked in the
achievement of innovative products.
Question seven
Question seven was aimed to investigate during which phase of the product innovation process the
UK SMEs employed links with other organisations. The result reveals four main stages that most
SMEs connected with external organisations. Four stages have connection with initial stages of
product innovation process: (1) research and development, (2) concept testing, (3) idea and concept
generation, and (4) manufacture. The entire result is shown in Table 4.
Each Phase of the Product Innovation Process
1. Research and development
Score
230
Mean
2.99
2. Idea and concept generations
184
2.39
3. Concept research
143
1.86
4. Concept testing
187
2.43
5. Market research
162
2.10
6. Marketing testing
168
2.18
7. Manufacture
181
2.35
8. Distributions
133
1.73
9. Services
122
1.58
10. Disposal
91
1.81
11. Others: Product testing
0.09
Table 4: shows an average value of each phase with which the UK SMEs linked during the product
innovation process
Result discussions
From the result of question one, it is clear that the UK SMEs employing strategic linkages with
other organisations obtain high value in attaining radical changes of industrial products. Combining
user needs and technology availability is the most popular way in introducing innovative products.
User needs play a significant role as new driving force for innovative products instead of
concerning two economical factors: high technology implications and market mechanism. In short,
it is becoming clear that external resources become part of promoting radical changes of industrial
products.
Further to the result of question four, it indicates that the UK SMEs make connection with research
institutions and production suppliers to gain new technologies, knowledge and/or information. This
means the SMEs need special support in terms of new technologies and/or knowledge which
consume time and money to embed them in-house. Moreover, the supports from distributors, user
groups, governmental organisations, manufacturers, and design specialists are complementary in
promoting the achievement of innovative products. If we look back to such internal constraints of
SMEs in creating innovative products, there are problems such as lack of various knowledge,
financial and capital constraints which are the main barriers. The result indicates a contrary view in
terms of finance because the UK SMEs demonstrated low value of financial institutions. This may
assume that they believe in the returned benefits of innovative products. In short, the result
indicates six significant external organisations supporting the achievement of innovative products
for the UK SMEs are: new knowledge organisations (technology and knowledge), distributors, user
groups, governmental organisations, manufacturers, and design specialists.
According to the result from question seven, it has been shown that SMEs mainly employed
external resources with regard to four main phases during the product innovation process: research
and development, concept testing, idea and concept generations, and manufacture. These phases
reveal that the UK SMEs put their concerns on three stages: incubation stage, product planning
stage, and production stage. The connection with services, distributions and disposal phases
indicates less concern. In short, it is clear that the UK SMEs focus on innovative products just as
their production processes.
Conclusion
The research reaffirms that links with organisations can sustain the UK SMEs in order to produce
their innovative products. All results reveal that links with other organisations can mainly provide
radical change for SMEs products. As shown on a list of external organisations in question four,
there are a lot of possibilities where the UK SMEs experienced different benefits from different
organisations. The research suggests six external organisations with which innovative SMEs
should link: new knowledge organisations, distributors, user groups, governmental organisations,
manufacturers, and design specialists. Moreover, links with other organisations gain advantages in
supporting some highly investment phases during the product innovation process, such as research
and development and manufacturing processes which SMEs cannot afford to build up in-house
easily. In addition, they support SMEs on creative phases, idea and concept generation. According
to a focus group in this research, nonetheless, there is a small number of the UK SMEs that know
how to employ external resources as a way in supporting innovative products. The study hopes that
these results will help the rest of the UK SMEs to see an alternative way to sustain their innovative
products.
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of visual analogy
H. Casakin The College of Judea and Samaria & Tel Aviv University, Israel
Abstract
Analogical reasoning is considered to be an efficient heuristic for solving non-routine problems, and
particularly helpful in design. It is during the design process, where a large collection of visual
displays aid designers, in which the use of visual analogy is of specific importance. Few works have
studied the effect of the use of visual analogy in design problem solving, and there is no research
which has studied whether it plays a more significant role in the context of ill-defined problems or
in well-defined problems. The objective of this study is to empirically compare and investigate the
use of visual analogy in well-defined design problems (routine) and ill-defined design problems
(non-routine). Results showed that students benefited from the use of visual analogy, which
significantly helped them to improve design solutions in both design contexts. Additional results
showed that architects also benefited from the use of visual analogy in ill-defined design problem
solving. In contrast, visual analogy did not aid them to improve their performance in solving welldefined design problems.

of visual analogy
Well-defined and ill-defined problems
A main distinction has been established, between well-defined problems and ill-defined problems
(e.g Gero and Maher, 1993; Goel, 1995; Medin and Ross, 1990; Mitchell, 1993; Reitman, 1964;
Rittel and Melving, 1984; Simon, 1984). Well-defined problems are defined by: completely
specified initial conditions, clear goals, a defined set of operators for transforming conditions, and a
limited number of solutions. A classical example of a well-defined problem is a sum problem,
because it meets all the necessary requirements. Well-defined problems are called routine when
they allow the use of efficient algorithms to generate solutions that may fully satisfy the initial
requirements (e.g., Cross, 2000; Visser, 1996). Ill-defined problems, on the other hand, can be
defined by: no clear initial conditions, no completely specified goals, a large number of
unpredictable solutions, and no defined set of operators or algorithms. Since solutions to ill-defined
problems may be ambiguous, it is not possible to forecast whether an algorithm may fit the initial
requirements. For this reason, ill-defined problems cannot be solved in a routine way. These types
of problems are associated with the generation of different novel solutions to a similar problem
situation. A main feature associated with non-routine problems is the generation of unexpected
solutions that are significantly different from prior problem situations (e.g. Suwa et al, 1999). Since
this is often the case, design problems are generally considered as prime examples of ill-defined
and non-routine problems.
Design problems as main examples of ill-defined problems

Design problems are usually considered as fundamental examples of ill-defined problems (e.g.,
Gero and Maher, 1993; Goel, 1995). Design methodologists who studied problem solving directed
their attention to well-defined problems (e.g., Jones, 1970; Lawson, 1980), and routine processes.
They did not understand the ill-structured nature of design problems, and thought that design could
be studied as well-structured problem-solving. By considering the design process as a series of
connected and sequential well-defined steps, the methodologists proposed that rational prescriptive
models of design problem-solving, might aid in finding optimal solutions. However, instead of
helping to gain a deep insight into the design process, these models over-simplified rich and
complex aspects of design.
Recent research has shown an increasing interest in studying ill-defined design problems. A main
feature of these design problems is, the generation of solutions that have no obvious relation with,
or that are considerably different from prior existing design solutions (e.g., Goldschmidt, 1994;
Suwa et al, 1999). This suggests that in ill-defined problem solving, the range of possible solutions
can be extended to unknown and unexplored possibilities.
Analogy as a problem solving strategy

Analogical reasoning is considered to be an effective heuristic in dealing with problem solving,
particularly with ill-defined problems where as noted above, the production of novel solutions is
possible. An analogy is defined as a resemblance of structural relations, as in A:B :: C:D, or A is
related to B like C is related to D, where D is the unknown term that has to be established. The use
of analogy implies the transfer of related abstract information from a known domain (source), to a
situation that should be explained (target), (e.g., Gentner, 1983; Novick, 1988; Vosniadou, 1989).
Reasoning by analogy depends on the application of a system of structural relations to the problem
at hand. The use of analogy is a cognitive mechanism that enables one to retrieve old information
that can support the acquisition of new knowledge. The identification of a similarity between
known relations in the source situation and potential relations in the target situation, allows for the
creation of an analogy (Pierce and Gholson, 1994). A system of relations of relevant knowledge
(common higher abstraction) is transferred from base to target by analogical mapping (Dejong,
1989).
Visual analogy in design problem solving

Research in visual analogy was almost absent from cognitive science. Exceptions are the recent
studies achieved in visual analogy in problem solving (e.g., Antonietti, 1991; Bean et al, 1990;
Beveridge and Parkins, 1987; Gick and Holyoak, 1983; Verstijnen et al, 2000). However visual
analogy, as compared to analogy, was never considered an independent category. Therefore, its
contribution to problem solving in general and to design problem solving in particular, was not
completely appreciated. During the design process, designers constantly refer to and frequently use
visual displays. These references and uses, are by themselves important reasons why visual analogy
can be considered to be a helpful cognitive strategy for improving the quality of the design outputs.
Goldschmidt (1994a; 1994b; 1995; 1999) who studied the use of visual analogy in design, proposed
that while looking for a suitable solution the designer tries to identify clues from relevant visual
displays in order to establish mappings with the design task. There are a number of anecdotal cases
of well-known architects illustrating the successful use of visual analogy. For example, Le
Corbusier has implemented a number of analogs into the designs of different buildings, such as
ships and wine bottle-racks. The shell of a snail also served Le Corbusier as a main analogical base
to design the endless plan of the Museum of Tokyo. Similar examples of analogical transfer from
a natural phenomenon to a design instance are reported in the works of Calatrava. His ingenious
structural inventions are the consequence of using animal skeletons and tree branches in his design
process.
Most of the early studies in the fields of cognitive science and design directed their attention to
well-defined problem solving, while only recent works have studied ill-defined problem solving.
Recently, a few empirical studies have been carried out, on the use of visual analogy in ill-defined
problem solving (e.g., Casakin & Goldschmidt, 1999; Casakin & Goldschmidt, 2000; Verstijnen et
al, 2000). However no empirical work has focused on a comparative analysis between ill-defined
and well-defined design problems.
Empirical research
Objectives and hypotheses
The objective of this empirical study is to verify possible differences in the role played by visual
analogy in ill-defined and well-defined design problems. We would like to test, to what extent
students and architects are able to use visual analogy, and how this contributes to enhancing the
quality of their design solutions in well-defined and ill-defined problem solving.
The major hypothesis is that, the use of visual analogy will help student and professional designers
to improve their performance in ill-defined design problem-solving, but will not aid them so much
in well-defined problem-solving. To validate this hypothesis, a comparison is made between results
obtained in solving both types of design problems in each group of subjects.
Subjects
63 architectural designers belonging to three groups with different levels of expertise participated in
this experiment while solving ill-defined problems. They were divided into 17 architects, 22
advanced students, and 24 beginning students. In the well-defined context, a total of 54 architectural
designers divided into 17 architects, 17 advanced students, and 20 beginning students participated
in the experiment.
Experimental conditions
In order to achieve the objectives of this study, two experimental conditions in which subjects were
required to solve the design problems, were implemented as follows.
Test condition: Solving design problems with visual displays, and with an explicit requirement to
use analogy:
Subjects were provided with general instructions and a description of the design problem. Together
with these they were given a board with an assortment of visual displays including, images from the
architectural domain as well as from remote domains. They were informed that some of the images
might serve as potential analogs for the design problems. The subjects were required to identify
relevant sources, and to use analogy while generating solutions to the design problems they were
given.
Control condition: Solving design problems with the aid of visual displays but devoid of any
explicit requirement to use analogy:
A similar task was given to subjects with the same degree of design expertise, as in the previous
experimental condition, consisting of the same instructions, design requirements, and visual
information. However, they were not explicitly required to use analogy.
The three design problems solved in the ill-defined context were: a) the prison b) the dwellings and
c) the viewing-terrace. The two design problems solved in the well-defined context were: a) the
staircases and b) the parking-garage.
Procedure
The experiments were carried out in individual design sessions (one participant at a time). Subjects
were provided with general instructions, and a description of the problems requirements. They
were then given approximately 20 minutes to solve the design task. At the beginning of the session
the experimenter answered subjects questions, but did not intervene throughout the duration of the
experiment. It should be noted, that various subjects solved more than one design problem under the
test or control condition, so therefore the number of statistical entries as described below exceeds
the number of subjects. However, in these cases, design tasks in the control condition were always
given before design tasks were provided in the test condition.
Equipment and materials

The Research Laboratory room used for the experiments was small and soundproof. The subject
was shown a 1m x 0.7m board containing a vast assortment of visual displays, which varied
according to the problem at hand. The boards included an average of twenty-four images classified
according to: a) pictures from the architectural design domain, to which the problems belong
(within-domain sources) b) pictures from other remote domains (between-domain sources) like
science, art, or engineering. Some of these images could be related to the design problem, while
others could not.
Scale of assessment
An ordinal scale from 1 to 5 points was established, in order to evaluate the design solutions for illdefined design problems. A range from 1 to 2 points was assigned, to cases where the design
solution did not satisfy the design requirements, and a range from 3 to 5 points was assigned to
cases where the design solution, did satisfy design requirements. A different scale, of 0 or 1 point,
was established to assess solutions for well-defined design problems. Zero was assigned where the
solution did not satisfy design requirements, and 1 point when the solution was seen as satisfactory.
Judges
Three naive judges unaware of the test conditions, scored the design solutions produced in the
different experiments, independently. All of them were architects with at least seven years of
professional experience, who volunteered their time. A reliability analysis showed a low
disagreement rate among the judges for all the design solutions (average of 3%).
Statistical analysis methods

The scores assigned by the judges in the context of the well-defined design problems, were tested
using Fischer Exacts Tests. The scores assigned in the context of the ill-defined design problems,
were submitted to T-Tests. Differences between subject groups, were considered significant at a
level of 90% (p<0.1). For statistical analysis considerations, the three ill-defined design problems
(the dwellings, the prison, and the viewing terrace) were grouped together. Similarly, the two
well-defined design problems (the staircases and the parking-garage) were grouped together.
Well-defined and ill-defined design problems: Qualitative results

In this section we describe two individual sessions, carried out by two novice designers, while
solving well-defined and ill-defined problems. The purpose is to illustrate two different cases, in
which student designers successfully used visual analogy to solve the assigned design problems. In
the well-defined problem session, the student dealt with the parking-garage problem. The subject
was required to arrange, the internal subdivision of a 15m high parking-garage building, in order to
accommodate 120 cars. A 6m wide two-way passage was required for the internal circulation of
cars. Two external lifts were required, to elevate cars through the different floors (See figure 1). The
building was divided in two split-level wings, with one-meter difference in their respective lengths.
While 60 cars could be easily allocated in the longer wing, the main design problem was to find a
solution to arrange the rest of the cars in the shorter wing.
Figure 1: Plan and section drawings for the 'Parking Garage problem.
In the ill-defined problem, the student dealt with the viewing terrace problem which was
comprised of the schematic design of a 30m2 viewing terrace which had to be located at the highest
point of a 16m high precipice. A main constraint was to divide the terrace into two different sectors.
While one sector was required to have maximal contact with the ground, the other was required to
have minimal contact with the ground. The descriptions below are based on protocols obtained
from recordings of the two different design sessions.
Successful well-defined problem solving aided by visual analogy

The design session begins with the student analyzing the design problem. While focusing on the
design constraints the subject says:
The height of the building is 15m, [and it is] divided in two wings. One [wing has] about 15x16 m and the other [has]
15x15. There is a 1.20m height difference between both wings of the building. I have to arrange 120 cars The
minimum height [per floor] within the building has to be 2.60m.
In order to illustrate an understanding regarding the provided information about car arrangement
within the parking-garage, the student decides to produce a first sketch and says:
First of all I am trying to see how can I organize the interior of the building. I am going to check the way that cars
relate to the corridor[figure 2]. 5,6,5This will be the car/corridor relationship So lets see if there is any
problem
Figure 2: Sketch I (well-defined problem). Distribution of cars along corridor.

In a second step, the designer starts thinking about the possibility of representing the organization of
cars in three dimensions. In order to do so, the subject manipulates the spatial arrangement of cars
by referring to plan and section drawings. These lead to a realization that in order to be able to find
a suitable design solution, space shortage constraints need to be included.
Considering that each floor should have 2.80m at least I can divide the building height [15m] into six
floors[figure 3]. Sixty cars can be easily located in one of the wings I am going to check what can be done in the
second wing. Oh now I can see the problem The second wing is [one meter] shorter in plan so that I do not have
enough space to organize the 60 remaining cars like in the other wing.
Figure 3: Sketch II (well-defined problem). Distribution of cars in (a) plan and (b) section drawings.
Only after understanding the scope of the design problem, the novice student begins to examine the
assigned board containing the set of visual displays. While trying to identify similarities that can
potentially serve to establish an analogy with the problem, attention is focused on a within-domain
visual display, and a between-domain visual display. In so doing, relevant analogical principles
such as partial superposition and split-level are discovered.
I am now looking at the board, trying to see what can I get from the visual displays. There is a general principle
dealing with organization between things I can see that in the dwelling [figure 4a] there is something like a split-level
situation [principle] between the different floors. This can match the problem of height differences [between both
wings]. Probably the figure of the zigzag [figure 4b] may be of help to arrange objects, but I think that [the image of]
the dwelling is clearer to me. That is the way forms [floors] superpose one with the other. I can now figure out how to
deal with the problem of the split levels, and on the other hand the possibility of partial superposition [between levels to
deal with space shortage]
Figure 4: Displays for the 'Parking Garage problem. (a) section drawing of a split level dwelling by
Le Corbusier. (b) zigzag furniture.
In the last stage of the design process, the subject manages to successfully transfer and apply the
analogical principle of superposition, from the visual sources to the design problem. Two additional
sketches are produced in section (Figures 5a and 5b), illustrating that the design solution is based on
the idea of overlapping split-levels between both wings. While sketching the subject comments:
The problem that I am facing is how to arrange 120 cars in such a way that I could overcome lack of space. I will
check if there is a better way to arrange the carsYes there is a possibility to do so by overlapping floors between both
wings
Figure 5: Sketch III (well-defined problem). (a) Relationship between two overlapping cars in
section drawing. (b) Relationship between overlapping cars along the different split-levels in
section drawing.
Analogical reasoning is successfully applied. The designer is able to identify, retrieve, and transfer
the structural principle from a within domain display, which is crucial for finding the single
appropriate solution to the well-defined problem.
Successful ill-defined problem solving aided by visual analogy

In contrast to the previous design session, the student started from a general perusing over the
available visual sources. Before focusing on any specific image the subject says:
I am now looking at the visual displays perhaps they will help me to focus on the program requirements and [will
also aid] in finding a possible solution for the viewing-terrace [design problem].
With the purpose of identifying structural relationships that may help to establish an analogy, the
student decides to explore some of the visual displays. Suddenly, the subject focuses on a particular
between-domain image that seemed to deal with the principle of digging into the ground, and
comments:
Now looking at the graphic information displayed here I see that the spiral [figure 6]helps me to think about [the
principle of] digging into the ground
Figure 6: Displays for the 'Viewing Terrace problem. (a) downwards spiral object. (b) Pompidou
Cultural Center by Renzo Piano. (c) fire brigade connection point. (d) respiratory and perspiration
systems. (e) water spreading from a canilla.
The novice designer continues working, and establishes a mapping of deep (structural)
relationships between the visual source and part of the design requirements. In the next stage of the
design process, the subject succeeds in transferring them to the problem. A sketch is made
illustrating the relationship between the precipice and a sector of the viewing terrace that have a
strong contact with the ground (section, figure 7).
If I want to design a part of the viewing terrace with maximum contact with the ground I need to work in drawing
section. The question is how to design the viewing-terrace to answer to the design requirements. Well there might be
many possibilitiesIn order to reach a maximum contact I can dig into the ground through a tunnel, or through a
canal This is a part [of the viewing-terrace] going deep into the groundIt is clear that this part is surrounded all
over by ground so that [the terrace] is in maximum contact with it [the ground].
Figure 7: Sketch I (ill-defined problem). Section drawing of the viewing terrace -maximum contact
with the ground.
The subject continues working, and in an attempt to identify an analogical principle that might help
to deal with the second programmatic requirement of minimum contact with the ground, the
board is surveyed once again. While exploring the functions of within domain and between
domain images, principles such as climbing up, exit out, and detachment are noticed, and then
used to establish an additional analogy with the design problem:
I can see the facade of the Pompidou [Cultural Center] [figure 6b] which makes me feel a sort of climbing up. Oh but
image 17 [figure 6c], image 9[figure 6d], and the water spreading out [figure 6e] help me to understand the idea of exit
out or detachment from the ground.
The designer continues developing the initial sketch, and manages to transfer the above-mentioned
analogical principles to the design problem. The underground sector of the viewing terrace is
successfully connected with a new sector largely detached from the ground (see section and plan,
figure 8).
Now I will try to deal with the second design constraint concerned with the design of the remaining part of the
viewing-terrace with a minimum contact [with the ground]. It is impossible to totally detach the viewing terrace from
the ground, at least with the available technology of todayTherefore I would think in some kind of technology that
might allow me to suspend part of the viewing terrace on the air. I will add a couple of columns so that the suspended
plate will hang on them, while it is connected to the underground passage through this connecting point [staircases].
Figure 8: Sketch I (ill-defined problem). (a) Plan and (b) Section drawings of the viewing terrace
maximum and minimum contact with the ground.
In the final stage of the design process, the novice student was able to map and transfer deep
relationships between the viewing-terrace problem, and suspension and underground principles
from different analogical sources. Although a number of different designs were possible, we
maintain that the availability of visual displays, and instructions to use analogy aided the subject in
finding a successful solution. As a result the programmatic design requirements, of keeping each
sector of the viewing terrace with maximum and minimum contact with the ground were fully
met.
10
By comparing the two design sessions, we found a number of differences in the way subjects
approach the problem in each design context. When an ill-defined problem is assigned, the designer
starts the session by familiarizing himself with the assortment of visual displays. The student is
confident that these will help to clarify the design goals. Although both a within domain visual
display and between domain visual displays are identified as potential analogs, the latter seemed
to be more helpful in finding a successful design solution. In ill-defined problem solving, where a
large number of unpredictable solutions is possible to be found, between domain (remote) visual
displays proved to have better chances to contribute in finding novel design solutions. The
production of sketches were helpful to represent the way that the analogical principle is applied to
the design solution.
Contrary to this, when a well-defined problem is assigned, the other student begins the session with
an attempt to clarify what the main goals of the problem are. Although well-defined problems are
characterized by completely specified initial conditions, as well as clear goals, the lack of
experience does not allow the novice designer, in the first stage of the design process, to understand
what the problem constraints are. The design session turned out to be a puzzle-like solving
problem, which called for the use of an efficient algorithm to generate a satisfactory solution. But
the inexperienced student, who has not yet developed knowledge structures, was unable to apply
any algorithm or some kind of routine procedure. The first sketches aided to visualize and
understand the major constraints, and only afterwards to start looking at the visual displays as
potential analogs. Although the student was also able to identify a between domain display and a
within domain display both as potential analogs, the latter (a display that belongs to a domain
close to the problem at hand) helped to establish a deep analogy that lead to the unique design
solution.
Well-defined and ill-defined design problems: quantitative results

In this section we show statistical results regarding the use of visual analogy obtained in the
different groups of subjects that participated in the empirical tasks. In order to test the hypothesis of
this work, we carried out the experiment described above. The individual performance of students
and professional designers in the test and control conditions, were compared in both design
problems. In the ill-defined problems/ test condition, 68 solutions were obtained (21 by architects,
25 by advanced designers, and 22 by beginning designers). In the ill-defined problems/ control
condition, 62 solutions were obtained (19 by architects, 22 by advanced designers, and 21 by
beginning designers). In the well-defined problems/ test condition, 38 solutions were obtained (11
by architects, 13 by advanced designers, and 14 by beginning designers). In the well-defined
problems/ control condition, 35 solutions were obtained (11 by architects, 12 by advanced
designers, and 12 by beginning designers).
The hypothesis, that the use of visual analogy plays a more important role in ill-defined design
problem-solving than in well-defined problem-solving, was partially confirmed. Contrary to what
was predicted with the provision of visual displays and explicit instructions to use analogy, students
who solved ill-defined design problems performed as good as those who solved well-defined design
problems. However, architects who solved ill-defined design problems achieved significantly better
results, than those architects who solved well-defined design problems. Tables 1 and 2 present
results of a comparison between test and control conditions in both design contexts.
A discussion and main conclusions about these findings are offered in the next section.
11
Experimental Condition
Displays Provided
Instructions to use Analogy
(Control Condition)
Displays Provided
No instructions to use Analogy
(Test Condition)
phi
Beginning Students
---------------
<.063
.387
Advanced Students
---------------
<.042
.415
Architects
---------------
<.148
.313
Table 1: Well-defined design problems: quality of designs as a result of the use of visual analogy.
Experimental Condition
Displays Provided
Instructions to use Analogy
(Control Condition)
Mean
Displays Provided
No instructions to use Analogy
(Test Condition)
Mean
Beginning Students
2.621
<.001 -3.10
3.463
Advanced Students
2.939
<.002 -2.98
3.731
Architects
3.236
<.001 -3.68
3.984
Table 2: Ill-defined design problems: quality of designs as a result of the use of visual analogy.
Conclusions and discussion

A comparative analysis of results, obtained in the experiment where visual displays and explicit
instructions to use analogy were given, partially validates the working hypothesis, which states that:
the use of analogy plays a more important role in ill-defined design problem solving than in welldefined problem solving.
From results of this experiment we see that inexperienced students, who have not yet developed
knowledge structures, have the cognitive ability to use analogy as a problem-solving strategy. The
use of analogy for them, has a similar importance in ill-defined problem-solving (when trying to
find unexpected relations between certain sources and the problem), as in well-defined problemsolving (when looking for a unique specific analogical relation). This contradicts the expectation
that students who solved ill-defined problems will perform better than those who solved welldefined ones. We suggest that instructions to use analogy contributed to an increase in capturing
their attention to previously overlooked structural relationships between, some of the visual sources
and the design problem components. It also helped them to enhance the exploration of several
unexpected possible solutions. Although we thought that students are able to successfully use visual
analogy in ill-defined problem solving, we also thought that inexperienced students, who generally
lack problem-solving algorithms, are not able to spontaneously apply routine processes to
successfully solve well-defined problems. One of the reasons for thinking in this way is that
searching for a finite number of possible solutions, which are supposed to be reached through the
12
use of an appropriate algorithm, is an unfamiliar and non-routine process for novices. Moreover, the
use of analogy is limited to establishing high-level relations between visual sources and the target
problem. Therefore, students who generally do not have a large knowledge base relevant to the
problem, usually have difficulty to identify a single solution principle. However, it is seen that the
implementation of analogy might have been especially useful in providing a new understanding of
an unknown domain in terms of a known domain, and thus assisted them in well-defined problem
solving as well.
Results from the group of architects validated the research hypothesis. It is observed that these
subjects benefited from the use of analogy, which helped to enhance the quality of their design
solutions in ill-defined problem-solving, but did not benefit from the use of analogy in solving welldefined problems. It can be said, that instructions to use visual analogy encouraged architects to
expand the boundaries of known and even conventional ill-defined designs, while searching for a
number of unpredictable solutions. Reasoning by analogy probably helped them to increase their
awareness regarding unexpected deep relations between certain clue-harboring displays and the
design target. This might lead them to new reformulations of ill-defined problems in nonconventional ways. However, in a comparative analysis of well-defined problems, it was seen that
instructions to use visual analogy did not lead to different results in the test condition when
compared to the control condition. An interpretation of these findings is that architects have enough
expertise to successfully identify, and use, potential analogical sources, and thus do not need
additional instructions to reason by analogy. Another explanation is that experienced architects have
such developed knowledge structures, that the use of analogy in well-defined problems cannot assist
them further. Therefore, it is possible, that at least for conceptual design problem-solving, instead of
using analogy, architects preferred to retrieve familiar algorithms, routine processes, or adapt
existing solutions, which led them to successful well-defined problem solutions. If this argument is
valid, it can be concluded that mastering problem-solving algorithms and adapting existing
solutions to similar problems, might be a better strategy for well-defined design problem-solving.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank Prof. Gabriela Goldschmidt, who supervised Hernan Casakins Doctoral
dissertation The role of analogy and visual displays in architectural design, on which this paper is
based.
13
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15

C. Cerulli School of Architecture, University of Sheffield, UK
C. Peng School of Architecture, University of Sheffield, UK
B. Lawson School of Architecture, University of Sheffield, UK
Abstract
In this paper the development and the outcome of the completed EPSRC funded ADS (Project
Advanced Design Support for the Construction Design Process) will be presented. The focus of the
project was mainly on managing design information without intruding too much on the design
process. The ADS prototype can facilitate a change towards a more collaborative process in
construction design by improving the effectiveness of decision-making throughout the project and
to provide clients with the facility to relate design outcomes to design briefs across the whole
building life cycle.
Finally some of the emerging research strands generated by this piece of work will be introduced.

Introduction
In this paper we will present the development and the outcome of the completed EPSRC funded
Advanced Design Support (ADS) for the Construction Design Process Project as well as
introducing some of the emerging lines of investigation generated by this piece of research.
The ADS Project built upon the technical results of an earlier project (COMMIT) to exploit and
demonstrate the benefits of a CAD based Design Decision Support System. The COMMIT
prototype system could store knowledge about knowledge within a design process. ADS, aiming to
apply the generic COMMIT system to construction domain specific processes, linked COMMIT to
an existing object-oriented CAD system, MicroStation/J from Bentley Systems. The combined
system is able to record design decisions, the actors who take them and the roles they played. It also
enables members of the project team, including clients and constructors, to browse and search the
recorded project history of decision making both during and after design development.
The ADS project facilitates change towards a more collaborative process in construction design, to
improve the effectiveness of decision-making throughout the project and to provide clients with the
facility to relate design outcomes to design briefs across the whole building life cycle. The project
focused on the thorny problem of managing design information without intruding too much on the
design process. After the ADS prototype was tested with historical data of a real project, described
elsewhere (Peng, Cerulli et al. 2000), the testing and evaluation was extended to a real ongoing
project to gather valuable knowledge about how a Decision Support System like ADS can be used
in practice. The objective of these trials was to assess the extent to which the underlying ADS
approach enhances the design process, and to gather and document the views and experiences of
practitioners. A full account of the field trials, carried out over a three-month period at the Building
Design Partnership (BDP) Manchester office, is also published elsewhere (Cerulli, Peng et al. 2001;
Cooper, Rezgui et al. 2001).
In this paper we summarise the outcome of the ADS research project with a particular focus on user
feedback, stressing how this fed into further research currently being developed. Some suggestions
were made by the users for strategies to increase the likelihood of an ADS type tool being
successfully used in practice. This included pairing up ADS with other commonly used software in
practice, thus reducing the real or perceived workload of having to use an extra application.
Finally we present two stems of the original ADS system that are currently being explored: one is
the use of ADS functionalities in conjunction with Internet based Project Extranets and the other is
the use of process models as contextual frameworks for Design Rationale information. Both these
strands of research have in common the fact that they pair up the ADS Design Rationale (DR)
capturing functionalities with some other software application already in use by the target users. We
hypothesise that by attaching DR info to another set of design information [another subset of the
WHOLE project design info], being it the process model or the project extranet, it will reduce the
amount of contextual information needed to be input to describe design decisions, making the DR
gathering process substantially leaner and, hopefully, more effective.
The ADS project

The ADS Project (Advanced Design Support for the Construction Design Process) was funded
under the Innovative Manufacturing Initiative by the EPSRC and aimed to exploit and demonstrate
the benefits of a CAD-based Design Decision Support System. The project built upon earlier work
on the theoretical information management concepts developed in the COMMIT project
(Construction Modelling and Methodologies for Intelligent Information Integration), an earlier
EPSRC funded project. ADS developed from COMMIT by incorporating its advanced information
management and decision support techniques into an existing object-oriented CAD system
(MicroStation/J from Bentley Systems), and applying this tool to the management of design
information and decision making in a real life project provided by the Manchester Office of
Building Design Partnership (BDP), a large multidisciplinary design practice.
Both the COMMIT and ADS projects were concerned with defining mechanisms to handle the
proactive management of information to support decision-making in collaborative projects. In
implementing the COMMIT approach in a real design situation, though, the emphasis shifted
towards learning and understanding more about the decision-making process within design
activities. ADS focused on how to provide designers with tools for recording and managing the
group dynamics of design decision-making in a project's lifetime, with the explicit intention to
minimise any intrusion on the design process itself.
The deliverable of the ADS Project was an advanced CAD tool that facilitates capturing designers'
rationales underlying their decision-making throughout the design and construction development.
The system also enables members of the project team (extendable to all the actors involved in the
process, including clients), to search and browse the recorded project history of decision-making,
during and after design development.
Commit and beyond
As mentioned above, the ADS project was set up to bring forward the developments from the
COMMIT project, which was concerned with the management of information to support decision
making in multi-actor environments. It addressed six primary issues that are central to information
management:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The handling of ownership, rights and responsibilities;

Versioning of information;
Schema evolution;
Recording of intent behind decisions leading to information;
Tracking of dependencies between pieces of information;
Notification and propagation of changes.
Many of these are distinct issues, but they have been found to be closely inter-related, making it
difficult to address them individually. During the COMMIT project, the Institute of Information
Systems (ISI) at the University of Salford has employed object-oriented technologies (first in C++
then in JAVA) to implement an information management framework that addressed the above
problems (Brown, Rezgui et al. 1996).
COMMIT and ADS do not impose a decision making sequence, leaving it to the design team, but
provide an infrastructure through which all members of the team have the opportunity to be aware
of what decisions were made, who made them and when as well as why. The way in which this is
achieved is described elsewhere (Rezgui, Cooper et al. 1998).
ADS: aims and objectives

The key aim of the ADS project was to develop a system adequate to demonstrate an objectoriented approach to managing design decision-making across the whole building life cycle. The
ADS research project was also seen as an opportunity to investigate a number of issues concerning
computer-mediated collaborative design processes such as the integration of recording/capturing
design intents/rationales into a general CAD platform.
ADS provides designers with the tools to record any information related to a particular design
decision-making process. That information can then be recalled and accessed by other actors
involved in the process such as clients, other designers, contractors etc. At any point in time the
actors involved in the process are enabled to make informed design decisions in the light of the
information about other design decisions that are being or have been made by other project actors
and that relate to the current one. The system supports and facilitates the collaborative
asynchronous decision-making process.
Feedback supported continuous development

Throughout the project feedback from users and members of the construction Industry were used as
a tool for refining the system, generating several development cycles. A detailed description of the
ADS system and its continuous development is available elsewhere (Cooper, Rezgui et al. 2000;
Peng, Cerulli et al. 2000; Cerulli, Peng et al. 2001; Cooper, Rezgui et al. 2001).
Several were the mechanisms used at different stages to collect feedback about the system, its
usability and its appropriateness for construction design practice: a) Retrospective case studies:
two case studies were carried out using project historical data to populate the ADS system; b)
Workshops; three workshops were conducted inviting practitioners, academics and various
construction industry professionals; c) Field Study: one live case study was carried out testing the
ADS prototype on a real ongoing project. Feedback from the users was recorded throughout the
experiment; c) Interviews with practitioners: a series of interviews were conducted with members
of leading practices to disseminate objectives and results of the ADS Project as well as collecting
system feedback and broadening the scope of user requirements gathering.
Retrospective case studies
Case Studies were used as strategy for collecting a significant amount of real practice data
regarding the design decision process, project information management and flow, documentation
and communication.
To maximise the amount of data gathered within a limited time frame and, therefore, to allow more
development iterations, it was initially chosen to use historical data. A large amount of project
information was made available by the industrial partners and the histories of segments of design
development were reconstructed for some projects from drawings, correspondence and interviews.
Using historical data does have some limitations deriving from the post rationalization of design
information. Within the broader ADS strategy for information gathering, though, these limitations
were compensated by real-time project data collected during the live case study.
The retrospective case studies were carried out one at the beginning of the ADS project as a starting
point for user requirement definition, and one towards the end of the project to gather requirements
for future research.
Field Trials
Following the pilot Case Study in which ADS was populated with historical data, the ADS
prototype was tested on live projects with the collaboration of BDP. An account of the completed
ADS Live Case Study and a critical evaluation of the system is published in (Cerulli, Peng et al.
2001; Cooper, Rezgui et al. 2001).
ADS was used to record design decisions as they are made over a 4-month segment of the overall
design processes. The projects used for the trials are: the Round Foundry Residential and Retail
Development in Leeds, the Deansgate Hotel and M&S New Store Refurbishment in Central
Manchester (M&S Ref hereafter). Mainly, two of the designers involved in these projects were
using ADS.
During the field trials particular care was taken to avoid any interference with the design
development as well as any imposition regarding the frequency at which to insert data in the
system. Designers regularly e-mailed the updated ADS project database and the model files (in dgn
format, the proprietary format for MicroStation by Bentley Systems. At the time of the field trials
BDP Manchester Office was using MicroStation). Short meetings were held periodically to gather
feedback about system and interface usability and for post hoc interviews about the data analysis.
One of the main objectives of the ADS field trials was data gathering: populating the system with
real data gathered in real time, in anger, without any artificial simplification of the design process.
Associated with this objective was the intention to explore the potential of ADS as a tool for
carrying out research on design processes as an unobtrusive way to monitor real design processes,
without significantly interfering with the observed process. ADS could support new methods of
investigation by complementing existing ones where they have flaws. Lawson identifies five
methods of investigating design processes: 1) speculating about design, 2) laboratory observation of
designers under rigorous empirical conditions, 3) observing designers at work in the studio, 4)
listening to designers telling about the work they do, either by interviewing them or reading what
they have written about their process and 5) simulating the design process (Lawson 1997). All these
ways of researching design processes have been tried and each appears to have some flaws. Either
the events studied do not reflect real events or the analysis is bound to be biased by the
investigators personal perceptions or the experiments deal with artificially limited phases of design
or the fact that knowledge about the process often remains implicit in the designers head. Despite
the ADS system being originally developed as an innovative tool for supporting decision making in
design (Cooper, Rezgui et al. 2000; Peng, Cerulli et al. 2000) the research group realized that it
could also offer a fundamentally new methodology for studying the design processes by capturing
design development events in a relatively unobtrusive way. Effectively this offers Lawsons third
technique to cut any on-line intrusion. The ADS database can later serve to provide stimulus for
interviews (Lawsons 4 method) but without distortion of memory.
Another key objective of the ADS field trials is the evaluation of both the ADS System and the
User Interface. It has to be pointed out that these field trials are regarded as a tool to support the
system development: user feedback and evaluation, as well as results of the project data analysis fed
back directly into the development that runs in parallel to the experiment. Incremental changes to
the system were continuously implemented and released for testing and evaluation and a few
development cycles were iterated throughout the duration of the case study.
Data gathered
A number of design decisions were recorded into the system. A detailed description of the ADS
Decision Record is available in (Cerulli, Peng et al. 2001).
To illustrate the type of data gathered let us consider one of the decisions recorded during Field
Trials - Phase I (Figure 1) committed by the actor Garrett, S. in her role of Architect, to which the
rights of creating/deleting/modifying the model had been assigned. The user was left totally free to
determine at what point to commit a decision, the amount of information to insert and the number
of design changes to be included in a single decision or transaction. The rationale for that decision
was input in an unstructured form in a free-text box, and, for the decision in examination, reads as
follows: Building B: revised stair to allow access from bin store at ground level. Revised floor
levels in sections to correspond with stair layout. The system also stored information about the
CAD elements (dgn objects) involved in that decision. They belonged to two different dgn files:
ap0120_02.dgn; a plan, and ascc20_02.dgn; a section (the relevant portion of those files is shown in
Figure 1). The Select Objects button allows highlighting the CAD object involved in the decisions
when one of the files containing them is open (MicroStation does not allow having more than one
dgn file open at one time).
Figure 1: Illustration of a design decision

Lessons learnt
At the time of the field studies the ADS system as a recording tool was still under testing and under
development. The data structure proved to be versatile, easily accommodating changes and
developments in the software architecture. Minimum intrusiveness is crucial to the success of any
decision support and design rationale-gathering tool. With ADS the granularity of decisions is
determined entirely by the designer using the system.
Obviously the benefits deriving from recording design rationale are proportional to the quantity of
data gathered and, possibly, inversely proportional to the granularity of
events/decisions/transactions. A potential impediment or deterrent to the data gathering is the fact
that it is likely that the main beneficiary of such activity is not going to be the very person that is
requested to input the data into the system. But there is also a cultural dimension of the construction
design process that determines the success of design rationale and project information capturing. It
is possible to envision a gradual increase in the amount of information recorded into the system as
the designers become more aware of the real potential benefits of recording design rationale.
The user response was very sympathetic towards the overall objectives of the system. Frustration
was occasionally expressed towards the limitations of specific implementations. In particular
limitations in processing speed were pointed out as disruptive and intrusive.
During the field trials, the need for fine-tuning the system data recording functionalities to the user
needs necessarily shifted the focus on the ADS system as a data gathering tool rather than a design
aid tool. Future developments of the ADS system will need to place more emphasis on improving
the retrieval of information and to implement extra functionalities like the notification of changes to
potentially affected objects, mechanisms for mapping relationships between decision (affected and
pending decisions) and the nesting of design decisions.
Potential applications of ADS

During the feedback gathering exercise a few suggestions were made by users and members of the
industry for strategies to increase the chances of a tool like ADS to be used successfully in practice.
They mainly advocated pairing up ADS with other software that is already being used in practice,
integrating them in a seamless way. This would reduce the extra workload, either real or perceived,
of having to use an extra application and users would access the ADS tool through a software
environment or framework they are already familiar with. It was suggested that by adding ADS
functionalities onto a software tool that is already accepted by the users community, the change
towards the adoption of a design rationale-gathering system will be incremental and we can
hypothesise that this would increase the software usage rate and therefore the design rationale data
gathered.
The software environments indicated by the users as candidate media into which plug-in the ADS
functionalities, are companies Intranets, Information Management Systems [e.g. Columbus by
Arup] and software dealing with the ISSUING of drawing for periodical publication. When issuing
a drawing, e.g., it is necessary to attach SOME information about what is contained in that drawing
and how it is different from previous versions of the same drawing. It was suggested that such
environments could be very favourable for the gathering of design rationale data because the users
would only be asked to complement and complete information that they had to spend time
providing anyway with the issuing or the exchanging of drawing [for legal reasons].
Other suggestions were made for potential fields of application of ADS as a tool for various subprocesses of the whole construction design process: Briefing, Client Changes, Quality Procedures,
Personnel Management; Value Management. For instance let us illustrate how ADS could become a
tool to support the ongoing briefing process. In one of the retrospective case studies a scenario was
described in which the exchange of various pieces of information amongst various stakeholders in
the project was supported by ADS. A step forward in this direction would be to have the brief
requirements to become objects of the project database and allow for them to be linked by various
types of relationships to the other object like, e.g. decisions. Meeting minutes and workshops
reports should be transformed into a series of object of the ADS db. In this scenario ADS would
become a briefing support tool: it could allow, e.g., to relate design decisions to requirements, to
identify client requests that have not been addressed by the design team or simply to learn from
previous projects.
Future research
In this final section we will introduce two lines of investigation stemming from ADS that are
currently being explored: one is concerning the use of ADS Design Rationale (DR) capturing
functionalities in conjunction with Internet based Project Extranets and the other is mainly dealing
with the use of process models as contextual frameworks for DR information.
Within the ADS Project the need for and the feasibility of collecting construction design project
data were demonstrated and the information management model that supports doing it was
developed. In addition, an advanced decision support tool was implemented and tested on
construction projects while ongoing. Ads developed and implemented a method to track all design
decisions, their owners, their timing and consequences. ADS was linked directly to a CAD system
(Bentley MicroStation) and a decision record was triggered by a change to the CAD model. One of
the main lessons learnt within ADS was that, to strategically gather meaningful project information,
the design rationale recording tools need to be stand-alone applications, independent from the CAD
environment and accessible to all the project stakeholders. Although the idea of linking changes to
the CAD model seemed sensible and to be minimising intrusion, it has turned out to be both
technically complex and restrictive. A further lesson was that capturing the rationale behind
decisions is essential to make the tool fully usable. The level of detail at which rationale needs to be
captured became clearer as a result of ADS but it needs further investigation, supported by an
extensive set of data.
The two strands of research described below have combined the ADS DR capturing functionalities
with some other software application already in use by the intended users. The pairing up of ADS
with other software was suggested by users in the ADS feedback-gathering exercises and the
rationale behind it is the hypothesis that attaching DR information to another set of design
information [another subset of the WHOLE project design information], it being the process model
or the project extranet, will make the DR gathering process substantially leaner and more effective
by reducing the amount of contextual information that the user is required to input to describe
design decisions. Despite the sharing with ADS of most of the underlying ideas, future research will
promote a substantially different strategy for design rationale capturing in construction processes.
While ADS, by being integrated with a CAD tool, had the limitation of supporting the generation of
design rationale information at drawing level, future research seeks to develop a suite of tools that
are active at a higher level, where key decisions are more likely to be made. The systems developed
will aim to capture design decisions (in a robust yet non-invasive manner), store them, and enable
rapid retrieval (again, without impeding the design process) to assist the design team in both
rationalising their design outputs and making more considered decisions during the design process
on future projects.
ADS functionalities and project extranets
One of the research strands stemming from ADS that is currently being pursued is concerned with
identifying, recognising, facilitating and supporting good practice in Internet based project
information management tools for construction design projects. The focus is on the support,
observation, knowledge-capturing and process analysis of a number of design projects, selected
amongst ones using Project Extranet solutions. Functionalities of the ADS software, will be built
into existing commercial Project Extranet software to complement them not only as tools to support
and facilitate the collaborative design process, but also as tools for design rationale capturing and
retrieving and for briefing support.
A recent survey by Construction Plus (2001) highlighted how an increasing number of UK
construction projects are now using a range of web based collaboration and information
management tools. At the date of publication of the survey over 1,500 British construction projects
with a total capital value of over 20bn were using project extranet tools. Project Extranets clients,
as buyers of project collaboration and information management solutions, are aware of the potential
benefits of new IT enabled processes and, therefore, appear as suitable partners for conducting
research on design decision support systems.
The proposed research will be carried out on real life projects, as they are developing, without
altering their course. The main aim will be to record and capture design rationales against various
types of information exchanges recorded and tracked by the Project Extranet software. By
complementing technology that is already in place and being used successfully in practice this
research will constitute an invaluable opportunity to both study these processes enabled by cutting
edge technology and to investigate the potential of ADS design rationale gathering and retrieving
functionalities in the framework of Project Extranet.
This research will also allow investigating the potential of ADS as a Briefing support tool
throughout the duration of a project.
Process models as frameworks for DR data gathering and retrieving
Another line of investigation stemming from the ADS project is the one that sees its DR capturing
functionalities integrated with process tools to record and capture design rationales against a userspecified process model. This research will allow investigating the terminology, process, and
structure of a detailed design programme, providing the industrial partners with a tool for validating
and appraising their process models as well as recording DR for design decisions.
To achieve this the ADS prototype will be further extended to develop new functionality that will
allow members of a design team to program their own process model as the reference framework
for capturing design rationales during the projects lifetime. No pre-determined process models will
be imposed by the ADS system: ADS will provide generic constructs and functionality that can be
specified and instantiated by the design teams to form their own design process model. The process
model attributes will be generic and optional.
The industrial partners will test the software developing bespoke project programmes for the trial
project using their existing internal design models and design planning techniques. The design
team, including designers, suppliers, and so on, will be asked to utilise the ADS system as they
progress through the detailed design stage. The decisions that are captured will be related to the
design programme, which will act as the datum against which we record the decisions and
agreements that are made.
References
(2001). Over 1500 projects now under management, AJ Plus. 2001.
http://www.ajplus.co.uk/proj_collaboration/?pid=3&sid=84&aid=17879&channelid
=28&dDate=16+July+2002+14%3A30%3A32
Brown, A., Y. Rezgui, et al. (1996). "Promoting Computer Integrated Construction Through the
Use of Distribution Technology." ITcon 1: 1-16.
Cerulli, C., C. Peng, et al. (2001). Capturing Histories of Design Processes for Collaborative
Building Design Development: Field Trial of the ADS Prototype. CAAD Futures, Eindhoven, The
Netherlands, Eindhoven University of Technology,.
Cooper, G., Y. Rezgui, et al. (2001). CAD-Based Trials of an API for Decision Support.
Construction Information Technology CIB W78, Mpumalanga, South Africa.
Cooper, G., Y. Rezgui, et al. (2000). A CAD-Based Decision Support System for
the Design Stage of a Construction Project. 5th International Conference on Design and Decision
Support Systems in Architecture and Urban Planning, Nijkerk.
Lawson, B. (1997). How Designers Think. The Design Process Demystified. Oxford, Architectural
Press, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Peng, C., C. Cerulli, et al. (2000). Recording and Managing Design Decision-Making Processes
through an Object-Oriented Framework. 5th International Conference on Design and Decision
Support Systems in Architecture and Urban Planning, Nijkerk.
Rezgui, Y., G. Cooper, et al. (1998). "Information Management in a Collaborative Multiactor
Environment: The COMMIT approach." ASCE Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering 12(3):
136-144.
10

design
C.-D. Chen Chang-Gung University, Taiwan
S. A. R. Scrivener VIDe Research Centre, Coventry University, UK
A. Woodcock VIDe Research Centre, Coventry University, UK
Abstract
Talking about and with things is characteristic of design communication. In this paper we are
concerned with how to design computer-mediated communication (CMC) systems that support
such talk between designers separated by distance. We describe a design method based on
Scriveners (2002) postulate that users in a communication environment satisfy communication
purpose by selecting, from the resources available to them, that most appropriate for
communication purpose. A method for enhancing the overall utility of a given CMC environment is
described where analysis of the shifts between resources reveals insight into their relative strengths
and weaknesses which is then used to synthesise design improvements. It is claimed that because
the method focuses on user behaviour in a particular communication environment it facilitates the
discovery of the latent communication possibilities offered by that environment. Nevertheless,
because the method yields statements that describe visual communication needs independently of
the particular communication environment studied, the needs uncovered by using it should prove
characteristic of a broad range of visual communication contexts.

design
Introduction
Designers routinely talk about things. Increasingly, this talk about things is between designers who
are separated by distance. In design the visual sense predominates; multifarious artefacts populate
the designers world. Office furniture, videos, magazines, books, products, drawings, computer
displays and design models, inter alia, are all grist to the designers mill; they are the maidservants
of creativity and communication. The visual is so important to designers that they prefer to show
rather than to tell: often, when thinking and talking, designers will requisition a napkin, the back of
an envelope, virtually anything at hand, as a display for showing. We are interested in how
designers separated by distance talk about things when talking, showing and seeing is mediated by a
computer in real-time, because we wish to develop ways of designing efficient and effective
computer-mediated communication (CMC) systems.
Scrivener (2002) has argued that that current approaches toward understanding mediated
communication environments have provided neither reliable design requirements for CMC systems,
nor methods for enhancing the performance of such systems. Instead, he (ibid.) argues we should be
exploring how users communicate in a given CMC environment with a view to understanding how
the performance of that system might be improved. He (idid.) postulates that in a multimedia
communication environment:
1. A user will only select resources that are sufficient for the communication purpose at that
moment. A resource that is insufficient for a particular communication purpose will never be
used for that purpose.
2. A user will only employ those resources that are needed for the communication purpose at that
moment. A resource that is not needed for a particular communication purpose will not be used
for that purpose.
3. Given a set of redundant resources, each of which is sufficient and needed for the
communication purpose at a given moment, a user will select that which is most appropriate for
the communication purpose at that moment.
This being the case, the selection of one communication resource from among others implies that
the selected resource offers some benefit over those not selected. Scrivener (2002) has argued that
by analysing the selection of communication resources, we can uncover these benefits and thereby
offer insights into how a system might be modified both to reduce the weaknesses and enhance the
strengths of the available resources.
Acknowledging this approach, we will describe a design method based on communication resource
selection that comprises five-stages: assessing resource strengths and weaknesses, formulating
redesign recommendations, resolving inconsistent recommendations, redesigning the system, and,
finally, testing the performance of the refined system. Although the method can be applied to any
computer-mediated visual design communication system, the weaknesses, strengths and
improvements of each system will be particular to that system and therefore unlikely to be
generalised. Nevertheless, we will show that analysis of resource strengths and weaknesses leads to
statements of communicational need that are independent of the particular resources employed in a
given system.
Visible representations and objects in design

Broadly speaking, the outcome of designing is the specification of an object that, when made,
people will see, touch and interact with. Given the primacy of the visual sense in the apprehension
of objects, the corresponding dominance of drawings and three-dimensional models in design
specification is not too surprising. However, these visual representations are not merely tools for
conveying the results of designing. They are produced, used, and re-used in various forms
throughout the design process, functioning both to support design cognition and design
communication. Recently, both of these functions have been the subject of much research, and in
each case computer-mediated design can be seen as a motivating factor.
Computer-aided design has been a reality for more than thirty years and yet designers still prefer to
use the humble sketch in the early stages of design. It is now becoming increasingly difficult to
argue that this is due to resistance to change or lack of training. Generally speaking, CAD is now
fully embraced by the design community, being widely used in industry and a key component of
design education. This has led to the suggestion that sketching and sketches must support design
cognition in ways that computers currently do not (cf., Fish and Scrivener 1990), and to sustained
effort on unraveling the complex relationship between sketching and cognition (cf., Purcell 1998,
Goldschmidt and Porter 2000).
Computer-aided design is also behind recent research exploring the role of visible representations in
design communication. Here, it is the computers possibilities rather than its limitations that are
stimulating activity. In many domains, design is becoming increasingly team-based. At the same
time, the globalisation of design, both in production and markets, means that design teams are often
composed of members separated by distance and time. For example, in 24hr Follow the Sun
Design a developing design is passed from one design team member to another as the ones
working day ends and the others begins (Lindemann, Anderl, Gierhardt and Fadell 2000).
Likewise, the Taiwanese government is helping indigenous manufacturers to expand their markets
by funding projects where designers from these markets work with them (Woodcock, Lee and
Scrivener 2000). This trend toward team and distributed design suggests that while design
communication is likely to increase, the opportunity for face-to-face working is likely to decrease.
This raises the spectre of more but less efficient and effective design communication, stimulating
the investigation of how designers communicate with and about the visible representations and
artefacts populating their working environment.
Determining design communication requirements

Many researchers have taken face-to-face working as the starting point for determining the
requirements of computer-mediated design communication systems. Tang (1989) and Bly (1988)
studied designers working in face-to-face settings, describing the role of gaze, gesture and drawing
in design communication. Later studies addressed other design communicative materials. Harrison
and Minneman (1996) have shown how objects at hand are used pervasively in design
communication as self referents, as stand-ins for other objects, and in combination with utterances
or representations of the objects being designed. Similarly, Logan and Radcliffe (2000) explored the
role of artefacts in a longitudinal study of a Rehabilitation Engineering Centre where rehabilitation
engineers, technicians and occupational therapists collaborate as a team to match assistive
technologies with individuals requirements, to increase their independence by reducing handicap.
Lindemann, Assmann and Stetter (1999) have argued that the persuasiveness and motivational
impact of design communication can be enhanced by the selective use of virtual (i.e., CAD),
graphical and physical design models. In a similar vein, Wagner examined the role of what she calls
persuasive artefacts, both digital and tangible, in architectural design cooperation (2000: 380).
Minneman and Harrison (1997) have observed that as a design project progresses, the objects that
are actively employed by designers during the process change and accumulate in the studio on all
available surfaces. They call these artefacts process ephemera (ibid,. :18) and argue that their
ephemerality resides in the fact that they are useful in the moment, the cocktail-napkin sketch being
a typical example. They are also ephemeral in relation to a project and other project
representations. Minneman and Harrison (ibid.) argue that a rich assemblage of ephemera is a
means through which collective understanding is expressed and discussed.
These studies reveal something of perceived importance of visible representations, artefacts, and
objects are employed during design communication. It has been assumed by many that the
communicative media and behaviour of face-to-face working are necessary for effective design
communication, leading to often highly novel CMC environments designed to replicate face-to-face
working. For example, Ishii and Kobayashis ClearBoard system (1992) allows collaborators to
assess each others line of gaze, whether directed at a person or the workspace. Nevertheless, such
studies do not in themselves allow us to conclude that the behaviour observed in face-to-face
working is necessary for successful computer-mediated design communication. Consequently, the
question of which media are needed to support which behaviour in computer-mediated
communication has been explored by comparing different CMC environments to each other and to
face-to-face working. However, Scrivener (2002) argues against this approach, concluding that it is
not a question of what media is best for what groups doing what tasks in what contexts, its a
question of how do we get the best out of the communication media available in a particular
context.
In this paper we take forward this idea, focusing on visually-supported communication.
Specifically, we explore the following:
1. How do we identify events in a communication environment where verbal design
communication is supported by visualisation?
2. What does the analysis of these events tell us about communication needs?
3. How does this analysis lead to recommendations for improving the particular communication
environment studied for visually-supported communication?
We will conclude by proposing a design method based around the steps undertaken when exploring
the above questions.
Identifying events where verbalisation is coupled with visualisation

According to Scrivener (2002) we must begin by observing design communication in a particular
mediated-communication environment. Hence, we conducted a study that allowed such
observation. Given our interest in the visual in design communication, our focus was on events
where verbalisation is coupled with visualisation.
The participants and the task

Three design dyads participated in the study. One participant, an industrial design tutor at the
University of Derby with more than 25 years experience as a practicing designer, was common to
each team. The other three participants were BSc Industrial Design students in their final year of
study at Loughborough University. The task was based on the Delft Protocol workshop (Cross,
Christiaans and Dorst 1996) in which designers were asked to design a fastening device for
attaching a backpack to a mountain bike.
The communication and technological environment

The study involved synchronous CMC between two parties separated by a distance of around
twenty miles. At each location, a workspace was arranged resembling a typical studio environment
that included a desktop PC equipped with colour monitor and an A3 size digital tablet. A
proprietary system, PictureTel Live100, Version 1.6, was used for synchronous CMC between the
two sites via a basic rate ISDN line. The PictureTel system was equipped with full duplex audio and
a camera with manually adjustable zoom, brightness, and focus control. This stand-mounted
camera could be adjusted to capture the desired scene, such as documents on the desk. It could also
be detached from its stand to capture objects in the workspace, e.g., a bike leaning against a wall.
LiveShare Plus (Version 3.00), an integrated collaboration application, was installed on each
desktop PC. The main tool for on-line work was a whiteboard - a shared drawing tool enabling
participants to simultaneously see and edit a drawing. The basic whiteboard drawing tools included
a pen whose colour and size could be modified, text entry, and an eraser. Participants could also
paste camera-captured images into the whiteboard. Thus LiveShare Plus supported communication
over three media: video, whiteboard, and audio. A colour ink-jet printer (HP Deskjet 660C) was
also available at Loughborough to allow the junior designers to print off whiteboard pages, as they
were expected to work on the designs between sessions. At each site, the design materials included
marker pens and paper. Design information included the design brief, design assignment, schedule,
and design data, such as market research, backpack usage and user evaluation reports. Three
reference products relevant to the task were also located at Loughborough: a mountain bike, a rear
carrier, and a backpack.
Each of the three dyads undertook the task over a four-week period during which weekly, one-hour
synchronous CMC sessions took place. Each session, was video recorded for later analysis. Two
dyads participated in all four teleconferencing sessions, while one dyad failed to undertake the
fourth session, resulting in recordings of eleven CMC sessions.
The data
The primary data for analysis comprised the video and audio recordings of the on-line CMC
sessions. The discourse captured on these tapes was transcribed to text, organised and labelled in
terms of turns by individual speakers. These were sub-divided into those utterances that included
reference to a real or imagined object and those that did not (Scrivener, Chen and Woodcock 2000)
provide a detailed account of the process of determining that visualisation is coupled with
visualisation). The former group provided the talking about things data. Having identified all such
artefact-related turns, every word was categorised in terms of whether or not it was accompanied by
visualisation. Its important here to understand that this is not simple a matter of noting cooccurrence (i.e., talking and drawing at the same time). To be regarded as visually coupled, there
has to be evidence that the words and visualisation are about the same thing.
The system enabled visual communication via the medium of whiteboard or video (see Figure 1).
The whiteboard supported two mechanisms of communication, drawing and gesture, while video
supported three, namely drawing, gesture and object reference. This yields five media-mechanism
combinations, i.e., whiteboard-drawing and -gesture, video-drawing, -gesture and -object
manipulation.
Figure 1: The designer (top-left window) shifts from drawing to gesturing
The purposes served by visual coupling

The purpose of an utterance is different to the purpose served by visual coupling. The former is
what motivates the communication while the latter concerns the way that specific visual
information contributes to the communication. As we shall see later, the assignment of a purpose to
an instance of visual coupling assists the interpretation of resource selection. Tang (1993) observed
how designers used gesture to facilitate communication. He concluded that gesture has three
functions: to store information, to express an idea, and to mediate interaction. As noted earlier,
Harrison and Minneman (1996) studied the role of objects in design discourse, analysing
relationships among designers, designers gestures, and the object referenced in a design
environment. They observed that gesture was used to clarify or specify something. Based on the
above, five purposes of visual coupling in design discourse were identified as follows:
1. Clarify: dictionary sources define this term as meaning to, make more comprehensible, and,
to clarify something means to make it easier to understand, usually by explaining it in more
detail. Using this definition, visualisation coupled with a term was identified as clarification if
the designer used a medium-mechanism combination to communicate an attribute of a thing,
such as its shape, or a relation between two things.
2. Specify: is defined as to identify clearly and definitely and to give information about what is
required or should happen in a certain situation. In visual coupling, to specify, means to
identify clearly and definitely what is being discussed, thus isolating it from the other drawings
or objects present. What distinguishes it from clarification is that no new information is
introduced.
3. Emphasise: means to, give emphasis to, emphasis being defined as the, special importance,
value, or prominence given to something. It is also given the meaning, to indicate that it is
particularly important or true, or to draw special attention to it. Again what distinguishes
emphasis from clarification is that no new information is introduced. Nor is emphasis simply
specification as it draws special attention to what is being discussed.
4. Annotate: is defined as to, add notes to (a text or diagram) giving explanation or comment,
and to, annotate written work or a diagram means to add notes to it. Generally, annotation
adds nothing to what is being said and merely echoes verbalisation, serving primarily to store
information for later reference.
5. Identify: means, to associate someone or something closely with, and, if you identify
someone or something, you name them or say who or what they are. In visual coupling, the
distinction between identification and clarification or specification is subtle. Like specification
it does not involve the introduction of new information, but unlike specification it relates one
visualisation to another.
Having identified the purposes served by visualisation in supporting verbalisation, each instance
where a word was coupled with visualisation was assigned to a purpose (c.f., Scrivener, Chen and
Woodcock 2000) for a fuller account of this process).
Visual coupling in medium-mechanism

Table 1 shows the distribution of visual coupling purposes to medium-mechanism combinations.
First, whiteboard-drawing would appear to be the most used resource, followed by video-gesture,
video-drawing, video-object and finally, whiteboard-gesture. Clearly, the latter medium-mechanism
combination is virtually useless. Second, across medium-mechanism combinations the distribution
of visual coupling to purpose is not uniform, with some combinations showing strong dominance
for particular purposes, e.g., video-gesture for amplification and whiteboard-drawing for
clarification. Harrison and Minneman (1996) pondered over whether the use of objects at hand as
embodied representations was comparable to drawing. Is this, they asked, the same kind of
externalisation (ibid., p435). From Table 1 we can see that video-object is used for externalisation
purposes and the distribution of purposes to video-object is very similar to that of video-drawing.
Finally, we can see that visualisation serves primarily to clarify and to specify what is talked about
in design communication.
Video (VD)
Whiteboard (WB)
VD-D
VD-G
VD-O
WB-D
WB-G
Total
Emphasise
353
40
401
Annotate
83
83
Clarify
243
386
118
1837
10
2594
Identify
12
36
Specify
159
29
69
848
1106
Total
414
777
196
2820
13
4220
Table 1: Visual coupling frequency against purpose in medium-mechanism
Using medium-mechanism shifts

According to Scrivener (2002) the identification of visual coupling purpose and explanation of why,
in each case, the selected medium-mechanism was chosen for this purpose (see later for an
illustration of this process) can contribute to design, revealing the relative strengths and weaknesses
of medium-mechanism combinations. The design goal should be to remove these differences and to
build on strengths. Lets say, for example, that we found that at a particular moment, whiteboarddrawing was used rather than the other combinations because paper drawings had been produced
between sessions. While highly efficient in this instance, video-drawing might be less effective than
whiteboard-drawing, say, because of the cameras lower resolution than that of the display.
Whiteboard-drawing could be improved by making it easier for designers to capture and transfer
paper drawings, and video-drawing could be improved by using a higher resolution camera, thus
enhancing the quality of each medium-mechanism combination.
However, the analysis of all visual couplings (i.e., 4220 in this study) is very time consuming and is
unlikely to be of practical value in CMC system design. However, in synchronous communication
where transactions are frequent a method based on the detection and analysis of shifts between
medium-mechanism offers a more viable alternative (i.e., in this study shifts between mediummechanism occur in 13% of visually-coupled words), Table 2.
Shifts to Video
Shifts to Whiteboard
VD-D
VD-G
VD-O
WB-D
WB-G
Total
Emphasise
130
140
Annotate
Clarify
50
76
56
81
269
Identify
Specify
30
33
34
107
Total
83
218
96
121
527
Table 2: Frequency of shifts to medium-mechanism combination against purpose
Formulating redesign recommendations

Assigning visually coupled words to purposes is, in effect, the first step in the first stage of a fivestage design method. Having identified shifts between medium-mechanism combinations and their
communication purpose, the second step is to assess each shift for gains in efficiency and/or
effectiveness. Scrivener, Chen and Woodcock (2000) have described this second step and have
explained the rationale for focussing on efficiency and effectiveness. What we will do here is to
show how this information we can be used in the second stage of our design process to consider, for
each shift, how both the shifted-to and shifted-from medium-mechanism combinations might be
enhanced through redesign. We will illustrate this process using a shift where the analysis at Stage 1
indicated benefits in both efficiency and effectiveness.
A shift from whiteboard-drawing to video-object for the purpose of identification occurred at the
term here (underlined in Turn 155) in Dyad Rs third session, when Designer R affirmed his
understanding of his remote partners thinking by pointing to the relevant physical object, Figure 2.
154
155
D at the bottom of your leg (WD-D) there's some sort of circle (WD-D) that sits over
(WD-D) the pole (WD-D), sits over the pole (WD-D), right, ...and has a strap (WD-D) that
goes around there (WD-D), right, ... and onto a spike (WD-D) which is actually part of
the, you know ...the member (WD-D)
R
oh, right, I'm with you. So on the bike...it goes on this part here (VD-O)
In this instance, video-object is likely to have been more effective than whiteboard-drawing for
identification of the relevant parts because of it being visible in the context of other associated parts
which would have helped to disambiguate the part referenced by the term here. It was also more
efficient than whiteboard-drawing as only small camera adjustments were required to achieve a
satisfactory view of the object. In contrast, the continued use of whiteboard-drawing would have
required the designer to draw these components. Here then is a case where selection of a new
medium-mechanism combination is both more efficient and effective than continuing with the
current mode of visual communication.
Given this interpretation, we could look to enhance the efficiency of whiteboard-drawing. One
approach, for example, would be to enable drawings to be produced more fluently. We could
consider improving the effectiveness of whiteboard-drawing by enabling more accurate drawings to
be produced. Finally, the effectiveness and efficiency of the video-object medium-mechanism could
be improved by the use of higher quality video and more sophisticated camera control.
Resolving inconsistent recommendations

Above we have described two stages that provide insights into how to enhance the visual design
communication capability of a given CMC system (e.g., PictureTel in this study). However,
examination of the recommendations for improvement associated with each shift reveals
inconsistencies.
To illustrate this situation, lets consider the following example. Having applied Stages 1 and 2 to
the shift data from our study, in some instances it was recommended that whiteboard-drawing could
be improved by making the image fuzzier. For example, at Turn 322 of one dyads first session,
Designer D shifted from whiteboard-drawing to video-gesture at the term piece for the purpose of
clarification.
322 D
Im just moving back, so you can see me on, right, on the front of this thing, we've got
a piece (VD-G) of stiff plastic, right
Here the shift-to combination, i.e., video-gesture, was judged to be more effective and efficient as it
allowed a conceptually ill-defined shape to be conveyed in a non-specific way. Consequently, the
recommendation made in this instance was that whiteboard-drawing could be enhanced to support
this need by equipping the whiteboard with, say, a drawing layer or tool where the specificity of
strokes would be automatically dampened down.
In other instances the opposite was recommended. In another dyads session, a shift was made from
whiteboard-drawing to video-object at the term here, in Turn 170, for the purpose of
clarification.
168 R that could link up onto the frame here (WD-D), so the frame of the erm...
169 D yeah
170 R so that perhaps they could link up here on (VD-O) the back of (VD-O) the rack (VD-O)
Analysis of the data suggested that video-object was more effective than whiteboard drawing as its
spatial and structural reality communicated the designers intended meaning more clearly than
whiteboard drawing would have done, and more efficient because showing the visual information
was quicker than drawing it. Here, it was recommended that whiteboard-drawing could be made
more efficient and effective for this purpose and need by enabling high-resolution images of objects
to be readily transferred onto the drawing surface. Clearly, there is potential inconsistency here as
whiteboard images are required to be both vague and resolved in detail. Thus further consideration,
and possibly re-analysis of the shift, is necessary to consolidate the recommendations in such a way
that conflicts are resolved. A potential solution in this case might be a mechanism that allows
designers to choose either fuzzy or detailed images according to the requirements of a given
moment.
Summarising the medium-mechanism shift method

We have seen that the analysis of shifts between medium-mechanism combinations can uncover the
relative strengths and weaknesses of medium-mechanism combinations. Analysis of shifts offers
insight into how to design more effective and efficient communication environments. The
identification of the purpose served by the coupling of talk and visual representation at a shift, and
the determination of why the medium-mechanism was selected for this purpose can contribute to
redesign. As noted above, the analysis of each medium-mechanism combination shift reveals the
relative strengths and weaknesses of each combination for a given purpose at that time. The design
goal is to ameliorate the weaknesses in the shifted-from, medium-mechanism combination and to
build on strengths of the shifted-to combination.
We have proposed a design method that can be applied to assess and enhance given CMC
environments without limiting the potential for exploiting the latent opportunities of new
telecommunication technology. Indeed, we believe that the method may stimulate recognition of
these possibilities. The method may be summarised as follows:
1. Assessing medium-mechanism combination strengths and weaknesses
Taking a computer-mediated design communication system, the system designer must first
define the medium-mechanism combination resources and record the systems use over a period
of time. Having then identified shifts between medium-mechanism combinations, as illustrated
in Section 6.2, the gains in efficiency and/or effectiveness of the combination shifted-to over
that shifted-from should be assessed and described.
2. Formulating redesign recommendations
For each shift, redesign recommendations for enhancing both the shifted-from and shifted-to
medium-mechanism combinations are formulated. Here, other evidence from, say, subjective
usability assessments, should be sought to support the proposals.
3. Resolving inconsistent recommendation
Any inconsistencies in the set of recommendations associated with each medium-mechanism
combination are then considered and resolved.
4. Redesigning the system
As far is possible, the system should be redesigned to satisfy the recommendations made in
Stage 3.
5. Testing the performance of the refined system
Finally, the expected improvement in system performance should be verified by comparing the
performance of the new system to the old system.
Conclusions
We have described a CMC design method based that uses the interpretation of shifts between
communication resources as a foundation for design improvements. Because the method focuses on
user behaviour in a particular communication environment it is open to the discovery of the latent
communication possibilities offered by that environment. Thus, for example, the application of the
method to both face-to-face and mediated environments will enable us to uncover the affordances
10
and limitations of both. On the other hand, the method yields statements that describe
communication needs independently of the particular environment studied. For example, above we
identified the need to communicate ill-defined shapes in a non-specific way. If Hollen and Stornetta
(1992) are correct that communication needs are independent of communication media and
mechanisms, then we should find that the communication needs uncovered by using the method are
characteristic of visual design communication contexts.
11
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13
Human factors considerations in human-webpad interaction

a discussion on color application
C-H. Chen Graduate School of Design, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan
Y-T. Chen Graduate School of Design, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan
B-C. Chiou Graduate School of Design, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology,
Taiwan
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to explore the role of color in human-Webpad interaction based on a
model of human factors. Color is a prominent and prevailing visual stimulus encountered by
humans daily. It affects how humans process information perceptually and cognitively. Four
important design issues pertaining to the model of human factors, i.e., issues concerning humans,
Webpad technology, user interface, and environment, are discussed in this paper. The authors hope
that this discussion can be utilized to improve the applications of color in Webpad user interface
design and, at the same time, point us towards the right direction for future color research on
various types of interaction applications. In this paper, the authors also emphasize the concept of
human factors to be used to facilitate the internationalization and localization of a Webpad user
interface design. A table illustrating how human factors considerations can facilitate Webpad
internationalization and localization in terms of physical, perceptual (physiological), and cognitive
(psychological) aspects is provided.
Human factors considerations in Human-Webpad interaction

a discussion on color application
Introduction
Color has been used as a visual tool in organizing (e.g., grouping icons with relevant functions) and
signifying (e.g., presenting a warning message) information on a computer display in order to draw
the users attention. Research has demonstrated that the appropriate use of color in computer
display may enhance users overall task performances (Sidorsky, 1982), improve user performance
on visual search tasks (Kinney & Huey, 1990), assist the organization of screen information (Galitz,
1989), and help yield positive feedback from users (Tullis, 1981). However, if color is used
improperly, under certain circumstances, it may decrease users task productivity and impair their
performances as well (van Nes, Juola, & Moonen, 1987). For example, Miller (1956) proposes that
using various sensory modalities, humans can recognize approximately 72 items (or chunks) of
information at one time. Jones (1962) also contends that a human can recognize about 9 distinct
colors on an absolute basis. Based on their theories, an interaction designer can apply up to 9
different colors on the same screen. Other relevant research studies reveal that the maximum
number of colors used on a screen is from 4 to 10 with an emphasis on the lower numbers (Luria,
Neri, & Jacobson, 1986). In addition, Luria, et al. (1986) and van Nes, et al. (1987) also
demonstrate that as the number of colors on a computer screen increases, not only the users
response time to a single color will increase, but the probability of their color confusion may
increase as well. Since the application of color to a Webpad display is such a vital task, it is
necessary for an interaction designer to apply color efficiently to facilitate the human-Webpad
interaction by satisfying users color preferences while improving their computer performance.
An effective Webpad user interface should be self-explanatory, and easy to learn and operate by all
of its potential users. Figure 1 shows a sample Webpad design. It should also make it possible for
users with various levels of computer expertise to achieve their intended task easily. This paper is
intended to introduce interaction design concepts pertinent to the application of human factors to
facilitate the design of human-Webpad interaction regarding color application.
Figure 1: A Webpad design (courtesy of Tatung Company)
Model of human factors

The term, human factors, indicates that the research issue is centered on human beings. Human
factors is the discipline which emphasizes designing useful man-made objects or equipment so that
users can operate them effectively and safely (Huchingson, 1981). In the context of a Webpad
design, the model of human factors can include two subsystems, the human subsystem and the
Webpad (technology) subsystem, interfacing within the physical, social, cultural, legal, and virtual
environments (see Figure 2). The primary information-processing stages are embedded within two
subsystems: human subsystems and Webpad subsystems.
In human subsystem, the way that a human processes information is based primarily on the
following stages: a) When information comes from the external environment (e.g., physical, social,
cultural, legal, virtual), a human encodes this information by means of his/her sensors (e.g., eyes,
ears, nose, skin, etc.). This stage is called sensation. b) Once a human has encoded the
information, s/he starts to organize the information with his/her internal processes. This stage is
called perception. c) When a human has organized the information, s/he understands the meaning
of the information; in other words, s/he transforms the information into knowledge. This
knowledge is a form of intelligence that can help the human conduct problem-solving, decisionmaking, or reasoning tasks. This stage is labeled as information processing or cognition. d) After
the information has been processed, the movement control system will instruct the body responders
(e.g., hands, legs, eyes, and mouth) to carry out possible actions.
Figure 2: Model of human factors pertinent to Webpad design

(Derived from Branham & McCleary, 1990)
In the Webpad (technology) subsystem, it processes information in the following stages: a) When
the Webpads input device receives the stimulus from the human responders, it will send electronic
signals to its internal processor. b) Once the Webpads internal processor receives the electronic
signals from the input device, it begins to function by actually using instructions embedded in the
system to process the information and send the results to the display device. c) After the display
device receives the result signals from the internal processor, it will start to present the output on
the touch screen. The displayed information can then be perceived by the human sensors.
DESIGN ISSUES CONCERNING HUMANS

Humans are intelligent information-processing agents. However, humans still have perceptual and
cognitive limitations when processing information. Therefore, when assigning colors to a Webpad
screen, the interaction designer needs to take the users perceptual capability and cognitive capacity
into account. Otherwise, the users may be overloaded with superabundant information that they
cannot process efficiently. For example, Miller (1956) proposes that using various sensory
modalities, humans can recognize approximately 7 plus or minus 2 items (or chunks) of information
at one time. Since the application of color in Webpad screen design is such a vital and unavoidable
task, it is necessary for an interaction designer to apply color efficiently to facilitate the humanWebpad interaction by satisfying users color preferences while improving their computer
performance.
Perceptual and cognitive processing of color

Color is the result of visual interaction of light that is further processed by the optic nervous system.
Two types of human visual processing of color are identified in this study: perceptual processing
and cognitive processing. Though both types of visual processing of color are unconscious
processes, a human must perform perceptual processing of color before conducting cognitive
processing of color. Perceptual processing of color is related to the physiological functions of the
human eye. Though the human eye is a fascinating optical instrument, like all optical instruments,
it has certain physiological functions and limitations. For example, the Bezold-Brucke effect,
luminance contrast effect, simultaneous color contrast effect, color assimilation effect, movement
and depth illusion effects, after-image effect, human color vision deficiency, and blue
discrimination deficiency are all caused by the physiological functions and limitations of the human
eye. These visual phenomena occur across all human cultures. The human cognitive processing of
color is pertinent to the connotations of color preferences that may vary from one culture to another
(Hall, 1959). Different cultures may assign diverse meanings to different colors according to their
traditions. That is, various color preferences exist among different individuals, corporate
companies, societies, nations, and cultures because of their unique identities.
The human eye is not physiologically equipped to detect blue

The human eye is a fascinating optical instrument. However, like all other optical instruments, the
eye has certain physiological functions and limitations of which an interaction designer needs to be
aware. For instance, the human eye is not physiologically equipped to detect blue. This is because
blue has a low contrast as well as inherent problems in visual focusing among older people. Brown
(1988) argues that blue is suitable for background, graphics, and less important items, but not for
primary data presentation. Important information should not be displayed in blue. However, for
shading some graphic areas and for de-emphasizing some screen information, blues low brightness
may be beneficial. Based on Murch (1984), the reason why the human eye is not able to detect blue
well is because:
The lens itself does not transmit all wavelengths equally. It absorbs almost twice as much in the
blue region of the color spectrum as in the yellow and red sections.
The yellowing of the lens, which causes it to filter out short wavelengths, also increases with age.
thus, older people cannot perceive blue very well.
A pigmentation in the central part of the retina transmits yellow while absorbing blue. The net
result is a relative insensitivity to shorter wavelengths. This is because there exist fewer blueregion photoreceptors than those responsible for detecting red and green regions of the visual
spectrum. More specifically, in the central retina area, 64 percent of the cones contain red
pigment, 32 percent carry green pigment, and only 2 percent possess blue pigment. Because of
this, a blue area on a screen needs to be either larger or brighter in order to be as visible as other
colors.
There exists a bias against blue photopigments in the perception of brightness. Thus, colors
differing only in terms of the amount of blue will not produce sharp edges. When saturated blue is
used for fine detail or at the edges, the image will appear blurred. In addition, there is a difference
in perceived color between a large blue area and a smaller one even though the color is physically
the same. Because a small blue area does not activate many blue photoreceptors, it will appear to
be more desaturated or washed out than the large blue area. Thus, when applying blue to a
Webpad screen design, the interaction designer needs to avoid employing blue for small text or
intricate graphics.
DESIGN ISSUES CONCERNING WEBPAD TECHNOLOGY

Color images on a Webpad screen are mainly generated in two ways. One is by the light emission
from the Webpad itself; the other is by hardcopy devices (e.g., scanners, camcorders, or digital
cameras) that can capture images from outside media and transport the images to the screen. It is
important for an interaction designer to know that color should always be used with other,
redundant, visual cues. That is, on a Webpads screen, texts, patterns, sizes, shapes, graphics, or
other visual cues should always be used together with color to enhance the interface visibility. As
the screen technique becomes more advanced with higher resolution, it has become possible to
create more realistic images of both natural and artificial scenes. However, there are still some
limitations of Webpad screen technology of which an interaction designer needs to be aware before
employing color to facilitate human-Webpad interaction:
Certain colors in the natural environment cannot be reproduced by Webpad screen, such as the
color of gold and silver. This is because the limits of the physical properties of the light emitted
by the LCD technology.
A Webpads screen cannot produce a true black. If we look at a Webpads screen when the power
is off, it will appear to be a dark gray color under normal indoor lighting. The dark gray color is
produced by the reflection of ambient light outside the screen rather than by the LCD itself. It is
the darkest color that can be reproduced on the screen. When a Webpad is turned on, its screen
may produce blacker colors than that of the switched-off screen because of the users expectations
and color contrast effects.
The maximum brightness on a Webpad screen is limited. In fact, the luminance produced on a
Webpad screen is relatively low when compared to that produced by natural light. Therefore, the
range of possible colors that can be reproduced on a Webpad screen is significantly limited when
compared to those in the natural environment.
Screen resolution and image sharpness on a Webpad is limited. The resolution of a Webpad
screen is pertinent to the number of addressable pixels on a screen. The higher the resolution of a
Webpad screen is, the sharper the image that can be illustrated on the screen.
DESIGN ISSUES CONCERNING USER INTERFACE

The term interface can be defined as a concrete or an abstract medium which facilitates the
communication between a user and an artifact, such as a Webpad. A concrete interface promotes
tangible interaction by focusing on the design of physical interfaces (e.g., a power button, a scroll
button, or any other type of input and output device) with ergonomic considerations. An abstract
interface assists intangible interaction by incorporating users psychological considerations (e.g.,
users mental models) in the design process to emphasize the design of user-friendly interfaces.
Color which is an abstract property of a user interface can be used to facilitate the intangible
interaction perceptually and cognitively between a human and a Webpad.
Mental models and interface metaphor

Users mental models are culturally dependent models. That is, users from different cultures may
possess different mental models towards the same Webpad user interface. Although changes in
users mental models often occur through unconscious processes, there is no doubt that users are
upgrading their internal representations persistently through different Webpad interaction strategies.
To an interaction designer, the purpose of conducting research on users mental models is to
investigate how a user communicates with a Webpad based on his/her existing mental models, and
the research findings, in turn, will be analyzed and utilized to help design a better Webpad user
interface.
In addition, a metaphor means the application of existing well-known concepts as an analogy to a
new design concept. An interface metaphor can be viewed as a representational model used to help
define an interaction task. Research has demonstrated that the selection of appropriate metaphors is
crucial to help users develop adequate mental models (Carroll & Thomas, 1982). That is, by using
these mental models, users can interact with the interface efficiently and effectively. Generally
speaking, an interface metaphor can be viewed as a medium that facilitates users in establishing an
initial mental model pertaining to a particular computer system. The proposed Webpad system is
implemented by CE.NET platform that incorporates similar strategies regarding office organization
and work procedures as metaphors in the graphical desktop operating system design to make the
human-Webpad interaction easier as well. Johnson (1992) also suggests that the design of a user
interface has to be considered from a number of different perspectives, each of which affects the
quality of the overall interface design. These perspectives are listed as follows:
The functional perspective which is concerned with whether or not the interface design is
serviceable for its intended purpose.
The aesthetic perspective which is concerned with whether or not the interface design is pleasing
in its appearance and conforms to any accepted notions of artistic design.
The structural perspective which is concerned with whether or not the interface design has been
built in a manner that will make it reliable and efficient to use and can be maintained and
extended easily.
Based on the three perspectives above, it is important for an interaction designer to realize that
designing an effective interface requires the incorporation of the users mental models in the design
process. By so doing, this interface will be easy to use because it can match the users mental
models, and guide the user through various types of interactions.
Using mental models to facilitate Webpad interaction design

The design of a user-friendly interface is by far one of the most challenging design tasks that an
interaction designer can encounter. Theoretically, this user-friendly interface should satisfy the
majority of users needs and preferences even though they possess different mental models.
Nonetheless, there exist neither concrete nor implementable formal methods to guarantee the
creation of a universal interface for this ultimate interaction. It may even be impossible to generate
a set of detailed guidelines to cover every relevant design issue in creating a universal interface.
However, based on the existing design knowledge, an interaction designer may be able to apply
important interaction principles to facilitate the design of a useful Webpad interface. If the Webpad
interface is equipped with some degree of adaptability and flexibility, the user will be able to
dedicate more effort to carrying out the interaction task without spending too much time learning to
use the Webpad.
DESIGN ISSUES CONCERNING ENVIRONMENT

An environment is what surrounds us, containing both tangible objects and intangible concepts with
which we can perceive and interact. Human color sensitivity can be changed under different
lighting environments because the same color will look different under strong, normal or dim light
environments. That is, the same color shown under different environmental settings may be
perceived differently because artificial lights may cause human eyes to adapt to perceived colors,
distort color appearance, or reduce color discrimination. Therefore, the environment in which an
interface is used may have a great impact on a users task performance. Most human-Webpad
interaction takes place in a man-made environment. Though an interaction designer may have no
control over the users working environment, s/he should understand thoroughly the possible
environmental factors pertinent to the application of color to facilitate the human-Webpad
interaction, and try to design a useful and effective interface to accommodate as many
environmental factors as possible.
Physical environment
The physical environment is a concrete space surrounding us. Research reveals that color has been
proven to be very useful to facilitate wayfinding in an unfamiliar physical environment (De Jonge,
1962), because color can enhance a persons spatial perception which helps him/her understand
more of this environment. The physical environment can be discussed on two different levels:
micro-environment and macro-environment. The micro-environment in the context of humanWebpad interaction is closely related to a users ergonomic requirements regarding his/her viewing
distance and field of view. In this micro-environment (e.g., a work space), one of the most
significant influences on the human perception of color is the lighting provided inside that space.
For example, the users normal viewing distance from the Webpad screen to the eyes is
recommended to be between 60 to 90 cm. If the proper viewing distance is maintained, the user
will not need to change his/her eye focus so frequently to prevent eye fatigue. The major concern in
the macro-environment in regards to human color perception is also the lighting design in that
environment because color and light can either enhance or degrade a users Webpad performance.
When interacting with a Webpad, it is necessary to provide the user with enough light to illuminate
peripheral printed or written materials without directly illuminating the screen itself and reducing
screen contrast. If both of the ambient lighting and screen contrast are very low, the eyes speed
and precision of accommodation and convergence will be reduced and the legibility of text on the
screen will be poor.
Social environment
The social environment provides a social space in which a human interacts with a Webpad under
various social influences (e.g., attitudes, preferences, motivations, habits, expectations, and
computer expertise). With the progress of advanced computer technology, humans are able to
communicate with each other more easily and effectively by means of Webpads. Because of this,
the computerization of modern communication technology will also promote human socialization.
Research has also demonstrated that in classrooms where students have access to computers, more
social communication and cooperative problem-solving activities occur than in other types of
classrooms (Office of Technology Assessment, 1988). Moreover, due to the rapid development of
Internet technology, people from every corner of the world can meet and talk to each other on the
Internet by using Webpads. Since Webpads play such an important role in facilitating the social
interaction among users, it is necessary for an interaction designer to take social factors into account
when applying color to facilitate human-Webpad interaction. This is because color has social
meanings as well.
Virtual environment
A virtual environment is an interactive computer-generated environment (Stuart, 1996). The virtual
environment provides a cyberspace within which various types of interactions may occur, such as
distant training or education, on-/off-line prototyping, digital communication, and entertainment. In
fact, a virtual environment provides artificial reality to facilitate users interaction tasks. This is
because modern state-of-the-art computer technology has enabled users to perform three
dimensional interactions (e.g., 3-D simulation and animation) together with sound and lighting
effects which make the virtual environment more like a physical environment. Similar to the
effects in a physical environment, color can also facilitate a user (i.e., a virtual actor) in navigating
through a virtual environment (e.g., the Internet or a corporate Intranet) by means of a Webpad.
Cultural environment
Culture has been defined as shared patterns of behavior (Mead, 1953). A cultural environment
can provide an emotional space in which a set of beliefs, values, and behaviors can be commonly
shared by members of a society or population (Ember & Ember, 1977). Cultural patterns must be
generally agreed upon by the majority of the members of the culture, not just by an individual
alone. Therefore, within one culture, the majority of the members will share the same color
meanings and associations.
Cross-cultural studies on color

Color preferences vary from one culture to another (Hall, 1959) because different cultures assign
diverse meanings and associations to different colors according to their cultural traditions and
aesthetic values. For example, Stockton (1984) points out that, among various nations in Africa,
the most preferred colors are green, red, and yellow. This is because green represents fertile lands,
red implies blood lost in revolution, and yellow is associated with the sun and other natural
resources. Allen (1986) also maintains that, in Latin America, the preferred colors for the festive
design are rainbow colors. In addition, even climate plays a crucial role in the color of clothing for
people in various regions. For instance, light-colored clothing is preferred in hot climates, and
dark-colored clothing in cold climates (Sharpe, 1974).
In recent years, the progress of global communication has effectively encouraged researchers to
focus more on cross-cultural studies, especially the interpretation of colors among different
cultures. Moreover, the growing competition among international markets is another reason why
interaction designers must consider cultural distinctions in their interface design process. It is
important for an interaction designer to realize that the purpose of conducting cross-cultural studies
on color is not only to explore the nature and meaning of color, but also to employ color for
practical applications to benefit every culture around the world. In fact, designing a useful and
effective Webpad user interface can be viewed as a cultural activity, and color is one of the cultural
factors to facilitate the users visual interaction with that interface.
Designing international user interfaces

To an interaction designer, the purpose of conducting international user interface design is to create
useful and effective interfaces that can be utilized by all the potential users with various cultural
backgrounds around the world. In fact, international user interface design should be considered as a
cross-cultural collaborative work between interaction designers and users from different cultures
(Ito & Nakakoji, 1996). Designing international user interfaces requires taking the concept of both
internationalization and localization of user interfaces into account. Internationalization is the
process of designing a base interface that can be further integrated with various cultural factors to
meet different cultural needs (Fernandes, 1995). Localization is the process of adapting an
internationalized user interface based on the features of a particular culture. In fact, the process of
interface internationalization will facilitate the process of interface localization as well. The
process of interface internationalization can provide a dynamic framework (or structure) in which
interface localization can be implemented by adding cultural factors into the design.
Because the internationalization of user interfaces requires intensive cultural considerations, an
interaction designer needs to identify and separate basic principles regarding interface design into
culturally independent and culturally dependent variables. The culturally independent variables are
the variables used to help interface internationalization, and the culturally dependent variables are
used to facilitate interface localization. For example, color which is an important visual interaction
language can be used to facilitate both internationalization and localization of user interfaces. That
is, color used for interface internationalization should be considered as a culturally independent
variable. Research from the human eyes physiological functions and limitations of color
processing can be incorporated into the process of interface internationalization. This is because all
humans, regardless of their cultural backgrounds, possess similar physiological functions and
limitations in color processing. On the other hand, color used for interface localization should be
considered as a culturally dependent variable. Research pertinent to color preferences among
various cultures can be used in the process of interface localization. This is because different
cultures assign widely different meanings and associations to various colors based on their cultural
preferences. Table 1 illustrates how human factors considerations can facilitate the Webpads
internationalization and localization in terms of physical, perceptual (physiological) and cognitive
(psychological) aspects.
Table 1: Human factors considerations for Webpad internationalization and localization
Conclusion
The study explores the role of color in human-Webpad interaction based on a model of human
factors. Various important Webpad interaction design issues were discussed in detailed. The
authors hope that the discussions can be used to improve the design of human-Webpad interaction
pertinent to color applications. At the end of this paper, the authors also emphasize the concept of
human factors to be used to facilitate the internationalization and localization of a Webpad user
interface design. This is because the internationalization of Webpad user interfaces requires
intensive cultural considerations. It is also hoped that by means of carefully designed Webpad user
interface, users can communicate with each other in a more efficient and effective way.
10
Acknowledgements
Financial support of this research by National Science Council under the grant NSC 90-2218-E011-017 is gratefully acknowledged.
11
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13
weaker passengers
R. Chen Faculty of Art & Design, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
Z. Teng Faculty of Art & Design, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
K. Lee Faculty of Art & Design, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK
Abstract
The purpose of this project was to provide barrier free bus stops for Taipei senior citizens and
passengers with traffic difficulties e.g. blind, deaf and people with moving problems. The improved
solution of a barrier-free environment consists of three aspects, which are a waiting zone, an oncoming bus information and assistive devices for weaker passengers.
This study began with the investigation of the present contextual situation of Taipei City bus
transportation systems, by using methodologies of observation, interviews, and documentation of
literature. In order to select the most effective solution, a well-defined Ranking and Weighting
method was then developed to access the factors of comparative importance. During this project,
the Transportation Agency of Taipei City Council (TATCC, 1998) provided their existing bus
transportation system for better insight assessments and also the Cultural and Educational
Foundation for the Blind, Taiwan, offered the researchers a better understanding of blind peoples
needs.
This research finally provided an ideal barrier free bus stop design solution for Taipei senior
citizens and weaker passengers. Through this solution, all passengers can not only wait for a bus in
a safe and comfortable environment, but also be provided with a precise bus on-coming time
schedule and useful information about alternative routes. Furthermore, the landscape of Taipei City
can be improved considerably.
weaker passengers
Introduction
The existing bus stop in Taipei City is very unfashionable and ugly. It is a design for basic needs,
which provides only the basic sheltering from sunshine and rainfall. In an international city like
Taipei, these bus stops are the weakest link in the modernized city landscape. They were in strong
need of improvement (TATCC, 1998). In addition, their usability is not able to reflect the total
citizen requirements. Recently, more and more importance on special needs issue indicates that to
provide a special needs solution, a barrier free bus stop in Taipei City is a major priority (Siedie,
1996).
Aims and objectives

The purpose of this project was to provide a better design solution for barrier free bus stops with a
dynamic on-coming bus information and assistive devices for Taipei City commuters especially for
senior citizens and weaker passengers. There are four objectives (4E) in this project, i.e. Easy,
Enjoyable, Effective and Empowering.
Easy: The information system should be easy to use and the symbols and signs
communications system should be easy to identify.
Enjoyable: Waiting for a bus should become enjoyable.
Effective: The information system should be able to provide commuters with alternative bus
routes information during travelling. At the same time, it should also be able to inform the
bus control center and the bus driver in advance to pay attention to the senior citizens and
weaker passengers waiting and to provide assistance if necessary.
Empowering: This new barrier free bus stop should be one of the highlights attractions in
the city landscape in Taipei City.
Research methodology and process

Three research methodologies were used during this project, observation skills, interviews and
Ranking and Weighting analysis. Observation skills and expert interviews were two main methods
of this project. This journey was focused on the following five points of view, i.e.
Existing problems in bus service system;
Drivers behaviour analysis while parking at the bus stop;
Design criteria and specification for the shelter;
Special needs of weaker passengers in accessing bus stop;
Photos taking of the existing environment (e.g. traffic island, parking bay, passenger-waiting
and information service zones).
For better understanding of dynamic on-coming bus information service system and the special
needs from Taipei senior citizens and weaker passengers in accessing a bus stop, the experts at
Transportation Agency of Taipei City Council recommended that Jen-ai Road in Taipei City would
be a suitable location for this study. There were six processes in this observational study:
(a) To access the recommended bus stop at Jen-ai Road;
(b) To observe the context of commuters/passengers in waiting for a bus and take photos;
(c) To observe the context of commuters/passengers in accessing and reading the bus service
information system and then take photos;
(d) To observe the city bus accessing bus stop and take photos;
(e) To interview some passengers and record their opinion and recommendations;
(f) To draw relationship between aspects of the existing environment (e.g. traffic island, parking
bay, passenger-waiting and information service zones).
Observed reviews and results

From the viewpoints of this observation, there were many long term existing problems with Taipei
City bus services.
First of all, there were serious delays and/or damage at the installed boards/screens of on-coming
bus information, bus route indicators, bus stop symbols, signs and location equipments and ticket
identification machines, which have to be repaired and re-installed regularly all year round.
Secondly, unqualified bus drivers behaviour and service attitudes were also main service problems
observed from the journey. In the quality concerns of passenger services, sometimes, for bus
drivers own convenience, they always parked at the improper boarding entrance.
In this project, a proper path of drive way was recommended and re-organised to enable the bus
driver to stop at the reserved parking bay and provide a safe and comfortable travel environment for
Taipei senior citizens and weaker passengers.
During interviews, the experts in the Transportation Agency of Taipei City Council indicated their
existing problems of design criteria and specification for bus stop shelters. The dimensions of bus
lane and traffic island were related to total traffic capacity. The more traffic jam happened, the more
bus lanes needed, therefore, the bus lane will become narrower and narrower. Many public facilities
and spaces constructed in Taipei City were planned by copying from overseas and sometimes
forgetting or ignoring the manner of Taipei City. So when you travel in Taipei City, you may lose
your Taipei feelings.
After the observation and expert interview studies, a well-defined ranking and weighting method
was developed and followed to analyse the importance of factors for bus stop environment. Figure 1
presents the important factors for the bus stop environment, which need to be first solved and redesign. Dynamic bus information services system (i.e. on-coming bus information, bus route
indicator, and bus stop sign and location) shows its most importance with 45% among all factors.
Lighting follows the importance of 19% as second priority. The passengers waiting space of 16%
and railing of 12% also present their importance.
Figure 1: The importance of factors of bus stop environment.

According to the results of the ranking and weighting analysis, the design specification and criteria
of this project were drawn by the researchers as follows.
For the normal passengers:
Dynamic bus information services system (i.e. on-coming bus information, bus route
indicator, and bus stop sign and location):
To re-organise the bus service route monitors/screens, loud-hailers, video camera (CCTV)
and aerials.
To adopt new durable materials to avoid rust and collision damage to the outer covering.
Symbols and signs communication system:
No matter when day-time or night-time and no matter where on the pavement or bus, the
symbols and signs communication system should be easy to identify.
Lighting:
It should have sufficient lighting and enhance the landscape at night.
Passengers waiting space and railing:
To re-arrange the proper waiting space and using path for Taipei senior citizens and weaker
passengers.
For people with special needs (senior citizens and weaker passengers):
Speech sounds systems:
During interview, the experts and practitioners at Cultural and Educational Foundation for the
Blind suggested that the most difficult problem for the blind to take bus is on-coming bus
identification, which means that they did not know the route (or number) of the on-coming bus
while waiting for it. From this point of view, to design a dynamic bus information services
system with sound or speech announcement system is very important. These interviewees also
indicated that this facility can provide the blind with a total barrier free and highly secure
travelling environment.
Design protocol
According to the recommended bus service route by the Transportation Agency of Taipei City
Council (1998), Jen-ai Road was selected as the basic design platform for this project (as shown in
figure 2). There are three phases of design processes in this study, which are concept design, detail
design and prototype phases.
Figure 2: The basic design platform for this project (Jen-ai Road, Taipei)
Concept design phase:

Concept 1: (as illustrated in figure 3)
Non specific waiting zone and boarding zone for Taipei senior citizens and weaker passengers.
The traffic island is divided into three boarding (on/off) zones.
Non specific waiting zone but do provide a specific boarding zone for Taipei senior citizens and
weaker passengers.
The traffic island is divided into three boarding (on/off) zones.
Providing a specific waiting zone only when senior citizens and weaker passengers are waiting.
Providing a specific waiting zone for senior citizens and weaker passengers.
Improving the height of the assistive railing to prevent the senior citizens and weaker
passengers from falling down from the traffic island.
The traffic island has one boarding (on) zone, and one boarding (off) zones in front of the
specified waiting zone.
Figure 3: Concept 1
Figure 4: Concept 2
Figure 5: Concept 3
Detailed design phase: (as illustrated in figure 6)

The detailed design is developed from main concept 3, which is a specified waiting zone with
one separated boarding on and off zones in front of the specific waiting zone.
This provides a safe and comfortable waiting space for senior citizens and weaker passengers.
Furthermore, it can also prevent the bus driver from hurrying his parking at the improper
place.
For safety concerns, an assistive railing can be provided (designed) to prevent the senior
citizens and weaker passengers from falling down from traffic island at the front area of the
specific zone.
Figure 6. Final detailed design
Prototype phase:
In this stage, the specified waiting zone is re-considered for special needs. It provides Taipei senior
citizens and weaker passengers with barrier free boarding on/off spaces with assistive devices.
These are the key points of the design solution, as illustrated in figure 7.
Figure 7: Prototype
Discussions
Design characteristics:
Barrier free waiting zone: The traffic island is divided into two zones i.e. yellow and blue zones,
the yellow zone is a public access area for all passengers (normal passengers) and the blue zone
is the place specially for those senior citizens and weaker passengers. There is only one
boarding on/off area in front of the blue zone to provide a better service without chaos.
Furthermore, there is also a special guidance paving constructed on the ground surface to assist
the blind passengers during boarding on/off the bus safely.
There are double layers designed at the roof of the bus stop shelter. The upper layer of the roof
is designed by using a special opaque aluminum material with net construction to enhance the
strength of the roof. The second (lower) layer is designed by using a transparent Polypropylene
(PP) material for lighting consideration.
To adopt the height of the railing at 130cm (International Labour Office, 1996 and Leibrock,
1993) for senior citizens and weaker passengers to prevent them from falling down.
Dynamic bus service information system:
You Are Here board and bus service route monitors/screens are designed at the yellow zone
for passengers. Also design a dynamic bus information services system with sound or speech
announcement system for special needs at the blue zone.
Special needs facilities:

As mentioned, a special guidance paving constructed on the ground surface only at the blue
zones to assist the blind passengers during boarding on/off the bus safely and settle
themselves at the specified zone of blue while travelling.
As illustrated in figure 8, 9 and 10, the assistive devices were introduced to two systems, one
is the GOTO Input System (i.e. on-going bus number input device), and the other is
GOTO Display System (i.e. on-going bus number display input device). Senior citizens and
weaker passengers can easily access these systems to indicate their direction.
And this message will also be passed to both the bus service control centre and on-coming
bus driver to understand that there are weaker passengers waiting at the blue zone of next bus
stop.
While the bus arrive the bus stop, both of speech/sounds and screen announced for special
needs.
Figure 8: The GOTO Input/Display System
Figure 9: The GOTO Input System
Figure 10: The GOTO Display System
Conclusion and recommendation

This research finally provides an ideal barrier free bus stop design solution for Taipei senior citizens
and weaker passengers. Through this solution, all passengers can not only wait for a bus in a safe
and comfortable environment, but can also be provided with a precise bus on-coming time schedule
and useful information about alternative routes. Furthermore, the landscape of Taipei City can be
improved considerably.
Acknowledgement
Thanks to the Transportation Agency of Taipei City Council for their permission to use their
published materials Better insights on transportation regulations and the existing bus service
information system. Thanks also to the Cultural and Educational Foundation for the Blind, Taiwan
for providing the researchers with a better understanding of the demands for blind people.
References
Ast, G.D., 1977, Moline, Illinois: Planning a Barrier-Free Environment for the Elderly and
Handicapped., in Barrier-Free Environments Journal., pp. 106-131.
Barker, P.; Barrick, J.; Wilson, R. (1995) Building Sight., London, Royal National Institute for the
Blind. pp. 37-125.
ILO (International Labour Office), 1996, Ergonomic Checkpoints. Geneva.
Leibrock, C., 1993, Beautiful Barrier-free. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 91-47172,
New York.
Siedie, J.H., 1996, Barrier-free Design., pp. 41-71.
TAACC (Transportation Agency of Taipei City Council), 1998, Better insights on transportation
regulations and the existing bus service information system. Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.
10
Design behaviours: the innovation advantagethe multi-faceted role of design in innovation

R. Cooper The School of Design Research, The University of Salford, Manchester, UK
A. Wootton The School of Design Research, The University of Salford, Manchester, UK
D. Hands The School of Design Research, The University of Salford, Manchester, UK
M. Economidou The School of Design Research, The University of Salford, Manchester, UK
M. Bruce Department of Textiles, UMIST, Manchester, UK
L. Daly Department of Textiles, UMIST, Manchester, UK
R. Harun Department of Textiles, UMIST, Manchester, UK
Abstract
Design is a good thing. Use it well, companies are often told, and you will reap the many
rewards. But how exactly is design used by the commercial organisation during NPD? As a
complex activity that deals with at least as many intangible as tangible factors, how can design be
constrained by any business process? And if businesses should adapt to gain more value from
designers, in what ways should they change? Based on the results of Design Drivers, a three-year
EPSRC-funded investigation, these are some of the questions that this paper seeks to answer.
Examining the way in which designers operate within different environments either as an inhouse designer or outsourced consultant; with different sized companies; in different industrial
sectors we will attempt to illustrate how designers can bring real value to their clients and indeed,
the entire supply chain through innovation.
Design behaviours: the innovation advantagethe multi-faceted role of design in innovation

Introduction
All innovation requires a committed champion. Someone to maintain the momentum when
nervousness or uncertainty appear(D.Bone 2000)
Increasingly, design is often strategically employed to gain a competitive advantage, for example by
differentiating products from those of competitors; identifying new markets, defending existing
markets or incorporating new technology. Design can offer a range of solutions giving many
different outcomes, which can be a valuable asset during uncertain times. By understanding the role
of design in the business environment and the unique benefits that it can provide, managers can
learn how best to utilise it, in a holistic sense, to help form an effective strategy for the future.
Evidence of effective design both within and outside the design process illustrates how the design
perspective can be a strategic resource for companies. Todays designers are equipped with a
unique perspective and a diverse range of skills that have useful implications beyond the designing
of products.
Design can also be viewed from a number of different perspectives. It can be an in-house function
or can alternatively be out-sourced either from a consultancy or from a freelance designer. The size
and structure of the organisation within which design is utilised will also have an impact upon the
way in which the designer should work and be carefully managed.
Drawing on two case studies of the design of bathroom equipment and lighting products, this paper
will illustrate the way in which, utilising their skills and behaviours, designers both source and
extract innovation from the supply chain, drawing it into the client organisation in often invisible
ways.
These case studies, along with another eight, provide the foundation of an analysis of the value
designers bring to the supply chain, modelling design relationships and understanding how
designers influence decisions governing product(s), markets, procurement and supply chain policy.
Critical in this are the behaviours exhibited by designers, their personality and their operational
environment. Comparisons are made between the personality traits of those involved in design
projects, between company cultures, and between the operational models that occur.
Our research illustrates the need for organisations to capitalise on the holistic approach to
innovation taken by designers an approach that, falling outside of explicit business processes, is
often invisible in nature.
The role of effective design management

It is widely accepted that design can lead to a variety of positive strategic benefits. However, for
these to be commercially realised, a framework of organisation and planning is necessary. Design
managers have traditionally assumed the role as intermediary, to organise the design process and
manage relationships between designers and other managers. However, since the business
environment has radically changed, design has become more involved with the goals of other
business functions, playing a more significant part in company strategy. Inevitably, as the role of
design has broadened, the responsibilities of the design manager have expanded. Morzota (1998)
offers three levels of design management (Fig 1).
Role
Operational
Design is involved to improve a system or operation. Marketing /

Engineering / Communications etc.
Functional
Design as a tool in achieving a competitive advantage. Creation of

new products / markets.
Strategic
Design operates at a corporate level by influencing and

contributing directly to company vision.
Fig.1: Levels of Design Management Morzota (1998)

However, Cooper and Press (1995) argue that the term Design Management contains a fundamental
contradiction. Whereas design is based around exploration and risk-taking, management is founded
on control and predictability. The outcome of combining the two presents a risk that the
management framework might reduce the creative scope of the designer. For those managing
design the danger of restricting the flair and imagination of designers is an important concern and
only the systems that leave space for innovation should be implemented. It is important that design
managers truly understand the way designers work so that the project is managed well without
inhibiting creativity.
The designer
Since every design task is unique, it possesses different conditions, constraints and resources.
Designers must develop their own knowledge system and co-ordinate existing and new skills and
knowledge together successfully in order to meet the requirements. Designers use their innate
skills to translate ideas and knowledge about the world around them into new products, messages
and environments. (Cooper and Press, 1995). Although designers from different disciplines have
particular strengths in their specialised field, Bruce and Cooper (1997) classify the skills of a
designer into two main categories practical and cognitive. Traditional types of skills involved
in undertaking design projects which distinguish the designer from other professionals include
visualising, model-making, simulating and testing, and technical drawing and diagrams.
Supply chain relationships

Companies are becoming more dependent upon relationships with suppliers, as these provide a
vehicle by which to deliver high quality, value for money products. This involves close
communication and data sharing, and exclusivity of designs (Bruce and Moger, 1999). It is also
argued that companies should focus on closing the satisfaction gaps faced by customers in order to
improve relationships (Harland, 1996). Benefits of building collaboration include a better
understanding of needs and thus the ability to have the correct marketing mix (Eversman, 1999).
Partnering enables companies to develop and transfer technologies (Hergert and Morris, 1987, cited
in Bidault and Cummings, 1994). However, Bidault and Cummings (1994) themselves suggest that
managerial hurdles that are often found in partnerships can commonly offset predicted innovation
advantages, and that there is a considerable tension between innovation and partnering. Gomez
Arias (1995) argues that although strategically guided networks can be highly successful,
innovative and leading edge, it is often innovative organisations that enter into partnering and that a
direct relationship between partnering and corporate performance is unclear.
Bruce et al (1995) highlight some of the problems associated with partnering, which include cost, a
low success rate, an inability to meet expectations of collaborating parties and reduced control over
the product development process. Porter (1990, cited in Bruce et al, 1995) argues that most
alliances are unstable, attributed to the degree of trust between partners and a fear of leaking
information (Hamel et al, 1989, cited in Bruce et al, 1995). Other problems of partnerships include
disagreements regarding scope pace and timing of decision; imbalances of power; dependency;
uncertainty of ownership; mutual suspicion; conflicting loyalties and insufficient identity within the
partnership, undermining credibility (Wilson, 1999).
Developing a climate for innovation

The history of new product development provides many examples of successful products (and
indeed services) being inextricably linked to key individuals. It is through their active support and
contribution to the process of innovation that without them, many new to world products and
innovative solutions would remain on the drawing board. Hauschildt and Schewe (2000) discuss the
role of key persons in agile and innovative organisations, arguing that: it has been shown that a
key factor of success in managing innovative projects is the existence and active contribution of key
persons. Key persons are able to overcome existing barriers that hinder the fluid process of
innovation and success. A vital part in allowing the key individual to flourish and prosper within
the company, is the creation of an organisational context where creativity is unhindered and actively
encouraged. Peter Cook (1998) defines creativity in this context where organisation creativity
can be seen as a process where creativity can be seen as a process where creativity is the input to
the processes that lead to innovation, competitiveness and returns on investment.
Cook identifies the vital ingredients that are central to the process of innovation containing some or
all of the following elements:
Culture, leadership style and values

Structure and systems
Skills and resources.
Culture, leadership style and values:

This is predominantly concerning the values and attitudes of the organisation in the way they
encourage creative thinking and risk tasking (Anderson et al., 1992: Jones and McFadzean, 1997).
Elspeth McFadzean (1998) argues that employees can only be encouraged to think creatively if
they are not afraid of criticism or punishment. For example, if a project fails and the champion is in
fear of losing his job then he will never take the risk of thinking creatively again. Therefore, it is
important that senior management support a climate of innovative thinking and risk tasking, this
can largely be enacted through encouraging employees to develop new ideas, providing the
opportunity for individuals to pursue their own pet projects and financial support. Lowe and
Andriopoulos (2000) take this further, suggesting that: creative professionals are aware of the
risks associated with their work and therefore they are acting proactively by taking into
consideration any potential pitfalls, so that the danger of massive exposure to risk minimised.
Nevertheless, research has shown that incremental risk is very often cherished by creative
organisations because it stretches employees capabilities which they can develop new knowledge
and skills to be used in other projects.
Structure and systems

Cook identifies that both formal and informal organisational structures play an equal part in
enacting a creative strategy to effect innovative practice. Informal structures in this context allow
the free and unhindered movement of networking / information processing and networking. As
Swan et al (1999) puts its: as firms enter the 21st century, the context for many is flatter, less
bureaucratised and more decentralised, even virtual, organisational arrangements with key areas
of expertise often being provided externally. This coupled with ever more sophisticated information
technologies and pressures for dealing with global customers is placing a much greater emphasis
on innovation that allows integration both within and across traditional organisational and interorganisational boundaries. Consequently, the creation of this environment where the cross
fertilisation of learning across traditional professional disciplines allows individuals to share a
common understanding or a common frame of reference. So, from this perspective, informal
networking is viewed as a process of interrelating and sense making.
Skills and resources

These key components focus on the attraction and importantly - retention of creative individuals.
This can be largely brought about by the opportunity facilitation, financial rewards for success and
providing them with the freedom to take risks without the threat of criticism and failure. Echols and
Neck (1998) suggest that: opportunity facilitation should allow individuals to freely yet
supportively challenge anyone in the firm; respect each other as a coach mentor in terms of others
specialised areas of expertise instead of as bosses or authority figures.
Innovative organisations in practice

These cases here are drawn from a larger study illustrating how the designer has utilised their skills
and thinking to both source and extract innovation from the supply chain when involved in the
development of new products.
Case example one: Company A - bathroom equipment

Company A based in the UK is primarily involved with the manufacturing and marketing of
bathroom and sanitary equipment. Its parent company is based in North America. Total sales
(which include bathrooms) exceeded $1.8 billion. The company has been significantly affected by
market conditions in the recession of the early 1990's, but through massive restructuring of its
product ranges it has managed to remain competitive.
The need to innovate
In 1998 Company A identified a suitable opportunity in the complex shower market, to introduce a
new and progressive shower range that could be developed and promoted throughout Europe and
North America. The shower market was in a period of slow growth and maturity, therefore the new
range had to offer unique benefits to the customer in order to gain a firm foothold in this highly
competitive arena. A design consultancy were identified and selected to work on the programme.
The New Product Development Director at Company A was instrumental in developing the project
brief that was then further refined with the design consultancy. Two main factors were crucial in the
formulation of the brief; firstly, Company A were entering a highly competitive and mature
marketplace, therefore it had to have a clear direction and focus on its long term aims. Secondly,
although the company did not have an existing product range to work with, it did have a large
inventory that could be consolidated into a successful product range. During this critical early
stage, suppliers connected to Company A joined the team.
Effective collaboration
This collaboration between Company A and the design consultancy led to a collection of hydro
massage products that respond to how the user would want to feel when showering. This would be
achieved through the touch of a single button on the control panel connected to the shower unit. The
full range includes showers, baths and combination units of the two. The difference between the
new range and the standard bath / shower is that it offers a range of different sensations called
moods which further enhance the bathing / showering experience.
The role of innovation

The design consultancy was instrumental in providing two innovative approaches to the project at
its initial stages. Firstly, they had a long and exemplary history of working with medical products
technology, this was to determine their approach in the way they developed the user interface /
controls for the shower units. In particular, they were keen to investigate pure technology and then
apply it to the development programme. Following an exhaustive investigation of rival product
offerings and developing a greater understanding of the manufacturing capabilities of Company A,
the design consultancy was confident from the outset that the company had the right expertise to
develop the new product range.
Principal Designer at the consultancy comments that: we were pretty sure from the outset that
Company A had all the necessary skills, whether they could assemble them in together to make a
product; but they had all the basics, they made baths, they made valves, they made shower kit
etc
The originality of the whole concept manifests itself as innovation in terms of presentation and
function. Very early on in the initial conceptual stages, the design team decided to pursue the
feasibility of a pre-programmed user control panel that has pre-set showering options. This was a
significant departure from product offerings of rivals to Company A. By investigating comparable
products within the marketplace, the designers were able to identify design-led opportunities
whereby they could differentiate the new product range, with clear and identifiable attributes and
benefits to the consumer. The project team were quite clear and focused on developing a product
range that is solid, robust with a strong emphasis on offering the product range not as a shower, but
more importantly a shower experience through moods.
Multidisciplinary team involvement
A key factor in the success of the project was the involvement of key stakeholders throughout the
duration of the entire programme. The Product Manager for Company A worked closely with the
designers providing invaluable input as to the viability of design concepts concerning design for
manufacture and supply chain management. Over a period of 2-3 months, the project team
developed, tested and at times rejected ideas, selecting the moods concept for further
development. Primary concern was to how the design development team could assemble the
functional features of the showering system to create the specific moods, and then to develop this
whole generic concept throughout the entire product range.
The benefits of design leadership
At the initial stages of the design programme the design consultants were very much outside the
company, providing design expertise as a preferred supplier, liaising predominantly with NPD
Director and the Product Manager. Design development meetings would occur on a weekly basis
with Company A, principally working with the Technical Manager to develop the moods concept.
By working closely with the product manager, the designers developed a greater understanding of
how Company A functioned; this included looking at their limitations and constraints of what they
could or could not achieve, in particular their manufacturing capability.
Communicating the design message
As the project developed to the ramp up and manufacturing stages, the designers were suitably
positioned within the organisation having direct access to all the suppliers knowledge and expertise;
this strategic repositioning of the design consultant allowed the product to be further designed and
developed that took clearly into account product limitations. By working from within the heart of
Company A, the principal designer at the design consultancy could communicate the essence and
design message of the moods concept to marketing, finance, management and manufacturing
thus maintaining the integrity of the design.
Company As principal designers involvement throughout all stages of the project was enabling
the integrity of the concept to be maintained. This was particularly critical when developing the
point of sales advertising imagery and brochures to both European and American audiences. The
principal designer at the design consultancy was not only designing and developing a full product
range, but also developing a strong brand identity in the marketplace for the shower system. Also,
he was the primary conduit for the relationship between the two companies, although he was
supplied by a team of other designers, he led the project and the relationships; it was through his
personal style and team leadership abilities that the relationship between the two companies
developed in a manner that facilitated trust and the resulting brand concept and product line.
Discussion
This case illustrates how the company supported the New Product Development Director in
embarking on the new product development programme. The key factors that greatly contributed to
the successful outcome of the programme can be attributed to:
Effective design management
The Product Manager for Company A was well positioned within the organisation to understand
and embrace the full strategic potential of new product range carefully aligning it with business
strategy. To effectively realise the potential of the idea, the Product Manager carefully managed the
differing supply chain partners, accessing expertise and information throughout the entire chain
from third and fourth tier suppliers through to the end users. By integrating knowledge inputs and
feeding it to the design team, the NPD programme managed to incorporate new technologies to
enable it to move smoothly forward whilst reducing the risk of failure.
The designer
The designer brought to the project his vast experience and expertise that facilitated the application
of new processes and learning which enabled the company to incrementally innovate. Also, his
sensitive leadership skills set the agenda for innovation; this was particularly vital when
presenting new ideas to Directors and key decision-makers both in Europe and the United States.
Without this ability to subtly promote the project at these hard-gates the integrity of the final
concept would have been significantly lessened or lost. The close working relationship between the
Director and designer; both had worked together before and each had developed a high degree of
trust concerning their counterparts abilities and professional judgement. But, both were open to the
sharing of ideas and suggestions coupled with a willingness to take risks and explore deeper
concepts where appropriate.
Culture
The company believed in allowing and promoting enough creative freedom for the key individuals
involved in the programme to investigate new technologies and apply them to the new product
range. This not only helped Company A to make the new venture a success but it also enabled them
to expand into new business areas. Ahmed (1998) captures this sentiment perfectly, arguing that
however, becoming innovative demands more than debate and resources; it requires an
organisational culture that constantly guides organisational members to strive for innovation and a
climate that is conducive to creativity.
Case example two: Company B lighting products

Company B is a well known lighting company based in the UK, they were established in 1930.
They supply and manufacture products ranging from lighting to curtain poles. In 1999 they had an
annual turnover of over 20 million, increasing their market share to 7% of the UK luminaires
market. From 1998, the company had grown by 250% through developing new markets and heavily
marketing their products. Their largest customers are Argos, Great Universal Stores (GUS), Index,
Next Retail and are a highest graded supplier to the DIY chain B&Q.
The designer
The designers abilities around being inventive started over twenty years ago when he developed a
passion for electronics. He was so involved in his new interest that he was often studying for over
twelve hours a day and was very soon proficient in television and computer electronics. His first
invention was a small electronic device, housed in a little black box that enabled computer games
players to improve on their performance scores by boosting the firing rate of the guns and
improving the response rate of the games themselves. On returning to higher education in design,
the designer set up his own design consultancy, specialising in novelty lighting products. At this
time he was working on a concept for a novelty lamp which on completion he exhibited at the New
Designers Exhibition in Angel Islington, London. Both Directors of Company B, travelled to
London to meet the designer at the Design Business Centre. They were quite impressed with his
exhibition piece and agreed to additionally sponsor him to develop it further and assess its market
potential.
Product inception
The novelty light went through many different guises prior to its final form. To give an indication
of its very inception the designer explains that I started off with baby oil at firstI wanted
something quite viscous; this would fill the fish tank that I cut apart and reassembled. And also, I
wanted to play about with different effectsbetween oils and water. And basically it was a case of
finding oils that were very cheap and easy to get hold of. From then on, after refining, it developed
into what you see now. But the initial conceptthe initial concept came from very, very simple
tests. I mean extremely simple tests.
He is quick to point out that Once I had worked out how to make it workby doing lots of little
prototypesto bring the whole lot together. So when I was happy that Id cracked it, then I had to
work out all the tolerance system which became a little more technical and also working out certain
characteristics of the system. From that, I set up a presentation. I contacted [company B] and I said
I am ready now willing to come in and present.
Product development
Having viewed the novelty light in conceptual form, a legally binding partnership was established
between Company B and the designer. In particular, two senior directors of the company developed
a close working relationship with the designer the Technical Director and the Special Projects
Manager. Company B took the working prototype and began to work through its construction in
order to design it for manufacture in a more cost-effective manner. Very early on, a technical
problem arose regarding a valve design; The designer was contacted and after initial discussions he
developed a working prototype made out of acrylic to provide a clear indication of how it
functioned and means of construction. The revised valve design was then taken to Company Bs
manufacturers for further refinement. They had similar valves already in production and by working
closely with the Technical Director they advised Company B of the best one to use in the novelty
light.
Strategic design
Historically, Company B has never fully utilised the services of a design consultancy or an
individual designer. They have at present twelve suppliers throughout the UK and China supplying
a broad range of lighting products that they then sell in the commercial marketplace. Although the
Technical Director is quick to point out that nobody is employed by the company as a designer
we employ over 100 designers. Everybody in the business has got an idea; thats pretty much how
we run the business, its a very fluid system that we have. Although no formal design procedure
exists as yet. The majority of new designs that they create are combinations or modifications to
the products offered by their suppliers.
The role of innovation
Company B does have a loose process for capturing and developing design within the
organisation, but they do admit that it is one of their current weaknesses. Most new product
development is channelled through the Technical Director, who has a keen eye for market
conditions predicting what will and will not sell. Until quite recently, the Technical Director was
the solely responsible for product development. But with the current expansion of the company and
the introduction of many new product lines, they are now in the process of growing the new product
development function into an integral resource for the company. He adds that now we have got a
team of 12 here and five in charge. Plus, this is the resource that we have got in our suppliers. Its
grown massively as a feature of the business and its looking veryits a very important supplier of
service.
The value of design
This case study has illustrated the role that design can offer, enabling Company B to break into new
markets; seek a new focus through the establishment of a close working partnership with a
professional designer. Prior to the novelty light project, they had no real experience of engaging
professional designers in order to develop new products. Consequently, they had no established inhouse design function or more importantly, an effective formalised structure to harness and utilise
design. Through the development of this project, it has provided the company with an increased
confidence to formalise their design management procedure and closely align new product
introductions with their future business strategy and vision. The company is confident for their
future focus, developing unique design products tailored to more specialist markets by embracing
new product development and design as a strategic resource.
Discussion
Case study two illustrates how the designer gave the company confidence to use and value design
as a key business tool. Prior to the project, Company B did not fully understand nor utilise design
effectively. Since the introduction of the new product range, they have now developed a new focus
with design at its core. However, through this partnership with the designer, the company now
possesses a willingness to accept and adopt external ideas. Other key factors, which greatly
contributed to the successful outcome of the NPD programme, include
Supply chain integration
The company was successful in the way they developed a dynamic culture of interaction with their
suppliers. By constantly tapping into the expertise of knowledge within the supply chain, both
designer and manager could extend, deepen and apply these skills in pursuit of innovative thinking
and practice.
Design management
The freedom to innovate; the close partnership between the Special Projects Manager and the
designer created a mutually learning relationship whereby both could view problems from
alternative perspectives and together they could constantly challenge conventional wisdom in order
to innovate.
Summary
There are 2 domains within design in organisations the designer and the client/organisation itself.
When these are both brought together it is important to manage the ways in which the client and
the designer build their relationship in order to access and share knowledge, and also to innovate
and make decisions. Also, the number of suppliers is a variable that will change from client to
client, and this will affect the ways in which knowledge is transferred, and also the degrees of
power held by the designer and the supply chain. The designer will have a more direct influence
over a client with no supply chain.
It is important that there is a key individual/design champion to facilitate the designer client
relationship, in order to maximise innovation. The role that this person would play would vary to
some degree depending upon the model used. However some common characteristics would apply,
namely: authority, access to people within the organisation, a gatekeeper, open to change and new
ideas, empathetic, a designer or with designer characteristics, empowering, a good networker,
persuasive, a good communicator, particularly of brand values of the organisation, and the ability to
facilitate and manage relationships with users and suppliers. Within the intermediate model the key
individual may be the managing director, and issues regarding finance will be of greater
importance, due to limited resources. This requires openness and sharing of information with the
designer, in order to get feasible design solutions. Tighter project management is also key in order
to ensure that the project runs to schedule and hidden costs do not arise. If the design function is
out-sourced it is important that the key individual has the skills to build relationships with the
network of suppliers sourced by the designer, in order to be able to take over these once the
designer has exited the company. In the direct model trust is a key issue, communication must be
open and transparent and the key individual and the designer must work together to understand
suppliers and users, and to learn from them. However, clearly defined roles and boundaries of the
project are important, and the organisation needs to understand the value of the designer and what
they can expect.
10
References:
Ahmed, P.K. (1998) Culture and Climate for Innovation, European Journal of Innovation
Management, Vol.1, No.1, pp.30-43.
Anderson, N., Hardy, G. & West, M. (1992), Management team innovation, Management
Decision, Vol.30, No.2, pp.17-21.
Bidault F and Cummings T (1994) Innovating through alliances: expectations and limitations R &
D Management Vol. 24, No 1.
Bone, D. (2000) Design in Business Week UK Campaign.
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Bruce, M. and Cooper, R., (1997) Marketing and Design Management International Thompson
Business Press, UK.
Bruce M, Leverick F, Littler D and Wilson D (1995) Success Factors for collaborative product
development: a study of suppliers of information and communication technology R & D
Management Vol. 25, Issue 1.
Bruce M and Moger S (1999) Dangerous Liaisons: An Application of Supply Chain Modelling for
Studying Innovation within the UK Clothing industry, Technology Analysis and Strategic
Management, Vol. 11, No 1.
Cook, P. (1998) The creativity advantage is your organisation the leader of the pack? Industrial
and Commercial Training, Vol.30, No.5. pp. 179-184.
Cooper, R. and Press, M. (1995) The Design Agenda: A Guide to Successful Design Management.
John Wiley & Sons Inc. UK.
Echols, A.E., & Neck, C.P. (1998) The impact of behaviours and structure on corporate
entrepreneurial success, Journal of Managerial Psychology. Vol.13, No.1/2. pp. 38-46.
Eversman, M (1999) Key to Managing supply chain is extended chain, American Metal Market,
December 17th.
Gomez Arias, J (1995) Do networks really foster innovation? Management Decision, Vol. 23, No 9.
Harland, C M. (1996) Supply Chain Management: Relationships, Chains and Networks, British
Journal of Management p63 80, Vol. 7.
Hauschildt, J., & Schewe, G. (2000) Gatekeeper and process promoter: key persons in agile and
innovative organisations, International Journal of Agile Management Systems. Vol. 2, No.2. pp 96103.
11
Jones, G. & McFadzean, E.S. (1997) How can Reboredo foster creativity in her current employees
and nurture creative individuals who join the company in the future?, Case Commentary, Harvard
Business Review, Vol. 75, No.5. pp.50-51.
Lowe, A. & Andriopoulos, C. (2000) Enhancing organisational creativity: the process of perpetual
challenging. Management Decision, Vol.38, No.10. pp. 734-742.
McFadzean, E.S. & Nelson, T. (1998) A conceptual model for facilitating group problem solving
sessions, Leadership and Organisation Development Journal, Vol.19 No.1. pp.6-13.
Morzota (1998) Challenge of design relationships, Chapter 11, pp 243-260 Management of Design
Alliances ed. Bruce, and Jevnaker, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Swan, J., Newell, S., Scarbrough, H., & Hislop, D. (1999) Knowledge management and innovation:
networks and networking. Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol.3, No.4. pp. 262-275.
Wilson D (1999) Organisational Marketing Thomson Business Press London
12

A. Crabbe Leader, Design Contract Research Unit, Nottingham Trent University, UK
Abstract
The present paper reconsiders some of the activities that properly constitute design research, by
focusing on case studies of contract research carried out by the Design Contract Research Unit at
Nottingham Trent University. A review of recent UK papers seeking to define the nature of design
research suggests that a consensus is still some way off. Contract research, which is a professional
research service undertaken for commissioning clients, poses further questions again, since a
commercial service may amount to little more than jobbing work. The aims of this paper are to
identify the characteristics of contract research in design through particular examples and to
consider how far such particulars assist the search for general consensus.

In the UK, there is political pressure on academic communities to reach consensus about the nature
and value of research in their chosen disciplines, most obviously evidenced in the introduction of
Research Assessment Exercises. Politicians and civil servants seem increasingly drawn to the idea
of fixing an apparently tangible value on the quality of public activity by creating new funding
equations. An academic Oscar ceremony like the RAE is a useful means of demonstrating their
diligence and the accountability of their fund management. However, success in such an exercise is
not the beginning or end of funding support for design research. To the contrary, the most
impressive research campuses I have seen recently are those belonging to the giant corporations
Microsoft and Nestl (Alcon Laboratories in Dallas). Armies of researchers also inhabit those
campuses and it would be a serious misunderstanding in those of us less well accommodated on
university campuses to believe that somehow, our industrial colleagues are working one level below
us, tied as they are to the directions of greedy masters. Such masters may provide academics with
patronage additional to that given by politicians and bureaucrats, whose motives are not obviously
purer, appearing driven as much by self-maintenance as the public interest.
To get a picture of the value of the outcomes of corporate research, try to imagine operating a
computer or taking care of your health without using the software and medical devices developed
by researchers in such companies. Colleagues to whom I have made such a case have told me that
such outcomes evidence applied research, which seems by implication to be a rung down the
ladder from pure research. The distinction I think they are making is between research with a predetermined goal, and research without the same, which is often called fundamental research in the
sciences. An example of the former would be to find a way of preventing a carbon filament that
becomes incandescent when an electrical current passes through it, from burning up after a few
seconds. This was a major research project that led to the invention of the first durable electric light
bulb by Edison.
An example of fundamental research would be to investigate what happens when electrical currents
are passed through strands of different materials. In hindsight, this may seem a necessary precursor
for inventing a light bulb, but in foresight, it does not appear to be a research programme
guaranteed to add even to theoretical understanding of electromagnetic behaviour. It is invidious to
value one approach more highly than another. Both exist in design research, yet goal led research is
evidently the more dominant form because research programmes can be very expensive and so
market forces in both public and private sectors favour the goal led form in design. Indeed, it is hard
to imagine that design researchers could learn much of value from practice based activity unless
there were commercial manufacturers and developers available to collaborate in essential realisation
processes, such as tooling, fabrication and distribution. It is largely due to this consideration that my
own unit has been led into accepting goals set by clients, rather than ourselves, and why the term
"contract" prefixes our research activity.
Concerning the notion of practice in relation to research, Nigel Cross (1999) is persuasive in
insisting that practice itself does not constitute a significant research activity, because in a
community, others may feel that if they cannot gain access through public reports to the methods
behind the outcome, they cannot easily assess their value or further applicability. In the case of craft
production, many craftspeople would probably go to considerable lengths not to disclose their
methods to others. The success of such an approach both in defending innovation as well as adding
value or mystique to the products is well evidenced by the successful transition of famous
Renaissance figures, such as Leonardo, from the status of craftsman to artist. Parallels are still to be
found in contemporary design, where the status of designers such as Armani and Starck, indicates
that even in an industrial culture, mystique still plays an important role in the value systems of
consumers and profit margins of manufacturers.
More commonly in industrial cultures, we have mechanisms for protecting personal innovation by
actually disclosing outcomes in formal public ways. Patent and copyright are the most obvious
examples and both are recognised as satisfactory research outcomes by UK research assessment
exercises. Patents must by definition be: 1) new ideas, not previously disclosed in public, 2) involve
an inventive step, such that 'when compared with what is already known, it would not be obvious to
someone with a good knowledge and experience of the subject', 3) 'be capable of industrial
application' (UK Patent Office 2001). In this respect, 'industry is meant in its broadest sense as
anything distinct from purely intellectual or aesthetic activity'. Under such definition, natural
discoveries, scientific theories, mathematical methods and aesthetic creations are excluded from
patent protection. On the other hand, the specific form of an aesthetic creation, such as the exact
words of a text, or the patterns and shapes of a designed object can be protected under copyright or
design patent.
Patent definitions are then most instructive in telling us about the forms of knowledge which are
pertinent to the definition of design research. Design practice primarily concerns the creation of
apparatus, devices, processes or methods of operation that are capable of industrial application.
Whilst it is by no means necessary that the outcomes of design practice are in any way inventive,
many of them may be claimed to take a specific form that is novel and can be disclosed and
protected. As the broad parameters of the UK RAE category "Art and Design", witness, design
practice encompasses activities that add to public knowledge in two different forms. The ordinary
patent, involves creating products, methods or processes, which can be described in such a way as
to enable others to reproduce and apply the inventive steps. The design patent involves creating a
specific arrangement of symbols, shapes, lines or patterns, which so differs to precursors, that just
describing it in patent form prevents others from trying to reproduce the arrangement without
permission. Of the two kinds of disclosure, the ordinary patent makes it far easier for others to gain
insight into the particular research and creative processes giving rise to the outcome. Designers, like
other professionals, may then wish to comment publicly through formal means such as publication,
on the kinds of approaches and insights underlying particular design outcomes. This constitutes a
third form of contribution to public knowledge, which is not patentable, but is recognised as a vital
part of the research culture of any discipline.
As to the relationship between research and knowledge, the dictionary definitions of research
include 'collecting information about a subject', in a way that is 'careful or diligent'. This diligent
way may also involve a more complex 'investigation and experimentation aimed at the discovery
and interpretation of new facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or
practical application of such new or revised theories or laws' (Britannica Webster's 2002).
An attribute of research in general that is embedded in the official guidelines of organisations like
the UK RAE is that it contributes to knowledge. In this sort of description, knowledge seems to be
principally the public kind, and accordingly, a contribution may be seen as something that is new,
or different enough, to add to a public bank of knowledge. For patents there is a highly developed
and complex method that allows professional examiners to determine the extent to which
knowledge claims may be deemed new additions. Unfortunately, for forms of knowledge 'excluded'
from patenting, such as intellectual discoveries and theories, it is far less clear cut how they come to
be accepted as additions. The primary mechanism is that of peer review by academics, publishers
and media editors.
As a relatively young and emergent discipline, design introduces problematic issues of its own.
There seems to be consensus that design is very much an interdisciplinary activity, attracting inward
a variety of research paradigms from longer established academic disciplines (Margolin 1999;
Cross 1999). There also seems to be some agreement even between those with differing views of
design research, that it is right and proper for all those different specialists gathered under the
design umbrella to develop new research paradigms (Owen 1994; Manzini 1994).
Among the new paradigms entering design, is post-structuralism, or the new criticism (e.g. Seago
& Dunne 1999) which challenges traditional knowledge hierarchies. Although most evidenced in
what used to be called literary criticism, the new approach is derived from the work of cross
disciplinary mentors like the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and the philosopher Jacques Derrida.
Derrida (1982) argues that no form of knowledge is centred, there is no unique logos or
knowledge structure that is truer than any other. In fact, Derrida's main point here has already been
expressed by other philosophers, as different as Karl Popper and Richard Rorty. Popper (1972: 7181) has argued that knowledge comprises a network of theories, in which even the firmest beliefs
appear to be provisional, subject to the discovery of a better theory. Rorty (1980: 313-22) attacks
the foundational view of knowledge, where philosophers have traditionally assumed a priviliged
view of knowledge in general, which portrays different forms of knowledge building up from a hard
base layer of the cognitive kind to progressively softer layers of the hermeneutic kind. Popper
seems to be one of these traditional philosophers, arguing (1972: 73-4) that objective knowledge,
such as it is true that 2 add 2 makes 4, holds a special place because the veracity of such
propositions does not appear to be open to subjective inclination. Objectivity is clearly an important
feature of the way knowledge is viewed in the hard sciences and may help to explain why even
great creations such as relativity theory are more usually described as "discoveries". As recognised
in the earlier discussion of patenting, design activity may involve some form of new discovery
which can be tested in a way that provides reproducible results. However, design also encompasses
forms of creative output which can be recognised, described and evaluated, but only in the form of a
critical activity that appeals to a sharing of personal experiences and aesthetic codes.
It is unlikely that many in design would want to claim that critical arguments impose the same
sense of necessity on the understanding as do objective findings about, say, the physical
performance of designed objects. Accordingly, design by its very nature seems divided between
views of knowledge that differ according to the kind of activity undertaken and questions posed.
Designers are frequently called upon to tackle different problems, which involve different forms of
knowledge and thus, methodology. For instance, the writing of this paper involves critical
discourse, which appeals to subjective experience, leaving the arguments open to a spectrum of
personal interpretations. Whereas, some of the product design work we are about to show is not
open to the same level of subjective interpretation, it either performs to an International Standard,
makes valid patent claims, or it does not - and these issues can be resolved by reproducible testing
and examination. Such work is not even typical of much product design, which concerns re-styling
familiar objects, an activity that could be the subject of a design patent, but not an ordinary one.
Differing research methodologies are bound to underlie such different tasks, and anyone working
on three such projects is bound to adjust their goals, knowledge claims and research methods,
without ceasing to be engaged in some form of worthwhile design research.
Whilst the new criticism has sought to introduce a plurality of discourses by dismantling traditional
knowledge hierarchies, it has also introduced some unfortunate syntheses of methodologies.
Consider the Theory of the Gaze, originated by Laura Mulveys article "Visual Pleasure and
Narrative Cinema" (1975). This has been an influential critical stance on film narrative, based on an
entirely uncritical acceptance of Freuds theory of scopophilia, which although probably new to
most in visual studies at the time, was already regarded as outmoded and unreliable by many in
psychology (Eysenck & Wilson 1973, pp1-13). Caution is required when introducing ideas and
methods from contingent disciplines. It is better advised to select from them the methodologies that
seem most appropriate to particular tasks. Through informed adaptation to specific requirements in
design, existing methodologies may even be revised or expanded to become generally useful in
design research. For instance, asking if a design is patentable is a useful way of assessing the sense
in which workers from all disciplines may see it to be innovative, but not of regarding it critically.
Returning to the value of patents as indicators of worthwhile research activity, if numbers
demonstrate anything, our colleagues in the corporate sector are making a far more prolific
contribution in the field of product innovation than ourselves. However, to recognise this is not to
exclude academic researchers from the field. In addition to the live student/company projects, to
which many departments such as the one at Brunel are already committed, there are many small to
medium enterprises (SMEs) interested in what we have to offer, who cannot afford to maintain their
own research and development units. To such organisations, we can offer what in todays parlance
is called a transfer of knowledge. Teaching Company Schemes are one well known method in the
UK, less well known are a number of university design research units, such as those at UCE, Brunel
and my own university, Nottingham Trent, who offer their services to companies of all sizes.
In university nomenclature, such activities are classed as external consultancy, but this is a label
my own unit has struggled to resist, as witnessed by the words contract research in our title. The
resistance is explained by three important factors. The first is that we are supported by European
Regional Development Funding, with a remit to provide a subsidised knowledge transfer service to
SMEs. The second is the corollary condition that we should not therefore be competing for work
with local design agencies. The third is that we have followed a vocation in choosing academic,
rather than commercial life. Our commercial counterparts like to tease us that we teach because we
cant do, and they may be right. In our defence, we would argue that we each do different things,
which the other cannot, or will not. The most important of these is we academics have the benefit of
being part of a much larger expert community whose presence greatly increases the range of
methods, techniques and resources we can bring to bear in planning a goal led research programme.
Few agencies either could or would want to compete with these resources and so that makes it
easier for us to identify the kind of projects in which we want to get involved. Our rule of thumb is
that we say sorry to any company asking us to Design one of those, but welcome collaboration
with anyone asking us Do you think it would be possible to design something that?, or Are we
going the right way about designing this? A good demonstration of this principle is provided by
our case study, a collaboration with a small, but successful plastics company in our catchment area.
Europalite Ltd. mould plastic products like road cones and grit bins by rotational methods.
Essentially a rotationally moulded form is a single plastic surface bounding a closed volume - a
hollow sphere is a typical primitive. On the other hand, an open form like a bowl is not typical, but
could be made by sawing a rotationally moulded sphere in half. The process also allows more
complex primitives, such as a form pierced through by a hole - genus 1 in mathematical language
- as well as genus 2, 3, and so on, provided the walls of the holes are all orientated on the same axis
and do not return into the body of the basic form. Whilst the method is less flexible than other
moulding processes in allowing a variety of geometries, plastic affords more opportunities for
constructing complex forms than kindred processes such as clay slip casting. The vast majority of
moulds are split into two parts, which are filled with finely ground plastic, sealed and then rotated
bi-axially in a large oven that causes the polymer to melt and attach to the wall surfaces inside the
mould, which may later be split open to release the finished product. The two great advantages of
rotational moulding are that it can produce large products, and the mould tools are cheap to
fabricate or cast, typically costing between 10-25% the price of much smaller injection tools. It is
then, a relatively simple process, often associated with large utilitarian products of relatively low
production quality, and large tolerances of accuracy.
The managing director contacted us because he thought the process was capable of far more than
his industry has demonstrated thus far. You may imagine our wonder when early in our association,
he suggested to that we investigate the possibility of designing an adjustable builders trestle to
compete with the tubular steel variety that are fabricated to meet stringent British Standards in
safely supporting a working load of 650kg. His cheerful justification of why he should want to
attempt such a thing was: Because I make things in plastic. Whilst this had scared away more
sane design agencies, it proved irresistible bait to people who enjoy getting their students to build
improbably strong bridges out of drinking straws. It was a project through which we felt we could
learn, which made it seem an ideal form of knowledge transfer (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Adjustable builder's trestle to BS 1139 650kg SWL

As in our student bridge projects, we were astonished by what we found and greatly edified by what
it taught us, not just about rotational moulding, but much else besides. Neither of us working on the
project were trained engineers and so we felt a duty of care to buy in some more books on
engineering design and against all advice, a basic Finite Element Analysis (FEA) package, Design
Space. After driving us nearly mad, Design Space grudgingly started to give answers to some of our
questions (Figure 2). It was not until we finished the project that we discovered we were actually
asking the program to do more than it was designed to, by analysing hollow forms, rather than
solids. Part of the benefit of this, was that it taught us how to fool Design Space into making
calculations it was not supposed to.
Figure 2: Finite element analysis of trestle beam under 650kg point load
Mindful of the warnings we had received, we cross checked the solutions by taking small segments
of a given part and calculating the answers manually. By such means, our confidence grew to the
point where within a few weeks, we could not understand why such programs were not a standard
component of the product design studio and indeed, our student computer resources. In the event,
the loading simulations were within 12% of the real values found in the final design. Despite our
reservations about the eventual commercial viability of the design, we sought throughout our
programme to play to the strengths of a moulded trestle, by limiting the components to four forms
that could be inexpensively moulded with few fabrication steps thereafter, and assembled from a
flat pack by the user. The standards testing we were able to contract in house from our engineering
laboratories and the dissemination of what we had learnt was in part publicised through the filing of
a patent.
Another vital part of our mutual learning was an investigation into whether it was possible to
increase the strength of the polyethylene polymer we were using, perhaps by glass fibre
reinforcement. This investigation demonstrates the value of patent literature to design researchers,
since we found two patents from the 1980s which showed the polymer suppliers to be wrong in
their assertion that rotationally moulded plastics could not be successfully glass reinforced.
Nevertheless, when we tried to replicate the methods disclosed in the patents, we were disappointed
with the results, which showed the fibre tended to migrate into the inside of the product walls and
was poorly packed, which made the strength of the compound less than the values that were to be
expected by comparison to other moulding methods. Proceeding in a way more reminiscent of
Edisons empirical approach to the light bulb than of contemporary polymer engineers, we picked
the brains of a major glass strand manufacturer, acquiring free information that seems to flow easily
when the word university is introduced. We got free samples of a variety of glass strand types,
which we compounded in a variety of different test batches. We were perhaps unjustly fortunate in
achieving the desired result within a few hours of moulding.
The next task was to further improve the strength of the glass to polymer bond by finding a more
appropriate chemical coupling agent than those described in the patents. Despite superb support and
advice from Akzo Nobel and Hoechst, we had far greater difficulty in these tests. The eventual
solution was again derived from a leap of designers intuition, rather than good research method.
We felt an instinctive discomfort in suggesting that the workforce introduced a rather unpleasant
chemical into the moulding compound in liquid form. This led to a search for a powder based form,
which we could not find, but we did come across an analogue product used in rheology, rather than
coupling, that was based in a fine chalk powder of similar grain size to the polymer. Having
empirically found the correct concentration to use after blackening the mould tools with incorrect
quantities, the strengthening effect was so tangible we scarcely needed laboratory testing to tell us
which measure and mixing method gave us the best coupling. Again, the results of this work are to
be disclosed in a patent file.
The final example concerns a rather more disciplined project, more within our range of expertise,
which arose from the companys success in persuading us that there was untapped potential in
rotational moulding. The problems to be overcome had more to do with the standards of
toolmaking, than of product design. The tolerances of steel fabricated mould tools are at least 2mm
and wall thickness can vary up to 20%. In theory, an aluminium tool cast from a wooden model, or
pattern, can be made accurate to fractions of a millimetre, but then the patterns are hand built from
the design drawings and therefore prone to larger error. In the trestle, we had to connect opposing
walls in the hollow form to create a true structure, rather than a void enclosed by unconnected
walls. This we did by dimpling key areas of the walls to create kiss points inside the form as the
product moulded. The unconventional dimple forms we created did not endear us to the toolmakers,
whose notions of tolerance did not endear them to us. If we could find a more accurate way of
generating the patterns, we felt we could overcome the limitations of the process to liberate its
potentials.
These are that the ovens can be as large as 4 metres in diameter, which means smaller products can
be tooled as parasites that are just fixed into any space not filled by a larger product being
moulded. Given tooling costs of as little as 3-5000 for a product the size of a torch, the parasites
can act as prototype generators, which if successful, can be duplicated and arrays of these small
products can be moulded 20 or 30 at a time, for half the cost of an injection moulding tool
manufacturing them at a comparable rate. So here, rather than trying to apply rotational moulding to
products never made before in plastic, we were seeking to advance rotational moulding into a more
competitive form of making plastic products. A good vehicle for this idea turned out to be a hard
hat, a product always injection moulded. Since the hard hat is essentially a shell supported by an
adjustable webbing cradle, we set out to see if it were possible to turn the underside of a rotationally
moulded hat into a webbing and find an alternative method of adjusting the headband to fit all sizes
of head (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Desktop model of rotationally moulded hard hat

The design solutions seemed relatively simple. You need only to look at the adjustable back of a
baseball cap to see how size adjustment could be made. Whilst the webbing could be created by
making a template that could be put inside the inner skin of the helmet to provide guides for a small
dentist-type drill that could cut out the unwanted material. The real problem was how to ensure the
accuracy of tooling that was essential from a structural point of view and indeed an aesthetic one,
because this was an apparel item. Contrary to what might be thought, construction workers seem to
have a greater consciousness of their appearance than may popularly be believed. Evidence comes
in the form of the Stetson hard hat, which is apparently a major seller in the US heartlands. The fact
that our hat has ribs that form a Union Jack is completely fortuitous, a result of our mainly
structural approach to the task. We would argue that it is no more an option to remove these than it
would be to remove the ribs from the dome of Florence cathedral! However, that has not inhibited
us from suggesting this hat be marketed as the Jack Hat, and we can imagine Prince Charles
modelling it on industrial visits. On the other hand, if the best structural solution had been ribs that
formed a swastika, then our awareness of the appropriate methodologies for the design of apparel
would have led us to seek a different solution.
As to making an acceptably accurate model, we turned to colleagues in Nottingham University to
help us with rapid prototyping, either by laminating or CNC cutting. Both methods involve
generating an extremely accurate solid model direct from our original CAD files (Figure 4). For this
relatively small product it was economically acceptable to use LOM, laminated object manufacture,
which produces the wood model by scanning the CAD model in paper thin horizontal slices and
then laser cutting the slice from a sheet of paper, running a glue impregnated roller over the slice
and then repeating to generate the complete model. The casting from this model is taking place at
the time of writing, so the results are not yet fully known. However, we are confident that our
approach is the way forward to realising the larger objective of introducing accurate toolmaking
into this industry in order to facilitate a new generation of products that conform both to consumer
expectation and to necessary regulatory standards for public health and safety.
Figure 4: Rapid prototype pattern of hard hat in laminated paper

As to the lessons that can be learnt from the practice of contract research in design, the following
seem instructive: The responsibility of working for an external client on real commercial projects
need not be daunting, it can be enjoyable, indeed entertaining. We have found that the effect of
working with academics seems to liberate the playfulness in our clients, which is a vital ingredient
for both creativity and formulating interesting research questions. It may be surmised that clients
have a perhaps unwarranted trust in our abilities, just because of our job titles, when all the time we
are telling them that we too are trying to learn. Learning is another key ingredient for successful
research and interdisciplinary collaboration. I believe part of the reason we have had considerable
fortune in resolving challenging projects, is because we are shameless about wanting to learn about
anything that might lead us closer to the goal that always looms over a contract research project.
The goal is something that has to be achieved by practice, but such practice is unrealisable without
a programmatic approach in which the designers endeavour to identify as best they can, the
methods and techniques that best suit the various demands of the project.
We have tried to be candid about what our more expert colleagues would see as the shortcomings of
some our research approaches. We are not ashamed by these, we defend them on the grounds that
ends justify means in the market driven world of design practice. With due qualification, these
reflections may be used to recommend that elements of a shared understanding of design research
be allowed to emerge retrospectively from practice, not just prospectively from theoretical debate.
10
References
Cross N, 1999, Design Research: A Disciplined Conversation, Design Issues 15:2, 5-10
Derrida J, 1982, Margins of Philosophy, Harvester, Brighton.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, www.britannica.com
Eysenck J & Wilson GD, 1973, "The experimental study of Freudian theories", Methuen, London.
Manzini E, 1994, Design Research for a Sustainable Environment Design/Research Conference,
Royal College of Art, London.
Margolin V, 1999, Design Research and its Challenges, Design Journal 4:2, 14-19
Mulvey L, 1975 "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" Screen, XV1 no 3.
Owen C, 1994, Design Research: Building the Knowledge Base Design/Research Conference,
Royal College of Art, London.
Popper K, 1972, "Objective knowledge : an evolutionary approach", Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
Rorty R, 1980, Philosophy and the mirror of nature, Blackwell, Oxford.
Seago A & Dunne A, 1999, New Methodologies in Art and Design Research: The Object as
Discourse, Design Issues 15:2, 11-17
UK Patent Office, www.patent.gov.uk
11

C. Crouch Edith Cowan University, Australia
Abstract
The core units in the Visual Culture course at the School of Visual Arts, Edith Cowan University,
draw heavily upon key concepts in post-colonial theory. Particularly the premises of the social and
political inequality of much cultural exchange, and the ultimate impossibility of cross-cultural
understanding. These are considered essential for practice in a multi-culture such as Australias.
Despite this contextualisation, during a final year professional practice tutorial, a group of students
dealing with Aboriginal copyright law argued that cultural appropriation was simply a matter of
formal stylistic borrowing. They proposed that designing was an unproblematic union of expression
and technical means, seemingly jettisoning notions of the social and contingent nature of meaning
in visual culture. When confronted with the reality of Bhabhas unmanned, antagonistic, and
unpredictable sites of cultural contestation it appeared some of our students retreated into the
disconnected world of specialist activity.
This paper proposes that whilst students could theoretically identify cultural transgression and its
consequences, when faced with it intruding into their own lives they had no ethical framework by
which to negotiate with it. It was evident that a sizeable minority of the student body saw the space
offered to the individual by the subjectivities of post-structuralism as one in which all readings are
of equal value. The concern is to develop an ethical design education, but how far does one educate
the design student to become ethically self-reflexive (to use Giddens term) before substantial parts
of the design professions practice become seen as ethically unsustainable?

Studies in Visual Culture is a core course at the School of Visual Arts, Edith Cowan University,
Perth, Australia. The school teaches across a range of visual disciplines which includes two
dimensional and digital design. All the schools students attend the Visual Culture lecture and
tutorial programme which draws heavily upon key concepts in Critical and Post-Colonial theory.
There are a number of conceptual premises that are deemed essential for student practitioners in the
school working in a multi-culture such as Australias, and central to the conception and
implementation of study in the course is the examination of the processes of cultural interpretation
and exchange. The basic premises of this examination are, firstly, the often unequal nature of such
exchanges, and secondly, the ultimate impossibility of cross-cultural understanding - what Homi
Bhabha calls the incommensurability between cultures. The shift in curriculum emphasis away
from a traditional Eurocentric art and design history towards active cultural interpretation has led to
the need for the student body to become ethically reflexive (1) in order that they can personally
assimilate and act upon the consequences of the cultural information presented to them. In this way
it is hoped students can more readily translate theoretical concepts into practice, and become people
who ask questions rather than just answer them, and therefore become better practitioners. We have
discovered that simply exposing students to basic access and equity paradigms through an uncritical
multiculturalism is insufficient. I wish to suggest that the different lived experience of students
must be located in their social, cultural and political context, and that post colonial theory can be
part of the educational mechanism by which they are introduced to the need for ethical engagement
with visual culture. This paper unravels this process and will pose a problem that has emerged in
educating our students in this way how far does one educate the design student to become
ethically reflexive before a large part of the design professions practice is called into question and
is framed as unsustainable?
The issue of ethical practice at the school became highlighted when, during a professional practice
tutorial, a group of final year students dealing with the issue of Aboriginal copyright law (2) argued
that cultural appropriation was simply a matter of formal stylistic borrowing. They proposed that
image making was an unproblematic union of individual expression and technical means, seemingly
jettisoning of all notions of the social and contingent nature of meaning in visual culture. After three
years of study in which the unequal nature of cultural exchange had been theorised and in which the
political contextualisation of cultural practice had been stressed, it was disturbing to hear this
reading of an issue so central to Australian contemporary culture. Why was it that students who had
been exposed to a course of study framed by post-colonial discourse were unable to translate those
theoretical concepts and locate them in cultural practice? What was preventing praxis? These were
not academically poor students, or students who were opposed to the objectives of the course. They
were neither malicious nor unsympathetic towards Indigenous culture. They were simply students
who, when confronted with the reality of Bhabhas (1991: 16) unmanned, antagonistic, and
unpredictable sites of cultural contestation, retreated into the safe, isolated, and disconnected world
of specialist activity.
It appeared that our students were operating within the ideology of the individual as an autonomous
subject, and not in terms of the individuals relationship to the social. It was evident that a sizeable
minority of the student body saw the space offered to the individual by the subjectivities of poststructuralism as one in which all readings were of equal value. Despite the constant pedagogical
emphasis upon adopting a culturally negotiated position within the school, it is inevitable that it is
always the individual reading emerges as paramount. This is because of the all consuming nature of
the broader commodity culture the student exists in, and its emphasis on the immediate satisfaction
of individual wants. It was clear that whilst our students could identify cultural transgression
theoretically, when faced with it intruding into their own lives they had no ethical framework by
which to negotiate with it, and retreated back into the wider, non-confrontational cultural
framework that surrounded them. It was evident that ideas of social justice, which were implicit in
the theory program, needed to be made explicit.
I am, and continue to be, discomfited by the thought that a student can graduate from a course about
the study of culture and not be critically and ethically reflexive. To be critically and ethically
reflexive is to be able to enter into the dialogue characterised by Habermas (1980: 13) as that
between the lifeworld and specialist spheres of practice. In order to arrive at this (utopian?) state it
is becoming increasingly clear to me that an understanding of ethical practice is vital. In a
multicultural society such as Australias the process of establishing a personal cultural taxonomy
becomes more than the struggle over identifications, or a representational politics
that unsettles and disrupts common sense; it is also a performative act grounded in
the spaces and practices that connect peoples everyday lives and concerns with the
reality of material relations of values and power (Giroux, 2000: 106).
One of the problems of teaching an uncritical multiculturalism is that it is too easy for the study of
visual culture to be removed from the bigger issues of the individuals relationship with the power
of the institution. As Giroux (2000: 69) observes, an investigation of cultural difference that doesnt
rigorously contextualise social politics becomes a hermetic process that degenerates into a
celebration of formalist inter-textuality and a bland celebration of cultural indeterminacy. It is the
difference between a radical affirmation of individual study to empower, and the possibility of the
individual to engage in culture spotting. In retrospect it is disappointing, but hardly surprising, that
students were unable to make the leap into ethical praxis on their own. For despite attempts to
present them with an examination of cultural interaction that was analytical rather than just
celebratory, the subjectivities of post-structuralism are so deeply embedded in the mass culture that
surrounds them, and that mass culture is so constructed, that their allegiance to it is hard to break.
The failure of some of our students to identify cultural appropriation as a central issue in
contemporary Australian visual culture was discouraging, if only because it demonstrated yet again
the fragile rigour of educational programmes when set against the robust vigour of the mass media.
Since its inception the visual culture course (3) has been framed to stress the importance of cultural
difference and the issues of cultural negotiation and exchange. It is not a course that centres around
the evolution of a European aesthetic, important though that aesthetic is. The course frames visual
culture as a network of different cultural histories in constant dialogue, and the student is
encouraged to think of their individual position as a practitioner within this network of culturally
contingent meanings. The course attempts a socially progressive study of culture reflecting
Australias, often difficult, struggle to come to terms with its contradictory cultural positioning. The
courses aspirations, however, have to be located within the context of an increasingly globalised
academic and mass culture, where the products of the British and American cultural industries are
seen by Australian teenagers as largely superior to anything produced in Australia (what was known
to older generations as the cultural cringe). This attitude reinforces a sense of cultural dependency.
From this dependency emerges a form of identification by the majority of the Caucasian population,
not just with the language, ideas, and artefacts of those cultures, but also a sense of racial
identification (in this particular case with an idealised view of the Anglo-Saxon aspects of Britain
and America, and not with these countries many cultured reality). Visual culture in Australia,
unless consciously framed otherwise within the education system, can be very easily framed as an
exclusively Caucasian activity. For a student body that is not exclusively European in origin this is
a profoundly problematic issue. For the student of European origin it provides a safe cultural space
that, whilst not home, is nevertheless a place that can provide some sort of dysfunctional comfort.
This displaced sense of cultural geography plays an important part in the mapping of the dialogue
between Australian and globalised culture. Contemporary Australia has a pre-colonial Indigenous
culture with which it has still to become reconciled. Its physical location between the Indian and
Pacific Oceans exposes it to a range of cultures and cultural experiences that are not mirrored in its
consumption of mass culture, which as we have already observed casts Australia metaphorically
adrift in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean. This disconnection between the lived experience in
Australian cities multicultural suburbs and the land of television cannot be over-emphasised, and it
is at this point that I wish to briefly unravel the ways in which this cultural schism is framed at the
School of Art.
If one is to take Habermas model of cultural dialogue seriously, then the framework within which
the Australian design student operates must be carefully considered. As the smaller nation states are
subsumed under the power of national and supra-national trading blocks, the citizens of such states
find themselves living, materially, in one set of conditions and, metaphorically and symbolically,
under another. Those students at the centre of my discussion, living materially with the
contradictions of the legacy of a brutal and racist colonial history, are also living in the dehistoricised and de-politicised present of global consumerism. What are the means by which these
issues of displacement, so deeply embedded at many levels in Australian culture, can be raised and
articulated?
The geo-political reality of the Australian student working in visual culture militates against the
adoption of a Marxist critique in order to understand their history of colonialism, as its origins lie
within the European tradition of Humanism and the Enlightenment. When Marx (1973: 105) wrote
that capitalist society is the most developed and the most complex historic organisation of
production ... [and] ... thereby allows insights into the structure and relations of production of all the
vanished social formations out of whose ruins and elements it built itself up, it was a double edged
observation. On one hand it acted as the starting point for a trenchant critique of bourgeois
capitalism and its project of colonialism. On the other it validated the idea that European Modernity
was the single vantage point from which the rest of culture could be examined, that is, the vantage
point of a developed industrial Europe. Whilst Australia is one of the worlds most urbanised
nations, it has never been especially industrialised. Because of its history of authoritarian
government, and a racist immigration policy that reinforced an isolated and closed society, it came
late to the transformative ideas of Modernity. One can agree with Jean-Paul Sartres (1967: 22)
observation that the European has only been able to become a man through creating slaves and
monsters, and happily (or perhaps unhappily would be a more appropriate adverb) substitute
Australian for European, but it is also the case that the projection of oppression onto all aspects of
the European Enlightenment is in itself flawed. (The terror that followed the French revolution was
not the result of ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity but their abrogation.) However, it is
indisputably the case that notions of cultural egalitarianism made tangible in European nations were
at the expense of their colonised territories. Multicultural Australia stands halfway between two
worlds, its citizens having been both oppressed and oppressor. Franz Fanon (1967: 231) said,
Europe is literally the creation of the Third World, and in the same way Australia is the creation of
Aboriginal culture. Marxs class analysis of the processes of development is a useful one, but it
largely ignores the issues of race and culture, and racial and cultural conflicts are at the historical
heart of modern Australia and impact continuously upon its present. For the Australian design
student who wishes to negotiate the reality of politically charged decorative form, an understanding
of race, culture, privilege and power is best informed from an awareness of post-colonial theories of
unequal exchange and incommensurability.
For staff at the School of Art, part of the study of visual culture has to be what Stuart Hall (1990:
15) calls the unmasking ... of the unstated presuppositions of the humanist tradition. The racial
and cultural constituents of Australia are still largely European, but it is not geographically
European and remains othered by the European centre. It is part of the minority world but at once a
subject of the minority worlds cultural policies. It is both resentful of its Anglo-American
colonising cultures, but an enthusiastic consumer of them. It is like many colonial and post-colonial
cultures that are caught in the bind of being simultaneously progressive and co-opted (West, 1990:
94); of critiquing the centre, but being consumed by it. Post-colonial theory provides a lens through
which the complexities of Australias power relationships can be read, and can play a valuable role
in exposing the contradictions of cultural exchange. And yet, as my opening anecdote
demonstrates, the demonstration of cultural inequality through abstract study alone remains
unassimilated by the individual unless it can be positioned into the students lived experience. To
know something and to have understood it as valuable, is to act upon it. Ideas can inform practice
and stimulate a desire to understand what practice would look like informed by such ideas. The
whole purpose of study is that theory and practice become mutually informative.
I propose that the demand for ethically aware practice could be articulated around John Rawlss
(1971) ideas of social justice. In particular the sense of rightness. If, as Rawls argues, a sense of
the good is achieved through the individuals satisfaction of rational desire, then what is right is that
which ensures the same possibility for other individuals to also achieve what is good for them.
Under this model the individual is constantly required to negotiate culturally, compelled to examine
whether what is good for one group is good for another, or at its expense. By necessity the
individual is engaged in dialogue with a network of cultural systems, that echoes Habermas model
(4). Because of the fractured nature of contemporary culture there are currently few other ways of
creating a coherent cultural space within which to communicate other than through a shared sense
of the ethical. The old essentialist divisions of race, gender, and class, whilst still absolutely central
to the way we have been culturally formed, need negotiating in an increasingly subtle way. Bhabha
(1994: 1) discusses the move away from the singularities of class or gender as primary
conceptual and organizational categories, which he sees as having resulted in the awareness of a
variety of subject positions currently informing ideas of identity. He argues that it is in the
negotiation of the range of subject positions in contemporary cultures, from the 'periphery' or
boundary to authorised rule, that dominant discourses in Western culture can be challenged. An
ethical critical awareness allows the analysis of cultural inequalities that emerge from post colonial
theory to be articulated personally rather than abstractly, but it forces a framing of the individuals
negotiation with institutional mechanisms to go beyond the reflective, or self-referential. An ethical
critical awareness allows for cultural movement across and within the paradigms of race, class and
gender without the subject becoming narcissistic. I am arguing here for an ethical awareness that
locates the self in a broader historical context, a context that also requires an understanding of the
interconnecting networks of institutional power. To become ethically reflexive involves
understanding that contexts create meaning and values. These contexts are not merely abstract
notions and can be understood as power structures. For the design student to realise that the
appropriation of Aboriginal designs by non-Aboriginal people is a political act, is also to
understand the dynamics of power relationships.
Richard Sennet (2000: 175) has observed that 'modern culture is flooded with identity-talk ... of
crude stories about how I discovered the person I really am.' The critical position I wish my
students to aspire to is not about simplistic identity politics, rather it establishes ethical issues as a
way of understanding personal lived experiences that Henry Giroux says bear witness to the ethical
and political dilemmas that animate both the specificity of such contexts and their connection to the
larger social landscape (Giroux, 2000: 129). I wish to place a creative responsibility on the student
to employ strategies that they can use to map and negotiate contemporary culture, avoiding
catharsis and narcissism as their exclusive creative resources. I think it imperative that individual
creativity can be seen as having a role in facilitating ideas beyond a sense of self. Anthony Giddens
and Will Hutton (2000: 217) warn that 'individual choice alone - the key element of neo-liberal
philosophy - cannot supply the social bonds necessary to sustain a stable and meaningful life.
Design, after all, is about social communication, and it is at this point that my colleagues and I are
on the edge of another dilemma. How far is the ethical debate within design education allowed to
progress before it fundamentally disrupts whatever relationship there is between education and
industry?
It is not as if the word ethics is never used in the design industry - the Universal Design project is of
vast importance (flawed though it may be) - but generally ethics as a concept operates within very
closely defined paradigms. So; in the Australian Graphic Design Associations Code of Ethics, the
preamble singles out the way in which a Code of Ethics (2002: 1) is a powerful tool in dealing
with destructive practices such as competitive free pitching. Simon Rogerson and Mary Prior
(1999) deal exclusively with ethical behaviour within the enclosed system of the industry, and the
American Society of Interior Designers (2002) provides a quiz that will enhance their members
knowledge of the principles of ethical design practice. As I write the ICOGRADA conference for
2002, Identity and Integrity has still to take place, but it announces in its website preamble
(ICOGRADA 2002) that at this conference designers and representatives of public institutions will
gather to share their experiences and to carefully consider the future of corporate identity. In a
world in which Guy Debords spectacular rhetoric of thirty years ago has become reality, such
tinkering within the paradigms of the workplace avoids confronting the fundamental ethical
dilemma of the relationship between the rich minority world and the poor majority world. It avoids
examining the collusion of the culture industry in perpetuating that relationship, and it also avoids
the vexed question of the creative individuals complicity in that process. As long as the creative
individual is seen as autonomous, and as long as a sense of creative responsibility is seen solely in
terms of being true to oneself, then the complexity of ethical responsibility will never be
addressed.
It is difficult to promote the idea of ethical responsibility within a culture that promotes
individualism whilst denying the emotional and intellectual resources necessary to live a full and
satisfying communal life outside of a system of commodification. It is difficult too, to understand
the demand for ethical practice in a culture that promotes the idea of individuality within the closed
confines of a commodity culture, a culture that in addition is profoundly limited in its ability to
reflect cultural difference. Unless consciously directed otherwise, the individual studying visual
culture will always fall back upon established interpretive practices no matter how the curriculum
content of study may change. Habermas dialogic model referred to earlier in the paper encourages
the student of culture to move backwards and forwards between the institutions that define cultural
paradigms and the individuals own lived experience. This process suggests that curriculum content
is almost irrelevant when compared to the potential power that the remaking of the context of study
has.
Donna Haraway (1991: 151) talks engagingly of the illusory and frayed vision of the autonomous
self, and argues for a re-invention of the individual as one committed to irony, intimacy and
perversity oppositional, utopian and completely without innocence. I readily acknowledge the
importance of strategic and transitional demands in the construction of cultural programs, but to
give this rhetoric flesh I would argue that a study of culture has to expose the incommensurability
that is at the heart of any relationship between the individual and the cultural institution. Without
such an understanding, individuals cannot locate themselves as part of the complex and
contradictory relationships between cultures. Unless a study of culture deals with the unequal
exchanges that constitute cultural exchange at all levels of experience, what can be promoted is a
superficial self-referentiality rather than reflexivity. I am arguing for a reflexivity that exposes the
contingent nature of the individuals relationship with any set of cultural institutions. I would wish
to go still further though, and suggest that rather than celebrate the ambiguous and the unpredictable
nature of such a relationship, that contingency should be framed by an ethical demand for social
justice. It is the de-centred, fragmented, unlocated self that permits the perpetuation of a system of
social injustice in a commodity culture. I would like to think that design has little to do with
entertainment but everything to do with social liberation.
Footnotes
(1)
The concept of the reflective practitioner first raised by Schon (1983) is a concept that is
increasingly familiar. Its emphasis is upon the individuals analysis of his or her practice,
and the consideration of the way in which that practice operates within an explicitly
acknowledged set of paradigms. In this way the practitioner becomes self aware and able to
refine his or her practice according to established criteria. Reflexivity however, in the way I
wish to use the term, takes reflection beyond the idea of paradigms of acceptable criteria. By
reflexivity I mean a praxis that brings to the surface issues that expose the contingent,
ambiguous and often contradictory implications of whatever system is being reflected upon.
Reflexivity is far more unsettling than even the most rigorous reflection because it uncovers
illusions of fixed meanings and stability of systems. Implicit in my use of the word is the
idea that meanings must be frequently reconstructed in the light of the realisation that in any
form of cultural enquiry the subjects and objects of that enquiry are difficult to separate.
This sense of the use of reflexivity is based substantially on the discussions to be found in
Lawson (1985). In addition I have used the word as it is used in sociology where it refers to
the realisation that as cultural traditions are shattered there is increasing opportunity for the
reflexive individual to act upon the world, as well as be acted upon. I would temper Becks
(1992: 90) observation that the individual becomes the reproduction unit of the social
without denying its importance in recasting the potential of the individual for social action.
(2)
The subjects and styles of Aboriginal culture are subject to Aboriginal law, and only certain
social groupings are allowed to make art using certain stories from the dreaming, and using
certain stylistic devices. This aspect of Aboriginal traditional law is reinforced by Federal
Australian copyright law. It means that Aboriginal communities can protect what is often
their main source of income, which is art based, from pirated mass produced versions of
their art.
(3)
See Chan & Crouch (1997); and Crouch (2000).
(4)
For a thorough evaluation of the similarities and dis-similarities between Rawls and
Habermas see McCarthy (1994).
References
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the Edge: Living with Global Capitalism (pp. 213-223). London: Jonathon Cape.
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materials
D. P. Doordan University of Notre Dame, USA, & Design Issues
Abstract
This paper describes an interpretive framework that can be applied to the history of materials in the
modern era based on a triad of critical terms: fabrication, application and appreciation. Fabrication
deals with the initial stages in the life cycle of materials. It refers to the extraction, refining and
preparation of materials for initial use. Application deals with transformation of materials into
products. Appreciation deals with the reception of materials by the entire community of users who
come into contact with the material. In contrast to deterministic approaches to materials, the
framework described here accepts the problematic nature of materiality in the modern era and
allows historians and designers to integrate perspectives and methodologies from a variety of
disciplines.

materials
Design is the process by which abstract ideas assume concrete form and thus become active agents
in human affairs. One of the critical parameters in any discussion of designed artifacts is material:
what something is made of and how the material is employed affects the form, function and
perception of the final design. This paper explores some of the issues surrounding the discussion of
materials in the modern era and outlines an interpretive framework for developing a historicallybased treatment of materials based on the triad of critical categories: fabrication, application,
appreciation. This critical schema transcends the specifics of any single material and can support a
broad range of research agendas.
That the story of materials, their discovery and subsequent manipulation constitutes a significant
thread in the history of civilizations and of cultural discourse is obvious. In the long view of
history, the degree to which humans were able to exploit different materials has been taken as an
indication of the level of technological sophistication of different cultures. We speak of the Stone
Age or the Bronze Age as readily identifiable chapters in the human story. In the more compact
purview of the history of modernity, the advent of new materials is generally treated as one of the
distinctive and determining factors in the modern design. Beyond serving as an index of
technological sophistication, different materials have acquired readily discernable cultural
associations. If, for example, I identify a particular period as constituting a Golden Age in the
history of a civilization or describe a hero as having feet of clay the reader understands the
judgements expressed in those phrases. Likewise, when, in the 1968 movie The Graduate, the
character portrayed by Dustin Hoffman is offered career advice, the audience recognizes that an
entire lifestyle has been devastatingly described with a single word: plastic.
In a conference devoted to exploring the common ground of design practice, research, theory and
history, a discussion of materiality is, I suggest, also critically important. Materials can serve as a
lens to focus insights derived from different disciplinary perspectives and methodologies. Design
research whether it is directed at the history of design, the refinement of design theory or the
advancement of design practice often requires that the researcher pursue knowledge and insights
embedded in different disciplines. The challenge of interdisciplinary work involves the integration
of insights gained from exposure to different disciplinary perspectives. In terms of the argument I
wish to present here, the first step is to recognize the complex and frankly problematic nature of
materiality in the modern era.
In 1956, the Reynolds Metals Company, one of the three major producers of aluminum in the
United States, published a handsome two-volume survey of architectural uses for aluminum.
Aluminum in Modern Architecture included a portfolio of recent buildings demonstrating
architectural applications of aluminum, a technical section detailing the properties of the material,
and a collection of interviews with twenty-seven architects and engineers in which, they described
their enthusiasm for aluminums multiple applications in architectural design. One of the prominent
voices included in this section belonged to Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Mies began his
discussion with a curious warning:
The danger with aluminum is that you can do with it what you like; that it has no real limitations.
(Peter 1956: 248)
I cite Mies here as a way to begin my discussion of modern materials because he suggested that we
see the advent of new materials in the modern era as constituting a problem that required careful
attention rather than as a readily available solution to be embraced uncritically. In constructing

accounts of the history of design in the modern era, design historians should be wary of
deterministic approaches to the subject predicated on a positivist approach to history that suggests
new materials naturally and inevitability generate new formal languages for design.
If Miess warning represented an isolated position by an eccentric figure, we could dismiss it.
However, he was not alone in registering a note of caution when discussing the brave new world of
modern materials. In his 1940 treatise on industrial design Design This Day: The Technique of
Order in the Machine Age, Walter Dorwin Teague noted the epoch defining quality of modern
materials. Today, he observed, designers are no longer limited to the catalog of materials available
directly from nature:
Our modern partnership between science and industry, with the great expansion of research
laboratories and experimental stations through which it works, is able to meet our needs with
reasonable promptness so that our repertoire of available resources is far more extensive than
any possessed by designers heretofore. (Teague 1940: 69)
Teague went on to suggest that this partnership between science and industry presented designers
with a challenging new context for professional practice, one they did not always handle well:
These forces whose power we feel are not novel: they merely move more swiftly and so with greater
impact, and they vary their direction more frequently, than they used to do. The peculiar difficulty
of our position is that this interaction of forces is accelerated almost beyond our ability to keep
pace with it in conscious mastery of our resources. But the Machine Age in its multitude of
inventions has not only included our long repertoire of new materials it has enormously increased
the number and kind of things we can do with materials, old as well as new. It is not surprising that
as a result we have fumbled very clumsily with many of our familiar stuffs, while we ran wild in
inept uses of those our forefathers understood so well. (Teague 1940: 69-71)
Publications like Aluminum in Modern Architecture and Design This Day are often described as
self-promoting celebrations of individual designers, the design profession as a whole or specific
industries. A close reading of this mid-twentieth century literature reveals, however, a significant
maturation in design thinking compared to the prophetic but often technologically uninformed
discussion of materials by designers generated earlier in the century. In 1924, for example, Mies
van der Rohe could write confidently:
Industrialization of the building trade is a question of material. Hence the demand for a new
building material is the first prerequisite. Our technology must and will succeed in inventing a
building material that can be manufactured technologically and utilized industrially. It will have
to be a light material whose utilization does not merely permit but actually invites industrialization.
(Conrads, 1970: 82)
A quarter century latter, and now fully immersed in a technologically sophisticated and
industrialized building culture, Mies moderated his tone a bit and tempered his enthusiasm with a
warning concerning the danger of materials characterized by seemingly limitless potential. In the
comments by Teague and Mies cited here we see the emerging recognition among modern
designers of a daunting new level of complexity that rendered traditional ways of thinking about the
relationship between material and form increasingly outmoded.
This recognition of the complex story of modern materials has shaped my own work, but I am
hardly a lonely figure in this regard. Jeffrey Meikle opens his history of plastic with the following
observation:
Plastic itself, by its very nature, complicates efforts to think about it. Able to assume many degrees
of shape, texture, hardness, density, resilience, or color, the myriad varieties are united only by a
word plastic that has defied most attempts to promote specific trade names. What do we mean
when we talk about plastic? (Meikle 1995: 3)
In recent years, our understanding of what it means to use the word plastic or aluminum, concrete,
glass, etc. - has been enriched through the research of design historians like Giampiero Bosoni,
Gwenal Delhumeau, Clive Edwards, Robert Friedel, Hans Joliet, Jeffrey Meikle, and Penny
Sparke. And, while not strictly speaking works of historical scholarship, the important contributions
of Paolo Antonelli, Philip Ball and Ezio Manzini to the discussion of contemporary developments
in materials technologies needs to be acknowledged here. The fruit of all this scholarship is, I
suggest, a new framework for the discussion of materials based on the triad: fabrication, application
and appreciation.
Fabrication deals with the initial stages in the life cycle of materials. It refers to the extraction,
refining and preparation of materials for initial use. In the case of aluminum, for example,
fabrication involves extracting alumina from bauxite ore and reducing it to aluminum through a
process of electrolysis. While in the case of plastics, fabrication involves calculating the particular
molecular composition of the polymers to be employed. A historical discussion of fabrication
involves tracing the scientific insights leading to the discovery of ways to produce new materials
with specific properties. Discovery is followed by production and a discussion of fabrication also
encompasses the growth of an industrial base technologically and financially able to produce the
material in commercially significant amounts.
Application deals with transformation of materials into products. It involves the efforts of
designers to match new materials to existing product needs, to develop new uses for novel materials
and to impose a formal vocabulary on materials. This formal vocabulary can be imitative of other
materials or emphasize properties and characteristics unique to the material in question. Mapping
the various applications of new materials is familiar terrain for design historians because it traces
the role of designers in the product development process. In my own work on the history of
aluminum, for example, I have argued that designers enter the story to a significant extent when
advances in metallurgy and production technologies (i.e. developments belonging to the story of
fabrication) no longer are enough to sustain the growth of the aluminum industry. Furthermore, that
the activity of design (understood as distinct from that of science and engineering) grows in
importance as the competitive nature of the industry grows.
Appreciation deals with the reception of materials by the entire community of users who come into
contact with whatever material is being studied. A history of appreciation traces the multiple and
shifting response of different constituencies as they encounter artifacts endowed with a distinctive
material identity. Just as a concern for the application of materials shifts the focus from scientists
and engineers to designers, the turn from exploring application to appreciation shifts the focus
again, this time from designers to consumers and those critics, commentators and trends setters who
shape the cultural understanding of materials.
At this point, some refinement of a framework based on this triad of terms is necessary because a
simple listing of the terms fabrication, application and appreciation suggests they exist as discrete
categories separate from each other chronologically and in terms of their cast of characters. In
working with these terms, however, researchers soon recognize areas of overlap between these
terms and the role of feedback loops within the sequence fabrication, application, and appreciation.
Designers, a group I have identified as key players in the discussion of the application of materials
for example, routinely respond to feedback from consumers. In the same way, the type of basic
research and development activities characteristic of the fabrication phase of the material story
often involves input from constituencies located in later stages of the material life cycle. The critical
terms described here are serviceable to the degree they can clarify the type of questions researchers
should ask and suggest the type of sources to be consulted in pursuit of answers. Interdisciplinary
research is complex and the interpretive framework proposed here brings into sharp relief what
stage in the life cycle of materials is under review at any moment in the research process.
A second clarification involves the concept of time. It is not my intention to specify in a restrictive
manner the temporal dimension of these terms. Any attempt to discuss the appreciation of
aluminum, for example, must take into account the shifting perceptions of this material as it evolves
from a precious material in the nineteenth century to a pervasive one in the twentieth century. The
rapidity of social and technological change and the fluidity of cultural meaning are recognized as
characteristic features of the modern era. In the modern era, discussions of what must always be
coupled with an appreciation of when in order to capture the fine details as well as the big picture in
terms of the story of materials in the modern era.
A third clarification involves the place of natural materials in the critical schema presented here.
The Teague passage cited above reminds us that the catalog of materials available to designers has
expanded dramatically in the modern era. But the arrival of new alloys, polymers and laminates did
not mean the disappearance of traditional natural materials. Substitute cultivation for the term
fabrication and the schema works just as well for materials like cotton, bamboo or oak as it does for
aluminum and plastic.
At this point, I want to return to the theme of this conference and suggest how the critical
framework I have outlined here contributes to interdisciplinary research and practice and the design
communitys search for a common ground. In 1992, my colleague at Design Issues, Richard
Buchanan published an article in the journal entitled Wicked Problems in Design Thinking. In this
article, Buchanan introduced a conceptual tool he called the doctrine of placements. He used the
concept of placements, which he described as broad areas of particular types of design activities, as
a way to explore the nature of invention in design activity. He observed that the conceptual
repositioning of a design problem from one place to another often sparked innovative solutions. In
an attempt to refine the concept of placement he distinguished it from the more familiar concept of
category.
Categories have fixed meanings that are accepted within the framework of a theory or a
philosophy, and serve as the basis for analyzing what already exists. Placements have boundaries
to shape and constrain meaning, but are not rigidly fixed and determinate. The boundary of a
placement gives a context or orientation to thinking, but the application to a specific situation can
generate a new perception of that situation and, hence, a new possibility to be tested.
(Buchanan: 1992: 10)
Buchanan is concerned here with design practice. If we substitute historical research for design
practice and we consider my terms fabrication, application, and appreciation as designations for the
different placements of research emphasis the topography of our common ground begins to come
into relief. Using this schema, it is possible to visualize and map the process of interdisciplinary
research through noting the relative sequence and position of the different disciplines drawn upon in
an effort to understand the story of materials.
In the United States, academic libraries and the majority of large public libraries use the Library of
Congress cataloging system. The Library of Congress is subject-based and uses an alphanumeric
code to identify individual titles. (Participants in an international conference such as this one
undoubtedly are familiar with the corresponding cataloging system in their respective countries.)
Call numbers for titles pertaining to the history of design, for example, begin with the letters NK,
the call numbers for books on aluminum begin with QD, and general works on materials
technologies begin with TA. The Library of Congress classification system is not just a simple way
to assign unique locators for each book in a library, it is an outline of knowledge arranged by
subject discipline. If, as a design historian, I ask the question: what is it I need to know in order to
understand the history of aluminum its fabrication, application and appreciation and I note the
Library of Congress call numbers of the library materials I consult, the result is a description of an
interdisciplinary research agenda. Admittedly, this is a crude example, because no research
campaign can be confined to library-based resources. But it serves to make my point about the
interdisciplinary nature of research involving the history of materials. Once design historians begin
to listen to what designers like Teague and Mies van der Rohe were trying to tell us - that materials
are not just a given, an a priori fact to be included in their calculations, but were part of the design
problem itself then the need to articulate a critical framework for the discussion of materials
becomes obvious. Fabrication, application, and appreciation can provide just such a framework for
sustaining the discussion through its different placements.
In a conference devoted to exploring areas of common interest and to celebrating the diversity and
maturity of an interdisciplinary design community, we can all benefit from discussion of the
interpretive frameworks different groups within this community employ to investigate a subject
such as materiality.
References
Antonelli, Paola. 1995. Mutant Materials in Contemporary Design. New York: Museum of Modern
Art.
Ball, Philip. 1997. Made to Measure. New Materials for the 21st Century. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
Bess, Nancy Moore. 2001. Bamboo in Japan. Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd.
Bosoni, Giampiero. 1990. The Italian Way to Plastics. In The Plastics Age: From Modernity to
Post-Modernity edited by Penny Sparke. London: V&A Publications.
Buchanan, Richard. 1992. Wicked Problems in Design Thinking, Design Issues 8 (2): 5-21.
Conrads, Ulrich. 1970. Programs and Manifestoes on 20th Century Architecture. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Delhumeau, Gwenal. 1999. Linvention du bton arm. Hennebique 1890-1914. Paris: ditions
Norma.
Doordan, Dennis. 1993. "Promoting Aluminum: Designers and the American Aluminum Industry,
Design Issues 9 (2): 44-50.
Doordan, Dennis. 2000. From Precious to Pervasive: Aluminum and Architecture. In Aluminum
by Design edited by Sarah Nichols. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Edwards, Clive. 2001. Aluminum Furniture, 1886-1986. The Changing Applications and
Receptions of a Modern Material, Journal of Design History 14 (3): 207-225.
Friedel, Robert. 1993. Some Matter of Substance. In History from Things: Essays on Material
Culture edited by Steven Lubber and W. David Kingly. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution
Press.
Friedel, Robert. A New Metal! Aluminum in its 19th-Century Context. In Aluminum by Design
edited by Sarah Nichols. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Joliet, Hans. 1988. Aluminium: Die ersten hundert Jahre. Dsseldorf: VDI Verlag.
Manzini, Ezio. 1989. The Material of Invention. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Meikle, Jeffrey. 1995. American Plastic: A Cultural History. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
University Press.
Peter, John. 1956. Aluminum in Modern Architecture. 2 vols. Louisville, KY: Reynolds Metals
Company.
Editor: Nichols, Sarah. 2000. Aluminum by Design. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Schatzberg, Eric. 1999. Wings of Wood, Wings of Metal: Culture and Technical Choice in
American Airplane Materials, 1914-1945. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Editor: Penny Sparke. 1990. The Plastics Age: From Modernity to Post-Modernity. V&A
Publications: London.
Sparke, Penny. 2000. Cookware to Cocktail Shakers: the Domestication of Aluminum in the United
States, 1900-1939. In Aluminum by Design edited by Sarah Nichols. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Teague, Walter Dorwin. 1940. Design This Day. The Technique of Order in the Machine Age. New
York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Early car history investigation of the establishment of a

design paradigm
C. Dowlen South Bank University, London, UK
Abstract
The early development of the car appears to have been a period of uncertainty, with a selection of
component layouts being developed before manufacturers hit on a particular embodiment that
became a definitive car. This paper investigates how car form and layout became what is termed
a Design Paradigm (Dowlen 1999) for the car, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Layout and form variables are investigated from 453 colour-slide examples over the whole period
of the existence of the car. The results show that the layout is significant to the concept of a car, and
shows that a tightly constrained design layout paradigm develops around 1904, developing from a
broad range of layout concepts. Form is less significant, but shows an appreciable change to a
relatively stable condition over a period of about five years from 1904.
The tightly constrained layout consists of a front-mounted longitudinal engine and drive by shaft to
the rear wheels. There are a significant number of other layout variables that describe the layout.
Before this date designers had many different ways of laying the components out, and there are
some clusters of layouts, particularly with the US cars. In terms of their form, early cars are
generally taller and with shorter bonnets than later cars, and tend to have a squarer form.
Early car history investigation of the establishment of a

design paradigm
Introduction
The early development of the car appears to have been a period of uncertainty, with a selection of
component layouts being developed before manufacturers hit on a particular embodiment that
became a definitive car.
This paper investigates something of the way in which the many and various forms and layouts of
cars, automobiles, horseless carriages and whatever one might wish to call them became what is
termed a Design Paradigm for the car. The paper brings together work that has been carried out on
a pragmatic level. Firstly, this has been concerned with using car history in teaching students of
both engineering and design (Dowlen 1997), and secondly, this was developed, again at a pragmatic
level, into a general theory about the development of these Design Paradigms (Dowlen 1999). In
parallel with this paper an overview paper, looking at the general evolution of the car has also been
produced (Dowlen 2002). This paper is also concerned with the parallels between evolutionary
theory in life forms and the evolution of the product, in this case the car.
The assertion is that the degree of change seen in the layout and form of the product during these
early years of development was significantly greater than the degree of change seen in the layout
and form during the period after the definitive car form and layout became established.
Invention and evolution

Who invented the car? Andrew Whyte (Whyte 1984), along with general tradition, states (page 8)
that the first motor car was made in Germany, and that traditionally has always said the honour
belongs jointly to Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler who separately produced vehicles powered by
internal combustion engines in 1885 and 1886. Benz patented his carriage with gas engine in
January 19885. But in going along with tradition, not only do we ignore the claims of Siegfried
Marcus who may have built a petrol powered car in Vienna in perhaps 1875, but we also have to
insist that cars have internal combustion engines, and it is quite obviously true that not all of them
do some are powered by steam, some electricity, some by sunlight and some even by pedals (and
we still call these cars and not something else). However, it would be very difficult to describe
Nicolas Cugnots steam powered gun carriage of 1770 or Robert Trevithicks steam carriage of
1801 as cars; but perhaps not so difficult to describe Amde Bolles steam vehicles of the late
1870s and 1880s or Count de Dions steamers of a similar date as such.
There is also the argument that neither Benz nor Daimler could lay claim to the invention in 1886:
the former because although his carriage was purpose-built, it only had three wheels and therefore
classed as a tricycle and not a car; and the latter because his four-wheeled powered vehicle
consisted of one that was originally horse drawn and was adapted by the fitting of an engine
between the front and rear seats, cutting off the horse shafts and adding some sort of steering
device.
In any event, it perhaps seems strange that two people working separately should come up with the
same invention, but it could be argued that the notion of self-powered vehicles was something that
was almost bound to become a reality, given the social setting at the time, the existence of steampowered road (and rail) vehicles and the earlier invention of the four stroke internal combustion
engine by Otto in 1876, itself a development of Lenoirs gas-burning engine of 1860.
Simonton (Simonton 1988) develops the proposition that Creativity involves the participation of
chance processes both in the origin of new ideas and in the social acceptance of those ideas by
others (page 388), noting that the chance processes include obtaining of information and ideas
from the social context as well as the acceptance of the outcomes into that social context. He goes
on to cover the topic of multiple discovery and invention, where two or more people working
independently make the same discovery or invention at the same or a similar time. He suggests that
if the invention were given a generic name (he cites such as steamboat or airplane, p416) then
such multiples are often completely different inventions. Looking at the 1886 vehicles of Daimler
and Benz it is obvious that there are significant differences and that the major similarity is the
accomplishment of self-powered transport using an internal combustion engine. Simontons
theories on the mechanisms of creativity owe more to evolution than invention, and it is clear that
this is the case in terms of the car.
Design paradigm
But one could assert that the car became in reality a car at a later date: that date when a definitive
layout was established and when to build a car was to build a product that not only powered itself
but that possessed the layout of a car and looked like one too. When students are asked the question
about who invented the car, apart from the fact that most of them have no real idea, the most
common answer is neither Benz not Daimler, but Henry Ford: and they cite not his first conveyance
of 1896 but relate more readily to Model T production, which started in 1908. This argument could
be reasonably persuasive, but it needs a certain amount of clarification. If the car is going to be
determined in these layout terms, it would be useful to, firstly, determine what the layout is,
secondly how far removed from any definitive layout would a vehicle have to be in order to qualify
as a car, as opposed to a cyclecar, a horseless carriage, a quadricycle or something else and
thirdly, at what point in the history of powered road transport was such a concept determined. It
would also be an interesting historical phenomenon to try to determine either which vehicle was the
first with such a layout, who built it and whether subsequently that vehicle was taken up as being
the original one that was looked to as the pioneer by the future car designers.
Thus the suggestion is that the answer to who invented what depends on the definition, and that this
is in turn of a prototypical nature and is situation-dependent (Lakoff 1990; Shackleton and
Sugiyama 1996). What we are seeking to determine is what was the original prototype (defined in
these terms) for the car, what is the typical arrangement, layout of that car prototype and, if
possible, who determined it and when. It is probably more easily understood if the term design
paradigm for the car is used rather than prototype, as in the context of product development the
term tends to mean the original example of a product that is later to be mass produced. It would be
useful to know how closely defined this design paradigm would be, and at what stage either a car
ceased to be a car due to its distance from the typical example of the paradigm.
Analysis
This study forms part of a larger study to investigate the development and evolution of the car over
the whole period of its existence. The data used in the study consists, initially, of the analysis of a
series of cars, taken as being analogous to a series of fossils that might be used to investigate
directions that natural evolution might have taken. As such, the fossils were considered by their
existence to be examples that would have to be placed into the context rather than selected carefully
as being representatives of whatever context was envisaged. What was required was a significant
number of examples rather than a representative sample. It is debatable how such a representative
sample could be achieved, as the criterion for selection would have to be that of influence over
designers rather than, say, from sales or marketing figures, and this influence by its very nature is
impossible to quantify. The series of cars used was 453 examples on colour slides covering cars
from 1878 up to about 1999. These had been taken for interest rather than any other reason. At
some stage other examples of cars taken from published information, photographs can be added into
the data set, and the hypotheses re-evaluated.
These car examples were divided for convenience into date periods of five years. This gave
sufficient examples in most periods for a reasonable selection of results to be achieved, although the
somewhat esoteric nature of the slide collection became obvious during the analysis. The periods
with too few examples were the very early periods, because there were few cars and even fewer of
the experimental examples were kept, the two world war periods, when, again, few cars were
produced, and some of the more recent periods where the bias towards classic car events and the
unusual became more obvious. They were analysed in qualitative terms for nineteen layout
variables and forty-seven form variables. The country of origin was also noted.
Eight of the layout variables had what were taken as default values. These included such things as
number of wheels (default, 4) and their orientation (default, 2F2R) and steering control (default,
wheel). Most of the variables were taken as nominal, but a few were classed as ordinal, such as
degrees of roundness (although these were described verbally) and a few, such as number of
wheels, were obviously numerical in character. The nominal and ordinal variables were given
categorical numerical values for analysis purposes.
The layout and form variables were reduced using the optimal scaling procedure within the SPSS
program to two dimensions for the layout variables and three for the form ones.
Overall study results

The results over the whole period (not using the term in the five-year sense) showed some
interesting progressions. Figure 1 outlines the results for the layout variables.
Figure 1: Optimally Scaled Layout Dimensions

Essentially, this demonstrates that in the early periods, car designers had little history to guide their
developments and a design paradigm had not really been established. By about 1904, the first car in
the cluster of results labelled Vintage layout had been built, and this layout continued to be the
prime layout for cars from this date right through what are known as the Edwardian (1905-1919)
and Vintage (1919-1930) periods, and into the next five year period of the study (to 1934). During
the 1930s, there is a significant shift and the layout develops in the direction shown. The general
process is that a pioneer moves out in the general direction and then others come in behind as it
were, to fill the gap between the pioneer and the current paradigm.
Figures 2 and 3 show the results for Form variables, with the dimensions 1 and 2 plotted against
each other and dimensions 2 and 3 plotted against each other.
Figure 2: Form dimensions 1 & 2

Figure 2 has been annotated to indicate that a general direction of development occurs; with cars
from the early periods almost exclusively being in the lower left quadrant, and those from the
Edwardian periods moving towards the upper left one. The Vintage periods from 1919 to 1934
show results primarily in the upper left quadrant, with a significant move into the upper right
quadrant from 1935 onwards. In the 1950s there is a further move into the lower right quadrant,
from where there appears to be no significant movement to the present.
Figure 3 (and particularly dimension 3) shows little clear movement with period, but does show
different types of cars in the different quadrants, with those with more rows of seats and more
formality being in the upper left quadrant: two-seaters being in the lower right. Cars in the lower
left quadrant tend to be those with rather skimpy bodywork, running boards and separate wings. In
the upper right quadrant, the cars have longer bonnets and are more rounded.
It is a little difficult to ascertain exactly what the three form dimensions relate to, but it would
appear that form dimension 1 relates to roundedness criteria, form dimension 2 relates to
proportion, particularly the length of bonnet and position of the screen as well as simply length and
height, and form dimension 3 seems to relate to formality and carrying capacity.
Figure 3: Form dimensions 2 & 3
The early periods

These are the results for the whole study. It is particularly interesting to focus in more detail on the
results for the early periods, as it would seem that something significant takes place at around 1904
both in terms of layout and the first two form dimensions.
The earliest car (if that be the correct title) in the slide survey was the Amede Bolles La
Mancelle of 1878. This was a steam driven vehicle designed for use by a wealthy individual with a
driving position at the front, carriage compartment further towards the rear and boiler and firemen
at the rear. It is the only vehicle in the first period, and there are no slides in the next period from
1880 to 1884. In period three there are four vehicles: two by Benz and two by Daimler. One of each
of these is their first internally-powered vehicle, and the other is a development, but while Benzs
first three-wheeled effort looked more like a bicycle than Daimlers modified carriage, Daimlers
development is more along cycle lines and Benzs tends towards carriage form, although still a
three wheeler. In period four there are five examples, three by Benz and one each by Panhard and
Peugeot. However, in the next period, 1895-1899, there are as many as nineteen examples and in
the sixth there are thirty-three. For the subsequent period, 1905-1909, there are sixteen cars. The
larger number of cars in period six is simply because they are the most numerous period for the
Veteran Car Clubs annual Brighton run, and many of the pictures were taken during this. Four
countries are represented: France, Germany, Britain and the USA.
Layout development
As was perhaps expected, the major layout variables of engine position, crankshaft orientation and
driven wheels show that the layout quickly settles down to a front mounted engine with longitudinal
crankshaft and rear wheel drive. Table 1 shows the early variations:
These data on their own suggest that there is more of an evolution rather than a definite adoption of
a particular way of thinking. Looking at the other, perhaps minor variables, including suspension
characteristics, steering control, wheel sizes and tyre types, the development that stands out
significantly in this early period is the take-up of the pneumatic tyre. The 1895 Peugeot was billed
as the first car with pneumatic tyres. By 1900 any other form of tyre appears to be virtually dead.
After that date there are only four cars in the total survey without pneumatic tyres: one of these is a
half-track and one is a pedal car, leaving only two examples seriously putting forward the use of
solids. Pneumatic tyres have the character of an invention rather than a development.
Period
Dates
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
1875-79
1885-89
1890-94
1895-99
1900-04
1905-09
1910-14
%
Front
engine
100
0
20
32
55
86
96
%
Longitudinal
Crankshaft
100
0
100
38
64
73
93
% Rear wheel
drive
% all three
100
100
100
95
100
100
100
100
0
20
21
47
67
93
Table 1: Change towards front engine rear wheel drive configuration

Values obtained from the optimally scaled outputs can only be regarded as comparative as the
scaling doesnt relate significantly to any particular variable, and the variables in any case have
nominal values. But nevertheless it is interesting to compare the values obtained during this early
period. Overall, the values for the first layout dimension vary from about 5 to +4, and for the
second from about 1.5 to +7.4. During the early periods, up to 1904, the values for dimension 1
are all negative, and those for dimension 2 vary from 1.06 to +5.2. The nature of the clustering is
interesting. Over the whole of the analysis, the Vintage layout cluster contains fully 49 examples
(11%) of all the cars within a square of 0.05 in both axes, on the same scale. If the tolerance is
opened out to 0.2, this cluster contains 95 cars, or 21% of the whole. The characteristics of cars in
this cluster are very closely determined.
Not only do they have front longitudinal engines and rear wheel drive using a shaft, but they also
have channel chassis frames, coachbuilt bodies using ash framing and either aluminium or steel
panelling and rigid axles at front and rear using semi-elliptic leaf springs. Steering is by steering
wheel, with the driver sitting at one side the front, and the cars run on four equally sized wheels
shod with pneumatic tyres. Their engines have four or six in line cylinders in an in-line
configuration. The earliest cars in this cluster in the survey are three cars from period 6 (19001904): a 1902 Panhard Levassor, the 1904 Peerless Green Dragon and a 1903 Mors. The
arrangement of front engine, rear wheel drive is generally known as the Systme Panhard, and
although it is actually named after the earlier, less defined layout that was produced in 1892, it
would seem that Panhard were still in the position where they were influential, although of course
there is not the completeness of the data that would be appreciated in determining this.
At a later date, starting during the late 1930s, there appears to be a developmental movement,
moving in a line at about 30o from the vertical (dimension 2) axis. This could perhaps be described
as a line of car development, with cars away from the line signifying their distance from being
cars or real cars in general parlance.
Figure 4: 1902 Panhard and 1903 Mors
Figure 5: Layout results for early years with annotation

Results up to period 6 in black: period 6 in grey
In the early periods, the movement appears to be from a position of uncertainty towards this
Vintage layout, with cars from the early periods, up to and including period 6, lying roughly in a
sector to and pointing towards the Vintage point.
Within this sector there are nevertheless a number of clusters of cars. Just behind the Vintage point
is a small cluster with shaft drive, but a smaller number of cylinders, one or two, than the norm, and
another cluster with chain drive rather than shaft drive: a smaller cluster slightly further away
contains a small group of cars with steam engines under the drivers seat, suspension by full elliptic
front and rear on a pram frame: steering is by tiller. This cluster is perhaps epitomised by the
Locomobile Steam Buggy. Although not part of the analysis, this entire cluster hails from the
United States. Developments of this cluster, again mostly in the United States, move away from it
when suspension systems are improved, engines become internal combustion and steering is by
10
wheel, but there are still examples of the arrangement such as the Stanley Steamer, shown on the
diagram in grey being built up to the First World War. Thus although the cars are all in similar
places in the layout analysis, the cluster becomes dispersed and confused by other cars such as early
Panhards and Daimlers (front engine, chain drive, solid or iron tyres, twin cylinder engines)
forming another loose cluster on top of them. An even broader group of cars is that formed by the
early Benz models calling them a group may be a little far-fetched, as they all seem to just appear
somewhere in the same place on the diagram. The very early Benz models were three wheelers, and
these seem to be very far away from the car paradigm. Other three wheelers such as the Lon
Bolle tri-cars are also far removed from the car line.
Figure 6: Skene (top left), Mobile (top right) and Locomobile (lower) steamers
11
Figure 7: 1900 Daimler (left) and 1892 Panhard (right). Note iron tyres.
Form development
With the form variables, the clustering element is not so great, particularly with cars of this sort of
date. This would appear to be an indication that every car at this sort of date would have been
unique, particularly where the form of the body is concerned, which is what is being measured or at
least compared. When the results of the first two form dimensions are inspected, there is a clear
progression with time, although the precise positions of data points is still somewhat arbitrary due
to the type of analysis performed. In the early periods, such as the ones being investigated
particularly in this instance, most of the results for these two dimensions load into the lower left
quadrant. With the next few periods, the entries tend to be moving into the upper left quadrant, and
during the late 1930s the entries move into the upper right one, to reach the lower right quadrant in
about the 1950s.
Looking at the components, the lower left quadrant loads on the height and window height
variables, and negatively on the bonnet length and various roundedness variables. This means that
in our period we should expect cars to be characterised by being relatively high and short, with
short bonnets and a general lack of roundedness, which is in fact what we get. At the end of the
period, cars start to become longer and lower, with longer bonnets, such as the 60HP Mercedes and
Peerless Green Dragon. Jenatzys Land Speed Record car, which is in the same period, tends to be
slightly out on a limb as it is considerably rounder than is normal in this period, being shaped like a
pointed torpedo. It is in the upper left quadrant, almost into the upper right one.
Looking at the second and third dimensions a rather more confused picture emerges. The third form
dimension does not really demonstrate much in the way of progression through time in the same
way that the other dimensions do. Rather, it seems to load seat rows, rear of cockpit position, and
numbers of doors in a positive direction all things that contribute towards a more formal, staid car.
Hence, in each period one might expect a selection of cars designed for carrying more people to
have high values, and those designed for small numbers of people and sports use having low values.
In our early periods, we would expect cars to have slightly lower values than in later periods,
because of the relative absence of features such as doors, and indeed the mean value does rise a
little. Typical cars with low values would be open two seaters with little formal bodywork such as
12
the Locomobile Steam Buggies, with those with more formal, closed bodies such as the 1903
Panhard Levassor to have higher values, which does indeed happen.
Figure 8: Jenatzys La Jamais Contente, (right) 1904 Mercedes 60HP

(left) and 1904 Peerless Green Dragon (lower)
Generally, during the early periods of the car, the results are more scattered than they are during
later periods, indicating that there was a greater variety of form solutions as well as layout
solutions, but with form variables there is not the same clear-cut car paradigm as there is with the
layout variables.
Progression
One of the particular difficulties of the somewhat messy set of data used for this analysis is that
there are a significant number of unusual cars within the data set. This, and the non-representative
nature of the data, makes it difficult to obtain meaning from such things as means and deviation
figures. Having said that, it would appear that there are a greater variety of approaches towards the
design of cars within this early period, meaning that there are a greater variety of proposed solutions
to the powered vehicle transport problem. After about 1904, it would appear that the changes in car
layout slow down, focusing more on making the car more comfortable and usable than on altering
the layout. Both layout dimensions show this slowing down, the second one particularly so. With
the form variables it is much harder to indicate whether change decreases until a much later date.
The relative importance of the variables should be ascertained, and this may indicate that a change
in the nature of the form occurs, thus agreeing with the perceived changes.
Conclusions
It is quite clear that a number of closely determined design paradigms exist for the layout design of
cars. In particular, the layout that commenced around 1904 persisted for a considerable time. Before
that time there are a number of different car designs that form small clusters, but the general
movement of car design is towards this very clearly determined paradigm from a broad range of
layout possibilities.
13
Car form develops in a less closely defined manner, but still shows a definite progression. The
change of character is much less marked than with layout, and it happens more gradually, from
around 1904 to be completed within about five years.
Further work
There is no shortage of fossil car material. The object of this study was to demonstrate that even
with messy data some useful trends could be discovered. A car layout and form database has been
built up and needs to be augmented in order to confirm the findings of this investigation. It has been
suggested that other methods of study such as Repertory Grid, used for determining conceptual
thinking processes, might be usefully used in order to ascertain whether the measurements obtained
are those that are perceived. This is particularly important in terms of the form variables, and could
establish their relative importance.
14
References
Dowlen, C M C. 1997. Using Car History for Teaching Engineering and Design. ICED'97, 1997, at
Tampere, Finland. Tampere University of Technology.
1999. Development of Design Paradigms. International Conference on Engineering Design, at
Munich, Germany. Technical University, Munich.
2002. The Evolution of the car: An investigation into product history. Similarities, contrasts and
questions. Design and Nature, In print, at Udine, Italy. Wessex Institute of Technology.
Lakoff, George. 1990. Women, fire and dangerous things. Paperback ed. Chicago: Chicago Press.
Original edition, 1987.
Shackleton, John, and Kazuo Sugiyama. 1996. Attribute perception in Japanese recreational vehicle
design. Bulletin of JSSD 43 (4).
Simonton, Dean Keith. 1988. Creativity, Leadership, and Chance. In The Nature of Creativity,
edited by R. J. Sternberg. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Whyte, Andrew. 1984. The Century of the Car: 1885-1985. London: Octopus Books.
15

M. Fedeski Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales, Cardiff, UK
B. Sidawi Welsh School of Architecture, University of Wales, Cardiff, UK
Abstract
Since its evolution in 1962, the Internet has provided new services for people and enriched their life
and knowledge. Earlier research has shown that the architectural profession in the UK has lagged
behind other businesses in adopting and using new technologies and is only slowly absorbing the
new innovations brought by the Internet. This lag coincides with a slip in the architect's lead role in
the design team.
The research conducted at Cardiff University aims to examine how architectural practices are
interacting with the Internet and to investigate any problems they are having in its use. Architectural
practices in the UK were surveyed and the results confirm that practices are under-using the
Internet. Architects are experiencing difficulties in using the Internet which the study has related to
a number of potential causes.
The paper discusses one aspect of this research, which is the use of the Internet in project design
and management. The paper explains some reasons for the rare use of the Internet in design tasks
and why practitioners are not certain about the potential benefit of the Internet. It makes
recommendations for factors that should be targeted in order to extract more benefits from the
Internet and to fully utilize it for project design and management.

Introduction
In recent times the architectural profession has been experiencing unprecedented social,
economical, political and environmental stresses. Building design had to embrace more complex
information, technology and aesthetics (Jencks 1993). Clients became not only more experienced,
but also more demanding, with more sophisticated needs (Kliment 1996). Architects were not
prepared for the effects that rapid change brought to the level of demand on their services, and were
not sufficiently skilled in identifying newly emergent market requirements and adopting new
technologies (Seidel et al 1995, Cuff 1991). Many were reluctant to use new technology in their
practice. As an example, when computers were first introduced, many practitioners decided that
they would be of no help to them in producing artistic design (Fryer 1997). In this changing
environment, other professions were able to take up a new specialization in project management,
shifting architects from their historical role as design team leaders to become equal players in the
design team (Stevens 2000).
Recently, there has been a revolution in communications brought about by Internet technology,
which has imposed itself on people, life and business. People around the world have become wired
to the Internet through personal computers, handheld computers, mobile phones and digital TVs.
The use made of the Internet and computers by architects has been studied in a number of surveys
(see Barbour 1997; Barbour 1999; RIBA 1989; RIBA 1996; RIBA 2000). These showed that the
trend towards the adoption and use of networking technologies by architectural practice has been
slow, and lagging behind other professionals.
A literature review conducted by the authors suggested that the Internet nevertheless has
considerable potential for architectural practices, by supporting the recent use of computer tools,
providing extra communication channels, and extending architects abilities and expertise in new
ways. By taking greater initiative in the adoption of these technologies, architects might be able to
gain back some of the ground they have lost in the design team.
Research theme
Part of the aim of the present research was to show how the Internet is being used by architectural
practices. The range of uses to which architects put the Internet was compared with the potential
uses available to them, and this revealed a number of shortcomings. Explanations for these
shortcomings were then sought.
A sample survey was used to collect the required information about practices in 1999. There were
two samples: a stratified random sample of 60 RIBA private practices and a random sample of 18
local authority practices. Information was collected by structured questionnaire. The questionnaire
was targeted at the principal of the practice, and in most cases was completed by this person, or by
others on his or her behalf. It supplied data about the use of the Internet and about some of the
explanatory factors in a form that could be analysed statistically. This analysis will be referred to in
what follows as the 'survey'.
A sub-sample of seven of the respondents were interviewed at their practices (referred to as the first
interviews) to find out more about their attitudes towards the Internet. Observation at this time, and
more protracted observation of one particular practice, provided additional insight.
After the main results had been compiled, there were follow-up interviews with thirteen of the
respondents. These were designed to test whether the recommendations being made were realistic.
The sampling method used for the survey allows the results for the private practices to be projected
with some confidence on the population. However, there were too few responses from local
authorities to give this confidence, so that from an inferential point of view, all other results must be
treated with caution.
General view of Internet use in architectural practices

Most private practices, and half local authority practices, report that the two purposes for which
architects use the Internet most are e-mailing and obtaining professional information. Other Internet
services are hardly used by architects or, in private practices, by architectural and CAD technicians.
70% of practices said that the services professional staff and architectural technicians make greatest
use of are e-mail and other text communication, and the World Wide Web. In half the practices,
CAD & computer technicians use e-mail but make little use of other services. The comparison of
results between private and local authority practices shows that Internet services are used mostly by
architects in the private practices, whereas the use is relatively more spread among the design team
and other staff in the local authority practices.
Most private practices have exchanged informal file format types with the outside world. Nearly
half of them exchange formal letters through the Internet. Half of local authority practices exchange
graphic files with people outside the practice. But few practices exchange other file formats. Only
13% of both practices use the Internet to exchange video and audio files.
The study finds that a high percentage of local authority and private practices (i.e. more than 80%)
do not use some of the more direct communication services, whether instant services such as video
conferencing, chat, and project home page, or non-instant such as newsgroup, bulletin boards, and
discussion groups.
These results suggest that the Internet is under-used by practices, in that:
Many practices do not exchange graphic, DTP (i.e. Data Transfer Protocol) and HTML (i.e.
Hyper Text Markup Language) information over the Internet;
Many practices do not use some non instant and instant communication services;
In-house design staff do not use all Internet services;
Some design staff use more Internet services than other staff.
An analysis of the survey results was undertaken to help explain this under-use. Various factors
included in the survey could be tested as explanatory variables using simple statistical tools such as
cross tabulation. Cramers test of correlation was used to examine the strength of the relationship,
and the Chi-square Pearson test to measure its significance; results with a significance level below
0.05 were accepted.
Characteristics of the practice
The size of the practice is found to relate to Internet use, the data suggesting that smaller practices
are hindered in making good use of the Internet. Internet uses that suffer in smaller practices are the
use of audio-visual communication services (e.g. video conferencing) by architects and architectural
technicians, and the use of audio communication services (e.g. Voicenet) by architectural
technicians. Most (i.e. 90%) of the private practices surveyed have under five professional staff.
Another characteristic of practices that has an effect on their use of the Internet is their turnover, as
indicated by the size of the projects they undertake and the rise or fall in work load. 10% of private
practices and 40% of local authority practices had handled projects with a total value exceeding 10
million in the year before the survey; at the other end of the scale, 32% and 5% respectively
handled projects with a total value below 500,000. In the practices with higher project values,
more architectural technicians use audio-visual and audio communication services, and more
architects are using text communication services other than e-mail.
More than half the practices said they were as busy or busier than in the previous year. In the
practices whose work loads are on the increase, more architects are using audio communication
services.
The importance of financial resources was verified in the first interviews. Interviewees said that
they evaluate the use of any Internet service according to available funding. One, when asked about
the possibility of using the Internet to transfer remote video pictures, replied that it comes down to
the budget. He commented: a lot of people here like to have new technology, but because of
budget, some of the Internet tools are out of our reach. A principal who had been pointing to the
expense of computer technology went on: "but people like me can not afford to buy it all the time; I
am trying to upgrade what I have because it is a lot cheaper.
The Internet system
The length of time practices have been connected to the Internet has some bearing on usage. 13% of
private practices have no Internet connection, 70% connected in or after 1997 and 17% have a
history of use going back before 1997. 90% of local authority practices connected to the Internet in
1997 or after. The survey showed that in those practices with a longer history of using the Internet,
more computer, CAD and IT technicians make use of audio-visual, audio, and text communication
services other than e-mail.
86% of the private practices sampled are connected to the Internet, and they are the main subject of
this research. However, some practices are connected to other types of network. 35% of practices
have a second network, either extranet or intranet, and 3% have all three types of network. 52% of
LA practices have Internet, 72% have two networks, and around 5% have three types of network.
The survey shows that this rough measure of the degree of network connectivity relates to Internet
use. In practices that have more of these network types, more computer and CAD technicians and
architects are using Internet services, particularly the World Wide Web, e-mail, and access to
professional information. For instance, computer and CAD technicians who are in practices which
have an Internet network use the e-mail service only, whereas those who work in practices which
have both external and internal networks use more Internet services, whilst even more services are
used by IT technicians in practices which have three types of network. The type of network also
relates to the frequency of use of exchange services for graphic files, and of communication
services using text (other than e-mail).
Most practices (i.e. 80%) reported that they have less than six computers connected to the Internet.
More than two thirds of LA practices have less than six computers connected to the Internet. The
survey results showed that some Internet services get more frequent use in practices having more
computers connected to the Internet. These are audio-visual and audio communication services,
and the World Wide Web.
The users' knowledge of IT
The survey respondents were asked to assess the knowledge of their staff about Information
Technology (IT). In private practices most respondents think that their architects and
administrative staff have only average knowledge of IT, whilst their CAD staff, architectural
technicians, and other professional staff are more knowledgeable. Other staff are considered to have
low knowledge of IT. In local authority practices, the pattern is similar, with architects and
architectural technicians having average knowledge of IT, and computer, CAD, and IT staff and
other professional staff being more knowledgeable. Other staff are again considered to have low
knowledge of IT.
The study found that the IT knowledge of the design team is related to its use of the Internet for
some design tasks. For instance, professional staff thought by their principals to have greater IT
knowledge make more use of the Internet for downloading computer software. Again, CAD &
computer technicians and architectural technicians with greater IT knowledge make more use of the
Internet for exchanging HTML files and DTP files respectively.
The first interviews indicated that some practices have problems in exchanging files through the
Internet because their staff have insufficient knowledge of IT, which may explain the low use of the
file exchange service. This problem was highlighted by one interviewee who pointed to problems
when sending large or incompatible files to other consultants. He linked such problems to the level
of understanding of staff, saying that there is sometimes a misunderstanding between staff who
were separated by a great distance about what should be done. The observation showed that staff
with only a passing or average knowledge of IT can create compatibility problems by making and
exchanging non-standard files.
A focused view: Internet use for project design and management

So far, results have been presented about the general use of the Internet in architectural practices.
The presentation now moves on to consider more specific uses of the Internet to assist in project
design and management. A similar sequence is followed: the extent of Internet use for this purpose
in practices will be examined and, shortcomings having been demonstrated, explanations will be
sought.
The survey asked practices about the use of design-related information that is available on the web
such as technical information and manufacturers' information. At least half of the practices said
that they use manufacturers information, with a similar proportion using technical information.
It also asked them about the Internet's influence on design tasks. They thought that the Internet has
a positive effect on communication between members of the design team and it has some positive
influence on the quantity and quality of information available for design. Local authority practices
thought that it also had a positive effect on the time taken for project design and construction, but
private practices thought that it had a small negative influence on this.
The practices were asked in the survey about the likelihood of using the Internet in some design
tasks in the foreseeable future. Local authority practices said that they were likely to use the Internet
for discussing design sketches through the Internet and viewing remote drawings. However, all
practices seem unsure about other such uses. They all said they were unlikely to use the Internet for
downloading information to integrate into drawings and specifications, for discussing a sketch with
the client, or for inviting the public to become involved in design decisions about public projects.
These results show that the Internet is not used to assist design in architectural practices to the
extent that it might be. Many other ways can be suggested in which the Internet could help. For
instance, it would be possible for architects to use the Internet to send free faxes and voicemails, to
use freeware applications, to download CAD objects, to share design information online, to discuss
3D design models in real time with clients by using online virtual reality tools, to incorporate
design information into intelligent 3D objects, and to view and mark up any type of document
without the need to have the full software in-house. However, it must not be supposed without
good evidence that architects will actually find such potential applications useful in practice or
relevant to their needs.
For this reason, follow-up interviews were carried out to test the opinion of a sample of architects
on potential uses of the Internet. The subjects were shown a presentation about a number of
advanced applications of the Internet for design tasks, and asked whether they would find them
useful (see the table below). To get an idea of how useful they would be, they were also asked to
assess, where applicable, what project savings, what size of project, and what distance of project
would be needed before they would adopt the application.
More than half of the interviewees agreed that some of the suggested applications were potentially
useful (the first five applications in the table). More than half of them said that they would be happy
to use the Internet for automatically checking building design compliance with regulations, and for
exchanging project information with standard pro-formas, whatever the project size and even if the
project were next door.
Of the suggestions made to them, the one to which they applied the strictest constraints, that is,
found the least useful, was the use of a 3D building model incorporating cost and purchase data to
share information with members of the design team over the World Wide Web.
The interviewees considered that there are other constraints that could also play an important role in
deciding the potential use of the Internet in design tasks, such as the type of CAD packages used by
the practice, the complexity of the project, and whether the design information exchanged with
other parties is parametric or non-parametric. They thought that whether they will make more use of
Internet services for design will be influenced by the efficiency of the services provided, and by the
ability of the Internet to act as an intelligent system capable of identifying and knowing the
designer's needs.
Would be used even if

the project is next door
Project distance
Would be used whatever Project size

the project size
Required
saving
Usefulness
Would be applied even

if less than 1% of the
project expenses are
achieved
Sharing project documents

Automatically checking building
design compliance with regulations
Using specifications, technical
indexes, and standards on-line
Virtual reality and visualization of
3D building models
Exchanging project information
with standard pro-formas made
available on the Internet.
Collaborating, meeting,
communicating and discussing
project issues with other project
team members
Sorting out design problems &
conflicts on-line
Improving the quality of project
design and construction
Hyperlinking design information
with on line manufacturers'
products, and technical information
Sharing a 3D building model
incorporating building cost data
with design parties on the Web
Level of constraint
The type of design task
Useful
Constraint type
X: more than half of interviewees agreed to use the Internet potentials under this level of constraint
-: The rest of the interviewees who do not agree to use the Internet potentials under this level of constraint, and they
apply a medium or high constraint level on these potentials
Table 1: Potential uses of the Internet to assist project design and management found most useful by
practitioners interviewed
The results of the survey and the follow-up interviews together suggest that practices could make
greater use of the Internet to assist them in project design and management:
Online design information is used by only half of the practices;

Practitioners have divided opinions on whether the Internet has a positive or negative influence
on the time taken for project design and management tasks;
The potential of Internet use in design is not realised by many practices.
As before, explanations for this under-use were sought by analysing the survey data for correlating
variables.
A link is shown between the first problem listed (i.e. little use of on-line information) and the
design staff's knowledge of IT. For instance, the use of manufacturers' information services is
greater in practices whose architectural technicians have more knowledge of IT, and the use of
technical information is greater in those whose architects have more knowledge of IT. The first
interviews suggested other causes to the problem. Practitioners said that they found hard copies of
technical and manufacturers' information easier to use and digest, and one of them, who has Mac
system, said that his system is not compatible with information sent by manufacturers and
technical information. I have difficulty to find information on line.
Regarding the other two problems listed, the study suggests that they are related: a reluctance to
realise the potential of the Internet reflects a poor impression so far of the Internet's influence on
project design and management. That is, what respondents say about their intention to use the
Internet for new design tasks in the near future is related to their degree of satisfaction to date with
the Internet's influence on related design tasks. In particular, the likelihood that practices will use
the Internet for managing design tasks in the office, or for communicating with outside people,
increases alongside their satisfaction with the Internet's present influence both on project
management and on communications with the design team.
Thus, a negative attitude towards computers may explain the under-use of the Internet in design.
The first interviews showed how some practitioners do not like to use computers. One practitioner
explained: The reason that I do not use the computer is that I do fast sketches and follow my brain.
If I am doing this sort of thing by computer, I cannot catch up, and it would be very frustrating to
me. I would have to think how to use the computer rather than what I am doing. Another pointed
out the unsuitability of the Internet for evaluating building products: by not seeing the building
components in exhibitions or getting samples, you will not get an indication of quality.
Dissatisfaction with the Internet's role in project design and management is probably a result of
problems encountered in using its services. Such problems are, at least in part, due to inexperience.
The first interviews showed how the interviewees level of IT knowledge could be a potential
cause. During the interviews, their knowledge was tested, and the results provided clear evidence
that not only do they not use many Internet services but that these services are unknown to them.
Furthermore, the tests revealed difficulties that they were finding in interacting with some of the
services, such as search engines and professional guidance on line, which they considered to be
non-friendly.
Some interviewees referred to problems from outside the practice, with partners or clients who have
little awareness or knowledge of computers. One principal mentioned that some of his clients do
not have the Internet. This prevents the practice from using the Internet effectively in this area. He
tried once to send a 3D model, with viewing software, to a client who uses the Internet, but found
that he needed to demonstrate in person how to use it.
The first interviews showed that some interviewees had no clear plans about how to use the Internet
for design tasks in the near future. This supports the survey figures, which show uncertainty
towards the use of the Internet in design in the foreseeable future. However, there were interviewees
who have plans, and said that they are planning to make links with associates or partners in business
through the Internet and to manage projects on line. Some practices are looking forward to utilizing
the web for distributing information, performing electronic transactions, selling 3D models to other
Internet users, and doing remote inspections on defective buildings.
Summary and conclusion

This paper makes the case that the Internet is under-used in architectural practices and that, more
specifically, much of its potential use for project design and management is unrealised. The
questionnaire survey and interviews suggest some of the hindrances to a greater adoption of Internet
services.
Smaller practices and those with lesser financial resources use a more limited range of media on the
Internet. The more years that practices have been connected, the greater the use that staff make of
these media. The degree of connectivity that practices have, in terms of the number of networks
and the number of connected computers, the more engaged with the Internet the staff become.
These results suggest that access and experience are important factors in creating an environment in
which the Internet is used fully.
Insufficient knowledge of IT generally, and of its potential benefits in particular, is a significant
barrier to staff engagement with the Internet. Staff have to develop new skills to use Internet
services, and need support whilst doing so. This problem is exacerbated when services do not
match their requirements well.
Poor skills lead to difficulties in using Internet services. Difficulties encountered in using the
Internet now, give rise to dissatisfaction with the services. This dissatisfaction relates strongly to
the staff's readiness to explore the further potential of the Internet to help them with project design
and management.
Nevertheless, there are practitioners who do make good use of the Internet. Practitioners, when
asked, are able to see how useful some of the services they have not yet adopted can be. Some
practitioners do have plans to tap their potential in the future.
If it is accepted that the Internet can bring benefits to practices, then ways must be found of
overcoming the hindrances. This is important for the efficiency of architectural practice and for its
ability to keep abreast of change in the industry. Some possible targets have been suggested by this
research, and these are now expanded upon.
The components of the Internet system, including the software and hardware, are in need of regular
updating and upgrading. Such procedures enable practices to utilise Internet resources more fully.
Setting up and maintaining a system to give a sufficient standard of service would seem to require
more funding than small practices can spare. How such a shortfall might be bridged is a matter to
be debated.
Architectural staff must learn how better to implement the Internet in project design and
management. With the rapid development of the Internet they will need to know, for example, how
to lead virtual design teams and manage remote information and data. It is important to realise that
not all staff will manage this without support. The vicious cycle from past inexperience to
dissatisfaction and onward to future inexperience, as outlined above, will hold many back.
Support could come from within practices, but present experience suggests that this has been
insufficient to date. Consequently, some external support is needed, either through the practice or
for practitioners directly. It would seem that the objective should be greater exposure to the
Internet, which would build up experience, and help to break out of the cycle. Given a better
chance to experience the Internet environment and to become more familiar with it, practitioners
will be better able to perceive its benefits for themselves.
The implication is that some part of the necessary support should be delivered over the Internet, in
conjunction with appropriate services. However, the present inertia found by the research to the
take-up of new ideas over the Internet makes this only a partial route. At the very least, a
programme of publicity, guidance and incentives is needed to back up the available support.
The conclusion towards which this line of reasoning leads, is that a lead needs to be taken by an
influential organisation in co-ordinating the necessary steps. The professional institutes are the
obvious candidates. Whatever the extent of their intervention, their leadership could prove
valuable.
10
References
Barbour Index. 1997. Electronic delivery of product information: a guide for building product
manufacturers. Barbour Index: UK
Barbour Index. 1999. The sourcing and exchange of information across building project team
Computing in construction. Barbour Index: UK.
Cuff, Dana. 1991. Architecture: The story of practice. USA: Massachusetts institute of Technology.
Fryer, Barry. 1997. The practice of communication Management. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.
Jencks, Charles. 1993. Architecture Today. London: Academy.
Kliment, Stephen. 1996. Remarks on new client and market. In: Reflections on Architectural
Practices in the Nineties (edited by W.S. Saunders and P.G. Rowe). New York: Princeton
Architectural Press.
Lofland and Lofland. 1984. Analyzing social settings. USA: Wadsworth publishing company INC.
RIBA. 1996. RIBAs IT survey. RIBA Journal Februrary 1996. pp64-66.
RIBA. 2000. The 2000 survey on information services in the UK construction industry. UK: RIBA
publications.
RIBA market research unit. 1989. Survey of computer usage. UK: RIBA publications.
Seidel, Andrew D, Martin Symes, Joanna Eley. 1995. Architects and their practices. A changing
profession. UK: Butterworth.
Stevens, Garry. 2000. [on line] Downclassing the Architect. A View from the Cliff. Available from
URL:<http://www.archsoc.com/Pub/downclassing.pdf> [20.1.2000]
11

M. Fendl Dresden University of Technology, Germany
Abstract
This paper presents a systematic method for architects of complex buildings tasks working in
interdisciplinary groups called MAPLE/D Method of Architectural Planning and Design.
MAPLE/D was developed within the framework of an extensive research project sponsored by the
DFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
The concept of MAPLE/D is based on
the think tool of Creative Thinking which claims to separate and simultaneously combine
analytical-theoretical and creative synthesising-practical tasks,
the combination of five developed models: the Scientific Criteria Model, the Stakeholder
Model, the Issue Model, the Process Model and the Competency Model and
a number of methodological tools for the implementation of the models.
The combination of the think tool, the five models and the methodological tools is supposed to help
architects managing complex planning and design tasks as well as making them aware of certain
competencies, such as Soft Skills and Hard Skills, which they need for applying the systematic
method MAPLE/D. This paper gives a detailed presentation of MAPLE/D.

Introduction
A Systematic Approach to a Future-Oriented Planning and Design Method for Architects of
Complex Building Tasks Working in Interdisciplinary Groups Called MAPLE/D Method for
Architectural Design [1]. The double entendre of the title The Architect of the Future is chosen to
express that this paper strives for a systematic method for architects who on the one hand plan and
design in the future and who thus design the future on the other. Architects who want to work
successfully also in the future and who want to be indispensable partners for the client while
planning [2] and designing [3] complex buildings in the future have to work in interdisciplinary
groups to develop architectural proposals for the future.
Framework
The framework of this paper is an extensive research project on planning and design methods which
focuses on ways how architects could systematically develop goal-oriented architectural solutions
for complex building tasks e.g., for social facilities and healthcare buildings (more details in
Fendl 2002).
Methodology
Study of literary sources
Initially, the study of literary sources was done to find the requirements made on the architects job
and to identify issues that determine architecture and that are to be fulfilled. The basic research on
the term and the essence of architecture and on the job profile of the architect produced the
following central requirements for architects managing their tasks successfully. These requirements
have been formulated as a hypothesis.
Hypothesis
To preserve their important role in the construction professions for the future within the planning
and design process architects are expected
- to do their work systematically, comprehensibly, independently and reliably,
- to involve all important experts and to consider the stakeholders interests,
- to transform all essential issues into an effective architectural proposal,
- to proceed systematically and therefore efficiently and
- to fulfil a co-ordinators, presenters and mediators job as well as to contribute their own specific
competencies regarding the creative development of a formally appealing architectural proposal
with aesthetic value and
- to support the problem-solving process by using his/her analytical and synthesising abilities
(Fendl 2002: chapter 2).
Objectives
To meet all of these requirements simultaneously, the architect is expected to use a systematic
method for planning and designing. However, the question still stands: how can such a method be
used? This question defines my research objective: The aim of this paper is to discuss a recently
developed planning and design method for architects of complex building tasks. Meeting the
requirements mentioned above can be achieved especially by integrating interdisciplinary

knowledge of other experts and stakeholders.
Main findings
The criteria catalogue for MAPLE/D
The result of the analysis of literary sources is a criteria catalogue as a basis for the development of
future-oriented planning and design methods in architecture. It is thus the starting point for finding
ways that support systematic architectural planning and designing. The criteria catalogue includes:
- the Scientific Criteria Model to support the architects to work systematically, comprehensibly,
independently and reliably,
- the Stakeholder Model to identify all important experts and stakeholders,
- the Issue Model to record all essential issues completely and to transform them effectively,
- the Process Model to proceed systematically and efficiently and
- the Competency Model to present, co-ordinate the process and to mediate between those involved
in the process as well as to contribute the architects personal specific creative and formal
competencies and
- the principle of Creative Thinking considering the different abilities of the two brain hemispheres
as an underlying think tool.
Combining these five models with the think tool Creative Thinking, a planning and design method
for architects of complex building tasks working in interdisciplinary groups called MAPLE/D
Method for Architectural Design can be derived:
The network of MAPLE/D
The idea of MAPLE/D is to provide a grid as an open basic structure. This grid consists of the five
models embedded in the principle of Creative Thinking mentioned above and a number of
methodological tools that dock the five models (see Figure 1).
Figure 1: The Network of MAPLE/D

This cross-linked network of the underlying think tool, the five models and the methodological
tools, forms the heart of MAPLE/D. The methodological tools are named in the following chapter
and are to be understood as an offer for the architect while developing an architectural proposal.
This modular system works as a direction sign within the process of planning and designing and
has to be assimilated to the specific building task. The architect has to prove in each individual case
(building task) which of the methodological tools proposed suits his/her requirements best.
MAPLE/D
The detailed presentation of MAPLE/D is therefore carried out as follows: First, the principle of
Creative Thinking as a think tool is explained. Then, the models are each described briefly and
illustrated with a figure. Afterwards, the features and the objectives of each particular model are
commented on and selected methodological tools are assigned.
Differentiation between the terms planning and design
This paper starts from the fact that there is a difference between the terms planning and designing
just as between the German terms Planung and Entwerfen (Fendl 2002: chapter 2.3):
Planning (Planung) is defined in this paper as a systematic information processing procedure to
develop a goal-oriented architectural proposal (which contains the elements Information and
Control and the steps Planning/Design Impulse, Planning of Planning, Formulation of the Problem,
Setting the Goals, Generation of Alternatives, Prognosis, Evaluation, Decision and Drawing up the
Plan).
Designing (Entwerfen) is a creative process within and simultaneously to planning. Within this
process, an unpredictable proposal for a unique architectural object for a certain use and for future
construction is systematically or intuitively developed (in advance).
Planning is therefore a rather analytical-theoretical activity while designing is a rather creative
synthesising-practical activity. Basically, the activities of the analysis of planning and of the
synthesis of designing are inseparable. Both are run simultaneously during the whole process and
cover the whole process of planning and designing from the Planning/Design Impulse up to
Drawing up the Plan, i.e. the architectural proposal. But both activities, analysis and synthesis are
carried out with varying intensity as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Inseparable Activities of Analytical Planning and Synthesising Designing

The principle of creative thinking
This inseparable subdivision of these two entirely different activities is based on the
investigation by Linneweh about Creative Thinking kreatives Denken (Linneweh 1994).
Linneweh demands the differentiation between analytical and creative work. The reason for this is
that the two hemispheres of the brain work differently: Whilst the left hemisphere concentrates on
talking, reading, writing, analysing and logical thinking, the right hemisphere is rather emotional,
intuitive, dynamic, it overviews situations instead of analysing them, it loves art, music, dance and
other beautiful things (Weyh 1991: 102).
The principle of convergent and divergent thinking
Figure 3: Structure of Intellect Model by Guilford and Components of Creativity (Linneweh 1994:
15 and 28)
Linneweh refers to Guilford who subdivides thinking into grasping, producing and evaluating
thinking (see Figure 3). For the problem-solving process, i.e. for analysing the problem and
developing a resolution, the architect is simultaneously grasping, producing and evaluating thinking
and therefore needs both abilities of the brain. What the architect needs in the end is in scientific
terms on the one hand Convergent Thinking and Divergent Thinking on the other (see Figure 3).
Convergent Thinking is focussed, logical thinking in considerate, systematic steps. It starts from
the Reality Principle by Freud. In contrast, Divergent Thinking is free, inordinate and visionary
thinking which cannot be logically understood. It is based on the Pleasure Principle by Freud
(Linneweh 1994: 17).
Unfortunately, the working intensity of the two hemispheres varies greatly over time and one
cannot control them consciously. At any time, one of the two is dominating the other. In addition,
there are right-brained people, whose right hemisphere tends to dominate in general. Of course,
there are also left-brained people who generally proceed in a rather considerate and logical way.
Therefore this paper proposes to consider this inseparable subdivision consciously when looking
at planning and design method to support the problem-solving process.
A suitable methodological tool for the parallel consideration of Convergent and Divergent Thinking
is the strategy of Controlled Divergence. The phrase Productive Creativity is Controlled
Divergence by Linneweh (Linneweh 1994: 17) points out that creativity is Divergent Thinking
combined with Convergent Thinking, i.e. with controlled thinking.
Figure 4: Model of Information Processing in Creativity by Linneweh (Linneweh 1994: 25)

The approach of Controlled Divergence goes back to Freud who divides the psychic part of humans
into consciousness and the sub-conscious. In addition, Freud presents the phenomenon of the preconscious as a kind of information memory of own experiences and knowledge. This knowledge is
used as a Censor which controls problem-solving procedures (see Figure 4).
Way 1 is the exclusively convergent way, the direct way toward an idea only controlled by the
Censor. Therefore, the Censor rejects all ideas which are not yet known to it.
Way 2 shows the exclusively divergent way, the inordinate creative search for ideas. It is not
controlled by the Censor and is therefore just as unpromising as way 1 .
Way 3 is the combination of way 1 and way 2. After an uncensored inordinate creative phase
the Censor is used as a control element to exclude erroneous ideas and to identify other
possibilities. (Linneweh 1994: 25ff.) In other words: When applying the approach of Controlled
Divergence, Divergent and Convergent Thinking alternate.
This Model of Information Processing in Creativity is the basis for the differentiation between the
terms and activities of planning and designing.
The scientific criteria model
The Scientific Criteria Model shown in Figure 5 is a normative model that appeals to architects to
do their job of planning and designing in a certain scientific way, i.e. to follow a procedure which
is comprehensible for anyone involved. The aim of a scientific procedure is to produce
architectural proposals which are systematically developed, objectively well-founded, therefore

transferable, intersubjectively transformable and last but not least evaluable.
Figure 5: Scientific Criteria Model

The Scientific Criteria Model consists of a normative list of criteria that have to be fulfilled when
working scientifically, i.e. comprehensibly and rationally. The purpose of this model is to help
the architect be conscious of the requirement to work orderly, to give specific reasons for decisions,
to provide logically reasoned arguments, to prove the correctness of statements, to give other people
involved the opportunity to prove that black is white and to discuss and criticise statements (see left
column). In addition, the model is supposed to make the architect aware of the necessity of being
independent, impartial, to act value-free, to make the other stakeholders involved understand
decisions, to strive for significant, valid and firm decisions (see column on the right).
Methodological tools for the implementation of the scientific criteria model are, e.g. text, diagrams,
checklists, questioning (Rogge et al. 1995).
The stakeholder model

The Stakeholder Model helps the architect to identify the stakeholders of the architectural proposal.
The example of a Stakeholder Model in Figure 6 shows stakeholders and groups of stakeholders in
the field of hospital design. By detailing or expanding this model again and again, all persons with
a stake in the architectural proposal can be identified. The model includes users of the future
building as well as planners. The identification of the stakeholders is beneficial to discover the
information potential and knowledge that any of the stakeholders can provide and eventually to
encourage communication and interaction between the stakeholders.
Figure 6: Example of a Stakeholder Model

The Stakeholder Model is based on the Stakeholder Approach which is explained by Carroll
(Carroll 1989, Jennings, no year: 1-7, Freeman 1984: 25). The Stakeholder Theory claims to
involve all individual people and groups who have a stake an interest or a share in a project
(Carroll 1989: 56f.). In this model, the stakeholders basically consist of the two groups users and
planners and the overlapping group who are called contributors. The Stakeholder Model helps
the architect to identify the specific stakeholders of a project and to include them into the planning
and design process in order to ascertain their knowledge and their experiences which are helpful for
the development of an architectural proposal. Methodological tools for the implementation of the
Stakeholder Model are, e.g. tables, graphs, set models, mind maps (Grothe-Senf 1999: 119ff.),
stakeholder/responsibility matrix (Carroll 1989: 71).
The issue model
The Issue Model shown in Figure 7 contains a basic framework of issues (features) which
determine the quality of architecture and which have to be fulfilled to achieve certain goals. These
goals are in turn derived from the Physical and Psychological Needs of Users. The issues need
further specification and can consequently serve as a basis for the development of an architectural
proposal.
Figure 7: Issue Model

The Issue Model represents the Physical and Psychological Needs of Users which have to be
ascertained. The issues which determine the quality of buildings and of architecture, respectively,
can be derived from these needs. These issues are Formal Design Issues, Constructive, Technical,
Economic, Ecological Issues as well as Building Regulations Issues. The architect must take into
account these issues theoretically and transform them practically into an architectural proposal.
This procedure of theoretical consideration (= planning) and practical transformation
(= designing) is accompanied by a precise progressive refinement of the issues. Methodological
tools for the implementation of the Issue Model are, e.g. study of literary sources, questionings, the
application of the Building Performance Concept (Preiser et al. 1997), the concept of Total Quality
Management (Mller-Bling 1993: 3636ff.) or of the House of Quality (Hauser and Clausing 1988:
63ff., Steed et al., no year: 1-7). The overall aim of the Issue Model is to help the architect draw up
a goal-oriented, effective architectural proposal.
The process model
The Process Model in Figure 8 breaks the process of architectural planning and designing down
into steps and adds two extra elements. The starting element is Information and the basic element
is Control. The key steps of planning and designing in the core of the Process Model are:
Planning/Design Impulse, Planning of Planning, Formulation of the Problem, Setting the Goals,
Generation of Alternatives, Prognosis, Evaluation, Decision and Drawing up the Plan. The steps
cannot be followed mechanically much like a recipe, they are not a recipe for success. The
elements and steps are rather supposed to advise contributors and planners which the substantial
steps are.
10
Figure 8: Process Model

Thus, the Process Model supports a systematic procedure while structuring the process of planning
and designing. Each of the steps has to be checked to find out if it is essential or unnecessary. But
not every step has to be followed one after the other. Far from it. Any step can be taken, skipped
or repeated during the planning and design process at any time and if necessary. This is why the
single steps are not directly connected in this diagram.
Let us have a closer look at the elements and steps of the Process Model:
-
The purpose of the starting element Information is to gather, record and process information
as completely and correctly as possible. Appropriate quantity and good quality of
information can be reached, e.g., by using the methodological tools of Information
Technology or Empirical Social Research (Bea et al. 1997: 280ff.).
The step Planning/Design Impulse serves to clarify whether the general decision for a
building type at the specific location is right or wrong. To get adequate information at this
early stage, the methodological tool Expert Questioning (Bischoff et al. 1995: 113f.) can be
helpful, for example.
Planning of Planning is supposed to prepare the systematic procedure of planning,

designing and including the stakeholders. To consider all important aspects, Planning of
11
Planning can be carried out systematically by applying, e.g., the systematic Critical Path
Method (Meyer-Meierling 2000: 307).
-
The Formulation of the Problem is the precise description of the planning and design task.
The methodological tool Cross-Linked Thinking (Grothe-Senf 1999: 106ff.) may be helpful
to include all important critical issues and subtasks.
Setting the Goals is the derivation of goals from the Formulation of the Problem. The goals
have to be set as precisely as necessary and as unprecisely as possible to give architects the
creative freedom they need for the development of alternative architectural proposals. An
example for a methodological tool is Goal Programming (Schierenbeck 1993: 251).
Generation of Alternatives is the discovery, collection, further development and

combination of different resolutions. Systematic Brainstorming Techniques (Bronner 1999:
61f.) may be useful, for example, to stimulate the contributors fantasy and to utilise their
ideas.
Prognosis is the forecast of the consequences of the alternative architectural proposals for
people and the environment. The methodological tool Delphi Technique (Hansmann 1993:
3551) can be applied to obtain sufficient information, a high degree of certainty and
therefore a high-quality prognosis.
The step Evaluation of the alternative proposals considers the original planning and design
task, the problems and the goals to place the alternatives in a certain order. If the architect
wants to assess values objectively and correctly, i.e., in a way that is comprehensible to the
stakeholders, he/she can apply the methodological tool Value Benefit Analysis (Schulte
1996: 538ff.), for example.
Decision is either the rational confirmation of the order mentioned above or an independent
selection process by a single person or a heterogeneous group. Decision Matrices (Bronner
1999: 56) are a useful methodological tool for making rational, comprehensible decisions.
The step Drawing up the Plan aims at a clear, complete and correct illustration of the
architectural proposal. To avoid misunderstandings, incompleteness and mistakes and
consequently construction deficiencies precisely and systematically carried out Verbal,
Visual and Virtual Illustrations (Fendl 2002: glossary) are particularly helpful.
On the one hand, the basic element Control supports the feedback monitoring and feed
forward guidance. On the other, it supports the effectiveness and efficiency of the procedure
of planning and designing. Control is therefore supposed to avoid planning and design
mistakes that would cause high expenses unless noticed before the structure is built.
Checklists or the methodological tool of Design Control (Fendl 2001), which has been
elaborated by the author, are suitable to implement the Control step within the Process
Model.
The overall aim of the Process Model is to help the architect be efficient while planning and
designing systematically.
12
The competency model

The models we have presented so far cover the more rational aspects of planning and designing. In
addition, the previous models are all more or less instructions advising the architect how to proceed
and what to do. But to apply these models successfully within the planning and design process, the
architect needs to possess certain abilities. Therefore, the following Competency Model was
developed to provide a knowledge grid which contains and describes these abilities. Moreover, the
Competency Model represents the rather non-rational aspects of planning and designing in terms of
the social structure of the interdisciplinary groups and of the creative and formal design abilities:
The Competency Model in Figure 9 shows Soft Skills and Hard Skills.
-
The Soft Skills are derived from the stakeholders, i.e. from the interdisciplinary groups of
users and planners, who are supposed to communicate and interact being guided and
accompanied by the architect. Therefore, the Soft Skills include the Communication
Competency and the Interaction Competency.
The Hard Skills are derived from the issues which are considered and transformed into a
formally appealing architectural proposal. Therefore, Creative Design Competency and
Formal Design Competency are mentioned in the Competency Model.
Figure 9: Architecture-Specific Competency Model

Soft skills
The basis for any problem-solving activities is communication. Communication is in turn the basis
for any group interaction. The essential Soft Skills that an architect should possess are therefore
supposed to support his/her task to foster the communication in the form of a presenters job and
13
the interaction within and between the groups in the form of a co-ordinators job. The consequently
required Communication Competency consists mainly of social competency, problem sensitivity,
discrimination, ability of conflict resolution and the understanding and recognition of hierarchies.
The Interaction Competency comprises team orientation, organisational talent, motivation,
flexibility and the ability to assert oneself. Methodological tools for the implementation of the
Communication Competency are, e.g., Presentation Techniques (Wahren 1994: 236f. and Blin
2001: 11ff.) and Meta Communication (Bischoff et al. 1995: 137ff.) for presentations; and for the
Interaction Competency these are, e.g., Workshop (Sanoff 2000: 80ff.) and Mediation (Bischoff et
al. 1995: 75ff.) which are beneficial to co-ordinate stakeholders.
Hard skills
In addition to the interdisciplinary work in groups, the architect works in a design team. This team
is supposed to develop a formally appealing architectural proposal. The essential specialised
knowledge of the architect the Hard Skills should support his/her ability to design. In other
words, he/she is expected to transform the theoretical requirements into a practical architectural
proposal using his/her Creative Design Competency on the one hand and to develop a formally
appealing architectural proposal using his/her Formal Design Competency on the other. Therefore,
the Creative Design Competency requires knowledge, intuition and inspiration, gift and talent,
creativity and the ability of analytical and logical thinking. The Formal Design Competency of the
architect takes a lot of different aspects into account, including the following: expression,
aesthetics, proportion and order, space and form and environmental psychology. Methodological
tools for the implementation of the Creative Design Competency are, e.g., Map Exercise (Blin
2001: 13ff.) and Semantic Intuition (Warfield et al. 1975) to put the theoretical issues into practice.
Useful implements for the Formal Design Competency are Design Games (Sanoff 2000: 76ff.) and
Charrette (Sanoff 2000: 48ff. and Healey 1991) which are advantageous for the development of a
formally appealing architectural proposal.
Analysis of existing methods
After this closer look at the components of the theoretically developed criteria catalogue including
the five models, the think tool and the methodological tools, it seems to be reasonable to find out
whether there are other methods in architecture which take account of these components. The
criteria catalogue is therefore the basis for the analysis of existing planning and design methods for
complex building tasks focusing on social facilities and healthcare buildings. The results of this
analysis are summarised in Figure 10.
14
Figure 10: Results of the Analysis of Existing Planning and Design Methods for the Architectural
Design of Social Facilities and Healthcare Buildings [8]
This classification is broad rather than narrow, in other words: if one of the methods deals in the
slightest with one of the aspects of the think tool or the models, it has been considered and marked
with a diamond. An absolute intersubjective correspondence is therefore not possible. Most of the
planning and design methods deal merely with aspects of descriptive planning and design logic
rather than with aspects of a normative process-oriented planning and design methodology. In
addition, it is obvious that not one of the analysed methods covers all components of the criteria
catalogue.
The results of this analysis of existing methods combined with the theoretical findings regarding the
requirements of the architects job and the features of architecture confirmed the author in her
opinion that it could be advantageous to elaborate on the integral approach using the five models,
the think tool and methodological tools mentioned above.
Empirical study
Therefore, it is planned that MAPLE/D will be empirically tested by architects who will practically
apply and evaluate the method MAPLE/D itself and who will also evaluate the architectural
proposal to find out whether MAPLE/D is useful for the practising architect. Work on this
empirical study which is already being prepared (Fendl 2001 and Fendl 2002: chapter 6), started in
April 2002 and will be completed in July 2002. It can be presented and discussed at the conference.
15
Summary
To sum up the concept of MAPLE/D (see Figure 11) it can be said that the Scientific Criteria
Model is a tool to support the architect while he/she develops a comprehensible architectural
proposal. The Stakeholder Model helps to identify the stakeholders. The architect's interest focuses
on the stakeholders and their needs because they determine the issues. The latter are ascertained by
implementing and detailing the Issue Model. The theoretical planning activity analyses the needs
and issues, while the practical designing activity synthesises them into an architectural proposal.
The basis for this inseparable subdivision of theoretical and practical activities is the think tool
Creative Thinking comprising Convergent and Divergent Thinking. In doing so, the stakeholders,
i.e., the interdisciplinary users and planners, are permanently involved through communicating and
interacting with each other. This calls for the architects Soft Skills which are shown in the
Competency Model. This model goes even further by supporting the practical transformation and
the aesthetic value of the architectural proposal: it contains important Hard Skills of the architect,
e.g., the Creative Design Competency and the Formal Design Competency. It explains central
terms to the architect and provides a corresponding methodological body. With that, MAPLE/D is
not only a systematic method for the planning and design process, is also answers the question, how
to use such a systematic method, particularly with the Competency Model.
Figure 11: Concept of MAPLE/D

The overall aim of MAPLE/D is to provide a systematic method for architects of complex building
tasks working in interdisciplinary groups, e.g. social facilities and healthcare buildings (see Figure
10), by making the architect aware of important aspects of planning and designing, which is
important for the future of the architectural profession. MAPLE/D is therefore an offer for
architects to deal with the aspects mentioned earlier, to prioritise in each specific case and to
effectively and efficiently plan and design future buildings and thus our future. But only a conscious
16
architect can make MAPLE/D an effective and efficient tool while planning and designing,
because:
A fool with a tool is still a fool.
Conclusion and outlook

With MAPLE/D, this paper presents a planning and design method for the architect of the future.
The first step has already been made by developing a theoretical normative basis for this method. It
is followed by the second step: the evaluation of the effectiveness and the efficiency of the method
through an empirical study. Furthermore, the long-term objective of this research project is to
develop a knowledge-based database for methodological architectural design especially for social
facilities and healthcare buildings. In addition, the method is meant to be a basis for further
research as well as for architectural education. Moreover, this method is intended to be a basis for
further discussion among researchers and a starting point for teachers to redesign the curriculum
concept in architecture.
Finally, the applicability of MAPLE/D to design professions other than architectural is conceivable
to a certain extent: The think tool Creative Thinking comprising Convergent and Divergent
Thinking can be applied within any problem-solving process as well as the Scientific Criteria
Model. The Stakeholder Model and the Issue Model can be adapted to other design professions
with regard to the respective stakeholders and the specific issues, i.e. performance requirements of
the product to be designed. The Process Model is especially applicable in architecture because of
the long-term process and the consequences of architectural planning and designing. The
Competency Model is design specific in its way of considering communication and interaction as
well as creative and formal design competencies. Wherever these are important issues, the
Competency Model might be of help to structure and to overlook competencies necessary for
designing. It may be adapted and broadened.
Your comments, questions and proposals are most welcome. Please contact:
[email protected].
Acknowledgements
This research project on planning and design methods in architecture has been funded since May
2000 by the DFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft represented by Dr Juergen Hoefeld whom I
would like to thank very much for his support. My special thanks go to Ms Katrin PoenischPoerschke from the Language Centre of Dresden University of Technology who committed herself
greatly to the proof-reading of this conference paper.
Footnotes
[1] German: MAPLE/D Methode der architektonischen Planung und des Entwerfens/des Design.
[2] The term planning is used synonymously to the German word Planung which covers the
analytical-theoretical part of the English term design.
[3] The term designing is used synonymously to the German word Entwerfen which covers the
synthesising-practical part of the English term design.
[4] Bortz and Dring 1995: 181, Chalmers 1986:41ff., Chmielewicz 1994: 98ff., 209ff., 281ff.,
285ff., Eichhorn 1972: 286ff., Frey 1970: 32ff., Lienert 1989: 13ff.
17
[5] Bundesanstalt 1999: 5, HOAI 1995: 15, Landtag 1994: 1 and 4, Architektenkammer 1998:
preambel.
[6] Joedicke 1976: 11, Johannes 1989: 21ff., Laage 1978: 17, Maser 1993: 79ff. and 175, Rittel
1970 in: Rittel 1992: 75.
[7] Architektenkammer 1998: preamble, Blin 2001, Duden 1983, Grandke et al. 1998, Herrmanns
1989, Matthaei 1990, Schnier 2000, Szyperski 1989, Wahren 1994, Weyh and Krause 1991.
[8] These are the analysed methods which are relevant for the systematic architectural design of
social facilities and healthcare buildings:
USA
a = AIA Design Process (AIA Handbook 1994)
b = AIA Design Guidelines (AIA Guidelines 2001)
c = Universal Design (Preiser and Ostroff 2001)
d = Pena u. a.: Programming (Pena and Parshall 2001)
e = Sanoff: Community Participation (Sanoff 2000)
f = Hardy und Lammers: Hospital Planning and Design Process (Hardy and Lammers 1986)
g = Preiser: POE Post-Occupancy Evaluation (Preiser et al. 1988)
UK
h = RIBA Plan of Work (RIBA 1983)
i = NHS: Health Building Notes (NHS HBNs, various years of publication)
j = Inclusive Design (Hall and Imrie 2001)
k = Salisbury: Briefing (Salisbury 1998)
l = NHS: CIM (NHS CIM 1994)
m = DHSS: CAPRICODE (Department Capricode 1986)
n = MARU: Route Map (MARU 1994-2000)
GERMANY
o = HOAI: 15 Leistungsphasen (HOAI 1995)
p = Dirichlet u. a.: Krankenhausbau (Dirichlet et al. 1980)
q = Neufert: Bauentwurfslehre (Neufert et al. 2000)
r = Barrierefreies Planen und Entwerfen (DIN 1995, for innovative application of the DIN norms
see: Schmieg and Fendl 1999a and Schmieg and Fendl 1999b)
s = Schmieg: Zielplanung und Hospital Extension (Schmieg 1997 and Fendl and Schmieg 2001)
t = Joedicke: Entwurfsmethodik und Krankenhausbau (Joedicke 1976 und Joedicke et al. 1995)
u = Lohfert: Methodik der Krankenhausplanung (Lohfert 1973)
v = Ottow: Krankenhausplanung (Ottow 1990)
w = Tsavalos: Grundrissplanung (Tsavalos 1997)
18
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23

D. Formosa Daniel Formosa Design Inc., New Jersey, USA
Abstract
A design research study was conducted to investigate a topic that many are calling an imminent
crisis the needs of older drivers. Undertaken in conjunction with the Ergonomics and
Biomechanics Department at New York University and the Design Department at the University of
the Arts in Philadelphia, this study explores automobile instrument panel design and the driving
capabilities of younger and older drivers. The study looks at the following factors pertinent to the
design of instrument panels:
1)
2)
3)
4)
the affect of deterred visual attention on vehicle control.

drivers' abilities to reach for the instrument panel without looking.
differences in reach accuracy between younger and older drivers.
differences in vehicle control between younger and older drivers.
Forty-eight drivers, aged 20 to 40 and 60 to 80 years, participated. Findings include:

- For all drivers, steering accuracy is impaired when reaching.
- Steering impairment is worse for older drivers.
- Controls both closest and furthest from the steering wheel elicit better accuracy.
- Locating the control by touch, rather than glance, results in more accurate reaches.
- Older drivers are less accurate than younger drivers.
- Older drivers reach faster, possibly the result of driving strategy.
- Errors are systematic - drivers consistently reached too far and too low.
This study was designed and conducted to address the specific needs of a vehicle design team.
Recommendations for automobile instrument panel design, as well as design methodology, are
discussed.

Overview
Since the 1920s the United States has invested heavily in highways, forgoing alternative methods
of public transportation. As a result we have become highly reliant on personal vehicles for a
variety of day-to-day activities, and for our personal independence. For most people giving up the
right to drive is unthinkable. Unfortunately the highway system was never designed with older
drivers in mind. Similarly, automobiles have traditionally been marketed to appeal to our sense of
romance and adventure. Few companies have envisioned a way to wed this history with current
reality. While driving has generally become safer in recent years, the fatality rate for older drivers is
increasing.
The number of older drivers in the United States continues to grow. In 1999 there were more than
11 million drivers aged 75 and older. Forty five percent of people aged 85 and older, approximately
1.8 million, are licensed drivers.
While significant improvements have been made in vehicle safety in recent years the proliferation
of in-car electronics has complicated matters. Cellular phones are first among the in-car electronics
that have been shown to severely compromise safety (Redelmeier and Tibshirani 1997).
Current instrument panels show that automobile companies have not embraced the concept of
inclusive design. Small, black-on-black controls that require extended visual attention are
commonplace, and not a proper solution. In personal conversations, automobile component
designers admit working without regard to driving tasks or environment. These components are
later placed on the instrument panel by the automobile interior designers. The same radio, therefore,
may be placed high or low, regardless of button size, reach abilities, visual access or required
glance times. The process is inadequate.
Primary controls within the automobile, the basic controls required to operate the vehicle, include
controls such as the steering wheel, accelerator and brake. These controls, of course, are accessed
by "blind reach", meaning they do not require the driver to glance at them prior to use. Other
controls, such as heating, air conditioning and audio controls are secondary and in almost all cases
require some level of visual attention.
Driving can be described as an act of continuous crash avoidance. Drivers need to maintain
forward view at all times. The main risk associated with improper design of secondary controls is
the amount of visual attention required to perform the task. Glances away from forward view are
possible, but typically will last only 0.6 to 1.0 seconds (Figure 1). Within that time a driver must
search, light adapt, focus, obtain the visual information, manipulate, return to forward view, refocus
and light adapt. While this is a challenge for all drivers, these processes are typically slowed with
age. Therefore while deterred visual attention is a problem for all drivers, older drivers are more
affected.
Figure 1: Glance length. While driving, a typical glance away from the forward view lasts between
0.6 and 1.0 second (adapted from Wierwille, 1993).
Goals
The following questions were addressed in the study:
Steering Accuracy
1. Is steering accuracy affected by in-vehicle reach tasks, and to what extent?
2. Are drivers of different ages affected differently (i.e., will steering accuracy for older drivers be
more severely affected when compared with younger drivers)?
Accuracy of reach
3. Is reach accuracy a function of the distance to the control on the instrument panel? That is, as the
reach distance increases, will accuracy worsen?
4. If the driver locates the control through touch (by touching it, returning the hand to the steering
wheel, then reaching again), will the reach be more accurate than locating the control by glance?
5. Will older drivers demonstrate poorer accuracy than younger drivers?
Motor reaction time
6. Will older drivers exhibit significantly slower movements than younger drivers?
Methods
Forty-eight drivers, aged 20 to 40 and 60 to 80 years, participated in the study. Each age group
included 12 males and 12 females. The drivers were asked to operate a driving simulator, steering
through a predefined course. The driving simulator positioned the driver on the left, as standard in
the US. While steering, various reach tasks were performed with the right hand to the instrument
panel. The instrument panel area was divided into a grid of twenty-five points, five columns across
and five rows high, spaced 100 mm. apart. These points represent possible placements for push
buttons or other controls on the instrument panel. The two lowest targets in the column closest to
the steering wheel were eliminated because the driver's knee would occupy this area, resulting in a
total of twenty-three targets. Only one target was visible at a time, made possible by back lighting
the target. Drivers were asked to glance and reach for the target at various times during the driving
simulation.
For each of the twenty-three targets drivers steered by following a 90-second driving simulation.
Drivers were asked to reach using two methods of locating the target. In one method, drivers
glanced at the target, then reached for it without looking. In the second method drivers looked at the
target, placed their finger on it, and memorised it's location through touch. Their hand returned to
the steering wheel, and they were asked to reach for that target without looking. Both methods
could be expected during real-world driving. Each subject underwent two practice sessions prior to
data collection.
The simulator, along with instrumentation developed specifically for this study, collected
information on steering accuracy, reaction times, hand movement times and reach accuracy. The
data was plotted to help visualise the results and display differences and patterns. It was then
analysed to quantify the difference and show statistical significance for a number of variables.
Results
Steering Accuracy
For younger drivers, when glancing at the target, steering accuracy worsened by 40% (relative to
their baseline performance, with both hands on the steering wheel and eyes on the road ahead).
When reaching for the target without looking, eyes on the road ahead, steering accuracy worsened
by 49%.
The steering accuracy of older drivers was affected to a greater extent by the glance and reach tasks.
For older drivers, these numbers were 53% and 65%, respectively.
When the younger drivers were asked to touch and hold their finger on the target, steering accuracy
worsened by 40%. When the younger drivers then reached for that target without looking their
steering accuracy worsened by 49%. For older drivers, these numbers were 78% and 52%.
This answered both questions falling under the category of Steering Accuracy. For both age groups,
steering is adversely affected during glance and reach tasks to the instrument panel. Older drivers
are more severely affected than younger drivers.
Statistical analyses showed these results to be highly significant. The results of the Analysis of
Variance for the effects of Age Group, Subject (nested within Age Group), Target Location, and
Steering Sequence show that glance and reach tasks had a significant effect on steering accuracy
(p< .0001). The effects of Age Groups, Individual Subject Performances, and the Target Locations
were also highly significant (p < .0001). The Tukey-Kramer test indicated that the steering accuracy
during each of the four glance and reach tasks was significantly different from the baseline steering
performance.
In comparing the steering performance, Analysis of Variance showed differences between younger
and older driver groups to be significant at p < .0001.
Accuracy of reach
Results show that reaches to targets closest to the steering wheel were most accurate. Accuracy
worsened as reach distance increased. However, in some cases accuracy improved at the furthest
extent of reach. Reach accuracy is plotted in Figures 2a and 2b. The steering wheel is shown as a
grey circle. The twenty-three targets are located at the intersections of the grid, spaced 100 mm.
apart. The driver's knee occupies the position of two lower grid point closest to the steering wheel,
therefore those targets were not included. Reach accuracy is plotted using ellipses. Based on the
obtained results, each ellipse encompasses the area in which 90% of reaches can be expected to fall.
Figure 2a: Reach accuracy for younger drivers. The intended targets are at the intersections of the
grid. The ellipses indicate the area encompassing 90% of the reaches made to that target.
Figure 2b: Reach accuracy for older drivers. The intended targets are at the intersections of the
grid. The ellipses indicate the area encompassing 90% of the reaches to that target.
As a group, older drivers were less accurate than the younger drivers, indicated by the larger
ellipses in the diagrams. Although the intended targets are located at the intersections of the grid, it
can be seen that the actual hit locations tended to be low and to the right. The centres of the ellipses
represent the average locations of the reaches, and for all ellipses the centres show drivers reaching
too far and too low. In addition, it is typical for a pushbutton on an instrument panel to be as small
as 10 mm. wide, even smaller in some cases. Audio controls, for example, tend to be minuscule.
Superimposing a 10 by 10 mm. button over the ellipse diagrams would indicate how inaccurate the
reaches would be.
A series of ellipse diagrams were generated. They indicate that reaches were more accurate when
drivers memorised the target position by touching it, then reached for the target again without
looking. Locating the target visually, and then reaching for that target without looking, resulted in
less accurate reaches.
Results from the statistical analysis show that accuracy as a function of reach distance, the method
used to locate the target (by touch or by glance), and the differences between age groups, were all
highly significant (p < .0001). Reach accuracy was better for shorter reach distances, for reaches in
which the target location was detected by touching the target, and for reaches performed by younger
drivers.
Motor reaction time

Many studies show a slowing of movement with age. It was therefore expected in this study that
older drivers would reach more slowly than younger drivers. The results, however, show the
opposite to occur. Older drivers demonstrated faster reaction times than younger drivers. Median
motor reaction times were faster for older drivers by up to 0.15 second when compared with
younger drivers.
The median motor reaction times for younger drivers were 1.07 seconds when targets were located
by touch, and 1.18 seconds when targets were located by glance. For older drivers, times were 0.95
seconds and 1.03 seconds respectively. These differences were highly significant, at p < .0001.
Fractions of a second can be meaningful when driving. A vehicle travelling 88 kilometres per hour
(or 55 miles per hour, the standard speed limit on many roads in the US) would travel
approximately 3 meters (almost 10 feet) in 0.12 second.
It is possible that the difference in reach times between younger and older drivers is a function of
driving strategy. Older drivers were more affected by the challenges of divided attention. Steering
accuracy worsened appreciably when older drivers performed reach tasks, being affected to a
greater extent than younger drivers.
Older drivers may have been less confident when performing the reach tasks, and may have
compensated by reaching more quickly in order to return their attention to steering, placing both
hands on the steering wheel as soon as possible for better control.
Discussion
The reason for comparing drivers in different age groups is certainly not to develop separate agerelated vehicles it is difficult to imagine a car being successfully marketed for older drivers. The
two age groups were selected to help vehicle designers understand the needs of both younger and
older drivers. Driving abilities fall along a continuum, and individual capabilities vary. The division
into age groups is intended to determine general trends. Within each group, a wide range of abilities
was demonstrated.
Highway injuries and fatalities are daily occurrences and driving safety is a primary concern for all
drivers. Proper handling of a vehicle requires constant visual attention. Even so, attention to
secondary tasks within the vehicle is inevitable. Among other distractions, heat and ventilation
controls, audio systems, cellular phones and electronic navigation systems all vie for attention. The
development of instrument panels that reduce or eliminate the need for visual attention is a
worthwhile goal. The advantages have been verified by the results of this study.
Driving requires constant visual attention. The findings from this study show that all glance and
reach tasks performed by drivers, regardless of age, resulted in a loss of steering control. This fact
alone implies that, to improve safety, vehicle manufacturers need to design instrument panels that
reduce the amount of visual attention and reach required. Wherever possible the need for visual
attention and reach should be reduced or eliminated. This would maximise the time that drivers are
able to command the vehicle with both hands on the steering wheel and eyes on the road ahead.
Steering accuracy for older drivers was more severely affected, and considering the increase in the
number of older drivers in the coming years, this is rather disconcerting.
In exploring reach accuracy, this study found that, in all cases, younger drivers reached more
accurately than older drivers. This finding is consistent with a number of other studies on age and
proprioception (the ability to accurately position body segments without visual assistance).
Push-button controls on automobile instrument panels come in a range of shapes and sizes. Audio
controls tend to be the smallest, sometimes as small as buttons found on desktop calculators, spaced
approximately 15 mm. center to center. Neither the younger or older drivers were able to
consistently reach within this level of accuracy. If the design objective is to reduce the amount of
visual attention, these designs are not appropriate for automobile instrument panel components. In
designing proper controls, older drivers present the greater challenge, since they demonstrate less
accuracy and larger variation of reach to all areas of the instrument panel.
The faster reach times performed by older drivers contradict presumptions that would be inferred
from other studies that show older subjects to be slower. Brogmus (1991), Greatorex (1991), and
Stelmach and Nahom (1991) all point to slowed movements with age. Brogmus asked subjects to
be accurate in hitting the target and at the same time maintain maximum speed. Greatorex asked
subjects to reach as fast as possible. Stelmach reviews a variety of studies that emphasise speed of
movement. Walker, Fein, Fisk and McGuire (1997) found older drivers to be slower in making
decisions while driving. These other studies were not conducted in the same context as the current
study, however. The instructions in the current study were not to react as quickly as possible, but to
reach accurately while maintaining steering accuracy on the driving simulator. If task strategy plays
an influential role in motor reaction time, then expectations of slower performance by older subjects
need to be reconsidered. Predictions based on tasks that concern the effects of age on the speed of
reach movements may not be applicable in realworld situations. Speed of movement, as observed
in this study, can be dependent on other the tasks being performed. This study may be unique in that
respect. Comparisons with movement time studies that do not include dual tasks would be unfair.
These results may not be applicable when the context is different. This study investigated hand
movements in a simulation of normal driving and did not investigate emergency situations. The
results seen here may not apply to emergencies, where the younger or older drivers strategy would
be to reach as quickly as possible. Based on the findings of others, it is likely that younger drivers
would be faster in emergencies. However, emergency response was not addressed in this study.
The implication on design methodologies should be clear. Instrument panels, controls and displays
should only be designed in the context of driving. The risks associated with glances away from
forward view, and with divided attention, need to be considered.
Two factors are pertinent: 1) consumers are placing more value on automobile safety, and 2) drivers
are getting older. The next step will therefore be to refine design methodologies and solutions that
can lead to better, safer automobiles. Small black on black controls that require extended visual
attention and reach times need to be eliminated. Radical redesign may be required. The concept of
flat instrument panels, dependent on visual search and reach from the shoulder, has been standard
practice in the automobile industry for decades. This solution needs to be reevaluated.
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environment: a current investigation.
J. Fraser Richmond American International University, London, UK
Abstract
This paper describes ongoing research that is located within the context of the changing culture of
the design classroom and the rapid growth in the exploitation of telecommunication networks on
teaching and learning. The research investigates the use of ICT for international collaboration in
the design classroom and the implications this might have for design curriculum development.
Design education could benefit from the 'added value' of communication technology as could
design students from being exposed to cross-cultural and international perspectives. If developing
technology is to impact successfully on educational design practice then design teachers need to
adopt a professional attitude towards the use of ICT while students will need to develop skills and
abilities to deal with it for learning and research. Developments such as computer conferencing
already offer alternative pathways for collaborative activities and group-to-group collaboration is
now possible at a distance and encourages shared experience and co-operation. Incorporating
aspects of this technology into design education could develop students cognitive abilities in
making decisions, problem solving and being flexible in formulating ideas and handling
information (Goodfellow & Kukulska-Holme, 1996).

environment: a current investigation.
Introduction
This paper describes ongoing research that is located within the context of the changing culture of
the design classroom and the rapid growth in the exploitation of telecommunication networks on
teaching and learning. The research investigates the use of ICT for international collaboration in
the design classroom and the implications this might have for design curriculum development.
Design education could benefit from the 'added value' of communication technology as could
design students from being exposed to cross-cultural and international perspectives. If developing
technology is to impact successfully on educational design practice then design teachers need to
adopt a professional attitude towards the use of ICT while students will need to develop skills and
abilities to deal with it for learning and research. Developments such as computer conferencing
already offer alternative pathways for collaborative activities and group-to-group collaboration is
now possible at a distance and encourages shared experience and co-operation. Incorporating
aspects of this technology into design education could develop students cognitive abilities in
making decisions, problem solving and being flexible in formulating ideas and handling
information (Goodfellow & Kukulska-Holme, 1996).
Late modernity requires openness of mind and a continual re-evaluation of assumptions and
frameworks of knowledge. A critical design education could provide the reflexiveness that the
complexity of modern society deserves. Although it may be uncomfortable for teachers, design
students need to test ideas and themselves with critical evaluation in a collective environment.
Design educators should provide an educational environment in which students acquire critical
capacities not taught but won by the students. Consequently design educators should provide for a
pedagogical environment that allows for epistemological space and personal space as well as
practical space (Barnett, 1997). Critical perspectives need critical frameworks and so design
educators should organise pedagogical practice that relates to contemporary design practice and
the increasingly global world. Despite the growth in the use of computers within education over
the recent past the large scale uptake of computer-based techniques for teaching and learning has
only recently begun to occur. This research could contribute to the development of effective
methods for incorporating ICT into future collaborative design group work projects. The
introduction of ICT into the classroom could alter the pattern of design education. At the same
time by introducing alternative sources of authority, via the Internet, and multiple frameworks of
knowledge, through multi-disciplinary collaboration, it could enhance design students learning.
The research question

The results obtained from the first stages of this research indicate that the introduction of
international collaboration into the design curriculum, bringing with it a global and multicultural
perspective, motivates design students (Fraser, 2001). Computer mediated communication (CMC)
by collapsing space make international collaboration more feasible in joint design projects by
allowing students who might otherwise be unable to meet, to share ideas and work together. This
research investigates design students design-making while using CMC for communicative
interaction. In order to reflect the contemporary design context as well as the increasingly global
nature of teaching and learning the students were drawn from internationally disparate educational
institutions. While acknowledging the importance of cultural difference on international
collaboration this research focuses on how design students go about negotiating meaning and
making decisions as they generate ideas and develop artwork for a design brief. The research
investigates the collaboration between design students when working on joint projects at a distance
via technological interfaces including 'Blackboard' and other audio and visual links. Specifically the
investigation examines how and when group decisions are made during the period of the
collaboration and assesses the effectiveness and efficiency of the students social interaction and
collective performance to this end when using CMC in their project work. Communicative
interaction can be thought of as the changing relationships which occur between internal states and
sets of intentions as the students gather information, discussion and ideas are generated, sketching
and reflection takes place and solutions are arrived at by the design groups. Data-collection is
designed to elicit students understanding of their own communicative interaction while designing
and their descriptions of how they negotiated meaning collaboratively through their actions and
behavior.
The primary and abductive part of the designing process often involves brainstorming sessions,
group discussions of a tangential nature and general playing around with the most unlikely of ideas.
Can designers being able to access on-line information and participate in on-line discussion forums
using the Internet enable the process of abductive reasoning? Can designing strategies be enhanced
through the collaboration of different minds from different positions in virtual space by resolving
their different definitions of the problem and working together to come up with a joint solution? It
could be considered that contemporary designers have obvious advantages in researching sources
via the Internet and then engaging creatively with their material through collaborative use of digital
technology to produce design solutions. One could question the influence of the development of
virtual interactive and collaborative spaces on this secondary solution-focusing stage of the design
process. Can the nature of non-verbal modes of reasoning be altered by interaction with design
group members in on-line environments and collaborative working through shared online use of
ICT?
The methodological approach of the research

The approach that was adopted for this research is intrinsically linked to the aims for the study and
the research questions and has been influenced by the work of Asimov, 1926; Rowe, 1991; Cross et
al, 1994; and Scrivener and Vernon, 1998. The research is essentially interpretative and involves a
detailed analysis of aspects of the social interaction that the students engage in while working on
their collaborative projects. The methodology focuses on context and meaning and uses a holistic
approach that recognises that what happens in the classroom generally has complex layers of
meaning, interpretation, values and attitudes. However it has been suggested that there is no single
best description of what might be happening in the design studio and that the selection of what is
seen or recorded might be influenced by the purposes which the description is to serve. Therefore
participant observation through reflective journals and semi-structured interviews was used. This
allows for qualification of actions, ideas, values and meanings through the eyes of the participating
students. The research stance hypothesises that the reality of designing is subjective and multiple as
seen by the participants in the study. Consequently the research adopted a basically qualitative and
ethnographic methodology.
Interaction is an important element in this research and the relationship that exists between the
tutors and the students is informal, value-laden and biased. This approach lends an essentially
interpretive ontology to the research in which the act of designing is regarded as the product of
processes through which the students together negotiate the meanings and understandings that
underpin their design actions and processes. As they develop solutions to the design problem each
student group record: the means and extent of their collaboration; the amount, type and quality of
their communication; and the contribution and integration of their design ideas. The research focus
is on the way design students go about negotiating meaning and making decisions as they generate
ideas, develop artwork and focus on solutions to a design brief. The initial questionnaire established
the students past experience, skills and attitude toward using blackboard as a communication
medium. The final questionnaire concentrates on concrete details of their experience while working
on the project. The videotaped interviews focus on encouraging the students to reflect on the
meaning for them of the project experience. Each of these three stages provides a level of detail that
helps to illuminate the next stage. Epistemologically knowledge about designing is derived from the
students re-descriptions of their role in the design process. Participant observation is used to gain
insight into the activities taking place through students descriptions of the sequence and timing of
their activities. Qualitative discourse analysis through structured interpretation of language is made
of recordings of 'on-line' and taped discourse to evaluate the communications stratagems developed
by the groups and how meaning is negotiated. An initial analysis of the data focused on identifying
common themes and categories related to design process stages. The identified material was further
analysed and coded and compared to the information obtained from a quantitative analysis of the
questionnaires. Methodological triangulation was used to ensure some substantiation of the data
collected from the different instruments.
The research design

DesignLinks is the title of a collaborative design program currently involving nine universities in
five countries. The first stage of this program focuses on designing within a CMC environment. It
does this by: investigating the collaboration between design students when working on joint
projects at a distance via technological interfaces including 'Blackboard' and other audio and visual
links; assessing the behavior of groups of students to using CMC in their project work; and by
questioning the effectiveness and efficiency of their social interaction and collective performance
when engaged in the work. Junior and Senior Design and Communication students from the
University of Nebraska at Kearney (UNK) and Richmond American International University in
London (RAIUL) took part in the first stages of this research in the spring of 2001. The research
compared the communication and collaboration that took place between co-located pairs of students
working on the same campus and distributed pairs who were assigned to work at a distance. The
programs curricular objective was to give design students the opportunity to produce artwork for a
four-week course project while working collaboratively across national and cultural borders. The
research objective was to examine the decision-making involved during idea generating and
solution-seeking. Primary data gathering methods consisted of a student questionnaire, students
systematic recording of their on-line discourse and collaboration and video taped semi-structured
interviews. An analysis was made of the various design and communication stratagems developed
by the groups. The brief for the graphic design project required each team to collaborate to gain
approval for their proposal, organise logistics, communication, and individual responsibilities and
develop final artwork. Each group collaborated using proprietary computer-conferencing software
set up on Richmond's server. This allowed them to e-mail, use discussion lists, use a whiteboard
and exchange graphic files. A web page on the RAIUL web site was set up to serve as a portal for
the project. This page included a hyperlink that connected the student design groups to the
DesignLinks web site.
A summary and analysis of the data from the first phase

The students were asked to complete on-line questionnaires at the start and end of the project.
Questions were set identifying the students, their discipline area and their assessment of their
computer skills and previous experience. This section was followed by sets of questions dealing
with the perceived usefulness of ICT at various stages in the design process, student assessment of
facilities available and finally student attitude towards the use of ICT (see figure 1).
Figure 1: The questionnaire

The responses from six distributed groups and six co-located groups were analysed. On comparing
the distributed groups (D) to the co-located groups (C) certain significant differences can be
established (see Table 1). The C groups opted for Blackboard being most useful during the initial
stages of problem identification and idea-generation whereas the D groups who had to rely on using
it felt it came into its own during the later stages of verification and finalising the artwork. The C
groups tended to use Blackboard even when working together in the same studio. This might be
attributed to the fact that the project emphasises communication, deadlines for the project were tight
and Blackboard allowed students to continue developing their projects outside class times. At the
same time the C groups did not have the problems of time differences and benefited from initial
communication being verbal and face-to-face. A frequent comment from D groups was the
difficulty in fixing meeting times due to time differences, different class times on each campus and
so the different deadlines. Although the D groups expressed more prior experience it was the C
groups who rated their computer skills higher. This may have something to do with a more realistic
assessment on the part of the D groups about the demands of the collaborative project.
Co-located Group
Distributed Group
RATING
Computer skills
previous experience
.66
.33
.5
.66
PROCESSES
develop idea
communicate idea
0
17
.17
.17
MINUSES
not face 2 face

lack immediate feedback
Only digital comm.
.5
.5
.17
.66
.17
.17
PLUSES
Communicate any time

Ask questions - embar.
Easy exchange artwork
Web research & exchange
.5
-.33
.83
.66
-.17
-.5
.66
.33
STAGES
Getting idea
Developing idea
Executing idea
.33
.5
.17
-.33
.66
.5
.17
-.33
FEATURES
Use Bb if co-located
Add features
Order of use
Order of preference
EM/FE
EM-FE
EM-FE
EM/FE
ATTITUDE
Frightening
Exciting
Waste of time
Easy to use
Improves design skills
-.66
.17
-.66
.5
.17
-.5
0
-.66
.5
.5
Figure 2: Averaged responses of the six distributed and the six co-located groups. (Values
range from 1 indicating the most positive response to -1 the most negative response)
The questionnaires from both phases indicate that the students considered the lack of face-to-face
contact most problematic. This was also identified as a major concern in the semi-structured
interviews (see below). Students were less bothered about the question of anonymity. This contrast
with many studies where the fear of not being able to cope with the equipment and therefore
looking stupid to your peers is often quoted. Generally however they were less positive about the
notion that ICT provided easy communications. Surprisingly, given the popularity of the Internet
for researching information only a minority of students used this facility during the projects. This
might however simply reflect the tight time scale and subject matter of the project. Interestingly
both the C and the D groups felt the project was very exciting, not in the least frightening or a waste
of time. They felt Blackboard was easy or very easy to learn and was of positive benefit in
improving their designing skills. The D groups were much less confident initially in their computer
skills that might indicate a concern about using computer-mediated-communications (CMC). After
working on the project eighty-five percent agreed that using ICT would improve their design skills.
Interestingly eighty percent of both C and D groups would use ICT even when collaborating in
teams on the same campus. Most students were not concerned about showing themselves up when
using the equipment and felt positively about sharing Internet research and very positive about
working jointly on the artwork.
The D groups were very positive in suggesting that Blackboard was of most use during the second
and third stages of the designing process while being negative about its use in the early stages. This
contrasts with results from the C groups where the students felt it was most useful during the early
stages. They expressed a negative feeling to the idea of using Blackboard for collaboration if the
team were co-located perhaps reflecting some frustration about their experience with the
application.
There was a quite a lot of agreement among all students about the central question. Most agreed
that ICT was neither frightening nor a waste of time and were supportive of the idea of using ICT in
design work. They felt positive and excited about the benefits ICT might have for developing and
communicating ideas. What was most striking was the similar attitudes that all students whether
working together or at a distance held. In general they all felt that using ICT benefited their design
skills and supported incorporating ICT into their design studies.
A set of categories was devised to code student activities such as reflection, decision making
general discussion, informal conversation, brainstorming, and idea-generation, sketching and
drawing. The students were asked to keep timed and coded observations logs of those various
activities they engaged in during the problem-solving process. The advantage of this sort of log is
that it records the sequence of major events although it omits minute-by-minute detail and other real
time variations in design behaviour.
Figure 3: The activities sheet.

The data gathered from the activities sheets was inconclusive. Records were either produced later
on reflection or were sketchy. Sometimes they were summations of total activity ignoring either
sequence or short intervals of activity that might have highlighted their thought processes during the
design process. In other words the detail of the collaborative nature of the work was often recorded
as for instance half an hour spent e-mailing during the first week.
Students were asked to list their timed activities sequentially as well as completing a graphic
representation. Graphs illustrating each students activities were produced. However an analysis of
the time sheet graphs would not support the idea that problem solving can be explained adequately
by observing the participants measurable and replicable patterns of physical behaviour. Rather the
random and different sequences of activity recorded by the students in this study would support
Rowes (1991) assertion that designing is a complex business influenced by the initial constraints of
the problem and sometimes by the personal attitudes of the designers (see Diagrams 3, 4 & 5
below).
Figure 4: London Nebraska Link: Time Sheet of a Distributed Group. Note the regularity of
movement between partner discussion and use of software
Figure 5: London Nebraska Link: Time Sheet of a Co-located Group. Note the irregularity of
pattern between the group members.
Here is one example of one distributed groups use of the chat room. It highlights some of the
difficulties the students were having with their communications and with the technology: It is also
one example of the way students went about their work.
Joe,
I am on-line and trying to get in touch with you. It is 7 my time. I am going to scan the CD
cover and send it to you. Write back if you get this. [1 Message]
[All]
April,
I am here now as well. It is 12:30 Wed. The message you sent may be from yesterday, I did
not get here until later. I could not see your ideas, (I'm sorry if you keep hearing that, I am not
sure which message will get to you) it would not let me view them through Blackboard, and
when I downloaded them, the programs had trouble recognizing the file type. I'll try again. Joe
[No Messages]
Monday....1:15
I am now online it is Mon at 1:15. The virtural classroom is not opening up fully for
me. I sent you some preliminary ideas. The X looking pict I though could be reversed out to
emulater spotlights, with the background a solid color. The type shown on some is very rough,
but Dave uses a lot of san-serif font. Also, picture the hand idea as degraded by copying the
black and white image of someones hand upraised, as in cheering for the band, but degraded
by photocopying it, taking that image and degrading it further (by crumpling or folding the
copy) then running that damaged image back through the copy machine. Each time it goes
through it will get more unrecognizable until it becomes almost a texture that will 'diffuse' into
the background (Saying we decide on a black background) I will send you an example.
Anouther thing is that sence we are both from the States, My instructor asked if we design the
poster for a concert in London, or surrounding area. Maybe if you have an idea how concert
posters might differ in their appearence from here that would help. Also, any info on a concert
hall or event we could use locally to have this show be held in would be needed. I'm gonna try
the virtual classroom one more time...It's 1:35 here, [ No Messages ]
Tues @ 1pm
April,
Did not see you in pogo. Thats alright I think I confused you a little with that long
explannation. I am sending you some more work on a further ideea from one of my
thumbnails. Any word on information for a concert event in your area for Dave Matthews? Or
a location for a show we may want to invent? Let me know please. Anyway I will remain
online for awhile today. If you read this write me back on the discussion board, this computer
does not have java, i guess, and will not connect to the classroom. Joe
[ No Messages ]
Problem
I did what you said and downloaded the files. The file types are photoshop '.psd'.
Photoshop will not open the files saying that there is not a suitable graphics importer. I then
tried picking the application to download to (photoshop) and was told that the files are invalid.
I honestly do not know why they are not opening. The case was the same when I downloaded
and tried to open them at my home system. When the files I sent are opened, they are viewed
directly in Blackboard. Please see if there is something we may have overlooked. Try clicking
on your files and see if they work for you there. I would like to see them. I will also send some
images of the band and what I have been working on as well. Could you try saving a copy of
the files as a TIFF and attach to to an e-mail to my hotmail account, that way I could at least
view it there. Thanks Joe
[ No Messages ]
Virtural Class
It is Fri Apr 20 at 12 noon. The Virtural classroom will not open here at school. Cannot
talk in real time. Check the file exchange for files.
Figure 6: Example of a discussion board debate.
Unlike the example of group collaboration illustrated in figure 6 above many students did not make
enough effort to set up synchronous and asynchronous communications until late into the project.
Another way of understanding the students collaborations is through the semi-structured
interviews, which afforded an opportunity to gain valuable insights into the business of designing
which was not necessarily available through observation. The interviews contained information that
is rich both in its depth and in its detail. It allowed the students to expand on their ideas, explain
their views and identify what they regarded as crucial in their designing activities. At the same time
the interviews allowed the students the opportunity to give a detailed record of their rationale thus
providing greater insight than simply observation of surface activity. Examples of questions are:
How positive did you feel in using CMC for designing at different periods during the projects? How
confident are you with CMC as a medium for exchanging and developing ideas? Can you describe
how the project developed? The data obtained from these interviews were assessed in an attempt to
identify the views, ideas and attitude of the student to the advantages and limitations of working
collaboratively either face to face or at a distance. The data obtained were examined to identify
themes and categories that would relate to the research questions. The categories and themes that
were used were students identification of problems, students identification of benefits, these
problems or benefits related to identified stages in the design process, students attitudes and
behaviour when working on the project, students opinion as to how the project developed.
The students were less bothered by there being only digital forms of communication. At the same
time the students were keen to have some form of visual contact such as a digital camcorder
facility. In the interviews many students talked about the difficulties, particularly at the beginning
10
of the project, of being able to establish a necessary relationship and get across their varying points
of view. Some students indicated that they were not too concerned about having immediate
feedback on their ideas. However this was at odds with most students who said that their greatest
difficulty was not being able to communicate directly with their partners. This attitude was
confirmed in the interviews where again the students expressed frustration about a lack of
immediacy and the difficulty with CMC when trying to develop their ideas together. They were
much happier about facilities for exchanging artwork. The file exchange facility was identified as
both one of the most used as well as the most preferred facilities. E-mail was the other popular
communicative device. However these are both generally asynchronous methods of communication
and one extra facility that many students identified as necessary was some form of easy to use
synchronous chat device. For reasons mainly to do with time differences and different class days
most students found the chat room facility difficult to use. However some students managed to
work with the chat room facility successfully. There was a significant difference in opinion between
co-located and distributed groups as to when CMC was most useful. Most co-located groups felt
happy using it during the earlier stages. Sara, a Richmond co-located group member, when asked
about when Blackboard was of most use during the project, said:
I think maybe at the beginning stages where youre coming up with ideas and youre both
(sic) are coming from two separate ideas. At the end we ended up working together side by
side and that was our most productive time (sic) is when we were sitting at two computers
side by side working together
This was typical of most co-located students who found Blackboard very useful for
communicating their ideas in the time between classes and for research but used it less and
less in the later stages of their work. Again Justin another co-located student said
during the week Deidre and myself we dont have any other classes together, we dont live in
the same dorm, so we would be able to communicate by going on to Blackboard but we found
ourselves on it for a good amount of time. I think it worked well. It helped us out a lot
Justin went on to say that in the later stages they spent most of the time face to face finalising the
work.
This use of Blackboard contrasted quite significantly with Richmond students who were in
distributed groups working with a partner in Nebraska. Julia identifying a common complaint from
distributed groups about using computer mediated communication for collaborating in this kind of
creative work said
we couldnt just sit down face to face and talk to each other. It took maybe about two or four
or five e-mails back and forward do you like this or do you want to do this which made it
kind of difficult. Maybe a five or ten minute conversation took us about two weeks.
and Shannon was more explicit about using Blackboard in a distributed group saying
I think definitely at the end. Thats when it works out the best when you sit down and
exchange thoughts. At the beginning, at the very raw stages just a pain.
Students from both RAIUL and UNK described an increase in their levels of interest and motivation
when working on the collaborative projects. This is supported by findings from a range of research
including surveys and evaluation studies undertaken in the early to mid nineties evaluating the use
of CMC in education in the UK (Starling, 1994; Schnurr & Smith, 1995; Mumford, 1996; Howard
et al 1996). These studies found a lessening of problems of social isolation and students being
keener after the introduction of communication software into the classroom.
11
One student described the excitement that many of the students reported about being involved in the
project.
File Exchange Oh Yeah that was a big help with us because its so much faster and easier than
e-mailing. Just drop the image in and it comes right up on her screen and she can see it. Oh
Yeah and we had the chat on at the same time. The virtual chat room chat . Oh Yeah I like
that one that you did or No maybe that could be changed a little bit. Just back and forth. We
had so many images. Like Id alter one Drop it in. Shed look. Alter it. Alter it a little bit more
and drop it back to me. That was very convenient very fast.
The interviews did not seem to support some findings from previous reports which indicated that
students will often erect resistance barriers when dealing with CMC in an attempt to avoid the fear
of looking stupid to their peers when encountering problems with the interface. Similarly the
students did not report worries about breaking the equipment, or being spied upon when they were
effectively in a private study situation (Goodfellow & Kukulska-Hulme, 1996).
The weakness of the time sheets as a method of data collection was carried over into the second
study. It might be that the design for future work reconsiders the appropriateness of using this data
collection method. Recording of e-mails of some of the groups produced a comprehensive record of
their communications, which was of interest in illustrating the way they began to overcome distance
in developing ideas and a body of work. This data collection might be of greater relevance than
time sheets. It might be sensible to include written material handed in by the students as another
source for collecting data in future work.
Conclusion
What is common to all research is the goal of being able to apply the findings of the research
undertaken to other contexts, to enhance its generalisability, to predicate from a particular sample to
a larger population of which the sample is representative. I hope that as a result of this ongoing
research a little more light may be shed on the processes and procedures involved in designing. The
results so far indicate the potential of information and communication technology (ICT) for design
and designing. The continuing research will focus on designing as a social process. Stumpf and
McDonnell (2002) suggest that the design process dynamics for the social process paradigm
highlight a move towards a consensus through an argumentative process. This they say results in a
design method comprising of negotiation and conflict resolution which results in completed designs
which realise collective approval. Initial results indicate that one of the ways that design students
can develop their decision-making skills is by participation in collaborative projects using
computer-mediated communication.
12
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analyse and support experiential learning in early design episodes in Design Studies 23. 1.
13
Theory construction in design research. Criteria, approaches,

and methods.
K. Friedman Norwegian School of Management, Oslo, Norway
Abstract
Design involves creating something new or transforming a less desirable situation to a preferred
situation. To do this, designers must know how things work and why. Understanding how things
work and why requires explanation, and it sometimes requires prediction. To explain and predict,
we must construct and test theories.
Theories are propositions or sets of propositions that allow us to analyze or explain subjects. Some
theories are complex and sophisticated. Others are simple.
Theory can be described in many ways. In its most basic form, a theory is a model. It is an
illustration describing how something works by showing its elements in their dynamic relationship
to one another. The dynamic demonstration of working elements in action as part of a structure
distinguishes a theoretical model from a simple taxonomy or catalogue. A theory predicts what will
happen when elements interact.
Understanding design process and design outcomes now implies the kinds of theory construction
common in the natural and social sciences. This paper argues that successful design is inherently
theory-rich.
The paper outlines a framework for understanding theory construction in design. This framework
will clarify the meaning of theory and theorizing. It will explain the nature and uses of theory as a
general concept. It will propose necessary and sufficient conditions for theory construction in
design. Finally, it will outline potential areas for future inquiry in design theory.
Theory construction in design research. Criteria, approaches,

and methods.
Definitions: design, research, theory
Before addressing the theme of theory construction in design research, it will help to establish a few
basic definitions and parameters. These definitions are not complete and all-inclusive. Rather, they
establish terms as I use them in this paper. Establishing clear definitions also encourages reflection
on central themes in theoretical inquiry, and each definition is supported by references to multiple
sources.
Clarity is important in understanding theory. Theoretical sensitivity and methodological
sophistication rest on understanding the concepts we use. None of us is obliged to accept any
specific definition of a term such as design, research, or theory. Some of us find that no single
definition suits us, and we are often obliged to restate or reshape definitions to the task. Precisely
because there is no need for adherence to a single definition, we are obliged to make our usage
clear. This does more than help others to understand terms as we use them. It also helps to ensure
that we understand what we are saying.
There seems to be a range of emerging agreements on ways to define design. While there are
differences in approach and the technical use of the term, most definitions converge on a range of
common understandings. Three common understandings involve a goal-oriented process that is
used to solve a problem, meet a need, solve a problem, improve a situation, or create something
new or useful. There is much room for different positions within this broad and open range of
possibilities.
While acknowledging that many definitions of design are possible, this paper uses a definition built
on linguistic research, empirical observation, and the contributions of Buckminster Fuller (1969,
1981) and Herbert Simon (1982, 1998). (Those familiar with my work will recognize some of the
material in these definitions. I use these definitions to develop a new inquiry here, and add new
material that bears on the topic of theory construction.)
Design research is a relatively new field. We have fewer scholars and scientists with research
education and training than other fields do. This means that the term research is often confused or
misused. The problem is made worse by the fact that design is inherently interdisciplinary. We
therefore find ourselves in a situation where terms are often confused. The current generation of
design research specialists comes mostly to research from a practitioner education. This gives us a
corps of researchers with solid practitioner skills and deep gaps in research skills. This is
understandable in people who have devoted their educational training and most of their professional
work to practice. This leads to a common problem. Those who are new to research adapt terms and
definitions from a wide range of fields in which they have little solid foundation.
The term theory suffers from similar problems. The problem is even greater because of the fact that
relatively few scholars or scientists in established fields specifically study the issues and topics
involved in theory construction. While the knowledge base of most fields provides a rich array of
resources in research methods and methodology studies, few fields offer much material on theory
construction.
There comes a moment in the evolution of every field or discipline when central intellectual issues
come into focus as the field and the discipline on which it rests shift from a rough, ambiguous
territory to an arena of reasoned inquiry. At such a time, scholars, scientists, researchers, and their
students begin to focus articulate attention on such issues as research methods, methodology (the
comparative study of methods), philosophy, philosophy of science, and related issues in the
metanarrative through which a research field takes shape. In many fields today, this also entails the
articulate study of theory construction.
This paper will explore the issue of theory construction in design research. To do so requires
establishing a range of concepts around such terms as research and theory. While defining the terms
research and theory is more difficult in our field than in others, any attempt to develop the topic of
theory construction requires an adequate definition. This paper therefore offers definitions. While
these definitions are robust enough for wider use, I do not explore their general properties or the
many uses to which they may be put. I use them here to establish a foundation for the consideration
of theory construction offered here.
Defining design
In using the word design, I refer to a process that involves creating something new (or reshaping
something that exists) for a purpose, to meet a need, to solve a problem or to transform a less
desirable situation to a preferred situation.
Herbert Simon (1982: 129, 1998: 112) defines design as the process by which we [devise] courses
of action aimed at changing existing situations into preferred ones. To the degree that creating
something new (or reshaping something that exists) for a purpose, to meet a need, to solve a
problem are also courses of action toward a preferred situation even though we may not yet be able
to articulate the preferred situation, this definition covers most forms of design. Without accepting
all of Simons views on how to design, it is a useful starting point.
Design is a process. Merriam-Websters (1993: 343) defines design as: 1 a : to conceive and plan
out in the mind <he ~ed a perfect crime> b : to have as a purpose : intend <he ~ed to excel in his
studies> c : to devise for a specific function or end <a book ~ed primarily as a college textbook> 2
archaic : to indicate with a distinctive mark, sign or name 3 a : to make a drawing, pattern or sketch
of b : to draw the plans for c : to create, fashion, execute or construct according to plan : devise,
contrive (See also: ARTFL Websters 1913: 397-8; Britannica Websters 2002: unpaged;
Cambridge 1999: unpaged; Friedman 2001: 36-40; Link 1999: unpaged; OED Online 2002:
unpaged; SOED 1993: 645; Wordsmyth 2002: unpaged.)
Buckminster Fuller (1969: 319) describes the design process as an event flow. He divides the
process into two steps. The first is a subjective process of search and research. The second is a
generalizable process that moves from prototype to practice.
The subjective process of search and research, Fuller outlines a series of steps:
teleology intuition conception
apprehension comprehension
experiment feedback
Under generalization and objective development leading to practice, he lists:
prototyping #1 prototyping #2 prototyping #3
production design production modification tooling
production distribution
installation maintenance service
reinstallation replacement
removal scrapping recirculation
For Fuller, the design process is a comprehensive sequence leading from teleology the goal or
purpose toward which the process aims to practice and finally to regeneration. This last step,
regeneration, creates a new stock of material on which the designer may again act. The specific
terms may change for process design or services design. The essential concept remains the same.
Fuller also used the term design science, though he used it in a different context than Simon did
(Fuller 1969, 1981; see also Fuller 1964, 1965, 1967; and Fuller and Dil 1983).
A designer is a thinker whose job it is to move from thought to action. A taxonomy of design
knowledge domains (Friedman 1992, 2000, 2001) describes the frames within which a designer
must act. Each domain requires a broad range of skills, knowledge, and awareness. Design, properly
defined, is the entire process across the full range of domains required for any given outcome.
The field organized around design can be seen as a profession, a discipline, and a field. The
profession of design involves the professional practice of design. The discipline of design involves
inquiry into the several domains of design. The field of design embraces the profession, the
discipline, and a shifting and often ambiguous range of related cognate fields and areas of inquiry.
When we speak of theorizing, we necessarily speak of the discipline. The foundation of design
theory rests on the fact that design is by nature an interdisciplinary, integrative discipline.
The nature of design as an integrative discipline places it at the intersection of several large fields.
In one dimension, design is a field of thinking and pure research. In another, it is a field of practice
and applied research. When applications are used to solve specific problems in a specific setting, it
is a field of clinical research.
My model for the field of design is a circle of six fields. A horizon bisects the circle into fields of
theoretical study and fields of practice and application.
The triangles represent six general domains of design. Moving clockwise from the left-most
triangle, these domains are (1) natural sciences, (2) humanities and liberal arts, (3) social and
behavioral sciences, (4) human professions and services, (5) creative and applied arts, and (6)
technology and engineering.
Design may involve any or all of these domains, in differing aspect and proportion depending on
the nature of the project at hand or the problem to be solved.
With this as a background, we are prepared to examine how and why theory construction is
important to design, the design process, the field of design, the discipline, and the profession.
Let us return to the definition of design as the process by which we [devise] courses of action aimed
at changing existing situations into preferred ones. Those who cannot change existing situations into
preferred ones fail in the process of design. There are many causes of design failure. These include
lack of will, ability, or method. Designers also fail due to context or client, lack of proper training or a
failure to understand the design process.
Fuller (1981: 229-231) describes design as the difference between class-one evolution and class-two
evolution. Class-two evolution involves all those events that seem to be resultant upon human
initiative-taking or political reforms that adjust to the change wrought by the progressive introduction
of environment-altering artifacts (Fuller 1981: 229).
One argument for the importance of design is the increasing number of areas that are now subject to
human initiative. The vast range of technologies that surround us mediate most of the human world
and influence our daily lives. These include the artifacts of information technology, mass media,
telecommunication, chemistry, pharmacology, chemical engineering, and mechanical engineering,
along with the designed processes of nearly every service industry and public good now available
other than public access to nature. Within the next few years, these areas will come to include the
artifacts of biotechnology, nanotechnology, and possible hybrid technologies that meet at what Ray
Kurzweil calls the singularity.
Kurzweil, a leading authority on artificial intelligence, argues, We are entering a new era. I call it
the Singularity. Its a merger between human intelligence and machine intelligence that is going to
create something bigger than itself. Its the cutting edge of evolution on our planet. One can make a
strong case that its actually the cutting edge of the evolution of intelligence in general, because
theres no indication that its occurred anywhere else. To me, that is what human civilization is all
about. It is part of our destiny and part of the destiny of evolution to continue to progress ever
faster, and to grow the power of intelligence exponentially. To contemplate stopping that to think
human beings are fine the way they are is a misplaced fond remembrance of what human beings
used to be. What human beings are is a species that has undergone a cultural and technological
evolution, and its the nature of evolution that it accelerates, and that its powers grow exponentially,
and thats what were talking about. The next stage of this will be to amplify our own intellectual
powers with the results of our technology (Kurzweil 2001: unpaged, see also Kurzweil 1990,
1999).
Fullers metaphor of the critical path shows a world that can disintegrate as well as grow better.
Whether Kurzweils optimism is justified or not, his description of how the artificial world affects the
natural world has immense ramifications that parallel Fullers idea of class-two evolution.
Design plays a role in this evolution, and the design process takes on new meaning, as designers are
required to take on increasingly important tasks. These tasks are important not because designers are
more visible and prestigious, but because design has greater effects and wider scope than ever before.
Profound design and brilliant concepts are uncommon in design, much as they are in physics,
engineering, poetry, or painting. Even so, the success of evolutionary artifacts and craft traditions
suggests that most human beings are able to do a competent job of design. Design failures are
nevertheless common. The most common reasons include lack of method and absence of systematic
and comprehensive understanding. These, in turn, rest on gaps in knowledge and preparation.
It is here that research and theory play a role.
Defining research
Websters Dictionary defines research with elegant simplicity. The noun dates from 1577:
research noun Pronunciation: ri-s&rch, rE-Etymology: Middle French recerche, from
recerchier to investigate thoroughly, from Old French, from re- + cerchier to search -- more at
SEARCH Date: 1577 1 : careful or diligent search 2 : studious inquiry or examination; especially :
investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws 3 : the collecting of information about a particular subject. (Merriam-Websters
1993: 1002; see also: ARTFL Websters 1913: 1224; Britannica Websters 2002: unpaged;
Cambridge 1999: unpaged; Link 1999: unpaged; OED Online 2002: unpaged; SOED 1993: 2558;
Wordsmyth 2002: unpaged).
The verb follows in 1593. As a transitive verb, it means to search or investigate exhaustively or
to do research for something, as to research a book. The intransitive verb means, to engage in
research (Merriam-Websters 1993: 1002; see also sources above).
Design research discussions that label research as a purely retrospective practice have been
misleading. Statements that conflate research with positivism are equally misleading. So, too, are
essays that proclaim systematic, rigorous research to be inflexible or uncreative. One recent note
asked plaintively, wheres the search in research? as though rigorous research involves little more
than tedious cataloguing of established facts. While some aspects of creative research involve
tedium, so do some aspects of painting, music, and dance.
It does not require a comprehensive linguistic analysis of the word research to understand that the
prefix re came to this word from outside English. The prefix does not modify the core word in the
direction of past or retroactive conditions, but it emphasizes or strengthens it.
As the dictionaries note (Merriam-Websters 1993: 1002; see others), the word research is, in fact,
closely linked to the word and concept of search in general. Websters defines the word search this
way: Middle English cerchen, from Middle French cerchier to go about, survey, search, from Late
Latin circare to go about, from Latin circum round about -- more at CIRCUM- Date: 14th century
transitive senses 1: to look into or over carefully or thoroughly in an effort to find or discover
something: as a : to examine in seeking something <searched the north field> b : to look through or
explore by inspecting possible places of concealment or investigating suspicious circumstances c :
to read thoroughly : CHECK; especially : to examine a public record or register for information
about <search land titles> d : to examine for articles concealed on the person e : to look at as if to
discover or penetrate intention or nature 2 : to uncover, find, or come to know by inquiry or scrutiny
-- usually used with out intransitive senses 1 : to look or inquire carefully <searched for the papers>
2 : to make painstaking investigation or examination (Merriam-Websters 1993: 1059; see
others).
Many aspects of design involve search and research together. It is helpful to consider this issue in
terms of a triad formed by the concepts of clinical research, basic research, and applied research.
This shapes a dynamic milieu closer to the reality of professional practice than the common dyadic
division between basic research and applied research. While the dyadic division may suffice for the
natural sciences, it is not adequate for understanding research in the technical and social sciences or
the professions they support.
Basic research involves a search for general principles. These principles are abstracted and
generalized to cover a variety of situations and cases. Basic research generates theory on several
levels. This may involve macro level theories covering wide areas or fields, midlevel theories
covering specific ranges of issues or micro level theories focused on narrow questions. Truly
general principles often have broad application beyond their field of original, and their generative
nature sometimes gives them surprising predictive power.
Applied research adapts the findings of basic research to classes of problems. It may also involve
developing and testing theories for these classes of problems. Applied research tends to be midlevel
or micro level research. At the same time, applied research may develop or generate questions that
become the subject of basic research.
Clinical research involves specific cases. Clinical research applies the findings of basic research and
applied research to specific situations. It may also generate and test new questions, and it may test
the findings of basic and applied research in a clinical situation. Clinical research may also develop
or generate questions that become the subject of basic research or applied research.
Any of the three frames of research may generate questions for the other frames. Each may test the
theories and findings of other kinds of research. It is important to note that clinical research
generally involves specific forms of professional engagement. In the rough and tumble of daily
practice, most design practice is restricted to clinical research. There isnt time for anything else.
In todays complex environment, a designer must identify problems, select appropriate goals, and
realize solutions. Because so much design work takes place in teams, a senior designer may also be
expected to assemble and lead a team to realize goals and solutions. Designers work on several
levels. The designer is an analyst who discovers problems. The designer is a synthesist who helps to
solve problems and a generalist who understands the range of talents that must be engaged to
realize solutions. The designer is a leader who organizes teams when one range of talents is not
enough. Moreover, the designer is a critic whose post-solution analysis ensures that the right
problem has been solved. Each of these tasks may involve working with research questions. All of
them involve interpreting or applying some aspect or element that research discloses.
Because a designer is a thinker whose job it is to move from thought to action, the designer uses
capacities of mind to solve problems for clients in an appropriate and empathic way. In cases where
the client is not the customer or end-user of the designers work, the designer may also work to
meet customer needs, testing design outcomes and following through on solutions.
This provides the first benefit of research training for the professional designer. Design practice is
inevitably located in a specific, clinical situation. A broad understanding of general principles based
on research gives the practicing designer a background stock of knowledge on which to draw. This
stock of knowledge includes principles, facts, and theories. This stock forms a theoretically
comprehensive background that no one person can master. Rather, this constitutes the knowledge of
the field. This knowledge is embodied in the minds and working practices of millions of people.
These people, their minds, and their practices, are distributed in the social and organizational
memory of tens of thousands of organizations.
Even if one person could in theory master any major fraction of the general stock of knowledge,
there would be little point. The general and comprehensive stock of design knowledge can never be
used completely in any practical context.
Good design solutions are always based on and embedded in specific problems. In Jens Bernsens
(1986) memorable phrase, in design, the problem comes first. Each problem implies partially new
solutions located in a specific context. The continual interaction of design problems and design
solutions generates the problematics and knowledge stock of the field in tandem.
Developing a comprehensive background through practice therefore takes years. In contrast, a solid
foundation of design knowledge anchored in broad research traditions gives each practitioner the
access to the cumulative results of many other minds and the overall experience of a far larger field.
In addition to those who shape research at the clinical edge of practice, there are other forms of
research that serve the field and other kinds of researchers develop them.
Research is a way of asking questions. All forms of research ask questions, basic, applied, and
clinical. The different forms and levels of research ask questions in different ways.
One of the problems in understanding design research emerges specifically from this distinction.
Design practitioners are always involved in some form of research, but practice itself is not
research. While many designers and design scholars have heard the term reflective practice,
reflective practice is also not research, and reflective practice is not a research method as is
sometimes mistakenly suggested.
What distinguishes research from reflection? Both involve thinking. Both seek to render the
unknown explicit. Reflection, however, develops engaged knowledge from individual and group
experience. It is a personal act or a community act, and it is an existential act. Reflection engages
the felt, personal world of the individual. It is intimately linked to the process of personal learning
(Friedman and Olaisen 1999; Kolb 1984). Reflection arises from and addresses the experience of
the individual.
Research, in contrast, addresses the question itself, as distinct from the personal or communal. The
issues and articulations of reflective practice may become the subject of research, for example. This
includes forms of participant research or action research by the same people who engaged in the
reflection that became the data. Research may also address questions beyond or outside the
researcher.
Research asks questions in a systematic way. The systems vary by field and purpose. There are
many kinds of research: hermeneutic, naturalistic inquiry, statistical, analytical, mathematical,
physical, historical, sociological, ethnographic, ethnological, biological, medical, chemical and
many more. They draw on many methods and traditions. Each has its own foundations and values.
All involve some form of systematic inquiry, and all involve a formal level of theorizing and
inquiry beyond the specific research at hand.
Comparing two distinct research streams focused on design practice will shed light on some of
these issues.
In one of the most interesting research programs of the past decade, Henry Petroski (1992, 1994a,
1994b, 1996, 1997) has studied design failures, the role of failure in moving toward success, and
the relationship between the different aspects of the design process. Among the key elements in
success are systemic understanding, together with the ability to render tacit learning explicit for
analysis and improvement. These are the same factors involved in organizational learning and
reflective practice (see Argyris 1977, 1990, 1991, 1992, Argyris and Schon 1974, 1978, 1996;
Schon 1983, 1987; Senge 1990; Senge et al. 1994, 1999).
Petroski is engaged in research on the elements of successful design practice. So are Argyris,
Schon, and Senge. Reflective practice is a technique that builds successful practice. It is not a form
of research into practice. To the contrary, Argyris and others have developed a range of research
techniques linked to reflective practice. This is described in Argyris, Putnam, and Smiths (1985)
book on action science, a presentation of concepts, methods, and skills for research and
intervention. Argyris and Schon (1990) later contrasted normal science with action science. More
recently, Argyris (1993) wrote on ways to apply the findings of action science to practicing
professional life, closing the circle in a continuous loop between theory and practice.
What is significant about this, however, is that neither practice nor reflective practice is itself seen a
research method. Instead, reflective practice is one of an array of conceptual tools used in
understanding any practice including the practice of research.
In short, research is the methodical search for knowledge. Original research tackles new problems
or checks previous findings. Rigorous research is the mark of science, technology, and the living
branches of the humanities (Bunge 1999: 251). Exploration, investigation, and inquiry are
synonyms for research.
Design knowledge grows in part from practice. Design knowledge and research overlap, but even
though the practice of design is a foundation of design knowledge, it is the action of systematic and
methodical inquiry that constitutes research.
Critical thinking and systemic inquiry form the foundation of theory. Research offers us the tools
that allow critical thinking and systemic inquiry to bring answers out of the field of action. It is
theory and the models that theory provides through which we link what we know to what we do.
Defining theory
In its most basic form, a theory is a model. It is an illustration describing how something works by
showing its elements in their dynamic relationship to one another. It is the dynamic demonstration of
working elements in action as part of a structure that distinguishes a model from a simple taxonomy or
catalogue.
The word theory entered the English language in 1597 via Latin from the original Greek. MerriamWebster (1990: 1223) defines theory as:
1 : the analysis of a set of facts in their relation to one another 2 : abstract thought : speculation 3 : the
general or abstract principles of a body of fact, a science or an art <music ~> 4 a : a belief, policy, or
procedure proposed or followed as the basis of action <her method is based on the ~ that all children
want to learn> b : an ideal or hypothetical set of facts, principles or circumstances often used in the
phrase in theory <in ~, we have always advocated freedom for all> 5 : a plausible or scientifically
accepted general principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena <wave ~ of light> 6 a :
a hypothesis assumed for the sake of argument or investigation b : an unproved assumption :
conjecture c : a body of theorems presenting a concise systematic view of a subject <~ of equations>.
The first theorists were the Greek philosophers. They developed a vocabulary of theoretical
distinctions in their effort to explain the world around them. They considered the distinctions between
epistem, the knowledge that can be explained or demonstrated to the satisfaction of others, either
through experimentation or presentation, episteme haplos, unconditional knowledge of principles
which always hold true and hos epi to polu, knowledge which holds true for the most part. They
considered different kinds of practical knowledge and skill: praxis, doing, performing, accomplishing
through practical knowledge or know-how; poiesis, knowledge needed to put things together, for
instance a poem; phronesis, practical knowledge needed to address political or ethical issues; tchne,
now translated as what we would call skill. To the Greeks, theoria, meditation, speculation,
contemplation, involved seeking to know the highest and eternal principles. Aristotle believed this to
be lifes highest function.
In Platos Phaedo, Socrates says that, the superlative thing to know is the explanation of everything,
why it comes to be, why it perishes, why it is. Explanation makes empirical demands. Aristotle
understood this, and he was a practitioner of empirical observation. Although limited by human
imperfection and available technology, Aristotle was concerned with apprehending the mortal, physical
world in an attempt to explain. Aristotle, as much an empirical biologist as a speculative philosopher
(Morowitz 1993: 160-163), has been ill served by the work of scholastic philosophers who
concentrated on his other work to the neglect of his research and writing on the life sciences. By the
Middle Ages, Aristotle was the hostage of empty scholasticism. Ignorance of the central role that
biology and philosophy of science held in Aristotles Academy continues to this day.
Nevertheless, something was missing, even in the Academy. Of the three great conceptual approaches
to science observation, experimentation, and theory experimentation was unknown to the classical
Greek savants. They worked back and forth between observation and theory and therefore lacked the
powerful weapon of falsification to prune wrong theories (Morowitz 1993: 161-2). Platos science
stood on one leg, Aristotles on two. In the great age of physics, Galileo, Newton, and Bacon
developed the concept of robust experiment. This made scientific progress possible by stabilizing
scientific method with its third leg. Experiment allows us to choose among alternative theories, moving
in increasingly better directions.
The distinction between a science and a craft is systematic thought organized in theory. Craft involves
doing. Some craft involves experimentation. Theory allows us to frame and organize our observations.
Theory permits us to question what we see and do. It helps us to develop generalizable answers that
can be put to use by other human beings in other times and places.
This, in effect, is the central issue in design. To [devise] courses of action aimed at changing existing
situations into preferred ones on a predictable basis means understanding things: how they are and
how they work, which is Simons (1982: 129) explanation of science. One form of design practice is
allied to art and craft. It is intuitive. It sometimes produces desired results. On occasion, this practice of
design produces desirable results that may have been unpredictable, but results that can nevertheless be
seized retrospectively as the useable result of muddling through.
The other face of design practice involves predictability. It is created by the effective response to
problems, and it has similarities to science, engineering, and technology. The basis of design science is
the idea of applicable theories of how to devise courses of action aimed at changing existing situations
into preferred ones. This science is geared to industrial production, including production in the digital
industries of the knowledge economy.
Industry now meets the vast majority of the worlds physical needs, and industrial productivity is a
necessity in a world of billions of people. Industrial production, and therefore design, touches nearly
everything we do, use or consume. It begins with the morning newspaper that we read while we eat
breakfast, to the food itself. It moves on as we drive a car, take a bus or train, and it involves the
computers most of us now plug in at work if we are not commuting to work from a computer in our
home office. Some of the days events will take place on the phone, and therefore, we will be reaching
out via switchboards, long-distance networks or even satellite. From the start of the day until the end,
designed artifacts, industrial artifacts, information artifacts, technical artifacts, and graphic artifacts in
hundreds of combinations and forms will surround us. We will interact with them, and they will shape
our waking experience. The designers who plan and create these artifacts are not simple artisans. They
are involved in the industrial process whether or not they think of themselves in industrial terms.
Design is of necessity in transition from art and craft practice to a form of technical and social science
focused on how to do things to accomplish goals. To meet the challenges of the design process requires
understanding the actions that lead from existing situations to preferred ones. This means
understanding the principles of predicting and measuring outcomes based on what W. Edwards
Deming (1993: 94-118) terms profound knowledge. This knowledge is comprised of four parts, all
related to each other: appreciation for a system; knowledge about variation; theory of knowledge;
psychology (Deming 1993: 96). According to Deming (1986: 19), Experience will answer a
question, and a question comes from theory.
10
Theory can be described in many ways. Some theories are complex and sophisticated. Others are
simple. Mautner (1996: 426) defines theory as a set of propositions which provides principles of
analysis or explanation of a subject matter. Even a single proposition can be called a theory. This
often depends on the nature of the subject.
McNeil (1993: 8) proposes eleven characteristics of any general theory. 1) A theory has a constitutive
core of concepts mutually interrelated with one another. 2) A theory has a mutually productive,
generative connection between central concepts and the peripheral concepts where theory verges onto
practice. 3) The core concepts of a theory are stated in algorithmic compression, parsimonious
statements from which the phenomena in the theory can be reproduced. 4) A theory has an irreducible
core of concepts, a set of concepts in which no central concept can be removed without altering the
scope and productivity of the theory or perhaps destroying it entirely. 5) Two or more of the core
concepts in a theory must be complementary to each other. 6) The central concepts of a theory must be
well defined and must harmonize as much as possible with similar concepts of enlightened discourse.
7) The central concepts of a theory must be expressed at a uniform level of discourse. Different levels
of discourse must be distinguished and used consistently. 8) More general theories (higher-level
theories) must relate to less general theories (lower-level theories) and to special cases through a
principle of correspondence. This principle confirms and guarantees the consistency of the more
particular theories and their applications. 9) Explicitly or implicitly, a theory describes dynamic flows
with contours that trace relatively closed loops as well as relatively open links. 10) A theory states
invariant entities in its assumptions or formulas that provide standards for measurement. 11) Theories
describe phenomena in the context of a conceptual space. This implicitly establishes a relationship
between the observer and the phenomena observed.
The ability to theorize design enables the designer to move from an endless succession of unique cases
to broad explanatory principles that can help to solve many kinds of problems. Warfield (in Francois
1997:100) describes the generic aspect of design as that part of the process of design that is indifferent
to what is being designed, being applicable whatever the target may be. He contrasts this with the
specific aspect of design, that part of the design process that is particular to the target class. Warfield
(1990, 1994) identifies thirty-two basic postulates of the generic design process, which he groups
under six categories: the human being, language, reasoning through relationships, archival
representation, the design situation, and the design process. This generic design process is inevitably
theory-rich. But it is not entirely abstract, any more than science is abstract. Quite the contrary, theory
relies on an engagement with empirical reality.
Brockhampton (1994: 507) defines theory as a set of ideas, concepts, principles or methods used to
explain a wide set of observed facts. A designer who fails to observe facts cannot theorize them.
Design requires humility in the face of empirical facts. Design based on the idea of individual genius
or artistic imagination involves the externalization of internalized images. This involves a priori ideas
and images. The designer comes first in this model of the design process. In contrast, solving problems
demands robust engagement with the problem itself. The problem comes first.
The problem sets the premise by establishing the boundary conditions of a solution. At the same time,
the problem opens a forum for the imagination and expertise of the designer. Social science depends on
what Mills (1967) described as the sociological imagination. Mathematical invention involves a
journey of psychological discovery through what Hadamard (1996) termed the mathematicians
mind. Across the many fields of the natural and social sciences, progress comes when individuals and
groups apply their genius to the understanding of how the world works and why. Understanding why
things come to be, why they perish, and why they are as they are involves discipline and imagination
both. Thus, Weick (1989) describes theory building as an act of disciplined imagination.
11
How theory works

Sutherland (1975: 9) describes theory as an ordered set of assertions about a generic behavior or
structure assumed to hold throughout a significantly broad range of specific instances. To understand
the nature of a behavior and organize an ordered set of assertions that describe it in a valid and
verifiable way requires the characteristics described by McNeil (1993: 8).
Weick (1989) addresses the question of shaping a theory that fulfills these criteria or similar criteria
while functioning at a sufficiently rich and non-trivial level to be useful. A body of writings equivalent
to the rich literature of inquiry on theory construction in the natural and social sciences has yet to be
developed in design studies. This is understandable in a discipline that is quite new compared with
information science, physics or sociology, let alone philosophy, mathematics or geometry. This is also
understandable in a field where the graduate programs, doctoral seminars, and research conferences
that constitute the forums of theory development are just now beginning to blossom.
Having defined theory, we must therefore ask the question, What constitutes a theoretical
contribution? David A. Whetten (1989) explored this question in an article of the same title.
Whetten (1989) begins by identifying the four elements of any theory. These four elements answer six
questions: 1) what, 2) how, 3) why, and 4) who-where-when. The what element articulates
the factors that must be considered part of an explanation of the phenomena under study. Whetten
identifies two criteria as central to judging the value of a what. These are comprehensiveness and
parsimony. Are all the elements identified? Are there enough elements to account for all issues without
a surplus? Whetten (1989: 490) describes sensitivity to the competing virtues of parsimony and
comprehensiveness as the mark of a good theorist.
The how of a theory shows how the factors identified in the what are related. Whetten (1989: 491)
describes this as a process of using metaphorical arrows to connect the boxes in a model. This
delineates the patterns that show elements of a phenomenon in their dynamic relationship to one
another (Friedman 1996). This description often reveals causality, and it builds a foundation for the
explanatory power of the model represented by a theory (Friedman 1996).
The why element involves the underlying dynamics that justify the selection of factors and the
proposed causal relationships (t)his rationale constitutes the theorys assumptions the theoretical
glue that welds the model together What and how describe. Only why explains (Whetten 1989:
491).
Finally, the who, where, and when of a theory substantiate theory with empirical data while setting
limits on its uses and applications.
According to Whetten, there are several ways to make significant contributions to theory. Discovering
or amending new items in the what of an existing theory will generally make only a marginal
improvement, but the ability to identify the ways in which the structural relationships of a theory
change under the influence of new elements is often the beginning of new perspectives. New
explanations changes in the why of a theory offer the most fruitful, and most difficult avenue of
theory development. As an editor of a leading journal, Whetten (1989: 494-5) asks seven key questions
of theoretical contributions. Of these, three apply to theory-construction in general: 1) whats new? 2)
so what? 3) why so? Two of the remaining four questions involve the internal qualities of the
contribution as a paper, 4) well done? and 5) done well? The last two deal with context and the field
within which the contribution is offered. 6) why now?, and 7) who cares?
12
Sheth, Gardner, and Garrett (1988: 29-33) have developed a matrix of metatheoretical criteria for
evaluating theories. These consist of three categories with two criteria in each. The categories are
syntax criteria, semantics criteria, and pragmatics criteria. Within syntax, they place the criteria of
structure and specification; within semantics, testability, and empirical support; within pragmatics,
richness, and simplicity.
Syntax criteria involve the organization and composition of a theory. Structure involves the systematic
modeling of relationships. Specification involves specifying the relationships among theoretical
concepts in a way that allow the theorist to delimit hypotheses. Semantics criteria involve reality and
evaluate the relationship of a theory to reality. Testability means that the theory permits operational
definition to permit testing and the development of intersubjective agreement. Empirical support refers
to the degree to which empirical evidence supports the theory. Pragmatics criteria involve relevance.
The criterion of richness involves the degree to which a theory is comprehensive and generalizable.
The simplicity criterion is akin to the standard of parsimony, and it involves the degree to which a
theory can be explained readily while accounting in a powerful manner for the observed phenomena.
Theories in any field develop in a pattern of increasingly sophisticated types.
Parsons and Shils (1951: 49-51) describe several levels of theoretical systems. They state that in
one sense, every carefully defined and logically integrated conceptual scheme constitutes a
system, and in the sense, scientific theory of any kind consists of systems (49). They go beyond
this, to ask three questions about theoretical systems. The first question involves generality and
complexity. The second involves what they call closure, the degree to which a system is selfconsistent, and the degree to which the assertions of any one part of the theory are supported or
contradicted by the other parts. The third question involves what they label the level of
systematization. This involves the degree to which theory moves toward general scientific goals.
Parsons and Shils (1951: 50) propose four different levels of systematization for theories, moving
from the most primitive to the most advanced. These are 1) ad hoc classification systems, 2)
systems of categories, 3) theoretical systems, and 4) empirical-theoretical systems.
This implies a schema of increasingly useful kinds of theories based on the relations among the
parts of a theoretical system. In Parsonss and Shilss schema, theoretical development implies a
hierarchy from ad hoc classification systems (in which categories are used to summarize empirical
observations), to taxonomies (in which the relationships between the categories can be described),
to conceptual frameworks (in which propositions summarize explanations and predictions), to
theoretical systems (in which laws are contained within axiomatic or formal theories) (Webster
and Watson (2002: xiii).
While it is useful to distinguish between taxonomy and theory, it is fair to say that at some points,
taxonomy is a kind of theory because it offers a model of existing data and demonstrates the
relationships between and among facts.
The importance of taxonomy is often underestimated. An interesting case in point is the discovery of a
new genus of centipede, Nannarup hoffmani (Bjerklie 2002: 39). The decline in taxonomic skills since
the grand era of taxonomy in the nineteenth century means that it took four years between the time that
Richard Hoffman decided that he had found a new kind of centipede and the final identification,
classification, and naming. Hoffman attributes this to the current preoccupation with molecular
biology, but he points out the problem inherent in the dearth of skilled taxonomists: Were coasting
on the glamour of biodiversity, but losing the ability to identify the creatures on this planet (Quoted in
13
Bjerklie 2002: 39). This, in turn, renders theory development more difficult in several major fields,
including economy, biology, and environmental studies.
Theories that describe structures offer models without moving parts. In this sense, theories are models
that resemble maps or model houses. Theories that describe processes, activities, or systems generally
require dynamic descriptions. In this sense, theories are models that resemble model engines or model
train sets, and they must move to demonstrate the properties of the systems they resemble.
Hal Varian (1997) addresses some of these issues in a playfully titled but scientifically astute
article, How to Build an Economic Model in Your Spare Time.
Most of my work in economics involves constructing theoretical models, writes Varian (1997: 1).
The article discusses the challenges of theory construction and some of the approaches that Varian
himself found helpful. Over the years, I have developed some ways of doing this that may be
worth describing to those who aspire to practice this art. In reality, the process is much more
haphazard than my description would suggest the model of research that I describe is an
idealization of reality, much like the economic models that I create. But there is probably enough
connection with reality to make the description useful which I hope is also true for my economic
models.
Varians key involves representing aspects of reality in robust yet simple ways. Rather than starting
with literature or seeking general features, he advocates seeking useful data on interesting issues:
So lets skip the literature part for now and try to get to the modeling. Lucky for you, all
economics models look pretty much the same. There are some economic agents. They make choices
in order to advance their objectives. The choices have to satisfy various constraints so theres
something that adjusts to make all these choices consistent. This basic structure suggests a plan of
attack: Who are the people making the choices? What are the constraints they face? How do they
interact? What adjusts if the choices arent mutually consistent?
Asking questions like this can help you to identify the pieces of a model. Once youve got a pretty
good idea of what the pieces look like, you can move on to the next stage. Most students think that
the next stage is to prove a theorem or run a regression. No! The next stage is to work an example.
Take the simplest example --- one period, 2 goods, 2 people, linear utility --- whatever it takes to
get to something simple enough to see what is going on.
Once youve got an example, work another one, then another one. See what is common to your
examples. Is there something interesting happening here? When your examples have given you an
inkling of what is going on, then you can try to write down a model. The critical advice here is
KISS: keep it simple, stupid. Write down the simplest possible model you can think of, and see if it
still exhibits some interesting behavior. If it does, then make it even simpler.
Several years ago I gave a seminar about some of my research. I started out with a very simple
example. One of the faculty in the audience interrupted me to say that he had worked on something
like this several years ago, but his model was much more complex. I replied My model was
complex when I started, too, but I just kept working on it till it got simple!
And thats what you should do: keep at it till it gets simple. The whole point of a model is to give a
simplified representation of reality. Einstein once said Everything should be as simple as possible
but no simpler. A model is supposed to reveal the essence of what is going on: your model should
be reduced to just those pieces that are required to make it work.
14
The point of modeling and of theory construction is showing how things work.
Theory construction problems in design research

Until recently, the field of design has hitherto been an adjunct to art and craft. With the transformation
of design into an industrial discipline come responsibilities that the field of design studies has only
recently begun to address.
Design is now becoming a generalizable discipline that may as readily be applied to processes,
interfaces between media or information artifacts as to tools, clothing, furniture, or advertisements. To
understand design as a discipline that can function within any of these frames means developing a
general theory of design. This general theory should support application theories and operational
programs. Moving from a general theory of design to the task of solving problems involves a
significantly different mode of conceptualization and explicit knowledge management than adapting
the tacit knowledge of individual design experience.
So far, most design theories involve clinical situations or micro-level grounded theories developed
through induction. This is necessary, but it is not sufficient for the kinds of progress we need.
In the social sciences, grounded theory has developed into a robust and sophisticated system for
generating theory across levels. These theories ultimately lead to larger ranges of understanding,
and the literature of grounded theory is rich in discussions of theory construction and theoretical
sensitivity (Glaser 1978, 1992; Glaser and Strauss 1967; Strauss 1991; Strauss and Corbin 1990,
1994).
One of the deep problems in design research is the failure to engage in grounded theory, developing
theory out of practice. Instead, designers often confuse practice with research. Instead of developing
theory from practice through articulation and inductive inquiry, some designers simply argue that
practice is research and practice-based research is, in itself, a form of theory construction.
Many of the problems in design research arise from category confusions. In recent years, designers
have become acquainted with the term tacit knowledge articulated by Michael Polanyi (1966) in The
Tacit Dimension. Proposing tacit knowledge as the primary foundation of design research reflects a
surface acquaintance with the term by people who have not read Polanyis work.
Tacit knowledge is an important knowledge category. All professional practice including the practice
of research rests on a rich stock of tacit knowledge. This stock consists of behavioral patterns and
embodied practice embedded in personal action. Some aspects of tacit knowledge also involve facts
and information committed to long-term memory. This includes ideas and information on which we
draw without necessarily realizing that we do so, and it includes ideas and information that we can
easily render explicit with a moments thought. It also includes concepts, issues, ideas, and information
that can only be rendered explicit with deep reflection and serious work.
In social life and professional work, tacit knowledge is also reflected in the larger body of distributed
knowledge embedded in social memory and collective work practice. Our stock of tacit knowledge
enables us to practice. Putting tacit knowledge to use in theory construction requires rendering tacit
knowledge explicit through the process of knowledge conversion (Friedman 2001: 44; Kriger and
Friedman 2002; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995: 59-73).
Tacit knowledge is necessary for human action. Without tacit knowledge, embodied and habitual,
nothing human beings do would be possible. Each action would require explicit conceptualization and
15
planning each time. The limits on immediate attention and cognition means that it would be impossible
to store and act on enough knowledge for effective individual practice in any art or science, let alone
accumulate the knowledge on which a field depends (Friedman 2001: 42-44; Friedman and Olaisen
1999: 16-22). All fields of practice rest, in part, on tacit knowledge. (See, f.ex., Chaiklin and Lave
1993; Bourdieu 1977, 1990; Friedman 2001: 42-44).
To say that tacit knowledge is not research and that design theory is not identical with the tacit
knowledge of design practice does not diminish the importance of tacit knowledge. It merely states that
mistaken arguments about tacit knowledge as design knowledge demonstrate the confusion of the
scholars who make such statements. The confusion rests on a simple failing, the failure to read Polanyi.
The notion that tacit knowledge and design knowledge are identical as sources of theory development
is linked with the idea that practice is a research method. Both rest on category confusions and both
arguments are generally supported by references to Polanyi and Schon by scholars who have not read
the works they cite.
If there is any confusion on Polanyis views, however, he settles the matter at the beginning of another
book, Personal Knowledge. Where tacit knowledge is embodied and experiential knowledge, theory
requires more. It seems to me, he writes, that we have sound reason for . . . considering theoretical
knowledge more objective than immediate experience. (a) A theory is something other than myself. It
may be set out on paper as a system, of rules, and it is the more truly a theory the more completely it
can be put down in such terms (Polanyi 1974: 4).
Polanyis (1974: 3-9) discussion of the Copernican Revolution uses different language to state some
of the significant themes that are seen in Varian (1997), Deming (1986, 1993), and McNeil (1993).
These address such concepts as descriptive richness, theory as a guide to discovery, and modeling.
As a guide to theory construction, this is also linked to Herbert Blumers idea of sensitizing
concepts (Blumer 1969; see also Baugh 1990, van den Hoonard 1997). All of these possibilities
require explicit knowledge, rendered articulate for shared communication and reflection.
One of the little noted points in many design research debates is the fact that reflective practice itself
rests on explicit knowledge rather than on tacit knowledge. While Schons concept of reflective
practice is not a method of theorizing, (1991: 5-11), but it does raise many questions on the kinds of
thinking and reflection that contribute to effective practice in many fields. Central to most of these is
the struggle of rendering tacit knowledge explicit in some way. While Schon (1994: 9) suggests that
there may be more possibilities for reflection than words alone, he clearly distinguishes between the
epistemology of theoretical research and reflective inquiry.
Much of this confusion is linked to an ambiguous definition of design research proposed by Frayling in
a 1993 paper. Frayling (1993) suggested that there are three models of design research, research into
design, research by design, and research for design. Frayling is unclear about what research by
design actually means and he seems never to have defined the term in an operational way. In a 1997
discussion (UK Council 1997: 21), he notes that it is distantly derived from Herbert Reads famous
teaching through art and teaching to art. This leads to serious conceptual problems.
Reads (1944, 1974) distinctions deal with education and with pedagogy, not with research. The
failure to distinguish between pedagogy and research is a significant weak area in the argument for
the concept of research by design. In addition to the difficulties this has caused in debates on the
notion of the practice-based Ph.D., it also creates confusion for those who have come to believe that
practice is research. The confusion rests, again, on a failure to read.
16
Fraylings proposal seems to have been an effort to establish possible new research categories. As
an inquiry or probe, this is a worthy effort. The problem arises among those who mistake an
intellectual probe with a statement of fact. To suggest that such a category is possible does not
mean that it exists in reality. Dragons may exist, but we have no evidence that they do. Medieval
mapmakers created great confusion and limited the growth of knowledge for many years by filling
in the empty edges of their maps with such phrases as here there be dragons rather than admitting,
we know nothing about what lies beyond this point.
Beyond this arises the problem of what research by design might mean. If such a category did
exist and it may not the fact of an existing category would tell us nothing of its contents. Unlike
dragons, we know that the planet Jupiter exists. Like the edges of the map, however, we know
relatively little about conditions on the surface of the planet. Even though the laws of nature mean
that some facts must be known gravity and pressure, for example these facts tell us little about
the myriad realities that may play out depending on specific factors.
As a probe, Fraylings discussion was intended to open possibilities. Those who mistake it for a
report mistake its potential value.
In one sense, however, Frayling misread Read. In adapting the surface structure of Reads terms, he
failed to realize a distinction that is implicit in Reads project. This is the fact that education can be
developed though the direct practice of an art. This is the case in socialization and modeling, in
guild training, and it is the basis of apprenticeship (Friedman 1997: 55, 61-65; Byrne, and Sands
2002). In many situations, education and learning proceed by practicing an art or craft. One can also
learn the art and craft of research by practicing research. Nevertheless, one does not undertake
research simply by practicing the art or craft to which the research field is linked.
So far, the category of research by design has proven fruitless. Around the time that Frayling
published his 1993 paper, Nigel Cross wrote the first of two editorials in Design Studies on the
theme of research by design.
In his first editorial, Cross (1993: 226-7) points out the distinctions between practice and research
and the value of connecting research to teaching and to practice.
In his second editorial, Cross notes how little progress had been made in research by design over
the two years between 1993 and 1995. He writes that part of the problem involves the claim that
works of design are also works of research (Cross 1995: 2).
Cross (1995: 3) states that the best examples of design research are: purposive, inquisitive,
informed, methodical, and communicable. This requires articulation and shared knowledge within
and across the field. This, again, requires articulate communication of explicit knowledge. In 1999,
Cross addressed this issue again in a debate on research methods in design.
Looking back over the failed efforts of the past decade to produce valid examples of research by
design, Cross (1999: unpaged) wrote, . . . as I said in my Editorial in 1995, I still havent seen
much strong evidence of the output from the research for and through design quarters. Less of the
special pleading and more of the valid, demonstrable research output might help.
While the phrase research by design has been widely used by many people, it has not been
defined. I suspect, in fact, that those who use the phrase have not bothered to read either Fraylings
(1993) paper or Reads (1944, 1974) book. Instead, they adopt a misunderstood term for its sound
17
bite quality, linking it to an ill-defined series of notions that equate tacit knowledge with design
knowledge, proposing tacit knowledge and design practice as a new form of theorizing.
While these problems are relatively inconsequential outside our field, it is important to understand that
they exist if we are to develop a foundation for theory construction in design research. This is why I
have given them so much thought.
Again, I want to be clear on the many values of tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge is central to all
human activity, and the background of embodied individual and social knowledge provides offers the
existential foundation of all activities, including intellectual inquiry. The only issue I raise here is that
tacit knowledge and reflective practice are not the basis of research and theorizing. This is not to say,
however, that there are no relations between those different categories of construct.
While ancient science was hypothetical and deductive, it offered no way to select among theories.
While the river civilizations of Mesopotamia, Sumeria, Egypt, and China made great advances in
practical knowledge, administrative routine, and professional practice in many fields, they had nothing
in the way of scientific theory. Explanations were traditional and practical or mythic (Lloyd 1970: 123; Cromer 1993: throughout).
Thales proposed the first scientific theory when he suggested that the earth was once an ocean. While
he could not test his theory, what made it scientific as contrasted with mythic was the fact that Thales
proposed a natural explanation rather than a story of divine action.
Greek mathematics offered another foundation for science, and the Pythagoreans and Euclid built
theories that are still used today. Again, however, there were no tests. Mathematical and geometrical
theories are entirely axiomatic, and they can be tested by deduction and logic. While empirical inquiry
found a few early champions in such medieval scholars as Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon, it was
not until Francis Bacon (1999, 2000) published The New Organon in 1620 that a philosophy of science
was articulated requiring a foundation in empirical observation.
At the same time, observation linked with inventive theorizing accounted for the great advances of
Copernicus, Galileo, Newtown and many more. The tradition of empirical inquiry lies beneath two
great activities in design: design science and reflective practice. These meet in research traditions of
many kinds, including those traditions anchored in social science and critical inquiry.
Because this paper does not describe a philosophy of science, I will not explain how or why this is so,
and I will not develop an argument for any specific research tradition or the kinds of theory
construction on which a tradition must be established. I merely point to the fact that explicit and
articulate statements are the basis of all theoretical activities, all theorizing, and all theory construction.
This true of interpretive and hermeneutical traditions, psychological, historical, and sociological
traditions, and it is as true of these as of quantitative research in chemistry, descriptive biology or
research engineering, logistics, and axiomatic mathematics. The languages are different. However,
only explicit articulation permits us to contrast theories and to share them. Only explicit articulation
allows us to test, consider or reflect on the theories we develop. For this reason, the misguided effort to
link the reflective practice of design to design knowledge, and the misguided effort to propose tacit
knowledge or direct making as a method of theory construction must inevitably be dead ends.
All knowledge, all science, all practice relies on a rich cycle of knowledge management that moves
from tacit knowledge to explicit and back again. So far, design with its craft tradition has relied far
more on tacit knowledge. It is now time to consider the explicit ways in which design theory can be
18
built and to recognize that without a body of theory-based knowledge, the design profession will not
be prepared to meet the challenges that face designers in todays complex world.
Future directions
The goal of this paper has been to examine criteria, approaches, and methods for theory
construction in design research. To do this, I began with a foundation of definitions, using these to
build a range of applicable concepts.
There is not enough room in one paper to go beyond the general consideration of methods to a specific
description of how to develop theory and build specific theories. This remains to be done in a future
paper.
Many avenues deserve exploration in the future. These include linking theory building to the
perspectives of design science, proposing models of theory construction from other perspectives,
generating theory from the practice of leading contemporary designers, and developing such basic
tools as a bibliography of resources for theory construction and developing theoretical imagination and
sensitivity.
Theory-rich design can be playful as well as disciplined. Theory-based design can be as playful and
artistic as craft-based design, but only theory-based design is suited to the large-scale social and
economic needs of the industrial age.
This systemic, theory-driven approach offers a level of robust understanding that becomes one
foundation of effective practice. To reach from knowing to doing requires practice. To reach from
doing to knowing requires the articulation and critical inquiry that leads a practitioner to reflective
insight. W. Edwards Demings experience in the applied industrial setting and the direct clinical
setting confirms the value of theory to practice.
Experience alone, without theory, teaches . . . nothing about what to do to improve quality and
competitive position, nor how to do it writes Deming (1986: 19) in his critique of contemporary
manufacturing. If experience alone would be a teacher, then one may well ask why are we in this
predicament? Experience will answer a question, and a question comes from theory.
It is not experience, but our interpretation and understanding of experience that leads to knowledge.
Knowledge emerges from critical inquiry. Systematic or scientific knowledge arises from the
theories that allow us to question and learn from the world around us. One of the attributes that
distinguish the practice of a profession from the practice of an art is systematic knowledge.
As artists, we serve ourselves or we serve an internalized vision. This internalized vision is
essentially a facet of the self. In the professions, we serve others. In exploring the dimensions of
design as service, Nelson and Stolterman (2000) distinguish it from art and science both. My view
is that art and science each contributes to design. The paradigm of service unites them.
To serve successfully demands an ability to cause change toward desired goals. This, in turn,
involves the ability to discern desirable goals and to create predictable or reasonable changes to
reach them. Theory is a tool that allows us to conceptualize and realize this aspect of design.
Research is the collection of methods that enable us to use the tool.
Some designers assert that theory-based design, with its emphasis on profound knowledge and
intellectual achievement, robs design of its artistic depth. I disagree. I believe that a study of design
19
based on profound knowledge embraces the empirical world of people and problems in a deeper way
than purely self-generated artistry can do.
The physicist Richard Feynman once argued for the imaginative power and beauty of science. He did
not argue against the other arts. Rather, he stated that understanding how things work and why adds
another dimension to beauty.
Poets say science takes away from the beauty of the stars mere globs of gas atoms. I, too, can see
the stars on a desert night and feel them. But do I see less or more? The vastness of the heavens
stretches my imagination stuck on this little carousel, my little eye can catch one-million-year-old
light. A vast pattern of which I am part What is the pattern, or the meaning, or the why? It does not
do harm to the mystery to know a little about it. For far more marvelous is the truth than any artists of
the past imagined it. Why do poets of the present not speak of it? What men are poets who can speak
of Jupiter if he were a man, but if he is an immense spinning sphere of methane must be silent?
(quoted in Gleick 1993: 373) Understanding how things work and why expands the powers of the
human mind and soul.
However, I also argue for a theory-rich practice of design for an intensely practical reason. The worlds
population recently exceeded six billion people for the first time. Many people in todays world live
under such constrained conditions that their needs for food, clothing, shelter, and material comfort are
entirely unmet. For the rest, most needs can only be met by industrial production. Only when we are
able to develop a comprehensive, sustainable industrial practice at cost-effective scale and scope will
we be able to meet their needs. Beyond art, beyond poetry, beyond science, this is the purpose of
design. Design will never achieve this purpose until it rests on all three legs of science. To do this,
design practice and design research requires theory.
20
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February 2.
26

F. Giannini Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Genova, Italy
M. Monti Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Genova, Italy
Abstract
As the aesthetic aspect of a product is becoming more and more important in customers' decisions,
there is an increasing need of tools able to express and preserve the styling intent during the product
development cycle, while offering an interaction with the user much more adherent to his mentality.
The European Project FIORES-II (Character Preservation and Modelling in Aesthetic and
Engineering Design) is aimed at creating innovative CAD tools capable to capture and preserve the
product aesthetic character and make it accessible in a multi criteria approach for styling and
engineering design optimisation. In order to explore the possible relationships between emotional
character and product shape, an extensive analysis has been carried out, thanks to the collaboration
of industrial designers in the automotive field, such as BMW, Pininfarina, Saab, and in household
supplies field, such as Alessi and Eiger. In this paper, the main outcome and the innovative design
functionality defined on the basis of the results of the above mentioned research will be presented.

Introduction
Styling is a creative activity where the designers goal is to define a product that evokes a certain
emotion while satisfying the imposed constraints. Therefore, a better understanding of human
reactions can allow an easier satisfaction of market wishes and tastes. On the other hand, the
complete design of new products requires multidisciplinary expertise and consequently it results
from the collaboration of several actors. It is then clear that the formalization of the design intent
underlying the product specification may improve the communication quality among the involved
actors, who can belong to different departments in the same company, e.g. styling and engineering,
or to external suppliers. In addition the formalization of the relationships between shape and
aesthetic character included in a computer system may help designers to achieve their goal more
directly. In fact, even if the introduction of digital tools in the styling workflow in the last twenty
years has significantly shortened the development time and costs, some critical issues have still to
be faced and overcome to move towards an ideal optimised digital design process, in which the
design intent is automatically communicated and preserved throughout all the process phases.
When designers create shapes with digital techniques often the available tools for model definition
and manipulation restrict the way in which a shape can be modelled: they often have to concentrate
too much on how to use the system to obtain what they have in mind. To make the modelling
process more intuitive, the interaction should be performed through a direct control over the threedimensional space in the same way a pencil dominates the two-dimensional space. In fact, an easy
interaction requires functionalities simulating the traditional method of stylists work. The current
limitations are mainly due to the fact that the modelling activity is mostly based on low-level
geometric elements. Often it is necessary to have a full understanding of the underlying surface
representation to know which elements have to be changed to obtain the wished surface
modifications. On the contrary the user would like to directly handle properties strictly linked with
his design intent.
Based on these considerations, the European project FIORES-II (GRD1-1999-10785-Character
Preservation and Modelling in Aesthetic and Engineering Design) (FIORES-II), aims at building
innovative CAD tools more adhering to the creative user mentality and at improving the
cooperation between the main actors involved in the product development process, by identifying
the relationship between shape geometry and aesthetic character. The goal of this paper is to
illustrate the project objectives and intermediate results. It is structured as follows: in the first part a
survey of the main research works studying links between shape and aesthetics is given; part two
describes the FIORES-II project objective and presents the results achieved until now. Conclusions
can be found in part three.
Related works
Several researches have been carried out in order to identify the links between a products shape
characteristic and its emotional message. These relationships have been analysed from different
perspectives including perceptual psychology (Luh 1994), design and computer science (Wallace
and Jakiela 1993, van Bremen et al. 1998, Hsiao and Wang 1998, Yoshimura and Yanagi 1998,
Chen and Owen 1998).
Suggestions have been proposed for formalizing brand identity, possibly by means of archetypes
(Smyth and Wallace 2000), or associating terms to a specific character. In literature, results of
experiments are shown about the possibility of categorizing products in classes sharing some
aesthetic character terminology (van Bremen et al. 1999, McDonagh 1999, Ishikara et al. et al.
1997). However, all these experiments are quite limited in the number of analysed objects and
interviewed persons as well as in the results. No systematic and precise specification of a
correspondence between product elements and emotional terms has ever been provided. Also the
problem related to the use of terms has not been fully addressed: terms have the disadvantage of
being subject to personal interpretation, mainly depending on cultural environment and personal
experience, thus an agreement on a common language has to be found.
A formalization that could be processed by a computer program requires the identification of direct
relationships between the geometric elements of an object and its aesthetic characters. Ideally, the
mapping specifies those values of shape characteristics and parameters that correspond to the design
model conforming to the intention. Van Bremen and his colleagues at Delft University (van Bremen
et al. 1998) provided some examples of possible, but not tested, associations between aesthetic and
shape parameters without proving an effective feasibility of the mapping process. They concluded
that such an association is rather difficult and it is not a simple mapping, since the same aesthetic
parameters can be associated to different shape parameters.
For the above reasons, it is not possible to give an absolute definition of an aesthetic character, but
it is preferable to specify how to increase or decrease the objects already given characters.
In addition, it was shown that the choice of the aesthetic variable type depends on the product.
Therefore, an effective system needs to incorporate subject dependency, possibly by introducing
subject-specific relations or weighting functions.
FIORES-II objectives
The general objective of the FIORES-II project is to improve the working procedures and the
computer aided tools adopted from designers for modelling product shapes. The new modelling
tools should help CAS/CAD (Computer Aided Styling/Computer Aided Design) operators (in the
following indicated as surfacers) to more easily attain a model with specific emotional
characteristics according to the stylists intent and to preserve them during engineering
optimisations. This implies to have tools able to preserve the aesthetic design intent during the
required model modifications and able to extract the aesthetic character from CAD models and
compare it to others and/or directly act on it.
The general objective can be achieved by the following intermediate results:
a vocabulary for the aesthetic design;

a mapping of styling character descriptions on geometric entities and properties objectively
describable by computable and measurable parameters;
methods (algorithms and s/w prototype) for the extraction of aesthetic shape properties;
methods (algorithms and s/w prototype) to optimise the design with respect to aesthetic and
geometric engineering requirements.
To find the relationships between geometrical elements of a product shape and its aesthetic
characters is the key to innovate the modelling tools by enabling the specification of those values of
shape characteristics and parameters that, once processed by a computer system, could compute the
design model conforming to the original intention. In the following the activities carried out to
achieve the above objectives, are illustrated.
The language of aesthetic design

To explore the possible relationships between product shape and aesthetic character, it is first
necessary to identify a common language based on proper words and definitions used by designers
in their daily activity, able to cover the description of aesthetic aspects beside the emotional
reactions of a generic observer. The analysis of the relation between terms describing aesthetic
properties of lines and shapes, and terms describing emotions associated with geometric elements
has been conducted through a three-steps process:
identification of a vocabulary of terms actually used to describe shapes of industrial

products (mainly car bodies and domestic appliances);
verification of the usability of the vocabulary to properly identify the aesthetic and
emotional character of product shapes;
identification of terms adequately associating aesthetic and emotional character with
specific lines or shapes.
First, a large set of internal documents, brochure and papers describing industrial products from an
aesthetical point of view, has been supplied from the industrial partners. It allowed the collection of
proper words and definitions currently used by the designers in their working activity, representing
the first vocabulary. A refinement of the vocabulary has been achieved by processing the results of
different kind of interviews, structured in order to collect a number of data as large as possible.
Different questionnaires have been organized via Web, mainly concerning the car industry and the
domestic appliance; shapes suitable for the interviews have been carefully selected: complex
enough to show the effects, simple enough to describe the shape and to relate properly to the
vocabulary. In order to avoid influences derived by colours, only high-resolution black and white
pictures have been used. Moreover, to be closer to the designer mentality, the project partners
representing end-users selected those curves they considered important to provide the perceived
product character.
In figure 1 an example of the addressed questions is illustrated.
Figure 1: A part of the Web Questionnaire concerning the automotive sector

The results of the questionnaires, mainly filled in by professional designers and students of design
schools, were analysed with respect to the distribution of frequencies of choices (i.e. how adjectives
are distributed over product pictures) in order to describe and understand what such elements may
have in common, and thus have some measure of their likeness and differences.
Once completed the analysis of questionnaire results, a series of interviews, personally conducted
and video recorded, have been performed. The videotape support has been useful to fix the observer
reactions to different aesthetic aspects, during the different phases of the interview.
First designers have been interviewed with the main objective of verifying if:
the previously identified terms are actually general and unequivocally understood;
terms are associated to characteristic lines in a coherent and consistent way;
designers use the same terms both to indicate designing lines and to indicate actions to
be performed on these lines.
Finally they were asked to increase/decrease the object character in order to understand on which
elements and how they currently act to achieve the wished character changes.
In this way, the design activities carried out by stylists and surfacers in different industrial fields
have been deeply analysed and the language they use during the different phases of the product
design cycle has been captured. It emerged that stylists use different languages when they speak
with marketing people and when they work with surfacers at the definition of the 3D digital model,
as it is summarized in figure 2.
Figure 2: Languages used by stylists in the different design phases
The language used when marketing people and stylists exchange data between themselves is
composed by terms that are related to emotional values (e.g. dynamic, aggressive) and express
somehow the objectives, i.e. the character, the final product has to hold. Within the project, this
language has been defined as the language of the trends (LTE), as it has a contextual valence
because it is conditioned by fashion, trends, agreeability, attractiveness and so on, which are
recognisable and coherently understood only within specific cultural and temporal conditions.
On the other hand, during the creation and modification of the digital model stylists communicate
how to achieve their aesthetic intent using a more detailed and restricted set of terms corresponding
to shape properties. In this phase they provide instructions on which elements and properties have
to be changed to enforce or change the character (e.g. making a curve a bit more accelerated, or
decreasing the tension of a curve ) to fulfil marketing directives. Hence this latest set of terms
constitutes what in the project has been indicated as the Language of trade (LTA) and represents
the first link between low-level CAGD (Computer-Aided Geometric Design) descriptions and the
high level character of a product. In other words, finding some link between emotional character
and geometric shape features seems to be more easily reachable by understanding the procedures
followed by designers for obtaining the desired character thus considering a two levels mapping:
the first level links geometric properties with stylist terms, the second links these latest to the
emotional character.
To identify the second association, FIORES-II is taking advantage of the learning capabilities of
Case Based Reasoning (CBR) techniques (AI_CBR, CBR_WEB, Stahl 2001); a CBR system works
by matching new problems to "cases" from a historical database and then adapting successful
solutions from the past to current situations. In this context it deals with the necessary large amount
of data required to ensure the validity and the flexibility of the association, taking also into account
the subject dependency.
In figure 3, the structure used by CBR for deriving the association between the two identified
languages is shown:
Figure 3: Schema of the geometry-related information handled by CBR

The user specifies which are the curves most important for the characterization of the product from
the emotional point of view, i.e. the Characterising shape elements (CSE ), and the main product
characters in terms of LTE. CSE are the curves that are used by designers to evaluate the shape and
that are normally modified for emphasising the product character when drawing. They include those
curves frequently indicated as character lines, which may correspond to important object sections,
profiles or other construction and light lines (e.g. reflection and shadow lines (Hagen et al. 1995)).
The system automatically gives a description of each curve by vectors of LTA terms with the
associated property values. Additional spatial and dimensional relationships can be specified by the
user. The type and number of the characterising elements and of the mutual relationships are
dependent of the product type. Additional context dependent information, such as producing
company, target marked, product type, etc., is also included to restrict the evaluation to comparable
objects.
The LTA terms represent the first link between geometry and the high level character of a product
and end-users identify this language as the most important for improving their normal activities and
communication. Therefore for the prototype development it has been decided to give the highest
priority to the design functionality whose application produces the results that end-users expect in
association with LTA terms
Innovative modelling functionality for aesthetic design

The LTA includes all those terms that have been selected from the designers as being the most used
for shape evaluation and modification request. Even if they correspond to the English translation of
the terms commonly used in their native tongue, some harmonisation work has been needed to
ensure a common understanding. These terms put in relation geometric properties with perception
and are mainly inherited from the traditional prototype creation by clay modelling (Podhel 02). The
following terms have been selected for the prototype development:
Acceleration
Crown
Convexity
Concavity
Sharpness
Softness
Crispness
Tension
Lead in
In figure 4, some examples of the modifications on curves corresponding to some of the above
terms are shown. In the picture, also the radius of curvature of the different curves is displayed in
order to visualise the corresponding obtained effects.
Figure 4: Examples of curve modification effects obtained by applying some of the selected
modifiers.
The objective is to develop modelling tools able to act on the aesthetic character of a shape and able
to preserve it during the geometry modification. Thus it becomes possible to manipulate a product
character by means of combination of modelling operators acting directly on specific properties of
the CSE, instead of working on low level geometric elements not directly linked with the target
property.
The development of modelling tools in correspondence to the LTA terms has a double motivation:
on one hand to provide tools for modifying the shape in a direct mode, i.e. directly used by
designers on the selected entities, and on the other hand to measure some shape properties to
provide the interpretation of the object character. Due to their first usage, these modelling tools
have been called modifiers.
The example in the figures 5 (produced by FIORES-II end-user group) shows the modifications
applied to a ski-box to get bigger having a new character (directional) but at the same time
preserving also the original one. The modifications are mainly applied to the character lines and
propagated to the surfaces; they include scaling operations and curve adjustments in
correspondence to the designer language terms. This didactic example must be considered when
character lines are not generative curves but result from some evaluation (a silhouette line for
instance), then it becomes more complex to achieve. In the example, the original ski-box (figure 5a)
combines the characters soft and stumpy impressed by the character lines Line1 and Line2
Figure 5: An example of application of modifiers to a skybox

In figure 5b is shown an intermediate ski-box obtained by stretching the proportions. The box has
also a new character: it is far more slender. Simply scaling of the two character lines is not
sufficient: it does not express a directional character and at the same time the stumpy / fat rear of
the box has now been lost.
Figure 5c illustrates the skybox obtained by modifying the Lead-in on the part of Line 1 indicated
by the window and by increasing Tension on the Line 2; in this way a character similar to the one
of starting skybox (5a) has been achieved.
As seen from the above example, modifiers act on several geometrical properties of a given CSE at
the same time. They can be considered as a semantic shape control. As previously said, it turned out
that, in addition to their modification (relative) action, these operators could also represent
meaningful tools for shape comparison purpose. This leads us to define an evaluation measure for
each of them. By controlling their evaluated values it is possible to control the combination of the
associated geometric properties and hence, by specifying their changes, to control the shape.
10
To achieve the above functionality, the following problems had to be solved for each considered
modifier:
Definition of its meaning from the designer point of view: what shape is the designer
expecting when the modifier value changes for the considered entity? Which are the
geometric properties that are affected by the modifier?
Specification of the mathematical function producing the expected shape modification
and the related domain of application, i.e. hypothesis / restrictions on the CSE in order to
have the possibility of applying the modifier.
Identification of the required parameters to be provided by the user or automatically
specified by an algorithm in case of character preservation. This also includes the
specification of which of them and how they can be used within the optimisation
process.
Evaluation of a measure of the modifier.
The above points have been treated and the software implementation is currently under
development.
Several difficulties have been encountered, mainly related to getting a full comprehension of how
stylists perceive shape and then to translating this into mathematical formalism. Even if some of the
terms used have a direct mathematical counterpart, the meaning is not exactly the same; for
example not all the curves in which the second order derivative increases are necessarily perceived
as accelerating curves. Moreover, different shapes may be perceived as having the same property
value. This means that several characteristics/variables contribute to a single property, thus
requiring a further level of interpretation to give a formal description both of the property and of its
measure. In addition, it is important to underline that the function measuring the property had to be
continuous and derivable in order to control the optimisation process required when stylists are
going to modify a shape by specifying a target aesthetic property.
The study has been restricted to planar curves; this is not a tough limitation because users typically
prefer to act on curves having a specific meaning within the shape, what we indicated as CSEs are
normally judged in a planar view (paper or CAD screen). Nevertheless, since the final aim is always
to change the 3D model, the modification has to be propagated to the related surfaces. For doing
this, the consortium has decided to use already existing technologies provided by the software
developer partner, such as Global Shape Modelling (GSM) of thinkDesign TM (thinkDesign is
copyright of think3, www.think3.com).
For the propagation of the change to the surface, the following aspects have to be kept into account
and are now under consideration:
How to preserve the CSEs semantic: e.g. if the CSE is a Silhouette computed (with some
parameters) on an initial shape S, the modified one has then to be still a Silhouette.
How to guarantee constraint compatibility and consistency, e.g. how to increase the
concavity of a section in a view while putting more crown in an intersecting silhouette in
another view.
Conclusions
In this paper, the objectives of the European Project FIORES-II and its preliminary results have
been described. They include the identification of two languages actually used during the product
development by stylists and of their mutual relationships. The first language (LTE) is used during
the briefing and in general in the communication with marketing people and customers and is
related to the cultural and emotional message the product has to communicate. The second language
11
(LTA), inherited from the clay modelling activities, is adopted in the communication with the
CAS/CAD operators during the digital model creation and modification.
The studies conducted during the project confirm that neither the designer language nor the
marketing language are consisting in a fixed mapping between concepts and objects and therefore
the association between aesthetic character and geometric character cannot be considered as strictly
fixed.
In the project particular emphasis has been devoted on the development of modelling tools
corresponding to the second language, since they are considered as the basis for allowing:
Direct shape modification (as shown in the example above) by a more semantic control than
the one offered by classical methods.
Specification of the aesthetic character in objective terms;
Aesthetic character modification;
Character preservation during the shape modifications
At present the theoretical specification of the tools is almost completed and the implementation of
the software prototype is currently under development. The preliminary results confirm the validity
of the approach not only from the point of view of user interest but also from a scientific
perspective that can link different disciplines such as mathematics and perceptual psychology.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the European Commission under the GROWTH Programme within the
Project FIORES II, Character Preservation and Modelling in Aesthetic and Engineering Design,
G1RD-CT-2000-00037. The authors thank the Project partners for the provided material.
12
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14
One-on-One: a pedagogic base for design instruction in the

studio
G. Goldschmidt Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Israel
Abstract
Despite changes that computation introduces in the mode in which instruction is carried out in the
design studio, we still rely heavily on the desk crit in which an individual student converses with
an instructor about the students work in progress, which is laid out before them. Despite the
centrality of the desk crit to design education, no formal training is offered to instructors. Typically,
they act only on the basis of their experience and intuition, and surprisingly few studies have
centered on the details of the all-important student-instructor communication and its implications
for the students learning process. In this paper, we report a few protocol studies of one-on-one
crits in studios of a school of architecture and we show what we have learned from them. We
propose that such studies are useful for the development of a pedagogic base for design instruction
in the studio.
One-on-One: a pedagogic base for design instruction in the

studio
Competence in design praxis is acquired by doing, and nowhere is this learning by doing more
universally institutionalized than in the design studios of schools of architecture. The studio is the
heart of architectural design education, and probably of design education in general. It is a
practicum where students carry out design assignment under the guidance of design instructors.
Despite variations among schools the mode of instruction in the studio is surprisingly similar the
world over. Typically, a group of one to two dozen students shares a territorial base (the studio) for
the duration of the academic unit (e.g., a semester). They work in this space, individually or in
small teams, on design assignments that are planned to attain specific curriculum goals. The group
meets with the instructor(s) two or three times a week to review the work in progress. Some reviews
are formal; others are less formal pinups; in those reviews other students as well as invited
reviewers may take part, but for the most part students hold individual tutorial sessions with an
instructor, usually at their desks. These sessions are called desk crits (crit is short for critique),
and because of their individual nature usually one student and one instructor are involved they
are referred to as one-on-one.
A one-on-one session usually starts with the student presenting his or her work, or how it has
evolved since the last time the instructor has seen it. Then a discussion of the work is led by the
instructor, during which questions are asked and answered, examples given, principles and
precedents evoked, alternatives suggested, problem areas pointed out, etc. Quite often sketching is
also used during the discussion. This interactive session is where the student is expected to learn
how to design, and to enhance his or her understanding of designing. Students are extremely
sensitive to the nature of one-on-one sessions and respond to the instructors style of teaching,
which varies greatly from one instructor to another. Instructors, however, are normally skilled
designers, but as concerns teaching they are self-taught: no training for design instructors exists
other than, sometimes, an apprenticeship on the fly, with an experienced instructor. The one-on-one
session is based on communication between the two parties instructor and student. However, it is
the instructor who gives the crit, and the student who receives it. This turns the desk crit into a
very sensitive setting with a powerful potential for personal growth, but also for distress and
possible learning hindrance. It is therefore important, in our view, to look at what actually transpires
in one-on-one studio desk crits.
The instructor-student interaction in the design studio was cogently described by Donald Schn
(e.g., 1981, 1987), who highlighted successful versus unsuccessful cases: success or lack thereof are
explained, according to Schn (1981) and Argyris (1981), primarily by the learning behavior of the
student who knows how to learn or suffers from learning binds. The teaching behavior of the
instructor, however, is not analyzed in any depth. In fact, curiously little has been written about
design instruction or design pedagogy; instead, instruction methodologies are sometimes attempted.
In-depth classifications of the various types of institutional models have also been the subject of
recent studies (Bar Eli 1998; Salama 1995). An exception is a study by Sachs (1999) who described
and analyzed the common phenomenon of stuckness in the course of the design process, with
great empathy for students who feel stuck and with insight into the forces that permit them to get
unstuck and move forward with their designs. Likewise, Ochsner (2000) has written about the
student-instructor relationship from the perspective of psychoanalysis. Lastly, Anthony (1991) has
devoted years of research to the formal reviews in the studio, where juries critique the students
work (usually upon its completion). This is an important and illuminating contribution to design
education pedagogy, but it does not pertain to one-on-one desk crits.
We believe that it is time to pay increased attention to design instruction pedagogy. The one-onone session in the studio is too precious, and potentially too hazardous, to continue to entrust it to
untrained hands of trained designers. To this end this paper analyzes a small number of one-onone sessions, based on protocols, in order to exemplify some of the issues that we think are
pedagogically relevant. We conclude with an appeal to work towards training programs for
design instructors.
A note on methodology
We do not wish to propose a comprehensive design instruction theory, nor do we have in mind a
prescriptive how to method. Design education theory and methodology, and curriculum issues,
have been paid quite a lot of attention to in recent years (e.g., Bar Eli 1998; Belkis 2000; Boyer and
Mitgang 1996; Cuff 1991; Porter and Kilbridge 1981; Salama 1995). In contrast our work is based
on observing and documenting (video or audio taping) student-instructor interactions as they occur
in the studio. Design sessions were observed and documented by students as part of their course
assignments (see acknowledgements); the protocols we collected were consequently analyzed,
using a variety of quantitative, and mostly qualitative methods. All the sessions were observed close
to the middle of a term, and the studios in question were regular curricular components of the first,
second, third and fourth year of undergraduate studies in the Faculty of Architecture and Town
Planning at the Technion. Where we quote from the protocols, the quotes are translations (by the
author) from the Hebrew.
Types of instruction and types of reasoning

We would like to isolate the desk crit, and address it independent of other studio-instruction factors
such as goals, contents, or working method. Quayle (1985) lists six profiles of instructors, which we
reduce to three:
Instructor as source of expertise/authority: The instructor knows something that the student is
trying to learn; he or she is expected to transmit this knowledge and know-how to the student who,
in turn, is expected to know how to extract it from the instructor.
Instructor as coach/facilitator: The student has potential abilities and tacit knowledge and the
instructor is expected to help develop and maximize this potential through guidance and
opportunities for the acquisition of experience. Schn (e.g., 1987), among others, insists on
describing the design instructor as a coach.
Instructor as buddy: The instructor provides positive reinforcement and encouragement and
helps in the socialization process into the professional community and its culture.
There are many overlaps among these profiles but only rarely can a single instructor perform all of
these roles equally well. Consequently, we propose an even further reduction, one that has a
practical bent: the role model, who excels in the practice of design, and the design educationist,
whose expertise is teaching and training (Goldschmidt 1988). Obviously, here too overlaps exist
(and are welcome); a student who enjoys a balanced exposure to both, with more or less overlaps, is
likely to benefit from the complementary strengths they have to offer. This dualism requires
elucidation.
What does the role model do? He or she usually comes to the studio with a fat pencil and during the
crit, while describing or explaining something, often draws to show the student what is meant. It
may be a well-known exemplar or precedent or a possible improvement on something the student
has drawn, or a reformulation of the problem at hand by way of a negative example or a diagram of
some sort, and so on. The role model is a practitioner. He or she has worked on problems similar to
the one the student is wrestling with, and has an inventory of numerous relevant cases stored in
memory. He or she acts mainly by modeling designing and by providing examples. This is what I
did/would do in this case or in that project the solution was. see what we can learn from it?
are phrases the student is likely to hear from the role model. The role model teaches primarily by
examples that assist the student in reasoning by similarity. He or she is definitely a source of
authority, and normally does his/her best to also be a good coach.
The educationist must know a lot about design, and must certainly have at least some design
experience, but is not necessarily based in practice: he or she is an academic who has become a
professional teacher, whether formally trained as such or not (the latter is normally the case). The
educationist is an experienced instructor, who can quickly identify students styles of thinking, their
strengths and weaknesses. Whereas the role model teaches what he or she knows, the educationist
tries to teach what the student needs to learn. He or she are often more methodical in their approach
and they try to teach design methods to students; they may have well developed personal theories of
design and its instruction. They invent exercises that are believed to help clarify specific issues, and
they often suggest sets of design principles to students. If we were to reduce their work into one
type of instruction, we would say that the educationist provides rules for design novices to reason
by. The educationist is a coach by definition, but he or she may also be a source of authority. It is
not unusual for coaches, especially young ones, to also be buddies.
This pair of descriptions evokes the two types of reasoning that cognitive science claims is used by
both children and adults: rule-based reasoning and similarity-based reasoning. In yesteryears, it was
believed that there is a clear hierarchy whereby similarity-based reasoning is inferior to rule-based
reasoning, and typical mostly of young children. In recent years the primacy of rule-based
reasoning is no longer universally accepted as an absolute truth, and researchers are interested in the
relationship between the two modes of reasoning: rule based and similarity based, in both children
and adults (Sloman and Rips 1998). According to Sloman (1996) we are endowed with two
independent (but interacting) cognitive systems, each dedicated to one mode of reasoning: one
associative and similarity-based, the other symbolic and rule-based. Other researchers have
advanced the view that if indeed there are two systems of reasoning, they are equally important to
processes of problem-solving and learning (i.e., Gentner and Medina 1998).
Our protocols include examples of instruction by both role model and educationist types of
teachers and it is fascinating to see how they appeal to both kinds of reasoning, respectively. Let us
look at a segment from a protocol taped in a first-year studio, where a short exercise was conducted
in which a dwelling unit was to be designed. The instructor refers to cubes the student has generated
to compose the dwelling unit with, to introduce principles of repetition and unity in design:
When you start looking at your cubes, where one cube represents built [area] and the other
represents a garden, represents a void, then once again it is easy to repeat a little the same sort of
That is, if you succeed in creating something of this scale that is close enough to that scale, of an
exterior room... That is, to succeed in creating the same type of joints.
In contrast, a fourth year instructor models for a team of three students who are designing a School
of Architecture in a college campus near a lake:
since you have a slope toward the lake, it could be possible to give some opening; if I draw the
ground line [draws], it could be possible to open that is, we have the urban courtyard of the
campus that is connected to the upper courtyard and here [draws] we go down
The instructor draws a section that illustrates a possible solution to a specific design question,
thereby creating a model, or an example. Her students are expected to learn from this example how
the slope in the site can benefit their design. She acts as a role model. The mode of instruction here
is different than the one employed by the first year instructor, who coaches his student by trying to
show her that the different partial design problems she encounters should not receive independent
ad hoc solutions, but rather that she must learn to look for overall principles that will lend her
design coherence. In this case the principle is repetition: indoor and outdoor spaces of the same
scale, joints of the same type.
Teaching learning asymmetry

Every elementary schools teacher knows something that design instructors are sometimes very
surprised to discover: that what one (thinks that one) teaches is not necessarily what the learner
learns. In other words, in a teacher-learner interaction there may well be a discrepancy between
messages sent by one who teaches and messages received by one who learns. We refer to this
phenomenon as a teaching-learning asymmetry. Design instructors rarely try to verify that the
student is in a position to understand their comments exactly as they are intended: design crits, as
captured on tape, are often solid long monologues by instructors with a minimal participation of the
student in the discussion. The following little study illustrates our point.
A desk crit in a first year studio was taped and transcribed. The transcription or protocol was
consequently given to both the student and the instructor (at the end of the three-week design
exercise). Each of them was asked to mark phrases (their own phrases and those by their
counterpart) that they thought influenced the subsequent development of the project.
Influential phrases
Marked by instructor
Marked by student
Overlap (marked by both)
Instructors phrases
16
22
(8)
Students phrases
7
8
9
(1)
Table 1: Influential phrases in protocol of first year studio crit

The count, as given in Table 1, shows that most of the influential phrases were by the instructor.
This is not surprising because in a first year studio both parties are likely to rely on the teacher as
the leading partner in the instructional process. However, the interesting information in this Table is
the small number of influential phrases that were marked by both student and instructor: 9 out of a
total of 44 influential phrases, or 20%. Of the 9 phrases, only one is by the student. In other words,
only a small part of what the instructor thought were very important messages he had sent were
perceived as such by the student. On the other hand - we would like to emphasize the other side of
this coin as well - only a fraction of what the student thought was important, at least in her
contribution to the conversation, was noted by the instructor as significant. If the unacknowledged
influential phrases by the student (in her view) contained questions, puzzlement or alternative ideas
that had better been attended to the instructor failed to realize their potential magnitude.
One-way communication
Crits vary widely in the extent to which the discussion is a true dialogue between the instructor and
the student. Some students are more outspoken than others, of course, but the good coach appears to
know how to engage the student in a conversation. The students involvement is crucial to his or her
learning in terms of understanding and remembering the points raised, reflecting on them and
developing an independent position, and maintaining a high motivation to continue to develop the
work. When two-way communication is replaced by one-way communication, in which the student
is mostly silent, something may be wrong, but many instructors are not sensitized to a possible
learning bind to which their behavior may be a contributing factor. Let us look at two examples.
In the first case the setting is a second year studio where the instructors teaching behavior is guided
by a firm design education theory she subscribes to. Towards the end of a long crit during which
she speaks almost all of the time, she tells the student that she would like to see more detailed
studies of his leading ideas, and various types of specific drawings and models. The following is a
vignette from the final exchange between them:
I:
S:
I:
S:
I:
S:
I:
S:
I:
Look, until the end of the term

You simply get out of me
Get what out of you?
Get out of me
What?
Lots of blood, sweat, and tears [in Hebrew an idiomatic phrase meaning: experiencing hard
work, difficulties and frustration on the way to an achievement]
Out of everybody, not just you
I am not used to working like this
You are not used to it? But you will [get used to it]; this is our profession
The student is obviously frustrated; he thinks he had done enough preliminary work, and he wants
to move on to the final design phase. He sees the instructors requests as a negative assessment of
his progress, and finally he cannot help himself and explodes with a complaint. The instructor,
definitely an educationist, is neither shocked nor puzzled; she sticks with her way of doing things
and does not find it necessary to ask the student, at the end, how is he used to work. She therefore
misses the opportunity to show him what he can gain from complying with her request. The student
does not understand why he is asked to undertake certain assignments, and the chances of his
benefiting from this work are therefore quite slim.
The second case unfolds in a third year studio where a pair of students who work together on a
housing project receive two crits, from two studio instructors, in two consecutive studio meetings.
The first crit proceeds with both students participating actively. The protocol can be divided into
three parts that roughly correspond to predominant types of phrases by the instructor: a) first, the
students present and explain their work and the instructor asks clarification questions and comments
on design in general. b) second, particulars of the design are discussed. c) in the third phase more
general comments on design are offered, but they appear along with proposals and directions for the
development of the project. No negative assessments are voiced, and in the last part of the crit a
number of positive assessments are clearly pronounced.
In the second crit, which is longer, one of the students stops participating after a short while and
remains a passive listener. The instructors phrases in the protocol can be divided into four parts
with the following characteristics: a) in the first part, after hearing the students presentation and
explanations, the instructor shifts among some clarification questions, proposals for development,
and negative assessment. b) second, more clarification questions are asked and some general
development ideas are offered. c) then comes a long phase of more clarification questions. d)
finally, general and particular directions for development are laid out. Negative statements are
frequently made throughout the crit, and some positive assessments are offered in the final phase.
A couple of weeks later the students were presented with the protocols and were asked to mark
those phrases by the instructor that they thought had or will, at a later phase, have influence on the
development of the project. The results are shown in Table 2.
Student 1
Student 2
First crit (17 blocks of 2 phrases)

Have not been
Will not be
influential
influential
0
2
1
0
Second crit (20 blocks of 5 phrases)

Have not been
Will not be
influential
influential
6
1
9
8
Table 2: Influential phrases in protocols of third year studio crits

The difference between the students reaction to the two crits is obvious (and is accentuated by the
discrepancy between the sizes of blocks of phrases in the first and second crit). The first crit is
perceived as helpful: very few of the instructors comments are believed to have no influence on
their work. The second crit elicits a much higher proportion of comments that are not believed to be
helpful; the instructor appears to have failed to encourage trust in the students who are not very
open to her commentary and suggestions. There appear to be two reasons for this state of affairs:
first, the large number of negative statements, which must have discouraged the students. Second,
the apparent lack of structure in this crit, where the instructor made proposals before she had fully
acquainted herself with the work, was also problematic for the students. When asked in a later
debriefing about his lack of participation in this session, the second student said: She [instructor]
didnt seem interested in what I had to say. No wonder that under these circumstances the students
had trouble suspending disbelief in the second crit, while the first crit posed no such problem.
In conclusion
Protocols of one-on-one desk crits are useful because they give us a glimpse into the fineries of this
crucial locus of design education. We have chosen to concentrate on but a small number of episodes
that raise a few of the many important issues that we think should be explored. A further step in this
study, which we have only initiated in an informal way, is presenting the instructors with the
protocols, and with our analyses, for their comments. We have done this, for example, with the
instructor of the second crit referred to in the last section. The instructor was stunned she could
hardly believe the facts and claimed that this is not at all typical of her mode of teaching. We are
quite willing to believe her, but one such session is sufficient to point to problems that may impair
suspension of disbelief.
Today, computational technology is beginning to change the nature of the crit in the studio. The
student uses the computer to present his work (using PowerPoint or similar software), and the
discussion that follows takes place without the traditional spread-out of documents on the desk. It is
difficult to remember or return to specific small points and even more difficult to act on them with
overlaid sketches, for example. Computation has done wonders to enhance the level of presentation
in the studio and elsewhere, but we postulate that in terms of instructional value, the paper and
pencil desk crit has advantages that no computational technique can emulate. It is therefore of great
interest to conduct in-depth explorations of this age-old tradition in order to ameliorate it and
maximize its advantages.
We think that extended studies of the sort we have begun to conduct can potentially provide rich
data on design pedagogy that may be useful in training design instructors. Such training, which is
non-existent at present, could, in our view, be an important contribution to the advancement of

design education everywhere.
Acknowledgments
The research reported in this paper was supported by the fund for the promotion of research at the
Technion. The author wishes to thank students who participated in the Cognitive Aspects of
Architectural Design seminar at the Technion in the last two years, and in particular Hila Nadav,
Michal Daum, Adi Massarwa, Keren Harel, Eyal Hendel, Dani Tatsa, Keren Goldschmidt, Elinor
Aljam, Eran Ben-Dov, Eugene Drobtskoy, Sanny Goldman and Noa Sarel. Their work has
informed this paper and their fresh ideas have enriched my thinking.
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N. Gornick Brunel University, UK
Abstract
The underlying ambition behind the Brunel programme was to generate new kinds of design
professional who understood the contextual dimension of design work, and are able to respond to
these wider revolutionary changes and contribute hugely to the development of new concepts and
products within organisations. They also respond to the demand for closer ties between design and
its social and industrial context by taking up roles as integrators and catalysts for innovation and
change.
Graduates from Brunel have been accepted into manufacturing and service companies as well as
design consultancies. They are valued because they have crossed the tribal divide, they speak
something of the new language of management, they have adequate structural understanding of
institutions and corporate affairs, and they have been taught to be good flexible team workers. They
do not, however, abandon their platform of design skills, or their understanding of creative
processes. These abilities become transformed.
The author's research output to date has focused mainly on an investigation of the value of
academic and industry partnership. This paper is part of a series looking at the nature of both
programmes - collaboration with industry and the career paths of graduates. It will focus on
responses from 1999/2000 Brunel alumni and constitute an analysis of learning outcomes and in
particular, new skills of the MA graduates now retained in quite different organisations.

Introduction
The last two decades have seen astonishing revolutionary changes which have an impact upon the
work of designers. The most obvious revolutions have taken place in the development of new
materials, in advanced manufacturing technology, and in information technology. There have also
been parallel shifts in organisational thought, and in the generation of wider more acute social and
economic perspectives. At one level enterprise management is now much more concerned with
creativity, vision, team working and empowerment, and at another level global conditions are
perceived as more chaotic and complex. The former is in many ways a response to the latter.
Because the world is more complex and difficult to understand then new organisational perceptions,
models and tools are needed.
After many years of promotion by government and design institutions, most companies are now
aware of the enhanced value that design can bring to their organizations. Management personnel
know that design is vital in innovation strategy but may struggle to integrate it successfully in their
businesses. How company personnel are selected for design-related decision-making is still a
subject attracting much scrutiny and deliberation. Enterprises expect innovation from designers
without being overly explicit about their concerns and requirements. For their part, average
designers very often lack skills to describe basic kinds of innovation or how much difference they
might make once achieved.
Design, in all disciplines, is now acknowledged as a valuable resource. Designers, now in positions
of increased influence towards their clients and consumers, may not be using this influence
effectively enough. Designers need to know more and take on more challenges. Exclusion from
major design decision-making processes in client companies need not be a permanent state of
affairs (Gornick 2001).
UK design schools have responded to some of the technical developments, (for instance through
CAD, IT, electronic media and the use of experimental materials) but the wider revolutions have
had little impact in undergraduate design education. In the UK there are now a number of postgraduate courses which in various ways are attempts to change the mainstream culture of design
education and respond to these wider issues. There is a shift to analytical and contextual work
which has an important influence on changing design graduate career paths. Beyond that, individual
MA programs have differences in emphasis - components in the new MAs are similar but the aims
vary.
The Brunel programme

The first formal manifestation of the new contextual MAs occurred at the RCA in 1989-91.The
author constructed and taught that RCA course with David Walker from the Open University. It
may be viewed as a comprehensive pilot scheme for the Brunel Masters programme that followed.
At Brunel, the MA Design, Strategy and Innovation programme was unique in that it sought to
place design graduates in the heartland of enterprise as high up the organisational ladder as possible
in order to influence the integration of design more effectively. The authors intention, as founder
director of the Brunel MA DSI course from1993 to 2001, was to place graduates of this programme
directly into manufacturing and service companies in roles equal in status to middle or senior
management. The key focus was on industry-based research projects. The Brunel programme
continues to grow well but with less emphasis now on these industry-focused objectives.
The underlying ambition behind the Brunel programme was to generate new kinds of design
professional who understood the contextual dimension of design work, and are able to respond to
these wider revolutionary changes and contribute hugely to the development of new concepts and
products within organisations. They also respond to the demand for closer ties between design and
its social and industrial context by taking up roles as integrators and catalysts for innovation and
change.
Graduates from Brunel have been accepted into manufacturing and service companies as well as
design consultancies. They are valued because they have crossed the tribal divide, they speak
something of the new language of management, they have adequate structural understanding of
institutions and corporate affairs, and they have been taught to be good flexible team workers. They
do not, however, abandon their platform of design skills, or their understanding of creative
processes. These abilities become transformed (Walker and Gornick 1996).
The authors research output to date has focused mainly on an investigation of the value of
academic and industry partnership. This paper is part of a series looking at the nature of both
programmes collaboration with industry and the career paths of graduates. It will focus on response
from 1999/2000 Brunel alumni and constitute an analysis of learning outcomes and in particular,
new skills of the MA graduates now retained in quite different organisations. The graduates entered
their employment after completing the programme and it is their qualitative response to issues
relating their training to their career trajectories that will form the basis of this study.
Designer as strategist
This paper begins with the basic premise that in the new millennium design is only half-fulfilling its
promise. Designers have qualities that enable them to do far more than design. As a result of long
term, and ultimately successful promotion by government, design institutions and finally media,
designers have reached a stage of recognition they have long aspired to, but a level which does not
do justice to their range of thinking or inventiveness. For the most part designers are not grasping
the opportunities now open to them.
There is much discussion in design circles currently on the need for design to adopt more strategic
arguments, but also considerable confusion as to what strategic thinking for designers might
actually entail. Strategic thinking in organisations is concerned with setting appropriate goals and
creating pathways for future decision-making. With their innate starting position of posing the
question what if? designers are in key positions to help to push management ideas forward. They
can produce models, prototypes and drawings to show in visual terms what their ideas entail and
they can champion their proposals persuasively with visually enhanced presentations.
Unfortunately there are two main obstacles at present that inhibit most designers from adopting this
route. In the first place, designers are not trained at undergraduate level to take up these tasks in
organisations, their basic education has unspoken parameters which concentrate on the project in
hand and clients given brief.
Secondly, there is natural divergence between inventive, free-ranging creative designers and
rationalist and analytical management personnel. The continual tension and potential conflict
require resolution. Only a few designers have purposefully gained sufficient knowledge of the real
world to be able to sustain arguments coherently. Here we have a conundrum. Managers now know
about the What and the Why of design but they are still unsure of the How. Designers are
now in an enhanced position to lead and yet they have been constrained by their education into
thinking that strategic activity is not part of their range of responsibility.
And yet, if we look at the ideal characteristics of people required to manage the many scenarios of
organisational change, according to management gurus Harvey-Jones (1994) and Handy (1995) the
skills they prescribe bear a remarkably strong resemblance to those inherent in experienced design
activity - the ability to conceptualise, supply prototypes quickly and offer an enhanced
understanding of the consumer/user. Couple this with the fact that working patterns in most areas
have changed significantly as a result of new technology and new management systems and it
would appear that more experienced design-trained graduates need to take the leap into strategic
positions both in industrial companies and design consultancies. Only a few so far have adopted
these new roles.
The idea behind the RCA and Brunel programmes was to take design-trained graduates with work
experience and to expose them to a range of new contextual thinking that would mirror economic
and business issues and all the concerns of current enterprise activity. The aim was to present
students with new options for a range of careers that, at the time, fell under the banner of design
management. The unique proposition of the curriculum was formal industry-based research projects
that would be assessed and credited with equal status to output in academic theory. The intention
was to generate people who would become boundary crossers by broadening student perspectives
and enlarging the range of their working roles. We were totally transparent about the programmes
aims. Students understood that they would be learning new languages in order to engage in a totally
different quality of dialogue.
Left and right sides of the brain

Designers have fundamentally different ways of thinking that is by taking lateral leaps and making
barely rational metaphors and associations. They work through tangible detailed modelling and
prototypes. There is an understandable tension between design and management in organizations
and design is seen to represent the forces of creativity and management represents the forces of
control. The one seems to resist the other but both creativity and control are necessary. Mutual trust
and respect are needed. Design management principles are necessary to hold the two sides together,
and to seek rapport between people who have a lot to offer each other, although they think
differently. Good communication and interpersonal skills are a major component of the programme
philosophy. Both RCA and Brunel programmes emphasised group projects which provided students
with an immediate immersion into both the trials and benefits of team activity and the tangible
experience of working directly in industrial companies.
Knowledge and learning

The theme of this study is the communication juxtaposition between the individual, the team and
the organisation as a whole. Staceys (2000) work on strategic management and organisational
dynamics emphasises the importance of narrative, conversation and learning from ones own
experience as the major ways of gaining understanding and knowledge of strategy in organisations.
He encourages students to reflect upon the usefulness of their own experiences in future activity.
Pfeffer and Sutton (1999) analyse companies overcoming barriers to turning performance
knowledge into organisational actions and maintain that taking action in a prescribed setting and
confronting problems makes learning more efficient as it is grounded in real experience.
Stacey (2000) says: When we talk about communications we try to explain complex human
processes in language taken from a mixture of cognitive psychology and psychoanalysis. Both of
these psychologies start from the position of the autonomous individual. For the former, group and
society are simply formed by individuals who are then influenced by what they have formed. In the
latter, group and society play a much more important role in that the individual mind is structured
by the clash between individual drives and social prohibition. There is another way of thinking
about human nature to be found in sociology, social constructionism, and in something like group
analytic theory. From this perspective, the individual is social through and through to the core. The
individual mind and social relations are simply two different perspectives on the same phenomenon.
Motivation and energy for relating arise in relating.
These days there is much discussion about the learning organisation and knowledge creating
company. This is partly driven by new technology wherein no single individual can keep up to
date with all the recent developments and partly by looser styles of open management. The
underlying ambition behind the Brunel program was to generate new kinds of design professional
who are able to respond to the demand for closer ties between design and industry by taking up
roles as integrators and catalysts for innovation and change. The significance of bringing received
wisdom and point of application together is described by Binney and Williams (1997) who point
out: Learning, in the sense of an increasing capacity to do things, does not take place in the
classroom or in a workshop or even on a company awayday. It happens as people do as they
interact with others and reflect on their experience. Learning comes from bringing thinking and
doing together.
Making connections
Graduates from Brunel are accepted into industry and valued because they have crossed the tribal
divide, they speak something of the new language of management, they have adequate structural
understanding of institutions and corporate affairs, and they have been taught to be good flexible
team workers. They do not, however, abandon their platform of design skills, or their understanding
of creative processes. Rather they bring these abilities and insights to the company, but now newly
expressed and embodied in a form and language that managers can readily understand. The
response from UK industrial companies has been swift and positive. Many company contacts have
written to praise the work of the students and to support the direction of the program (Walker and
Gornick 1996).
The curriculum was not an easy process to follow; it demanded much from students. Stacey (2000)
argues that there is a recognized struggle in each human to retain personal freedom, to take leaps
into the unknown and at the same time to seek the reassurance of familiar landscapes and systems.
Stacey describes it as the paradoxical human need to fuse into a group and yet remain an
individual. Dialogue is where two parties exchange views about paradoxical situations, each
having the intention of modifying their position in the light of the views and evidence presented by
the other. Each participant is open to being influenced by the other. Argument is simply stating
positions without any intention of moving. Dialogue is thus the required process for intelligent
reasoning.
Conversational life cannot develop according to an overall blueprint since no one has the power to
determine what others will talk about all the time. Creativity, innovation and learning are all
transformations of organising themes as they reproduce themselves. Stacey concludes that the key
to this transformation is diversity. The fundamental requirement for transformation is non-average,
deviant, maverick or eccentric behaviour on the part of the entities comprising a system.
Monitoring and evaluation

In shaping the new Brunel curriculum with my colleague David Walker from the OU it became
apparent that constant monitoring and evaluation would be required. There were 3 reasons for this.
First, major components of the programme were formal industry-based research exercises for
students. In sequence, the first of these was a student team design management audit of a selected
company and the second, an individual student internship in a company either already known to the
programme or newly selected by the student. These industry-based exercises involved complex
organization by the author with industrial companies who were involved in continual change and an
increasingly volatile economic climate. As there was a formal student assessment by credited report
and presentation, these projects had to be monitored closely. Secondly, programme material and
references could never be static but had to reflect constantly changing economic and business
environments. Fiinally, these programmes were undertaken as an experiment in design education.
This evaluation process started in earnest when the programme started at Brunel in 1994. It had to
be proved that the idea was sound and where modifications were required. Feedback from both
industrial partners and graduates of the programme was paramount.
Over the 12 year period of directing these programmes the author has observed certain emergent
patterns in graduate outcomes. Some were to be expected and others evolved from specific elements
in the curriculum. It had been decided early in programme planning that there would be a limit on a
yearly intake of up to 15 students in order to allow for maximum student/tutor interface and a
continual opportunity for students to discuss and present their ideas both formally and informally.
We wanted all voices to be heard in discussion. As a result of this decision the group dynamic in
each yearly intake became very pronounced.
Advancing into new areas of strategic thinking and relating new material to their own career
potential was a steep learning curve for students. A high diver learns his or her skill in the
swimming pool by tackling successively higher levels of diving boards. It is a frightening process
and challenging at the same time. At each stage something new is learned about the individuals
skills and capabilities and especially, their courage quotient. It is evident that support of peer group
members going through the same exercises at the same time is a key factor in successful knowledge
gain and strong motivation for achievement (Gornick and Inns 2000).
The students in year 1999/2000 formed a particularly strong group. Their comments on the years
teaching and learning throws some light on the levels of their adoption of the new language.
Structure and curriculum of the course as a whole:
TG: (Graduate employed by Oyster Digital Design consultancy) The curriculum of the course
exceeded my expectations. On reflection and due to the emergence of new technologies and digital
industries in the past year, I feel that there should be much more emphasis on new economy
businesses, systems and practices. Apart from this, the curriculum was a broad, introduction to the
scope of design management. The theory work served as excellent material and tools to equip us in
the real world!
JD: (Graduate is partner in strategic consultancy, Engine) Overall course structure and curriculum is
excellent and would seem to cover all the relevant/most pertinent issues, allowing students the
opportunity to specialize in their particular areas of interest. Audit and internship programmers are
vital, allows specific elements of taught course to be implemented in practice. The industry links
proved to be an excellent way of gaining employment, and experiences provide intellectual food
for the final dissertation.
DT: (Graduate is Innovation Scouting and Planning Manager at Orange) In the curriculum of the
MADSI course, one module feeds into another and so when it comes to practice during the audit,
students are well prepared. Dont change the structure.
SC: (Graduate is employed by lOreal, France) The structure of the course is fine but very intense
for one year. It would be advisable to make sure that anyone interested in doing the course knows in
advance. The curriculum is very interesting. The nature of the course is great, very fulfilling, with a
good mix of lecturers.
Relationship between theoretical and practical elements, particularly the value of the practical:
TG: The group audit project served as a good introduction to the application of our newly taught
design management and strategic skills within a commercial context. Lessons learned from the first
3 months were put to test in an environment that was wholly welcoming of our work (HSBC being
the case study). This led to a productive 4 weeks where students were able to test theories, explore
new ways of working and develop techniques taught. The support of working amongst a team
further enhanced the opportunity and our confidence to explore our new roles and skills.
The second practical exercise; the internship period, took this process of student development
towards employment one step further. The internship period (in Oyster consultancy) again served as
an excellent period to exercise new skills, but also test the water and discover particular attributes.
It provided excellent opportunities to make contacts in industry and extended relationships with the
host companies. This was a tough period but valuable.
AF: (Graduate employed by Oyster Digital Design consultancy) The internship period is very
important to employment. My time at IBM serves as a real door-opener to potential employers, and
the experience of the audit is something that sounds very impressive during interviews. I originally
started the course because I was fed up free-lancing and I wanted a new direction to take my design
skills into industry. The course has provided me with an excellent springboard to take me into
industry.
SC: It is very valuable to apply the theory when doing the internship.
CT: (Graduate is Head of Product development at Innovata, a medical device manufacturing
company) One of the great strengths of the course is this new cognitive view (which) is put to the
test through the use of design audit and internship, both of which I thoroughly enjoyed.
DT: Moving from academic theory to practice is salutary. Creating ideas in the university context
is easy; implementing them in practice is very difficult. Two weeks after I arrived to start my
internship at Orange, the person who took me on left to start another job. I had convinced him that
my research into a fuzzy, intangible area would be useful for the company, and his exit meant I had
to find my way without a champion for a while. By learning new languages and ways of
communicating, I managed to make a diffuse area more focused, more understandable.
The holistic outlook and strategic content of the Brunel masters program enabled me to consider
the audience whenever I speak in the company. Marketers and engineers don't talk together easily;
people with an industrial design background can encourage communication. So I changed my
language, established a role, and brought more people in for what we call innovation scouting,
which functions internally for related products and planning and externally for new ideas and new
technology. The most important aspect of corporate life, I have found, is personal relationships and
networking.
Learning outcomes
TG: Learning outcomes led to a confidence and clarity to be able to apply design and not just to
produce it; to consider elements of design management that cover a spectrum of meanings; to
explore new areas of design outside the area of our own specializations; to work alongside a
spectrum of design practitioners within the group, gaining a better picture of the real potential for
design and design management; to make contacts in business on a senior level; and the confidence
to write reports and conduct presentations.
AF: The over-riding thing about the course that made it special for me is what you can learn from
your peers. The lectures opened our minds to different ways of seeing things, and this was taken
further by discussions with my classmates.
DT: The thing that brings the course alive is the mix of people on it and the different experiences
they bring. I believe our year was very fortunate to have a range of people who all had similar
aspirations about how design can be used strategically and yet had a varied background. This aspect
is helped through the recruitment of students who have work experiences that they can bring as well
as more general life experiences. This is not to say that recruits should not come straight from
university, but they should be very strong candidates if they do.
JD: Overall, Im convinced that this kind of curriculum should be taught before any BA course, but
that gets us into a whole debate about the British design education system.
Deliverables ie. Employment potential:
TG: Employee potential has been highly fertile from this years MADSI. This is the result of a
combination of the excellence of the course and the teaching, but also the enthusiasm and
connectivity of an excellent set of students. This connectivity and enthusiasm should be wholly
encouraged.
AF: I am delighted with the choice of course I made; I have numerous different skills that I feel I
could use to obtain employment. I have a good job and I have learned lots.
JD: Deliverables (if anything) should be slightly more project based, I think this might provide
better employment potential; the highly strategic nature of the course may I think possibly scare
some employers and make students appear over-qualified.
DT: I got exactly what I wanted out of the course, which is surprising, considering that I didnt
know what that was. My objective was a change in career direction. The course doesnt just open
your mind; it turns it inside out. I firmly believe that I would have been unable to secure the
position I now hold had it not been for the learning I have gone through over the last year.
CT: Fundamentally the MADSI course stimulated me to consider design at new levels and with
greater breadth. This stimulus was complimented with the tools to inquire and think both
strategically and in an innovative way. I now have the confidence to comment on, and manage,
design within industry.
Conclusions
In examining the relationship between the individual student and his or her peer group, it is evident
that the course made its intentions transparent. Graduates for the most part, although agreeing with
the philosophy of the course and aware of the outline curriculum, found the theoretical material new
and challenging. The formal team-based audit was a successful exercise in terms of an initial foray
into the corporate world. The individual student internship was a more complex undertaking and
stretched student interpersonal and diplomatic skills.
The value of the industry-based research activity is seen as an important departure for this type of
post-graduate programme enabling graduates to experience at first hand the problems and dilemmas
that occur regularly in modern enterprises subject to continual change.
The students were encouraged to function equally well as individuals or in groups either as leaders
or members of the team. In discovering new roles for themselves and at the same time recognizing
new facets of their own personalities. In the year 1999/2000 the peer group reinforced their
emergent new personal knowledge.
The standard of teaching and particularly the wide range of tutors expertise was welcomed.
Experienced students appreciate differences of opinion in lectures. They have a better opportunity
to understand where they stand personally in the spectrum of taught theory. Graduate response
reveals that informal discussions in the group evidently played an important part in further
analyzing and reinforcing taught theory. In the collective memory of the graduates surveyed, the
information retained as a result of informal discussions was vital in developing individual
knowledge resources.
The change in graduate perceptions, knowledge and language opens doorways to career options
hitherto unexplored. There have been indications that their new skills are not always readily
understood, especially by human resource departments that have established formulae to follow. A
design-based graduate would be seen as being a designer, rather than a design strategist. Graduates,
however, have entered organizations and have been employed as a result of their ability to invent a
new role specifically for their host organization.
It is to be expected that resistance may be encountered in many spheres, in education, but much less
so industry. It is essential to find champions in organizations to support students undertaking these
research-based projects. In each team audit, and two took place each year with teams of around 7
students in each, a company liaison was appointed to monitor students progress with course
director. In the individual student internship this role was not covered in each instance, hence the
history of DT at Orange.
Final note
The programmes at RCA and Brunel started out, essentially, as an experiment. They challenged the
orthodoxy of design education. There was bound to be some resistance to the ethos and ideas. It was
one thing for the author and colleagues to argue the case and quite another to expose graduates to
the conflicting opinions. They have risen to the challenge well. There is continual communication
between staff and alumni, and a strong solidarity. Career patterns continue to be monitored.
Alumni are always considerate of recent graduates and make every effort to help them whenever
possible. There are two MADSI alumni currently teaching in the Design Department at
Runnymede, one is a lecturer on the current MADSI course .
References
Binney, George and Colin Williams 1997 Leaning into the future. London: Nicholas Brealy
Publishing, London
Gornick, Naomi 1998 The Designer as Strategist: A New Management Role. Design Management
Journal, Vol. 9, No 2; Spring, 1998
Gornick, Naomi and Tom Inns 2000 Working Partnerships: Organisational Learning in Industry
and Academia through Design Knowledge Initiatives. DMI Conference Paper Frankfurt
Gornick, Naomi 2001 Objects of Desire: The Designer Leading or Being Led. Stockholm:
Designjournalen Vol.8, No 1
Handy, Charles 1995 The Empty Raincoat. London: Arrow Business Books
Harvey-Jones, John 1994 Managing to Survive. London: Mandarin
Pfeffer,Jeffrey and Robert I.Sutton 2000 The Knowing-Doing Gap. Boston: Harvard Business
School Press
Stacey, Ralph D. 2000 Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics: The Challenge of
Complexity. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education
Walker, David. & Naomi Gornick 1996 Design management trajectories: the Brunel experience.
DMI International Forum on Design management Research & Education, Barcelona
10
Product charisma
J. Gotzsch Groupe Ecole Suprieure de Commerce de Grenoble, France
Abstract
Consumers are attracted by product designs that feel alive and that contain surprise elements.
Meaningful product attributes are an important way to differentiate a product from the competitors
products. Companies in mature markets, especially, have a competitive advantage when they
succeed in integrating this emotional value or experience into the product design.
This paper presents a classification of the various messages that a product can convey. The different
product messages are visualised by means of a schema in which three groups of messages are
distinguished. These three groups consist of messages about the product itself, about the company
and about the product user.
The product messages are described in detail and illustrated with recent examples of meaningful
product designs.
The classification of the different product messages is a synthesis based on findings from literature.
In a next research stage this classification and the development process of products with emotional
value will be analysed in further detail.
Product charisma
During the last decades, industrial product design has moved from a rational approach to a more
psychological approach in which meaningful messages in design have gained importance.
A product can, for example, contain status symbols or look friendly to work with. The right
messages or emotional values in a product contribute to its attractiveness and influence the buyers
decision.
The main objective of this article is to present an overview of possible messages in a product. In the
overview, three groups of messages are distinguished. These groups consist of messages about the
product itself, about the company, and about the product user. These product messages are
described in detail, visualised in three diagrams and illustrated with recent examples of meaningful
product designs.
More competition, more messages

Several people in the design field (Eger, 1991; Luh, 1994; Marzano, 2000; McDonagh-Philp et al.,
2000) have emphasized the importance of emotional benefits produced by the messages in the
product. This emotional benefit can be a competitive advantage. According to Marzano (2000),
head of Philips Corporate Design, companies no longer have to satisfy peoples functional needs,
but have to provide them with ways to stimulate their senses and intellect. Philips Corporate Design
aims to design meaningful objects that support people in their daily tasks, express values they
believe in, and stimulate their emotions and creativity. The integration of this emotional
experience in the product design is used to differentiate the product from competing products with
the same functionality.
The Italian company Alessi produces tableware and other domestic products. Some of its products
have an expressive and non-conventional product design. In Westerlaken (1999) Alberto Alessi, the
Chief Executive of Alessi, remarks that a product has to fulfil its function, but that its emotional
function is becoming more important. McDonagh-Philp et al. (2000) summarize this same
phenomenon as follows: In the design research stages, emphasis is changing from hard
functionality to soft values in product design.
Different terminologies are used to describe the soft qualities of a product. McDonagh-Philp et al.
(2000) use the term emotional domain, soft design or soft functions in product design.
Durgee (1999) calls this product soul. Brdek and Gros (2000) and Steffen (2000) use the terms
product language and symbolic function. Marzano (2000) uses the term product experience,
which is close to the terminology added emotional value, emotional fit or product emotions
used by Desmet, Overbeeke and Tax (2001). For an overview of these different terminologies see
figure 1.
Terminology
for Meaningful Product Design
Durgee (1999): Rensselaer
Polytechnic Instititute
Emotional domain, soft design, soft McDonagh-Philp & Lebbon (2000):
functions
Loughborough University & Royal
College of Art
Product Meaning
Muller (1997): Delft University of
Technology
Product language
Brdek (1996), Brdek & Gros
Symbolic functions
(2000), Steffen (2000): Hochschule
fr Gestaltung Offenbach am Main
Emotional function
Westerlaken (1999): Alessi
Experiential design, emotional
Klviinen (2000): The Kuopio
experiences with products
Academy of Design
Product experience, useful and
Marzano (2000): Philips Corporate
meaningful product
Design
Pleasure, pleasure benefits,
Jordan in Green & Jordan (1999):
pleasurable products
Philips Corporate Design
Added emotional value, emotional
Desmet, Overbeeke & Tax (2001):
fit, emotional product experience,
Delft University of Technology
product emotions
Product Soul
Figure 1: Terminologies to describe product messages.

There is a relationship between these different terms. The above terminologies look at the
phenomenon at three different levels. The first level indicates the existence of communicative
product qualities. At this level we find: soft design, emotional function, symbolic function,
emotional domain and product language.
The existence of this phenomenon leads to a product with: meaning, identity, character, soul,
symbolic value, added emotional value, pleasurable benefits etc. This is the second level.
Products with the above qualities cause a reaction on the level of the product user. They might bring
about an emotional benefit, product experience, product appeal, product charisma or product
attraction.
The terminology emotional value or emotional benefit will be used in the following text. A
product will be considered to have appeal or charisma because of its mix of functional and
emotional value.
History: The growing importance of emotional product value

The movement from product design based on functionality towards product design with an accent
on communicative product aspects has been gradual.
In 1896, the American architect Louis Sullivan published an essay in which he stated: form
follows function. He referred to the appearance of the buildings he was designing and the
influence of the buildings function on its shape. The same design philosophy "form follows
function" was used extensively thereafter in product design and architecture, persisting until around
1980.
Functional product styling

In the period 1919 1933, the influential German Bauhaus movement used a functional
product styling. The Bauhaus aimed to adapt the products design to the industrial possibilities of
that period. This philosophy of design for industry and the concept of form follows function
resulted in a minimalist product styling based on geometrical shapes and few decorations. The
product was said to look modern because a machine made it. Few products designed in the Bauhaus
period were taken into production (the Bauhaus period from 1919-1933 was very short), but some
of the Bauhaus products, such as the table lamp by K. Jucker and W. Wagenfeld, show the force of
the form follows function principle. For example, the table lamp by K. Jucker and W. Wagenfeld
is still in production 70 years after its creation. (See figure 2). After the Second World War, many
design schools in Europe were based on the Bauhaus principles of functionality.
Figure 2: The Bauhaus table lamp, by K. Jucker and W. Wagenfeld in 1923-1924 (Droste, 1990).
Decorative product styling

Streamlining or aerodynamic product styling became very popular in the United States around the
period 1935-1955. With American streamlining, decorative (non-functional) elements were added
to the design of consumer goods. See for example the streamlined car design in figure 3. In the
1930s, the French product designer Raymond Loewy said, "La laideur se vend mal", in other
words, that ugly looking products are difficult to sell. Raymond Loewy expressed the need for
decorative elements in product design and used this product styling to promote his services as a
product designer in the United States. He was one of the pioneers in the United States to use
aerodynamic product styling.
Streamlined styling was first used for the design of aerodynamic products such as cars and trains.
This was useful to lower petrol consumption. Later, streamlining became a meaningful symbol,
which signified modernism and technical progress in society. When this style was applied to static
products, such as a refrigerator, commercial success was instantaneous.
Figure 3: Streamline: The Pontiac Silver Streak, 1948, General Motors USA (Kras R. et al. 2001).
Meaningful product styling
The United States was ahead of Europe in applying decorative styles such as streamlining.
European design remained dominated by the rational concept of form follows function for a long
time. In Europe, the real break from the functionalist approach in product design came with the
designs from the Memphis group (Brdek, 1996). From 1981, the Italian design group Memphis
created furniture and decorative products, such as lamps and vases. The Memphis designs are
expressive, often provocative and cheerful.
Figure 4: The Memphis bookcase Carlton designed by E. Sottsass in 1981 (Woodham, 1997).
The bookcase designed by Ettore Sottsass (figure 4) is an example of early work in the Memphis
design style. It reveals an anti-functionalist attitude through its use of colour, decoration and
experimentation with form and surface (Woodham, 1997).
The interest in the Memphis designs showed the need for change and the increasing interest in
meaningful product aspects. The practical, rational aspect of product design no longer fulfilled all
needs and did not dominate the products shape any more.
The Memphis products received a lot of attention and international companies such as Philips and
Sony were influenced by this design philosophy. Many companies in consumer goods started to pay
more attention to these expressive product qualities.
Theoretical background of the emotional product function

In the 1960s, the French philosophers Barthes and Baudrillard started to analyse the sociopsychological meaning of products. Barthes argued in his book Mythodologies (1957) that
objects and images not only signify their basic function, but also carry a "meta"-meaning. He
discussed the socio-psychological function of objects and referred to the science of signs
(semiology) that is based in linguistics (Julier, 1993). The analysis of the sociologist Baudrillard
was based on semiology as well. In his book Le systeme des objets (1969), he describes the link
between social life and symbols in products (de Noblet, 1993).
Around 1975, the theory of product language was developed at the Offenbacher Hochschule fr
Gestaltung. In the Offenbacher theory of product language the product functionality is
distinguished from the product language. Among the products language aspects we can
distinguish message aspects and aesthetic aspects (Brdek, 1996; Steffen, 2000).
In the Offenbacher theory of product language the message (or sign function) gives meaning to the
product and is considered as the content of this product language. The aesthetic function is
considered as the grammar or the structure of this product language (figure 5).
Product
Language
Product aesthetics
(Grammar)
Product Meaning
(Content)
Figure 5: Basic structure of Product Language by the Offenbacher Hochschule fr Gestaltung.

In the following diagram a figure is developed that is based on this structure. A slightly different
vocabulary has been chosen and the product meaning is developed in more detail.
Product meaning in more detail

In the following text the product meaning is divided into different types of messages that can be
communicated by the product. In this renewed diagram, the product meaning is divided into three
main groups of messages: messages about the product itself, about its user and about the
company (see figure 6).
Product
Language
Product aesthetic
(Grammar)
Product Meaning
(Content)
Messages
About the Product
Messages
About the User
Messages
About the Company
Figure 6: Summary of different messages we might find in a product.

Published remarks from designers and research from different sources (Steffen, 2000; Durgee,
1999; Klviinen, 2000; Marzano 2000; Fayolle 2000; Fishman 1999) have been used to obtain this
further understanding of the different messages in a product.
In the following three sections we will first look at three major groups of product messages. In the
first place the messages about the product itself, secondly, about its user and thirdly, about the
company. Each group is developed in detail.
Messages about the product

Messages about the product provide information about the product itself. Information about the
product is divided into three subgroups: product information, place in time & culture, and affective
signs. For an overview see figure 7.
Nature Symbols
Plants & Flowers
Animals, Elements
Affective
signs
Human Characteristics
Product seems alive
Craft Qualities
Person behind, Unique
Imperfections, Honesty
1)
Messages about
The Product
Human shape
Mother, Male, Child,
Sensual Code,
Emotion
Joyful, Playful,
Friendly, pleasure
Artistic Feel
Dreams, Poetry, Luxury
Cultural Identity
National / Regional Style
German, French, Made in
Place in
Time & Culture
Styling Movements
Present, Future (Hope)
Historical
Archetype, Authentic
Product
Information
Novelty & Surprise

Feeling of Discovery,
Originality, Exotic
Working Principle
What, How, When ,
Quality, Performance
Figure 7: Signs about the products, its place in time & culture and affection.
The group product information can contain messages about the products working principle
(how, where, and when to use the product). Innovative elements in the products design (novelty
and surprise) are also included in this category. This message group basically explains the
products function and its elements of newness.
The second group of messages in a products design (place in culture and time) can contain
historical styling elements, be part of a styling movement or be the expression of a cultural
identity. This group of messages places a product in its historical or cultural context.
The third group of messages is called affective signs. Affective signs might concern the artistic
feel of the product, its craft qualities, its human characteristics or the use of symbols related to
nature. This group brings a product closer to its user, because the product feels more human
than industrial.
Messages about the product: product information

Messages that give information about the product contribute to a better understanding of the
product. In the following sections we will look at symbols related to:
The product's working principle

The products quality
The products newness and surprise elements.
Working principle
Messages concerning the products usage give information about what the product does
(identification of its function). The design can express as well how to use it and when to use it (for
instance, under festive or daily circumstances).
Quality
A product can be designed as well to give an indication about its performance and quality. A
products design can accentuate the products performance because product styling can be used to
make a product look faster or even more powerful (for example, in car designs).
Novelty, originality or surprise
Styling elements can be used to ensure that distinctive, original qualities are noticed within the first
moments of decisive contact with the product. Surprise conjured up by the product gives a product
an attractive character (Durgee, 1999; Klviinen, 2000).
Now we will look at the second detailed group within the theme messages about the product. This
detailed group places the product in its cultural context and time frame.
Messages about the product: place in time & culture

Specific forms or colours give a product a cultural or temporal signification. Historical symbols
show our roots (Durgee, 1999) or give us a sense of belonging (Klviinen, 2000). Styling
trends gives us identifying marks (Starck in Bommel, 1997). Symbols concerning time & culture
are related to:
Historical value
Styling movements
Cultural values
Historical value
Many products on the market are based on old designs and obtain their appeal from their
association with earlier times. Archetypal shapes make a product easily recognisable and give a reassuring value because they make us feel the roots of our identity (Durgee, 1999).
The popularity of antique products demonstrates the importance of traditional shapes as well as
authentic values. An aspect that is specifically important in antique products is the life the product
had before. Products that rate highly in terms of soul look like they have been through a lot, and
that they would have many stories to tell. They seem to be attached to another life (Durgee,
1999). The past has a special symbolic meaning, because tradition is a metaphor for high quality
(Klviinen, 2000).
Styling movements
Often it is possible to recognize the period in which a product was designed. The choice of
materials and shapes determines if a product fits in its period. A sixties design has different styling
from a product designed in the nineties. This gives the product a modern or old-fashioned look.
The French designer Philippe Starck remarks that he tries to work with semantics as a tool. What he
does has to be sometimes in line and sometimes in conflict with society. In any case, it has to give
identifying marks. Every period has its colour (Bommel, 1997). Klviinen (2000) explains that
we need such references because the connection between history, contemporary time and the
future gives us a sense of belonging.
Cultural symbols
A German style or French look can contribute to the charm and attraction of a product. An example
in car design is the more solid look of the German Volkswagen and the expressive look of
the French Peugeot 206. Additionally, appreciation of colours is not the same in every geographic
region; a wrong colour can lead to the rejection of a well-designed product.
Apart from the two previous message groups product information and time & culture we will
now look at a third group concerning affective signs. Affective symbols are currently very present
in products. For an overview, see figure 7.
Messages about the product: affective signs

Affective products have a friendly presence or create user affinity (Fayolle, 2000). Different ways
exist to create affective products, for example a touch of luxury or craft quality in a products
design can make a product appealing.
Craft qualities make the product unique and show its warm human side (Klviinen, 2000).
Craft qualities even bring a touch of human warmth to product design. A product can have a lively
character and somehow look like a new friend. Affective symbols may include signs about nature
too. This can be reassuring or poetic for humans in an industrialised world.
In the following text we will look at symbols related to:
Dreams, artistic feel, luxury

Craft qualities and product uniqueness
Human characteristics
Nature
Dreams, artistic feel and luxury

According to Alberto Alessi, the Italian producer of expressive domestic objects, art is lacking in
many products and Objects have to make you dream (Westerlaken, 1999). Elements such as
dreams, hope for a better future or the illusion of luxury have always been important in products.
Design movements such as the Art Nouveau or the Art Deco demonstrate this. Elements of dreams,
hope and luxury can be found in the decorative elements of the Art Deco period. At a time of great
American economic depression, architects designed buildings that contained the illusions of luxury
with decorations that make you dream (of rich cultures of the past). Products that contain
decorations or that feel artistic are special. Such products take time to appreciate (Durgee, 1999).
Craft qualities and product uniqueness
Hand-made quality adds personality to a product. Hand-made products give the feeling that there is
a person behind the product (Durgee, 1999). The knowledge of the touch of the human hand makes
the product more valuable than a machine-made one. It does not feel like a cold industrial product.
10
Apart from this human warm side, a hand-made product can be used in the search for
individuality. The marks of tools and the involvement of the crafts person make a product unique.
Hand-made production means produced in small quantities. This contributes to the special character
of the product and in its turn to the uniqueness of its user (Klviinen, 2000).
Even imperfections in a mass-produced product can make a product unique and therefore personal
and valuable. For example, a specific noise in a car makes this car different from other cars and
therefore recognisable and personal.
Human characteristics
In current product design, the human shape is often present in a simplified and abstract form.
Products can be attributed with human characteristics so that humans feel closer to them. We can
distinguish designs that are based on the shape of the human body and designs that conjure up
associations with human emotions. The Amora ketchup bottle refers to a body shape in a direct
and simple way and was designed to appeal to children. See figure 8.
Figure 8: Image of Amora Bottle designed by Barre & Associs (Barr B., Lepage F., 2001).
Within Philips, research is developing in the area of emotional product experience and
communicative needs. Stefano Marzano, the managing director of Philips Design (450 designers
worldwide), is managing several research projects on future design concepts. Different disciplines
such as social sciences, cultural behaviour, and production technology work together in these
projects (Brdek et al, 2000). Marzano (2000) explains that the anthropomorphic form of the
Philips web cam creates a friendlier relationship with its user. This was found to be an important
characteristic of the camera that helps to take away the big brother is watching you feeling. See
figure 9.
11
Figure 9: Philips web cam with lively characteristics.

According to the IDSA, the Industrial Designers Society of America, animation and softness are
present in this playful new creature. Philips Corporate Design received the ISDA 1999 Gold
Industrial Design Award for the design of this web-cam.
Durgee (1999) argues that the object of marketing is to give a product a personality or a soul, or in
other words: to make it come alive. This was exactly what happened when the French design
agency Barr & Associs designed a new children toothbrush for Signal. The product feels rather
lively as it is standing up and has a body and a head (Barr et al., 2001).
Figure 10: The product idea and the creation of a Signal toothbrush (Barr B., Lepage F., 2001).
The Apple iMac and iBook give the feeling of a product that is alive too. These computers have a
light that blinks on and off when the computer is in its standby mode. People have described it as
breathing and beating: The iBook breathes (Fishman, 1999). Humour and enjoyment can be
integrated into a product on purpose. Jonathan Ive, the designer of the Apple iMac describes that
the team aims to design products that people enjoy (Fishman, 1999).
12
Figure 11: The new iMac with flat screen

Apple gave its most recent iMac with a flat screen, launched in January 2002, liveliness too. The
new iMac with a flat screen can be adjusted at different angles. This time this was not based on
human characteristics, but on nature. Steve Jobs says about this computer: Instead of looking like
the old iMac, it looks like a sunflower.
Nature symbols
Many elements in the Art Nouveau movement were based on romantic flower patterns. Animal
shapes can be found in the more recent movement of Bio-design, used considerably in automotive
design between 1980 and 1990. Durgee (1999) found that elements in the product showing close
connections with nature and natural forces contribute to the personality, or what he calls high
soul, of the product. Not only the shape of the product, but also the materials can create a feeling
for the product. An organic material such as wood is perceived as a warm and living material.
Inorganic materials such as marble, glass or metal are perceived as cold, hard, industrial and dead
materials. Natural materials have distinctive smells and sounds and simply refer to nature. While
we live in busy cities, we may try to bring back our past connection with nature by using natural
materials and shapes in our products (Klviinen, 2000).
In the previous section the theme messages about the product in detail was developed in detail.
Now we will look at the second important theme messages about the product. See figure 6 for the
overview.
Messages about the user: being the same or different

A product user can choose to be the same or, on the other hand to be different from others and
he / she can use a product to communicate this. The products design can communicate the users
personal characteristics such as age, gender (female or male) and / or personality. For
example, a car might be imagined to be fast and its owner can also be imagined as having the same
quality. This means that the styling of the car is used to communicate a supposed personal
characteristic of its user.
13
A product can express social characteristics too. For example the product can provide status or
demonstrate the success its owner has in life, it can reflect its users ambitions or beliefs and the
persons lifestyle.
Gender
Male - Female
...
Personal
characteristics
Personality (Character)
Conventional -Provocative,
Friendly Aggressive
Emotional Rational
Informal - Formal, Artistic,
Fast, Luxurious, Unique
2)
Messages about
The User
expressing
individualism
(being different)
or
groupaffiliation
(being
the same)
Age
Young - Old,
Status & Success
Social
characteristics
Ambitions & Values

Ecology, economic,
religious,
Life-Style
Group affiliation
Figure 12: Messages about the product user in the products design.
Messages about the company

The third major theme to discuss is messages about the company (see figure 6). Messages about
the company demonstrate the companys values. Some of the companys intrinsic values might
become visible through its products. For example, Apple Computer, whose slogan is Think
different, distinguished itself from competition by being the first company to sell coloured
computers in a very friendly and different design (Thibault, 1999; Redhead, 1998). All competitors
products had beige or grey colours and a technical product shape. This different approach was a
success. The Apple iMac was launched in August 1998 and in the first year 2 million iMacs were
sold (Fishman, 1999).
14
Intrinsic Values
Companys Style
3)
Messages about
The Company
Brand Image
Corporate Design
Designers Style
Figure 13: Company image and designers style expressed in a product.
Swatch and Bang & Olufsen are two other examples of companies with a clearly recognisable style.
In some cases the designer has an expressive personal style and the companies demand this design
signature in its product. Examples are the watches designed by Mendini or Haring for the art
collection of the Swatch watches (Hayak et al. 1991).
Figure 14: Swatch designed by Keith Haring in 1985 (Edwards, 1998).
Future research
As shown in the previous text, products can contain a variety of messages. In this article the
objective was to obtain a detailed overview of these meaningful messages in a products design.
The three diagrams in this article (figure 7, 12 and 13) summarise the variety of communicative
signs we might find in a product.
It is important to obtain a good understanding of this facet of a products design, because today,
meaningful symbols are an important way to differentiate a product from the competitors products.
Consumers are attracted by product designs that feel alive and that contain a surprise element.
When competition grows, improving the products emotional quality becomes essential for a
company.
This theoretical synthesis needs to be compared with the design practice and the development
process of products with personality needs to be analysed in further detail too. It is not only
important to know what kinds of messages are integrated in a products design, but also to analyse
the methods used in design-oriented companies to obtain a product with added emotional value.
15
Different variables in the company culture, the R&D resources and the development process are
expected to influence the creation of products with added emotional value. A competitive
environment is expected to stimulate this process as well. Future case study research is therefore
planned in companies producing competitive consumer goods with a very strong design orientation.
16
References
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Netherlands: Uitgeverij ten Hagen & Stam.
Brdek, B. and Gros, J. (2000), The Offenbach Approach: Design Theory and Design Research in a
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Concepts for Product Phases, Design Management Journal, winter, pp30-39.
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Design Journal, Volume 3, issue 1.
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17
Steffen, D. (2000), Design als Produktsprache, Frankfurt am Main: Verlag form GmbH.
Thibault, B., (1999), Steve Jobs: retour dun crateur mythique, Le magazine Accor, Mars, N 12.
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18

performance, and description format
K. Hasuike Human Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd, Japan
T. Matsuo Human Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd, Japan
K. Takeuchi Human Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd, Japan
M. Tozaki Human Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd, Japan
Abstract
In this study, we explored a set of methodologies that can be used at earlier phases of the design
process, for designing and analyzing interaction design. Our methodology features a prototyping
method that adopts performance technique, an observation method using video from the view of a
user and a view that includes the system as a whole, and a method for describing interaction
scenarios. Our method aimed to use the scenario and performance as techniques for communicating
new design concepts and sharing experiences between designers and users, and to promote
interaction between the user community and the design team. We enacted two case studies
regarding the adaptation of the methodology. In one case a designer role-played a user, and in
another case real users enacted the performances. We evaluated and confirmed the effectiveness of
the methodology through these practices.

performance, and description format
Introduction
The user's experiences are shaped via interaction among users, artifacts, information, and
environments in the interaction sphere. In order to enhance the user's experiences, it is important to
capture the user's needs in their appropriate context from the viewpoint of interaction design at
earlier phases of design development. In current design processes, interactions are described using
various methods. At the planning and designing phase, the interaction styles and scenarios are
represented with using certain design methods such as idea sketches, storyboards, text stories, and
flow charts. At the analysis phase, interaction sequences are observed and analyzed by means of
usability evaluation methods, for example - video analysis and protocol analysis.
Two major problems are involved in these current processes:
1.
We cannot directly compare the interaction designed in the design phase with the interaction
captured in the analysis phase, because different methods are used for representing the
interaction in each phase.
2.
The target systems are analyzed in the context of their use, after functional prototypes are
made. However, at this point it is too late to address the essential interaction design
requirements and problems. Due to these problems, sufficient design in the context of use
cannot be achieved with the participation of the user.
Research objectives
For performing user-centered interaction design, we think it is effective to create a description
method that can be used for both design and analysis. If such a method is established, we can
compare the interaction scenarios considered by the designer or planner, with interaction sequences
the user actually acted. This also enables design teams to compare scenarios made by several
persons, and to reuse whole or part of scenarios created in other projects.
On the other hand, it is also important to create a method that enables us to simulate artifacts-in-use
(Bannon and Bodker 1996) in the real users' contexts at an earlier phase before functional
prototypes can be made. We think the possibility of creating such a method exists in prior studies
concerning performance such as "Informance" (Burns et al. 1994), "Experience Prototyping"
(Buchenau and Fulton 2000), and the playful design approaches (Brandt et al. 2000a/b).
Based on such recognition, we explore and propose a method that uses an enhanced scenario-based
design and prototyping method involving performance. Our methodology consists of:
1.
A description formats for representing the interaction scenario, which can be used for design
and analysis.
2.
A method for prototyping the experiences of target artifacts at earlier phases of the design
process, using the scenario and playing performance technique.
3.
An observation method using video that captures the user's personal views and the system
views.
4.
A method of analyzing interaction based on comparing designed interaction and observed

interaction.
Procedure
Our methodology has four basic phases, preparation of scenario, activation of performance,
observation of performance, and analysis of interaction.
Preparing scenario
The scenario is a sequence of users activity in their context of use. Studies about target users, their
work process and practices are used for designing scenarios.
Description format
In this research, a description format for representing the interaction scenario is introduced. Figure
1 shows a sample of the format. The format contains columns for scenes, situations, users'
activities, interaction elements, and design points. This format is basically the same as that created
in our prior study for the description of observed interaction (Hasuike et al. 2001).
We consider it important to compare scenarios generated by designers with those generated by

other designers or planners, and even to compare a prepared scenario and the observed sequence.
This format enables us to do so. Besides, observed sequences can be used as base scenario for the
next design and the performance. We consider it is effective to create this scenario and performance
cycles.
Acting performance
Roles
Three roles are involved in the execution of a performance: a performance director, actor(s), and
observer(s). A performance director navigates the performance based on a scenario, suggests
appropriate situations to the actor, and answers questions from actors. Actors neither see the
scenario nor are cognizant of its details; they recognize the situation via dialogue with the director,
and reorganize their activity along with the progress of the performance. Some dialogue takes place
between the director and actors while executing the performance. These include an explanation of
the situation, suggestions regarding the activity, and questions regarding the functionality of target
artifacts, for example. The observer records these dialogues as well as the performance.
Environments and props

Performances should take place in real environments in which there may be some unexpected
occurrences. These occurrences can be resources for grasping subconscious problems and
requirements in the actual context of use.
There are two types of props for the performance: prototypes of target artifacts, and real artifacts
existing in the use environment. We think it is important to observe how the actors act, which props
they choose, and how they appropriately use the target artifacts and others in each situation. For this
reason, it is basically better that the director doesn't designate to the actor which tool to use for each
activity. However, in some situations, the director may have to suggest using the new artifact
(prototype) rather than the existing real artifact.
Scenario and performance

Prepared scenarios are used as the bases for the performance. However, these scenarios are only a
resource for the performance. They will be modified, detailed, and even re-created through the
dialogues between the director and actors in the performance. We think it is important to modify
and re-create scenarios interactively during the performance, based on the action and dialogue
among the director, actor(s), and other design team members (product planners, designers,
engineers and so on). This can make up forms of collaborative design work and user-participatory
design (Kuhn 1996), for understanding work contexts, user requirements, and generating design
ideas.
Observation of the performance

Observations of the performances are recorded in three ways as follows:
1.
Video and audio records from the personal view of a participant captured by CCD camera
located on the head of the actor
2.
Video and audio records from the system view of the situation captured by observers via a
hand-held video camera
3.
Observation notes taken by the observers (researchers and designers)

The framework of this observation method is shown in Figure 2. This method is based on
our prior study concerning an analysis of interaction design (Hasuike et al. 2001).
Analyzing interaction
Observation records are to be resources for understanding problems in the context of use, and
generating design ideas. It is useful to simply review and share the recorded video/audio and notes.
However, we propose more advanced use of the records. In our method, information gathered from
the video, audio, and the observation notes are integrated in the format shown in Figure 2. This
format was created for analyzing interaction design (Hasuike et al. 2001), in order to describe the
observed information. Figure 3 shows a sample of the format. The format contains scenes, places,
situations, and users' activities. Users views and system view captured from video are placed next
to these descriptions. The dialogue protocols of the director and actors, and analysis notes are then
added in the last field. This format is basically the same as the format for scenario description
described above. Thus, we can compare the scenario with the records described in this format.
Case studies
We conducted two case studies as adoption of our methodology. Table 1 shows the summary of
these studies.
Table 1: Summary of two case studies
Sample artifact
We assume a new sample artifact, which is a kind of PDA (personal digital assistant) that adopts the
technology of electronic reusable paper. This future artifact is expected to replace some of the
current paper/electronic documents and the tools used to handle these documents. The artifacts
basic specifications and features had been already defined by the product planners and the
designers. There were two types of non-functional design mock-ups, and the performances were
enacted using these prototypes.
Types of participation
We established two types of participation as cases in the process.
1.
2.
The designer(s) act as a real user(s).

Real users act as themselves.
In the former case, the designer "actors" role-play as users. This is similar to the attempt of
"Informance" (Burns et al. 1994). This case is considered collaborative design work performed by
the design team. In the latter case, the user "actors" role-play as themselves. This case is considered
a user-participatory design in its early design phase.
Case study 1
Task and scenario
In this case, we establish sales work as a sample of business scene, and conduct a performance. We
used the results of an ethnographic study regarding mobile sales work done by people in our
company (Tamaru et al. 2002) for creating a scenario. This ethnographic study uses the self-photo
method. The results are represented in several analysis sheets and the interaction map (see Figure
4). We described a scenario of sales work by thinking about what types of activities the electronic
paper system can support. Figure 1 shows fragments of the scenario written in our interaction
scenario format.
This scenario includes a series of tasks involved in the presentation of a product to a customer, at
the customer's office. This scenario begins with the preparation of materials, for a sales presentation
at the salesperson's desk in his office. After that, he reconfirms a appointment with his customer,
puts the paper/electronic documents into his tools and a business briefcase, adds his schedule to his
team's bulletin board, leaves the office, walks toward the railway station, gets a newspaper (data)
from a vending machine in the station, reads the electronic documents while standing in a train, gets
off the train and walks to his customer's office, confirms the route to the building, attends the
meeting with a customer, makes the presentation in the conference room, goes back to his office,
and sorts out the documents at his desk. During these sequences, the salesperson performs certain
communications; he receives and sends some e-mail, he accesses the intranet of his company, and
he talks with a colleague on the telephone.
Participant and props

The actor was a designer who had not participated in designing the system. He had a mockup of the
target artifact, a cellular phone with e-mail capability, notes, pens, a bag, paper documents, and
some electronic documents stored in the target artifact. In addition, certain artifacts were present in
the environment. For example, there was a desktop PC in his office, paper documents were on his
desk and in paper files, electronic documents were in the PC, there was a bulletin board in his
office, there was a vending machine at the station, there were straps in the train, there were a
projector and a whiteboard in the conference room, and there were other pieces of furniture or other
facilities in each environment.
Procedure
After the director explained the outline of the target work, the actor began to enact the performance.
The director suggested situations like these: " Now, you just got an e-mail from your colleague in
the office, how would you become aware of that here?", "If your systems battery became low,
how would you know the situation?", "How would you present the document in the system to your
customer? How would you scroll pages?". The actor then responded these questions in his
performance and explanations. The actor sometimes put questions to the director. These included
questions regarding the supposed situation, regarding the features of the artifacts, and regarding the
functions and operational methods of the artifacts. In view of this dialogue, the scenario was
modified and re-created interactively.
The performance and dialogue with the director were recorded using two video cameras from
personal view and system view, and using the notes taken by observers.
Results and analysis

Observed data were described into the format. Figure 3 shows the fragments of the interaction
analysis sheet of the performed sequence. They are compared to the original scenario, and the
differences point out problems in the context. Many problems became tangible through the analysis,
and many ideas were generated through the performance and the dialogue. The following are
fragments:
-
Sales persons want to sort the documents and add memos by the system before the
presentation.
Operations by touch are easy and suitable than that by scrolling keys, for selecting and
sorting the electronic documents, especially in case user can hold it by a hand, and operate it
by another hand.
User has to hold and operate the artifact by one hand, while hanging on to a strap in a train.
However, current design is not suitable both in weight balance and in the layout of the keys
for one-handed holding and operation. In this scene, operations only by keys should be
prepared.
Current cover design is not comfortable for taking the artifact in and out of a business
briefcase.
10
The system should prepare a mode for face-to-face presentation, and prepare a one-touch
button for rotating screen.
The system should have additional control methods for presentation, which must not
interfere with the audiences viewing the contents in the screen. One method is to have a
remote control device for presentation mode.
It is key point how the artifact works together with other artifacts in users contexts, PCs,
information vending machines, cellular phones, electronic white boards, video projectors,
and so on. There are some overlapping features, and may be possibility for smart
collaborative work.
Case study 2
Task and scenario
In this case, we established housework as a sample of domestic scene, and conducted a
performance. We submitted preliminary questionnaires regarding the home use of the target system
to unspecified persons on the Intranet via a web-based system, and used the results to create a
scenario. This scenario contains scenes such as this: a homemaker gets a recipe while watching a
cooking program on TV, she takes an order for foods, she receives a circular notice of the
neighborhood association.
Participants
Three participants acted in the performance. They were all homemakers.
Procedure
In this case, the sessions were conducted in the living room of the house of one of three
participants. First, the designer explained the outline of the artifact using the mockup to the three
participants gathered in the room. After that, the director conducted a group interview and
discussion session. In this session, they discussed the everyday life and work of the participants.
Then they discussed about how the target artifacts can support these tasks.
The prepared scenario was used as a reference for these discussions. As a result of the discussion,
four new scenarios were generated. The first was a sequence for checking mails, faxes, messages of
answering machine, and adding memos to the schedules. The second was a sequence for taking an
order for foods, for dinner. The third was a sequence for cooking in the kitchen while viewing
recipes and other documents. The fourth was a sequence for writing and contributing an article to a
magazine. Performances were conducted using these new generated scenarios. After the director
confirmed the outline of the target work, the actor began to act each performance. The director
suggests situations like these: " Now, you just came home. You are at the entrance, what do you do
at first?"
The performance and dialogue were recorded using two video cameras from personal view and
system view, and with notes taken by observers. Each actor had a small CCD camera attached to
her head when she acted the performance.
Results and analysis

Observed data were described into the format. Figure 5 shows the fragments of the interaction
analysis sheet of the performed sequence. They are compared to the original scenario, and the
differences point out problems in the context. Many problems became tangible through the analysis,
11
and many ideas were generated through the performance and the dialogue. The following are
fragments:
-
The management of a familys schedule is an important and complex task, and the system
should support them.
The system should handle memos and messages via mail, fax, and answering machine from
the childrens schools, from the fathers company, from the local community, and so on.
The system could be touched by wet hands or by hands covered with powders from kitchen
work.
The system should be resistant to splashes of water and oil from the kitchen.
The system should easily vary the direction of the monitor at the kitchen counter, allowing it
to be seen from the kitchen side and from the dining room side.
The system should easily be carried from room to room without concerns regarding the
power plug.
12
13
Analyzing difference
In the two case studies, we could successfully observe many differences between the designed
interaction scenario and acted performances, using the method. We consider that these differences
can be divided into three levels:
1. Differences in scenario level
2. Differences in function and modality level
3. Differences in representation level
The first, there are some differences between the prepared scenario and sequence of acted
performance. Prepared scenario has some activities that is not suitable for real contexts. These parts
are re-created through the dialogue between actors and the director. This can be a resource for rethinking about concepts of the artifact, target scenes, works, basic features, and users. The second,
there are some modification or requests in some part of prepared scenario. This can be resource for
re-thinking about basic interaction style, and about applied technologies for the features and
functions. The third, there are some modifications or requests for quality of each design details.
This can be a resource for re-thinking about details of design details and qualities. These three
levels of differences can be useful resources for the next design steps.
Discussion
We carried out two types of case studies regarding the adaptation of this methodology. Through
these two case studies, we try two types of participation for the process. In one case a designer roleplayed a user, and in another case real users enacted the performances.
In the first case, a designer simulated a user and acted a performance. The designer actor said in the
reflection interview after the performance, "In a scene, I couldn't enough perform the role, because I
could not image actual user's objectives and its background on the situation." This shows that the
experience of the performance gave the participants an awareness of what he does not know about
target users. This awareness will promote the design team to study more about target users and their
work practices.
In the other case, actual user acted performances. Through this, the design team could share the
context of use with actual users. The user actors performed the prototype of the experience, and
participated in generating ideas as well as in finding problems. In the dialogue with the director,
participants made many ideas and suggestion for the design. We consider we could develop a form
of positive user participation in the design generation.
Conclusion
In this paper, we have proposed a methodology for early phases of the design process. This featured
a prototyping method that adopts performance technique, an observation method using video from
the view of a user and a view that includes the system as a whole, and a method for describing
interaction scenarios. Through two case studies, we confirmed our methodology is effective for
understanding user requirements and generating ideas of interaction design. From these
experiences, we think we could develop a form of collaborative design, and that of userparticipatory design, for the interaction design. By using this method, designers and users can take
into account the user's unconscious characteristics and requirements, forming a basis of cooperation
toward better design.
Though we have applied our method to only two cases, we have to study more cases and improve
the methodology. For making the scenario and performance cycles, it is necessary to study more
formal description of the scenario on the format. It is also important to study how to incorporate
14
this methodology into the whole design process for user-oriented design approach, and how to use it
in combination with other design methods such as ethnographic field work, questionnaires, the
usability evaluation methods.
15
References
(Bannon and Bodker 1991) Bannon, J. and Bodker, S., 1991, Beyond the Interface: Encountering
Artifacts in Use, In Carroll, J. M. (ed.), Designing Interaction: Psychology at the Human-Computer
Interface, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 227-253.
(Brandt et al. 2000a) Brandt, Eva and Grunnet, Camilla, 2000, Design as a Play with Props that
Make up or Design Requirements, Workshop on translating chidren's answers into design
requirements: Opportunities and limitations, Athens, March, 2000.
(Brandt et al. 2000b) Brandt, Eva and Grunnet, Camilla, 2000, Evoking the Future: Drama and
Props in User Centered Design, PDC'00, New York.
(Buchenau and Fulton 2000) Buchenau, Marion and Fulton Suri, Jane, 2000, Experience
Prototyping, Proceedings of DIS00, Brooklyn, New York: 424-433.
(Burns et al. 1994) Burns, C., Dishman, E., Verplank, W., and Lassiter, B., 1994, Actors, Hairdos
and Videotape - Informance Design, CHI94, Boston.
(Hasuike et al. 2001) Hasuike, K., Takada, R., Tamaru, E., Tozaki, M., 2001, A Method for
Designing Physical Appearance Attributes from the Viewpoint of the Interaction Design, JP-061,
Bulletin of the 5th Asian Design Conference, October, Seoul 2001.
(Kuhn 1996) Kuhn, S., 1996, Design for People at Work, In Winograd, T. (ed.), Bringing Design to
Software, NY, ACM Press: 223-289.
(Tamaru et al. 2002) Tamaru, E., Hasuike, K., Tozaki, M., 2002, A Field Study Methodology Using
Self-Photography of Workplace Activities, In Common Ground: Design Research Society
International Conference 2002.
16

S. Horne-Martin Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, University of Central England, UK
B. Jerrard Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, University of Central England, UK
R. Newport Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, University of Central England, UK
K. Burns Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, University of Central England, UK
Abstract
Research that attempts to view prior investment in design as calculable risk is potentially important
within an increasingly competitive new product development environment. An important aspect of
such research was to identify investment in design as part of the financial and cultural risk within
firms, in particular, the identification of critical decision points and their associated risks. Business
success may now be related to a degree of risk involved in new product development decisions.
The research described is currently being undertaken for the Design Council. Survey and analytical
techniques have been used to elicit critical decision points in the development of selected
Millennium Products. The primary selection (of 92) was based on an analysis of the design and
technical innovation evident in currently available products. Secondary selection (of 16) was based
on company responses to a short questionnaire. The final selection (of 6) represents the types of risk
evaluation employed by each of these case studies. Detailed, illustrated case studies structure and
describe informal and formal techniques. Research methods include the use of semi-structured
interviews based on the NPD process supplemented by literature provided by each company. These
were analysed with the aid of the qualitative tool NUD*IST (content analysis followed by
secondary theory building analysis processes). Web based materials aimed at SMEs will be
delivered via the Centre for Product Design Information (CPDI) located in the Birmingham Centre
for Design Research, Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, University of Central England.

Introduction
This paper describes research undertaken by Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, University of
Central England with the support of the Design Council Innovation Fund. Through the study of a
number of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), the work explores the various risks
encountered in innovating new products.
This research should be particularly useful to small and medium-sized companies. It is hoped that
the experiences of others will help them recognise their areas of risk and to identify ways of
supporting design and product development processes (see: Horne-Martin and Jerrard, 2002).
It has often been found that companies fail to invest in design, despite numerous government
invitations, due to their perceptions of the downside risk. Indeed even when companies do invest
in design they often tend to be risk averse and therefore much of the opportunity and market
potential can be lost through such a position. Within the UK the situation is made more difficult
with the continual development of new products designed and developed specifically for European
consumption resulting in a rising import tide.
Although there has been a great deal of research in other disciplines (eg., Financial Services) with
regard to the management of risk, research so far indicates that there is little to enable design
professionals and companies to understand risk in decisions about design in a rigorous and
objective manner.
Harrison (1987) defined a decision as a moment in an ongoing process of evaluating alternatives
for meeting an objective. Product innovation and development is characterised by a number of
critical decision points. Risk can be described as making a choice at these critical decision points
with degrees of uncertainty. The New Product Development process (NPD) moves from one
domain of decisions to another and may be represented by a flow, with critical decision points
appearing at intervals. A decision is a specific commitment to action, the moment of choice.
Risk, therefore, concerns the possibility of failure or loss in a variety of areas. Often, there are formal
situations where risks are discussed against management-based rule of thumb criteria. How people as
well as processes may be at risk in product development is the focal point of this work.
The project
Earlier work (see: Jerrard, Newport, and Truman, 1999) has shown that researchers have, in recent
years, developed a range of experimental models in the field of NPD. From this, it seemed
particularly appropriate to consider these issues, as design seems to be a good business risk in a
time of conspicuous consumption but where considerable government-backed effort is still required
to try to influence SMEs. The potential to establish knowledge about where design decisions find
confidence and authority could be determined by a focused study of SMEs, involving a quantitative
survey and qualitative review of a specific sector.
A search of existing publications has influenced the selection process for the case-study companies.
In particular the development of NPD illustrations useable by other companies seemed most useful.
Therefore, identifying a product similar to their own or of particular interest will be the way in
which companies could make use of the detailed findings. This would be represented in the printed
form up to a level of detail. The linked web pages, however, will have the potential to separate
information levels and points of access. An initial literature search showed risk case study material
might be classified as:
Quantitative risk management

Strategic risk management
Risk analysis
Additionally, the literature search showed that there are numerous factors that come into the
equation in relation to assessing risk when making decisions:
How to evaluate the decision contributions to potential product performance in the market
place.
The fact that decisions on design are often qualitative - and the knowledge and information
about success (ie., decision-based contributions to new product development) is often
anecdotal and often related to organisational culture, eg., with the development of the Dyson
vacuum cleaner.
Some companies learn from past decision-making, which they use as a benchmark for future
decision-making.
Design is frequently not viewed as something central to the product rather a marginal
element and assessed as such.
Organisations are at different levels of maturity in terms of their use and understanding of
design decisions.
There are a number of levels of decision making around design, which involve risk
assessment between a strategy and a project
SMEs in particular are risk averse and yet need to improve their assessment of risk to build
their confidence in decision-making. This is emphasised by numerous government
initiatives to encourage them to invest in design and innovate to improve competitive
advantage.
SME internal culture or management style is rarely formally linked to the quality of new
product development.
From the work carried out the initial plan was to consider decision points that were identified as
being non-financial, partly financial or wholly financial. Further sub-headings were applied at the
company interview stage. The identification of development processes for new products showed
that there are specific domains where linked decisions are made. Both formal and informal
decision-making appears to be important in assessing risk.
Relevance to design
The extensive literature covering the Management of Risk (for example: Reeb, Kwok and Baek,
1998) normally does not include the management of design or indeed relate to a typical
environment of new product development, the SME. There are however some interesting
exceptions, notably in: Roy & Potter (1991) and Bruce, Potter & Roy (1995). Day-to-day risk is
traditionally linked to design investment but has never really been quantified in a detailed way. This
may be due to a variety of factors including the relatively imprecise nature of both consumer
response and quality of designer performance in relation to new product development. Also, related
benchmarks often only refer to the totality of product innovation focusing on idea to market.
Reported management creativity is largely anecdotal, and is usually based on intuition and
management will. Accordingly, such issues in management are viewed as being more
socially/culturally based than business based (see: Lohmann, 1998).
The issues surrounding the potential of design are also well known, particularly where a company
may calculate reinvestment from an in-house benchmark (see: Couger, 1998) or from an established
simulation (see: Vose and Scott, 1998). The culture of design is viewed sometimes as a key element
(see: Cawood, 1998) but more often as an associated or even marginal issue. Investment in design
within SMEs involves comparisons with other areas of financial investment, potentially providing
potent intelligence. Creativity likewise appears to be measured against other work cultures that are
in its immediate vicinity (see: Paper, 1998). Literature to support design investment risk may appear
in government documents (eg., the Design Council) or via consultancy (eg., Business Link)
although little is published demonstrating reasons for initial design investment. Knowledge of
design may be grounded only in personal experience with a lack of accessible benchmarks,
particularly in understanding the companys risk culture. A number of central questions apply
concerning the potential recognition of procedures and benefits of risk management in design:
Is it possible to map the considerable literature based in management of risk in general
management to the design function?
Is it more appropriate to establish design as an integrated feature where risk is a shared between
decision locations? That is, establish design investment for the first time to be financially and
culturally based, thereby providing expectation that two types of investment may be
concurrently required.
Can an investment tool be developed from research, which combines financial and cultural
analysis?
Clearly quantitative measures may be best applied to regular project ventures; design projects may
be seen as more singular and by their nature intrinsically experimental.
Influencing design
Research that attempts to view prior investment in design as calculable risk is potentially important
within an increasingly competitive new product development environment. The operation of design
within SMEs however is often singular and so the opportunity to import appropriate best practice is
often limited. Business success may now be related to a degree of risk involved in non-incremental
new product development decisions.
There has been a great deal of research directed at describing the design process and the
management of new product development. The time is particularly appropriate to consider the
integrating potential of risk management techniques within knowledge of the design process.
Those involved in product development are familiar with group as well as individual risk
assessment processes. Personal experience of conscious risk-taking and whether or not the risk is
subsequently confirmed by events is the base line for collaborative and overt risk assessment, but
both rely on the accuracy of the environmental model against which the risk is assessed.
Design in product development attempts to make overt the complex and implicit potential
relationships between client, user, market, supplier and manufacturer. The risks involve all of these
relationships as well as those evolving from project planning. Incremental product development
(IPD) limits what is unknown by taking small and easily identifiable risks. Therefore IPD appears
to be commercially safer than NPD, but this may be at some considerable opportunity cost. It will
not provide major shifts in customer perceptions or consequent major changes in market
performance.
New Product Development does not accrete around what little is certain, as in the case of
incremental product development, but aims to introduce new material, component or manufacturing
technology, or bring about changes in function, appearance or product architecture. For the market
to perceive that a product is innovative, it must be near the boundaries of acceptable change in
technology, performance or taste.
The risks involved in environmental change are as unpredictable for IPD as they are for NPD but
environmental change is perhaps more difficult for smaller companies to monitor. The nature of
innovative products is that they embody clear advantages for the customer. The difficulty for
innovators is predicting whether the new product will be viable, available and acceptable and
therefore proved to be innovative.
Methodology
The research used a formal 13-stage framework for NPD (Cooper and Kleinschmidt, 1986). The
companies did not necessarily follow this generic framework, but it helped in clarifying the
different stages of product development including the location and frequency of important risktaking decisions. It also enabled comparisons to be made between the companies.
Survey and analytical techniques were used to elicit critical decision points in the development of
selected Millennium Products. The Design Council Innovation Fund, stimulation for the
development of innovative products and the promotion of the effective use of design provided most
of the project resources. The selection of Millenium Product companies seemed appropriate from a
database of 92 companies. These companies were asked to complete a simple questionnaire; from
the responses 12 companies were chosen for in-depth structured interviews. The companies were
chosen on agreed criteria, for evidence of technological and applied innovation, such as:
Product function (what the product does).

Appearance (what the product looks like).
Product architecture (the way the components are articulated or put together).
Material technology (one or more of the materials from which the product is made).
Component technology (one or more of the components that are used to make the product).
Manufacturing technology (the way one or more of the components are made, or the method
of assembly).
The Market
For each area, a scaled assessment scored thus:
Well known / usual / always done / no innovation.

Not well known / relatively unusual / rarely done / no innovation.
New / minor change / never done before / minor innovation / relatively insignificant.
New / medium change / never done before / medium innovation / significant.
Radical / major change / never done before / major innovation / highly significant.
Finally, a selection of six companies represented different types of risk within their informal and
formal design management techniques. Semi-structured interviews based on the NPD process were
supplemented by company literature. Content analysis was followed by secondary theory-building
process.
The six case-study firms described in the results of the project (see: Horne-Martin, Jerrard, 2002)
fall within three types described by Gore et al (1992):
Specialists which produce a limited product range for specific customers.
1) Starlight Therapy Tables Massage Table, a light-weight health product.

2) Turnwright Ltd. Community Bed, a hospital bed for the home.
Jobbers which produce a wider range of products for few customers
3) Iain Sinclair Design the Eon Torch, a small flat personal light source.
Marketers which produce their own design and products for a wide customer base.
4) V&A Marketing Ltd. the Anywayup Cup, an innovative toddlers training cup.
5) Bisque Ltd. the Hot Springs spiral radiator.
6) Ozonex Ltd. the Ozone Hygenic Toothbrush, a new shape brush with innovative qualities.
Fig. 1: Starlight Therapy Tables

Massage Table
Fig. 2: Turnwright Ltd Community Bed
Fig. 3: Ian Sinclair Design Eon Torch
Fig. 4: V&A Marketing Ltd. Anywayup Cup
Fig. 5: Bisque Ltd. Hot Springs
Fig. 6: Ozonex Ltd. Ozone Hygenic

Toothbrush
The main critical decision point found to be common within all case studies is the commitment
decision, that is, the decision to proceed from the initial stages of development to further product
development. This is supported by Gore et al (1992) when discussing issues about strategic
decision-making.
Discussion
The work has found that neither formal quantitative nor qualitative risk management methodologies
on their own sufficiently address the uncertainties of product development. However, the different
experiences of the case studies were found to be useful in addressing risk issues and minimising or
reducing uncertainties. In essence, resolving risk issues requires decisions to be made and some of
these critical decision points were identified in examining these six case studies.
As Jerrard et al (1999) describe,
new product innovation is considered mostly in terms of technological innovation, but whereas
new technology does not necessarily have to be part of design innovation, most new technologies
cannot be implemented without it. Innovative design however, still seems to contain more market
risk than innovative technology.
They develop the subject by stating that:
risk is mostly associated with management decisions about new designs or new technologies made
without appropriate information on continuous contextual change.
Risk can probably be better managed when decision makers are aware of the potential outcomes of
their actions.
Risk tended to be described by the companies managers in personal experience terms during
product development. They learned from their processes and found alternatives that would reduce
or minimise their risks. There is a tendency to view NPD as a linear process with critical decision
points logically spaced in along the way. However, they did not necessarily know that decisions
had been taken until later in the process. As a general rule, and as expected, financial risks tend to
be the major concern closely followed by personal risks. Design risks were usually related to
technical issues, safety and copyrights. An interesting risk identified by several of the companies
occurred from the success of the product in launch and lack of preparation for the rate of production
expected. The table below illustrates the main areas of risk identified by the case studies:
Type of risks
Financial
Personal
Design
Sales
Justification
Risk of money loss
Reputation
Loss of personal finances, e.g., savings, house
mortgages, etc
Disruption of personal circumstances, eg., family
arguments
Design integrity
The demand exceeded expectations
Minimising risks
The case studies identified specific areas of product development where risks can be either
minimised or reduced. Some arose from the companies after going through their development
processes and getting them to reflect on past experience, others were considered essential prerequirements for product innovation. The generic process for NPD may be identified thus:
Feasibility study
Marketing and promotion
Technical testing
A thorough feasibility study including market research

and technical issues.
Allow enough budget for marketing and promoting the
product ensuring that the entire budget is not spent
on product development.
Technical and safety testing to protect the company
from future legal complications.
Pilot production
Making sure the manufacturing processes will support

future production.
Sharing risks
Sharing marketing and advertising risks with

distributors.
Gradual growth
Making sure the company grows gradually to allow

adjustments and reorganisation.
Market testing
Checking the target market before full production

starts.
Allowing enough time from conception to launch it
always takes longer than anticipated.
Time
All companies examined were managed in a personalised way by their owners, a characteristic of
small independent firms. The organisational structure of the small firms tended to be simple and
characterised by a high degree of informal interaction between the management and the employees.
The financial resources of the owner had a strong effect on decision-making because this was
usually the only or main source of capital. The availability of finance is often mentioned as one of
the most substantial problems they have had to overcome.
An important part of the RISK project is the dissemination of its results to other SMEs, in order that
they may benefit from its findings. To this end, the RISK project was devised in association with,
and links to, the Centre for Product Design Information (CPDI).
CPDI provides an Internet-based information resource specifically targeted at SMEs including
materials; processes; legislation relating to design; human factors and ergonomics; a directory of
suppliers and consultancies; case studies; design theory, incorporating management processes and
techniques, and a library focusing on new design research. Chiefly, CPDI aims to improve SMEs
product development processes and reduce their risk of innovation, resulting in an increase in their
competitive status, sales and profitability.
The RISK project is included on the site as a full document in the library area. Additionally, it is
available as linked sections from both the case studies and design theory sections. This also allows
users to link through to other related areas such as brainstorming, marketing strategy and new
technologies.
CPDI was part-funded by the European Union European Regional Development Fund and was
established in November 1999 in Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, building on the work of
the Birmingham Centre for Design Research.
Research outcomes summary
Published case studies for use by SMEs and others identified by the Design Council and by
CPDI. Case studies and risk evaluation techniques will additionally be available on the
CPDI web site.
New product development maps for each of the case studies identifying the critical decision
points during the process and the risks associated with these decisions.
Detail on specific critical decision points in new product development, particularly relating
to formal and informal procedures.
Particular insights into risk calculation within design management and finance and a
transferable tool to operate within general management is planned to be accessible to
companies looking for best practice.
Future directions
The aim of this research is not to give a solution to all the problems of risk in NPD but to provide a
useful transferable tool to enable companies in equivalent or related sectors to design and develop
new products with the minimum of risks. Also, the reflection involved in planning the NPD
process, should provide specific and unique insights into critical decision points. The results have
given rise to a number of future research questions, including:
How applicable are these SME case studies to risk and design strategy in medium-sized
companies?
Is the kind of learning and commitment observed here applicable to a wider range of
organisations?
Can the techniques be used to identify NPD processes in much more complex
environments?
Risk Project website: http://www.biad.uce.ac.uk/research/projects/riskAssess/riskAssess.html

Centre for Product Design website: http://www.biad.uce.ac.uk/research/projects/CPDI/cpdi.html
References
Cawood, G., (1998), Design Innovation and Culture in SMEs. Design Management Journal, Vol. 8,
4, Fall.
Bruce, M., Potter, S., Roy, R., (1995), The Risks and Rewards of Design Investment, Journal of
Marketing Management, 112, 403-417.
Cooper, R. and Kleinschmidt, E. J. (1986), An Investigation to the new Product Development:
Steps, Deficiencies and Impact, Journal of Product Innovation management, 3: 71-85.
Daniel Couger, J., (1998), Measurement of the Climate for Creativity in IS Organisations.
Creativity and Innovation Management, Vol. 5, 4.
Gore, C., Murray, K. and Richardson, B. (1992) Strategic Decision-Making, Cassel, London.
Jerrard, R., Newport, R, and Truman, M., eds., (1999), Managing New Product Innovation, Taylor
& Francis.
Horne-Martin, S., Jerrard, R., (2002), Risk in Innovation, UCE, published in association with the
Design Council.
Lohmann, S and Hopenhayn, H., (1998), Delegation and the Regulation of Risk. Games and
Economic Behaviour, May, Vol. 21, 2, pp222-246.
Paper, D.J., (1998), A Theoretical Framework Linking Creativity, Empowerment and
Organisational Memory, Creativity and Innovation Management, Vol.6, 1.
Reeb, D M., Kwok C C Y and Baek, H Y., (1998), Systematic Risk of the Multinational
Corporation. Journal of International Business Studies, Vol. 29, 2, pp263-279.
Roy, R. and Potter, S., (1993), The Commercialisation Impacts of Investment in Design, Design
Studies, Vol. 14, 2.
Vose, D and Scott, G C., (1998), Quantitative Risk Analysis; a guide to Monte Carlo simulation
modelling (Review). Interfaces, March/April, Vol. 28, 2, pp132-133.
10

design education
A. Howe University of Exeter, UK
P. Dillon University of Exeter, UK
Abstract
In this paper we consider some of the rich body of work of the mathematician, quantum physicist
and thinker David Bohm. Bohms ideas have both direct and tangential relevance to design. We
review Bohms notions of implicate and explicate order as metaphors for the totality of design and
the relationship of its parts. There are parallels with initial inception and then realisation through the
subsequent stages of design. If one starts with Bohms position that the universe has an implicate
order, then design is one way of unfolding that order to make it explicate. Design ideas are enfolded
around us at all times; the processes of design merely unfold them to the world in an understandable
manner. We also explore Bohms notions of folding and blending and look at their links with
invention, innovation and renovation. Folding and blending are ideas that are comparatively easy to
accommodate and provide alternative conceptual access to the complex field of design.

design education
We are critical of the process model of design prevalent in formal education in the United Kingdom
and elsewhere. It treats design as a problem solving exercise where a potential 'solution' is specified
and an 'outcome' is achieved through a cycle of making, testing and refining. In this form the model
is flat, discrete, sequential, periodic, atomistic and prescriptive. Above all, it belongs to a
mechanistic age (Howe, Dillon & Smith 1999).
In a decade of work with undergraduates studying technological education, we have explored a
number of different ways of looking at the design model. We see the process as fluid, sometimes
chaotic, often complex and frequently involving a large element of uncertainty. We have looked for
metaphors, analogies and alternative frameworks for design in non-linearity, fuzzy logic, and loose
theories of everything. With our students, we studied, amongst others, the works of Stephen
Hawking, James Gleick, Peter Coveney, Roger Highfield, Peter Eisenman, Charles Jencks, Gilles
Deleuze, Werner Heisenberg and, especially, David Bohm. All these writers say things that in some
way resonate with our perspectives on design.
We looked in detail at the works of David Bohm, not with the intention of trying to get to grips with
quantum physics, the main thrust of his work, but as a means of extending our thinking about an
alternative, non-mechanistic approach to design. Bohm researched theoretical physics and
philosophy and held posts at Berkeley, Princeton, So Paolo, Haifa and Birkbeck, London. He had a
special interest in creativity and made a significant contribution to the debate about the relationship
between art and science.
What attracted us was Bohms views on holism, something that we believe is integral to design. We
share his concern at the kind of thought that treats things as inherently divided, disconnected, and
broken up into yet smaller constituent parts, where each part is considered to be essentially
independent and self-existent (Bohm 1980). Bohm regarded the then prevalent scientific view as
typical of the old physics of a mechanistic order, the principal feature of which is that the world is
seen as constituted of entities which are outside of each other in the sense that they exist
independently in different regions of space (and time) and interact through forces that do not bring
about any change in their essential natures (Bohm 1980). The analysis of the world into
independently existent parts does not work very well in modern physics. Both in relativity theory
and quantum theory, notions implying the undivided wholeness of the universe provide a much
more orderly way of considering the general nature of reality (Bohm 1980). This mirrored our
unease at the old physics thinking that had led to a design model that we were obliged to introduce
to our students. Like Bohm, we were looking for a new, non-fragmentary world-view.
Bohm developed a vision of an ongoing, evolving universe characterised by a considerable amount
of probability and a high degree of uncertainty. Earlier work in the quantum area had provided
insights into the notion of uncertainty. Heisenberg, in 1927, had formulated his uncertainty
principle after conducting measurements of the movement of electrons and concluding that these
involved considerable ambiguity. There were grey, flexible considerations to accommodate, rather
than purely black and white ones. Bohms investigations led him to believe that totally unseen,
unobserved, sub-quantum forces were causing the apparent strange behaviour of sub-atomic
particles. These forces were likely to be characteristic of a deeper dimension of reality that he called
the implicate order.
Within the implicate order all is contained, all is enfolded into everything, all is folded into itself.
The implicate order provides an image, a kind of metaphor, for intuitively understanding the
implication of wholeness (Bohm 1987). The implicate order is an enfolded entity. For Bohm, the
hologram is a good analogy: the entire object is contained in each region of itself, enfolded as a
pattern of waves, which can then be unfolded by shining light through it (Bohm 1998). When the
implicate order is unfolded it becomes an explicate order. Our genes contain encoded information
(an implicate order) about how our ancestors solved the problems of survival. The Human Genome
Project is enabling us to read the code, to make it explicate.
We can use this idea in turn as an analogy for design. Perhaps, as Bohm postulated, all is enfolded
and what is needed is a process of unfoldment. Landscapes are a record of human enterprise, of
how through the ages we have used the land in different ways to extract a living. Each successive
generation, through imagining, modelling, making, modifying and manipulating, has restructured
its environment through design. Restructuring is formalised through the mastery of practical skills
and the development of crafts, initially these were associated with agriculture, later with
manufacture, culminating in the emergence of guilds and professions associated with engineering,
construction, architecture and related disciplines (Dillon 1993). The landscape is a totality. The
processes that have formed it are enfolded. When we work in the landscape we begin to unfold the
order and understand the processes involved. The order becomes explicate and we have a cultural
context for what we do and make (Howe & Dillon 2001).
So we might view the design object as ever present (in latent form) all the while there are people to
think about it; it is merely waiting to be brought into a physical state. This has an interesting
parallel with the ideological thinking of Walter Benjamin (1892-1940). Benjamin understood
human creativity to be embodied in the products of human labour. As well as being material
artefacts, products represent the social relationships out of which they arise (Smith 2001: 43). The
realisation of a design object is a result of engagement in unfolding processes, both material and
cultural, rather than the search for a solution to a problem.
The problem has been our problem. Within the educational context, if there is not a real problem
to be solved then one has to be made before design can take place. Design is seen as a problemsolving exercise and we are not the only ones to be perplexed by it (see, for example, Poyner (1998:
15) who describes a poster designed by a student as not solving a communication problem so much
as presenting the viewer with a communication problem to solve). As a discipline in education,
design has arisen from a scientific paradigm. The idea of folding offers an opportunity to make a
break with the old paradigm. There is a ring of non-linearity and optimism. Here is a possibility that
does not have a set routine or a feel of prescription about it.
There is another aspect of Bohms writing that can be applied to design to enable us to look in a
new way at what has up to now been thought of as a sequential matter. This is the notion of nonlocality. It means that when a force acts on particles it tends to influence all of them and this
influence does not decay or fall off with distance. It implies an instantaneous connection between
distant events (and, incidentally, appears to violate the basic principle of relativity, that no signal
can travel faster than light) (Bohm & Peat 1987).
This is of great interest. Whereas we might accept that separate elements of the design process can
be described, we find it difficult to accept that there is a specific direction, a set order and sequence
for engaging in the individual aspects. Can it be said absolutely that design starts with a brief,
goes on to a specification, then to research, then to planning and so on in a prescriptive, linear
way? Surely, different parts of the sequence operate consecutively and often there are periods when
it is necessary to backtrack, to make sideways movements and revisit areas to revise and reform
either ideas or structures? The existing model has the tendency to keep the designer moving in one
direction towards the completion of the task. With the new approach however, it is possible to
visualise several things going on concurrently. Concurrent engineering has accommodated this
notion, particularly at the production phase so that the pace of production can be increased. Here is
a means of conceptualising the various processes of design operating together, rather like the
unfolding of a flower. As a flower unfolds from bud to full bloom, all its parts unfold together
rather than one at a time; the petals reveal themselves in unison, the colour is unveiled and the
stamens move in keeping with the overall motion.
Other notions that are compatible with enfolding and unfolding and that serve as analogies for
design come from Gilles Deleuze (1997). He reformulated Leibnizs philosophical work on the fold
as it was experienced in Baroque times. He put forward the idea that within the fold there is the
possibility of the co-presence of an infinite and the finite and there is also the possibility of the
limited and the unlimited. As the fold unfolds it opens up further folds, which in being unfolded
reveal further folds. What this means is that there can be no real beginning, and, usually, no real
end. The complex fold recasts the nature of inside and outside. Yet within the movement there are
real states. Static actual existence is not precluded; rather, it is to be thought of as an interruption to
or an eruption out of movement (Benjamin 2000; see also Doel 2000).
Designers do not operate on one project at a time to the exclusion of other emerging creative
thoughts. They do not engage on a task in isolation but accept that each separate task has within it
the potential for yet another development, like the sets of wooden Russian dolls where as one is
opened yet another is revealed. As the designer works on one enterprise a new series of possibilities
open up to be explored. This is part of the excitement and intrigue of design.
The notion of continuity between inside and outside is a comfortable one: the designer being
engaged on the task, as the inside, with the overall influence of outside constraints of necessity
impacting upon thought and action. Then again the idea of a continual movement taking place
provides yet another point of similarity. There is an implication of lateral movement, not of
standing still and basking in the glory of what has been designed and realised, but rather a desire to
drive on again. The movement is ever present, nurturing itself to invest in the next revelation. The
creation of one design object is a perturbation in the movement that leads irrevocably toward further
design. All these factors allow us to explore new ways of how design might be presented in a more
creative form.
Indeed, the notion of creativity is closely tied to the notion of design and both are in turn linked to
notions of invention, innovation and renovation. Invention is concerned with assembling,
organising and structuring ideas, thoughts and materials to bring into being something new. Like
design, it may be regarded as a folding and unfolding activity. All the constituent parts used and
incorporated in an invention tend to remain intact and with their own integrity. It is this composite
togetherness of separate parts that allows us to see it is as a folded entity. Invention gives us a
smooth and heterogeneous sensation, not a homogeneous or fragmented object. These are the
characteristics of folding. The parallels with folding in a culinary context are strong (Cunningham
1990: 41-47).
However this is not the same for innovation. Innovation and invention are closely related but they
do have important differences too. Innovation might much better be termed a blending activity.
Innovation, unlike invention, starts from something in existence and then adds something else to it
to reveal a new thing. This new realisation is an integrated mixture or compound of the constituent
parts. To blend, according to the Oxford English Dictionary is to mix together, to form a
harmonious compound, to become one, for one thing to pass imperceptibly into another. In essence
a blend is something that consists of separate parts mixed into one another. Folding, as we have
seen, is where the separate constituents retain their own integrity within the mixture. This in no way
suggests that innovation is inferior to invention; it simply means that they are different and their
processes should not be confused. It is almost needless to add that culinary comment has been made
on blending too. Also it is worth bearing in mind that folding, theoretically at least, may be reversed
so that the separate parts making the mix can be returned to their original states. With blending this
is not the case, for once the blended mixture is constituted all the separate parts become as one and
cannot be undone. It may be inferred that blended activities are not likely to possess the same
flexibility or potential for creative development.
The general area of blending also has its own theory. There is a considerable body of work
predominantly arising from the studies of Fauconnier (1997). Whilst nearly all this work is
concerned with conceptual blending, it does suggest some possible application in areas such as
design too. The notion of blending helps us with a further distinction, between innovation and
renovation. When we do things in new ways we can legitimately call it innovation. Renovation is
doing more efficiently or effectively the things we could previously do. Most change is incremental
and involves a good deal of renovation, of re-visiting well-tried approaches and improving on them.
Renovation is an on-going process where decisions are made at the individual level with limited
external interference. The day-to-day adjustments that people make to their practice to refine it and
fine-tune it to the available resources. We renovate to bring things up to date. There is no need to
renovate something that works well, unless it is for reasons of fashion (Dillon 2000). With
innovation and renovation we are looking at degrees of blending.
Edward O. Wilson, the sociobiologist, now argues that there is a fundamental unity or consilience
to all knowledge. Everything in our world is organised in terms of a small number of fundamental
natural laws that comprise the particles underlying every branch of learning says Wilson, and all
learning is thus ultimately connected (Wilson 1998). We are interested in helping students connect
ideas, abstractions and procedures as they engage in their design work. Whereas there will be
elements of their work which demand the most exacting standards of precision and quality, they are
not working in a world of absolutes. Reconceptualising design in more holistic terms will help
students understand the context of their work and help them find their own consilience.
The reconceptualisation of design proposed in this paper requires a corresponding movement in
educational thinking and practice if it is to be fully realised. That such a movement is happening is
evident, for example, from a series of international conferences on thinking. The series was started
ten years ago by a group of visionary scholars dedicated to the notion that something radical needs
to be done to help people develop their thinking powers beyond current capabilities. Emphasis in
the early conferences was on intelligence and thinking. In recent years the scope has broadened to
include creativity. This year, in Harrogate, United Kingdom, the conference took in wisdom and
intuition, qualities that hitherto have been shunned by most educationalists. Our reconceptualisation
has much in common with intuitive thinking. Claxton (1997) defines intuition as the emergence of a
sense of direction without a clear rationale, a kicking of the unconscious. We now have the notion
of the intuitive practitioner (Atkinson & Claxton 2000). We might expect such a practitioner to be
receptive to an implicate order and willing to let ideas unfold rather than have them constrained
within a pre-defined framework.
References
Atkinson, T. and Claxton, G. 2000. The Intuitive Practitioner. Buckingham: Open University
Press.
Benjamin, A. 2000. Time, Question, Fold. http://www.basilisk.com/V/virtual/deleuze/fold
Accessed 7/00.
Claxton, G. 1997. Hair Brain, Tortoise Mind. London: Fourth Estate.
Cunningham, M. 1990. The Fanny Farmer Cookbook, 13th edition. New York: Albert Knopf.
Bohm, D. 1980. Wholeness and the Implicate Order. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Bohm, D. 1987. Hidden Variables and the Implicate Order. In Quantum Implications: Essays in
Honour of David Bohm, edited by B.J. Hiley and F. D. Peat. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
Bohm, D. 1998. On Creativity. Edited by L. Nichol. London: Routledge.
Bohm, D. and F.D. Peat. 1987. Science, Order, Creativity. London: Routledge.
Deleuze, G. 1997. Le Pli: Leibniz et le Baroque. Translated as The Fold: Leibniz and the
Baroque, by T. Conley. Minneapolis: Minnesota Press.
Dillon, P.J. 1993. Technological education and the environment. International Journal of Science
Education, 15, 575-589.
Dillon, P. 2000. Innovation, renovation and terminological precision. Journal of Information
Technology for Teacher Education, 9 (1), 3-8.
Doel, M.A. 2000. Un-glunking geography: spatial science after Dr. Seuss and Gilles Deleuze. In
Thinking Space, edited by M. Crang and N. Thrift. London: Routledge.
Fauconnier, G. 1997. Mapping in Thought and Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Howe, T. and P. Dillon. 2001. Cultural niche and the contexts of craft, design and fine art. The
Design Journal, 4 (3), 50-57.
Howe, T., P. Dillon, P, & F. Smith, F. 1999. A critique of the design model and its representation
in educational systems. Proceedings of the European Academy of Design, 1, 393 401.
Poyner, R. 1998. Design Without Boundaries: Visual communication in transition. London: BoothClibborn Editions.
Smith, P. 2001. Cultural Theory. An introduction. Oxford: Blackwell.
Wilson, E. O. 1998. Consilience: the unity of knowledge. London: Little Brown.

environments
J-S. Jang Kookmin University, Seoul, South Korea
Abstract
Communication is a basic desire for all humankind, and it is believed that no special groups should
suffer from a cultural lag in communication. This study focuses on special groups like people with
an acoustic disturbance, and those with a normal sense of hearing who are able only to
communicate through sign and finger languages. Among the major difficulties encountered during
communication, there were individual differences in the understanding of texts and in the
expressive method of gestures. To solve these basic problems, this study largely consisted of three
stages. Firstly, the illustrations used in the sign and finger language textbooks of the Seon-hee
Seoul National School for the Deaf (SNSD), as representative of schools for handicapped children
in Korea, were redesigned into different illustrations that incorporated a high level of
perceptiveness. Secondly, new sign language textbooks were made by studying and applying the
effects of line width and length, as well as the number of pictures, on the degree of perceptiveness
in communication for developed sign and finger languages. Thirdly, a language output mode was
created to focus on programs with high generality, centering on developed textbooks and various
prototypes of sign and finger languages. The difference in perception, among other things, will be
measured in consideration of the speed of sign language, the shape of characters and the emotional
aspect. This new textbook for the deaf is planned to be released all around the world, although the
study of its effects may require the whole lifetime of the researcher. However, in consideration of
those people who have difficulty in satisfying the basic interactive desire of humans and are socially
isolated in their capacity for communication, this study is worthy of great expectations for the
future.

environments
Aims and backgrounds of study
This study counts people with a speech impediment as its focus group, among other special groups,
and is positioned to examine those who can only marginally share in various cultural benefits
compared to people with a normal sense of hearing. Such hearing-impaired individuals have
difficulties in communicating smoothly with those possessing a normal sense of hearing, as
impacting a variety of cultural, educational and communicational avenues of expression due to the
physical handicap. Besides which, communication between isolated groups is being developed from
a different angle. It is natural that the dream of smooth communication is difficult to realize without
first solving economic, cultural and social problems, as well as basic physical problems. Efforts to
communicate via simple but various ways of language expression, however, were the motivating
power behind this study. The results of interviews showed that such individuals could not
communicate smoothly due to often heavy reliance upon a personal vernacular of familiar
expressions and secret languages, though they might have received special education.
A quite interesting fact discovered during this study is that everyone tries to perceive things and
convey a message - the basic desire of humans - by learning a language. The only difference
between people with normal sense of hearing and those with an acoustic disturbance is that the
former use a universal and typical way of expression called language (among various methods),
while the latter utilize their own ways of communication via sign and finger languages.
One thing that drew my attention is that the deaf use a mobile phone, ironically, as a viable means
of communication in Korea. They access it not on an audible level, but for the use of short message
service (SMS) functions. Though there are some cases of the deaf communicating by use of a touch
pad, as often shown in some soap operas, such a reality would be possible only for those cases who
acquired their handicap later in life.
In an interview with students from the SNSD located in Chongro-gu, Seoul, conducted two
summers ago, it was found that most students with a speech impediment have a complex disorder,
as stemming from the major causes of cerebral infantile paralysis, brain dysfunction and learning
disabilities. Thus the individual difference in gestures generates the appearance of dialects. With the
encouragement of the principal, the focus of study over the last two years was on developing a
systematic sign system.
This work was as hard as that experienced by King Sejong the creator of the Korean alphabet.
Though the research and development havent been finished yet, it was not until this study was
facilitated that I realized such individuals would be much better able to constitute their own
community if the work was conducted at an advanced and particular level. Simply put, they should
be making textbooks with a distinct linguistic virtue relevant to their community, rather than merely
accepting the simple level of expressing a language through illustrations.
After visiting SNSD, it was found that there was a great difference of communication ability from
the educational aspect between those with a normal sense of hearing and the disabled. The deaf
were communicating with each other in a variety of methods of expression. The miscommunication
caused by these various modes of expression is likely to pose a great barrier in life between the
disabled and other people. Communication among people with a normal sense of hearing has gone
smoothly even in different regions, as they learnt and practiced the relative definitions of
expression, forms of expression, and correct textbook pronunciation in classes held in their mother
tongue. As mentioned above, even people with a normal body and sense of hearing can effect
various kinds of idiosyncratic changes in expression.
Fig 1: Community relationship between those with normal sense of hearing and the deaf
As mentioned above, the aims of this study are to search for new communication methods among
those isolated by their physical handicaps, and to suggest a prototype of future design for a
discursive framework. The intent is to establish a communication system, develop relevant
instruments and implement a global communication system, on the road to constructing a
communication system for people with a speech impediment and positioning the future models of
design.
Changes in communication
Changes in communication, including the essential meaning, to convey a message, are in constant
progress with the development of media. C. E. Shanon & W. Weaver, in an information and
communication engineering module conceived about 40 years ago, said that: The mathematically
and precisely formulated model refers to a graphic formula for explaining human communication
activities, starting from a technologically processed and physically prescribed signal set, and such
keywords have been used as sender, receiver, code, sign, channel, redundancy, noise, encoding, and
the like.
Fig 2: Communication model by Shanon & Weaver
In other words, it is a view which follows the model of behavioral psychology, the stimulusresponse mechanism that information is transmitted along a certain path from a sender to a receiver
through the activity of communication. If the message of a sender is encoded and transmitted to a
receiver, the sender and the receiver have the same information and as a result, an effect that evokes
the same thoughts, behaviors and attitudes is expected.
Changes in the concepts of a sender and a receiver

The nature of the main body of communication has been changed. The active party that exercises
controlling power over information access, communication and use in cyber space has undergone
vast transformation. In other words, a receiver in the existing communication model has little
control over transmitted information, except for a partial right to determine chosen access. As he or
she is passive in the problem of when, why, from whom and what kind of information they will
receive, there exists a deliberating organ who puts pre- and post-censorship on information content,
time and intention in the name of public welfare.
In this structure, an information receiver in an era of multiplex communication is no more than an
information consumer. Nevertheless the Internet created an active information user, not a passive
information consumer. Users have full control over the content, time, intention and objects of
information to transmit, as well as the ability to actively select the information to be consumed
themselves. They are not receivers but information users, and act as creative main bodies in
generating the contents and formats of media via active intervention and participation.
Internet communication service

Web users have come to enjoy much greater power than any other users of media, in that they can
search for the services and information they want. Moreover, they are able to instantly give
comments and opinions on the received information, or ask for the explanation and apology of a
content provider. In this relationship, a user may have the experience of being transformed from a
simple receiver to a provider by voluntarily modifying and editing information data on his or her
own computer, as well as providing their own information on the Internet. As the concept of a
receiver has been changed into that of a user in the S->M->C->R->I model of basic analysis for
communication, and the user is able to simultaneously play the role of a sender, it is no longer
possible to describe communication in cyber space with existing models. Interactive
communication has been realized as escaping from the limits of one-way communication, and in the
field of design, interactive expression that induces other people to respond by presenting an
imperfect or ambiguous meaning rather than providing a perfect meaning has been increased.
Etymological meanings of sign language

Sign language goes back to the Age of Homo Sapiens in primitive times. In the era when human
intelligence was unspecialized, man used gestures as the primary medium of communication.
On the other hand, modern humans surf the web among new currents of informatization. As shown
above, the trends of communication change continuously. The new flow of informatization suggests
both a wide range of thought and a chance to innovate knowledge.
Diverse communication environments caused changes within communication modes not only in
general social environments, but also for people with a speech impediment. With these changes, a
new educational medium of communication was expected for special groups who had difficulty in
accessing various types of information. The first use of sign language in a school was in Lette, the
school for the deaf in Paris, France (1760). In Korea, sign language first began to be used 80 years
ago.
A person with an acoustic disturbance is someone who cannot hear sounds in a meaningful manner,
and one who cannot grasp the meaning of sonic messages even when exposed to dissonant or high
decibel sounds.
As the result of an interview, a congenial subject with impediments due to cerebral oxygen
deficiency in the placenta or parental diseases (10%), and subjects with acquired handicaps due to
diseases like the measles, meningitis, diphtheria, etc., as well as stemming from the side effects of
streptomycin or an accident (90%) are considered to be suffering from the cause of an acoustic
disturbance.
Problems in sign language

Sign language is a language invented by the deaf, so that the hearing-impaired may understand
things and communicate. Still the method has a variety of problems as follows: It is a presentative
means of expression. It is pictorial, and thus, cannot accurately express the nuances of emotion.
Moreover, due to the limited expression of sign language the whole expressive nature of a language
is not possible. As a single facial expression or gesture can constitute the subject of a dialogue, the
accurate division of motions is the most important thing in communication.
Communication system design

This study largely consists of three stages. Firstly, the illustrations used in the sign language
textbook for handicapped (acoustic disturbance) middle school students, as designed by the
Ministry of Education, was reformatted into different illustrations featuring a high level of
perceptiveness. Secondly, the efficiency of communication was inspected through comparison
between existing and developed types. Thirdly, hardware instruments were developed with a design
module to highlight a high degree of perceptiveness, as a software system was suggested. This
software will be a key element in solving the problem of generality. In the future, the function of
application would be included in this word processor with high generality, in order to develop a
module for the disabled. There is intent to make a demonstrative inspection centering on this
module pack, and to treat the disabled through new perceptive communication.
Fig 3: Conceptual framework
Finger language design

Arabic numerals were designed with illustrations in the sign language textbook for handicapped
(acoustic disturbance) middle school students, as designed by the Ministry of Education. The
illustrations are simplified examples. Currently, a design module to express a variety of languages
is under development.
It is intended to estimate the perceptiveness of both those with a normal sense of hearing and the
deaf, using line width and various speeds of animated images for sign language textbooks under
development. These will focus on the deaf, and are concerned with a high perceptiveness for the
movement of things. This will be a key element in building a harmonious community between those
with normal sense of hearing and the deaf.
Fig 4: Finger language design
GUI environment of PDAs

Figure 4, 5, 6 is the GUI environment of PDAs that is gaining wide popularity. The displayed
pictures are those activated through a sign language translation mode. There are finger language
expressions geared to symbolize simple numbers, and a sign language display structured to add
fresh fuel to the future development of a functional module. The size of display under development
will be greater than previously existing models, and in the inner part of the terminal functions to
give every kind of educational effect through various language expressions are under consideration.
Fig 5: Auto exchange mode
Fig 6: Sign language design
Interpretation of finger language test data

In this study, a test was conducted of SNSD teachers and students that focused on the finger
language developed by prior research. The goal in the first sampling survey was to ascertain if
communication is possible between those with a normal sense of hearing, and deaf subjects who are
able to use finger language.
The field survey was conducted with students of the SNSD located in Chongro-gu, Seoul in April
23, 2002. The questionnaire was made up of 11 items, and all items except three involved the
student making a guess at numbers with finger language. Knowing that there are many students
with acquired cerebral infantile paralysis, the use of letters was avoided.
The intent was to measure the degrees of perceptiveness and errors within the developed finger
language. Centering on this result, the visual definition of characters in prototypes for a secondary
model of developed sign language is to be made.
Fig 7: Number of participants in the survey

For this survey, a total of 141 SNSD students were tested (including 39 from 9 elementary classes,
50 from 6 secondary and 52 from 8 higher classes), as well as a total of 53 faculty members among
the staff of 97 (including the principal and 2 assistant principals, 65 teachers and 32 clerical staff
members).
There were several test types of finger language under consideration. The A-type had three items:
the first featured nine icons at nine by twelve millimeters in numerical order, the second was of nine
icons without order, and the third has 18 icons in random order.
The B-type had five icons of 15mm wide and 20mm long, while the C-type had 18 icons in random
order of 15mm wide and 18mm long. In the D-type, the largest test group to be completed involved
26 icons at six by eighteen millimeters. Two samples tested in the E-type for application to mobile
communication environments had six icons each, for the writing of numbers 6mm wide and 8mm
long. This test was carried out during 15 minutes per class, and the entered numbers were simply
combined into a total.
Fig 8: Simple totalization of teachers in elementary, secondary and higher education

Some quite interesting facts were found. Though it may be regarded as natural, students in higher
education had the highest level of perceptiveness. This boils down to the fact that perceptiveness is
related to studies conducted up to the present. Girls in higher education were lower than boys at
93.93%, while girls in secondary education at 93.25% also showed a difference from boys. Boys in
elementary education marked a high degree of 81.57%, and female teachers at 96.19% had a higher
perceptiveness than male teachers.
There also existed a difference between the deaf at 90.12% and teachers at 96.04% in the classified
total, which may be considered as due to differences in their relative positions as learners and
teachers rather than stemming from their handicaps.
Fig 9: Totalization of the disabled students

In addition, seeing from the classified total among a series of eight items, simple arrangement
questions showed the highest percentage at about 97.73%. Question 2 where the order was changed
made a difference from Q1, and Q3 with a larger size showed a lower degree at 89.25%, while Q4
with many small lines marked a rather high percentage at 91.29%. The Q8 as applied to mobile
communication showed quite a good effect at 91.60%.
Fig 10: Classified total
Comprehensive analysis according to the classified total

In conclusion, this study identified - as expected - that a physical handicap doesnt always translate
to a low intellectual ability. Though this kind of comprehensive analysis may be possible by
allowing people with normal sense of hearing and the disabled to concurrently take an identical test
at the same place, consideration should also be made in the future for those disabled who are
isolated from other people in communication. Such subjects marked quite a high percentage in the
total points, possibly resulting from the fact that questions which require the simple writing of
numbers were included in the questionnaire, considering their brain damage and other physical
handicaps. However, people with a normal sense of hearing were tested with the same
questionnaire, and therefore it is thought that much consideration should be given from now on to
the user interface design of a display screen.
The pictogram of finger language developed in this study, as centering on issues of comprehensive
analysis, resulted in high perceptiveness in both those with a speech impediment and those with a
normal sense of hearing. Though there was a difference in relative intellectual ability, this problem
is expected to be solved by the supply of various contents in future curriculums.
With the results of the new finger design, another interactive interface design should be applied to
future prototypes for the experimental verification of new sign language designs. From now on, the
interesting and exciting treatment of intellectual ability is to be expected via image-oriented
characters and gestures extrapolating from the already developed precepts of existing sign language.
Conclusion
As a result of this study, it was found what effects the appearance of new sounds have on the
communication course of images combined with a message, as centering on the comparative
examination of communication courses for both people with a normal sense of hearing and a special
group (the deaf).
A much more appealing alternative will be created if new instruments are introduced and more
advanced application software is developed, by continuously observing and analyzing the variable
factors of human psychology and solving certain problems. When the availability of this alternative
is estimated by focusing on isolated groups, the desired sign and finger language systems will be
completed as a result. After this, relative applications may be developed on the level of language
treatment.
Several sign systems tested on the basis of this study proved that though some errors in
communication between those with a normal sense of hearing and the deaf were displayed, the one
group perceived signs based on their own intellectual abilities while the other has developed
idiosyncratic methodologies based on individual organ sense adaptation. Therefore, it was found
that a physical handicap is not always connected directly to low perceptiveness.
The expectation may be possible for a new concept of treatment with specialized instruments for the
disabled. Furthermore, it may not be just a dream to envision the creation of contents predicated
upon even minor treatment, as using yet to be developed various application software. As most
disabled people are unwilling to learn sign and finger languages, the development and supply of
interesting contents should be a prerequisite.
Based on the results of this study, the aims of future studies will be to build a harmonious
community for both those with a normal sense of hearing and the deaf, by developing an advanced
module and sign system and creating new instruments.
This study proved that there are few problems in communication between the disabled and those
with a normal sense of hearing. It is expected that instruments for the disabled should be developed
on a more practical level. Those interested in this study for the benefit of deaf individuals all around
the world are always welcome to send an email to the researcher. <[email protected]>
10
References
Lee Kun-Pyo. 2001. Culture and Its Effects on Human Interaction with Design - with the Emphasis
on cross-Culture Perspectives between Koran and Japan, University of Tsukuba Institute of Art
and Design, p.169-207
Birdwhistell, R, L. 1970. Kinesics and Context : Essays on Body Motion Communication.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Dreyfuss, Henry. 1974. Design for People. The Viking Press, Inc., New York.
Jones, J. C. 1981. Design Methods, Wiley, Chichester.
Mullet, Kevin and Sano. 1995. Darrell, Designing Visual Interface-Communication Oriented
Techniques, Sunsoft Press.
Norman, Donald A. 1988. The Design of Everyday Things, Doubleday New York
The Ministry of Education. 1994. Special Education (Acoustic disturbance) Second education Sign
Language 2, Seon-hee Seoul National School for the Deaf, 1Jong Text Book Research and
Development Committee.
The Ministry of Education. 1994. Special Education (Acoustic disturbance) Second education Sign
Language 3, Seon-hee Seoul National School for the Deaf, 1Jong Text Book Research and
Development Committee.
11
Common ground - a product or a process?

W. Jonas Hochschule fr Knste Bremen, Germany
Abstract
What does the Common Ground metaphor mean: solid rock, fertile soil, or swampy lowlands? Are
we mapping the terrain or are we just constructing it because it would be comfortable to have one?
We are in a historical moment, 40 years after the first conference on design methods, initiating the
short design science decade, when other disciplines realize the fragile, fluid, historical character
of their grounds.
On the lists and in conferences there are fierce debates, yet mainly concerning details of the
respective positions. On the other hand ambitious perspectives are proclaimed, without being rooted
in the community. Contributions reveal little reference to each other. Researchers rarely seem to
take into account positions outside the material that supports their own views. Struggles for
definition power seem to be going on, somewhere between evidence and eloquence. Maybe this is
due to the imperative: publish or perish; at least here we have university level.
The paper presents a 4-step sequence of debate in a theory building process. This sample is then
reframed twice, describing it as an evolutionary process and integrating it in a wider perspective of
changing modes of knowledge production. Implications for design are discussed. My further
intention is to initiate a novel form of debate, which might contribute to the communicative creation
of Common Ground. The project the basic PARADOX poses the most fundamental question: are
there foundations of design? The new imperative in academic design culture might be: participate
or perish.
Common ground - a product or a process?

dedicated to the White Knight, defender of Old-European scholarship
Fig. 1: Alice and the Red Queen (Carroll 1996: 151).
Step 1: A new position

In two papers (Jonas 1999, 2000) I formulate my position regarding design foundations. The first
describes design theory as a floating network of chunks of ideas, without fixed epistemological
core, acting in the interface region between shifting reference spheres: the contextual and the
artefactual. Some deliberately provocative consequences from this view are, e.g. that there is no
progress in design, or, that design is amoral, and has to be, in order to fulfil its function.
The second paper argues that design is acting in the swamp, which is a provisional metaphor for
the hybrid mix of the natural, the human, the social, the divine, which cannot provide foundations
but only entry points to the field. Design has no foundations because design itself is the basic
human activity. Foundations might be emerging patterns in the swamp.
In order to relate design to science I argue that science is also acting in this swamp (in their case
called laboratory), but that science is obliged to purify and de-contextualize the facts constructed
there in order to protect its mythical image of being closer to the truth than other ways of
knowledge creation. And I ask whether design should follow this problematic path.
The following relates this to two other positions. Steps 2 and 3 describe a struggle over my view,
leading to a kind of stabilization of essential parts. Step 4 takes up a new idea and tries to develop it
within the context of my framework.
Step 2: Struggle with Ken

Friedman (2001) took a critical look at the papers mentioned. The following is an imaginary
dialogue, i.e. I reply to his critique, concentrating on the questions of overall style and the issues of
progress and foundations.
K.F.:
These papers outline problems and issues without defining them. Opening the problem space
allows us to reflect. Closing the problem space through robust definitions allows us to begin the
search for solutions.
W.J.:
The basic problems mentioned cannot be defined in a manner you would accept; definitions are not
available. The concept of interface clearly refers to Simon and Alexander and their notions of
design as interface discipline. Robust definitions might kill the problem before the search for
solutions has even started. The idea that the problem space has to be closed in order to proceed
towards solutions is inappropriate. Since the early 1970s we could know that in ill-defined, wicked
problem situations problems and solutions evolve in a parallel process. If at all, the problem can be
stated when a solution is achieved. And then the solution is the problem! I am convinced that this is
true for design problems as well as for design theory problems.
K.F.:
The growth of design knowledge, the steady history of improvements in design practice, the
dramatic development of design research, and the gradual development of design teaching, all
indicate progress.
Progress is not uniform. Comprehensive progress is impossible. Nevertheless, there is relatively
wide agreement in our field that we are meeting Bunges (1999: 227) definition of progress as a
process of improvement in some regard and to some degree in all four areas of design.
The state of physics in 1895 offers a good comparison for our field. Because we are a different kind
of field, we cannot hope to make the fundamental progress that physics has made over the past 100
years. Even so, we can hope to grow if we focus on a progressive research program.
Progress in research and in practice depends on prior art. This is another way of stating that
progress requires foundations. If there is progress and there is there must be foundation(s).
There is progress in design. QED: design has foundations.
W.J.:
I love circular arguments. But the circle cannot be traced back to some explicit axiomatic
foundation. The concept of progress you are presenting appears to be rather modest. In my oldfashioned view progress comprises (1) an increase in scientific truth (there is progress e.g. in
physics; but in design?), (2) an improvement of the human condition, the claim that Galilei and
Bacon stated for science (there is progress in many fields; but through design?), and, (3) the utopian
claim of enlightenment thinking: better human beings (no progress here). But I do not accuse design
for not showing much progress in this sense, because, as I argued, design is the agency of bridging
the gap, the interface. There is no reference point for defining progress, but merely fit or non-fit. Is
Mac OS X a design progress compared with OS 9, or just an increase in functional complexity?
Parallels with physics or even mathematics seem inappropriate. Maybe there are parallels to the
situation of the Design Methods Movement some 40 years ago: an exponential growth in rigidity
and then a collapse with important insights: that there are designerly ways of knowing, that design
problems are mostly ill-defined, embedded, situated, etc.
I do not reject systematic inquiry. A culture of inquiry is evolving, which must not necessarily be
the same as, e.g., in the social sciences. Refreshing and inspired designerly ways of inquiry are
possible (Dunne and Raby 2001).
Step 3: Re-stabilization
Towards the end, after some 12,000 words, there is a considerable shift towards consensus, starting
with the issue of reasoned argument.
K.F.:
The arguments against the concept of foundations are intuitionist in nature.
It is possible to ask for reasoned argument from evidence without locating design in the context
of science.
While I have argued that SOME forms of design practice, design research, and design education
are and should be treated as forms of science, this is not the case for all forms of design
practice, research, or education. In contrast, ALL design activity requires reasoned thought. Ideas,
issues, and inspiration often begin with intuition. This is the context of discovery. They must finally
end in reason. This is the context of justification.
W.J.:
I support the quest for reasoned arguments from evidence. But your article reveals no evidence
regarding design foundations. Evidence cannot be replaced by eloquence. Regarding design, which,
by metaphorical definition, acts at the wavefront between the actual and the new, it seems absurd
to come up with the rigid and overcome logical positivist dualism of context of discovery vs.
context of justification. Even in the hard experimental sciences there is a continuous multi-level
path of re-construction from the experiment (or observation in situ) to the mathematical formulation
of a fact (finished act).
We are still in a metaphorical stage. The design paradigm is trial&error, plus some analytic and
projective tools, called methods, plus some mysterious human capacity called creativity (or
chance?), plus some normative guidelines called style or fashion (or ideology). The same is true for
the evolving artefact of design theory, which is located in the interface region between its evolving
subject matter (design) and its evolving contexts (the reservoir of available theories). The
Darwinian view, the use of basic systemic and evolutionary concepts, might be promising to
transfer swampy metaphors into solid models.
K.F.:
In the strict sense of Bunges definition, it may not be possible to establish an epistemological
foundation for design.
In arguing for foundations, therefore I do not assert the existence (of) a stable anchor for all design
knowledge. Rather, I point to foundations (in) three senses. One is the historical sense. The next is
the philosophical sense of a basis in goals and purposes. The third involves the multiple senses of
the kinds of knowledge, theory, and practice that different forms of design and design research may
engage.
If it is the case that design is a hybrid field and the evidence suggests that it is then design can
occupy several states at any one time, while serving as a forum of different kinds of activities. While
some of these activities must obviously be at variance with one another, variance does not mean
contradiction. There is no reason that design cannot take several shapes, permitting several kinds
of approaches.
W.J.:
So we are very close to each other. No problem with these types of foundations. Main parts of my
argument are stabilized, even the network of chunks of ideas seems rehabilitated. There is the
encouragement to proceed in the outlined direction. What remains is an uncomfortable feeling with
your attitude of knowing better.
K.F.:
In some ways, we clearly disagree. I call for clarity and explicit description. Jonas seems to
believe that metaphor best describes the qualities of (celebrates?) the hybrid swamp. If it were
impossible to describe the wetlands, the science of biology could not exist. The science of
complexity and the concept of complex adaptive systems allow us to describe a hybrid swampy
environment without reducing its richness. This requires greater and more explicit descriptions, not
less.
W.J.:
Bloedmann! This is exactly what I am arguing for. Nevertheless I acknowledge the shift from
physics to biology.
Step 4: Fresh memes from Dick

In order to develop the theory I will borrow from Buchanan (2001: 6784). In stating, that We
tend to dismiss the way human beings have formed their beliefs in response to the natural and
human environment he explicitly introduces an evolutionary concept. His ecology of culture
could well be compared to my swamp.
In developing our paths of thinking, we depend upon the philosophical assumptions that stand
behind our basic beliefs, the contingency of which is not made explicit, however. Mostly they rest
in a pre-conscious state of mind. In order to render them more explicit Buchanan identifies or
invents four generative principles as generators for the various, sometimes incompatible, patterns
of design theorizing today. His scheme shows two dimensions: the phenomenal processes (A) and
the ontic conditions (B), each with two typical faces, so that a nice cross-scheme is showing up, an
example of theory as design:
A: Phenomenal.
The underlying assumption is that design is best understood by our experience of it
A1: Experience and environment.
The focus lies on the problems that human beings encounter in their environment. It seeks to
identify and integrate multiple causes of design rather than reducing it to a single cause. . The
four Aristotelian causes are showing up.
A2: Agent.
The focus lies on the agent who performs an action. Design is shaped by the actions that human
beings take in creating and projecting meaning into the world. This existential, operational
approach is exemplary in its key features. It looks for successful examples of design practice in the
past or present for models that may guide future ventures in designing.
B: Ontic.
The underlying assumption is that there are real and ultimateconditions that determine design in
human experience .
B1: Underlying forces.
The focus lies on underlying natural forces and material reality. The paradigm of design is
engineering, since engineering is closest to the natural conditions that are the real and ultimate
conditions of human life. This approach looks to the conditions that have shaped the past
and seeks to project the trends of fundamental forces and movements into the future .
B2: Transcendent ideas.

The focus lies on ideas and ideals that transcend the necessities and contingencies of physical or
material culture and the limitations of individual, personal experience. This vision is always
oriented toward an ideal of beauty, truth, or justice that transcends and permeates the world of
human experience, giving structure to meaning and values. .
Thus an explanatory structure for the chaotic image of design theory building is offered. The
scheme as a whole reveals a strong Platonic appearance, which Buchanan only attributes to
principle B2. It seems to float in an eternal realm of ideas, producing the puzzling variety of the
phenomenal world of design theories. But where does it come from? Can it be integrated into the
knowledge production process?
The answer is contained in the scheme itself. Buchanan - between the lines - seems to be in favour
of principle A1: Experience and environment. Humans experiences lead to personal attitudes,
preferences, styles. In consequence, theories of how the world (or design) works will come up,
according to those preferences. Buchanans four principles are one of these emerging theories,
which, in turn, through their dissemination (Design Issues is an effective replicator) influence
personal attitudes, preferences, and styles in the community, and which shape the further conditions
of our experiences.
To sum up: Generative principle A1 seems to be a bit more basic than the rest, because it contains
the other ones plus itself. This shows the fractal character and self-reference of design theory, and,
this is important, allows to integrate the Buchanan meme into the wider process of knowledge
generation.
Reframing 1: A Darwinian view evolutionary discourse

Steps 1-4 can be interpreted as Darwinian mechanism of (1) mutation (2) selection (3) restabilization and retention and so forth: (1) Jonas introduces a new concept, which might be called
a mutation, creative act, intentional provocation, or whatever an observer might prefer. (2)
Friedman acts as a selective environment, contesting the proposition. (3) The chunk of ideas
survives in this struggle for life, the interaction of the system (Jonas ideas) and the context
(Friedmans critique). The concept is re-stabilized. (1) A new appealing chunk of ideas appears
which Jonas tries to integrate into his concept. (2) Someone might act as a selective mechanism,
and so forth. In contrast to a genetic process in biology this mechanism is a memetic process. The
chunks of ideas that are transferred might be considered as memes or memplexes (Dawkins 1976,
Blackmore 1999).
The basis of our learning processes, which are the epistemological core of design, can be considered
as biological, grounded in the need of organisms to survive in an environment. The aim cannot be
true representation but (re-) construction for the purpose of appropriate (re-) action. According to
Aristotle the recognizability of the world must rely on the fact that there is a kind of similarity
between the particles of the world and those in our senses. The history of biological evolution
indeed suggests certain similarities of the way the material world is structured and the way we think
of the world. Evolutionary epistemologists (Campbell 1974) argue that the Kantian transcendental
apriori has to be replaced by the assumption of an evolutionary fit between the objects and the
subject of recognition.
The evolutionary model of knowledge production presents a spiral scheme of learning / innovation
with structural identity from the molecular to the cognitive and cultural level (Riedl 2000). The
basic structure, described in concepts of the uppermost level, is a circle of trial (expectation) and
experience (success or failure, confirmation or refutation), of action and reflection. Starting with
passed cases, the circle consists of an inductive / heuristic semi-circle with purposeful learning from
experience, leading to hypotheses and theories and prognoses about how the world works, and a
deductive / logical semi-circle with the confirmation or refutation of theories due to new cases, etc.
Only very recently in the cultural evolution this general scheme was subdivided into the
ratiomorphous systems of recognition and the rational systems of explanation / understanding, with
its most extreme form: the logical positivist dualism of context of discovery vs. context of
justification.
Recognition (Erkennen)
- fitness, truth means strong design
- prognosis is projection
- networks, many causes
- simultaneous (simul hoc)
- 4 Aristotelian causes considered
- only local validity, context is crucial
- allows no experiments, mostly irreversible
- correspondence org. or artefact / milieu
- reaches into high complexity
- is labelled pre-scientific
Explanation (Erklren / Verstehen)

- truth means correct causal relations
- prognosis is forecasting
- linear cause effect relations
- sequential (propter hoc)
- only causa efficiens considered
- global validity claimed, context excluded
- relies on experiments, mostly reversible
- coherence inside a system
- reduces complexity
- is labelled scientific
Table 1: Erkennen vs. Erklren (Riedl 2000: 53 55).

While the ratiomorphous process of recognition has a high potential in dealing with complex,
evolving phenomena, it is not very useful for causal explanations, and vice versa. But this
dilemma is not inherent in the nature of knowledge production, but rather a consequence of the
dualistic concept, which we have imposed on the process. The path from recognition to explanation
is continuous and circular, sometimes with dead ends. Our language is too poor, or, too much
locked in the black&white tradition, to express the beautiful shades of grey between the poles.
In design the primary criterion of truth might be consensus in a community. The crucial question
is whether design really needs the purified notion of explanation.
We can refer to Cross (2001):
The underlying axiom of this discipline is that there are forms of knowledge special to the
awareness and ability of a designer, independent of the different professional domains of design
practice.
Concepts of evolutionary innovation suggest similarities between the way the design process works
and the way we theorize about design. These special forms of knowledge are the basic cycle of
innovation and learning as described above. They are unspecific, because they are the formerly
universal competence of humans dealing with their environment.
Reframing 2: Changes in society and knowledge production

Basically humans are universal dilettantes. The functional differentiation of societies de-valuated
this trans-competence. Design professionalizes the competence of universal dilettantism; the
human poietic drive is compensated by Do-It-Yourself industries. High modernity believed in
planning, predictability, progress, and in the inexorable scientization of society. The 3rd quarter
of the 20th century saw the peak of professionalization, the deficits of which have been described
sufficiently (e.g. Schn 1983).
Since the 1970s we experience severe transformations in society and in the patterns of knowledge
production, characterized, in a positive notion, as knowledge society (Bell 1973), or, more
negative, as risk society (Beck 1986). Seen from a temporal distance, Nowotny et.al. (2001)
characterize it as a shift from Mode-1 to Mode-2 society. The interfaces between state, markets,
culture are increasingly blurred. The relatively autonomous spaces these systems occupied, were
products of the modern differentiation, as was science. The scheme of functional differentiation is
dissolving in parts. The new program of the French CNRS reveals this shift from traditional
disciplines to interdisciplinary problem fields. Moreover, the CNRS introduces the institution of
citizens conferences (Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 26.03.2002). In Mode-2 society a new
relation of society and science is showing up which might be labelled the socialization of science,
or, the shift from Mode-1 to Mode-2 knowledge production. Science and society become
transgressive, i.e. not only that science can speak to society (it always could), but rather that society
speaks back to science. Innovation is the centrepiece of a new contract between science and society.
It is mainly because of its success, that science has come under more pressure to deliver effective
solutions to a wide range of increasingly complex problems. Thus science is being drawn into the
production of contextualized knowledge.
Contextualization happens
- through the shift from a segregation to an integration model (discipline focus problem
focus, or, science research),
- through the increase in uncertainty and more variation and selective retention through success
that accompanies it (a Darwinian mechanism),
- through greater awareness of the place of people in our knowledge (actively involved in the
production, conceptualised as either objects of research and / or as addressees of ensuing policies),
Mode-2 knowledge production implies that
the separation of basic and applied research is blurred (e.g. quantum computers),
the separation of natural and artificial, of science (what is) and design (what could be)
becomes fuzzy (e.g. genetic design),
the distinction of facts and values becomes a problem,
the context of application is extended towards a context of implication,
the focus changes from reliable to socially robust knowledge,
the concept of context of discovery vs. context of justification becomes obsolete,
The hard epistemic core of autonomous self-referential science, which scientists have struggled to
articulate and to defend, is weakening. The core is not empty but crowded and heterogeneous,
which is not some sudden paradigm-shift from science to non-science, or from universal standards
of objectivity to locally determined relativism, but the latest stage in a process of adjustment to an
increasingly complex reality. Maybe the situation can be characterized as an uncoupling of
modernization from modernity. The processes of innovation are separated from the values on which
they were once assumed to rely. We have another paradox here: on the one hand, apparently, an
alarming decline in sciences ability and authority to define and explain the natural world; on the
other hand an unprecedented increase in its power to manipulate that world.
A third way, a more nuanced and sociologically sensitive epistemology is needed which
incorporates the soft individual, social and cultural visions as well as the hard body of its
knowledge. Science moves into the agora (Nowotny et. al. 2001: 201):
... Science is no longer outside, either as a cognitive or quasi-religious authority or as an
autonomous entity with its special access to the reality of nature. ....
Conclusion: Design as a non-modern discipline - science approaches design

Design, as a product of modernity, comes into being as a mediating interface between the making
and the use of artefacts. Functional differentiation of societies is the paradox foundation of design;
paradox, because, at the same time, design, as a cheeky un-discipline, rejects this separation,
permanently meddling in everything. In this sense it is orthogonal to the traditional strategies of
modernisation. Recently I formulated three theses regarding design (Jonas 2001), which can be
related to science and the concepts of Mode-2 society and Mode-2 knowledge production.
(1) Design must fit.
This refers to the interface concept of design. The growing contextualization of scientific practice
shifts the emphasis from internal coherence of its findings towards fitness with respect to its
contexts.
(2) Design never ends.
This refers to design as a projective discipline, trying to transfer existing situations into preferred
ones. Once the problem is solved, the solution becomes the nucleus of a new problem. The new
scientific criterion of social robustness requires permanent feedback with its context in the agora.
Scientific problems are never solved (Carroll 1996: 151, 152):
Now! Now cried the Queen. Faster! Faster! And they went so fast that at last they seemed to
skim through the air, hardly touching the ground with their feet, till suddenly, just as Alice was
getting quite exhausted, they stopped, and she found herself sitting on the ground, breathless and
giddy.
The Queen propped her up against a tree, and said kindly, You may rest a little, now.
Alice looked round her in great surprise. Why, I do believe weve been under this tree the whole
time! Everythings just as it was!
Of course it is, said the Queen. What would you have it?
Well, in our country, said Alice, still panting a little, youd generally get somewhere else if you
ran very fast for a long time as weve been doing.
A slow sort of country! said the Queen. Now, here, you see, it takes all the running you can do, to
keep in the same place. If you want to get somewhere else, you must run at least twice as fast as
that!
(3) Design is a special art.
Design does not have to be ashamed of its pre-rational relicts. There are mysterious aspects in
designing, whatever we name them: intuition, creativity, or insights. Heisenberg, comparing mental
images with their final mathematical models, suggests a complementary view of knowledge
production, even in the very hard sciences (Miller 1996: 319, 320):
"... And, of course, then you try to give this picture some definite form in words or in mathematical
formula. Then what frequently happens later on is that the mathematical formulation of the
picture or the formulation of the picture in words, turns out to be rather wrong. Still the
experimental guesses are rather right, that is, the actual picture which you had in mind was much
better than the rationalization which you tried to put down in the publication. That is, of course, a
quite normal situation, because the rationalization, as everyone knows, is always a later stage and
not the first stage. ..."
Mode-2 science cannot be reduced to its weakening core of formal standards, but has to be
recognized in its widening context. Scientific research practice is approaching designerly ways of
acting and reasoning. Design has never been strictly modern in a Mode-1 sense, and the discipline
should not struggle for modernity in a situation when science and society and other Sciences of the
Artificial (BJM 2001) are leaving important aspects of modernity behind. Design can be
conceptualised as an agency of modernization (innovation), uncoupled from the ideals of
modernity, situated between the established scientific and professional spaces and expert
disciplines.
Wiener (1948) argued that the promising fields for the flourishing of science are those, which have
been neglected between the accepted disciplines. Cybernetics was a product of concrete design
problems. Further disciplines may emerge from those fertile nowhere-lands. But design itself will
remain in the swamp, or, more precisely, design will remain the swamp, where the potential paths
of meaning can grow; or the not-yet-wired brain, where the axons search their connections:
hypothetical, explorative, speculative
Schns (1983) epistemology of reflective practice should be transferred to the process of building
theory / foundations in design. Common Ground is an evolving processual concept, not a system of
standards.
Appendix: the agora http://www.thebasicparadox.de

The basic PARADOX is a web-based project with around 30 participants who submitted texts on
design foundations. It is based on the hypothesis that theoretical approaches in design are rooted in
personal preferences, biographies, academic backgrounds, etc. and are evolving in communicative
processes of negotiating positions. It is my intention to make these networks more transparent, i.e.
to make them visible in one exemplary process: Hetero-assessment is requested in the form of
short comments on selected (or all) other texts. Auto-assessment is requested as an indication of
the own academic perspective, placement, working style. The outcome will be a kind of crossimpact - matrix of positions which (if well done by the participants) might serve as a database for
further analysis as to theoretical clusters, mainstreams, fringe positions, etc. Results will be fed
back into further reflection. Or, as Buchanan puts it (2001: 74):
Indeed, our ability to reconstruct design in the future may depend for its creativity on an
understanding of the fertile matrix of contrasting ideas and experiences that constitute the ecology
of culture in the moving present.
10
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Hertfordshire
Cross, Nigel 2001 Designerly Ways of Knowing: Design Discipline Versus Design Science
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PARADOX http://www.thebasicparadox.de
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International conference on design education in the university, Perth, Dec. 2000
Jonas, Wolfgang 2001 Design - es gibt nichts Theoretischeres als eine gute Praxis in Heureka
oder die Kunst des Entwerfens, Symposion IFG Ulm 21. 23. September 2001
Miller, Arthur I. 1996 Insights of Genius. Imagery and Creativity in Science and Art Copernicus,
New York
Nowotny, Helga; Scott, Peter; Gibbons, Michael 2001 Re-Thinking Science. Knowledge and the
Public in the Age of Uncertainty Polity Press, Cambridge, UK
Riedl, Rupert 2000 Strukturen der Komplexitt. Eine Morphologie des Erkennens und Erklrens
Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York
Schn, Donald A. 1983 The Reflective Practitioner. How Professionals Think in Action Basic
Books
11
Wiener, Norbert Cybernetics or control and communication in the animal and the machine, 1948
12

L. Justice Georgia Institute of Technology , USA
Abstract
Clients in industry who come from disciplines other than design often experience deep frustration
when working with or hiring industrial designers because they are not aware of the diversity in the
field. Their frustration is understandable because designers themselves do not explain the diversity
well and present themselves as generalists who can solve any problem. The real issue is that all
designers cannot solve any problem and the word research has become as vague as the word
design. In addition, some designers are wonderfully self-expressive and produce passionate
designs and other designers produce wonderfully analytical solutions to complex problems. But
designers are not always honest about their abilities and believe they can do it all.
While industry needs to educate themselves about the diversity in the field of design and the
continuum of designers between the arts and sciences, the designers need to stop presenting
themselves as the problem solvers for projects that require research, if they do not have traditional
research training. While design generalists have a refreshing and useful birds eye view of the
design process, this philosophy can damage the reputation and integrity of the profession, if the
work is superficial in its solution. The clients need to ask the right questions of the designer, the
designers need to ask the hard questions of the clients, and students thinking of entering a particular
design school need to ask questions about design program philosophies and methods.
Industry in general, and other disciplines in the university, need to be informed of the diversity in
our field and that it is a good thing when the right designer is chosen. The designers in our
profession need to be able to say they are not the right person for the job, if they are not, and
recommend a designer fit for the particular project. This integrity will help to ensure the growing
respect for our profession.

Introduction
I am often in the position of recommending industrial designers for employment, admitting
undergraduate and graduate students to an educational institution, and explaining my own design
and design research work to potential clients. Although the industrial design profession has made
great strides in the past ten years introducing the benefits of design to industry and the general
population, many clients do not know what an industrial designer does, and very few are aware of
the great diversity that exists among the designers in the industrial design profession. They believe
one designer fits all projects. The problem is that some designers believe this also. In 1949 George
Nelson (Pulos, 1983) observed:
In the end even this most prosperous and glamorous and complicated of professions comes
down to a thing that is very old and simple: one mans integrity against anothers, one mans
capacity as a working artist against anothers, the vision with which he establishes his
standards and the courage with which he sticks by them (George Nelson, 1949)
It is not always the fault of industry for not understanding the field of design, or designers, because
the field is diverse and the designers have very diverse training. The designers, understandably
eager for projects, will say they are capable of doing a particular design job, when in fact, they are
not capable. The clients confusion seems to emerge when he or she realizes the designer wants to
personalize the design solution, self-express in ways that are not wanted or appropriate, or they do
not understand the design problem to be solved (Newstetter and McCracken 2001).
Client confusion also arises when the design project warrants design research. Many designers say
they do design research, when the term research has become as vague as the word design. The
term design research has now stretched from viewing similar products on the market or doing
visual concepts, to qualitative and quantitative systematic inquiries.
The problem is compounded further when the client does not know when design research is needed
and neither does the designer who was hired for the project. These are the situations that label our
profession superficial, confusing, frustrating, expensive, and hurt the entire profession. It may only
take a few short years of badly chosen design projects, and poorly solved design problems, to make
others wary of our profession. In a corporate interview on the design strategy for the company
Master Lock, Gianfranco Zaccai discusses the successful process and strategy saying: We did this
by conducting qualitative research, analyzing the results, and then utilizing several iterations of
illustrations, simulations, and rapid prototyping to test and expand the hypotheses. While it is clear
to Mr. Zaccai that research was a necessary part of the success of the Master Lock design, it is
important that the designers on that team, and Mr. Zaccai, understand what qualitative research is
and how to analyze the results properly. A designer with no understanding of research, who
attempts to conduct or analyze research, runs the risk of skewed findings that lead to design
solutions that are inappropriate.
The designers themselves do not agree on many issues about design and what constitutes design
research, and design curricula differ around the world. I contend that diversity in design is not the
problem but misrepresentation of designers to industry. Diversity in our design programs is natural
because of our bridge between the arts and sciences. In the Recommendations for Design section
of an article titled Design Research: Building the Knowledge Base, Charles Owen (1997)
recommends that research and professional advanced education in the field of design are
distinguished. He goes on to recommend: Differentiate areas of design specialty and concentrate
resources.(p. 7) The result of distinguishing and differentiating content areas in the discipline of
design points to the building of expertise in particular areas of design. The benefit of this
differentiation is that we have expert designers working on projects for which they were trained.
The downside of the differentiation is that designers cannot move so easily (as generalists) to a
wide range of projects.
Design is a field that is very welcoming, and in turn, far reaching. But the problem lies in the
integrity of the field and the integrity of the people. The design field is in danger of losing its
credibility if misrepresentation persists, something most unfortunate because our current good
design reputation has been built by many diligent, caring people. We are in danger of losing our
credibility with other disciplines because designers do not take the time to choose the right design
projects, and turn down the ones they are not capable of taking on. A graphic designer who says he
or she can do information architecture, when their training only covered hierarchy of information in
a visual communication course, or the home interior designer who does a commercial environment
without understanding room programming, these designers also need to position themselves and
seek the correct projects.
Part of the problem for industrial designers is that they have been trained to become generalists,
taking a simplified design process diagram and using it as their wayfinding system. But many leave
off that last part of the problem solving process, evaluation, because of time constraints or lack of
good methods of evaluation. I hope the industrial designers who are trained in self-expressive
design treatments, and no formal research methods, will avoid projects for medical equipment,
nuclear controls, and airline cockpits, and that the words Sure, I can do that! do not escape their
lips.
Industry, also, is eager to capture the magic they see coming from designers and will hire external
consultants, who may be generalists, rather than train in-house specialists needed for a design
problem. In 1985, Cooper and Press discuss design in industry and the role of the generalist
consultant:
While the use of design expertise by companies grew significantly during the 1980s, they
were far more reliant upon the use of designers as external consultants than employing them
as in-house designers. This brought advantages for both users and providers of design
skills.But some have argued that it also engendered a superficial view of design and an
immature industry that was highly vulnerable to recession. (p. 30)
The design generalists, trained in the arts and crafts methods, sometimes object to higher degrees
(Justice 1998). Many do not understand why a designer might want or need a Masters or Ph.D.
When the design generalist hears that research should be conducted in the design process they seem
to struggle with why this must be. Their confidence often exceeds their skill. The answers are
supposed to come from them, not from others. Yes, they believe it is OK to get information from
others but why make it a formal and systematic review? The design generalists simplified view can
be a wonderful thing for assessing the big picture, but for a design project that needs a detailed
analysis and testing of complex parts, such as the hardware/software interface for a product control
system, many designers attentions fall short.
Industry has become frustrated with the field of design because they often dont get what they want
because the wrong designer was chosen for the problem that needed solved. But industry also needs
to educate themselves more about the fields of design and learn to ask the right questions.
Industry and academic issues

The following industry and academic cases happened in the past year and resulted in frustration,
confusion, and sometimes anger with the design situation. In both cases the designers (professionals
and students) experienced rejection due to uninformed clients and uninformed students on the same
team.
Industry
This past year a CEO of a very profitable U.S. company expressed to me that he had fired designer
after designer because he felt they were not offering proper solutions for his company. He was very
dissatisfied with the approach to the problem the designers used, and the resulting process and
solutions. They all seemed to miss the mark, he said, even after various company engineers spent
hours discussing the product goals, functions and uses with the designers. He said the designers
always seemed to do what they wanted to do, and the resulting design solutions were not a fit
with the company, even though the designer thought they were great. He did not understand the
disconnection between the designers hired and the resulting solutions proposed for the company,
which is an engineering-driven company. At first, I believed he defined the problem well enough
for the designers, but this was not the case. The problem was clearly defined as it was explained to
me. I then thought the issue might be a lack of respect for designers by the engineers in the
company, but this was not the case. This company wanted design, and designers. The corporate
administration knew they wanted an industrial designer to help make their products attractive to
consumers. By the end of my meeting with the CEO, I realized that he had been hiring the wrong
type of designer. He was hiring designers who were self-expressive and trained (and wanting) to do
unique and creative work that communicated their vision of what the product should look like.
What he really needed was a designer who was trained (and wanting) to do work that provided a
solution informed from the collective intelligence of a team of engineers, manufacturers, and
marketers, and that design solution was supported by research. He was not comfortable moving
forward on a project without some verification from data.
Academic
A similar situation occurred in a university project at a school last year. The design, computer, and
business students all worked together on an industry project for a large American firm. After the
project problem was introduced, project teams were formed. The business students immediately
informed the other students that they had a minimum of two hours each week to devote to that
particular project, and that they heard that design students stayed up all night just drawing. The
computer students didnt understand why the designers wanted to do initial observation of people
using the products that needed re-design because they felt they really needed to nail the technology
first, before they even decided to think about form. The business students were asked to find an
acceptable target market to help decide whether a product redesign should be attempted at all. The
business students said, give us the idea and then we will do the numbers as to whether it is feasible
or not. The designers were frustrated and said they couldnt possibly think blue sky when they
were already under such parameters for the project. The entire project took a bad turn because of
the attitudes of the students, and I might add, the instructors. Had the right questions been asked,
and noted, at the beginning of the process, the frustration and disillusion might not have happened.
All students walked away with a jaded view of the other disciplines, the very opposite of the goal of
the interdisciplinary project in the first place. The prejudices, and lack of information on the part of
the instructors, were carried by the students and leadership was weak. Early questions about
working habits, best practices, expectations, etc. would have helped the students understand and
begin to respect the others skills, but expectations for the others was unrealistic.
The need for communication

We have watched other professions that were once respected, fall into disrespect. Much of this
disrespect was because the members of those disrespected professions did not respect the other
members. The industrial design profession runs the risk of losing professional ground if it does not
communicate to the world that, yes, it is a diverse profession, and diversity is a beneficial situation
that offers a variety of designers for a variety of products. But the right designer must be matched to
the design problem.
We can not continue to sell ourselves as researchers when we are not, or expressive designers when
we are not. Nor should industrial designers take on a graphic design job without graphic training, or
an architect take on an interior design job, without appropriate training. Like other professions, we
need to find what we do best and promote ourselves in that niche.
We must also communicate our admiration for other types of designers who are not like us, and
may have skills we dont possess. This will help us to build a good design culture and have others
eager to work with our profession. But successful communication has a sender and a receiver and
the right questions need to be asked to assess if the design problem is right for your skills, or if
someone else should be recommended. Listed in the next section are generalized queries for clients,
designers, and students seeking a good fit.
Placement queries
Industry hiring query
The following questions are indications of the type of conversations I have with someone hiring a
designer, especially for the first time. These will assist the client with probing for information about
the right fit of designer to project.
What do you hope to accomplish with this project?
Does this project require research of any kind?
Does this project require the designer to solve the problem with a team of people?
Do you feel comfortable around designers or do you have notions about them?
What is your corporate culture like?
Is your corporate culture more science or art oriented?
Will the others in the team work easily with a creative designer?
Is your company engineering (or marketing, or manufacturing, etc.) driven?
Do you have people to carry out the design concept?
Are you looking for a solution that is artful and expressive, or analytical and supported by
traditional research methods?
Student hiring query
The art and design schools in the United States fall into a continuum along art and sciences. Schools
are either art schools that offer industrial design or research institutions that offer industrial design.
Students often visit the schools to see which one is a good fit for them, but they may assess a school
for other reasons than the industrial design curriculum. Listed below are questions I ask students
before admitting them to the program:
Can you draw?
Have you had art or design classes in high school?
Do you have a portfolio?
Do you like to work on one thing until you have it right or come up with ideas and move on to the
next thing?
Which types of products would you like to design? Housewares? Autos? Medical Equipment?
Sporting goods?
If you were to re-design a product, can you think of one that needs improvement? Why?
Would you like to design for other age groups or would you like to design products for yourself?
Why do you want to become a product designer?
Would you rather go into Fine Art?
Do you think you need to be a designer, instead of an artist, to get employment?
If students seem more interested in Fine Art, or the more self-expressive products, then they should
go to an art school that has an industrial design program. If students want to work on large complex
projects that require research and the involvement of other disciplines, then those students should
go to a research university. This is, of course, a simplification of the decision-making process but
placement of the right student in the right school is important.
Design client query
The following questions can be used by designers to understand the type of designer and outcome
the client wants and the process that will be involved. If the designer wants to do more expressive
work and not be loaded down in details, and the client needs excessive amounts of traditional
research, the designer should turn down the job offer.
What type of problem are you trying to solve?
Do you have a design team assembled already?
Do you already have a solution or do you need more?
Do you want something conservative or new and innovative?
Do you want me to come up with solutions and come back to present or do you want someone to
work side by side with others to solve the problem?
Who is the decision maker(s)?
How innovative can I get with this? Total redesign or just this one area?
What type of process do you anticipate?
What type of research do you anticipate?
Do you like working with creative people or would you rather not be involved?
These questions are asked to learn if the client wants strict control over everything or will let the
process unfold.
Conclusions
As many more designers are hired, the possibility exists for great confusion about the field of
design. Since our profession is so diverse, and we do not have standards or licensing, we need to
uphold our profession as honorable, and the designers themselves as having integrity. Part of that
integrity is turning down a design project that is not a good fit for them. If designers become known
as unreliable and difficult to work with, industry will find ways to work without us, and the
reputation of all designers will be difficult to build. We may need to police our own profession
and ask our fellow designers if they are asking the right questions and signing up for the right jobs.
Communicating our diversity, and strengths, is of utmost importance to keep respect growing for
our field of industrial design.
References
Cooper, R. and Press, M. (1985). The design agenda: A guide to successful design management.
Chichester:Wiley.
Justice, L. 1998. Providing for the future: Our obligation to the next generation of designers.
Doctoral Education in Design Ohio Conference Proceedings. Columbus, OH, pp 239-243.
Newstetter, W. and McCracken, W. 2001. Novice conceptions of design: Implications for the
design of learning environments. Design Knowing and Learning edited by Charles Eastman, Mike
McCracken, and Wendy Newstetter. Elsevier: 63-77.
Owen, C. 1997. Understanding design research: Toward an achievement of balance. Journal of the
Japanese Society for the Science of Design, Special issue, 5 No. 2 36-45.
Pulos, A. 1983. American design ethic: A history of industrial design. MIT Press: Cambridge, MA,
pp 422.
Zaccai, G. 2002. Design strategy and strategic design at Master Lock. Design Management
Journal, Vol. 13, No. 1: 18-25.
On semantic transformation
Product design elements as brand manifestations
T-M. Karjalainen University of Art & Design, Helsinki, Finland
Abstract
The paper presents an extract of my doctoral research in progress. It discusses the notion of
semantic transformation, both as a conceptual orientation in which product design is seen
embodying semantic references to specific brand qualities, and as the actual transformation process
through which (linguistic) brand definitions develop into (visual) design elements. The conceptual
framework stems from the fields of design semantics, brand research, design management, and
design research. Theoretical discussion is supported in the paper by illustrative examples, derived
from the in-depth case study of Volvo cars.
First, the paper covers the themes of company identity, meaning transmission and creation, and
brand representations. This is followed by brief viewpoints on product design as brand attribute
embodying specific semantic references. Finally, I will elaborate on the issue of semantic
transformation in the context of design process, particularly regarding identification of so-called
traceable and non-traceable design elements.
On semantic transformation
Product design elements as brand manifestations
Introduction
The significance of design as a central brand identity attribute has been recognised in design
management and brand literature. However, studies that focus on clarifying how brand identity is
actually reinforced through specific product design features are rare. In this respect, more
understanding might be gained by combining insights from different research fields, such as design
semantics, brand research, and design management. This could contribute to novel insights
regarding the notion of semantic transformation, both as a wide conceptual orientation in which
product design is seen embodying semantic references to specific brand qualities, and as the actual
transformation process through which (linguistic) definitions develop into (visual) design elements.
This paper presents an extract of my doctoral research in progress. The objective of my research is
to study how specific identity references are formed in product design to signal certain brand or
category membership or, in other words, how the semantic transformation is constructed.
Accordingly, theoretical goals include clarifying what constitutes brand identity, and
conceptualising the notion of identity references in product design (see figure 1). My conceptual
framework stems, in specific, from the fields of design semantics, design management, brand
research, and design research. This listing is, however, only indicative, while all of these fields are
multidisciplinary by definition.
Figure 1: Summary of my research focus and data collection

As figure 1 illustrates, the empirical goal of my research is also twofold. I focus, first, on studying
the essence and representation of brand identity through specific product cases, and second, on
explaining how these attributes are transferred into product design elements. My study approaches
these themes in a qualitative manner through selected product and company cases. The prior data
sources may be grouped into three categories. First, public documents and internal company
documents are used to describe various representations of brand identity. Second, products
themselves, and in specific their design features (as they occur), are analysed in order to clarify
functions of products as brand manifestations. Third, personal interviews enable potential insights
of the transformation process as experienced and described by designers themselves. Personal
interviews are included in two in-depth cases (2-5 designers in both). In addition, I have analysed a
number of illustrative cases primarily on the basis on secondary material. In this particular paper, I
will present extracts of Volvo cars that is one of the in-depth cases in my study.
Identity of the company

My research tackles meaning creation by regarding companies brands and products as social and
cultural symbols. In this context, symbol is regarded in accordance to the view of Peirce (1998) as a
conventional sign that depends on acquired or inborn habit and functions through associations.
Within this extensive and utterly complex subject, I adhere to clarifying how companies charge
meanings to various communicative replicas in a merely intentional manner, in other words, to
achieve certain strategic goals. In specific, my interest is on product design that in various product
categories serves as a central tool of identification. Even though being fully aware of the dual nature
the interactivity aspect of the signification process, I have tried to elude the consumer
interpretation of brand representations.
Hence, I regard the notion of identity as a strategic concept, which consequently suggests that it
may be intentionally affected to a certain degree. Identity has three fundamental functions. It may
contribute to company or brand recognition (identification), to differentiation of the companys
offerings from those of competitors (distinction, uniqueness), and to creation of coherence across
different markets and product categories, as well as over time (consistency). I use (the metaphor of)
identity as a converging term to indicate certain sameness (as the Latin word identitas
suggests). As for instance Karvonen (1999: 45) notes, identity is a problematic concept - while
being unambiguous - and might be used only to denote differentiation from something else. The
ambiguous nature is highlighted by a number of overlapping terms - such as character, personality,
philosophy, profile, reputation, image, perception, and positioning - which are used in a diverse
manner depending on the user in question. I will not go deeper into different terms in this paper but
confine myself to a generic statement that treats identity as something that through (intentional)
messages appears as a specific projection of personality (see e.g. Bernstein 1984, Baker and Balmer
1997, Markkanen 1998, Karvonen 1999). This personality and, further, identity (or character) stems
from an underlying philosophy or mission and impacts the ultimate perception, that is, image and
reputation of the company (Baker and Balmer 1997).
Corporate identity is one of the established terms in this context. However, it has been used in
various meanings (resulting in competing schools of thought) as illustrated, for instance, by
Baker & Balmer (1997), van Riel and Balmer (1997), and Markkanen (1998). In generic manner,
there appear two main perspectives: the strategic, performance-oriented view (internalisation of the
identity) and the visual, operative-implementation view (externalisation) (see in specific
Markkanen 1998: 48). To illustrate the idea of internal and external identity, I may use the rather
simplifying iceberg metaphor. It suggests that, on the one hand, identity may be regarded as
everything that the organisation "is" (Balmer 1995), but on the other hand, it consists of different
elements. The part under the surface (congruent to the notion of internal identity) represents the
identity dimension that might be seen as stemming from the companys being. It is difficult to
manipulate while embodying a subconscious dimension in the form of tacit knowledge. This
dimension forms an important basis for the companys visible (external) identity, illustrated as
the tip of the iceberg. The connection between internal and external parts is of dynamic and bidirectional nature. Internal identity is the wellspring of external representations which in turn, while
being perceived and interpreted by stakeholders, constantly shape the submerged part.
External identity, as the representation of the companys being, emerges primarily through three
designed areas: products or services, environments, and communications, as summarised by Olins
(1990). I prefer to use communication in a generic manner to include all the messages (also
products) that are formed within this realm, especially emphasising their symbolic characteristics.
In this sense, product design functions as a strong identity manifestation.
Meaning transmission and creation

Symbols are created and used in the cultural and social context through communication. Forns
(1998:173) points out that symbolic communication can be regarded from two different points.
First, it may be considered as transmission of embodied meanings from a sender to a recipient (i.e.
from the company to the customer in my context). Second, communication also deals with creating
shared meanings in the social context. This is congruent to the general division of two main
disciplines in communication research in which communication is regarded either as a process of
transmitting messages or from a semiotic perspective as production and change of meanings (Forns
1998: 173). In the first, message is dependent on the meanings the sender encodes into it. In the
latter, message is a sign construction that generates meaning only when it comes to interaction with
the recipient. This gives, however, a rather simplified picture. Even though my research, by
definition, grasps communication from the perspective of (intentional) meaning transmission (in
order to reinforce certain strategic intentions), I put a strong emphasis on the semiotic aspect of
meaning creation. As far as I can judge, these two views are inseparable. While encoding
intentional meanings, for instance, to product design through specific semantic aspects to be
subsequently transmitted to recipients, the company (designer) is also surmising potential
interpretations of these aspects, thus in the actuality of shared meaning creation. Furthermore, the
interactive dimension is stressed through the simple fact that the designer himself, as the consumer
of designed artefacts, belongs also to the group of recipients.
Hence, my adoption of the transmission viewpoint is not to suggest that I would regard consumers
as pure recipients of ready-coded meanings. It is a conceptual limitation through which I may set
my focus on researching how the company (strategically) manages its identity through product
design, thus by creating and communicating intentional messages. Thus, I regard meaning
transmission merely as a strategic action (to affect others through goal-orientated means) instead of
a sole communicative action. To investigate how customers actually interpret these messages (and
often create unexpected meanings from them) would be another story. This choice also relates to
my adoption of identity concept instead of image. Although these concepts as such are difficult to
grasp, I regard identity in relation to the sending side of communication, whereas image is
interpretation of a certain message from the receivers perspective. Brand image, for instance, is
seen as perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory
(Keller 1993).
Brand representations
How could then the concept of brand be understood? In order to illustrate the use of the concept in
my framework and to intertwine it with the notions of identity and image, I present figure 2.
Figure 2: Illustration of key concepts

In generic use, brand might be considered as an intangible asset. Interlocked as a mental concept to
identity and image, brand is embedded in the relationship between the company and the customer as
a specific body of shared meanings. Within this relationship, it is important to notice the process
nature of brand concept. Urde (1999) uses a term brand orientation to present his approach, in
which the processes of the organisation revolve around the creation, development, and protection
of brand identity in an ongoing interaction with target customers with the aim of achieving lasting
competitive advantages in the form of brands. As Urde further points out, brand identity is formed
through a process of value creation and meaning creation, through the brand (name) and other
assets and competencies of the company. In this regard, the essence of the transmitted and jointly
created net of meanings becomes condensed in the concept of brand. Further, the identity of a
brand is fundamentally formed through specific associations. This statement is coherent with the
definition of Aaker (1996: 68), according to which brand identity consists of a unique set of brand
associations representing what the brand stands for.
Nonetheless, by this perspective I do not mean to undermine the fact that identity appears also on
the tangible level, on the level of physical attributes that give existence for associations. This fact is
emphasised in the semiotic analysis where various levels of signification process are conceptually
important. The interaction of physical replicas and symbolic associations is a key issue also in my
study of identity references. The most fundamental physical manifestation of the brand is notably its
name. The brand name functions as a sign, connoting specific meanings by activating a network of
associations, both intended and unpredictable. In my framework, specific design elements (brands
design cues), when being linked to a certain brand, basically function with the same logic of
embodying particular meanings, as the brand name does.
Brands usually possess certain key identity attributes through which (or through a unique
combination of them) the brand is recognised and associated. The lesson is to focus on a unique
aspect of the brand that is easy for consumers to remember (Farquhar 1989: 29). Safety for life,
the brand theme of Volvo is an expression of concise and strongly established identity. Companies
also provide lists of core values as explicit (and intentional) manifestations of their identity.
These descriptions are usually regarded as fundamental principles that guide at least should guide
the behaviour of the brand. The core values of Volvo include quality, safety, and
environment. As seen, these descriptions are rather ambiguous and as such do not usually provide
sufficient base for differentiation. Nevertheless, both by reflecting the corporate culture and by
placing certain frames for intentional communication, these descriptions function as organic
elements of company reality. Their importance is stressed, for instance, in situations where there
appear inconsistencies between them and the actual doings of the company. Regarding product
design as brand manifestation, these values also make certain choices explicit, understandable for
perceivers, by creating contents for interpretation. A specific design element may perfectly suit the
purposes of Volvo, by referring to some Volvo-specific quality, but may lack meaning (in
intentional sense) if applied to another product.
Product design as brand attribute

Product is often the strongest manifestation of brand identity, while it is usually the ultimate source
through which a brand is evaluated. In regard to the view that regards the product as a (sociocultural) symbol, as a specific means of visual and non-verbal communication, it is important to
recognise the often extremely rich contents that, for instance, product design embodies in terms of
brand associations. In the following I will pay closer attention to the character of product design as
a carrier of semantic qualities.
The dimensions of product as an object of communication may be considered in a semiotic context.
Vihma (1995) identifies four basic dimensions for a design product: material, syntax, pragmatics,
and semantics. The material dimension deals, by definition, with the products material qualities.
The syntactic dimension covers the product structure and technical functioning, and the pragmatic
dimension relates to the use of the product. The pragmatic aspect can be further examined through
different functions the product is inclined to perform. Gros (1983) presents a basic categorisation by
dividing product functions into practical functions and product language functions (see also Steffen
2000). The latter group involves, for example, symbol functions that, instead of practical functions
or formal aesthetic functions have a direct contact face to the semantic dimension. Product
semantics focus on the representational product qualities. The semantic dimension emphasises the
aspects of products as symbolic communication.
Specific product qualities say design elements function as signs that could be understood, for
example, in accordance to the Peircean tradition of semiotics (Peirce 1955 and 1998). Regarding the
reference relation, sign may be comprehended as a relation to its object, such as a specific quality of
a brand it represents (e.g. safety in the case of Volvo). Concerning brand identity references, the
emphasis is placed on the set of associations that functions within the triadic relation between the
sign (representamen), the object (of reference), and the interpretant. Within this relation, sign
may refer to its object in an iconic, indexical, or symbolic manner. According to Vihma (1995), we
may talk about iconic, indexical, and symbolic references (or signs) that are to be traced in product
design. Figure 3 presents an exemplary extract of this reference relation as applied to the Volvo
case.
Figure 3: Example of reference relations in the Volvo case

If used in a comprehensive manner, this frame can be used as a helpful tool to identify sign
references embodied in physical replicas such as design elements. Every significant design element
its indexical, iconic, and symbolic references may be analysed in relation to their objects of
reference (brand identity attributes). In addition to a rather straightforward process of decomposing
and connecting between R and O, it is important to notice the presence of the interpretant, while it
adds complexity to the analysis by bringing along the subjectivity factor. In specific,
interpretation of symbolic references varies between cultural and social contexts (e.g. between
different countries), because symbols by definition are constructed within this realm.
Symbolic signs and product categories

By analysing design representations through specific replicas embodying conventional, culturally
agreed signs, it is possible to form basic product categories. Muller (2001) presents a
categorisation that groups products according to their solution-typical, prototypical and behaviourtypical qualities. Solution-typical categorisation relates to the form as such, whereas prototypical
and, in specific, behaviour-typical categorisations stem from the use of products in cultural and
social contexts. These categorisations involve the important notion of typicality. Namely, a product
may be seen as more typical within a specific category than another one a chair may look more or
less chair-like, or a car more or less Volvo-like.
Consequently, this stresses the importance of selecting a proper level for analysis when identifying
brand-specific design references. The typological model by Muller (2001: 169) suggests three main
levels of categorisation. The basic level relates to prototypical features (stressing the basic function
of the product). The super-ordinate level focuses on solution-typical features (forms as such), and
the sub-ordinate level to behaviour-typical features (in the context of use, interaction). In my study,
the analysis focuses on the latter level that consists of features that actually differentiate competing
products. This level regards design elements in connection to culturally and socially created
meanings. The basic level is inappropriate, for example, to the analysis of Volvo design cues, while
it only includes features that are typical to every car and, thus, do not function as identifying
attributes. The super-ordinate level is, of course, even less accurate.
The case could be somewhat different in other categories, especially in those that are still on the
early phase of their life cycles. For example, in mobile phones the prototypical features thus, the
features that a product should have in order to be included in the category of mobile phones are
less obvious. Especially in terms of design, there exist a number of alternative solutions even for
basic elements, such as displays and buttons. Consequently, the higher order features can be
important brand identifiers for a company like Nokia, while it as a powerful player strongly shapes
the course of the whole mobile phone category. Some initially brand-specific (i.e. behaviourtypical) elements can even become product-specific (i.e. prototypical) elements. As Muller (2001:
61) points out, knowledge and experience with certain category members turns out to greatly
influence typicality.
Semantic transformation in the design process

As a central manifestation of brand identity, as discussed earlier, product design has a pivotal role
in communicating intentional messages to target customers. This act of encoding intentional
meanings as condensed and derived from merely linguistic definitions such as brand core values
or product briefs into product design elements is an example of a process within which semantic
transformation takes place. The notion stresses the semantic and, in specific, symbolic aspects of
product design. Alternatively, this process could be called, for instance, materialisation,
embodiment design, or (visual) form creation (see e.g. Muller 2001: 15).
Figure 4 illustrates an overview of the semantic transformation in the case of Volvo. I will not
discuss the figure in more detail in this paper. It, however, suggests a few important notions. First,
brand-specific design elements refer both to the companys (brand) heritage and contemporary
market trends. The clue of nurturing consistent brand identity is to use familiar references, but not
on the cost of losing freshness. Second, stemming from brands identity (core values, heritage,
etc.) and its intentional communication, there appears a mental platform for design called key
concepts of design in Volvos case that functions as a basis for all design activities within the
company. Finally, it may be (and in most cases is) possible to recognise physical design elements
that function as manifestations of brand identity (see figure 5). Some of these elements are longterm, present in subsequent products and entire product portfolios. I call them genuine elements.
Moreover, there also exist contemporary elements that can be recognised as brand-specific. Another
fundamental notion is to distinguish whether a certain design element is, what I call, traceable or
non-traceable. I will elaborate a bit more on this division.
Figure 4: Conceptual framework for analysis of the Volvo case
Search for traceable design elements

Design elements can be reduced to basic-level ordering elements present through conceptual,
structural, and formal material dimensions (Muller 2001). Some of the brand-specific design
elements can also be characterised by these dimensions, thus traced back into basic ordering
elements. These traceable elements may be explicated in detail and further written into design
guidelines. They can even be analysed and utilised to construct formal computer-based models and
procedures (see e.g. Smyth and Wallace 2000). This emphasises the product portfolio perspective,
according to which specific design elements are systematically used in all a brands products to
reinforce consistent brand identity.
Symbolic brand references (represented by design replicas) could be traced in a rather detailed
manner, element by element, following the framework presented in figure 3. Vihma (1995: 141)
and Warell (2001), for instance, present specifications of different references embodied in, and
functions performed by, certain product features. By performing such an analysis, a long list of
brand-specific references (and perhaps their relative weights) may be formed. Precise mappings can
also be problematic, while they offer favourable grounds for subjective interpretations. When
searching for brand identity references, it is often reasonable to adhere to specific key elements
(and they are usually not many).
The (new) Volvo design language, for instance, is characterised by few strong design elements
such as V-shaped bonnet, strong shoulders, and massive Volvo-specific grille (see figure 5) that
are repeated in every recent model. Many of these cues have a strong link to Volvo heritage, as they
were used (in a slightly different format) already in specific models of the 1940s and 1950s. Some
of these elements hold clear references to safety, the fundamental core identity attribute of Volvo.
For instance, the strong shoulders make doors look thicker. These design elements (cues) consist
of different (sub-level) conceptual elements (such as points, lines, surfaces, and volumes). The
interpretation of certain forms such as the curved line as the dominant element of side shoulder
are usually based on fundamentals of human perception, as was illustrated by Volvo designers.
Figure 5: Volvo design cues (genuine design elements)

Volvo cues do not, however, mean the same thing for every person, which refers to the subjectivity
factor in relation to the interpretant. Besides, it is fair to note that similar elements appear in
products of other manufacturers as well (perhaps in a less systematic manner though). These
elements become Volvo-specific only when they are strategically connected to a specific Volvo
identity through consistent fortification of intentional associations. People outside the target
segment may not recognise the apparent symbolic signs or interpret them in a wrong way. They
can be characterised as lacking knowledge of relevant codes. Cultural artefacts may be sufficiently
understood only in the social contexts of their use (Forns 1998: 171).
Design culture and heritage non-traceable elements

Nonetheless, I would suggest that not every brand-specific reference could be traced, thus attached
to a physical design replica (at least not on the wider product portfolio context). This refers to the
generic notion of semantic transformation that may be made explicit only to a certain degree. Still,
we often deem specific products incorporating indescribable familiarity in their design. We can
characterise products and their design with representational adjectives or metaphors, but cannot
necessarily indicate in concrete terms how, for example, is an Audi more dolphin-like than a
BMW or Mercedes (see Karjalainen 2001).
Thus, in addition to traceable elements, product design seems to embody symbolic references on a
more intangible level. Alternatively to the simple lack of these elements, we may not have any
consistent or objective methods to reveal them. Nonetheless, certain design elements and entities
may still be regarded as brand-specific, creating certain subconscious feelings of right design
language for brands products. This refers to the notion of non-traceable (yet brand-specific) design
references. It is suggested that this notion tackles the existence of tacit knowledge with regard to
brand-specific product language that is transferred to designers work (and other parties of design
process) through internal (design) culture and heritage of the company.
The notion of tacit knowledge in this context is perhaps an illogical remark. If those references were
non-traceable, how could they be still recognisable? Or how could they be deemed brand-specific?
From a theoretical point of view, this issue is explained by the complexity involved in the
signification process. As opposed to the example provided by figure 3, the reference relation is
never as static and rarely as straightforward as that. Instead, the reference relation is constructed by
strings of signs that produce a process of complex chain reactions. A sign may activate certain
associations that, in turn, lead to further associations, and so forth. Consequently, this entanglement
of references can take us so far from the genuine relation that it is simply impossible to trace
certain objects to any physical forms.
Concluding remarks
One central question remains still unanswered. How do designers experience and handle the process
of semantic transformation? First of all, it seems that there is not great complexity involved in
traceable design elements. A systematic use of them would certainly lead to consistent design
language and further to stronger identity. But this would probably result in unsuccessful products.
The art of developing desirable products usually rests on the capabilities of designers to balance
between innovation and familiarity. Apart from the systematic utilisation of traceable brand
elements in product design, the real challenge lies in designing innovative products that, however,
manifest the intentional identity of the brand. This brings us again to the notion of non-traceable
design elements that relate to specific brand knowledge, embedded in the design culture and
heritage of the brand.
10
This issue was not approached in specific in this paper. Nonetheless, on the basis of preliminary
analysis of my interviews, it seems that designers possess a specific body of knowledge explicit
and tacit of the brand heritage and culture and reflect this knowledge in their work. This
knowledge, which is a fundamental aspect in regard to the design of identity references, is learnt by
personal experience. It involves knowledge of specific identity attributes and their relation to
product functions and characteristics particularly concerning symbolic contents and typicality of
design features. This is supposed to result in abilities to judge whether specific design is
appropriate to the brand or not. In many cases, designers seem to subconsciously create nontraceable design elements, if they have internalised the brand knowledge. Encoding of intentional
references evidently requires more than sole abilities to implement a simple and systematic process
of translating formal descriptions (provided by design briefs or brand identity definitions) into
design elements.
Design is a reductive process while many solutions are always possible (Muller 2001: 158), also in
terms of reference encoding. In this process, designers (and, importantly, also other parties)
experience and common vision becomes important in order to prevent concept development from
being haphazard. As Schn (1983: 79) notes, there are more variables than can be ultimately
represented, resulting also to consequences other than those intended. Moreover, when mere parties
are involved in the process, subjective opinions become visible. In a situation with multiple paths to
follow, the role of experienced design managers in making choices and guiding the formation of
design language regarding individual products and wider portfolios becomes vital. In addition,
gaining shared understanding of strategic goals and shared knowledge of the means to foster brand
identity is an important objective to strive for. And not only among designers but within the product
development team and the entire company. Besides necessitating various measures in practice, this
multidisciplinary requirement also sets challenges for multidisciplinary research.
Thus, there remain a great number of interesting issues to explore for design-related research. Due
to several limitations such as the length of this paper and the initial nature of my data analysis I
was able to approach the issue of semantic transformation only in descriptive indicative manner in
this particular paper.
11
References
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Gothenburg: Chalmers University of Technology.
13

S. Kim University of Ulsan, Korea
Abstract
Recently, it has been more important for software designers to do the part in developing usercentered software. They produce visual document to help communication among developers. Visual
diagram to analyze user need factors is based on user scenario. Case study of distributed virtualreality services in architectural process can show a sample of developing process visually.
It is important to produce visual document of one combined opinion among developers in process
of defining development boundary, developing main concept, and selecting development system.
Visual document created by software designer is a step to recognize design factors in the process of
collecting design factors of user and environment and analyzing design factor by user scenario.
Also, in the process of interface and prototype development, visual document is needed for the
concord process among developers. Those visual documents with visual language could help to
define each developers role and duty, to develop user-centered concept and various interface
proposals while developing software.

Introduction
Research background
Nowadays software is used not only by special users with skills, but also by everyone. This fact
supports that software should be developed based on human-centered factors, not on technical
factors. Software designer excels to software programmer in the ability to research human-centered
factors, because software designer tries to satisfy human needs through researching human in macro
scope.
In this paper, the role of software designer is presented through a case study, especially in
researching human needs, organizing research material, analyzing and visualizing human factors
through diagrams, and communicating ideas to programmers and project manager. The case study is
a development process of architecture integral solution software for networked virtual reality
service, which was conducted in Electronic Telecommunication Research Institute (ETRI) in Korea
for two years. This project was aimed to research and develop human-centered application software
with 3D Multimedia technologies.
Research objective
There are three research objectives in this study.
First, the role of software designer who use visual language, among related people, is discussed in
the software development process. In order to do so, various kinds of software are analyzed and the
characteristics and kinds of human-centered software are figured out.
Second, software designer presents analyzed human needs with various visual languages. It is
discussed what kinds of visual language are needed to communicate among designers,
programmers, managers and investors. It is also discussed how visual languages are used and
presented in the software development process in order to utilize systematic literary recording of
user environments and needs, consistent interface development, usage process development with
core functions, and reduce of development period.
Third, the successful software design process with visual language is demonstrated through a case
study, in communicating among members more precisely and making all members participate more
actively.
Research range and methods

Section 2 discusses roles of software designer and other development people. Section 3 discusses
the kinds and characteristics of human-centered software in which software designer can actively
employ his ability. Section 4 presents actual samples of visual development process, used by
software designers in the case study. Section 5 analyzes merits and defects of result of a case study
and suggests further and prospective assignment.
Visual language user: Software designer

As function-centered software has changed to human-centered software, software designer appeared
in order to understand and respond to users' needs. The role of software designer is different from
role of graphic designer and interface designer.
In the early stage of this process, expert programmer, project manager, and investor become a
center of the project and manage schedule and software functional range with certain document.
However, the role of each member is divided in the latter stage, so that result and opinion of each
member often end up delay of development period and over-expenditure.
Figure 1 shows relationship among developers with software designer being centered. Software
designer uses visual language to record direction of development in each sub stage in order to make
communication among members fluent. Software designer makes visual documents of schedule,
user requirements, sample data analyzed, data flow diagram, future usage diagram, consistent visual
concept of interface, graphic, and sound and so forth.
When software designer becomes center of the project and makes visual document in each substage of whole development process, all related developers could reach united understanding. It also
helps to figure out who goes in the wrong direction when there is trouble.
In the following, it will be discussed the role of software designer and relationship with other
developers.
Figure 1: Relationship among developers with software designer in the center.

Project manager -- software designer
Project manager, who has charge of managing schedule, usually has an educational background in
programming and marketing. Therefore, he/she is not good at analyzing design-related users'
requirements. He/she also tends to make schedule from their past experience, because he/she does
not have skills to analyze detailed and user-centered system factors. Software designer can help
project manager to make his/her scheduling more precise with the information regarding each
member's role and development period through detailed and user-centered system analysis.
Other related company -- software designer
When software has various units, other related company develops some part in form of OEM. Then,
there is needed to make documents for range of job and period of other related company. Software
designer makes document of structure diagram for whole software and each sub modules. For
example, it needs a document prepared by an OEM company when AUTOCAD Company attempts
to develop Korean Type ADT. With this visually presenting document of kinds of Korean type
window, door, and roof, AUTOCAD Company can visually understand what OEM company will
develop in the future.
Marketer -- software designer
Software designer can give marketer materials for product promotion and description. Software
designer draws this diagram and marketer can deliver product information to customer through this
visual material.
Client/Investor -- software designer
In order to collect investment, software designer can participate in the project plan documentation
with story-oriented and visually presenting procedure. This document helps investors to understand
the invested company in short time.
User -- software designer
The most important role of the software designer is to analyze users' requirements. Software
designer arranges users' requirement into visual form and describes how they are concretely applied
in the final software.
Graphic Designer -- software designer
Graphic designer does not know the characteristics of developing software in detail. Software
designer helps graphic designer to understand the characteristics of developing software and to keep
consistency in graphic quality in software. In order to do this, software designer should be able to
suggest representative graphic sample to graphic designer.
Expert programmer -- Software designer
Expert programmer often comes into conflict with software designer. Programmer tends to satisfy
function-oriented arbitrary interface, which comes out in the middle of process. Software designer
makes them understand detailed interface structure, whole data flow and why this interface design
is needed through visual presentation, before expert programmer begins programming. This work
has something to do with reduction of development period.
Beginning Programmer -- Software designer
Beginning Programmers are educated by expert programmer and codes relatively simple module
among whole software. They are also educated in general knowledge regarding whole software
structure, interface and data flow in short time through visual presentation which software designer
prepared. This helps to prevent beginner programmer to code irreconcilable and inconsistent sub
module, which they are likely to do.
Software designer should have general knowledge in marketing, user analysis, presentation,
programming, graphic and interface design. Most of all, it is surely important for software designer
to have an ability to document works with visual language in each stage of development process.
Field using visual language: User-centered Software

The type of software, in which software designer needs to make visualized document, is not
function-oriented software, but user-centered software. The kinds of this type of software are as
follows.
There are two criteria to categorize kinds of software. First is the kind of knowledge needed to
developers, and second is the kind of user who will use software. Does software developer need to
have domain knowledge more importantly [Domain-Oriented], or need to have system knowledge
more importantly [System-Oriented]. Will the final software be used by End user [End-User] or
by Develop user [Develop-User], who create some data using this software.
Figure 2: Categorization of software.

For example, domain-knowledge and system-knowledge are both importantly needed in developing
Game software. End user for playing, not used in the work process to develop other things, uses
Game software. However, system knowledge is more importantly needed in developing
Modeling software. Modeling software is used by develop users to create graphic models. This
graphic model files will be used to create other software such as game. For the final example, in
developing children's software, it is needed child domain knowledge and education psychology
importantly. Children do not use this kind of software to produce something in the middle of work
process.
In the categories of software, user-centered software comes under shaded area of [DomainOriented] and [End User]. This kind of software needs for software designer to analyze domain
knowledge systematically, and to identify important factors including emotional, cognitive, social
and cultural factors as well as fundamental needs. It is also needed to develop graphical and
auditory interface more importantly. Software designer's ability to analyze users' requirement and
visualize works to do in each stage, is more important in the developing process of user-centered
software.
In the following section, the concrete samples of how software designer uses visual language in the
case study of software development process.
Case study: usage of visual language in software development process

Outline of case study
First, this case was studied about a fundamental technology as developing 3D multimedia
technology for distributed realistic services. Second, the research members used the fundamental
technology to create architectural drawing and managing software, which included 3D drawing,
material mass estimating, price calculating, and construct managing.
14 members participated in the project for 2 years, acquiring fundamental technology, programming
major engine, developing concept for the software in which core technology is applied, and finally
working software. 14 members were composed of 1 project manager, 1 assistant project manager, 2
system designers, 2 expert application programmers, 2 beginning application programmers, 2 expert
graphic engine programmers, 1 database designer, 1 graphic designer and 1 software designer. Also,
there were many domain experts who helped research, software test, and consulting.
Figure 3: The process of user-centered software development.

Figure 3 shows the main process of the case study. The first step is to select development range for
software. It resulted in integrated solution software including a series of architectural process from
3D architectural drawing to construction management. The next steps are to develop various
concepts and to decide on system to develop such as database system and network system. Then,
users and usage contexts are collected and usage situation scenarios are analyzed into design
factors. In the next step, main interface are designed and detailed modules of software are
programmed, and the first prototype is made. In this process, the major function of software
designer to use visual language is demonstrated in the stage of user/usage context research and
factor analysis stage through scenarios.
Fundamental technology and decision of developing range

The Fundamental technology my team had was a virtual service to communicate with many users in
networked space simultaneously. In this virtual service, users can share and interact with an object
and save changed data in the 3D space. Additionally, video and voice chatting function is supplied.
Integrated solution software including a series of architectural process is selected to apply
fundamental technology, because virtual 3D model can deliver precise information among users in
the process of architectural design, construction simulation, and virtual simulation in the networked
environment.
This fundamental technology can connect people at a distance and make middle procedure more
precise. Software designer usually participates in selecting developing range with various ideas, but
in this case study, top manager and investors already decided software item, so that software
designer made a visual document to explain more detailed development range. This visual diagram
presents major functions and user for the software to develop.
Concept development and decision of developing system

Concept development is to decide advantages for which users will use this software, for example,
saving time, precise data supply, stable system management, and so forth. In this stage, user
research and interview with domain expert was utilized. In this case study, the major content of
concept was about the kinds of running module, order and data flow. It should be solved how 3D
CAD modeling data flows from automatic calculation module for the architectural material,
estimation module for material cost database, time schedule module for construction procedure, to
3D distributed graphic data module for virtual simulation.
Figure 4: Diagram that shows data creation concepts among 5 modules.

Figure 4 is a diagram made through many times of meetings among developing members and
domain expert. Software designer develops this visual concept diagram with sample date domain
expert provided, developing direction top manager provided, and opinions about feasibility of
expert programmers. Figure 4 shows five kinds of software modules to develop, order to produce
data among five modules, and the concrete form of sample data. This helped other members who
joined in the meeting understand whole software structure and developing direction easily.
Software designer also makes a diagram for developing system such as database system and
network system structure and helps all other members understand.
User and usage context research

Software designer takes major role in collecting information about user and context and in
systematically arranging it, in order to communicate it to system designer, programmer, and
database designer. This kind of work is to make visual diagram or table with systemized vase data.
Collecting information is divided into two kinds. One is to collect digitalized data that will be saved
in database system. The other is to collect information to understand user and contexts generally.
Figure 5: A visual document of sample research material (rest area with 2D floor plan).
Figure 6: A visual document for digitizing data from sample material.
Figure 5 shows a sample page of information collecting. The floor plan in Figure 5 is a rest area.
This partial drawing includes brief descriptions of material and construction method. The people
who calculate architectural material usually do their work by looking at CAD drawings. Our
intention was to insert automatic calculation module. Figure 6 shows 3D model for the rest area and
how each dimension of this 3D model can be applied into dimensions of architectural materials as
shown in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows real drawing data, which are made by architectural drawing
software, will save, and Figure 6 shows digital data software will use. They have different form.
How to change data form will be dealt in the next stage. In information collecting stage, the sample
of data form should be shown. If sample data such as work area, kitchen, bathroom as well as rest
area is prepared, it can be used as communication materials with other members and as materials for
design concrete interface elements. Software designer has an ability to infer digitalized data from
user research material with understanding concept and developing system.
Software designer prepares a documentation to explain user and usage context. Social, cultural
characteristics of user group, and basic principles for routine activities of users are described in this
document. Many factors to consider in developing human-centered software are figured out in this
document. They also influence interface design. Based on the content of this document, factor
analysis through scenario is implemented in the next step.
Factor analysis through scenario

Factor analysis through scenario is done in order to define functions of each module in the whole
software, relationships among modules, and work order among modules. At first, virtual scenario is
written briefly, and a visual diagram such as Figure 7 is drawn from the virtual scenario. The title of
each category defers by user and context.
10
Figure 7: Factor analysis diagram through scenario.

In this case study, category titles that were used to analyze scenarios are: User input mode
(keyboard, mouse, other external system), Screen display mode (popup window for queries, popup
window for 3D model display, DBGrid display, Location, Action, or Navigation, Hierarchical
structure display), Document Text (Text, Diagram, Graphic image), Users' mental ability (Longterm memory, Short-term memory, immediate Judgment, considerate judgment based on past
experience and knowledge), Users' physical ability (searching architectural drawings, searching
price documentation), System A.I, and System access (log-on, Database access, Network access).
Figure 7 shows an analyzed scenario under the software module of project management & sample
process opening, and displays sequential order of user activities and software functions. It also
shows the point to save the data. In this case study, about one hundred scenario analysis diagrams
were made. This document uses as a basic material to design interface in the next stage.
Main interface design

Based on the factor analysis through scenarios, main functions, icons and command were decided in
this stage. When this visual documentation for interface is finished, programmers start coding.
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Figure 8 shows interface of main functions that programmers should know thoroughly before they
start coding. Visual documentation for interface should consider the whole screen layout at first.
Figure 8 also has a whole layout in the upper left corner. Software designer gives scene numbers
such as MRD001, RED001 shown in Figure 8, while he/she meets major change of interface in the
activity sequence flow diagram.
Figure 8: Activity sequence flow diagram.

12
Software designer makes this kind of visual document including rough idea sketch, description of
characteristics of functions, and data types for scene such as MRD001. Software designer also
actualizes a sample interface with programming language. Figure 9 shows a sample interface
created by visual basic. Programmer should be able to copy and use the files of those interface
samples. In order to do this, programmer and software designer beforehand decide the names of
functions and variables to be used. Software designer sometimes does graphic work for the screen
display in order to make programmers understand better. Especially, the concrete building image in
figure 9 was not possible yet because the engine was not established yet. Software designer drew it
to make programmers understand better.
In the case study, object-oriented programming language was mainly used. When there is needed a
new object to develop interface such as DBGrid OCX, software designer present the characteristics
of the object to newly develop with the visual document.
Figure 9: A sample of interface design and function description produced by programming

language.
Prototype development
Software designer takes two important roles in the process of prototype development. First, he/she
should be able to integrate and summarize all the visual documents worked so far. Second, he
should make sure that programming process is going to the right direction. Integrated and
summarized visual document is made for project manager, investor, programmer, because they are
not interested in enormous analyzed data.
Figure 10 Shows prototype that shows final feature of the software. Software designer should check
repeatedly that development process is proceeding as the team planned, because sometimes-
13
unexpected functions can be added or interface can be changed by programmers' mistakes. Software
designer needs to keep consistency and simplicity for the software.
When initial prototype is made, software designer captured the screen and write down all functional
description on the captured screen. This visual document will be showed to domain expert for the
prototype test. Sometimes domain expert could give advice and opinion without direct use, but with
only this kind of visual document.
Figure 10: An example of developed prototype for construction module.
Discussion of case study result

There are four issues to discuss in applying visual documentation to the software development
process.
Role distribution and participation of members:
In software developing project, number of code lines made by each programmer express how much
work he did. In general, expert programmer makes lesser lines than beginning programmer does.
But, in some ill-managed project, certain expert programmers tend to make almost all code. In that
case, role distribution and participation of members are not balanced and efficient. However, due to
visual document, beginning programmers improve their understanding in system structure and user
requirements in the case study, so that the role of all programmers was distributed with balance and
they were induced to actively participate in the project.
14
User-centered concept development:

The major role of software designer was employed in the stage of user and context analysis and the
stage of factor analysis. It was possible to develop user-centered concept with enormous data
analyzed user requirements. When prototype was developed, test users are satisfied with quality of
functions and interface. Therefore, there is much less redesign work than usual.
Clear identification of responsibility:
It commonly happens to interfere other's work or to neglect one's own responsibility in teamwork.
However, in the case study, software designer made sure about each member's role and
responsibility, there is not much of interference or neglect. Especially, the conflict between
interface designer and programmer became reduced much. Because the visual documents regarding
interface design software designer made, is decided by combined opinions of project manager,
designer, domain expert and etc., programmer can put all effort into realization of prototype from
the decided interface design.
Intuitive interface development of software designer:
In the case study, too many documents can confuse interface designer to develop intuitive interface.
Software designer should produce really required visual document to help interface designer to
design most appropriate and intuitive interface.
Conclusion
Previously in this paper, the role and relationship of the software designer with other members are
discussed, and the kinds of human-centered software were discussed. Then, the work of software
designer who uses visual language in documenting software development process is demonstrated
with the case study. There are many kinds of diagrams displayed in the process of software
development.
The documents using visual language vary according to the project, so that it was not possible to
generalize shared form of visual language. If there are many case studies done using visual
language in the future, standardized visual language may be identified. Sometimes, vast
documentation make interface designer and beginning researcher confused, so that it is needed to
develop way to present simplified structure and information out of whole system.
15
References
Beyer, Hugh and Karen Holtzblatt. 1998. Using Data to Drive Design. Contextual Design: A
Customer-Centered Approach to Systems Designs. San Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.
Bonar Jeffrey and Blaise W. Liffick. 1991. Communication with High-Level Plans. Intelligent
user interfaces. Edited by Joseph W. Sullivan and Sherman W. Tyler. ACM press.
Erickson Thomas. 1995. Note on Design Practice: Stories and Prototypes as Catalysts for
Communication. Scenario-Based Design: Envisioning Work and Technology in System
Development. Edited by John M. Carroll. NY: John Wiley & sons, Inc.
Gamma, Erich, Richard Helm, Ralph Johnson and John Vlissides. 1995. Design Patterns : Elements
of Reusable Object-Oriented Software. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Hackos, Joann T. and Janice C. Redish. 1998. Analyzing and Presenting the Data You Have
Collected. User and Task Analysis for Interface Design. NY:John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Holdsworth, Jacqueline. 1994. A Process Management Framework. Software Process Design:
Out of the Tar Pit. Berkshire, England: McGraw-Hill.
McConnell, Steve. Customer-Oriented Development. And Team work. 1996. Rapid
Development: taming wild software schedules. Washington: Microsoft Press.
Raskin Jef. 2000. Navigation and Other Aspects of Human Interface. The Human Interface: new
directions for designing interactive system. NJ: ACM Press.
Rohlfs, Sabine. 1998. Transforming User-Centered Analysis into User Interface: The Redesign of
Complex Legacy System. User interface design: Bringing the Gap from User Requirement to
Design. Edited by Larry E. Wood. Florida:CRC Press LLC.
Shneiderman, Ben. 1998. Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer
Interaction. 3rd ed. Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
16

I. T. Klaasen Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
Abstract
Widely held notions such as the uniqueness of each design and design situation and of learning the
design craft in a studio with apprentice and master relationships, have hitherto left little room for
thinking about urban design as a science.
In this paper it is argued that urban and regional design is basically a practical science like
medicine, applied psychology and other technical sciences. In a practical science the objective of
research is the application of science : research is focused on what is possible, be it desirable or
not (yet) desirable. Practical sciences differ inter alia from empirical ones in that the concept of
falsification (and conversely verification) has only limited application, owing to the complexity and
heterogeneity of the concrete contextual conditions, and in some cases also of temporal and/or
financial and/or ethical considerations. All these constraints apply in the case of urban design.
A heuristic research approach as developed by the philosopher of science Imre Lakatos is
particularly suitable to develop a body of knowledge for urban and regional design, be it that the
focus is on the context of discovery, instead of on the context of justification. Some examples of
knowledge generated by this approach, in the form of spatial organization principles, are
presented.
To approach a city, or even a city neighborhood as if it were a larger architectural problem, capable
of being given order by converting it into a disciplined work of art, is to make the mistake of
attempting to substitute art for life. (Jane Jacobs The Death and Life of Great American Cities
1961: 373)

The field of urban and regional design
An implemented design of an urban area imposes long-term conditions on social processes, such as
the opportunities people have to organize their lives in temporal/spatial respects in a healthy and
safe living environment, and on the way social, cultural and economic institutions are able to
function. Cities are the largest and most complex objects that human beings make state Hillier and
Penn (1991:2). In a world like ours, suffused as it is with scientific knowledge and its applications,
one might reasonably expect the construction of these objects to be scientifically based. This is all
the more so considering that the functioning of neither people nor institutions can be described as
trouble-free. Problems include the continued dispersal of regional facilities resulting in increasing
traffic congestion (Klaasen and Jacobs 1999), the failure to create favourable conditions for
mobility chains, inadequate use of location values (ibid.), ill-considered siting of metropolitan
functions, the difficulty of accessing hospitals for people without private transport, poorly sited bus
and rail halts, public spaces which are difficult to keep clean, windswept crossroads and perilous
cycle routes. These spatial impediments are bad enough in themselves, but they also contribute to
the inequality of opportunity among individual and social groups.
In the professional world, however, but for a few exceptions (e.g. Langenhuizen, Ouwerkerk and
Rosemann 2001) little interest has been shown in scientific approaches to urban and regional design
[1], certainly in recent decades. Widely held notions such as the uniqueness of each design and
design situation, such as urban design being an artistic activity based on individual creative
capacities or focussed on conserving our cultural heritage, have hitherto left little room for thinking
about urban design as a science. Neither has the custom of learning the design craft in a studio with
apprentice and master relationships.
One explanation for the non-scientific status attributed to urban and regional design may be the
tremendous complexity of the object, the urban area. At the same time, the considerable inborn
adaptive capacity of mankind undoubtedly plays a role too (Huisman 1996). Another factor is that
people tend to regard urban and regional design as a special case of architecture - albeit on a
different scale or concerned with public space, as opposed to architecture which is concerned with
buildings (Meyer e.a.2000). Not surprisingly then, the aspect of experiential value (or beauty),
possibly but not necessarily related to cultural history, receives as much attention in urban design as
it does in architecture. For example, urban design, including regional design, is one of the artistic
categories for which the Dutch Prix de Rome is awarded. This conception of urban and regional
design clearly does not leave much room for a scientific approach to the field.
In as far as designers concern themselves with a science of urban and regional design, the focus is
mainly on the process: the development of procedural theories for design. However, substantive
scientific knowledge impinges rather on the context of the design activity: on formulating present
and future social needs, on implementation processes and on the evaluation of implemented
designs. Apart from collections of historical examples and certain checklists, scarcely any work has
been done to create a theoretical base for design in the form of a systematically assembled body of
knowledge which can be drawn on in the design process. Research into the phenomenon of the
city and into the development of this concept take place mainly in the sciences of geography,
sociology and history.
To look upon urban and regional design as a form of architecture, however, overlooks the real
difference between the way people experience a building, i.e. katascopically (from the outside
inwards), as opposed to a city or city district, i.e. anascopically (from the inside outwards). The
latter implies that the experiential value achieved is conditional on the use value. If for this reason
alone, use value should take priority over design in the narrow sense when applied to cities or city
districts (see Klaasen 2000). It must be borne in mind, however, that design in the narrow sense is
an integral part of use value in that it provides support for the functional organization of the city. It
helps people to find their bearings in and to identify - culturally, historically and personally - with
their environment, and meets the need for aesthetically or otherwise attractive abiding and
movement spaces.
Given that urban and regional design, seen from the standpoint stated here that use value takes
priority over design in the narrow sense, is indeed a science, two questions arise:
1. What kind of science is it? And,
2. How can we build up a body of scientific knowledge?
Practical sciences
Every urban or regional design is unarguably unique. The same could be said of every patient who
visits a doctors surgery or psychotherapist, or of every design for a teapot. Yet medical,
psychological or technical decisions are based on scientific knowledge. Teapots provide a
conveniently tangible example (see Fig.1).
Fig.1: four teapotmodels.

Pouring tea from these four teapots could be a precarious business. A knowledge of the physics of
communicating vessels, whether explicit or implicit, would save a great deal of messy
experimentation.
The uniqueness of each specific design cannot justify denying a scientific character to urban and
regional design. Unique spatial patterns can be seen as constructions of reproducible building
blocks. These building blocks must of course be adapted to the situation in hand, which means
there is still room for design in the traditional sense.
In order to distinguish it from formal and empirical scientific knowledge, I refer to the kind of
scientific knowledge for which I have used the metaphorical term building blocks as an instance
of practical scientific knowledge. Practical sciences are those sciences which have the application
of science as their object of research (Peursen 1986: 61). That is a different matter from the
application of science to concrete cases. Similarly, a practical science, such as applied psychology
for example, does not consist solely of knowledge obtained in practice (Drenth 1995:157). The
same scientific rules and standards apply to both types of science: both types of research lead to
generalizable insights and laws. The difference concerns only the origin of the research question
and the intention of the research. (ibid.:152). Or, as Thagard and Croft (1999:134) put it, Despite
the differences in the form of the questions asked ... , there is no reason to believe that the cognitive
processes underlying questioning are fundamentally different. The knowledge obtained through
research is, as in an empirical science, in principle objective (intersubjective) in character.
Subjective value judgements come into play only in a concrete application.
The object of practical science can be equally a process, such as an agricultural technique, or a
product. In the case of urban and regional design, the product is the built environment (including
infrastructure and recreational areas) and its relation to its environing natural (and possibly rural)
systems.
Given the extrascientific problem definition, a monodisciplinary approach is unlikely to be fruitful
in a practical science. A practical science is a task-bound conglomerate of two or more (empirical
and/or formal) sciences (Veen 1976:19). As an illustration, if we ignore the practical task of curing
people, medical science falls apart into biology, chemistry, psychology etc. (ibid.).
The ultimate (critical) question that a practical science has to address is not what is true? but does
it work? In more precise terms, does the knowledge yielded make effective action possible in
specific situations - be it desirable or not (yet) desirable.
Invaluable in this connection is knowledge of the conditions under which action (leading to a
product or process) is justifiable, and an understanding of intentional/unintentional (or
desirable/undesirable) effects the action will have. Since practical sciences usually have a direct
impact on society, the question of does it work has to be considered in an ethical context.
The future state of affairs is thus a matter of concern both to the practical and empirical sciences,
although from different perspectives:
empirical science
(intersubjective)
knowledge
practical science
(intersubjective)
knowledge
what will probably be progress generated by

the case
intrascientific
considerations
what could be the case progress generated by
extrascientific
considerations
Figure 1: empirical and practical science compared.

Not everything that can become reality (the possible) is indeed realizable in every possible set of
circumstances (Peursen 1986: 97). This is a consequence of the fact that the knowledge is
generalized in character, and peculiarities of specific situations have been ignored (Radder 1996: 23).
practical science
application of practical
scientific knowledge
(intersubjective)
knowledge
decision taken in
reasonableness
what could be the case in

the general sense
what is concretizable in a
specific situation, given
conditions and expected
effects.
Figure 2: practical science and the application of scientific knowledge compared.
The conduct of science

The rules laid down, mainly in the twentieth century, for the conduct of science were formulated
with the empirical sciences in mind. An important rule concerned distinguishing the context of
discovery from that of justification. The context of discovery was explicitly classed as external
to science proper. Adherents of this view, which was introduced by members of the Vienna Circle,
included Karl Popper. Popper instigated a revolution in the philosophy of the scientific method by
rejecting the idea that science must strive to verify hypotheses, and replacing it by the idea of
progress by the falsification of hypotheses. Increasing doubts were voiced from the 1960s onwards
about the validity of this strict distinction as a criterion of science (for example Kuhn 1962; Putnam
1974; Urbach 1978). David Gooding (1996) argued on the basis of historical examples from the
natural sciences that rationality and creativity do indeed meet head on in the context of discovery,
when anomalies (unexplained deviations from current theories) give rise to abductive inference.
New hypotheses, he proposes, come about through complex cognitive processes.
This is not to say that there are standard recipes for generating scientific hypotheses, or that such
recipes could be developed. There exists no algorithmic method, no defined set of rules, for
obtaining new scientific knowledge, but the generation of new knowledge is not based on purely
arbitrary processes: the search has turned to looking for logics in some weaker sense.
Heuristic procedures, strategies for discovery, and the like are explored. (Audi 1995 : lemma
abduction). Van Koningsveld (1976: 201) describes heuristics as the mass of suggestions, hints
and unformulated rules that induce researchers to investigate some avenues of research as
potentially fruitful while blocking off other avenues of research. Heuristic rules are rules of
behaviour that promote finding things in the context of discovery (Roozenburg & Eekels 1991:
42). Heuristic strategies like abduction and plausible reasoning make use of explorative models,
analogies, metaphors, tacit knowledge and other non-empirical considerations (Radder 1997). The
method of abduction, a term which originates from the philosopher C. S. Peirce (1839-1941)
merely suggests that something may be. (Hanson 1958: 85). The form of the inference is this:
some surprising phenomenon P is observed; P would be explicable as a matter of course if H were
true; Hence there is reason to think that H is true. (ibid.: 86). Von Schomberg (1991: 58) proceeds
from this to define plausible reasoning as the derivation of a defensible standpoint from partly
inconsistent data and/or in the absence of data. Models, in particular visual representations, play an
important part in plausible reasoning. Visual representation is a powerful tool for science when
sufficient constraints are incorporated into the reasoning process, Nercessian (1999: 20) stated at a
congress titled Model-Based Reasoning in Scientific Discovery.
Context of justification versus context of application

The realization that cognitive processes are at work in the context of discovery is more important
for the practical sciences than for the empirical sciences [3]. This realization creates room for the
development of urban and regional design in a scientific direction.
As in the empirical sciences, efforts in practical sciences are directed at testing hypotheses and
theories (empirically or otherwise) under controllable, repeatable conditions (a lab situation). In
the practical sciences, however, one is less likely to seek a context in which the hypothesis or theory
will be falsified as much as one in which it will be corroborated. On the basis of a series of
applications, probable conclusions can then be drawn about necessary conditions and resulting
effects. Hillary Putnam recognized this as long as 30 years ago: Since the application of scientific
laws does involve the anticipation of future successes, Popper is not right in maintaining that
induction is unnecessary. Even if scientists do not inductively anticipate the future (and, of course,
they do), men who apply scientific laws and theories do so. And dont make inductions is hardly
reasonable advice to give these men. (Putnam (1974) 1991:122).
There are several reasons why such a lab situation cannot always be created.
Ethical considerations may prevent the experimental testing of a hypothesis of practical

science, notably when people would be involved in the experiments.
Sometimes financial considerations stand in the way, particularly where large objects are
concerned. The use of scale models may prove useful here, but one always has to be alert for
the risk of overstretching the model.
Time, too, is a potential bottleneck in various respects.
Experiments may require time that is unavailable because the requirement for effective
action is too urgent.
The conditions may be subject to long-term changes which cannot be artificially accelerated.
Changes in conditions which occur in the course of time may also be extremely
unpredictable, particularly for processes and/or products where a large temporal grain
stands in the way of long-term corroboration.
In situations such as these, one either withholds from applying the theory, or relies on the feedback
from the application of theories in various situations with successively unique conditions. A series
of applications can lead to conclusions (albeit cautious ones), in the manner of under a certain
range of conditions, it is not improbable that effect X will occur, but only subject to the proviso
that the conditions have a measure of consistency. If a certain assumption turns out to be
inapplicable in practice or the effects are not the expected ones, there are two possibilities: either
the theory is inadequate, or the specific conditions under which its application took place were
misconstrued.
Since, if laboratory-type experiments are possible they delivery merely corroboration, and if only
practical applications are possible these may occur under once-only conditions that are only roughly
similar on each occasion, a scientific or at least rational underpinning of hypotheses (context of
discovery) is even more necessary in the case of practical sciences than that of empirical science.
In the practical sciences therefore the term justification loses much of its meaning. It seems more
appropriate to speak of the context of application. This context does not supply a justification of
hypotheses/theories so much as feedback for a heuristic approach to the context of discovery.
A scientific perspective for urban and regional design

I conclude from the points raised above that urban and regional design is, at least potentially, a
practical science. However, urban and regional design occupies a unique place within the practical
and technical sciences. This is because all the above-mentioned potential constraints on the context
of justification or the context of application do in fact occur. A laboratory situation is uncreatable
because of
-
the large financial investment required before anything can be tested;

the long time required for the implementation of proposals;
the long period over which validity would have to be tested;
ethical complications.
As to the context of application, the following complications occur:

-
the conditions under which proposals are implemented in practice show relatively few
similarities;
the conditions cannot be even partially manipulated - there is very little ethical scope for
experimentation in practice.
In this light, the conduct of the science of urban/regional design must concentrate on the context of
discovery, on what is presumed to be possibly true. Empirical and formal scientific knowledge
must supply the necessary constraints. This constitutes an answer to the first of the two questions
formulated above.
Developing a scientific body of knowledge

The second question, how can we go about creating a body of scientific knowledge, brings me, as a
scientific realist (and how can one be anything but a realist in the practical sciences?) to the
Popperian follower Imre Lakatos (1922-1974), most of whose work was only published
posthumously (Lakatos 191976, 1978, 1999). Lakatos devised a heuristic approach in which the
term theory, as a hypothesis open to falsification, is replaced by the concept of a research
programme, which comprise both chains of theories and methodologies. He renounces the strict
falsificationalism of Popper. A research programme consists of a hard core and a protective belt
around the hard core (1978: 104) . He follows Kuhn to the extent of proposing that the hard core
should be considered temporarily immune to criticism (ibid.). He proves to be a true disciple of
Popper, however, in the emphasis he places on seeking counterexamples (monsters Lakatos
1976) to strengthen hypotheses and theories by a process of falsification (ibid.). Lakatos
distinguishes two kinds of counterexample: local and global counterexamples. The first results in an
improvement of the argumentation, while the second refutes the hypothesis or theory. This
refutation is then used as a basis for seeking tacit assumptions implicit in the theory and making
them explicit (because they may be wrong). He explains this methodology by reference to modelcontrolled thought experiments. A model is a set of initial conditions (possibly together with
some observational theories) which one knows is bound to be replaced during further development
of the programme, and one even knows, more or less, how. This shows once more how irrelevant
refutations of any specific variant are in a research programme: their existence is fully expected,
the positive heuristic is there as a strategy both for predicting (producing) and digesting them.
(ibid.: 51). Contrary to general suppositions, he demonstrates that deduction can lead to an increase
of content. If a deduction does not increase content I would not call it deduction, but verification.
(ibid.:81).
Radnitsky noted in the 1970s that Lakatos heuristic is a methodology that addresses the context of
discovery. The structural study of hypothesis generation is not only compatible with but is
suggested and guided by the Popperian approach (Radnitsky 1979: 251 note).
Lakatos rules for the development of knowledge offer the prospect of scientific theorization in
urban and regional design, considering the importance attached in that field to heuristics, deductive
guesswork and the manipulation of pictorial (visual) models, which are recognized in advance as
unimplementable but serve only to boost understanding. Not that the rules have to be followed to
the letter, but they can serves as a general guide.
Some spatial organization principles for urban and regional design

Research taking place in accordance with this guideline in the Urbanism cluster of the Delft Faculty
of Architecture towards principles (building blocks) for urban and regional design relates both to
spatial organization principles (a term devised within this research project) and to theoretical
models for urban and regional scale designs. Some examples of spatial organization principles are
shown below.
Fig.2: organization principles for transport links: a. radial structure; b. tangential structure.
The universal spatial organization principles at city level are here, a. the radial mobility structure
that is desirable to make collective transport possible, and b. a tangential structure that is necessary
for private car transport. Collective transport calls for the bundling of transport movements, while
cars benefit from distribution, owing to their relatively large space demand both during driving and
when parked. At a smaller scale, low-speed individual transport (walking, cycling) is once again
availed by bundling and thus by a radial pattern. The bundling of transport movements creates
opportunities for symbiosis (among other things public safety) along the routes and reduces the
financial and spatial investment for a given link.
Fig.3: organization principles for the siting of collective functions at neighbourhood level.
In a, the centre of a circle is in a homogeneous situation, generally the most easily accessible place
and thus appropriate for siting collective functions. The radius of the circle is a criterion for the
functional spatial quality - the time and energy required for assumedly equivalent movement
options (walking, cycling). The residential density and the surface area of the circle a joint criterion
for the potential quality of the collective functions. In b and c, the residential area is linked to the
outside world. All residents and visitors pass through a single entry point. In b the point is a bus or
metro station, one of the collective functions that are situated in the central zone. In c, the entry
point is e.g. a town-centre parking garage located on the edge of a pedestrians-only residential area.
Example d has a combination of a bus or metro station and a parking garage. The zone between the
centrally sited station and the eccentrically sited parking garage now has the highest location value
for collective functions.
Fig.4: an example (at regional level) of a spatially determined - visual-spatial - organization

principle.
The relation between the viewing distance and the visibility of spatial objects is affected by among
other things the curvature of the earth. The connection between the height of an object and the
distance at which it remains visible is non-linear. This is relevant both to the siting of features such
as of landmarks and to the prevention of visual pollution.
Fig.5: accessibility study.

a shows a limitless space that has not been made accessible. All points in this space are equal in
terms of (un)accessibility. b depicts this space again but adds access by means of a road (individual
transport). This makes a zone along the road accessible: say, the limits of the marked zone can be
reached in 10 minutes walking at right angles to the road. In c access to the area is provided by a
rail link, or rather railway stations (collective transport); the zone depicted in b has been
transformed into separate (10 minute) circles around these stops.
The area around the crossing of the two roads in d is the most accessible site because it can be
reached from four directions instead of two. We now have created a hierarchy in accessibility along
the original path or road. The same goes for the railroad crossing in e. The crossings in both d and e
are features of a radial system. Tangential systems on the other hand result in equality of
accessibility. All sites in f will be accessible in at the most 10 minutes walking from a road. A
tangential railway system on the other hand will still result in a variation in accessibility unless the
users density is very high indeed, making overlapping circles possible (g; Manhattan?). In that case
of course, private transport would be out of the question, as there simply wouldnt be enough room
for all the cars. Transportation by bicycle, would probably still be possible. Private (car)
transportation will probably already be problematic in the situation depicted in d. By adding a ring
road as is the case in h, the resulting accessibility along this tangential road equals that at the
crossing itself. It might indeed be even greater, depending on the quality of the radial roads inside
its perimeter.
Notes
[1]
[2]
[3]
Urban and regional design is the translation of the Dutch term stedebouwkundig ontwerpen
which I have chosen for the purpose of this paper. I have added the adjective 'regional
because the English term urban design is mainly used in Dutch professional circles to refer
to a scale of operation close to that of architecture.
Generalized knowledge does not have to be universally valid, but can also relate to a
specific region in space or time.
The context of discovery is sometimes also referred to in the practical sciences as the
context of invention. I am not in favour of the latter.
10
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edited by Gerard Radnitzky and Gunnar Andersson. Dordrecht (Neth.): D.Reidel Publishing
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12

J. Knight User-Lab, Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, University of Central England, UK
M. Jefsioutine Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, University of Central England, UK
Abstract
Designing a usable web site structure requires understanding users concepts of the content. There
are many approaches to usability that advocate human factors research methods and lengthy
engineering style approaches to design. Such methods however, can be time consuming and may
involve expertise outside the remit of the designer. We describe a user-centred design tool, whereby
a proposed information architecture can be tested against users understanding via the web. Pilot
studies suggest that the web is an effective medium for user-testing and enabled us to conduct tests
quickly and efficiently. This supports our view of the efficacy of the tool approach to user-centred
design research. We argue that usability cannot be achieved by applying prescriptive methods and
design guidelines, but rather by applying a set of practical and focused tools that leave the design in
the hands of the designer.

Introduction
The most important component to design properly is the users conceptual model. Everything
else should be subordinated to making that model clear, obvious, and substantial. That is almost
exactly the opposite of how most software is designed. (Liddle, 1996: 21).
Despite the demonstrable values of usability (Bevan, 2000a), there is little evidence that usability
methods are widely used (e.g. Nielsen 1994; Landauer 1996). Full-scale methods based on usability
engineering approaches (e.g. Mayhew, 1999) can be time consuming and may require skills beyond
the remit of the designer. Only large organisations can afford a dedicated human factors team, and
design guidelines for usability are often used as the alternative. Other methods advocate following
key principles (e.g. Gould and Lewis, 1985) and using simple and cost effective usability methods
that involve real users (e.g. Nielsen, 1994; Bevan, 2000b). User-Lab has been set up at the
Birmingham Institute of Art and Design to explore ways in which usability can be made more
useful and accessible to the designer. We have piloted a tool aimed at giving designers an
understanding of their users through simple empirical methods, to support the key principles of
user-centred design within a discount usability approach.
The usability literature is awash with guidelines and heuristics but there is little evidence that they
are widely used. Grose et al (1998: 127) suggest that the high degree of non-compliance to web
design guidelines is due, in part, to that fact that designers find themselves overwhelmed and
intimidated by their abundance. Guidelines can be hard to interpret and apply, they are often
contradictory, and even experts cannot agree on them (Landauer 1996, Vogt 2000). The validity of
guidelines can be questionable. Grose et al (1998) found that web style guidelines were not based
on rigorous research methods. Vogt (2000) cites examples of studies that found overgeneralisation, lack of focus, inappropriate levels of detail, conflicts between guidelines, poor
illustration, incorrectness, and transience.
Grose et al (1998: 129) point out that the use of guidelines will never be a substitute for human
factors input to design. Indeed, there is compelling evidence that there is no substitute for actual
user involvement. Lee et al (1984) for example, conducted an empirical study in which a group of
experts ranked menus using the criterion of ease of use. Virtually no correlation was found
between the rankings of the experts. When a group of representative users ranked the menus,
however, there was high agreement among them as to which menus would be easier to use.
Furthermore, performance measures were highly correlated with the users predictions. Users were
the best judges of menu design and the best predictors of future performance.
Grudin (1989: 1164) points out that the focussing on guidelines such as interface consistency,
implies that good design can be found in properties of the interface, which he argues, is attractive
but misguided. Guidelines are often derived from human computer interaction research, which
seeks to abstract rules about behaviour. Much usability research focuses on looking for these rules,
which we argue are of limited value, and instead research effort should be directed at supporting
designers, not prescribing designs. This can better be achieved through promoting and facilitating
the principles of user-centred design.
Gould and Lewis outlined 4 key principles to designing usable systems: early focus on users and
tasks; empirical measurement through early and continual user testing; integrated design; and
iterative design (Gould and Lewis, 1985; Gould 1995). They advocate early and direct contact with
users through interviews, observations, surveys, participative design to understand cognitive,

behavioral, attitudinal, and anthropometric characteristics of users and their jobs. (Gould 1995:
95), and the use of actual behavioural measurements of learnability and usability and conducting
these experimental and empirical studies very early in the development process (Gould and Lewis
1985).
In a survey of designers attitudes, Eason and Harker (1988) found a number of obstacles to
integrating user-centred principles into design practice. Designers felt that information was either
not available, not available when needed or was not relevant. Objections to user-centred methods
included that they take too long, are not cost effective, and they do not fit in with design
philosophy. Nielsen suggests that the perceived cost of usability engineering is one of the key
reasons that it is not used in practice and suggests the discount usability engineering and simpler
usability methods (Nielsen 1994: 246-247) including the use of scenarios, simplified thinking
aloud and heuristic evaluation based on ten basic usability principles (249-252). Bevan (2000b)
describes cost effective methods including stakeholder meetings, paper prototyping and usability
testing. Such methods support the principles of user focus, user testing and iteration.
We propose to use and develop tools that can be used by the designer to meet the principles of usercentred design, within the philosophy of discount usability.
Tools to understand the user-experience

Tools are an integral part of software engineering and digital media design. Generally, however,
tools have focused on technological aspects of design, either in terms of making coding easier or
automating aspects of design. Where tools have related to usability this has often focused on
evaluation. Such tools include those relying on rules and heuristics (e.g. Becker et al 2000); logging
data from users interaction (Rubin, 1994: 160); standardised usability questionnaires such as
QUIS, PUEU and WAMMI (see Perlmann, 1998); tools that augment usability testing (e.g. AlQaimari and McRostie, 1999); and facilitate remote usability evaluation (Hartson et al 1996 and
Hammontree et al 1994). A less developed area is in tools that support the understanding of the user
at early stages of design (e.g. NISTs WebCAT, 1998), and indeed, supporting the entire usercentred design process (e.g. HISER, 1994).
Increasingly tools are being developed to work across networks. The advantages of such tools are
that, once developed, they are very cheap to administer, can be run on many users at a time, and can
reach remote and diverse users. The Internet has been used extensively as a platform for conducting
research in many domains, including market research, social science research and collaborative
approaches to design. One of the most well known online surveys is the Graphics Visualisation and
Usability Centres (GVU) user survey (Pitkow and Recker, 1995) providing evidence of the
changing character of the online population. This survey illustrates one of the disadvantages of
using the Internet, namely the skewed population, which is still substantially different to the offline
population. For web media this is less of an issue, since they are by definition representative of the
user base. There remains however a sampling problem in that online subjects are often self-selected.
The Internet does, however, offer opportunities in accessing groups that would be otherwise
inaccessible or excluded from offline surveys (e.g. Coomber, 1997). Furthermore, online social
groups provide useful sources of specialist target users. In addition the nature of online behaviour
suggests some positive qualities for research. Joinson (1998) found that users are less inhibited in
expressing their opinions in computer-mediated communication.
Our aim is to use and develop a set of low cost, easy to use tools based on user centred design
methods. As a first step we piloted one such tool. The tool was initially developed to assist in the
re-design of a menu structure for BIADs Centre for Product Design Information web site (CPDI).
The design team wanted to compare users performance on a new navigation menu before building
it. Vora (1998) points out that category titles are important in setting up the users expectation of
section content and that an inappropriate title can lead the user to visit several different sections, or
can prevent the user from exploring the correct page. Spool (2001) found that when users navigated
a site by categories rather than by searching they spent more time shopping and made more
purchases on e-commerce sites. Furthermore, users only used searches when the categories were
poorly designed. The CPDI design team wanted to be sure that users would be able to navigate
their site intuitively based on the top level menu categories. The best way to test this was to try it
on real users. Working to a tight deadline, the challenge was to reach their target audience quickly
and cheaply. Since they had a body of registered users, it was decided to develop a test that could
be used remotely and quickly online.
The tool was based on elements of card sorting techniques in which users are asked to sort a set of
content items into meaningful categories. The technique can be used both to generate and to verify
categories. NIST (1998) have developed an automated card-sorting tool, which enables users to sort
items and generate their own categories. In this instance, however, our client had already
categorised the content and was interested in the verification of their top-level menu structure.
Although the card sorting approach could be adapted by fixing categories, and asking users to
assign a list of items, we felt that it was important to emulate as closely as possible, an information
finding task.
The tool, which we have called the online data collection instrument (ODCI), was designed with
three components: a database, a management interface and a test interface. Tests are set up via the
management interface. A set of top level items or categories (menu) are entered into the database.
Then any number of sub category items (representing the site content) are entered. The number of
items to be presented to each user is set, and may be a subset of the total number of sub-category
items.
The test interface consists of two parts. The first is a user-profiling questionnaire, which gathers a
range of information about each user and can be used to ensure the sample is representative of the
target user group. This includes gender, disabilities, age, ethnic origin, occupation, computer and
internet use, but does not include identifying data. This information is then stored in the database.
This is followed by the test itself. Each user is randomly assigned with one of the menus
(independent variable), and the sub-category items are presented one at a time. The user is
requested to select the top level menu category that would best describe or categorise the item
(dependent variable). Once a selection has been made the user clicks submit and the next item is
automatically displayed. The items are presented in random order. When the specified number of
items have been presented to the user the test is terminated and the user is thanked for their
participation. Results are stored in the database. The system ensures that all content items are
presented in equal numbers to all test conditions (menus).
Analysis of the results is done via the management interface. Results can be viewed by individual
user or by the percentage of users choosing each menu option for each subcategory item. Results
are displayed in tabular format in the form of a matrix showing menu option on the x-axis and the
content items on the y-axis. Analysis involves manually comparing levels of consensus amongst
subjects choices of menu option for each item. High percentages of agreement suggest a
commonality in users responses, whilst low percentages imply a lack of consensus. The measure of
the usability of a menu item is taken to be the degree of consensus amongst users, and match to
intended content structure.
Using this tool the CPDI team were able to compare the usability of their original menu to that of
their proposed menu, and confirm that their new menu did in fact match users understanding of the
content structure. The number of users tested was too small to warrant statistical analysis, but the
results were convincing enough to inform the re-design. As Nielsen (1994) points out, statistical
significance though required for research and scientific claims, is not necessary to inform design
(p.248).
This initial pilot suggested that the tool had the potential to be a useful research tool to support usercentred design for the non-usability professional, and we decided to trial it on a different project
with a larger population. User-Lab had been approached by a large local authority, again to assist in
the redesign of its web sites menu structure. The information structure on the current site was
based largely on the internal structure of the organisation, a common feature of web sites (Heller
and Rivers, 1996), and it was unclear whether this was intuitive to members of the public. The
number menu options was constrained to 8 2 by the user-interface, and the information to be
presented on the site was predefined. Thus the question was how could this information be best
categorised. The client had already come up with two possible solutions. The client wanted to see
which of the two was the most intuitive for users, and as such was a similar research question to the
original pilot, providing us with an opportunity to test it further.
The ODCI was used to test the categorisation of 150 sub menu items taken from the current site
against the two proposed top-level menus. A small number of users were taken from our participant
database (N=6) and it became clear immediately that neither menu was optimal, and so a further set
of menus were designed, based on the results.
It was decided that information finding activities could be a more realistic, and so the test was
adapted to allow the input of written task scenarios. Task scenarios were derived from a log of
telephone and face-to-face queries made by the general public. Altogether 60 tasks were designed
to test 2nd and 3rd level menu items. Using the task scenarios the online tool was used to test a
further 4 iterations of the menu, and was finally delivered via the clients current web site, ensuring
that participants were representative of current site users. Altogether over 150 users participated,
far more than would have been possible in the lab within the time and budget constraints, resulting
in a refined and usable menu structure. User testing of the final design resulted in an average 76%
success rate using only menu navigation. This compares favourably with Spools study of ecommerce web sites in which a maximum 42% success rate was achieved using all the navigational
aids available on these sites (Spool et al, 1997:5).
In parallel to running the ODCI, another set of users were given paper-based questionnaires and
face-to-face interviews to ascertain the same information. The results were compared with those of
the ODCI and were found to be equivalent. Interviews and questionnaires provided a more
descriptive analysis of subjects behaviour including subjects verbalisations and levels of
confidence, but little difference in levels of consensus. This suggests that the OCDI results were
valid, despite taking a fraction of the time and resources taken by the other methods. Levels of
consensus remained relatively stable above the twenty-subject mark, suggesting that the results
were also reliable.
Conclusions
Our focus on tools is based on the following assumptions:
Designers need to understand the way their users think and respond;
Usability is context dependent;
Iterative design is key to a user-centred approach to designing new technology;
Designers work under tight time pressures and budgetary constraints;

The designer is a trained professional who is best placed to assimilate the evidence available
and to incorporate this knowledge in the design.
The pilots described suggest that the ODCI tool has potential for further development. The tool
proved to be very useful in providing a fast and efficient means of testing a menu structure. There
are a number of limitations however. The online tool is unable to detect why users made the
choices they did. By contrast the face-to-face interviews were able to pick up levels of uncertainty
and feedback, and the paper-based questionnaires contained some written notes. The online test has
no provision for comments. One solution may be to measure the degree of confidence that users
feel in making their choice, by adding an extra step to each task or adding a notes window. The
problem with this is that it slows the user down, and encourages a reflective approach rather than a
more natural intuitive response. Another problem associated with testing online is that it is difficult
to ensure that the same user is not repeating the test several times, nor can it detect whether users
are collaborating or discussing their results with each other.
Our user profiling data confirmed the skewed nature of the web population. The self selected users
from the clients web site, for example, had an average age of 26-36, 88% used the internet on a
daily basis, 50% were professionals, 61% had a university level education or equivalent, and 69%
described their ethnic origin as white UK. Interestingly, however, 51% were female. While this
population may be representative of the current web site user base, it does not account for new or
target users, and would be unsuitable for a non-web based application.
One of the Clients key considerations in the design of the menu was what type of words to use to
describe the menu options. Our results suggested that verb based menus under performed compared
to noun based ones. This contradicts one of Dumas's guideline for menu design (1988), which
states "Use words for your menu options that clearly and specifically describe what the user is
selecting; use simple, active verbs to describe menu options". This supports the argument that
guidelines can be misleading, and that testing with real users is preferable.
The tool does not provide any statistical analysis of the data. The intention is to provide an
interface that is easy to use and to present the results in a way that are easy to interpret. It does not
assume any statistical knowledge on the part of the designer. It would however, be useful to be able
to output the results to a statistical package, and to enable the analysis of trends and correlations
between user profiles and test results for example. This is the subject of further development. We
are also looking at the issue of defining acceptability criteria, although we are reluctant to build this
in to the system, preferring to leave it to the discretion of the design team.
The current tool is not designed to test interface design. Menus are presented out of context to avoid
any interference due to layout or presentation issues, and to enable the use of the tool at an early
stage of design, before the look and feel has been established. The tool is not intended to be used in
isolation, but rather it should be used as one of many simple devices to aid the entire design
process, and it is our intention to adapt it to fulfil a number of knowledge elicitation and prototype
testing tasks.
To conclude we argue that usability cannot be achieved by following a set of rules or guidelines,
and lengthy and prescriptive processes are inaccessible to many designers. Rather, research effort
should be focussed on building a set of practical and focussed tools that designers can use at their
discretion, within the principles of user-centred design.
Our pilot studies have shown that a simple focussed tool can be useful for iterative design in a
practical time critical design situation. The technology enabled us to conduct the testing efficiently
and to provide evidence to validate our conclusions with a large sample of participants. The tool has
provided valuable knowledge, as the first stage of a suite of simple user-centred design tools.
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10
Deciphering myths in design: towards restoring the

materiality of the object through the technique of re-sketching
A. Kurtgz Department of Industrial Design, Middle East Technical University, Ankara,
Turkey
Abstract
Architecture or Revolution. Revolution can be avoided.
Le Corbusier
Deciphering myths in design: towards restoring the

materiality of the object through the technique of re-sketching
Introduction
What is a designed product today? What kind of relationship between people and material artefacts
is inscribed within it? Apart from the manifest design intentionality that shapes it, what social and
historical intentions motivate the contemporary designed product and color our appreciation of it?
For us, these questions are not posed as a rhetorical manoeuvre that will allow an opportunity for an
ill-founded discussion about design on the occasion of a conference. They are, rather, of paramount
importance, since to reflect on the social significance and the historical fate of its objects is what
distinguishes a discipline from a profession. In this article, it is claimed that the contemporary
'designed product' as a cultural category of our daily life has become myth for some time. Worse,
not only individual products of design have become preys of mythical speech but also design itself
has become a myth when it assumed status as a value in itself. Worst of all these, however, occurs
when these myths are internalized by design practitioners and students. In this paper, we will first
examine the notion of myth, as the French critic Roland Barthes understood it, then, discuss its
outcomes in the field of design and, finally, propose a technique of deciphering myths in design.
Before demonstrating how the pattern of mythical significations came to be superimposed on
designed products and the idea of design as such, we should first briefly explain myth as the
dovetailing of a semiological form with an ideological function.
Barthes as mythoclast
Mythology, as Roland Barthes (1993) conceived in his Mythologies, is both a formal science
inasmuch as myth is a particular mode of signification and a historical study inasmuch as the
function of myth is to transform a historical intention into a natural, eternal fact or to represent a
localized intention as something universal. In other words, the Barthesian study of myths is an
unprecedented juxtaposition of semiology and ideology.
From a semiological perspective, myth is a second-order signification which is brought to bear
upon an already signifying unit. Myth appropriates the final term of a given system and utilizes it as
the first term (i.e., the signifier) of its signification. In other words, the contingent meaning of a
signifying unit is put at a certain distance so that a space is emptied for the mythical concept to fill
it. The concept, as the mythical signified, introduces an intentional knowledge of reality into the
appropriated system and, thereby, justifies its intentions through the agency of this first system. Of
course, the new reality introduced into the first system by the mythical concept is a certain
representation of reality favored by bourgeoisie. It is important to note that this intentional
representation of reality is totally dependent for its acceptance by masses upon the existence of an
already signifying, self-sufficient first-system. Mythical speech could not have been successful if it
had attempted to communicate its representations by means of a first-order linguistic system. It is a
parasitical form totally in need of a pre-existing, ready-made signifying unit. The literalness of the
first system is offered as a reason for the mythical concept in case it is asked for an explanation.
Myth, therefore, does not hide its intentions. Rather, it makes its intention accepted as a statement
of fact through the presence of the literal meaning of the first system. Since it still holds the first
system at its disposal, myth is relieved of the burden of providing the receivers with an explanation.
For it intentionally confuses the two systems so that the literalness of the first system is made to
appear as the explanation of the second, mythical system. As a result, it presents things as if they
mean something magically by themselves, while, in fact, it endows things with a preferred meaning.
Barthes illustrates this sorcery of myth with an example of the vogue for the building of imitated
Basque chalets among French bourgeoisie (1993: 124-125). When he first saw these buildings in
Spain, he did not feel personally addressed by them. Having seen their imitations in Paris, however,
he could not help feeling that he, as an observer, was called for naming them as Basque chalets.
Barthes deduced that his feeling of being interpellated was probably due to the appropriative nature
of the concept of basquity. That is, he was confronted with Basque chalet as an object appropriated
by the mythical metalanguage of bourgeois speech, forcing him "to acknowledge the body of
intentions which have motivated it and arranged it there as the signal of an individual history, as a
confidence and a complicity" (Barthes 1993: 125). Divested of its historical determinations, the
Basque chalet in Paris appeared in the eyes of the beholder as if it was something that magically
came into being before him and for him. As Barthes expressed,
the adhomination is so frank that I feel this chalet has just been created on the spot, for me, like
a magical object springing up in my present life without any trace of the history which has caused
it (1993: 125).
As this example illustrates, virtually everything can be caught up in the network of mythical speech
inasmuch as their meaning is already complete in a linguistic system of apprehension. In other
words, not only linguistic signs but also pictorial representations, objects, events, even persons can
lend themselves to myth. Myth, therefore, is a kind of metalanguage with a particular intention.
While the meaning of the first term already "postulates a kind of knowledge, a past, a memory, a
comparative order of facts, ideas, decisions," myth puts all this historical contingency at a distance
better to fill it with an intentional signification by sleight of hand (Barthes 1993: 117). Therefore, it
transforms "the reality of the world into an image of the world, History into Nature" by giving "an
historical intention a natural justification, and making contingency appear eternal" (Barthes 1993:
141-142). Captured by mythical speech, the complexity of historical facts and the richness of
meanings undergo a profound impoverishment. Through myth, the fabricated quality of class
interests appears as natural, eternal or universal facts. Briefly, myth replaces the complexity and
contradiction of social relations and their material outcomes with the simplicity of essences. This is
the point at which a semiological form is put in the service of ideology.
Design as myth
As the Basque chalet example clearly illustrates, the material artefacts of our daily use can also
offer themselves to mythical significations. This is all the more so for contemporary design and its
products. Today, we observe design phenomenon mythified in three distinct but closely interrelated
ways:
First myth: design as proper name
Design has become myth when it came to be understood as a value in itself rather than a material
activity of professionals engaged in the process of decision making in a larger network of industrial
production. Accordingly, design itself becomes a marketable commodity to the extent that it is
released from its material, social and political determinations in the popular consciousness. In many
instances, we see designed products whose sole signification is that of being designed. Thanks to
this myth, there emerges a new regime of valence in which individual products are given value
according to their position in a semantic scale of designed-ness. That is, the success of a product on
the market depends on its capacity to employ semantic devices that will make it signify Design as
its proper name. In this first myth, design as a generic concept is the object which is appropriated
and purified by the second order signification of myth. If design is perceived as such a magical
quality separable from concrete products, the designer also comes to be mythified as a 'magician'
separated from the social and material circumstances that condition his/her work. This gives rise to
a corresponding myth of the designer.
The influence of this myth on the understanding of design has been disastrous because once design
is mythified, it can no longer be explained by terms other than design's own. Because it is elevated
to the rank of a purely creative activity undertaken by certain talented individuals, design activity
becomes increasingly isolated from the social map. The designer is depicted as a genius who works
alone in his studio, immersed in the privacy of his inspirations. As a result, the design process
comes to be regarded as a nucleus impervious to any influences outside of its immediate concerns.
The practical and discursive existence of design gradually disappears from the scene, giving way to
a 'mystique of design'. The prevalence of this myth not only closes the channels of critical reflection
on design but also reduces the scope of design activity to a pretentious preoccupation with the
creation of 'serve-the-rich' and 'serve-the-gallery' objects. According to this myth, design can not be
defined, since it is an intuitive talent of a few privileged individuals. This myth, therefore, restores
design, under the protective shield of the mythical notion of 'genius', to an unattainable world from
where its power emanates. As a consequence, the only response expected of the critics and users to
the products of design becomes limited to one of admiration rather than understanding and
questioning.
Second myth: designers' myths
The second myth concerns designers themselves. The intransitive language employed by designers
when characterizing their works prepares the ground for some myths to emerge among designers.
As is well known, there have been a number of metalinguistic statements that prescribe particular
norms and rules of designing. These include well-established design statements and themes in the
form of maxims that permeate design practice and implicitly or explicitly define what makes up
good design, what designers should and should not seek to achieve through their designs. Prominent
examples of such maxims include "form follows function" or "less is more" of modernist era as well
as "form follows meaning" of product semantics in the so-called postmodern period. Now, though
at the beginning these statements might have been uttered with operational intent and had transitive
links to their objects (i.e., designs), through the process of canonisation they have quickly
transformed into mythical significations. In other words, when in 1896 the American architect
Louis Sullivan (1975: 11-14) first uttered the "form follows function" phrase, he was trying to
demonstrate the meaning of his design decisions by transitively linking his language to the making
of his famous tall office building. However, no sooner this phrase started to be employed
metalinguistically in order to celebrate existing or would-be designs than it turned out to be a myth.
That is, the phrase ceased to be the language-object of practising designers and became the
metalanguage of rhetoricians intent, in design practice, on persuading the public or, in education,
indoctrinating design students with a higher principle to which they were expected to subscribe. By
virtue of such myths, designers come to believe that instead of being historically determined they
are engaged, through their work, in the truths of essence. In fact, through these designers' myths, a
historically identifiable style begins to pass as a timeless value of true design. In this respect, Peter
Dormer was quite correct when he interpreted "form follows function" as having been merely a
style among others (1991: 20).
Third myth: myths as projected into designed objects
The final myth concerns designed objects themselves. Beginning with the rise of consumer culture
after World War II, designed objects have gradually become purveyors of a diversity of mythical
significations. According to Adrian Forty, manufactured goods all the more readily lend themselves
to mythical appropriation since their unquestionable materiality and the overwhelming sense of
actuality that they induce in people turns them into a suitable substance that the mythical speech
generally seeks. This is precisely because myth prefers to inhabit forms that stand in the most
insistent ways. Such forms as designed objects allow the mythical significations to enjoy both a
prolonged life and credibility in society that the less concrete forms such as movies may lack. As
Forty (1986: 9) puts it, "unlike the more or less ephemeral media, design has the capacity to cast
myths into an enduring, solid and tangible form, so that they seem to be reality itself".
Contrary to the doxological poverty of the first myth of design as a proper name, the myths
embodied in designed objects manifest the most thematic expression of mythical significations.
They are the bearers of a diversity of mythical conceptions ranging form ideas about technology
and progress to a number of lifestyles particularly favored by consumer capitalism. As an example
to this richness let me refer to two cases of mythical projection embodied in designed objects. The
first example is the myth of modern office work as an enjoyable vocation suggested by Adrian
Forty (1986). It is worth quoting here at some length:
We can take as an example the common assumption that modern office work is more friendly, more
fun, more varied and generally better than office work was in 'the old days'. The myth serves to
reconcile most people's experience of the boredom and monotony of office work with their wish to
think that it carries more status than alternatives, such as factory work, where there is no pretence
about the monotony. Although advertisements for office jobs, magazine stories and television
serials have been responsible for implanting in people's minds the myth that office work is fun,
sociable and exciting, it is given daily sustenance and credibility by modern equipment in bright
colours and slightly humorous shapes, designs that help make the office match up to the myth
(Forty 1986: 9).
A colleague, Ali Berkman, who studies products that employ ergonomics as style, offered the
second example. According to Berkman (2001: 2), once having been a strict science of work,
ergonomics has started recently to be employed only as a style in order to convey a "sense of
ergonomics and ease of use" to the consumers. Therefore, according to him,
It [ergonomics] is transformed into a vocabulary of expressing concepts like ease of use, comfort
and also the myth of 'science behind design forms'. This vocabulary is comprised of textures,
angles, softpads and biomorphic shapes. Consumers do not perceive it as a visual attitude and easily
accept it. This exploitation of ergonomics is usually seen in product groups for which no more
structural innovation is possible toothbrushes, hand tools, sports shoes, etc. and is used as a
means of enhancing product differentiation in the market. However, western competition culture
cannot cope with such a lack of progression. Pseudo-ergonomics and over-ergonomics are valuable
tools for designers or producers for giving the sense of progression in some cases (sic) (Berkman
2001: 2).
As these two examples illustrate, designed objects have become supports for countless myths about
the world in contemporary consumer culture. Thanks to the reality reference suggested by the
spontaneous materiality of designed objects, these myths begin to appear "as real as the products in
which they are embedded" (Forty 1986: 9). In fact, however, what myth engenders in and through
the product is a profound dematerialization. Under the sway of mythical speech both the materiality
of the object itself that is, the materiality of a number of decisions made during the process of its
production and the materiality of relations in which the object is socially produced and endowed
with meaning disappears and gives way to a mystique of the object. In other words, myth divests
the designed object of its individual as well as social history. In the literal sense of the term, myth
robs the object of its memory, which consists of "the sum total of all the choices and fixings made
at each stage in the passage of the object from conception, production and mediation to masscirculation, sale and use" (Hebdige 1988: 82).
Through this dematerialization, the "social logic" that governs the production and circulation of
objects disappears from the sight and the contemporary product begins to assume sign-value in a
"hierarchical code of significations" (Baudrillard 1981: 64, 68). This is the moment when designed
objects are totally transformed into objects of consumption. Worse, the more the object is
dematerialized, the less the transparency of social relations that produced it becomes intelligible. In
other words, mythical appropriation of manufactured objects in the contemporary consumer culture
has turned into a form of social control (Baudrillard 1981: 68). This is because dematerialization is
one of the preferred formulas for the process of depoliticization. We must remember that the object,
as the product of human labor, is always already political in every society and historical period. As
Marx once remarked, "the most natural object contains a political trace, however faint and diluted,
the more or less memorable presence of the human act which has produced, fitted up, used,
subjected or rejected it" (Barthes 1993: 143). This is even more so for the industrially produced
object that prefers to hide the political traces of its production behind innumerable myths.
The birth of styling as dematerialization

We have shown that myth dematerialises manufactured objects by turning them into signs that
exchange among themselves in a differential code of significations. Of course, by dematerialization
we do not mean a liquidation of the object. Rather, it signals a new type of relation established
between the user and the object, in which the perception of the material conditions that gave birth to
the object as well as its consumer is eclipsed by the newly emerging consumer sensibility mediated
by styling. We claim that the process of stylization as a cultural phenomenon emerged gradually
after World War II is responsible for this dematerialization. Stylization, as the prevailing ethos of
consumer culture, is what best defines the mythical appropriation of material relations in our
society. A parallel mythical appropriation of the manufactured goods occurs concurrently with the
emergence of styling in design.
In design literature, styling is defined as "the application of surface effects to a product after the
internal mechanism has been designed" with the intention "either to disguise or to enhance the
relationship between form and function" (Julier 1993: 182). Though it is generally acknowledged
that styling is used as a means for stimulating consumer demand, its social implications have been
given little attention by designers. When we consult Dick Hebdige, however, we can get quite a
clear picture of its social consequences. According to Hebdige (1988), the birth of styling after
World War II marks the passage from a production-led economy to one of consumption.
Specifically, the turning point was the decision of the Italian company Innocenti to offer both the
"dressed" and the "undressed" versions of its Lambretta motor scooters simultaneously to the
market. However, the consumer demand for the dressed version was so great that Innocenti quickly
decided to stop the production of undressed models (Hebdige 1988: 91, 96). This anonymous vote
signaled both the emergence of a new value (i.e., styling) in design and the growing importance and
the potential malleability of consumer preferences. The age of the product in its traditional sense
was over; by means of styling, the superimposition of the image on the object finally became
possible. In other words, products were transformed into language-objects upon which the mythical
speech could easily descend through the agency of the image.
From the viewpoint of design, this was made possible through such design decisions as "the
encasement of mechanical parts in metal or plastic 'envelopes'" which endowed products with
sculptural elegance (Hebdige 1988: 92). However, this tendency of design towards the perfection of
surfaces and the disappearance of mechanical components radically transformed the relation of
users to the products. As Hebdige (1988: 97) remarks, this was a "more remote" and "less physical"
relationship of ease. Thanks to the mediation of styling, the user is led to relate even to the most
tool-like object through an interface. In other words, the phenomenon of styling not only enveloped
certain products amenable to stylization but also inserted a generalized interface between users and
the product environment with which they are surrounded. This generalized interface is nothing but
the cloud of mythical speech hovering over objects; and the form of myth in our consumer society
is the image linked to the object through the relay of styling. The social consequence of styling is to
effect a general sublimation of the object. It does so by actively imposing separations "between the
human and the technical, the aesthetic and the practical, between knowledge and use" upon the
contemporary designed object (Hebdige 1988: 97). Through such separations the object is
dematerialised and becomes an image ready to be coded as a sign of a desired lifestyle.
Re-materialization through mythoclasm

What Barthes did in his Mythologies was an attempt to decipher myths by means of a perverse
linguistic move. He turned myth against itself by mythifying it in turn. In other words, he tried to
recreate the object by introducing still another mythical speech into it. Barthes achieved this by
using the given myth "as the departure point for the third semiological chain" and taking "its
signification as the first term of a second myth" (1993: 135). To employ an odd terminology, the
Barthesian technique of mythoclasm involved the production of a meta-meta-language. As was
demonstrated in Mythologies, more often than not the linguistic clues for the second, artificial myth
are to be found within the first myth. This was precisely the case, for example, in Barthes' treatment
of the new Citroen (1993: 88-90). In this essay, he tried to restore Citroen DS19 to its "premythical
components" by fabricating a second myth from the homophony of its name (Hebdige 1988: 79).
That is, he made use of the pun suggested by its series name DS (originally, short for Diffusion
Special), which can also be pronounced Desee (i.e., goddess in French).
Note that deciphering myths in Barthesian sense was not an attempt to reduce the given myth to its
original, essential form. Barthes was perfectly aware that breaking through the illusions of mythical
consciousness should not entail a pursuit of origins. For if it were so, it would lead the analyst to the
supreme illusion of Platonic essentialism. As Barthes himself showed, deciphering myths was not
so much a matter of reduction as one of elaboration. It was a procedure by which the materiality of
social relations that gave birth to the object becomes intelligible once again as a result of an
elaboration. More precisely, the Barthesian procedure involved bringing forth a displacement of the
given mythical elements through textual elaborations of the object.
The Barthesian technique of deciphering myths brings us to the question of designerly ways of
dealing with myth. Barthes was, after all, a man of letters who contrived a textual technique as a
weapon against myth. We should, therefore, ask whether we could develop a corresponding
technique for the field of design criticism. In other words, how shall designers, as men of ideas in
matter, be dealing with the mythical speech that prevails over their products? We suggest that this
can be achieved through a technique we call 're-sketching'. However, we also claim that the
technique of 're-sketching' has already been practised, albeit tacitly, in the form of some impromptu
tactics within our material culture. In other words, we can observe some informal applications of
this technique among the works of some designers and within the realm of popular appropriation of
products. This was, for example, precisely the case when mods, having exhausted the expressive
potential of the motor scooter to its limits by means of a vast number of customising practices,
started to strip the scooter of its side panels and front mudguards (Hebdige 1988: 112). Having been
repeatedly mythified, the scooter reached a stage in which it can no longer be mythified. As
Hebdige (1988: 112) aptly puts, "after baroque" came the stage of "minimalism: the image of the
scooter was deconstructed, the object 're-materialised'". Taking this anecdote as my key metaphor,
let me now formulate the technique of 're-sketching' in a formal fashion.
Re-sketching as a technique of re-materialising designed products

The status of sketching among other drawings for design has not so much been questioned as taken
for granted. It has come to be regarded as axiomatic that sketching is an indispensable and relatively
isolated stage of the design process, involving the gradual development of a concrete form from an
initial pattern. In such accounts, the emphasis is placed more strongly on formalistic and inward-
looking aspects of the process than its communicative functions that involve the generation and
interpretation of signs as symbols within a social, material context. However, this conception of
sketching as an introspective search of a designer for the evolution of form allocates the figural
function of design thinking solely to the process of sketching, while the role of discursivity and
materiality in design is altogether removed from the scene and assigned to the production and
presentation drawings. This is probably because sketching is the least codified one among design
drawings. Therefore, regarded as the least discursive and the most figural drawing of design
thinking, sketching becomes mystified, unable to be penetrated either theoretically or in practice.
We suggest that to penetrate into the processes involved in sketching is crucial since the reasoning
carried out and the outcomes achieved during sketching constitute and reflect the vary materiality of
design activity. That is, the material descent of designed products can only be revealed through their
analyses at the level of sketches. In other words, the myth of designed product can only be
deciphered by treating them as if they were still in the form of sketches. To explain this, we should
first offer an ontological definition of what a product is within consumer society.
An object of consumption is, by definition, an entity which does not readily yield information about
the process of its production. What lends a product the character of an object of consumption is the
success of industrial manufacturing methods in either erasing or concealing the traces of its
technical as well as social production. For this reason, the end products of design present
themselves to perception as impenetrable, opaque, and therefore, indisputable items that magically
came into existence. In a similar vein, David Fleming (1998: 42) states that,
[T]he process of construction involves the use of certain devices whereby all traces of production
are made extremely difficult to detect.' If we want to examine the 'coming-into-being' of an object
which could have been other than it is, we will need some way to 'break open' the object and view
the history of its construction.
A sketch, on the other hand, lends itself to such an opening that Fleming remarks, because it does
not conceal the traces of its production. This trait of sketches enables one not only to perceive the
"coming-into-being" of the object but also to trace the multiplicity of paths that were opened but not
followed, the multiplicity of alternatives that were alluded to but not solidified by the designer. My
point might have already been understood. Sketching has a special significance for deciphering the
myth of designed object and re-materialising it.
Sketches allow the entry of the analyst into the shop floor of design whereas the illustrated, final
drawings can only represent the shop front of design. When considered at the level of individual
products, sketches, in a sense, perform their own genealogies since they are the genealogical
records of products, demonstrating the 'descent' of final design decisions. The myth of a given
designed object, therefore, could only be deciphered by reconstituting its sketches. Note, however,
that the significance of sketching for this technique is not dependent upon the availability of
sketches. In other words, we do not have to reconstitute the object as faithful as possible to its
original sketches in order to re-materialise it. We should, rather, treat the given product as the first
term of a new mythical elaboration. Contrary to Barthesian technique of textual elaboration,
however, we should once more mythify the object by practicing a formal elaboration on it. More
specifically, the technique of re-sketching involves trying to appropriate the mythical object by
subjecting it to another myth.
For example, nothing is more alienating (and re-materialising) than the effect resulting from reading
the postmodern myth of product symbolism into an object that embodies the myth of functional
form, that is, an effect resulting from countering the myth of "form follows function" with that of
"form follows meaning"! This would allow us to see the fabricated quality of what was once
considered as the natural outcome of the function of an object. In other words, re-sketching might
allow us to see the unacknowledged activity of product semantics behind functional form. And,
indeed, this was precisely the case when the ideal of function became itself a source of symbolic
inspiration and, instead of following function, form became a conveyor of images reminiscent of
machines with the advent of machine aesthetics.
Another way of re-sketching the given mythical object is to treat it as a bricolage rather than a
nucleus. In other words, the mythical object can be re-materialised if it is treated as an assemblage
of haphazard or incongruous elements. According to this conception, a designed product is not a
nucleus. Both the formal unity and the functional identity of a product are myths. That is, each
designed product has, by definition, a mixed lineage.
The unity of form is not a 'given', not an a priori category of designing. Rather, the unity of form is
fabricated from extraneous elements in a piecemeal fashion. In order to allow the disparity at the
very origin of a designed product to appear, the analyst should decompose the gestalt (i.e., the unity
of form). This can be done by disregarding the given articulations of the object and creating new
articulations in it so that the multiplicity of disparate forms whose traces were erased begin to
reappear.
This procedure may also involve an attempt to dissolve the functional identity of the product. This
can be done by deliberately erasing the species boundaries between products so that the functional
identity of a product ceases to supply the stable ground on which to build a design argument. In
other words, the analyst should re-sketch the object until it ceases to be a product and turns into a
chimera [1]. As you may already know, the chimera is also a mythological figure. We have
deliberately chosen this ancient myth with which to counter the myth of designed object. What is it
that the myth most abhors? To be cancelled by means of an immemorial ancestor!
Notes:
[1] Chimera. 1. (a) A fire-breathing she-monster in Greek mythology having a lion's head, a goat's
body, and a serpent's tail. (b) An imaginary monster compounded of incongruous parts. 2. An
illusion or fabrication of the mind, esp. an unrealizable dream. 3. An individual organ or part
consisting of tissues of diverse genetic constitution (Webster's Ninth Collegiate Dictionary, 1989).
References:
Barthes, Roland. 1993. Mythologies. London: Vintage.
Baudrillard, Jean. 1981. For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign. St Louis: Telos Press.
Berkman, Ali. 2001. "Ergonomics as Style: In the Context of Product Semantics." Unpublished
paper.
Dormer, Peter. 1991. The Meanings of Modern Design: Towards the Twenty-First Century.
London: Thames & Hudson.
Fleming, David. 1998. Design Talk: Constructing the Object in Studio Conversations. Design
Issues, 14 (2): 41-62.
Forty, Adrian. 1986. Objects of Desire: Design and Society since 1750. London: Thames &
Hudson.
Hebdige, Dick. 1988. "Object as Image: the Italian Scooter Cycle." In Hiding in the Light: On
Images and Things. London: Routledge.
Julier, Guy. 1993. Encyclopaedia of 20th Century Design and Designers. London: Thames &
Hudson.
Sullivan, Louis. 1975. "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered." In Architecture and
Design: 1890-1939: An International Anthology of Original Articles, edited by Tim and Charlotte
Benton. NewYork: Watson-Guptill Publications.
10
Distributed design teams: embedded one-on-one

conversations in one-to-many
A. Larsson Lule University of Technology, Sweden
P. Trlind Lule University of Technology, Sweden
A. Mabogunje Stanford University, USA
A. Milne Stanford University, USA
Abstract
Engineering design is fundamentally social, requiring a lot of interaction and communication
between the people involved. Additionally, good design often relies upon the ability of a crossfunctional team to create a shared understanding of the task, the process and the respective roles of
its members. The negotiation and bargaining for common ground are essential in the design
process. It is important to provide tools and methods so that also geographically distributed design
teams are given the opportunity to engage in such social interactions. This paper presents a study of
interpersonal communication within the Distributed Team Innovation (DTI) framework; a joint
product design project between Lule University of Technology and Stanford University that
investigates the future of collaborative product development. The common object of the work is to
design Virtual Pedals for Volvo Car Corporation.
In the study, we noticed that one-on-one conversations, held in parallel to a main discussion, were
common in co-located teamwork and that they are a natural part of creative teamwork. These
conversations were mainly used to clarify things and to discuss vague ideas or personal
disagreements. Additionally, they were often used instead of, or as a precursor to, bringing up a
topic with the whole group.
In distributed meetings side conversations were discouraged and current systems for distributed
collaboration could not provide sufficient support for these subtle interactions. This has important
implications for supporting and improving the performance of global teams, and it suggests that the
one-to-many channel of today's video conferencing technology is severely limiting.
Distributed design teams: embedded one-on-one

conversations in one-to-many
Introduction
Engineering design is not a purely technical activity; it is also a highly social process. Technical
artefacts are ultimately designed for human needs and purposes, and the design activities involve
intense communication and interaction between individuals and groups in complex social settings.
Social activity can not be separated from technical results - they are intertwined in the meetings
that produce the specifications; the discussions around rough calculations and sketches that create
understandings among the participants; the arguments about interpreting test results and prototype
qualities that contribute to feel and intuition about aspects of the design; and the debates about
whether the design is done, if the specifications have been met, and if the result is good
(Minneman 1991: 63).
Interpersonal communication is the basis for innovation, since these interactions provide for the
creation of shared understanding the starting point from which initial concepts can be further
developed into well-designed artefacts. In face-to-face settings, interpersonal communication is a
truly interactive process of making sense of each other and the world a moment-to-moment search
for common ground that has been hard to replicate in geographically distributed settings. However,
in the light of increasing globalization, it is of great importance to be able to support geographically
distributed teams by giving them the opportunity to uncover and utilize the collective knowledge,
creativity and meaning that spring from the multifaceted, situated and social interactions that are
characteristic of successful design.
In order to make suggestions about the design of computer support for collaborative engineering
work, it is critical to first examine the social and interactional dimensions of work. The
understanding derived from observations of engineering work practice can then be used to inform
the design of appropriate technology.
The object of our research is a joint product development effort between Lule University of
Technology, Stanford University and Volvo Car Corporation. The distributed design team consists
of four students from the ME310 course at Stanford and four students from the SIRIUS course at
Lule. The goal of the project is to design Virtual Pedals, taking into account the fact that the
need for mechanical connections between pedals and actuators has disappeared with the
introduction of drive-by-wire technology.
Our study of co-located and distributed teamwork in this project showed that the design team lost a
powerful aspect of co-located teamwork when moving into distributed collaboration. The more or
less chaotic, but still effortless, ways in which they interacted locally were almost invisible in the
distributed setting. The sense-making process, the collective search for shared understanding, and
the subtle interactions that characterized their co-located efforts were in many regards reduced to a
formal, rigid process where team members stopped thinking together and instead started
explaining to each other. This paper aims to highlight the occurrence and importance of
embedded one-on-one conversations in the context of one-to-many settings, and the implications
this has for supporting and improving the performance of global teams.
The social dimension of teamwork

Informal communication
In everyday work, informal communication surrounds us in the shape of unplanned, spur-of-themoment interactions (Root 1998; Fish, Kraut, Root and Rice 1992; Kraut, Fish, Root and Chalfonte
1993; Kraut, Egido and Galegher 1990). Informal communication is interactive in the sense that it
depends on the highly unpredictable character of each situation. Agendas or plans are only to be
seen as resources for situated action (Suchman 1987), since we always need to respond to the
particulars of an event in order to make things work. The improvisational aspects of
communication are easily recognized as natural parts of the everyday work environment. A
colleague might ask for your opinion on a design change as you read the newspaper in the lunch
room; you get an economical briefing while you wait for a printout; you decide a meeting time with
your boss as he happens to walk by your door; you give your new phone number to a business
associate as you bump into him in the hallway on your way to a meeting. This kind of casual,
everyday interaction is vital to successful co-located collaboration, since you rapidly and
continually can seize opportunities to exchange information, monitor progress, and learn about what
others are doing (Kraut et al. 1990).
Socially natural groupware
Informal communication, as most social interaction, is unremarkable by nature. We adapt to
situations as we face them, and we do not become overly amazed or confused by the many different
situations we end up in. In face-to-face settings we are very sensitive to the actions and interactions
of others, and if anything, it is remarkable how radically things change when we move from the
ordinary world into the digital world. Much of our knowledge about people, our sensitivity to their
interactions, our ability to improvise in changing situations, is neglected. In the world of computer
systems, we are socially blind (Erickson and Kellogg 2000).
Undoubtedly, technology is functional in the sense that we have access to text chat, digital voice
and video, and shared applications when working in geographically distributed settings. However,
in use these systems are far from natural tools that efficiently and smoothly facilitate our work. In
this respect, groupware is not socially natural. (Greenberg and Gutwin 1998) It seems that many
of the difficulties with todays technology have more to do with the assumptions that inform system
design, than the current limitations of technology. (Heath, Luff and Sellen 1995). A static and
inflexible conception of collaborative activity has prevented the evolution of useful environments
where people can work and socialize with each other in a socially natural way (Heath et al. 1995).
Method
The research upon which we base this paper was carried out during six months of the seven-month
DTI project. Our initial aim was to provide the distributed team with supporting technology that
would enable team members to interact and communicate using different modalities. It is important
to note that team members were not forced to use a particular technology for a particular purpose.
Rather, we wanted to provide them with several alternatives, so that they themselves could choose
the tools that they found suitable in every situation. Thus, the goal was to study communication as it
was played out in a real-world product development activity. Drawing from the concept of
ethnomethodology (Dourish and Button 1998), we felt it important to try to understand things in the
context in which they occur, without making assumptions about what modes of communication
could be useful for successful collaboration. The study was performed using ethnographic methods
such as observations, field notes and videotaping. (Blomberg, Giacomi, Mosher and Swenton-Wall
1993) Apart from our intentions to strive for an inside perspective, ethnographic methods were
also suitable since the structure of groups and communication is continually changing. As Gale
(1990) points out, the effects of technology on a group may take weeks, months, or even years
before becoming apparent. These sorts of effects cannot be fully explored in a one hour
experiment.
Several modes of communication were observed during the study, such as co-located teamwork,
telephone conferences, and videoconferences of different quality. Observations of co-located
teamwork were carried out during a total of three weeks, while the Stanford team and the Lule
team were meeting face-to-face (two weeks at Stanford and one week in Lule). Both synchronous
and asynchronous distributed collaboration was observed continually throughout the study, even
though this paper is focused on side conversations occurring in synchronous collaboration.
It is worth mentioning that the distributed team, during the course of our study, got the opportunity
to meet using SMILE! (Johanson 2002), a high-quality videoconferencing system. Equipped with
wireless microphones, team members were free to walk around in their team rooms while still
communicating with very high audio and video quality. These meetings were mostly very informal,
and local side conversations were accepted to a greater extent, compared to other videoconferences
and telephone conferences. However, despite the high-quality communication channel that the
videoconferencing system provided there are still issues that remain to be solved.
Embedded one-on-one conversations: a hidden potential for distributed design teams?
As noted above, we had the possibility to observe the design team in many different types of
synchronous collaboration. The goal is not to make an extensive comparison between these
different modes of communication, but rather to share our understanding of the role of side
conversations in co-located design, and to emphasize that the potential of such conversations
remains unutilized when moving into distributed collaboration.
Parallel conversation
The first example of embedded one-on-one conversations in the context of a group discussion
concerns the way in which team members in a co-located, face-to-face setting are able to attend to a
main discussion, while occasionally entering into parallel, more or less private conversations with a
fellow team member. In the fieldnote excerpt below, the Lule team and the Stanford team are
having a face-to-face discussion about virtual pedal concepts during the Lule teams visit to
Stanford.
Figure 1: Parallel conversation in a face-to-face setting.

Fieldnote excerpt #1 Parallel conversation in a face-to-face setting:
MB (Lule) is describing a pedal concept. He gestures to emphasize his point, but JW (Stanford)
uses the video game pedals on the table to clarify that he has understood MB correctly. SS
(Stanford) and BC (Stanford) join in on the conversation and ask MB questions about his concept
idea. MP (Lule) seems eager to speak on the subject and requests the word by standing up, raising
his arm and snapping his fingers. He gets the word explicitly from JP (Stanford), and goes over to
the notice board to elaborate. However, MB and JW continue their conversation even though MP is
now officially in charge of the main discussion. The other members pay attention to MPs
discussion As soon as MB and JW are ready with their side conversation they return to the main
discussion...
This example points to an aspect of communication that is natural in co-located settings. During the
course of our study, we observed that team members devote most of their attention to the main
discussion, but that they also engage in occasional parallel conversations when they feel the need to
discuss a matter with someone without interfering explicitly with the main discussion. In this
situation, MB was actually hosting the main discussion from the beginning. However, as MP took
over the initiative, MB and JW continued to have a conversation in parallel with the main
discussion for several minutes.
Although such extended parallel conversations often can be considered impolite and disturbing, that
was not a problem in the co-located discussions of this project. On the contrary, parallel
conversations of this type were sometimes transformed into a main discussion. The other team
members overheard parts of the parallel conversations and found opportunities to take an active part
in the discussion, thus gradually bringing it to a main discussion. Few parallel conversations did
actually interfere with the agenda; rather they added a creative dimension to the inherent formality
of the agenda. Undoubtedly, there are suitable and less suitable times for such parallel
conversations, but in the face-to-face sessions that we have observed, team members have had no
difficulties making smooth and non-disturbing transitions between a main discussion and parallel
conversations.
When working together in a distributed setting, parallel conversations were not as naturally
intertwined in the discussions. In telephone conferences, they were very disturbing and team
members refrained from having side conversations since they almost always introduced a visible
breakdown in the communication. Even in high-quality videoconferencing, side conversations
were sometimes problematic, as exemplified in the fieldnote excerpt below where attempts to have
local side conversations at the Stanford site were considered disruptive.
Figure 2: Parallel conversation in a distributed setting.

Fieldnote excerpt #2 Parallel conversation in a distributed setting:
JW (Stanford) is talking to NG, MP and MB (Lule) over the videoconference. TP, JP, and SS
(Stanford) start having a local side conversation. JW is disturbed by continues to talk for a while,
before he decides to wait for TP, JP, SS to join the discussion. OK, I got to wait for these guys
BC (Stanford) leaves her chair and starts a local side conversation at Stanford. JW is disturbed
and decides to wait for the others to finish. Hold on one second Im sorry, were not trying
to have separate conversations hereWhy dont we all just focus on having one conversation
here, OK?
The observations briefly described above point out that although current communication
technologies provide improved possibilities for global collaboration, the nature of teamwork shifts
with the introduction of such technologies. Change is not always bad, but in the light of creative
teamwork, extra formality and rigidity should not be introduced without special consideration.
Instant feedback
In addition to extended parallel conversations in face-to-face settings, we have also observed brief
side conversations that are even less intrusive, and which also seem to serve a valuable purpose in
design collaboration by enabling instant feedback. Among other things, these brief interactions
provide a channel for instant feedback and they thereby promote a quick and iterative process for
negotiation of shared understanding. A brief side conversation can be all that is needed to make sure
that shared understanding has been reached, as exemplified in the fieldnote excerpt below.
Figure 3: Instant feedback in a face-to-face setting.

Fieldnote excerpt #3 Instant feedback in a face-to-face setting:
JP and JL are talking about JL:s concept. MP and NG join the discussion. They take quick turns
when talking. MB is working separately, putting up another concept sketch on the wall. MP
elaborates on another concept together with JP. On her way back to her seat, JL is having a very
brief side conversation with MB. They clarify that they agree on the understanding of the
concept
In this situation, there was a rather obvious informality about the collaboration. Basically, it was a
very open discussion about the different concepts that team members come up with. The turn-taking
flowed very smoothly, and in contrast to the parallel conversation in fieldnote excerpt #1, there was
no one in charge of the discussion. The communication was very subtle and nuanced, in the sense
that the situation lacked in formality. In a way, it was a chaotic conversation, with team members
talking more or less at the same time, in an unplanned, spur-of-the-moment style. If something was
unclear or confusing, it was possible to get instant feedback without waiting for your turn. It is an
example of an iterative mode of communication, which enables team members to find common
ground through a rapid exchange of perspectives, thoughts, and ideas. Also, such brief
conversations let team members discuss vague or crazy ideas that they might not want to discuss
with the whole group before consulting a colleague first.
Another type of instant feedback conversation was based on the fact that the Swedish team
members were not as fluent in the English language as their American colleagues. This often
resulted in brief conversations between two of the Swedish members, trying to make sense of a
particular detail of the discussion. What did he mean by that? What is the meaning of that
word? Such brief interactions were undoubtedly crucial for a common understanding.
In our study, this type of instant feedback has been almost non-existent in the distributed settings.
Informal, brief conversations and quick-fire responses were replaced by rather formal and extensive
turns of speech where team members ask each other questions, and mostly receive elaborate
answers. Distributed collaboration was characterized by team members explaining to each other,
but in a global, cross-cultural product development project, the real creative power might very well
lie in the ability of distributed design teams to think together.
Discussion
On a general note, the addition of video in distributed collaboration has provided visual cues that
help us make valid interpretations of each others actions in distributed settings. For example, the
visual channel has proven to be useful for interpreting the meaning of pauses in conversation,
something that often must be explained in audio-only conversations (Isaacs and Tang 1994). The
visual monitoring of remote activities makes it easier to make sense of not only speech, but also of
body language and facial expressions. It has been suggested that remote collaborators are likely to
have fewer misunderstandings and more effective interactions if they have the ability to
communicate richer information more easily (Isaacs and Tang 1994).
However, even todays advanced videoconferencing systems have not yet been able to recreate the
information richness that we are used to in face-to-face interactions (Hollan and Stornetta 1992).
The physical closeness of people at the same videoconference site tend to make them more aware of
their physical neighbours than of their video neighbours, and it is common to address people in the
same physical room rather than people at the remote site (Mantei, Baecker, Sellen, Buxton,
Milligan and Wellman 1991). Among other things, this means that current possibilities to engage in
private conversations within a public discussion is reserved for people in the same physical
location.
It has been observed that such private conversations are difficult in videoconferencing, much
because people cannot address particular participants and because everyone uses the same audio
channel (Isaacs and Tang 1994). In face-to-face interactions it is possible to open a second audio
channel, and the visual cues enable the other participants to understand who is participating in
which conversation when (Isaacs and Tang 1994). In videoconferencing, private conversations are
often discouraged, but if they do occur, the other participants tend to wait for the conversation to
become more general (Ruhleder and Jordan 2001). In contrast, Isaacs observations of a face-toface meeting with five persons highlighted that the conversation occasionally broke into two
parallel conversations and then seamlessly transitioned back to a single conversation (Isaacs and
Tang 1994).
Parallel communication can promote broader input and reduce the risk of a few people dominating a
meeting (Nunamaker, Dennis, Valacich, Vogel and George 1991), but even in face-to-face settings,
side conversations can be seen as disruptive. Even if participants step outside the meeting room,
everyone knows who is involved and may even be able to make sense of what they are talking
about (Ruhleder and Jordan 2001). In face-to-face meetings, side conversations, note passing, and
body language is visible to other participants, and although they are generally discouraged, they
may also be integral, very important parts of the overall event (Ruhleder and Jordan 2001).
Our findings have shown that we need to be careful to dismiss side conversations as disruptive
elements only. We imply that side conversations are of great importance for the creative stage in
product development. Parallel conversations were very common in creative sessions, such as a
brainstorm, but were less common in administrative meetings, such as a budget discussion. Maybe
the potential of side conversations in distributed collaboration has been lost because the majority of
such meetings are characterized by formality and rigidity?
Side conversations are vital in creating a common understanding between team members, and they
enable a chaotic, but efficient, way of working on several ideas at the same time without forcing
all team members to work on the same task. Also, these side conversations provide opportunities to
explore vague ideas and alternative paths in a quick, informal and iterative way.
A fundamental aspect that must not be forgotten when it comes to distributed collaboration is that
the different types of side conversations must be supported in a way that enables cross-site
interaction. Even though high-quality videoconferencing makes local side conversations visible and
understandable, it is almost impossible to have such side conversations with a remote team member.
Hence, it is also difficult to fully utilize the creative power of a global, culturally diverse, design
team.
In a co-located brainstorm people are "thinking together" by using fragments of others ideas,
gestures and drawings to create new ideas. This way of working is difficult to achieve in a
distributed setting, due to the fact that many of the subtle informal communication channels are lost,
and because much of the time is concentrated on making rather formal explanations to each other.
When comparing co-located and distributed teamwork activities, it was evident that issues that were
considered trivial in a face-to-face setting could turn out to be a major challenge in a distributed
setting. For example, one of the team members pointed out the striking fact that they had spent
two and a half hours in a videoconference, trying to explain to the other team what they had agreed
on locally in about five minutes before the meeting started.
Shared understanding can sometimes be hard to achieve, since it relies on many different elements
of human communication. Fundamentally, our findings suggest that the ability to engage in crosssite side conversations could add an extra dimension to distributed collaboration.
Conclusion and future work

By studying a design team working together over a period of six months, we had the possibility to
see how team members communicated in both co-located and distributed settings, and especially
how the tools they used for distributed collaboration influenced their teamwork.
In the study, we noticed that one-on-one conversations, held in parallel to a main discussion, were
common in co-located teamwork and that they served as a natural part of creative teamwork. These
side conversations were usually private conversations between two members, in the context of a
larger meeting, and they were often used to clarify things and to discuss vague ideas or personal
disagreements. In addition they were used instead of, or as a precursor to, bringing up a topic with
the whole group, and seem to be very useful to promote shared understanding without having to
interfere explicitly with the main discussion.
Future work includes an effort to bring the findings of this paper into the design of appropriate
technology, which can better support cross-site side conversations. A starting point could be to
introduce instant messaging functionality and parallel audio channels as a complement to the visual
channel.
Acknowledgements
Support for this research is provided by the Polhem Laboratory at Lule University of Technology,
the Center for Design Research at Stanford University, and the Stanford Learning Lab. The
Distributed Team Innovation project is funded by Volvo Car Corporation and Volvo Aero
Corporation. Special thanks to the students in the DTI project.
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11

product design
J-R. Lee Chosun University, South Korea
J-P. Hong Chonbuk National University, South Korea
J-A. Kim Chonbuk National University, South Korea
Abstract
Proportion is one of the aesthetic elements in product design. It has been widely considered in
aesthetic researches. However, no clear conclusion on proportion in product design has been
suggested yet and the debate over the aesthetic pleasingness of the proportion is still ongoing. The
aim of the present study is to clarify part of this ambiguity in product design through identifying
characteristics and typology of product proportion through experimental design and consumer
survey. For this, we constructed stimulus sets for one product category (e.g., a refrigerator) by
distortion of its prototype design into various forms. Each design form was made into a product
card. Then we collected consumer data by asking subjects with questionnaire to reply to questions
related to product proportion. The results show that there exist various types of proportion such as
stability proportion, usability proportion, functionality proportion, aesthetics proportion,
conventionality proportion and harmony proportion and each product category has its own
important types of proportion. Because each product category has its own important types of
proportion, designers should know the important elements expressed by proportion first before they
consider proportion in product design. This study gives a good answer about the matters of 'Is it
possible for golden section to be applied to product design?', What is proportion? and How it
should be applied?. In addition, preferred proportion structure is different according to the
consumer characteristics, successful design strategy such as niche market penetration could be
performed if designers classify consumer characteristics systematically.

product design
Introduction
Few would disagree with the idea that product design and product aesthetics can be powerful
marketing tools. They have been characterized as key marketing elements by prominent scholars
(Kotler and Rath, 1984) and practitioners. They are important strategic variables not only for
consumer goods, but also for industrial products (Yamamoto and Lambert, 1994). Therefore, the
importance of product design and aesthetics is gaining more systematic attention. As
Nussbaum(1991) points out, Recently, business has grown increasingly aware that design sells,
U.S. companies, in particular, are rediscovering that good design translates into quality products,
greater market share, and heftier profits.
Therefore, aesthetic design can take an important role in product differentiation strategies because
companies will have more competitive advantages in marketplaces if they understand aesthetics as
elements of differentiation. Generally, product design elements regarded as factors influencing
consumers aesthetic responses are Simplicity/Complexity, Harmony, Balance, Unity, Dynamics,
Timeliness/Style, Novelty, Gestalt, Proportion and Prototypicality and so on (Ellis 1993; Brunel
1998; Veryzer 1993b). Among these elements, proportion in product design has been widely
considered in aesthetic researches. However, no clear conclusion on proportion in product design
has been suggested yet and the debate over the aesthetic pleasingness of the proportion is still
ongoing. One main research stream in proportion is on Golden Section(Benjafield, 1985). The
Golden Section is a proportion ratio that finds its origins in Greek antiquity. The Golden Section
proportion is obtained by dividing a line in two segments such that the ratio of the smallest segment
to the largest one is the same as the ratio of the largest segment to the total line. It assumes that
shapes based on this ratio are more pleasing and more natural. Advocates of the merits of the
Golden Section argue that it is also a reflection of shapes (e.g. fish, shells) that can be commonly
found in nature (Benjafiled, 1985; Crowley, 1991). However, other findings contradict the value of
the Golden Section, and propose that it has indeed no merits (Boselie, 1994). Also, in a recent
study, Duke (1992) applied Golden Section principles to the design of products, but did not find
evidence for its superiority over other proportion ratios. We claim that the main reason of this
inconsistency on Golden Section is, existing researchers just tried to answer the question of what
is the best proportion in product design?. And they regarded proportion as one-dimensional single
relationship structure or exclusive single factor.
However, we assume that proportion is not one-dimensional or exclusive but multi-dimensional
and/or defendant on some related factors. For this assumption, consider the product examples of
Figure 1.
Figure 1: Two product examples transacted in the real market

Examples above in Figure 1 are actual products being transacted in the real market. It can be said
that each product has its own appropriate proportion. However, its not easy to answer the question
of why can it be said that these products have their own appropriate proportion? Because
proportion cannot be explained by mere size structure of length and width which are generally
considered as proportion elements. For example, product samples in Figure 1 mean that each
product has appropriate proportion. However, it can not be said that product samples in Figure 2
which have mutually reversed proportion of the refrigerator and the air conditioner have appropriate
proportion. And also its not easy to answer why these proportion reversed products are not
perceived to have appropriate proportion.
Figure 2: Two proportion reversed product examples

It implies that Golden Section can not be explained by only simple relationship of width and length
but be explained by multiple relationship. It means that there exist various kinds of proportion in
product design and different kinds of proportion are considered important across product category.
So, each product category such as the refrigerator and the air conditioner in Figure 1 and Figure 2
includes different kinds of its own proportion. Therefore, in case that proportion is reversed in
product examples such as in Figure 2, products cannot maintain appropriate proportion structure
because important proportion relationship is broken. Thus, what types of proportion exist? and what
are the characteristics of proportion? The study aims at answering these two questions. If these two
questions can be answered, this study will clearly explain why existing proportion-related
researches have given inconsistent suggestions on proportion in product design. And also, the result
of this study will give useful theoretical and practical insights on how to understand and apply
proportion to product design. For this, we collected proportion-related data through questionnaire
from consumers and analyzed typology and characteristics of proportion, then suggested theoretical
and practical implications on proportion of product design.
Proportion as product aesthetic element

In order to define product aesthetics, its helpful to mention a few observations about the origins of
the aesthetic field. According to philosophers, aesthetics concerns the theory of art and beauty
(Titus, Smith and Nolan 1986). More specifically, aesthetics is the study of value in art (Titus et
al 1986). In the context of product evaluations, aesthetics refers to the overall beauty and
attractiveness of a product. Product aesthetics relate to the artistic dimensions of products.
Aesthetics elements of features such as the overall line, color, shape, pattern, texture, proportions,
etc. represent artistic executional choices for product design. Overall, product aesthetics is the
quality of value of these choices in the design process (Brunel 1998). Especially proportion is
considered as one of the important elements for product aesthetics. The proportion is obtained when
the ratio of the shortest to the longest of two lengths, for example of a rectangle or a cross, equals
the ratio of the longest to the sum of the two. Various researches on the relationship between
proportion and consumers aesthetic responses have been performed for a long time. For thousands
of years a widespread belief was maintained that a ratio according to the golden section deserved
the status of embodying beauty beyond compare (Borissavlievitch, 1958). Ever since the pioneering
work of Fechner(1876) research has therefore been focused on confirming the special attractivity of
this particular ratio. The golden section ratio has obtained this special attention mainly thanks to its
unchallenged mathematical beauty. However, aesthetic attractivity of the golden section was never
convincingly demonstrated. Previous reviews (Zusne 1970; Berlyne 1971; Benjafield 1985;
McWhinnie 1987) have pointed out that the results of empirical studies concerning the relation
between the golden section and perceptual attractiveness are ambiguous and lead to opposing
interpretations and conclusions. However one clear thing inferred from the past studies is that
proportion is related to perceptual attractiveness. The aim of the present study is to clarify part of
this ambiguity in product design.
Experiment
This study aims at suggesting theoretical background on inconsistency of existing researches on
dealing with proportion as an product aesthetic element by understanding typology and
characteristics of proportion in product design and giving useful insights on how to apply
proportion element to product design. For this, we constructed stimulus sets for one product
category (e.g., a refrigerator) by distortion of its prototype design into various forms. Each design
form was made into a product card. Then we collected consumer data by asking subjects with
questionnaire to reply on the questions related to product proportion.
Stimulus design
A refrigerator was selected for experiment stimulus from focus group interview with 9 product
design-majoring graduate students. The reason that a refrigerator was selected was that design
elements excepting proportion were relatively less than other products. Product cards of 21 real
refrigerators were collected from magazines and merchandise catalogs. Then one typical
refrigerator was selected as a prototypical stimulus. The stimulus sets were constructed by
distortion of proportion of prototypical stimulus using Adobe Photoshop 5.0. Many aspects of an
objects appearance (e.g., color, perspective, shading) have the potential to affect aesthetic
response. To isolate specific factors, all over visual properties were eliminated or controlled.
Stimulus sets were constructed by distortion of three factors of the refrigerator (proportion of width
and length, proportion of top compartment and bottom compartment, and proportion of whole size
and handle size). Each factor was modified with 3 levels (high medium and low). Finally, total 27
product cards (3 3 3) were made. 3 factors for distortion and levels of distortion for designing
stimulus sets are shown in Figure 3 and Table 1.
Figure 3: 3 factors for distortion
Category
Types of
distortion
Width
/length
Top compartment
/bottom compartment
Whole size
/handle size
Extension
of length
Extension of
top compartment
Downsize
of handle size
Typical
Typical
Typical
Extension
of width
Extension of
bottom compartment
Extension of
Handle size
Table 1: Levels of distortion
Figure 4: Shows the final stimulus sets for experiment of this study.
Procedure
To identify the characteristics and typology of product proportion, three hundred undergraduates in
an introductory design course at Chosun University participated in the experiment. Subjects were
randomly assigned to a set of stimuli including five decks of products. They were asked to think of
proportion only for about ten minutes on how good or bad the proportion is. Then they were given a
response sheet including instructions that were read aloud to the subjects and reviewed. Then we
asked subjects to write down whatever they think of proportion of stimulus sets they are looking at.
So we collected the data by open-ended question method. The instructions included in the response
sheet were shown in Table 2.
You are now looking five kinds of product examples. And youve thought proportion
only for about ten minutes up to now. In case that you think of proportion only, which
one do you think includes good or bad proportion structure. What are the reasons you
think like that. Please write down whatever you think of in the response sheet. There
are no right or wrong answers. Whatever you think of would be good for the
responses. For example, your feeling, thinking, the reasons that you like or dislike,
whatever and also, all kinds of expression such as words, phrases, short statements and
long statements will be possible. There is no restriction to respond and write down
whatever you think of. But please write down as many as possible.
Table 2: Instructions in the response sheet

The purpose of this experiment is first to identify the characteristics and typology of proportion
from consumers opinion and therefore, second to understand the characteristics and typology of
proportion. There was no restriction on how and what to respond, and also there was no time limit
so that subjects had enough time to write down their thoughts freely. From the subjects 1,193 usable
responses were obtained. The responses were then coded by two independent judges. The coding
categories were developed by examining the responses by ten randomly chosen subjects (whose
responses were then eliminated from further analysis). The researcher identified six categories that
appeared in these responses (i.e., these categories were not based on any theory but were directly
taken from subjects responses). The number of categories was deliberately kept large since it was
considered desirable to be conservative and not omit any category. The two coders then
independently coded these ten responses as a practice task. The coders examined each sentence and
classified it in one of the six categories that were setup earlier. This resulted in an inter-coder
agreement of 89%. The coders then met and went over the responses together. The subsequent
meetings with the researcher led to the coders having a better understanding of the coding
procedure. Following this training phase, the coders then proceeded to code the responses of the
remaining 1,179 subjects.
Among the respondents of 290 in the experiment, male is 56% and female is 44%. For the age
groups, 18% are for under 10, 36% for under 20, 23% for under 30, 18% for under 40 and 5% for
over 50.
Results and discussion

The coding of the subjects responses were first examined to find out the extent of inter-coder
agreement. To assess the level of observed agreement between the two coders a kappa coefficient
(Cohens kappa), corrected for chance agreement, was calculated at an overall level for responses.
Further, kappa values were also calculated at a category level for each of the six categories to check
for any major deviations in level of agreement at an individual category level compared to the
overall level. The overall kappa coefficient for responses was .81. These kappa levels indicate
observed agreement well above chance level (Landis and Koch 1977).
The results of categorization of responses can be seen in Table 3. The result shows that proportion
in product design is not an exclusive single dimensional factor but an inter-dependent with other
product characteristics and multi-dimensional factor. The coders categorized the typology of
proportion into 6. They are stability proportion, usability proportion, functionality proportion,
aesthetics proportion, conventionality proportion and harmony proportion. These categories were
not based on any theory but were directly taken from subjects responses. That is a kind of
experimental categorization which gives useful insights to the definition of proportion which has
not been effectively conceptualized. The result means that proportion in product design includes not
only the ratio of width and length but also stability of product itself, ergonomic structure for userconvenience and functional form to perform the original function of product itself effectively. Also,
product proportion includes conventionality which means the degree of perception of how a certain
object looks typical or atypical against the existing products of same category. Changes of typical
proportion led consumers to feel more new or less preferable because of difference from existing
products. It means that some of consumers judge typical and familiar product proportion more
aesthetic and others judge atypical and unfamiliar product proportion more appealing because of
newness. In addition, product proportion is related to the harmony with the places in which the
products are located and with other products which are placed together. The results, as we
mentioned earlier, imply that proportion in product design is not an exclusive single dimensional
factor but an inter-dependent with other product characteristics and multi-dimensional factor. That
is, the proportion of product design includes not a single element but several kinds of factors such
as stability, usability, functionality, aesthetics, conventionality and harmony.
Category
No.
Meanings
Stability
proportion
Usability
Proportion
Functionality
proportion
Aesthetics
proportion
Conventionality
proportion
Harmony
proportion
Total
Stable
Not stable
Felt uneasy
Balanced
Not balanced
Convenient to use
Not easy to use
Easy to use
Suitable size for the user
Inconvenient location of handle
Not ergonomic
Not suitable for users body size
Felt functional
Felt not functional
Perform original function effectively
Not perform original function
effectively
Good external appearance
Felt good mood
Aesthetic
Easy visual view
Visual inconvenience
Visual convenience
Felt narrow and close
Pleasing
Felt heavy
Novel
New
Unusual
Innovative
Usual
Obsolete
Conventional
Familiar
Unfamiliar
Fit for the locating place
Not fit for the locating places
Good harmony with other products
Bad harmony with other products
38
Response
Frequency
Response
rate(%)
63
33
13
12
18
18
117
91
15
17
19
23
125
109
20
21
11
4.3
4
6
6
39
30.3
5
5.7
6.3
7.7
41.7
36.3
6.7
19
6.3
32
7
24
12
8
11
12
8
18
8
18
13
15
18
17
43
52
33
42
36
23
17
1,179
10.7
2.3
8
4
2.7
3.7
4
2.7
6
2.7
6
4.3
5
6
5.7
14.3
17.3
11
14
12
7.7
5.7
-
Table 3: Consumers response categories related to product proportion

The results of this study give useful insights on understanding theoretical inconsistency of existing
researches which have dealt with the usefulness of golden section and regarded proportion as an
aesthetic element, also have significant meanings to product design in which the proportion is
10
importantly considered. For the question of Is it possible for golden section to be applied to
product design?, we suggest from the results of this study that proportion in product design plays
roles as not only an aesthetic element but also stable, usable, functional, conventional and harmonic
elements. The important thing here is that different types of proportion are considered according to
the product categories. Only aesthetic proportion can be considered importantly in some product
categories whereas more than one types of proportion are considered in other product categories.
We can see some interesting proportion matters in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Various types of proportion structure

Product examples in Figure 5 have various kinds of proportion structures. It would be impossible to
explain the proportion structures of above products by only golden section. The proportion
structures of these products are as following in Table 4.
Products
a
cellular phone
a
TV
a
refrigerator
an
airconditioner
Width X length
(cm)
43 X 74
580 X 880
740 X 1,729
570 X 1,820
Ratio
1 : 1.72
Ratio
Golden
section
1:1.618
1 : 1.52
1 : 2.34
1 : 3.19
Table 4: Proportion structures of product examples
As we can see in Table 4, there exist various kinds of proportion structures in product design. Some
product categories (e.g., a cellular phone, a TV etc.) have similar proportion structure to that of
golden section whereas some other products (e.g., a refrigerator, an air-conditioner etc.) have quite
different types of proportion structure from that of golden section.
The possible reason on the matter that proportion structures are different according to the product
categories is that product categories have their own important proportion types. For example, some
types of proportions like stability and harmony are not important in some product categories such as
cellular phones. Thats why the proportion structure of a cellular phone is similar to that of golden
11
section. In some product categories such as a refrigerator, however, other types of proportions such
as functionality and usability are more important than aesthetic proportion because proportion
structure decides the efficiency of functional performance and ergonomic usage. In case of airconditioner categories, if the proportion of product is structured by the ratio of golden section, the
products would become more short and wide. Then they occupy more floor space and also cool air
comes from middle of the air of the space. Therefore, they become inefficient for space usage and
functionality. So, golden section is not suitable for those product categories.
Now we can understand why past researches trying to find out the best proportion structure in
product form have suggested inconsistent results. According to the results, there exist various kinds
of proportion in product form. And ideal proportion is expressed differently according to product
categories because they include different types of important proportion. Therefore, its necessary to
identify important elements deciding proportion before considering proportion in product design
because ideal proportion structure is influenced by those elements.
General discussion
The results of this study suggest reasonable insights to the matter of inconsistent results of past
researches on ideal proportion structure by investigating characteristics and typology of proportion
through experimental stimulus design and questionnaire survey. Proportion in product design has
been widely considered but no clear conclusion has been suggested yet. For this, we, from the
results of our study, suggest that the proportion is multi-dimensional and includes various types.
And each product category includes different types of ideal proportion structure because it includes
its own important proportion. Throughout this research, 6 proportion types are identified; stability
proportion, usability proportion, functionality proportion, aesthetic proportion, conventionality
proportion and harmony proportion. Each product category includes its own appropriate proportion
types. Therefore, golden section can be applied to some product categories whereas other types of
proportion can be more appealing in other cases. Therefore, its not reasonable to consider
proportion as a single-dimensional factor such as aesthetics. Proportion in product design must be
approached by multi-dimensional perspective according to characteristics of product categories.
We can find out one more interesting result through the experiment that consumers responses on
same stimulus expresses wide span of preference scope from high to low. It means that preferred
proportion structures, even for the same product, are different according to consumer types.
Therefore, niche market penetration strategy will be possible if the preferred proportion structure is
identified according to the consumer types.
In sum, the implications of the study are as follows.
First, there exist various kinds of proportion such as not only aesthetics but also stability, usability,
functionality, conventionality and harmony.
Second, its not possible to apply one common ideal proportion structure to product design and
therefore designers should deliberate what types of proportion are considered important in the
product they are planning to design.
Third, niche market penetration strategy will be successful if we understand the characteristics of
consumer segment market because consumers responses on even the same proportion structure are
different according to consumer types.
Although the results of this study suggest useful implications to understand and apply proportion in
product design, this study has several research limitations and future researches are required.
12
First, in the experiment of this study, we used operational stimulus sets for data collection from
consumers. There is possibility that the market environment differ from these sets because they are
not real in the market. In the future researches, its necessary to use real market products to get
more precise information of proportion.
Second, 6 types of proportions investigated in this study were not based on any theory but were
categorized by coders judgment. Therefore, categorization of proportion in this study is not clear
and only a kind of exploratory research results to understand characteristics and typology of
proportion. Next researches need to be based on clear theoretical background for categorization of
proportion.
Third, in this study, only 300 subjects participated in the experiment. Its not enough to find out all
kinds of proportion. Therefore, sample size should be considered for investigating more proportion
types.
Finally, preferred proportion structures, even for the same product, are different according to
consumer types. Therefore, its necessary in the future researches to investigate the relationship
between preference on proportion structure and consumer characteristics for niche market
penetration strategy of product design.
13
References
Benjafield, John (1985), A Review of Recent Research on the Golden Section, Empirical Studies
of the Arts, 3(2), 117-34.
Berlyne, D. E & Boudewijins, W.J.(1971). Hedonic effects of uniformity in Variety. Canadian
Journal of Psychology, 25, 195-206.
Borissavlievitch, M. (1958). The golden number and the scientific aesthetics of architecture,
London: Tiranti.
Boselie, Frans (1994), Seeking the Ideal Form : Product Design and Consumer Response,
Journal of Marketing, Vol. 59-3, 16-29.
Brunel, Frederic Francois (1998), The Psychology of Product Aesthetics: Antecedents and
Individual Differences in Product Evaluations (Elaboration Likelihood Model, Attitude, Consumer
Behavior), Doctoral Dissertation, University of Washington.
Crowley, Ayn E.(1991), The Golden Section, Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 8(2), 101-116.
Duke, Jane S. (1992), Aesthetic Response and Social Perception of Consumer Product Design,
Unpublished Dissertation, Texas Tech University.
Ellis, Seth Robert (1993), A Psychometric Investigation of a Scale for the Evaluation of the
Aesthetic Element in Consumer Durable Goods, Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Arizona.
Fechner, G.T.(1876), Vorschule der sthetik, Leipzig: Breitkopf und Hrtel.
Kotler, Philip and G. Alexander Rath (1994), Design - A Powerful but Neglected Tool, Journal
of Business Strategy, 5, 25-30.
Landis, Richard J. and Gary G. Koch (1977), An Application of Hierarchical Kappa-type Statistics
in the Assessment of Majority Agreement Among Multiple Observers, Biometrics, Vol. 33, June,
363-374.
McWhinnie, H. J.(1987). A review of selected research on the golden section hypothesis, Visual
Arts Research, 13, 73-78.
Nussbaum, Bruce (1991), Winners: The Best Product Designs of the Year, Business Week, (June
17), 62-80.
Titus, Harold H., Marilyn S. Smith, and Richard T. Nolan (1986), Living Issues in Philosophy,
Belment, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Verzer, Robert W. Jr. (1993b), The Influence of Unity and Prototypicality on Aesthetic Responses
to New Product Designs, Unpublished Dissertation, University of Florida.
Yamamoto, Mel and David R. Lambert (1994), The Impact of Product Aesthetics on the
Evaluation of Industrial Products, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 11, 309-324.
Zusne, L.(1970) Visual perception of form. New York: Academic Press.
14

K-P. Lee Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Korea
Abstract
As the importance of interface design in information appliances became recognized, usability
testing has been widely introduced. However usability testing in the environment of a closed
laboratory has been known to cause some significant difficulties: cost, time, unnatural environment,
and lack of opportunity for idea generation. The goal of this study is to propose the new prototype
of tool for remote usability testing for information appliances through World Wide Web.
At first, existing usability testing methods for information appliances are reviewed to identify major
problems. Based on the problems of existing usability testing, the concept of remote usability
testing through WWW is established and the prototype called RUTIA is developed and introduced.
In the new tool, the specially developed browser is distributed to users who are required to
download. Once users download browser they are guided through stages of usability testing:
introduction, identifying user himself, performing given tasks over computer-simulated information
appliances, and generating users ideas on interface design. After users finished the given tasks and
generation of ideas, all the interaction data including time taken, operational path, think-aloud and
generated ideas are saved on a server for further analyses and generating solutions. In the analysis
module, a researcher can conduct diverse analyses with saved data. Analyses can be done with
various forms: visualized users operational paths and a table of statistics of time and pressed
buttons. It was found that some further refinements of tool are required: product size limited less
than screen size and limited user type.

Introduction
Since the introduction of computer technology, the fundamental nature of products has become
changed: more interactive and less physical. This change, in turn, has made new type of product
come into being: information appliance which is defined a computer-enhanced consumer device
dedicated to a restricted cluster of tasks (Mohageg and Wagner 2000). Mohageg and Wagner
(2000) argue that the design approach for information appliance should be differentiated from
conventional products and computer for two main reasons: very wide base of non-expert-consumers
and different characteristics of information appliance itself. That is, work of human being with
information appliance has become less physical and more mental, and accordingly the key criteria
of effective worker performance have shifted from the physical one like the speed or range of
motion of their limbs to the quality and flexibility of their thinking (Adler et al. 1992). In addition,
the substitute of microchips for mechanical parts, the product has become less tangible and black
box, which makes the key success factor of product as the usability: the capability to be used by
humans easily and effectively (Shackel 1991). Particularly, the concept of usability has become
highly valued in the area of information appliances and software where users works are mainly
mental. Other advantages of usability listed include reduced customer support, service and training
costs, avoidance of costly delay in schedule, simpler-to-prepare product documentation and
accurate, ready-to-use marketing claims based on tests (Wiklund 1994). This introduction of the
concept of usability to information appliances has led to the wide application of usability testing
for ensuring the quality of usability before launching the product to the market. Usability testing
employs techniques to collect empirical data while observing representative end users using the
product to perform representative tasks (Rubin 1994). Typical methods for usability testing include
interview, guidelines, heuristics, cognitive walkthrough, prototypes, protocol analysis, cognitive
modeling, observations and so on (Mack and Nielsen 1994). Although most of usability testing
methods are useful in their own context, the most valuable method of usability testing is to let users
perform tasks and observe them for its rich contextual data and users direct behavior. Usually this
kind of testing is done in the closed laboratory equipped with one-way mirror for uninterrupted
observation, video recording facilities, and data logging computers. However, despite advantages of
usability testing, usability testing in the environment of closed laboratory has been known to cause
some significant problems: high cost, unnatural environment and limited focus only on
measurement. The goal of this study is to develop the prototype of a tool for remote usability testing
for information appliances by using World Wide Web.
Problems of usability testing in the closed laboratory

Among existing methods of usability testing, the most reliable and frequently used method is the
empirical experiment done in the environment of closed laboratory with representative users of the
target population. Normally the environment is set up and simulated so that the user feels as natural
like real working environment as possible. Representative users are brought to the laboratory and
are given tasks to perform for evaluating the degree to which a product meets specific usability
criteria: efficiency, learnability, memorability, errors, and satisfaction (Nielsen 1993). Users
interaction behavior with product while performing task is observed and recorded. The observation
of tacit user behavior in usability testing is one of the strong advantages compared with
conventional user-studies like questionnaire or focus group interview. The observation of behavior
can reveal problems in performing tasks which even users cannot be aware of while opinionoriented user studies can only show problems users can recognize in the conscious level. For
securing the reliable quality of data, the usability testing should go through rigorous process of
multiple stages: developing the test plan, selecting and acquiring participants, preparing test
materials, conducting the test, debriefing the participant, transforming data into findings and
recommendations (Rubin 1994).
Despite of advantages of usability testing in the laboratory, there are some critical known problems.
At first, setting up usability testing laboratory and running the usability testing cost lots of money
and takes quite long time and significant efforts. Setting up usability testing laboratory requires
spaces for testing room and observation and control room, full set of video recording equipment,
computer and video monitors, video editors, time generators, intercoms, data logging software and
other state of art electronic devices. This kind of setup requires a large capital outlay and
commitment to testing by management. Without appropriate management of the laboratory, highly
costing and sophisticated usability laboratory can be easily operated as the worlds most elaborate
storage rooms (Rubin 1994). Conducting usability testing also requires time, cost, and effort.
Although 4 to 5 participants are known to be enough for a less formal usability test covering 80
percent of the usability deficiencies of a product (Virzi 1990), for a true formal experimental
design, a minimum of 10 to 12 participants per condition must be utilized (Spyridakis 1992).
However if a researcher wants to find some differences between groups like novice vs. expert, then
the number of participants should be increased. All the subjects should be physically brought in the
laboratory one by one and each of them should spend at least one to two hours for answering pretest questionnaire, performing the number of given tasks and joining debriefing sessions. In
addition, while subjects are performing tasks, there should be (usually in the other side of one way
mirror) other people such as test monitor, data logger, timers, video recording operator,
product/technical expert, and test observers. After recording of all user performance is done, the
data should get through exhaustive analysis process: measuring time, picking up errors, logging the
data, transforming data into findings and recommendations and so on.
Secondly, problem lies in the unnatural atmosphere of laboratory where users participate the testing.
The closed environment of usability testing room equipped with one-way mirror and video cameras
are very impersonal. Except for special cases where moderator joins the testing with subject, in
usual cases, a user is left alone to perform the tasks according to the instructions given through
intercom. Although there are number of techniques to soothe subjects uncomfortable emotional
state, this kind of prison-like environment can intimidate inexperienced users and they can easily
get nervous. This so called guinea pig syndrome makes the subject feel overly self-conscious
during the test, which prevents them from showing natural responses and performance.
Finally, a session of usability testing focuses mainly on measuring aspects: i.e. a researcher
focuses on evaluating the degree to which a product meets specific criteria. As a result, types of data
from a session of usability testing include data on time duration for performing tasks, number of
errors, percentage of tasks completed successfully, ratings or rankings of the product, and number
of negative references to the product. However, users suggestions for new idea are also as much
important as measuring the usability. For users participation to idea generation, some methods have
been developed such as exploratory test (Rubin 1994), card sorting, scenario-based design
(Carroll 1995), collaging, velcro modeling, and cognitive mapping (Sanders and Williams
2001). These kinds of user-participatory design methods should be more systematically
incorporated in the process of usability testing. These three main problems should be considered in
the development of new tool for usability testing.
Development of tool for remote usability testing through WWW

There have been developed various ways to solve above-mentioned problems in conventional
laboratory based usability testing. Those include third-party laboratory evaluation, third-party
usability inspection, remote questionnaire or survey, collaborative remote evaluation, videoconferencing-supported evaluation, instrumented or automated data collection for remote
evaluation and user-reported critical incident method (Castillo 1997). The common point those
methods share lies in the remoteness of location where evaluators are separated in space and/or
time from users. The first problem of expensive cost for setting up usability laboratory and running
usability can be solved by automating implementing on-line remote usability testing. Castillo
further classified those remote usability testing methods by number of dimensions: types of users
involved, time of evaluation, user location during evaluation, person or role who identifies critical
problems, types of tasks, level of interaction between user and evaluator, types of data gathered,
type of equipment used for collecting data, cost to collect data, cost to analyze data, and quality or
usefulness of collected data. Particularly, by the major concern of cost-effectiveness and quality of
data, methods are mapped like Figure 1. According to Figure 1, the most reliable quality of
collected data, the method that costs less, is identified instrumented or automated data collection.
Figure 1: Remote usability testing methods in terms of quality of data and equipment required
(Castillo 1997)
Instrumented or automated data collection method refers to instrument some application program to
automate the collection of a log of data occurring as a natural usage in users normal working
environment. Once user downloads and installs an application program in his or her computer, all
user should do is just to work normally as usual in his own environment. Then the application
program takes care of collecting and reporting data such as program usage, project time, internet
usage, comments to usage, keystrokes and mouse movements, and any other activity. Nielsen
(1996) also mentioned the advantage of collecting usability data through Internet. These advantages
of remoteness, asynchrony, natural environment, and simple management cover almost all
the problems identified above in the traditional usability testing. However there still remain some
problems uncovered. At first, it still does not allow users to participate in idea generation. User is
only using the testing product without having testing and generating ideas in his mind. All the
data evaluator can get is users usage pattern rather than their conscious effort to reflect their ideas
on interface design. Secondly, major area of application of instrumented or automated data
collection method is limited in software or web. Information appliance requires different attributes
to be added to the instrumented or automated data collection method. The method should allow a
researcher to have more control and collaborative attribute. Keeping these in mind, the new tool of
remote usability testing for information appliance was developed with the following objectives:
Use Internet for automating usability session.

Make users testing environment very comfortable and natural.
Let users participate to generate ideas for interface design.
Make the way of collecting users performance data as simple as possible.
Make the tool work with the collaboration of other related tools like ordinary statistical
programs or word processor.
Structure of Tool-RUTIA
The tool called RUTIA (Remote Usability Testing for Information Appliance) was developed based
on objectives mentioned above. RUTIA has the structure comprising of three main modules: testing
module, idea module and analysis module. These three modules go through the process shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 2: The structure and process of the tool, RUTIA
Testing module
In the testing module, at first, the overall purpose and process of the usability testing is introduced
and then user is guided to input their demographic data like gender, age and so on as prequestionnaire before actual usability testing. In the pre-questionnaire other items than demographic
data can be included for basic data for later analysis: e.g. users experience with testing product or
general use-behavior. After understanding users basic profile, a warming-up session is given to
user for familiarizing herself or himself with on-line usability testing. The warming-up task is
usually very simple like setting up alarm of digital clock. If user feels confident enough to her or his
capability of interacting with the warming-up task, then user can go ahead to start main usability
testing. Various tasks are provided one by one and user performs the tasks by operating the
computer-simulated information appliances. User uses mouse to press control buttons, for which the
product responses exactly same as real product: display, sound, or other various states. While
performing tasks, user can refer users manual for help or skip the task if she or he cannot continue
the task for its difficulties at anytime. In addition, if user is equipped with microphone she or he can
perform think aloud. The sample screen of testing module is composed as shown in Figure 3. As
shown in Figure 3, the computer-simulated product for testing is shown on the screen with the task
bar, other control buttons for skipping task and opening users manual.
Figure 3: Sample screen of testing module
Idea module
After finishing all the given tasks, user is guided to participate in the idea-generation session. In the
session of idea-generation, user can actively generate her or his own ideas regarding layout of
control buttons, grouping menus, arranging interacting process and organizing interface structure.
Figure 4 shows sample screen of users idea generation of layout of control button. User can drag
control buttons and configure his preferred way of layout. Or he can comment new ideas for
improving the usability in idea box. These kinds of various ideas generated by users themselves
can be important means to understand their conceptual model on user-interface of testing product.
After ending up with the session of idea-generation the debriefing session starts to ask few more
questions regarding test itself or to get other feedbacks from users. Or some other additional
questions can be given to users: asking some reasons for particular behaviors.
Figure 4: Sample screen of idea module.
Analysis module
As soon as the user finishes the usability-testing session and idea-generation session, all the
usability data including time taken, operational path, voices recorded from think aloud and users
idea generated in the idea-generation session are transmitted to and saved in the evaluators server.
These data are analyzed in various ways for finding problems and insights for generating solutions.
At first, all the interacting processes by users while they were engaging the usability testing are
replayed with exactly the same operational paths, sequences and time. The operational traces are
visualized in line over the product so that analyzer can easily see how user interacted, moved
around, made errors and so forth in sequence. This replay is done with the interface like a VCR: a
researcher can stop, pause, play, fast forward or rewind by clicking control buttons. In addition,
users protocol data from think aloud is also replayed. If analyzer needs to analyze users particular
interaction in detail, he can always stop and resume the play.
While the users interaction is replayed, at the same time, the interaction process is visualized in
another way. This time, the users interaction is visualized in terms of interface structure. In parallel
with a small window of product where users interaction is replayed over actual physical product,
there is another small window where interface structure of product is shown. A researcher can see
users interacting behavior in terms of the structure of interface: how deeply user went down, how
frequently user changed the level of interface depth and so on. The play in the window of interface
structure is synchronized with the play in the product window so that a researcher can get the view
of a users interacting behavior on product and interface structure simultaneously.
Finally, all the data are summarized in the table: pressed buttons, time taken, users action,
sequence, users protocol data, and researchers comment. In this summarizing table, a researcher
can sort out the time and easily search for specific interaction by simple click of relevant cell of
table. For further analyses, researcher can cross-tabulate between different elements. For example,
researcher can find out what type of users made specific types of errors by cross-tabulating element
of user and error. All the data can be exported to other conventional software like statistical
program or word processing software for further analyses. These data can be accumulated for
certain period of time to make database for usability. The sample screen of analysis module is
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Sample screen of analysis module
Conclusion and further study

The current tool is still in the stage of development of prototyping. The tool shows potential
advantages in several respects: low cost of management, easy collection of testing data, short time
to conduct usability testing, provision of natural atmosphere to user to test the usability, users
active participation in idea generation and availability of diverse ways of insightful analyses.
However, even with those various advantages of on-line remote usability testing, it needs further
refinements in several respects. At first, a product bigger than the size of computer monitor-screen
can cause a problem because the product shown on the screen is shown smaller than actual size.
This problem can seriously reduce the reality of product. Secondly, since the tool is working on
World Wide Web, types of users participating in usability testing can be limited only in those who
can access and use Internet without any serious difficulties. For effective implementation of the tool
these problems should be further improved.
References
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Technologies Into Tools edited by P. S. Alder & T. A. Winograd. New York: Oxford University
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Development. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. : New York.
Castillo, J. C. 1997. The User-Reported Critical Incident Method for Remote Usability Evaluation.
Unpublished Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Blacksburg, VA.
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Informatics Usability edited by Shackel, B. & Richardson, S. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Virzi, R. A. 1990. Streamlining in the Design Process: Running Fewer Subjects. Proceedings of
Human Factors Society: 291-294.
Wiklund, Michael E. 1994. Introduction, In Usability in Practice, edited by Michael E. Wiklund.
Boston: AP Professional.
Intervention strategies for alleviating problems in

international co-operative design projects
L-C. Lee National Taipei University of Technology, Taiwan
A. Woodcock Coventry University, UK
S.A.R. Scrivener Coventry University, UK
Abstract
Small design teams engaged on co-operative work in the international arena typically find
themselves beset by problems relating to time schedules, inadequate briefs, information flow and
communication, project management, language and cultural issues. Such problems, when arising in
projects of short duration, and not having the benefits of dedicated management, may increase
project length, decrease the efficiency and satisfaction of project members (and reduce their
willingness to participate in such ventures again) and reduce the extent to which the finished design
meets the initial requirements.
This paper outlines a series of low cost, high impact intervention strategies to assist design teams
working in this area. The starting point for the development of these strategies was the development
of a method to uncover and trace problems through the design process. The method we developed
to do this is described. Along with the resultant intervention strategies and an assessment of their
efficiency.
Intervention strategies for alleviating problems in

international co-operative design projects
Introduction
Small international design projects are becoming more prevalent as a means of quickly getting
products to market. Such projects may involve a designer located in the target market heartland and
a client and manufacturer in another country. For example, this research involved UK designers
and Taiwanese clients. Such ventures are sponsored by the Taiwanese government as a means of
promoting Taiwanese design. The benefits for the client are that the designer, being based in the
target market is better able to design a product that meets the needs of that market through his first
hand knowledge of it. Although such alliances generate advantages for partners, problems may arise
when trying to communicate across different disciplines, languages, borders and time zones. Such
problems may impede the progress and the eventual success of the project, and may be difficult for
small companies to overcome.
In such projects the designers, clients and the project manager may not meet up face to face during
the project, or only at its inception, as it is costly and difficult to arrange when key people may be
very busy. This means that any design communication which does take place has to be done at a
distance either synchronously (through the use of videoconference and telephone) or
asynchronously (mediated by fax, mail, email or image transfer). This in itself may be a cause of
problems and is certainly likely to exacerbate any which do occur, as their probable resolution is
more difficult.
The overall aim of the research was to understand the nature of problems arising in international cooperative design projects and to develop methods for uncovering and alleviating them. In order to
achieve this it was necessary to develop a method which would allow the identification of problems
during design sessions and determine whether and how these were resolved in later sessions. The
final outcome of the research was a set of low cost procedures which could be implemented by
design teams.
Discovering problems arising in ICDPS

At the start of the research we conducted a literature review, which indicated the type of problems
arising in international co-operative projects. These related to information flow and communication
(e.g. Enshassi, 1994; McDonough and Kahn, 1997), project management (e.g. Hetland, 1994;
Eggington, 1996), language and culture (e.g. Schneider, 1994; Cleland, 1994), political and
economic (e.g. Pandia, 1994; Coates, 1985). However, the literature seldom provided an in depth of
analysis of the type of problems that occurred or differentiated between different stages of the
design process. Information of this nature was required in order to develop solutions to design
teams on how to deal with such issues when they arise.
In order to supplement the review, a retrospective analysis of project documents from the preconcept to detailed design stages of over 20 international product design projects (such as the
design of computer and peripherals, communications and domestic equipment) commissioned by
CETRA (China External Development Trade Association) between 1993 and 1997 (see Woodcock,
Lee and Scrivener 2000) revealed additional problems relating to brief specification and
participation (e.g. key members of the project were not always available to verify
decisions).Typically these projects were characterised by a small number of actors (the mean
number of designers was 6) with an average project duration of 5.9 months.
From these projects, 143 problems were identified and classified into the categories elucidated
above. Just over 70% of these problems were classified as having a medium or high impact on the
project, with only 50% of them being resolved during the lifetime of the project; and just under
70% were deemed in part as relating to the inter-nationality of the project. This appears to be a high
number of problems, which may well impede the design process (i.e time spent on resolution of
problems cannot be equated with making progress on the design itself).
The prevalence of problems in these design projects should be a cause of concern for anyone
commissioning an international project. Typically problems will affect the satisfaction of the project
participants, their ability to work together, the quality of the end result and the efficiency with
which that result will be achieved. It was hypothesized that if we knew more about the lifecycle of
problems within international design projects we could develop low cost strategies that would
enable design teams to anticipate and rectify problems before they had a major impact on the
design.
Therefore, to further our understanding of the ontology of problems in international collaborative
design projects we set up a controlled, realistic case study to gather information for the
identification and collection of problems as they occurred. Such a case study would add to our
knowledge by providing a complete set of project documentation; take into account the use of
different forms of communication (and the problems especially associated with these); characterise
the emergence of problems in different stages of product design; and provide detailed information
for us to generate intervention strategies. Such a strategy would be in line with that proposed by
Collins (1995) who stated that managerial and communication problems arising during a new
product development project can be alleviated through active intervention in looking at the
problems and deriving solutions.
The next section focuses on the way in which potential and actual problems were identified during
the case study, prior to an explanation of the development of the intervention strategy, which could
be used to alleviate them. The final section of the paper assesses the usefulness of the intervention
strategy in a second design project.
Method for uncovering problems in design projects

In this section we will introduce the data collection and analysis procedure used to uncover
problems in a short duration, product design project similar to those supported by CETRA (China
External Trade Development Council) and which were used in the earlier stages of our analysis (see
above). It is believed that such an approach is generalisable to other design projects. In identifying
potential and actual problems during the ICDP we hoped to:
understand why they occurred

understand the context in which they occurred
assess their effects in terms of the design progress
Description of project
Three participants formed the design team, a UK product design consultant, a mediator and a client
in Taiwan. The design brief was to design a laminator for small offices and was issued by the client,
who was an office product manufacturer having an in-house design team. The project was studied
from preparation to detail development over a period of approximately two months.
Communication between project members was supported by synchronous and asynchronous
communication technologies namely a face-to-face meeting, telephone, videoconferencing, postal
mail, facsimile, email and World Wide Web (WWW). The project was completed successfully,
though not to schedule.
Data collection
In terms of data collection, all synchronous communication was observed and recorded during the
videoconferencing sessions, and asynchronous communication was monitored in the intervening
periods.
These records were subsequently analysed to provide reference material for semi structured
interviews and debriefing sessions. The interviews were held with both the designer and the client
to establish what kind of problems they had experienced during the videoconferencing sessions and
the problems they perceived in remote interaction. No prejudgement was made regarding the nature
of the problems that emerged, i.e. we were equally interested in technological and managerial
issues.
The debriefing sessions occurred after the tapes had been analysed. These were used to confirm
problems that had arisen in the session and the researchers interpretation of the discourse.
Typically the videotape was reviewed, accompanied by its transcript with participants so that
material (i.e., the design session) was in their minds during questioning. The video therefore
provided visual cues (Tang and Isaacs, 1993), which participants could use to elaborate important
events. Through the use of debriefing it was possible to compare the reactions and perceptions of
each participant to incidents which had been designated as potential or actual problems by the
researcher in the light of his experience as a designer and from our prior research (see above).
Data analysis
This section considers the methods employed to identify potential and actual problems and trace
their resolution or otherwise, through the design life cycle. The session transcripts and other
discourse were inspected to determine whether they contained any instances where discourse was
not centred on the design, but related to a problem (such as a missing piece of information, a
communication breakdown). At such times the design team would not be focused on the design
itself but on the problem. These were classified as actual problems firstly in terms of whether they
related to one of the categories that had emerged from our earlier investigations (e.g. information
flow and communication, brief specification); and secondly in terms of breakdown analysis (see
below).
Likewise during the course of the analysis the researcher also found it useful to note those times
when one party promised to do something (e.g. send a specification). These were classified as
'potential problems', because if the commitment was not honoured it might lead to a problem later
in the project lifecycle.
Breakdown analysis
A breakdown in design communication may be defined as an occasion when the actors have to stop
work on their main activity because they become conscious of some issue which prevents their
continuation on it. For example, during design interaction, participants send and received messages
to each other. If something happens to cause a failure in the receipt or understanding of a message,
this may force participants to shift their attention away from the primary task to resolve the
problem.
Scrivener et al. (1996) defined 6 types of breakdowns as being between user-user, user-task, usertool, user-environment, task-tool and tool-environment interaction. These relationships are
represented in Figure 1, and refer to vectors 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 respectively. For example, a userenvironment breakdown occurs when the users becomes conscious of some property of the
environment. Similar interruptions may occur between one user and another and between a user
and tool. For instance, participants using the videoconferencing system to complete a task, may be
interrupted by a software crash (e.g., whiteboard may not work). This interruption ceases
communication about the design problem and compels the participants to take action, either by
restoring the application, or using an alternative method to interact with their design partner, such as
gesture. This is described as a user-tool breakdown.
Breakdown analysis has been used previously by the authors to understand problems in design
communication over a distance, for example in the ROCOCO project between designers in
Australia and UK Scrivener et al. (1996) and in the FashionNet project during which breakdown
analysis was applied as a tool to measure usability. In this, Woodcock and Scrivener (1999)
determined that breakdown analysis clearly identified the nature of the problem, the impact on the
overall quality of the interaction and the ability of the designers to perform the task using the tools
at their disposal.
3
Environment A
Tool A
Tool B
User A
User B
Task A
Subsystem A
Environment B
Task B
Subsystem B
Figure 1: Interaction between two human-computer subsystems. Adapted

from Scrivener, et al., 1996, p.163.
The two way classification of problems were seen as complimentary and provided more detail on
the reasons behind a particular problem. For example, a problem could be classified as relating to
technology however, breakdown analysis would enable us to determine whether this was
associated with the user, the task or the tool (e.g. whether difficulties arose because a particular tool
would not run under the system configuration, or arose because the designer did not know how to
use it properly).
Uncovering potential and actual problems

We were not concerned with classifying all significant design related events such as discussion,
problem solving, negotiation and decision making. Although these may produce disagreements
between members of the design team having different viewpoints, these are seen as a natural part of
design progression. Neither were we interested primarily in the use of different forms of
communication to advance design discussion, except in those instances where actors used different
modes of communication to resolve a particular problem (e.g. request material which had been
promised but which was not forthcoming).
What we were interested in, and what could only be achieved through careful analysis of the
transcripts, was in finding clear verbal expressions of problems or breakdowns (i.e. a time when the
actors attention was taken away from the primary task) and then uncovering the origin of this
problem either through discussion with the participants or in the explanation of the transcripts of
earlier sessions. Once we know that a certain action may give rise to a problem in the future then
we can develop guidelines to reduce the likelihood of a potential problem turning into an actual one.
For example, when an agreement is made, especially during a meeting, this could be targeted as a
potential problem on the assumption that it is possible participants might disagree/disregard such
an agreement in the future time. Potential problems may be found in both synchronous (e.g.,
transcripts of videoconferencing sessions) and asynchronous communication (e.g., emails). Through
the identification of these in the case study we could develop a set of recommendations which can
be used to alert small design teams to possible problem areas.
Obviously, not all problems have their antecedents in the history of the design discourse. These
problems arise spontaneously and are usually not within the control of the actors (for example, they
may be interrupted by visitors, there may be a system breakdown or one of the team may use
unfamiliar terminology). When an interruption occurs, the design task terminates because the
participants need to pay attention to and spend time on repairing the breakdown. If the breakdown
cannot be resolved, the design task will cease. If the breakdown is repaired design activity resumes.
The documentation of such events can inform the development of guidelines to reduce the number
of spontaneous problems.
In summary, the following stages were undertaken to discover problems
1. Record (and where possible observe) design activity
2. Transcribe design discourse where necessary (eg from video records)
3. Note those times where there is a breakdown in design related communication, such
occurrences are usually flagged verbally, for example one participant may ask another to repeat
a certain phrase, say it another way or ask for a translation; participants may indicate that they
cannot see drawings imported on to the whiteboard
4. Code the problem as relating to time, information flow and communication, brief-specification,
project management, participation, language (and culture), political and economic, product and
quality, technology and environment and where appropriate in terms of breakdown analysis
5. Assess whether the problem arose spontaneously or had its origins in earlier sessions (e.g.
design activity could not be progressed because certain information had not been provided on
time)
6. Note whether any agreements or promises had been made which might give rise to problems in
the future
7. Check the interpretation of the coding of the problem (and whether it was seen as a problem)
with the actors and get their views on the session, using the edited video and transcripts as
prompts.
Although a verbatim transcription of the design sessions is not essential for uncovering actual
problems, it is useful for tracing the origin of non spontaneous problems, which may have their
origins in previous meetings or project documents.
Tracing non spontaneous problems requires the researcher to;
1. Inspect previous documents looking for likely antecedents to the actual problem e.g. an
agreement was made to provide information by a certain date
2. Mark these as possible problems

3. Verifying the relationship between the possible and actual problems with the actors.
Results from the case study

50 problems were found through the course of the case study with most of these occurring early in
the project (during design briefing, analysis and the first concept stage). Just over a third of these
related to information flow and communication, a further sixth were related to project management.
This was further substantiated by breakdown analysis, revealing that 21 problems related to useruser breakdowns and that these could mostly be attributed to language issues (this also applied to
potential problems, see Table 1).
By using the steps outlined above, we found the following relationships between potential and
actual problems (see Table 1) for the design project described above. From this it can be seen that it
was possible to trace problems through the design lifecycle, and that some of the problems were of
long duration.
Although the aim of the research was not primarily to develop a method for tracing the effect of
problems on design activity, but in determining ways in which these could be reduced in future
projects, this method leads us to a set of problem predictive events that we can look for when
managing projects. The next part of the paper considers the development of the intervention
strategy and evaluates its efficacy when used in a small design project.
Development of the intervention strategy

The literature review, our investigation of project documents and the case study outlined above led
us to believe that it might be relatively easy to reduce the number of problems commonly faced by
small international collaborative design projects (ICDPs). To this end we developed an intervention
strategy, which could be used by either project managers or the design team itself to reduce
problems. It should be noted that small ICDPs of this nature may not be formally managed, be well
specified or cognisant of the special nature of problems which might arise in international cooperative design projects. For example, when working in close proximity or the same time zone it is
relatively easy to request and promptly receive information, when there is only one hour during
which synchronous communication can take place (as in Taiwan-UK collaboration) it is less easy to
arrange some matters, or to keep a check on progress. As such the design team may become
overwhelmed by problems. In our previous paper (Woodcock, Scrivener and Lee, 1999) we
suggested that designers should be formally educated in the skills needed for them to work
productively in this environment (e.g. in terms of training in videoconferencing, multi-tasking and
project management). In this paper we consider a different approach, i.e. an intervention strategy,
consisting of a plan to prevent problems from arising and the development of a set of actions to
resolve problems once they have emerged.
Stage
Technical Trial
Possible Problems
Design requirement discussed
Agreement made (n-pt)
Agreement made (pt)
N
1
3
3
1
Actual Problems
----------- Lack of information
----------- Misunderstanding
Inter-meeting 1

N
1
3
Failure to fulfill an agreement

Lack of information
Misunderstanding
Lack of understanding
Scheduling the follow-up meeting
3
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
Design Briefing Design requirement discussed

Meeting arranged
Agreement made (pt)
Clients viewpoint
Inter-meeting 2
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
Clients viewpoint
Design Analysis Design requirement discussed
1
1
2
Meeting arranged
Inter-meeting 3 Renegotiation of the schedule
Clients viewpoint
Concept
Development
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
-----------
-----------
Renegotiation of the schedule

Meeting arranged
Agreement made
1
1
1
-----------
-----------

Inaccurate translation
Omission of translation
Client inconsistency of viewpoint
Misunderstanding
Addition or modification of
design requirement
Failure to honour deadline
Client inconsistency of viewpoint
Failure to resolve viewpoints
Misunderstanding
Addition or modification of design
requirement
1
1
1
1
1
1

Ignore an agreement
1
1
1
1
1

1
1
-----------------------------------------
-----------
-----------
-----------------------------------------

Inter-meeting 4
Concept
Refinement 1
Agreement made
Meeting arranged
Agreement made (n-pt)
-----------------------------------------
Inter-meeting 5
Concept
Refinement 2
Total
41
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
40
Table 1: Possible Problems becoming Actual Problems

Key -N= number of occurrences, n-pt = non preordained time, pt= preordained time
Intervention strategies for preventing and overcoming problems

The intervention strategy consisted of
1. a set of interventions to inhibit the onset of problems or reduce their severity
2. recommendations for effective working during meetings (i.e. project start-up, pre-meeting,
meeting and post-meeting stages in the project)
This required project participants (or the manager) to adopt an action research approach to change
and improve their situation. Once they realized a problem was going to occur they should intervene
immediately. The following section summarises the two parts of the strategy.
Interventions
Table 2 shows, for each potential problem, the intervention strategy that is required to reduce its
likelihood of developing into an actual problem. The third column illustrates the type of problem
that might arise without such intervention.
Potential Problems
Agreement made
Translation issues
Viewpoint from the

client or clients
colleagues
Renegotiation of the
schedule
Design requirement
discussion
(during a meeting)
Design requirement
discussion
(before or after a
meeting)
Proposed Intervention Strategies

Actual Problems
1 Make notes for any agreements
Failure to fulfill agreement
2 Verbal reminder of the actions
Ignoring agreement
Lack of information
3 Record on minutes and distribute
4 Trace the actions and remind
1 Translate the discourse
2 Explain requirements to the designer Omission of translation
3 Help to define terminology and
Misunderstanding
correct misinterpretations
1 Assure the elaboration of the product Client inconsistency of
design brief
viewpoint
2 Encourage project members to attend Lack of information
meetings
3 Suggest that the client reaches a
common ground within their
organisation
1 Explain the consequence of delays
1 Translate the discourse for both sites,
mostly for the designer
2 Explain the design requirement
3 Refer to agenda items
4 Enhance communication flow
1 Monitor email exchanges
2 Phone participants to resolve
misinterpretations

Misunderstanding

Table 2: Summary of intervention strategies

As can be seen from Table 1, most of the interventions relate to good project management. For
example, minuting meetings, producing action lists and reminders of approaching deadlines. Such
interventions will prevent actual problems from arising such as failure to fulfill an agreement,
ignoring an agreement and lack of information to discuss design requirements. Similarly, for
dealing with translation issues, intervention strategies required a translator to be present to clarify
design requirements, help to redefine the terminology and correct any misinterpretations during
meetings. These actions should affect the number of problems relating to inaccurate translation,
omission of translation, misunderstanding and lack of understanding. The mediator in this case
study was not proactive, and as such had not undertaken many of these actions. Considering the
findings of the review and the analysis of CETRA project documents, the main problem for ICDPs
is that they fall behind schedule. The intervention strategies outlined above will reduce this
likelihood and create greater satisfaction amongst participants.
Recommendations for effective working during meetings

Meetings are of prime importance in design projects as they are the time when decisions are made,
and design ideas approved. It is therefore essential that they be well managed. Table 3 summarises
the type of intervention strategies that could be employed to facilitate such events
Stages
Proposed Intervention Strategies
Project start- 1 Train participants to use
up
communication media
appropriately
2 Assure the elaboration of the
product design brief
Pre-meeting
During the
meeting
Problems Targetted
1.1 Whiteboard does not work properly
1.2 Difficult to do the task
1.3 Slow transmissions speed
2.1 Lack of information
2.2 Addition or modification of design
requirements
2.3 Failure to fulfil agreements
3.1 Lack of understanding
3.2 Misunderstandings
4.1 Lack of feedback and response
3 Provide a shared vocabulary for

the project
4 Define the rules of feedback and
response
5 Develop and collect agenda items 5.1 Failure to resolve viewpoints
and distribute them by email
6 Suggest pre-discussion
7 Monitor and contact participants 7.1 Lack of understanding
7.2 Failure to honour deadlines
8 Facilitate and resolve
8.1 Misunderstanding
communication and translation
8.2 Lack of understanding
issues
8.3 Failure to resolve viewpoints
9 Overcome technological
9.1 Difficult to do a design task
breakdowns (technological
9.2 Slow transmission speed
training)
9.3 ISDN connection interrupted
10 Make notes of agreements
10.1 Failure to fulfil agreements
11 Remind participants of
10.2 Ignoring agreements
agreements and actions
Post-meeting 12 Record and distribute minutes 12.1 Failure to fulfil an agreement
13 Trace agreements and monitor 13.1 Ignore an agreement
progress towards completion
14 Monitor and contact participants 14.1 Failure to honour deadlines
to remind them of the
consequences of delays
Table 3: Intervention strategies to be employed around meetings
The rationale behind the development of these strategies is outlined below:
During project start-up, participants might find themselves working with unfamiliar technology (eg
videoconferencing, or use of the web). Not only do such tools require technical knowledge to set
up, and resolve problems they also require a different way of working. If these issues are not dealt
with at the start of the project they may seriously impede progress later on by creating problems
relating to whiteboard and other applications misuse, slow transmission speed and participants
being nervous of the new technology.
For meetings to be effective, steps should be undertaken, whether by the project manager or the
10
participants themselves to produce an agenda, which can be distributed prior to the meeting, so that
all participants can consider the issues in advance, discuss them with their colleagues and bring
necessary documents to the meeting.
During the meeting, participants should be alert to the possibility of misunderstandings and have a
translator on hand and also someone who can help with technological breakdowns. Anecdotal
evidence from this and other studies suggests that non academic users of technology face a very
steep learning curve before they can use technology to its most optimum effect. Training and
installation manuals are not enough to enable them to work effectively or to rectify problems when
they arise in a working context.
Post meeting follow ups should include circulation of the minutes, action items and careful
monitoring of participants to ensure that deadlines and promises are honoured.
Evaluation of the intervention strategies

In order to evaluate the intervention strategies we embedded them in a real design project, with a
similar number of actors (in Taiwan and UK) and of a similar duration to the first project. This time
the design brief was to design a world clock. It should be noted that both projects were
commissioned by Taiwanese manufacturers, the designers negotiated their contracts and the designs
were expected to be launched as products in the near future. Unfortunately the high ecological
validity of the studies means that any comparisons have to be treated carefully as we could not
control extraneous variables such as the familiarity of the actors with the technology, their linguistic
skills and the complexity of the design. In this study, the researcher, rather than just recording
problems, took a more active role in the project by implementing his intervention strategies. This
meant he actively looked for potential problem areas, alleviated spontaneous problems when they
arose (e.g. by offering technical and linguistic support) and checked to ensure agreements were met.
Meeting Discussion / Activities
Interventions
Informal verbal agreement
Make notes of any agreements
To do lists and actions
Verbal reminder of the actions to be

taken by each person and the deadline
for them
Minutes of the meeting
Record these agreements and distribute

to participants
During the meeting

After the meeting
Trace the actions and remind

Reach the deadline
Figure 2: Monitoring informal agreements

Figure 2 illustrates the nature of the actions the researcher undertook to support design meetings.
These are described on the right hand side of the figure. For example, once an informal verbal
agreement occurred, the researcher made notes and wrote down the tentative agreements (Beer
and Stief, 1997). At the end of the meeting, the researcher reminded the participants of the
agreements, the actions, who was responsible for them and the deadlines. These were emphasised in
the minutes generated and distributed by the researcher. As a consequence, of these interventions
most were fulfilled.
11
25
Frequency
20
15
10
5
0
use
ser
ol
ent - tool ment
-to
m
r
n
e
iro Task viron
Us
v
n
n
e
Case Study 1
l-e
ero
s
o
U
T
Case Study 2
tas
ser
Types of breakdown
Figure 3: Breakdown incidence in the two studies
Figure 3 compares the number of breakdowns in the two studies (but note the caution above).
Similarly the number of actual problems was reduced from 50 in the first study to 15 when the
interventions were applied in case study 2.
Summary
In this paper we have outlined a general purpose method to identify, classify and trace problems
through the design lifecycle. It is believed that this method, applied to more case studies will enable
the design research community to achieve new insights into issues such as the reasons for design
drift, and bring about a greater understanding of ways to increase efficiency in distributed design.
The intervention strategies we have developed as a result of the analysis may be classified as being
one which has low cost and high impact. It is therefore ideally suited to small, international design
projects, which are of short duration and liable to run behind schedule. Typically such ventures
cannot afford a dedicated project manager. In such cases the design team itself needs to be aware of
potential problems it might encounter and be able to take remedial and preventative action to ensure
the design remains on course. We believe that the strategies outlined in this paper will therefore be
of benefit to design practitioners
12
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in Synchronous CSCW System Design. In CSCW requirements and evaluation, edited by P.
Thomas. London: Springer.
Tang, John C., and Isaacs Ellen. 1993. Why do users like video?: Studies of multimedia-supported
collaboration. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 1: 163-196.
Woodcock, Andre and Scrivener, Stephen A. R. 1999. Multimedia Network Applications in the
Fashion Industry. in Managing New Product Innovation, Edited by B. Jerrard, R. Newport and M.
Trueman. London: Taylor and Francis.
Woodcock, A. Lee, L-C., Scrivener, S.A.R. (2000), Communication and management issues in
international collaborative design, in S.A.R. Scrivener, L. Ball and A. Woodcock (Eds)
Collaborative Design, CoDesigning 2000, September 13th-15th, Coventry, pp. 369-379.
13
Building on virtual common ground: design participation for

the network age
S. Little Open University Business School, Milton Keynes, UK
A. Ando School of Communication, Tokyo Keizai University, Japan
Abstract
This paper describes a set of action research initiatives intended to disseminate the technical skills
necessary to participation in an increasingly globalised design discourse. It starts by examining the
shifting relationship between design, production and consumption triggered by globalisation. An
account of partnerships between a network of experts and a range of users follows. This is
premised on the use of available infrastructure and the sharing of modest technical skills. This has
allowed partners in peripheral locations to embark on the more rewarding process of social learning
and exploration of available ICTs without first having to climb a steep technical learning curve.
Using available free web-sites, which provide simple on-line editors, and a minimum of HTML
instructions, a sustainable presence has been developed for a range of individuals and organisations.
Face-to-face contact in workshops has been supplemented with subsequent on-line contact and
knowledge sharing. A combination of simply designed web pages has been linked with the
leveraging of already available internet-accessible material to provide the means to create a
sustainable presence from the margins. A model developed in the context of West Africa has
proved useful to the U.K. periphery with real-time monitoring of public service provision being
piloted in North-East England. This approach offers a framework for the design and delivery of
goods and services to increasingly diverse and extensive markets. The paper describes the approach
at the level of discrete design project, problem formulation and analysis and policy formulation and
feedback.
Building on virtual common ground: design participation for

the network age
Globalisation: networks and organisations
Globalisation of the world economy has increased the significance of intellectual capital leveraged
by information and communication technology. The deployment of these technologies has
undermined the distinction between manufacturing and service activities and produced new forms
of locational and functional differentiation across a globalised network of invention, innovation and
implementation (see Castells, 1996, 1997; Ohmae, 1990). The imperatives of an emerging global
market have led developed economies to shift their focus towards the end of the production chain.
This allows product differentiation and customer support to maintain the value of goods and
services in the face of growing price competition from newer competitors. As a consequence, the
distinction between products and services becomes less obvious. This end of the chain requires
closer adjustment to cultural variation among the users and customers. James and Howell (2000)
examine the use that Asian companies are making of the R & D facilities they are establishing or
acquiring within the United Kingdom. Evidence suggests the objectives are both access to
knowledge for market adjustments and broader intellectual capital for application in the home
environment.
Evidence of an increasing focus on the end of the chain where product differentiation and service
provision allow competitive advantage to be developed can be seen at ICL, once the "national
champion of the U.K. computer industry and now a component of Fujitsu, a former foreign
competitor. ICL has moved further from its original manufacturing hardware base to position itself
as an information services provider that can support the specificities of a European business
environment. This end of the chain is more culturally variable and success reflects specific local or
regional knowledge. Evidence of a value chain approach (Porter 1990) can be seen in a very
different industry. Both ICI and Unilever have been engaged in moving along the production chain,
to higher added value, with Unilever passing its specialist chemical division to ICI in order to
concentrate on the delivery of differentiated brands based on these feedstocks. Meanwhile ICI has
off-loaded its bulk chemical business to firms content to compete primarily on price at the
commodity end of this chain.
Both the British government and the European commission are encouraging companies to seek
alliances and opportunities in the opposite direction, both as a means of accessing the market
potential of Asian growing economies and as a means of improving offshore manufacturing
resources in relation to both home and export markets. In this inter-dependent environment design
has become the key activity unifying product, process and organisation across geographical and
cultural boundaries.
Communities and networks

The contemporary notion of the network organisation and decreasing Internet costs appear to
present an opportunity for smaller players to access resources from and to compete within global
networks. However, using the reduction on transaction costs delivered by ICTs, larger firms can
restructure to enter niche markets yet still draw on their wider resource base. New locational
strategies allowed white collar work from the US mainland to be relocated off-shore to the
Caribbean as far back as the 1980s, and "front office" tasks in prestigious locations have been
divided from "back office" tasks relegated to the more local periphery of outer suburbia. Less
developed regions find themselves increasingly in competition for such lower value work, and their
infrastructure is likely to be developed primarily to support it. At the same time, potential
consumers with limited economic resources are less able to influence the direction of development
of technologies, artifacts and services which are targeted at the most lucrative component of global
markets. Across the new networked economy as a whole research and development, raw materials
sources and routine manufacturing, final assembly, markets and after-market support, are
increasingly co-located. The emergent global system is one of complex inter-penetration of
peripheries and cores and these terms now refer to competence in the underpinning information and
communication infrastructure, rather than physical location.
ICTs are critically important for participation in the global economy but they have been created and
driven from within the most developed economies and regions. They carry assumptions about levels
of both resources and skills. Many locations have very limited access to the key technologies
driving globalisation. These inequities fuel current debates over the nature of the digital divide,
but despite the reality of division, many marginalised communities have appropriated available
ICTs for their own purposes. For example West African communities, in Ghana and Nigeria, use
World Wide Web technologies to distribute craft products to a global marketplace by a route which
provides its own audit trail safeguarding intellectual property and demonstrating authenticity which
adds value to the product. Business centres in the suburbs of West African cities offer phone, fax
and email connection to overseas family members and partners in the overseas diaspora (see Little,
Holmes & Grieco, 2000).
The twenty-first century has been identified as one in which the large scale movement of civil
populations, whether for economic or environmental reasons is likely to be a major feature (Castles
and Miller, 1993; Collinson, 1993). This has already been manifested in concerns over asylum
seekers and economic migrants, even in countries such as Australia, which depended on such
flows for economic development throughout the previous century.
Many migrant communities seek to reproduce features of their home community in their new
locations: the Little Italies, Chinatowns, Little Polands of the United States and Canada. The
development of virtual community nets enables migrants to enter once again the discourse and
social being of their original community of identity. Miller and Slater (2000) explore the question
of local improvisations in the case of Trinidadian diaspora: Indeed the significance of studying the
Internet is the degree to which it transcends dualisms such as local against global. It forces us to
acknowledge a more complex dialectic through which specificity is a product of generality and vice
versa (Miller and Slater p. 7). Trinidadians undertake a distinctive set of social activities on the
global Internet. What they experience are specific and local practices at a remote location.
Black American members of a more ancient diaspora now have an accessible, authentic, African
cultural base which they can access readily. Africa is not a simple recipient of culture across the
Internet but rather the location of active shaping of both the cultural and policy content (see the
Ghana Computer Literacy & Distance Education site: http://www.ghaclad.org)
Africa has seen a major renaissance in the celebration of its indigenous culture and art, both
traditional and modern, through the new communication technologies. Local African radio (JOY
FM from Accra, Ghana) is available globally through the Internet; African dance can be viewed
globally through the same mode. The texts and tales of oral legends and beliefs are now available
on line and all serve the perpetuation of an Africa base to identity in the African diaspora (see
http://www.geocities.com/margaret_grieco/kentecon/kente.html).
In Bangladesh the Grameen Bank (http://www.grameen.org/) has extended communication
technologies to poor village women as part of their empowerment : communication technologies
give these women an ability to check on market prices and to better organise their finances and
production. In India, the Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) has made use of the new
information communication technologies to promote its cause of advancing the interests and
improving the situation of poor women (http://www.sewa.org/).
Similarly, indigenous African business is making use of the Internet for conducting commerce,
most particularly the marketing of craft goods and the organisation of tourism. In the area of
industrial relations (http://www.cosatu.org.za/) African unions are connecting up both internally
within Africa and globally in the advancing of the interests of labour
(http://www.geocities.com/unionsonline/). They are originators of action as well as receivers of the
industrial relations agenda: the global coordination enabled by strategies such as web or union
rings permits local determination in the context of global synchronisation.
Building and sharing a skills base for virtual common ground

The digital divide is only one aspect of the uneven distribution of and access to resources within
the emerging global economy. Nevertheless, we have seen that a number of innovations from well
resourced locations can be applied effectively in less well resourced conditions.
In Japan, the Internet has been widely used for political (see http://www.jlgc.org/; http://www.kobeairport.gr.jp; http://www.agora.stm.it/politic/japan.htm) as well as economic purposes, for example,
Business to Business technologies for East Asia (http://www.ecplaza.net). The Japan Local
Government Center has set up a site through which it links with local governments globally in the
search for solutions to new urban problems (http://www.jlgc.org). It is designed to open up the
interaction between Japan and other agencies, most particularly in the United States. In the same
frame but from a different political perspective, alternative and oppositional groups in Japan are
also making use of the Internet to influence internal Japanese politics by attracting external allies to
their cause. A good example of such a case is the campaign to oppose proposed developments at
Kobe airport (http://www.kobe-airport.gr.jp/); while the bulk of the site is in Japanese there is an
English translation facility which provides the opportunity to sign on to the campaign
electronically.
Providing grassroots access to the ICT domain can be used to cut the costs of health and educational
servicing (as with the current planned expenditure in the U.K. National Health Service: Cross,
2002). However, in order to improve economic performance through e-commerce modes, the
channels for new forms of bargaining are created. The transaction costs for the least powerful to
gain visibility are also greatly reduced.
The research described in this paper represents a series of interventions aimed at the dissemination
of skills permitting both the voicing and participation of users at the margins.
The Odyssey Group (http://www.geocities.com/the_odyssey_group/) is an open network of
organisation researchers who meet in physical and cyber-space to discuss and enact the implications
of the current generation of Information and Communication Technologies. The group examines the
nature of technical skills and resources in the context of collaborative development of an
electronically mediated form of design participation that can be accomplished without physical colocation. The Odyssey group conducts workshops involving both physical and virtual participation.
An individual may be present at a particular event via either or both modes.
The group developed the Virtual Journey as a means of accessing aspects of the Odyssey Group
workshops without co-presence. The use of web technology to capture key aspects of an
environment or a pathway through an environment allows virtual participation in workshops and
discussion. Such a journey consists of a web page (or small set of pages) containing images
gathered during the journey and links to relevant web-sites discovered either on route or
subsequently.
The use of images in conjunction with hyperlinks to communicate both explicit and tacit
understandings in a Virtual Journey can be regarded as an electronic equivalent of the role of
storytelling in organisation.
Recent interest in storytelling reflects the need for shared tacit knowledge in complex organisations
(Denning, 2001) and in design processes (Lloyd, 2000). Stephen Denning, who was the World
Banks Program Director for Knowledge Management has published his experiences of the power
of stories in leveraging tacit understanding through concrete examples:
A springboard story has an impact not so much through transferring large amounts of information,
as through catalyzing understanding. It can enable listeners to visualize from a story in one context
what is involved in a large-scale transformation in an analogous context. It can enable them to grasp
the idea as a whole not only very simply and quickly, but also in a non-threatening way. In effect it
invites them to see analogies from their own backgrounds, their own context, their own fields of
expertise. (Denning, 2001, pp. xviiixix)
Virtual Journeys may be constructed in real time, during a workshop, to communicate immediate
experience across the virtual group. They may be re-constructed subsequently, as a means of
archiving social practice and experience. They may be constructed as a reflection on experience
triggered by events and discussions during the meeting.
The group met in Ithaca, New York in August 1999 and developed some initial sites. On the
Road (http://www.re-skill.org.uk/odyssey/road/ontheroad.htm) is a virtual journey to Rochester
New York, Image Capital of the World. It represents the perceptions of four members of the
group gained over two journeys between Ithaca, NY and Rochester, the city in which George
Eastman transformed photography from a craft to an industry.
Township Transport (http://www.geocities.com/township_transport)is a Yahoo-Geocities freeserver site constructed by members of the group who visited South Africa jointly and separately in
the space of a year. It is intended to develop through further contributions from fellow travellers to
become a resource or tool kit which will further participative planning and organisation of transport
in South African townships.
A third Odyssey meeting was held in Ghana during August and September 2001. The Odyssey
Group of organisation theorists, drawn from a number of U.K. and European Universities, worked
with a set of Ghanaian partners from the University and NGO sectors. The Centre for Social Policy
Studies (CSPS) at the University of Ghana were the hosts in exploring the potential and affordances
of electronic modes of communication for African development and identifying current and
emerging practices in this arena. The immediate aim was to develop theoretical perspectives and
their practical applications.
During the Ghana workshop a number of web sites were constructed, including one for the recently
completed Ghana Social Index (http://www.geocities.com/csps_maps). This site contains a set of
maps showing social indices for each region of the country. These can be downloaded in stages, and
have been designed for the slow connection speeds prevailing in West Africa. Making data created
inside Ghana available both inside and outside the country is a significant move way from the
situation (common in developing countries) of dependence on external sources of information about
local conditions.
These sites can be accessed and maintained from any of the numerous Internet cafes which are
available in the suburbs of Accra: a clear demonstration of the need to consider access separately
from ownership (see http://www.geocities.com/odysseygroup2001/vj/gallery03.html and
http://www.geocities.com/odysseygroup2001/vj/environs.html).
Sustainability is a key objective for these sites. This is achieved by creating simple HTML pages
with links and JPEG images. These are composed using the on-line text editors provided by
services such as Geocities. Simple HTML templates showing sample hyperlinks and image
placement can be shared. Basic HTML commands allow simple on-line maintenance without
specialist software and maximum compatibility with basic machines and software. This is in
preference to the generation of HTML from word processors or other software, which can result in
over-complex and opaque code. These techniques are described on the Odyssey site
(http://www.geocities.com/odysseygroup2001/sharing/index.html).
An on-line toolkit is under development at
http://www.geocities.com/the_odyssey_group/toolkit.html. Instructions on how to set up a YahooGeocities web site are available at http://geocities.yahoo.com/home
The same philosophy and techniques can be seen in a site, maintained by the Moor Park community
in a collaboration between the Moor Park Community Centre and the Odyssey Group at
http://www.moorpark.freeuk.com/
A framework for social learning

Sproull and Kiesler (1991) demonstrate that a process of organisational learning is needed to move
beyond the technical effects of direct substitution of information technology for manual processes.
The work described in this paper suggests three levels at which such social learning can facilitate
design participation though the use of web-technologies:
Level 1 Collaborative design of web sites
Design can be conducted as a virtual process supported over the web. For discrete, individual
design interventions, a community presence can be provided, whether the community is of shared
interest or location or of practice. This form of participation fits within a well established paradigm,
(e.g. Cross 1972).
A number of sites have been developed collaboratively between libraries. For example, the Centre
for Social Policy Studies librarian now maintains a web-site at
http://www.geocities.com/cspslibrary/
Support can be provided through the sharing of passwords within the group. The use of a U.S.
based site allows access from locations with higher access speeds outside Ghana.
The CSPS Library site contains links to other libraries, including the Open University Library and
the Safari (Skills in Accessing, Finding, and Reviewing Information) on-line resource that allows
students to develop skills on electronic information and document retrieval
(http://sorbus.open.ac.uk/safari/signpostframe.htm). This represents a significant leveraging of the
on-site resources.
Level 2 Web-supported problem definition and articulation
The identification of discrete projects implies problem formulation around multidisciplinary
wicked problems (Rittel and Webber, 1973), so a need for network of skills, virtual team
building. The CSPS web-site aims to identify areas for direct intervention and an on-line action
auction of research project proposals was one of the first components developed for the web site.
The Moor Park Explore Club at http://www.geocities.com/moorparkexploreclub/ highlights a range
of issues, many amenable to relatively simple design solutions, which reduce the effectiveness of
public transport service delivery. These include bus shelters with no information on service routes
or timetables. Metro stations with Park and Ride facilities but poor access for passengers trying to
get there by bus. A major regional hospital site with feeder bus routes which stop a significant
distance away.
The CSPS site contains an action auction page which consists of a set of research proposals in
search of funding (http://www.geocities.com/csps_ghana/actionauction/index.html).
For example, Domestic Organisation and The Environment is a proposal based on observations that
households compensate for infrastructural deficiencies in the developing urban context by the use of
children's labour. Inadequate infrastructure therefore increases the task burden of children and
increases their exposure to health risks. The project proposes the development of an Information,
Education and Communication campaign directed at achieving a re-distribution of such tasks.
Building District Level Information Management Capacity for Development Planning and Resource
Management is a proposal reflecting a government policy of decentralisation which places great
responsibility on each District Administration machinery to identify its development needs and the
resources available locally and externally to enable it adequately plan and implement development
programmes. The project aims at building up the capacity of each district administration to be able
to collect, process and disseminate information and network with other districts.
Level 3 Policy monitoring
The expressed desire of the British government for joined up government implies closing the
feedback loop at policy levels. North East Action on Transport (NEAT) has experimented with realtime on-line monitoring of public transport service provision.
In the low income areas of the North East of England low car ownership is often partnered by low
levels of public transport provision. Although communities are clear that they are experiencing
public service failure, petitions, consultations, letters of complaint, requests for more socially
balanced services or bus designs which can accommodate young mothers with pushchairs, older
persons with restricted mobility or disabled persons are not resulting in public transport
improvement. Policy has focussed on getting motorists out of their cars. Ensuring either an
adequate range of social and leisure services locally, or an adequate level of mobility for all in
accessing of services now located at considerable distances from low income residences is not a
visible concern.
The monitoring of public transport systems has traditionally been conducted by professionals who
have rarely given the feedback to communities. The advent of the World Wide Web and the
availability of new Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) can enable communities to
monitor public transport and other public service provision and performance and make transparent
that performance beyond their local arena.
In Lemington, in the West End of Newcastle, on the 25th and 26th September 2001, a real time
community monitoring of the performance of the Stagecoach bus routes and services was
undertaken. Stagecoach, as service provider, joined in with this community monitoring as did
members of the Newcastle Disability Forum. Technologies used for this exercise included digital
cameras, digital video, on-line surveys, wireless laptops, Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
monitors and Wireless Assisted Protocol (WAP) telephones. The results are archived at
http://www.newnet.org.uk/neat/monitor/default.htm
Conclusion
This paper has described some of a number of related activities conducted by a loose network of
U.K. and overseas-based academics. These are aimed at the collective and collaborative
development of virtual forms of design collaboration, at the level of individual web sites, and in the
wider engagement with project formulation and policy evaluation.
The on-line version at http://www.geocities.com/knowledge_links/commonground.html provides
live links to sites that demonstrate the techniques used in this research and the outcomes from a
continuing process.
References
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pp.155-169
10

professions
T. Love Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
Abstract
Governments and major industrial players regard successful innovation as one of the most
significant factors in improving economic and social outcomes. Designing is the process by which
new knowledge is transformed into innovative products, systems and services. Research into
designing provides the foundation for improving designing and improving how innovation
processes are managed.
Stakeholders in design activities have relatively neglected design research. This paper focuses on
the role of concepts and terminology in multidisciplinary design fields in supporting or inhibiting
relationships between design professionals, designs researchers, design research educators,
government and industry organisations.

professions
Introduction
Most developed national governments such as Australia, the UK and the US, regard innovation, the
generation of new knowledge and its transformation into real products, services and systems as a
key element of their policies for economic and social development (see, for example, Canadian
Agri-Food Research Council, 1997; Commonwealth of Australia, 2001; Dept of Industry Science
and Resources, 1999, pp. 3, 9-10; Innovation Summit Implementation Group, 2000; National
Science Foundation, 2001, 2001, 1998; Sara, 2000; The British Council, 2001; The Chief Scientist,
2000; Whitney, n.d.). It is designers that transform the new knowledge from basic research and
convert it into these real world products, systems and services that are the physical manifestations
of the widely sought after innovative outcomes (Langrish, 1987).
Many Western nations have neglected the roles that designers play in transforming knowledge into
economic and social benefits. This neglect is evidenced by, for example:
The omission of designing, designs, the education of designers, the design field, and
research into improving design processes in policy and strategy statements about innovation
and the development of a knowledge nation issued by the Australian government in recent
years. Similar neglect is apparent in government documentation from other countries.
The relatively insignificant levels of government support and research funding aimed at
improving the efficiency and effectiveness of design activities.
A lack of understanding by government (and by many businesses) of the importance of

improving the efficiency with which new knowledge is converted into real outcomes, and
the importance of managing the effectiveness of transformation, by designing, of new
knowledge into designed outcomes to align with government and business strategic plans.
Unlike other industries, there is as yet little attempt at national levels to map out the
different resources in design expertise available within national economies (this of itself
would be a useful project that there would be strong justification for government funding on
grounds of improving national strategic planning).
Design education aimed at developing highly competent professional designers for

participating in complex innovative multidisciplinary design projects has been neglected at a
tertiary level. The training of most technical designers consists of minor elements in degree
programs of traditional disciplines. This is evident in, for example, the fields of engineering,
information systems, and education.
The management of research funding for improving the efficiency of the conversion of new
knowledge into real world designed outcomes, in Australia, the UK and the US at least, is
managed by minor government research bodies that are significantly under funded
compared to similar research bodies that manage the research funding for other disciplines.
For example, in Australia, compare the Creative Arts panel of the Australian Research
Council with the Science panel; in the UK, compare the Arts and Humanities Research
Board with the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council; in the US compare the
Art and Humanities research funding to the National Science Foundation).
There are many reasons for this neglect, some of which lie with government, some of which are
political, and some of which lie with design practitioners and the sub-fields of design research.
These include:
Intrinsic weaknesses within the design research because terminology and concepts are
fragmented and discontinuous on the sub-discipline boundaries. This is in part due to the
structure of tertiary education, and in part due, in many design fields, to an over emphasis on
the information that designers use as the basis for defining designing (e.g. engineering
information rather than knowledge about appropriate best practices in designing).
The discourse relating to design research, for the field, within disciplines, across disciplines,
with sponsors, with clients and with government agencies is confused and poorly defined.
The central, mainstream and peripheral concepts used in discussing designing, design
problems, design solutions, user interactions, government strategies and sponsor criteria are
not only used imprecisely, they are often used with multiple meanings and not explicitly or
implicitly defined by context.
The literature of business and innovation research almost completely neglects the role of
design and hides its role by placing primary emphasis on entrepreneurial business units. The
design function is passively subsumed within the business model and the importance of
maximising and aligning the designing activities and outcomes with business strategies,
vision and objectives is neglected or ignored.
A dislocation between undergraduate and postgraduate education in designing in many

disciplines. For example, in technical disciplines such as engineering, design research at a
postgraduate level almost exclusively focuses on developing models of objects physical
properties, i.e. it reverts to an engineering paradigm of applied physical modelling that is
only incidental to its information provision role in designing. Similar but opposing
phenomena are found in appearance-based design disciplines of the Art and Craft school
traditions in which design research at a postgraduate level becomes refocused on the
paradigms of Fine Art and Social Science. This can be seen in the strong interest for
designed artefacts to be a substitute for research, and where research into the use of
actualised designs is refocused as anthropological research.
Core concepts in the fields of design and design research are confused and conflated with
each other in the design literature and in the minds of practitioners and researchers. This
appears to be due to a lack of strength across most, if not all, design fields in
epistemological issues.
Designing and design research is epistemologically more complex than many other
disciplines. In part, this is because designing is interdisciplinary and in almost all situations
must simultaneously address qualitative and quantitative factors in technical, social, ethical
and environmental realms.
Taken together, the above factors point to many situations in which the relationships between
stakeholders in design research are problematic. Developments in the disciplines and subdisciplines of design have not yet led to a satisfactory level of mutually beneficial interrelationships
between design researchers and those organisations and professions who would be expected to gain
most benefit from the findings of design research. This is in spite of the multidisciplinary field of
Design Research having: strong international networks of academics, researchers and practitioners
that span the very broad range of disciplines in which designing is undertaken; a broad range of
international and national peer reviewed journals, conferences and other means of knowledge
dissemination; and having been established for several decades.
In most countries, design research and the education of design researchers, is on the periphery of
awareness of most government funding agencies, industry bodies and businesses, neglected by
many design professions and professionals, and its outcomes are under utilised by individuals,
organisations and governments.
This paper focuses on the ways that terminology, and concepts of design research contributes to
these problems, especially through the lack of alignment between:
Terminology and concepts specific to particular 'design disciplines'.

Terminology, theories and concepts of other disciplines.
The integrating conceptual and symbolic representations with which human knowledge is
codified.
Terminology, theories and concepts used by researchers, leaders and managers in business
and government organisations.
The problems of these mismatches can be seen in, for example, the factors that result in large-scale
funding and higher levels of government and industry awareness of the 'engineering' aspects of
Engineering Design, and the much smaller funding and government and industry awareness of the
'designing' aspects. This paper argues that many of the problems lie in the lack of ease of
communication between individuals in different disciplines, and that these problems are
exacerbated where design disciplines do not maximise their use of concepts, theories and
terminologies that span disciplines.
The paper takes a pragmatic instrumentalist position: in most cases, the outputs of designers are
functionally defined. That is, in most cases, designers produce output according to instructions
from others (e.g. project sponsors, managers, clients). They are rarely 'totally free artistic agents',
nor in most cases would it be helpful for them to be so. From this position, theories about designing
and designs are conceptually tied in two directions:
To common languages of symbolic representation and theory used across many disciplines
for representing the different aspects of the store of human knowledge.
To restricted personal concepts and terminology of individual designers.
Tying the terminology and concepts of design research in all sub-fields of design practice to the
already established languages of symbolic representation and theory is important to enabling and
supporting cross-disciplinary research and the education of designers who will later work in multi
and cross-disciplinary design teams. This by itself will help address the problems of terminological
confusion and conflation in the design literature. Resolving the problems of terminology is central
to resolving many issues of improving the way that the design field can more effectively contribute
to national economic and social development.
Occasional need for localised 'designer' concepts and languages may arise when designing pushes
the bounds of what is known and hence, it is possible that existing concepts, terminology and theory
may be insufficient. Of concern, however, is when this occurs where designers or design
researchers have insufficient understanding and knowledge of already existing terminology,

concepts, and theories, and are terminologically and conceptually reinventing the wheel'.
Constituent orientation relationships

Constituent market orientation theories provide an effective tool for understanding relationships
between stakeholders in design research, identifying improvements to the efficiency and
effectiveness of individual and organisational processes important to design research, and
identifying key situations in which terminological problems impact adversely on relationships
between constituents. Extensive research by Tellefsen and others (Tellefsen, 2001, 1999, 1995) has
indicated that orientation of members of an organisation towards other constituents (stakeholders) is
a major factor in achieving satisfactory outcomes. Tellefsens research was based on a wide variety
of organisations (235 CEOs, 244 market managers, 188 purchasing managers, 163 personnel
managers, 179 union representatives, 154 PR managers, and 175 lobbying managers) and indicated
that CMO findings are applicable independent of organisational type, size or discipline area and
hence are well suited to proving insight into the situation of design research and its stakeholders.
Human beings cannot hold all and everything in mind, and whatever lies outside their orientation is
ignored or neglected. There is strong evidence that where managers constituent market orientations
are aligned with those constituents that have primary influence in the organisations value chain,
this maximises efficiency and effectiveness of the organisations business processes and maximises
quality of outcomes.
Tellefsens findings point clearly to significant advantages being gained where organisations
involve multidisciplinary teams in which high levels of communication and learning are found. The
organisation and teams benefit by teams being composed of heterogenous individuals with a wide
range of expertise in different discipline areas, and where high levels of communication and
learning activities exist between team members.
Constituents in relation to design research are:
Sponsors of design work

Organisations in which designing is undertaken
Organisations that use outsourced design services
Industry associations
Managers and leaders of organisations
Government organisations
Governments
Research funding agencies
Other design researchers
There is anecdotal evidence that design researchers, like designers, have not adequately addressed
constituent market orientation issues, and research and practice seems to have primarily focused on
design problems, solutions and artefacts. There is some evidence, particularly from the graphic
design field, that market orientation is either inadequately considered or faultily conceived with
respect to some constituents. This is evident in survey findings indicating poor relationships with
users, sponsors/clients, and managers in the same and other organisations (see, for example,
IcoGrada, 2002, 2002, 2002; IcoGrada, 2002).
The constituent market orientation of designers and design research managers towards research
funding agencies is obviously very important and is problematic. In theory, design research is
funded under the aegis of Arts and Humanities research funding bodies. Many design researchers,
however, undertake research that is highly technical and the lack of fit with the Arts and Humanities
research funding bodies means that, in practice, many design research projects submit their funding
applications to more technical research funding bodies. This means that they are inappropriately
competing against the sorts of research projects for which the technical research funding bodies
were originally established. This is a consequence of confusion about what designing and design
research involves and is at root a problem of terminology. The problems are due to difficulties with
terminological and conceptual confusion about whether the term design (and hence, design
research) refers to an artistic or scientific pursuit, when in reality it involves both. The
consequences are serious in two ways: inadequate scientific exploration of the activity of designing;
and faulty reconceptualisation of the activity of designing in terms of object properties or
information flows in which design research is inappropriately viewed as either engineering research
or information systems research.
Another dimension of the constituent market orientation of design research is the problematic
relations between design researchers. Design theories have been developed in different disciplines
almost independently of each other. This has resulted in limited and parochial definitions of key
terms such as design that are directly tied to design practices in these disciplines (Love, 2000).
Most general definitions are limited in scope: either because they include too much, or they exclude
aspects of designing that other disciplines would include. Anecdotally, there remains political
tension between the engineering design fields and the design fields whose origins lie in the art/craft
traditions (graphic design, typography, industrial design, fashion etc): members of each regard the
work and research of the other as not really design. At present, newer design fields (e.g. policy
design, social program design, mathematical representation design, experience design, learning
systems design futures design, ethical environment designing) are neglected and relatively isolated
from the more established design fields. The nature of contemporary multi-disciplinary design
work and design research means that these are deep and serious problems. They not only reduce the
inefficiency and effectiveness of research and practice, they result in contradictions in upstream and
downstream constituents views of designing and design research, effectively seriously reducing the
effectiveness of constituent market orientations. By compromising the brand and image integrity
of the design field, it weakens the definition of designing being distinct from other disciplines and
compromises requests for research funding on those grounds. Again this is a problematic issue that
increased conceptual and terminological integrity would help resolve.
Constituent market orientation issues with regard to management have been defined by a neglect of
managerial issues in design research and by a lack of attempts to integrate theories about designing
with theories of business function, management and marketing. Again this is at root closely tied to
the definitions of key terms such as design. Few definitions of designing locate the activity
within commercial contexts involving management issues whilst at the same time defining
designing as distinct from other commercial activities. A notable exception is Galles definition that
defines design in a manner that is dependent on a commercial sponsor (Galle, 1999).
The constituent market orientation of design research as a field towards government and its
agencies is perhaps the one of greatest significance because to a large extent it defines the
prominence or otherwise of design research in the research funding community and in the general
academic research community. Currently, the constituent market orientation of the design research
community to governments has been relatively ineffective. There has been limited government
funding by the UK Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) for Centres of
Excellence and funding by National Science Foundation in the USA mainly delivered under the
rubrics of engineering research and small business innovation research. In Australia, the research
discourse is in place by the ARC (Sara, 2000) but this has not yet emerged as strong contribution to
design research as distinct from science, engineering and business process research. In each of these
countries, it appears that government-funding agencies believe they are funding design research.
Again, this points to terminological and conceptual confusion in which major upstream constituents
with engineering, art, entrepreneurship and business management conflate designing
Constituent market orientation relationships with other constituents are similar to those described
above. In each case, the confusion in design research relating to its key terms and concepts emerges
in weakened constituent relations and is compounded and compounds constituent relationship
problems between others, for example, between designers, users, sponsors and managers of design
projects.
Role of terminology in relationship problems

This section draws attention to terminologically problematic situations potentially implicated in
relationship problems between stakeholders in design research.
1. The design research field is split because different disciplines regard what they do as
design and try to own the term.
2. The art-craft high profile ownership of design has meant that other disciplines such as
engineering give precedence to engineering as a mathematical modelling over design,
which is assumed to be easy and potentially automated by engineering processes.
3. Lack of an adequate definition of the role of designing in business processes.
4. Lack of an adequate definition of the role of designing in software production.
5. Lack of an adequate definition of the role of designing in education processes.
6. Lack of an adequate definition of the role of designing in leadership and entrepreneurial
activity.
7. Lack of an adequate definition of the role of designing in investment practices.
8. Lack of an adequate definition of the role of designing in architecture and planning
(conflicts with structural design and civil engineering).
9. Lack of an adequate definition of the role of designing in sketching, thinking and other
associated activities.
10. Conflict between concept of designing as a special different activity/skill and concept that
designing is similar or identical to sketching or producing artefacts. The contradiction
becomes more evident where designing is assumed to take into account stakeholder
attitudes, needs etc.
11. Confusion as to whether designing is an internal or external human activity.
12. Confusion as to whether designing is a human activity or one that can be automated and
hence be not-human.
13. Lack of clarity about differences between designing and other closely associated activities
such as calculating, information gathering or drawing.
14. Lack of clarity about the definition of a design.
15. Lack of clarity about the difference between design research and other research disciplines.
16. The identification of specific value addition due to designing is not evident in the
terminology of design research.
17. Lack of clarity about the differences between designing and creativity.
18. Lack of clarity about the differences between creating a design and creating a product,
system, service, theoretical construct, or an experience.
Some issues are specific to problems between particular sub disciplines of designing, and as a result
are implicated in inhibiting interdisciplinary, cross-disciplinary and multidisciplinary designing.
Some cause problems between designers and users, designers and sponsors/clients, design
researchers and research funding bodies, and with potential research sponsors. Together they allow
government policymakers to believe that if they fund business, technical disciplines and art
organisations then they will by default have funded designing and design research.
Conclusions and implications

The previous sections point to a direct connection between terminological problems and
problematic relationships between stakeholders (constituents) in design research. This is
particularly evident in relation to the international status of design research and the funding of
design research projects. Poor terminological and conceptual foundations are strongly implicated in
systemic difficulties in design research and design practice.
Much of the terminological and conceptual confusion is a result of design disciplines conceptual
isolationism and parochialism, and a neglect of epistemological issues (see, for example, Coyne,
1997; Love, 2001, 1998; Tovey, 1997). Resolving these issues may be possible by identifying
conceptual common ground and redefining key terms and concepts to reflect the underlying
similarities in the physiological basis of human activities in designing.
Ways forward include addressing this problem formally through a cross-disciplinary association
such as the Design Research Society. Other alternatives include continuing pressure in the design
research journals by individual researchers whose work is adversely affected by the lack of coherent
conceptual and terminological foundations and by adverse comment by professionals in other fields
(including government) about the problems involved in relationships with design researchers and
designers.
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10
Are the reflective practitioner and learning cycles suitable

foundations for theories about designing and design cognition
Abstract
This paper challenges the use of the concepts reflective practice and learning cycles as a basis
for analysing designing, for building coherent theories about human designing, and for developing
design methodologies. It develops the argument via two paths: a review of the original formulation
of the concepts of reflective practice/practitioners and learning cycles; and an analysis of the
implications of recent findings in the areas of brain and neurology research for building theories
about designing. The paper suggests researchers have over extended the use of the reflective
practice and learning cycle concepts: concepts that were devised as relatively coarse structural
formulations bringing together some of the more obvious macroscopic characteristics of individual
human functioning for business consultants and educators. It argues that new micro-level
understandings of design cognition emerging from brain and neurological research offer a better
basis for building theories about designing.
Are the reflective practitioner and learning cycles suitable

foundations for theories about designing and design cognition
Introduction
In the design research literature, concepts of reflective practice and its close associate learning
cycles have been widely used as the basis for building design theories (see, for example, Craig &
Zimring, 2000; Dorst & Cross, 2000; Dorst & Dijkhuis, 1995; D A Schon, 1992; D A Schon & G,
1992; Stumpf & McDonnell, 2002; Valkenburg & Dorst, 1998). This paper asks whether these
concepts are epistemologically and practically sufficient as structural foundations for developing
design theories that provide full explanations of the human activity of designing and how humans
interact with designed objects. It argues that the theoretical foundations of design research reach
much deeper, and that the concepts of reflective practice and learning cycles are in fact
peripheral, and relatively superficial, models. The paper suggests that models of reflective practice,
learning theories and learning styles essentially model the external phenomena only and are thus not
epistemologically well aligned in purpose with modeling an activity such as designing that is
intrinsically an internal human process. It suggests that the justifiable use of these concepts of
experiential learning does not extend beyond their roles as aids to developing educational programs,
as accessible constructs for students of design practice and design management, and presentation
aids for consultants involved in improving design management.
Brain research is now offering direct insight into the actual internal human processes of designing.
This is a significant change in the design research field. Until recently, design theory making has
been severely limited because research-based understanding of core aspects of human activities in
designing could only be inferred by observations of external behaviours of designers and externally
observable phenomena. The consequence has been that theory making efforts have been deflected
into building theories about designing in terms of the structure and sequencing of externally
observable activities; the properties of objects (forms); information used by or transferred between
those involved in designing; models of social interactions; and human cognition, itself described in
terms of these factors. What has been neglected is the essential core of the field: the human internal
processes of designing, i.e. how humans design.
Trying to model the human activities of designing is difficult: the human processes are complex.
Attempting to take theoretical shortcuts to avoid this complexity by focusing only on superficially
accessible information about the external attributes of the phenomena and the human behaviours
raises similar epistemological and practical problems as trying to infer the internal electronic
circuits and software code of a calculator by observing the contents of is display, or trying to infer
the program code of a word processor from the content of documents that have been produced using
it.
The paper has five parts. In the next (second) section, the reflective practitioner, learning cycle and
learning style models are briefly reviewed. In the third section, research findings about the key roles
that feelings play in cognition and hence designing are outlined in terms of new findings about the
physiological mechanisms by which feelings, emotions, cognition and actions are actualized. In
the fourth section, the issues raised in sections two and three are discussed in terms of the
construction of sound foundations for design theories. In the final section, the conclusion, a new
structure is outlined that repositions the reflective practitioner and learning cycle/style models in
design theory, design research and design education.
Reflective practice and learning cycles/styles

Schons theories of reflective practice, reflective practitioner, and reflection in action originate in
his research into experiential learning and experience-based action undertaken in the 1970s with
Argyris (see, for example, Argyris & Schon, 1978, 1974; D A Schon, 1983; Donald A. Schon,
1973). The primary purpose of this research into individual and organisational learning was the aim
of improving the effectiveness of managers and consultants offering services to increase
organizations performance. The theory base of action/experiential learning/ reflective practice goes
back, however, at least to Deweys (1933) work on experiential learning.
Schon (1987) focused on two kinds of practical reflection: reflection-in-action, in which the
reflection is undertaken during a task; and reflection-on-action, in which the reflection is done
away from the task. Schon differentiated between:
Espoused theories the theories that people say underpin why they do things
Theories in action the theories that actually underpin why people do things
Reflection theory that gives feedback into either theory and experience
In exploring the theory aspects of how people best gained from their experiences, Schon focused on
five processes:
Undertaking an action
Reflections on experience of that action
Using a theory
Reflections on using that theory
Reflections on the idea of reflecting about a theory of e.g. action (meta-theoretical
reflection)
Kolb and Fry developed an alternative approach to experiential learning in the mid-1970s (Kolb,
1975). From this research, and that undertaken earlier by Lewin (e.g. Lewin & Cartwright, 1952;
Lewin & Lewin, 1973), emerged the Kolbian learning cycle of concrete experience > observation
and reflection > forming abstract concepts > testing these abstract concepts in new situations>
more concrete experience etc. As Ekpenyong (1999) inferred, this can be seen as an unpacking of
the simple behaviourist stimulus-response (S-R) theory to provide room for a theory of learning.
The experience of Kolb and other educators and consultants in applying the learning cycle in
educational and consultancy situations indicated that individuals performed better and were more
enthusiastic about some parts of the learning cycle than others. This pointed to potential benefits
from categorising individuals in terms of learning styles predicated on their preferred part of the
cycle. These he called Convergers, Divergers, Assimilators, and Accomodators (Kolb, 1985: 6195). Kolbs learning styles sit between axes on the learning cycle. Alternative learning style
categories by Honey and Mumford (1982) (Activists, Reflectors, Pragmatists and Theorisers) locate
learning styles on the cycle axes. Like the Myers-Briggs and personality types, the cultural roots of
Kolbs (and presumably Honey and Mumfords) ideas on learning styles were Jungs personality
types (Kolb, 1985:78).
These theories about reflective practice, learning cycle and learning styles are grounded in
observation of the behaviour of individuals, groups and larger organisational arrangements. These
observations were made and theories developed alongside a conceptual backdrop of models and
theories from education and psychology. The discourse within the material indicates that the
development of these theories is marked by four significant, but often tacit, factors:
Theory is built on a stimulus - response focus on observable behaviour rather than an

understanding of causal mechanisms.
Theories tacitly assume and presume models of internal human functioning such as
cognition. Where explicit these are also predicated on observation of external responses
rather than knowledge of internal processes.
Epistemology of new theories, and new theories themselves, drawn relatively uncritically
from fields of Psychology and Education.
Theories built on simple mathematical relationship models, e.g. linear relationship, feedback
relationship, circular relationship, oscillatory relationship.
Neurology and physiology as foundations for design theory

Theories of affective cognition model the ways that feelings, body states, conscious and
subconscious thoughts, attention and memory processes influence, or cue, the formation of new
thoughts and the processes of successive thought development and management (see, for example,
Bastick, 1982; Damasio, 1994; Love, 2000; Mosca, 2000; Ridley, 2002).
Unlike the above simple models of reflection in action, reflection, learning cycles, and learning
strategies and styles, a physiological understanding of how humans design is complex. The
complexity is not born of obscure medical and biological concepts: it is that the processes that go
on inside humans brains, neurological, hormonal, visceral and other physiological systems are
intrinsically much more complicated, even when the description is limited to understanding them in
terms of the embodied information flows. For example, viewing brain and body processes at a
general level, Damasio (1994, pp. 127-164) describes more than a dozen different neurological and
hormonal pathways and at least ten feedback systems involved in an individuals perception of an
emotion (not including the cognitive processes such as visualising, bringing out memories, judging,
creating new thoughts, or deciding on actions).
When designing, designers convert problem statements into internal problem gestalts and draw on
their experiences, bodily perceptions (feelings), emotions and external information to generate
multiple partial solutions to these problem gestalts, compare them imagenically in their minds
eye, and communicate these partial design solutions and their associated design worlds to others.
It is this level of analysis that is needed for design researchers to have a sound understanding of
how people design, and how people understand, and learn to utilise, designed artefacts, products,
services and systems. Understanding designing and creating the foundations of design theory in
reality requires an understanding of the dozens of separate physiological, neurological,
informatically embodied feedback systems.
In terms of physiological systems, there are several processes / responses that offer a basis for the
reflective practices described by the experiential learning theories of Schon and others. Cognitive
neuroscience models differentiate between two affective system pathways, one of which passes
through the frontal cortex and one that does not. For those aspects of affect that pass through the
frontal cortex, some may be available to conscious attention as body states, i.e. feelings or quale
(John Dewey, 1895), whilst others come into consciousness as pre-conceptualised entities or
cognitive artefacts (objects in the minds eye) realised in the imagenic aspects of the brain.
Each of these form a causal foundation for reflective or experiential learning by which the human
organism responds and learns. The differences between these can be seen, for example, in the
potential responses from an individual putting a finger too close to a candle flame:
1. Subconscious primitive learning mechanisms resulting in near instant removal in

which reflective processes do not pass though the conscious mechanisms of the frontal
cortex but instead involve subconscious primitive that result in a faster/stronger instinctive
response next time a similar situation happens.
2. Response based on the individuals conscious perception of their somato-sensory bodybased feelings: whether direct feelings as in hotness of the fingers or of the kineasthetics
of movements, or other body state parameters such as palpitations and muscular tension.
3. Response based on the individuals attention to the situation as expressed in terms of
cognitive artefacts: (such as flame, finger, heat and candle) that are, in whatever way
that they are individually conceptualised, available to the individuals thinking from their
prior learning.
4. Secondary somato-sensory grounded reflective feedback: due to the individuals
perception either at the time or later of the above three processes.
In working situations, the above somato-sensory reflective processes combine with other
information-based reflective processes. Consider a situation in which a professional in their normal
activity undertakes a task involving an aspect of reflection. Key elements are:
The actuality of the task

The gestalts and contexts within which the task is undertaken
Their access of memories of previous similar tasks, gestalts and contexts
Their access of memories of outcomes of those tasks and gestalts
In some cases, their access of memories of situations and gestalts prior to undertaking those
similar tasks
Their access of memories of their reflection on the tasks, gestalts, contexts, prior
considerations and outcomes
Their access of memories of their judgement as to the quality of their reflective processes
Their access of memories of their decisions, judgements and heuristics that they developed
as a result of the prior reflective processes
Their analysis of differentiating factors
Their judgement processes that support the professional choices they make in identifying
guidance from these past analyses that influence current behaviour
Their access from memories of the reflection and reflection processes
For each of these information processes, one or more of the four responses in the previous list may
apply. The combination indicates the number of aspects of a simple practical reflective task that
need to be included and addressed by an adequate theory of reflection.
For reflection relating to the human activity of designing the situation is considerably more
complex than that described above because it also has to include a description of the ways that
reflection activities influence the complex processes associated with the generation of new
thoughts: including the simultaneous (or almost so) processing of technical, social, environmental,
ethical and aesthetical information with all its necessary reflection and brain-body/feeling-thought
processes. In addition, alongside these issues must also be added the processes and physiological
pathways associated with designers communication of their partially conceived problem
statements, design worlds, gestalts, partially completed solutions, and the relative evaluation of
those solutions between designers and other stakeholders. Together, they indicate that a reflective
practice model that satisfactorily explains sufficient of the real human processes to provide a full
explanation and model for improving the outcomes of design activities is considerably more
complex than reflection theories based on external observations of individuals behaviour.
Discussion
The development of coherent design theories requires that they are grounded on epistemologically
sound foundations capable of supporting required analyses. All forms of theory about designing
explicitly, or tacitly, assume and presume particular underlying theories of human functioning.
Theories derived from the external characteristics of objects, here including human behaviour,
cannot, by their nature, definitively explain or model the internal workings of the objects or, in this
case, the internal human processes. The layered nature of theories; in which individual theories
provide assumptions for less abstract theories and depend on more abstract theories; means it is not
possible for theories that depend on or presume an internal human mechanism of designing to
explain that mechanism.
Four core issues that a body of theory about designing and designs must address are:
1. The explanation of how designing occurs inside an individual.
2. The modelling of how users internal processes shape their interactions with design
products, services and systems.
3. The creation of new thoughts.
4. Closure, i.e. the internal human conscious and unconscious automated processes that stop,
start, continue or redirect human external and internal activities.
The sketches in the preceding section also point to a more complex view of learning and reflection
processes than that described in the reflective practice and learning cycle/style literatures. Human
activity at an individual and social level is more complex than the reflective practice/ reflection in
action and learning cycle/style models indicate. Schons theories of reflection, action and practice,
Kolbs learning cycle and the learning styles of Kolb, Honey and Mumford have major limitations
as foundations for building design theories because of their grounding in external observation of
practice, rather than an understanding of what happens inside humans whilst they are involved in
designing. They are unsuited to being foundational to theorising about designing because do not
provide the data or theoretical means to infer and model deeper underlying processes of human
functioning by observing the superficialities of behaviour and practice. This is a limitation that
Schon was well aware of from early on (D. A. Schon, 1987). He identified that what was really
needed was a model of human cognition derived directly from an understanding of human cognitive
processes and not based on observing behaviour. One way of seeing Schons theories of reflective
behaviour is that they are an approach that aims to make the best of a difficult situation limited by
the lack of information about human internal processes, and an attempt to maximise the theory
making potential available from external observations and individuals subjective perceptions of
their own thoughts, experiences and feelings.
Another way of viewing this situation is in terms of theorising about the internal functioning of a
black box: an approach widely used in systems analyses. (A black box being one that nothing is
known about its internal functioning. A white box is one in which everything is known about its
internal processes. A grey box is somewhere in between.). The models of Schon, Kolb, and Honey
and Mumford regard humans as a black box and do not look inside the box. Their theories model
the relationships between humans inputs and outcomes rather than trying to understand the feelings
and thoughts and internal human processes that are the causal basis of the humans outputs. In
epistemological terms, these are theories about the behaviour of objects rather than theories that
explain why human behaviour occurs. The use of black box systems theories as tools for
developing predictive and explanatory models is however always limited by lack of knowledge
about the processes inside the black box. The data about inputs and outputs that is collected, by its
nature, cannot be used to formulate theories about why the behaviour occurs or why and how the
underlying processes and mechanisms are likely to produce other sorts of outcomes. In essence, the
theories are at the level of explanations such as pressing harder on the brake results in the vehicle
decelerating more rather than an explanation of how the brake system works and why pressing on
the brake pedal will result in the consequent changes to the vehicles speed.
The essential foundational aspect of designing, the creation of new thoughts, the management of
gestalts, the communication of partially completed design possibilities between designers and other
stakeholders in design processes, the interpretations and understanding of function embedded in
designed artefacts, systems and services all depend on underlying human embodied processes.
These can only adequately be explained in terms of the physicality of human processes, i.e. the
moment-by-moment, conscious and unconscious events and processes that result in doing and not
doing particular activities, thinking and not thinking particular thoughts.
The above analysis also points to the weakness and, at this point, failure of traditional rationalist
theories of cognitive science in explaining human designing and the ways that humans interact with
actualised designs. Epistemologically, practically and pragmatically, the only ways to establish
sound foundations for building theory about how human beings undertake designing, and how they
interact with designed products, systems and services is to focus on the internal processes revealed
in the physiology of real humans.
As a postscript to this discussion, it is necessary to acknowledge that theories about reflective
practice, learning cycles and learning styles have been attractive to design educators and
practitioners. In most cases, it appears that the reasons are because they offer political benefits
rather than because they provide sound theory foundations. The most obvious benefits are that they
align well with ideas that:
Design learning as a master/apprentice relationship

Design critique and evaluation should be based on designers explaining their designs or
that designs should explain themselves
Experiential learning supports arguments that design education should be based on craft
skills training modalities.
The learning cycle echoes simple models of design process in which a practical design
problem is explored, some ideas for solutions are conceived, these ideas are investigated and
tested, and eventually a plan is chosen or confirmed as a new idea/design.
The segregation of professional expertise into categories indicates that designers are a
unique breed. The learning style divisions fit well with customary biases that designers must
by nature be divergent and free thinking, whereas theoreticians are assimilators building
models of things, engineers and scientists are convergent appliers of models, and
professionals such as managers and manufacturers work with models in concrete, real
environments.
If uncritically viewed, the learning cycle also provides justification for a description of designing in
which the designer/ practitioner starts off from a concrete situation, reflects on the situation, and as
a result of that reflection, produces ideas, and then experiments with them to create new knowledge:
a description that can be interpreted to imply that design practice should be viewed as identical to
research.
Conclusion
Building sound underlying theories about the activities of designing and the ways that humans use
designed outcomes requires a different and more fundamental approach than that available through
theories of organisational and action learning such as the theories of reflective practice, learning
cycles, and learning styles described earlier.
The development of foundation theories in the areas of designing and the use of designed products
services and systems must go deeper than theories about individuals reflective practices, sequences
of learning, or simple categories of learning styles. In epistemological terms, these latter models lie
alongside design theories rather that offer foundations for them. Theories based directly on the
underlying human physiological mechanisms of designing, and the embodied mechanisms that
underpin how individuals interact with designed products, services and systems and other aspects of
their external environment offer a sounder foundation for a body of knowledge on designing and
designs. This has not yet been adequately developed in the design research field.
At a pragmatic level, contemporary brain research is beginning to offer simple heuristics on which
to build higher-level design theories. Evidence is emerging that supports some socio-psychological
theories such as the role of attention in Constituent Market Orientation theories, and points to
weaknesses in others as described above. It also offers direct causal explanations (Damasio, 1994)
for anecdotal concepts such as:
1. Light complex, innovative fast modes of thinking are associated with positive, happy,
relaxed body states.
2. Slow, repetitive, limited thinking associated with tense, negative, painful, distressed body
states
In summary, theories of organisational psychology and experiential learning (such as reflective
practice, learning cycles and learning styles) offer consultants and managers models that indicate
that if certain things are done then certain consequences are likely to result. For educationalists,
they indicate that some educational approaches are more likely to be effective than others in
specific situations when assessed against particular criteria. For those involved in managing
organisational learning processes in commercial organisations, they offer both. Their use as theory
foundations is, however, epistemologically unjustified.
For design researchers wishing to build theory on sound foundations, the human physiological
mechanisms that underpin human creative thinking, feeling, values, judgement, decision-making
and motivation are more appropriate.
References
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ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Argyris, C., & Schon, D. A. (1978). Organizational learning : a theory of action perspective.
Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.
Bastick, T. (1982). Intuition: How we think and act. England: John Wiley and Sons.
Craig, D. L., & Zimring, C. (2000). Supporting collaborative design groups as design communities.
Design Studies, 21(2), 187-204.
Damasio, A. (1994). Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain. New York: Grosset.
Dewey, J. (1895). The Theory of Emotion. (2) The Significance of Emotions. Psychological
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Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative
process. New York: D.C. Heath and Company.
Dorst, K., & Cross, N. (2000). Creativity in the design process: co-evolution of problem-solution.
Design Studies, 22(5), 425-438.
Dorst, K., & Dijkhuis, J. (1995). Comparing paradigms for describing design activity. Design
Studies, 16(2), 261-274.
Ekpenyong, L. E. (1999). A reformulation of the theory of experiential learning appropriate for
instruction in formal business education. Journal of Vocational education and Training, 51(3), 449471.
Honey, P., & Mumford, A. (1982). The Manual of Learning Styles. Berkshire, UK: Peter Honey.
Kolb, D. A. (1985). Experiential Learning: Experience as The Source of Learning and
Development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Kolb, D. A. (1975). Toward a theory of experiential learning. In C. Cooper (Ed.), Theories of
Group Process (pp. 33-57). London: John Wiley.
Kolb, D. A. (1985). Experiential Learning. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Lewin, K., & Cartwright, D. (1952). Field theory in social science : selected theoretical papers.
[London]: Tavistock.
Lewin, K., & Lewin, G. W. (1973). Resolving social conflicts : selected papers on group dynamics.
London: Souvenir Press.
Love, T. (2000). Computerising Affective Design Cognition. International Journal of Design
Computing, 2.
Mosca, A. (2000). Review Essay on Antonio Damasio's The Feeling of What Happens: Body and
Emotion in the Making of Consciousness. Psyche, 6(10).
Ridley, R. M. (2002). Brain Mechanisms of Memory and Cognition: Cognitive Neuro Science
Neural Basis of Selective Sttention; the Binding Problem. Available:
http://www.psychol.cam.ac.uk/pages/teaching/NST II Dr Ridley Brain Mechanisms of Memory and
Cognition/.
Schon, D. A. (1973). Beyond the stable state : public and private learning in a changing society.
[Harmondsworth, Middlesex]: Penguin Books.
Schon, D. A. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner. New York: Basic Books Inc.
Schon, D. A. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practioner. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications.
Schon, D. A. (1992). Designing as Reflective Conversation with the Materials of a Design
Situation. Research in Engineering Design, 3, 131-147.
Schon, D. A., & G. Wiggins (1992). Kinds of Seeing and their functions in designing. Design
Studies, 13(2), 135-156.
Stumpf, S. & McDonnell, J. T. (2002). Talking about team framing: using argumenttion to analyse
and support experiential learning in early design episodes. Design Studies, 23(1), 5-24.
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249-272.
10
The sthetic of precision in virtual design

What are the implications of precision in the use of computers
in the modelling of architecture and interior design?
T. Loveday University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
Abstract
It is suspected in design education, that the use of computer representations of design, especially 3D
modelling, tends to limit design outcomes in some ways while at the same time appearing to offer
greater opportunities to explore new ideas in others. Virtual space in design becomes a province of
isolation, often noted for its limited view of design. Precision itself is a style of argument (rhetoric)
for design, conventionally accepted in such pictures as working drawings. The precision of the
drawing itself is denied in order to make way for precision in the concept. The return of the sthetic
of representation as an sthetic of precision is the result of the denial of pleasure of drawing. It is a
drive to find pleasure in the concept itself through precision of representation as measurement of the
design as material; an sthetic of precision.
The computer model, which simulates the design within its simulated Cartesian space, becomes the
most precise place for the design to exist. Within an sthetic of precision, this becomes the best,
most complete version of the design. It is therefore a conceptual precision modelled rather than a
perceptual precision, that is seen. The phrase "more real than real" expresses the character of
computer modelling and image making, as it is regarded within the sthetic of precision. The
computer produces a representation of intelligence that is offered as a reality. For design this means
that the material purposes of, for examples the physical body, lose their intensity. Thus a new
formal virtuosity is possible.
The sthetic of precision in virtual design

What are the implications of precision in the use of computers
in the modelling of architecture and interior design?
Introduction
It is suspected in design education, that the use of computer representations of design, especially 3D
modelling, tends to limit design outcomes in some ways while at the same time appearing to offer
greater opportunities to explore new ideas in others. Anecdotally, this seems to be shown in student
work where computers have been used, especially for modelling architecture and interior design in
three "dimensions". Virtual space in design becomes a province of isolation, often noted for its
limited view of design. Work produced using virtual modelling seems to all have the same "look".
This effect is usually thought to be caused by the complexity of the software and/or the prefigured
nature of the default actions possible in that software. It seems that the limitations of the equipment
are appearing in the work that it represents.
This argument is of the same kind that says that architecture is rectilinear because drafting
equipment makes orthographic drawing easier than curvilinear or free-form drawing, especially in
terms of measurement.
The argument presented visually, goes like this:
Figure 1: Diagram of the argument that presentation influences design. (Image prepared by the
author)
The shape that is expedient in the representation process is that which tends to occur in the final
design.
This of course is a generalisation. There have been many buildings before computers, that have
curves that are notoriously difficult to draw. For example, the Sydney Opera House, conceived
using models cut from spherical sections (the orange slices). These buildings have been
extraordinarily complex to draw and can often only be determined from models. Even the invention
of curves such as the Bezier curve, have not made the process of manual representation that much
easier.
Computing has made, it seems, complex building shapes involving, for example curves, far more
accessible, even easy to represent, in a way that is measurable and build-able. It has made the three
dimensional visualisation of buildings as two dimensional images, as in free-hand perspective
sketching, unnecessary. Computing it seems, has made the measurement of almost any shape
possible in a fast, precise and reliable way.
The computer though, is the expression of a Cartesian spatial concept. This concept is that space is
a measurable void, defined according to dimensional axes. The definition of locations is made using
"Vectors" which are locations according to the dimensional axes. These Vectors are made in
relation to an "Origin', that in the computer has become completely freed from any actual locality.
Vectors are now place-able at any point within the conceptual space. Combinations of vectors have
made objects which have the same freedom of location, including freedom from gravity. Has, in the
virtual world of the computer, Cartesian space been fully realised? Is this an abstracted Euclidean
dream. If so what does this mean? Is this the completion of a cycle that predestines a profound
change in thinking, especially in design?
It is not intended here to examine the historical relationship between the technology of
representation and the production of built work with which it was associated. That the rectilinearity
of buildings and the technology of the drawing board are part of the flux of Cartesian thought is not
questioned here. The measurement of the degree of precision within which computers can work and
the extent to which that degree is asserted as measurement of quantity itself, while having bearing
on the discussion is not the primary focus either. Neither is it the purpose here to examine examples
of rendered images from computing models in an attempt to find the golden egg within the
dissected corpse of a digital goose. The influence of communication technology on design is
assumed. What then, is the focus of the paper? The primary focus is the consequences of a specific
form of representation
If computing is to become the primary mode of communication, what would this mean for the
fleshy human constellation? The question of precision is used as a focus for this issue because
precision is the argument by which the computer is gaining or has gained ubiquity in design.
The sthetic of representation

The sthetic of representation has been the target of certain branches of philosophy of art during
the 20th century. This sthetic had been the mainstay of western philosophising about art since the
Greeks. The articulation of art as "picture" in which an opposition between representation and
abstraction has been made throughout western philosophy from Aristotle but only really became
fully determined during the European Enlightenment. Perhaps Immanuel Kant has, in his Critique
of Judgement [1], best summed up the European position for the sthetic of representation and
indeed the universality of beauty as taste (sensus communis) [2]. Conversely, the self criticality of
modernism, in which the "sthetic life" becomes pride in one's self conscious dignification of
humanity through "dis-interested" curiosity, is best expressed in 1863 in the French poet and writer,
Charles Baudelaire's, "Painter of Modern Life". [3]
In Kant's model, representation equals presentation of the visual sensation of a natural thing in a
simulation. The recipient of the sense of a thing is a passive (disinterested) recipient if the sense of
the thing is to be sensed clearly. Thus representation and by inference, art, can only mimic nature
and thus cannot add to knowledge, unlike science. Art is "fine" because it is judged and science is
true because it is reasoned. [4]
The business of representation then, is to, through careful observer neutrality, make more and more
precise judgements about the sense of things, thus bringing about better art. Thus "fine art", as Kant
calls it, pursues precision. In this model beauty is in the sense of the thing and is the same beauty
that is found in nature and is not arguable as such, merely sensible,
We may generally call beauty (whether natural or artistic) the expression of sthetic ideas. [5]
Taste on the other hand, is arguable due to it being about judgement. The following from Kant
explains his position,
As we have frequently shown, there is an essential difference between what we like when we
merely judge it and what gratifies us (ie, what we like in sensation). The second is something that,
unlike the first, we cannot require of everyone. [6]
It is this second thing, taste, that is "argued" for in representation, which perhaps explains it
tendency to the grammatical, from which, for example, perspective gains its "truth". As Hubert
Damische writes in The Origins of Perspective,
Its [perspective's] function as a paradigm extends much further, or deeper, providing painters with a
network of indexes that constitutesI posit this hypothesis againthe equivalent of an expressive
apparatus of sentence structure, ... [7]
For design, it is what Damische calls Perspectiva Artificialis [8], that is to say the constructed
simulation of three dimensional image of a concept in which the design ideas are "expressed", as
Kant would put, takes place, but also in which precision is the means by which design is more
accurately argued for through that precision. Precision itself has become a style of argument
(rhetoric) for design, conventionally [9] accepted in such pictures as working drawings.
In the drive for accuracy in the prediction of the flow of reality, precision has become an abstracted
goal in itself. In drawing and especially drafting, it has developed according to its own sthetic of
precision, in which an special form of reductive abstraction has found a home.
Drawing for the purposes of construction exhibits a certain style readily adopted by designers but
with a certain reservation; that it is drafting for draftsmen [10] and is within the tradition of the
drawing office. The style of lettering of hand drafting for example, is de rigeur for architects, who
seem to be perfectly willing to use the style even though in most other aspects of their practice they
assert originality and independence. It is as if the style of hand lettering is a badge or sign of that
independent tradition, a paradox to be sure, when it is put like that.
Figure 2: Ching, D. K. and Juroszek, S. P., Design Drawing, Wiley and Sons, NY (1998: 250).
The ubiquity of an architectural style hand-lettering is evidence of a universality of thought, if one

regards handwriting as a significant form.
The precision with which the system of hand lettering of orthographic and in particular, "working
drawings", is adhered to fiercely by architects and is now also used by interior designers is now far
beyond the needs of communication of material meaning. The establishment of computers in
drawing offices has left the tradition of hand lettering largely unaffected. It has though, meant that
it is no longer the practice among draftsmen.
The beauty of drawing has been found, for the draftsman in the precision achieved in and for the
drawing itself. The traditions of the design for decorative art and craft show the same need to satisfy
an sthetic idea in the representation of design. The result of the "craft" approach is that there is a
desire for sthetic unity in the representation and the product itself. The craft of representing is the
expression of the truth of the design as an aesthetic experience. The shading and linework are an
attempt to represent the actual physical presence of the object.
Figure 3: The Aesthetic unity of craft and design in representation, from Cliff, S, (date unknown),
The English Archive of Design and Decoration, Thames and Hudson, London, p91. The drawing is
from the "set of albums in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, believed to be
the production records of Messrs. Hartley Greens & Co....1802." (p64).
The precision of the representation works within the same tradition of design, not against it or in an
attempt to re-figure the tradition in an avant-guardist way, in this approach. Colour for example is
described by "actual" colours, for example gouache or water colour, rather than the written notes
one finds in the representations of early 20th century design. The extension of this text
representation is the use of colour systems where colours are defined according to codes, as are
supplied by paint manufacturers. The precision of the drawing itself is denied in order to make way
for precision in the concept.
Figure 4: "The Modulor", from Le Corbusier, The Modulor, Faber, (1963: 237, fig. 100)
It is in the early 20th century industrialised modernism that the sthetic of representation changes
from unity to divergence (from the design), according to the "break with the past" that is usually
characterised as modern or avant-garde. This break is shown by a break with the craft aesthetic in
which there is a denial of the pleasure in the making of the image.
Figure 5: Conceptual unity at expense of perceptual unity. From Cliff, S, (date unknown), The
English Archive of Design and Decoration, Thames and Hudson, London, p232. The drawing is
dated approximately in the late 1920's by designer Clarice Cliff (1899-1972).
The suppression of pleasure in the representation of design, along the lines of all repression results
in a return, in some other form.
In Baudelaire's essay the "painter" becomes proud of the curiosity that he self-consciously directs
toward his fellow man and thus reduces his life to an sthetic image of himself as a good person,
interested in humanity. The universality of beauty becomes a means of attaching value to oneself.
Instead of entering communitas, communitas becomes the object of observation and thence
possession for the disinterested subject. It seems as though the adoption of purely sthetic
sensibility deprives one of a motive for morality and ethics. In this kind of approach, art becomes a
process of representing without engagement or commitment and a purely private pleasure in the
consideration of the public object. Precision becomes a matter of mechanical reproduction for the
purposes of pleasure, thus opening the way for objective industrialised design and a determination
for the sthetic of precision within the concept. LeCorbusier's design concepts would not have
gained ground without the dissociation of the public self from sthetic pleasure; one was not
allowed to say the design was ugly if it could be shown to have an arguable concept.
The Bauhaus and illusion

For the Bauhaus [11], representation, according to the Kantian tradition, was found to be a bad
thing. It was thought to be "Illusion". The intriguing thing about this is how representation of the
natural world became associated with illusion and how illusion became a kind of 19th century
decadence, rejected by the remaking elite of early traumatised 20th century Europe.
The concept of "illusion" as a thing to be avoided, was elevated in the Bauhaus, perhaps a legacy of
or a relation to Russian Constructivism through the arrival there of Laslo Moholoy-Nage [12].
Representation, especially in colour, was the means by which illusion found a home. It was the
Kantian "Genius" of production that the Bauhaus was pursuing rather than the mimicry that
representation implied. It was the objects that could stand alone as beautiful, not due to what they
might represent they were after. As Kant wrote:
Judging beautiful objects to be such requires taste; but fine art itself, ie, production of such
objects, requires genius. [13]
In the drive to assert a distinct way of being through industrialisation, the Cartesian subject-object
binary model was stripped of its ambiguity. Two dimensions were to be only two dimensions and
three were only to be three.
The Genius was to be a machine for designing. "Everyone is equal before the machine" said
Moholy-Nage [14]. Percept and Concept [15] became entirely separate entities within the opaque
Formalism of the second Bauhaus, thus marginalising the work and ideas of Kandinsky and others.
The insistence on positivistic materialism resulted in the relegation of spiritualism to an occult,
"spiritualistic" function, not associated with the "real world", but with the 19th century mysticism,
mediums and seances. Paradoxically, it seems, it was the formulation of concepts as "real", material
things, as percepts that was the main interest of the Bauhaus. Moholy-Nage was determined to
assert the "surface", the thing as a truth in itself, no depth in painting and one meaning for all
things; the material meaning. It was the assertion of a concept over perception itself, all under what
Walter Gropius called the opaque formalist "Great wing of architecture" [16].
And so it is the concept of form itself that replaces the percept in this idea. It is in this context that
the pleasure of representation is regarded as deviant, even criminal in some of the more shrill
declamations from De Stijl theorists at the time:
We have given colour its rightful place in architecture and we assert that painting separated from
the architectonic construction has no right to exist. [my italics] [17]
In many of the drawings from the Bauhaus, there is a certain self-conscious incompetence in
representation, despite the sthetic of the design. The "Engineer's sthetic" [18] seems to involve
the loss of drawing skills as if these are the mark of the flesh; a flesh that must be eschewed in the
drive to be like a machine, or at least a part of it.
Drawings intended as the pattern or "direction" from which reality is given its "reality", have
developed according to this machine-like denial of incarnation. It has become an sthetic of denial,
in which the pleasure returns under the conditions of materialism; measurement . From
measurement comes the elevation of the value of precision; the orthographic projection is the most
valued image in this sthetic because it tells no dimensional lies, it is perfectly flat and conforms to
the physicality of the object itself through its scale.
Orthographic drawing has thus developed its own need for precision apart from that required to
satisfy the processes of manufacturing and construction. The sthetic of this kind of drawing has its
own philosophical orientation apart from what it may be representing in design. This must have a
bearing on the perception and reception the design itself.
In summary, the return of the sthetic of representation as an sthetic of precision is the result of
the denial of pleasure of drawing. It is a drive to find pleasure in the concept itself through precision
of representation as measurement of the design as material; an sthetic of precision.
This being the case, what the consequences of the sthetic of precision are when computing takes
that sthetic to a new level, a new extreme?
Precision and the computer

The computer has enabled the manifestation of an sthetic of precision in its most complete form
yet, especially in the creation of "photo-rendered" images made from electronic models and the
precise measurement of those models. The precision though, is also extended into the calculation of
the means by which the design will be made; quantities and processes. The measurement of the
concept only possible in the orthographic projections (plans, sections and so on) is now possible in
the perspective drawing itself. Measurement is now possible of lighting models, sun and shadow
charts, colours, scale, textures quantities, assembly, manufacture and even maintenance and usage
of design of all kinds, within the perspective image through the electronic simulation of Cartesian
space. [19]
It is the satisfaction of the need to see the concept as quantity, that the computer gains its power.
The visualisation of a concept called a "design", as an image, means that the design is not actually
entering the negotiated world in which the senses are brought into focus by the gathering of a self
into a body, but rather the concept is made visible only, as an image of its post negotiated form.
And yet this is measurable and therefore a form of truth! In this form, it conceptually needs no
body, only an electronic simulation! This though, in its form as truth, is only possible when one is
prepared to believe that the visible alone is "real".
Design is made in the computer from which drawing projections are measured, from which
measurements of all kinds are made. The computer model, which simulates the design within its
simulated Cartesian space, becomes the most precise place for the design to exist. Within an
sthetic of precision, this becomes the best, most complete version of the design.
For most of us though this is not the case; we need to imagine that we can touch, smell, hear as well
as see the thing for it to really be a thing. When sound is added to an image, as in the cinema, the
difference between hearing and sight gives us a negotiation with to bring a body and ourselves into
focus and so make a "thing" and a "self" just that bit more real. As Merleau-Ponty writes in his last
book, The Visible and the Invisible:
...my synergic body [...] assembles into a cluster the "consciousnesses" adherent to its hands, to its
eyes, by an operation that is in relation to them lateral, transversal;...that it is sustained, subtended,
by the prereflective and preobjective unity of my body. This means that while each monocular
vision, each touching with the sole hand has its visible, its tactile, each is bound to every other
vision, to every other touch; it is bound in such a way as to make with them the experience of one
sole body before one sole world... [20]
10
An idea, the Real, is made from the negotiation between what Merleau-Ponty calls the "five notes"
and the "family of sensibles we call lights." [21]
Virtual reality offers a completed visible reality, one that precludes the body of the observer. The
touch of virtual reality is solely the fingers on the keyboard or the hand on the "mouse", that has a
distant and strained relationship with sight, not like a body at all. This is of course why virtual
images remain unreal, no matter how realistically imitative they become. The negotiation is already
done and the body is not required, at least that is how it seems. The computer offers the appearance
of pre-negotiation but in fact it offers a monocular vision presented to each eye related to a touch of
the keyboard as a form of body-world. Its argument within the process of negotiation need take not
account of the flesh, thus allowing precision in a more achievable setting.
To make a very precise visible image is therefore to assert a visible truth very precisely without the
body, a truth that relies on that electronic digitisation of precision for its true-ness (not the eye and
the ruler, even). It is therefore a conceptual precision modelled rather than a perceptual precision,
that is seen. Even in the most limited tolerances of industrialised manufacture (the extended or
supplemented body), are exceeded in precision by the modelling possible in the computer.
Within the computer a complete simulation of the "real" is now possible, at least for buildings, that
goes well beyond naturalistic representation. The phrase "more real than real" expresses the
character of computer modelling and image making, as it is regarded within the sthetic of
precision.
This "Super-reality" is taken as a more precise version of the truth of design than the final made
object, exactly because it is more precise. Computer simulations satisfy a conceptual need that has
been present in design work from its inception; that need is to make visible the concept itself. The
character or identity of that concept is part of that need. It is precision that is the central character
of the need for conceptual expression in computing. This need for precision is an end in itself in
this. It is the end towards which the philosophy of subject-object metaphysics has made its way
through science.
sthetic precision is pure expression through representation , of the pure thought of the concept;
the establishment of Res Cogitans [22] as natural. It eliminates percepts from which concepts are
constituted [23] through the simple belief that one has all the information within the concept itself,
or at least its representation, modelled in the computer.
The mind is separated from the body as a form of perfection, but perfection as a (re)presentation of
perfection as a concept. Thus precision is the end of the body as a reality. The way is open for
fantasies of disembodiment and dislocation; the body becomes an object that can be discarded and
replaced with the more perfect machine. The identification of the body as a person though, is a twist
of the proverbial Deleuzian rhizomic web. It is both of the web and yet a knot within it. The body is
a self while simultaneously it is of a species, while it is matter, and chemistry, and genetics, and
race, and a nationality and so on. The self exists also as a point of focus within which linguistic acts
drag being into matter, giving things their thingness; their "Dasein", their being-ness. Thought is the
circumscription of events within the given language of the senses, that focuses being. The body is a
product of thought finding its self in perception. The body then, is thought.
If precision is denying the body, it is cutting off the means of thought from the mind. To make it
work it must replace the body with a "thinking" machine; the computer. The computer though, only
produces the representation of, or a sieve-like image of thinking, with electronic bytes separated out
into their relative sizes and shapes according to the requirements of the digital grid. Thought is then
11
replaced with the image of thought just as action is replaced with the image of action on television.
The computer produces a representation of intelligence that is offered as a reality.
Is this the image of the thought-body replacing the perceived body?
The image of thought, because it is a reflective state rather than an entered embodied state carries
an agenda of dislocation. It is thus through computed precision, as an ideal, given representation in
the machine, that humanity will be excluded from its own perception and thus its own designs, its
own body. It is only in the mass manufactured precisely designed industrial objects of hygiene that
can approach the precision of the electronic machine, that will still be open to humanity as a body;
the tooth brush. Their reality will seem strange, like the images of alien space craft seem strange in
science fiction. Thus there is no room in the computer for a fleshy percept. In order to exist within
precision, a self comes in which the machine is the flesh.
The feeling of everyday becomes a feeling of the machine. The hard surfaces of the senses become
unreal. The self-world formed as a negotiation between the senses becomes less "real". The modern
strangeness that Louis A Sass compares to schizophrenia in Madness and Modernism, Insanity in
the Light of Modern Art, Literature and Thought, [24] becomes the everyday state for those in
virtual space. In virtual space that is valued for its precision, this strangeness of the sensory percept
will be more extreme, making the virtual world seem safer, more complete, more real. In this
context design tends to be less related to the fleshy functions of the body; movement, scale,
enclosure, surface texture, sound and shifts to the virtually conceptual; form without significance,
contour without texture, dimension without scale. All this was possible without the precision of the
computer, which designers, especially architects are first to assert. The architects Frank Gehry and
Renzo Piano have both asserted that their complex and curly recent work has relied on the physical
model. In Piano's case it is the material of model making from which the formal ideas come. In the
case of Gehry, it is the imagined material relationship with form that is emphasised, [25]. In all
cases though, it is the precision of the virtual model that enables the building of the work.
Figure 6: Denton Corker Marshall, Art and Design Building, Melbourne Australia, 2000, from
DCM Website: http://www.dcm-group.com/Web/DCM_Folio_A.htm, 2001
12
So it seems that design, especially architecture is about to enter a new phase of virtual virtuosity.
The qualities of electronic space will be made visible through its application to and measurement of
the materials of architectural design. The following text from Renzo Piano can perhaps be
understood as the beginning of that time:
In Padre Pios church, stone will be used not just for the paving and roofing, but as a structural
material as well: the main span of over fifty metres will perhaps be the longest supporting arch ever
built out of stone. This is not an attempt to get into the records books; it is simply desire to find out
what can be done with stone today, almost a thousand years after the Gothic cathedrals were built.
Technical virtuosity is not an end itself, but meets the needs of a precise formal choice. [my italics]
The church at San Giovanni Rotondo springs out of the stone of the mountainside. Walls, parvis,
supporting arches, and covering of the roof will all be made of stone. We have deliberately insisted
on a single material as the expressive key to the design [26].
His single material is coincidentally, one which can be fully modelled electronically. Renzo Piano
also writes:
I want to stress another point: a good building is not just beautiful, it is also good. A modern
building today must be sustainable from every point of view, human, technological, energetic and
economic. [27]
Sustainability, as Piano indicates, is a quality that should be measured accurately within each of the
categories he describes. This is now possible thanks to electronic modelling, it seems. The return of
pleasure through the sthetic of precision tends to place the design more completely in virtual
space. The design tends to be more suited to virtual space than the sphere of matter. Designs, in this
context are becoming less concerned with enclosure and more concerned with abstract form or what
might be called opaque virtual formalism. Issues of space become de-scaled and disembodied.
Measurement though, makes them more "buildable" in the real world, the realm of "trades" and
"materials", but an imperfect world in which the design is less fully manifest than in the computer.
Bilbao Guggenheim for example looks alien, de-scaled, as if it were more properly within a
computer, even the materials seem alien, as expensive, perfect in conception, representation but
tedious in manufacture.
The theoretical work of Peter Eisenman can be seen as proto-precise in that its theoretical intent
described in text with drawn images can be more fully and completely understood in computer
modelling. In the final images of this presentation, space becomes an abstraction so purely
represented, that it is impossible to build, despite being perfectly measured and imitated, which, it
seems to me, suggests that architecture is on a cusp between the perfection of Kantian
representation and a rediscovery of the fleshy constellation of architecture.
The following images from diagram diaries are drawn in a conceptual space perfectly suited to the
technology of the computer.
13
Figure 7: Eisenman, P, 1999,"Inversion Slippage, House VI", in Diagram Diaries, Thames and
Hudson, p50
Figure 8: Eisenman, P, 1999, "Shifting Repetition, Aronoff Centre", in Diagram Diaries, Thames
and Hudson, p50
14
Figure 9: Eisenman, P, 1999, "Klingelhfer-Dreieck, 1995", in Diagram Diaries, Thames and

Hudson, p151
The fact that Eisenman has presented them as either "plans" or orthographic "3D" drawings such as
axonometric projections suggests a rhetoric of precision more accessible within the highly
sophisticated virtual projections of the computer. To illustrate this, a number of computer models
have been made of Eisenman concepts, from the drawings shown in Diagram Diaries.
Thus the sthetic of precision has found its way out of the exclusion from representation of design
forced by modernism, and into the computer where it is enabling and yet also determining or
defining a new virtuosity. It is this new virtuosity that now appears, as is seen in the examples of
The Bilbao Guggenheim and in many other projects already built, both profoundly developed and
yet exclusive. Design is tending further away from the multiplicity of locale to a new level of the
universality of the machine within which the claim of the an individual can be argued as univocal
truth.
15
Fig 10: "The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters". The title of an etching by Francisco Goya in his
book "Caprices", as shown in Collings, M, 1999, This is Modern Art, Weidenfield and Nicolson,
p80
16
References
[1] Kant, Immanuel, 1987 (first published 1790) (trans, Pluhar, Werner S), Critique of Judgement,
Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis Cambridge
Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis Cambridge, p160. The text is "shared" to which the
translator adds "[by all of us]" but this is not necessarily clear. It could be that Kant meant that
"sharing" is a characteristic by which taste becomes taste. Thus it doesn't matter how many share it,
just that it is shared.
[3] Charles Baudelaire, "The Painter of Modern Life", in Cahoone, Lawrence (Ed), 1996, From
Modernism to Postmodernism, an Anthology, Blackwell, p136-p144
[4] See Kant, Immanuel, 1987 (first published 1790) (trans, Pluhar, Werner S), Critique of
Judgement, Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis Cambridge, p172 "On Fine Art"
Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis Cambridge, p189 "On the Division of the Fine Arts"
[6]Kant, Immanuel, 1987 (first published 1790) (trans, Pluhar, Werner S), Critique of Judgement,
Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis Cambridge, p201 "Comment"
[7] Damisch, Hubert (John Goodman, Trans), 1994, The Origin of Perspective, MIT Press, p25
[8] Damisch, Hubert (John Goodman, Trans), 1994, The Origin of Perspective, MIT Press, p23
[9] "Convention" is used here in its full sense in which a con-vention is formed through the use of
linguistic practices in order that the linguistic practice can be confirmed.
[10] While the term "draftsman" is clearly gender specific, it is used here to indicate the male
stereotyping of the practice of drafting, as it remains today. This stereotyping is primarily in
architectural, building design and engineering practice while female stereotyping has been common
in some government institutions in Australia, especially in the area of two dimensional or graphic
design.
[11] The effect that Bauhaus had on western design is well documented and so will not be argued
here.
[12] Whitford, Frank, 1995, Bauhaus, Thames and Hudson, ch 12, "Towards a New Unity: MoholyNagy and Albers"
Hackett Publishing Company, Indianapolis Cambridge, p 311 "On the Relation of Genius to Taste"
[14] Whitford, Frank, 1995, Bauhaus, Thames and Hudson, ch 12, "Towards a New Unity: MoholyNagy and Albers", p128
[15] Even the most cursory reading of Ren Descartes' work shows the over simplification this
makes.
17
[16] "Work Council for Art"; Under the wing of a great architecture (1919, Berlin), quoted in
Conrads, U. (Ed), Bullock, M., (Trans), 1964, Programmes and Manifestoes in 20th Century
Architecture, Lund Humphries, London, p 44
[17] De Stijl", Manifesto V: _ + = R4, 1923, as quoted in Conrads, U. (Ed), Bullock, M.,
(Trans), Programmes and Manifestoes in 20th Century Architecture, Lund Humphries, London,
1964, p 66. While De Stijl split with the Bauhaus because it seemed unproductive and so an enemy
of the state, they remained of one kind when it came to the principles of abstract architectonic
formalism.
[18] Le Corbusier, "Towards a new Architecture: guiding principles", 1920, as quoted in Conrads,
U. (Ed), Bullock, M., (Trans)1964, Programmes and Manifestoes in 20th Century Architecture,
Lund Humphries, London, p 59
[19] Perspective drawing in computing is actually the use of electronic modelling from which
"projections" are made.
[20] Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 2000 (1968 in English, 1964 in French), The Visible and the
Invisible, Northwestern University Press, p141-p142, This text was in draft form at Merleau-Ponty's
death with the end section remaining incomplete. It contains explorations that indicate an abrupt
divergence from his other works such as The Primacy of Perception and his main text, The
Phenomenology of Perception.
[21] Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 2000 (1968 in English, 1964 in French), The Visible and the
Invisible, Northwestern University Press, p151
[22] I would like to point out that while the separation Res Cogitans-Res extensa is usually
attributed to Ren Descartes, in his section titled "An Explanation of The Human Mind or the
Rational Soul. Which Explains What It Is And What It May Be" from Descartes, Ren, (Translated
by Desmond M. Clarke), 1998, Meditations and Other Metaphysical Writings, Penguin London, p
185-186, Descartes says "Those are mistaken, therefore, that claim that we [he] necessarily
conceive [s] of the human mind, clearly and distinctly, as really distinct from the body" His idea is
that there is a realm of mind and a realm of body "intertwined" as Merleau-Ponty would say in "The
Chiasm" from Merleau-Ponty, Maurice , 2000, The Visible and the Invisible, Northwestern
University Press, (1968 in English, 1964 in French), p130-p155
[23] The Deleuzian analysis of Spinoza, from which this idea comes, is found in Deleuze' lectures
series of 1978 at Vincennes, four lectures on Spinoza. These lectures were found at the following
web address in march 2002 (are currently off the internet):
Deleuze: Sommaire
I - Sur Spinoza: Vincennes - Deleuze: 24/01/1978: Version Espagnole; English Version. ...
Version
Espagnole. Vincennes - Deleuze: 24/03/1981: Version Espagnole.
www.webdeleuze.com/spinoza.html - 4k - Cached - Similar pages
Deleuze: Sommaire
III - Sur Leibniz (2me srie): Vincennes- St Denis
- Deleuze: 16/12/86: Version Espagnole. Vincennes ...
www.webdeleuze.com/leibniz2.html - 3k - Cached - Similar pages
[24] Sass, Louis A, Madness and Modernism, Insanity in the Light of Modern Art, Literature and
Thought, Harvard University Press, 1992
18
[25] No doubt both architects would be horrified to be summed up in such a way. Architects are
profoundly resistant to other people explaining their work. Perhaps this is due to the avant-garde
proprietorship that they feel for it. This can at times seem like pure contrariness.
[26] http://www.rpwf.org/works/works_9020.htm, 8.4.2002
[27] http://www.rpwf.org/works/works_9020.htm, 8.4.2002
Websites:
Denton Corker Marshall, (Architects and Designs), DCM Website: http://www.dcmgroup.com/Web/DCM_Folio_A.htm, 2001
Deleuze: Sommaire
I - Sur Spinoza: Vincennes - Deleuze: 24/01/1978: Version Espagnole; English Version. ...
Version
Espagnole. Vincennes - Deleuze: 24/03/1981: Version Espagnole.
www.webdeleuze.com/spinoza.html
Deleuze: Sommaire
III - Sur Leibniz (2me srie): Vincennes- St Denis
- Deleuze: 16/12/86: Version Espagnole. Vincennes ...
www.webdeleuze.com/leibniz2.html
19

R. Luck School of Construction Management, University of Reading, UK
Abstract
The study of participatory design has been an active research field for several decades (Cross 1971;
Sanoff 1973) an acknowledgement that direct involvement in the design and decision making of
physical environments has a positive influence and that there is continued value, new insight and
knowledge from its investigation. During this time there has been a maturation of the subject and
subtle shifts in the field: recognising participatory design as a process with many approaches and
techniques, rather than a particular research method and the flexibility of participatory
methodologies. Sanoff's (2000) continued involvement and development of the field have shown
that participatory design techniques can be used for different scales of project, different units for
analysis, to design and develop communities as well as individual buildings.
Sanoff's (1988) extensive research in this area stems from the methodological concept of action
research (Lewin 1946) which integrates theory and practice. In this way the diversity of views
expressed by people during the design decision-making process can influence the final outcome of a
project. The democratic principle underpinning participatory design is demonstrated through the
involvement of different users during design dialogues and their potential equal contribution to the
design outcomes. The egalitarian, non-discriminatory principles of participatory design are
common with an 'inclusive' approach for the design of environments: which should not discriminate
on accessibility.
This paper will draw on interview data gathered during conversations between an architect and the
users of a future building to comment on the language used during the design dialogues and its
effect on a participatory design process.

Introduction
This paper draws on current research using data gathered from interviews to comment on the
dialogue between the architect and building user early in the design process and how user needs and
preferences can be part of that process. These data are used to illustrate some of the themes that
emerge from the architect-user conversations that are part of the briefing process and questions
whether participatory design approaches have potential to enrich the dialogue and the exchange of
information between the architect and building user.
Participatory design research, originating in 1960s, has evolved progressively, expanding beyond
the design of a single building to the design of communities; the dwellings as well as engaging the
people of the community in the process. In this way participatory design is more than a collection
of design methods to influence the built form, it also has a human dimension and can engage the
people who form the community in the process. The participatory design approaches are
considered to reflect design as a social process, illustrating that the sphere of the design activity
extends beyond the designer. As part of a participatory design workshop the people who attend are
part of the social process of design and play an active part in the issue/problem raising, discussion
and decision making processes that are part of the early design stage of a project. The people who
are commonly known as the 'users' are active participants in the design process and the boundary
between 'designer' and 'user' becomes blurred. This has similarities with Hill's (1998) research that
recognises that a building user's presence in a space will change the properties of that space; making
their own alterations, decoration and through the act of occupation they change the space. He
acknowledges that through occupation the user is designing space. This position challenges the
finality of the design process as well as the role of the 'architect'. He explores this concept further;
playing with the legal definition of an architect, he introduces an 'illegal architect' into the picture, a
non-architect designing space.
Returning to Professor Sanoff's work, his position as a frontrunner in participatory design (PD) is
recognised (Teymur 2002) because of his continued application and refinement of PD methods. He
clearly grounds the methodological basis for participatory design in the action research methods of
Lewin, (1946) where the engagement of the test participants (I'm consciously avoiding the term test
subjects as the approach belongs to the interpretive, not functionalist paradigm) allows new
knowledge to be created. The process is iterative and knowledge and understanding emerge as a
consequence of the verbal exchange of ideas, the social process that is critical during the early
concept, pre-briefing stages of design.
There are two main reasons for considering the application of Sanoff's PD methods to a current
project; firstly because the study focuses on the iterative, verbal exchange of design ideas and
secondly, digging deeper, because of the underpinning philosophy of PD. Sanoff's work clearly
articulates that PD methods form part of the broad democratic philosophy of participation of people
in decision-making processes, politics etc. This aspect is of particular interest to the project
described as it parallels the principles of participation advocated by disability theorists (Finkelstein
1993) that people with disabilities should be in an empowered consultative position in more aspects
of their lives, the design of environments being a key area of concern. The social model of
disability view, that environments disable people and that some consultative processes are placatory
not emancipatory (Imrie 1999) are part of this argument and discussed within (Luck 2000).
The project briefing and data collection process

The project described within this paper uses interview data gathered from people with a range of
disabilities to illustrate the themes discussed and the range of ideas exchanged verbally during the
early design stage. The project is a multi-functional building at the University of Reading, being
designed following inclusive design principles, where the accessibility, use and experience of the
building should not be influenced by a persons' abilities. The project is described more fully within
Luck et. al. (2001) and the method for gathering interview data based on (Taylor 1999).
The interviews were conducted with future building users as part of the briefing process, to develop
a written project brief and to understand their user's wants, needs and expectations from the
building. The number of people interviewed was small, just six. Amongst this user group people
with a range of disabilities; two people with hearing impairments, one person with mobility
impairment, a wheelchair user and a visually impaired person were interviewed. Two others, with
no impairments, were also interviewed as they interact with a range of people with disabilities.
The design of the briefing process was considered in detail; the aide memoire prompts used to
gather user need information, the structure to the decision-making process for filtering process the
ideas generated from the interview consultation process and how these would be taken forward
within the written brief. The briefing process had distinct stages and the findings from one stage
feed into the next. The stages were; semi-structured interviews - for gathering data, the feasibility
study - producing a document with the views of all the people consulted (there were conflicting
ideas and suggestions within this document) using this in the third Steering Committee stage - to
discuss which ideas would be taken forward when preparing the written brief. Documenting the
process meant that a decision could be reviewed and revisited at a later stage. In this way the
briefing procedures reflected an iterative decision-making process (as occurred in reality) rather
than a post-hoc, smooth sequential process. The method used for the briefing design stage has been
discussed in more detail within (Luck, Haenlein et al. 2001). Other advantages of this approach
were that the briefing process was informed by the needs of actual building users rather than
generalisations from a non-representative group and that the architect wasn't designing on behalf of
people with needs beyond their own experience. This fits with the emancipatory, participatory
model advocated by disability theorists.
Semi-structured interviews
The method used to gather information was to individually interview respondents using a semistructured approach and a checklist of headings to steer the discussion. The checklist of headings
was developed through experience in architectural practice, developing an understanding of the
information needed to design different types of projects (Luck, Haenlein et al. 2001). The headings
link to aspects of a building and prompt the respondent to generate ideas for the building being
designed. The headings also prompted comments on other buildings and their experience of other
environments, as well as qualitative judgements on the relative merit of these environments. It was
this rich information which was invaluable knowledge for the architect and impossible to quantify.
The interviews were conducted using the same checklist for each person interviewed. This allowed
consistency across the sample of people interviewed but didnt impose a structure as to how an
individual should respond. The responses were the unprompted, unbounded ideas of the person
interviewed. This approach generated rich data of personal perceptions of their experience of
buildings and suggestions for improvements to the built environment. Interviewing people
individually had the advantage that their ideas were personal and not affected by group pressures
and influences.
A key issue explained to each respondent was that there was no correct response. Each response
was an expression of their personal wish list for the building based on their own experience. In this
way the response was individual and was not assumed to represent the needs of one type of
disability. The comments were considered to be personal perceptions of the built environment
rather than representing a larger percentage of the population.
Analysing the interview data

The interviews varied in duration and took between 1 hour and 21/2 hours to complete. The
interviews were taped and transcribed into a text document. The sample size, the numbers of
interviews conducted were small, so the analysis was manual rather than using the qualitative data
analysis software, Nudist or Atlas ti. The method used to analyse the text was thematic content
analysis (Smith 1992) taking a grounded theory approach (Strauss and Corbin 1997). This approach
was appropriate for this study of the language use as the method allows text to be grouped
according to themes that emerged from the data, then comparing the groups of responses and
commenting on any themes within the data. This meant that the researcher had to become familiar
with the data, the participants interpretation of the prompt and their response; the texts were reread several times. The response was in the interviewees own terms, using phrases and vocabulary
they were familiar with.
Some language-use themes emerging from the data

The participants responses are used to illustrate the different interpretation of prompts that
occurred during the interviews. Some of the themes discussed have been grouped according to the
aide memoire prompt and are shown in Table 1 below.
Interview
Prompt
Aesthetics
Person 1
Person 2
Person 3
Not
extreme
Traditnal,
not
futuristic
PEEPS,
no refuges
Access
and
escape
Flexibility
Materials
Very
much in
favour
Person 5
Person 6
Reflects
21st
century
Futuristic
Not outlandish
For all
disablties
Touch
sensitive
doors
Auto-door
manufacturers to
be involved,
often unreliable
Spaces
grouped
by noise
level
Prefers
designted
areas for
functions,
with
visual
links
Open plan for

ease of
movement in a
wheelchair
Solid
floor, no
vibrations.
Timber
floor looks
spacious
Glass,
transpncy
and visual
links are
important
Tarmac good.
Grass is an
effective barrier
for wheelchair
users.
Encourge
social
interaction
over-lap
of spaces
Good mix, Timber,

envrnmtly but can
friendly
look
shabby
Person 4
Table 1: Semi-structured interview comments, grouped according to interview prompt.

1
Comments from people with the same disability
The lighting within the future building was discussed by only two of the people interviewed, both
people had a hearing impairment.
I prefer natural lighting. I dont like of strip-lighting. Lighting mustnt cast shadows.
(Person 5)
The second person with a hearing impairment also thought shadows should be kept to a
minimum. (Person 4)
These two were the only people that discussed noise and vibration within the building. They both
gave insight into the importance of vibration to deaf and hard of hearing people as an alerting
mechanism for movement, when someone is approaching and their heightened sensitivity to
physical vibration.
Movement and vibration within the building should be minimised. Hearing impaired
people are more conscious of vibrations than most and use this as a method for sensing
when someone is approaching. (Person 5)
The building should have a solid floor to reduce vibrations within the building. The
disturbance caused by Concord and people walking within a building should be kept to a
minimum. (Person 4)
These two quotes illustrate that people with the same disability can make common observations and
may cite the same problem. People will have common experiences but generalisation from value
judgements must be treated with caution. Even observations made by people with the same
disability cannot be extrapolated to represent the views of a broader population, as described below.
2
Contradictory preferences from people with the same disability
These quotes illustrate that the views expressed by people with the same disability didnt always
present a coherent picture.
An issue for deaf people is knowing whether they should stop working and be involved
when new people arrive in a space. Working in a glazed open space can be distracting. This
uncertainty results in lost concentration and effective working. An allied confusing situation
is when people just appear and you havent been notified, which can be quite distressing.
(Person 5)
Id encouraged the use of glass. Deaf people need to be able to see and access people. The
shape is not so important but transparency and visual links with others are important.
(Person 4)
Use of glass and lighting will have an effect on deaf peoples' ability to lip read. The idea of
using glass to divide spaces within the building is appealing, so there is visual contact over
long distances. People will be aware of others within the building and can acknowledge
each other over those distances. Signing often occurs over these longer distances. (Person
3)
These quotes illustrate that extrapolating information from interview data concerning user needs of
a particular disability group is not always an effective way to make generalisations about user
needs. One of these quotes was from a hearing person working with deaf people, who in everyday
situations interacts and observes the behaviour of many people with a hearing impairment. His
comment was similar to the view of one person, who thought the transparency of glass would make
it a useful material to separate spaces for people with a hearing impairment, but did not reflect the
view of the other person. This illustrates the problem of presumptive designing, assuming a
knowledge of a user group and also the fact that peoples preferences are not always predictable or
constant.
3
Different use of space and spatial preferences
The people interviewed were asked to describe how they use space and to describe the space theyd
like to work in.
Fixed areas for specific functions are preferred to temporary ones. There is a need for
barriers between spaces but these may include a visual link of activities. In a public space
youre always keeping a watchful eye for people trying to attract your attention. (Person 5)
Open plan, hot-desking could be encouraged by having points throughout the building so a
computer can be connected to a network. Separate partitioned quiet rooms with vision
panels and windows to see whether people can be disturbed are needed. (Person 4)
A decision needs to be made whether the building will be organised so firms work
autonomously within the building or whether similar functions and activities, e.g. office
space could be linked together. We could group activities according to the level of noise
generated by each person. It should be similar and kept to a minimum. (Person 4)
The responses were again diverse. One person had a distinct preference for a fixed space of their
own, a view they defended by describing the disturbance they experience when others wander near
to where they're working. It would be interesting to understand whether this personal preference,
work space construct was held because of the type of activities their work involves or for other
reasons. Person 4 was conscious of peoples differing needs and preferences and suggested a
problem solving approach to group activities together. To understand user needs it is more
appropriate for personal preferences to be given, rather than a solution as it is restrictive and may
provide only a limited design answer, often at the expense of innovation (Fisher, Bowman et al.
1999).
4
Revealing tacit knowledge
This approach, using dialogue to better understand user needs, has been successful for revealing
tacit knowledge (Polanyi, 1996) for an individual to share their personal perceptions, and based on
their experience give the designer insight into the issues that influence a disabled person's
experience of an environment.
Loss of balance is a common problem for those with a hearing impairment which can be
easily assisted by the inclusion of strong horizontal features within spaces, horizontal bands
of tiling etc. (Person 4)
This information may assist the designer when specifying finishes to decorate a space.
The comment that :
Different disability groups tend not to mix. (Person 3)
was particularly revealing. The designer may want to verify this by asking other people or
observing the use of space in buildings shared by people with different disabilities. The use of this
information may have a strong influence on people's satisfaction with the completed building.
Designing the layout of spaces to encourage interaction between people with different disabilities,
e.g. sharing amenities within the building may make people feel uncomfortable. This comment
may raise other questions; of validity, the need to investigate the cause, establish a satisfactory
separation distance and other fundamental environmental psychology questions.
Revealing tacit knowledge through dialogue was an intention and major advantage of this approach.
This information is based on personal experience, which without dialogue wouldnt be available to
the designer.
5
Metaphors, descriptive narrative and conjecture
The flexibility of use of the new building prompted a different style of response.
A good model is the Californian Centre for Deafness where there are outer perimeter rooms
which dont have windows. The central room was sunlight from overhead.
What's the ideal height for the concourse area? Wed like a height so the space has a buzz
and activity but dont want the effect of a chimney. The concept of a cyber cafe is
appealing, people working in an interactive environment. (Person 3)
The description of buildings or environments they had visited that had left strong impressions was
encouraged. Narrative and metaphors were considered positive language use for this exercise to
illicit tacit knowledge and allow the designer to gain insight into the mindset of the user. Here
Person 3 described a central, sunlit space which they enjoyed and within their narrative questioned
the best height for the space so it doesnt have the effect of a chimney.
An open plan building will appeal to the user groups in different ways. The building's
acoustics may need special consideration, absorbing surfaces to counter act the effect of a
big space. Perhaps visually impaired people would prefer smaller spaces. Is there a way of
giving more immediate local information within a large open space. (Person 6)
The prompt, 'flexibility of use of space', was interpreted by many as meaning an open-plan spatial
arrangement. These quotes illustrate that people also considered and rationalised the needs of
others, sometimes for people with different disabilities, in their response. The need to provide blind
people with local information to navigate through this space was a concern expressed by people
with hearing impairments. This again raises the issue of assuming an understanding of the needs of
another person. Tacit information, when a person gives insight into their particular experience of
the world with a disability was of great value to the designer. Expressing concern for the needs of
people with another disability may highlight an issue and bring it to the designers attention but is
presumptive conjecture, less valuable information.
6
Interpreting a prompt differently
Several prompts provoked different interpretations of meaning from those interviewed. This was an
accepted characteristic of this approach to allow people to interpret the prompt in their own terms,
with the intention that the priorities that were most important to them would be represented and
others, significant to a different person, may be represented during a separate interview.
Illustrations of this were the responses to the prompt 'The environment'. The prompt was
deliberately non-specific. Person 2 discussed an individual's ability to locally regulate aspects of
the internal environment to suit each individual.
There should be the opportunity to control the internal environment from one zone to
another. Those with a disability are less active and need different environmental conditions.
We need testing equipment to monitor the physical and emotional effects of the internal
environment and consider other aspects of the environment that need to change, as well as
the temperature and humidity. (Person 2)
Another person discussed the environment in terms of the effect that many people occupying the
same space had on their ability to concentrate.
It is often difficult to concentrate when there are many activities within a room. It is easier
to concentrate when there are just 1 or 2 people within a room, perhaps we need areas for
sole working. (Person 5)
7
Inability to articulate personal preferences
The people interviewed were prompted using the word 'aesthetics' to give their thoughts and
preferences on the appearance of the final building. These comments gave insight into people's
perceptions of the environment and the visual appeal of buildings.
Several people interviewed were conscious that a purpose built accessible building shouldnt be
linked with a futuristic appearance, conventional buildings can be used by people with differing
needs as well.
Building needs to be relatively traditional, whatever that is. Should be attractive and
appealing, achieved through relatively traditional styling rather than futuristic, so that other
people would feel they could design a similar building, have sympathy and feel comfortable
with the building. (Person 2)
A similar view was expressed; The building can be modern, using new technologies, but its
appearance shouldnt be too outlandish. The design fires others to realise that accessible design is
not out of the ordinary and is achievable. (Person 6)
It is essential that the design is not unusual, to show that you can have accessible
environments in normal buildings. Accessibility doesnt require a lot of money. It should
be an attractive aesthetic statement without being extreme. (Person 1)
Other people interviewed favoured a modern futuristic appearance; The building should be a
futuristic design rather than something traditional. Futuristic in the sense that it is innovative
and forward-looking. The building should represent an international cause, different cultural
backgrounds. (Person 5)
Building that blends into the landscape but reflects the 21st century, something a bit
different. The Louvre is modern but has a resonance with the surrounding buildings.
(Person 3)
In these dialogues the users' descriptions of a buildings appearance were limited to one construct,
the traditional-futuristic polemic and most peoples view was at either extreme. Here the
vocabulary used was limited and the participants' understanding and familiarity with the language
of architecture meant that they couldn't articulate their views on the appearance of buildings.
These comments illustrate not only differing views amongst those interviewed, which
unsurprisingly were unrelated to a persons disability, but also some difficulties for participants to
verbally articulate their views and to share these with another person. Some terms used were
ambiguous, without precise definition, traditional and futuristic. One of the people interviewed
was conscious of the deficiency but didnt attempt to explain his interpretation of the term
traditional. This observation highlights that dialogue and the exchange of concepts between
designer and user can be limited by the use of common terminology, interpreted in the same way by
all parties to the dialogue. A common vocabulary isnt enough to share meaning, the constructs of
the dialogue should be similar, demonstrating a level of understanding that extends beyond
semantic correctness. This view parallels recent thinking in discourse analysis that the context of
the dialogue has a bearing on the meaning of the exchanges as well as linguistic correctness
(Jaworski and Coupland 1999).
A theme to be explored in greater detail by the author is the issue of 'common vocabulary'. The
view of the author is that there are several 'languages' of architecture that can be used by an
architect; architectonics, developed from semiotic theory (Mitchell 1999) the language of
architectural form and also a 'coded language' used to discuss architectural theory. Although in
linguistic terms architecture is not a language, the two 'languages of architecture' described won't be
'languages' the architect can share with most building users. The notion of an architect discussing a
building with a future user using a common language is limited to everyday vocabulary and
mediating a meaning for specific terms through dialogue. This position will be developed further
and is considered to parallel the doctor-patient model where there is also a knowledge and power
imbalance and complex medical conditions are explained using 'everyday' language and a
vocabulary, words with particular meanings, are developed through dialogue.
Conclusion
This paper has drawn on interview data to observe the discussion of user needs during the dialogue
between the architect and building users. The social process of dialogue facilitated the exchange of
information and enhanced the designer's understanding of the needs and expectations of future
building users. Several themes emerged from this review;
That generalisation, extrapolating user preference to a broader population, should be approached

with caution.
Tacit knowledge, giving insight into user experience of an environment, can be revealed
through discussion.
Descriptive narratives and metaphors can reveal tacit knowledge.
Users suggesting 'solutions' can limit a design solution.
In some situations, discussing the appearance of the building, language use was limited and the
absence of a common vocabulary or architectural language, limited the discussion to very basic
constructs.
These observations of language use when gathering user need information have highlighted many
factors associated with knowledge transfer between the user and designer, issues that prevent the
extant transfer of knowledge. These observations are sympathetic with those of (Gill 1994) that
design knowledge cannot be completely represented in a propositional, non-contextual form.
In epistemological terms different forms of user requirement knowledge has been revealed, created
and exchanged (Polanyi 1966) (Nonaka 1994) during this process. The semi-structured interview
revealed explicit and tacit knowledge through the social process of discussion. Explicit knowledge
is readily available to designers in design codes and guides but the revealing of tacit knowledge is
of particular value to the designer, knowledge that otherwise wouldn't be available. Without the
ontological, social process of dialogue this knowledge would not have been transferred from the
user to someone who may be able to use this knowledge for the users' benefit.
The last bullet-point observation is of particular interest as it illustrates that some concepts are
difficult to discuss. Different knowledge and 'languages' used by the user and architect are
suggested as reasons for the need to mediate the definition of specific terms through dialogue.
Based on these observations more detailed discourse analysis, where the context, the social
dimension and the situational meaning of a concept are considered is proposed for these data.
10
References
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clients' project definition tool. Reading, University of Reading.
Gill, S. P. (1994). Dialogue and Tacit Knowledge for Knowledge Transfer. Department of
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11
Smith, C. P. (1992). Motivation and Personality: Handbook of Thematic Content Analysis. New
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to challenge isolation for deaf and hard of hearing people from minority communities." Disability &
Society 14(3): 369-384.
Teymur, N. (2002). "Book Review." Design Studies 23(1): 103-105.
12

strategies
D-B. Luh National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Abstract
Manzini pointed out that traditionally, ideas follow organizations; in the future, organizations
follow ideas. In a highly competing business environment, a companys innovation capability
defines its sustainability and good new product ideas are a key ingredient to company success.
Industrial design deals mainly with new product development, in which innovation ideas are
central. Designers view themselves as idea creators. But, why should future organizations follow
the ideas proposed by designers? If designers ideas are to be followed by organizations, then a
different design process thinking that can redefine company goals or suggest different business
strategies is necessary.
As a response, a business centered design process model is proposed, which consists of five steps:
(1) Identifying new product ideas with attractive design potential from a users viewpoint, (2)
Selecting appropriate company goals as design goals from a business perspective, (3) Defining new
product concepts to reach the desired goals from a customers standpoint, (4) Specifying key design
elements for less development efforts from a producers prospect, and (5) Translating design
elements into physical entities or products. For verification, a product design workshop class taught
by the author was employed. From students works, it can be asserted that the new procedure can be
feasible and effective in developing new products that can meet market satisfaction and redefine
business approaches. For illustration, a redesign work done by a student is demonstrated as an
example. For further verification, theoretical analyses are conducted, resulting in supportive
conclusions.

strategies
A need of new design process thinking
New product development (NPD) is essential to all business organizations. The new product may
be tangible objects or intangible services. A good new product can not only increase market shares
and profitability but also lead to new business opportunities and establishment of new core
competence. New product derives from innovative ideas. What is a good idea worth? According
to Robert Cooper (1986: 67), the answer is everything. In a fast changing business competition
environment, idea quality largely defines company success. Manzini (2001: 2) pointed out that
Traditionally, ideas follow organizations; In the future, organizations follow ideas. Since
innovative ideas are precious, business organizations should adapt themselves to cope with
challenges from NPD works. To ensure the leadership of tomorrow, said Lew Platt, former
chairman of HP (Tushman and O'Reilly 1998: 274), we are willing to give up everything we have
achieved today.
Industrial design deals mainly with innovations or new product ideas, which are a key ingredient for
company success. Designers, of various kinds, view themselves as idea generators or creators. If
Manzinis notion can be sustainable, then designers should be leaders in NPD works or in business
organizations. This can be true because designers know how to define and develop new products
with a strong focus on target customers and can foresee the scenario in which new products will be
used. With a good sense of market and a comprehensive perspective on new product works,
designers should be able to propose quality ideas for organizations to follow.
However, the reality shows a different story. In many NPD projects, designers are basically
followers or downstream workers. Due to their inclinations of making changes to existing systems,
designers are often seen as troublemakers. In addition, high-ranked managers or decision makers
are largely from engineering or business backgrounds, rarely from design. All these facts reveal that
designers remain distant from being quality idea initiators or managers. How come and why?
To answer, two fundamental questions should be explored in depth. The first one deals with the
goals and strategies that drive design processes. As a rule, new product projects are proposed based
on company goals or needs. Following predefined project objectives, design goals and strategies are
developed and accordingly design processes are activated. Company success is mainly determined
by business performance, which can be achieved if and only if new products can be satisfactory to
target markets. This rationale is basically from a product designers point of view. From a business
management perspective, only through appropriate business goals and strategies can company
success be attained. Since both paths can reach business success, then what is the relationship
between goals and strategies of design and those of business? If the concept of organizations
follow ideas is right, then a capable design process should function to define business goals and
strategies, or even company goals. Yet, none of existing design processes do.
The second question concerns the adopters who buy new product ideas. Generally, there are two
types of idea adopters - intermediary and end. Development of an idea from abstraction (concept) to
reality (product) undergoes two major steps. First, it must be attractive to a producer or company. In
order to be an invested project, the value of an idea should be conveyed in terms of business
benefits or company goals. Otherwise, an idea remains an abstraction. Secondly, it must be
appealing to its potential customers and target users. Without compelling reasons to buy, an idea
stays away from commercialization. Products that can meet market satisfaction are successful
developments, which can contribute to business success and company prosperity. Essentially, both
producers and customers needs are equally important and should be well taken care of. In terms of
NPD procedures, company needs are prior to customer needs and producers are the first layer of
idea adopters, hence with higher priorities for adoption decisions. If the notion of organizations
follow ideas stands, then the ideas proposed by designers must show reasonable attractiveness, in
meaningful ways, to both the intermediary and the end idea adopters. Nevertheless, almost all
industrial designers are educated to be user-centered, with a strong emphasis on needs of the end
idea adopters. As a result, the value of an idea, or of a new product design, is often measured by
user benefits or customer satisfaction, less meaningful to business management.
From the above analyses, it can be posited that to cope with future challenges in new product
works, a new design process thinking is needed, which requires designers:
(1) To put an emphasis on business performance and company needs in design goals;
(2) To integrate design solutions into business strategies or company goals;
(3) To view both companies and customers as substantial idea adopters, and;
(4) To express design values or new product idea benefits in business terms.
With clearly specified business goals and strategies, most existing design processes are effective in
delivering incremental innovations, characterized by marginal benefits and low risks. However, in
current and future business competitions, radical ideas, frequently associated with high profitability
and risk, have increasing influence on the success of a business, the fate of a company, or the
prosperity of an industry. Yet, most design process models are impotent in, or less capable of,
dealing with radical innovations, for they often involve redefinition of business strategies or
company goals.
In light of the significance of radical ideas, this paper proposes a new design process model that can
implement the essential design process thinking listed above and function to turn incremental ideas
with marginal benefits into radical ones with great profitability and strategic advantages.
The new model

As an answer to the two basic questions, a business-centered product design process model (briefly
as new model) is introduced, which consists of five major steps: (Figure 1)
Step (1): Identifying attractive ideas from a users viewpoint:

Through conventional user observation techniques and design analysis methods, innovation, or
product improvement, ideas can be easily perceived. Ideas may be generated and adopted internally
or externally (Dean 1968). To identify potential ideas, an effective screening model is necessary.
Product success is mainly defined by end users. Hence, users perspectives are a focus at the outset.
Since this paper concentrates on design process model and a screening model proposed by the
author (Luh 2000: 1-20) can be effective for more innovative ideas in early development stages
with an emphasis on end idea adopters viewpoints, new product project evaluation and selection
issues are not addressed herein.
Step (2): Selecting desired company goals as design goals from a business perspective:
In general, new product projects are driven by company goals, which may fall into one of the
following eight categories (Thomas 1999: 14.44): (1) establishing long-run competitive advantages,
(2) reinforcing or changing strategic direction, (3) enhancing corporate image, (4) improving
financial return, (5) increasing research and development effectiveness, (6) improving utilization of
production and operations, (7) leveraging marketing effectiveness, and (8) effectively utilizing
human resources. For easy selection and portfolio management, a benefit matrix tool (Luh 2001:
370-381) is introduced to help designers to align their efforts with company needs in early design
phases. (Figure 2)
According to an ideas development potential or innovation attributes, goals that can be attained and
attractive to a company are chosen as design goals. This step is most critical. Because once design
goals are specified, the space that an idea can be strategically developed lessens.
Step (3): Defining new product concepts to reach design goals from a customers standpoint:
This step can also be described as positioning new product ideas. This procedure further reduces
the design space by providing designers with clearer market pictures about the new ideas in
development. Markets are driven by life patterns, which can be expressed in form of circles. People
in a same life circle share similar values or needs. From intimacy to strangeness, four basic life
circles can be identified - personal life, family life, work life and non-direct life. Through which, a
life hierarchy model (Luh 1996: 88-91) is established, which can be applied to represent market
types. Personal life, for instance, indicates the market type that new products are essentially made
for personal uses, with closest relationships with the end idea adopters. Non-direct life refers to the
market type that new products have least or no direct connections with the general public. Pencil is
a product example for the former market type and power loom is another for the latter.
As a rule, the more mature (or less innovative) the technology a new product employs, the more
likely its market type can be targeted at the core circle (personal life), which denotes the largest
market base. Normally, radical ideas are associated with advanced technologies, new product
categories, new markets, or shifts of life circles. Targeting at a different life circle implies creation
of a new product category. With the general market evolutionary pattern (non-direct -> work ->
family -> personal), an ideas market type can be positioned, strategically.
Step (4): Specifying key design elements for less development efforts from a producers prospect:
Based on attributes of competing products in target markets, key components of new product design
are analyzed and further defined. The product stratification structure (Luh 2001: 479-486) can be
employed as an analytical framework for specifying design focus, which has four components:
senseware, humanware, functionware, and systemware.
Senseware indicates concerned product appearance factors that are associated with the attitudes or
perceptions of an adopter towards a product. Humanware refers to product-human interface that
enables people to manipulate a product efficiently, effectively, comfortably and/or safely.
Functionware infers product constituents, together or as a part, which can generate major functional
quality of the product or provide essential service for the adopters. In many circumstances, a
product is merely a subsystem to a larger system (keyboard, for instance) and the larger system is
supported by an infrastructure, an even bigger system included in an environment. Systemware
represents the conglomeration of the larger systems with which a product is involved.
Generally, the development pattern of new products with innovative technologies can be briefed as
follows: Initially, establishment of technological standard is central and design efforts concentrate
on systemware constituents (basic system) or functionware components (core technology),
depending on the wholeness of a product in development; As technologies improve, product
paradigm becomes pivotal and design endeavors shift to humanware factors (usability); With
emerging market segmentation, design attentions move to senseware elements (aesthetics). With the
product evolutionary pattern, design focus can be consensually agreed by NPD participants for
facilitating teamwork and synergy.
Step (5): Translating design elements into physical entities or products:
When both the companys needs and those of the target customers are met, i.e., the idea in design
shows significant benefits to both the intermediary and the end idea adopters, the process moves on
to the last step to deliver real products. Otherwise, the process may choose to go back to the first
step to re-select ideas for development, or to the second step to redefine design goals that are more
appropriate for further development based on the key design components specified.
For projects entering into the last design procedure, new product ideas become increasingly
concrete and design elements are specified to a great extent, ready for implementation. Through a
standard design implementation process, i.e., laboratory verification of theory or design concept,
demonstration of application, full-scale or field trial, and commercial introduction (Starling 1988:
532-533), abstract ideas can be smoothly translated into real products.
A product design example

To demonstrate how the new model can work, a product design case is employed as an example.
This case is merely one out of many in the product design workshop class (Spring 2001) taught by
the author at the department of Industrial Design, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.
Sophomore students were asked to play as in-house designers for famous companies they chose.
Each one of them was required to apply the new model to redesign a simple product with which he
or she is familiar.
The student work that redesigned the glue stick product by 3M company is selected for illustration.
Due to limited space, details of the design work and concerned processes are omitted herein. Since
most redesign projects are highly confined by predefined company goals and/or business strategies,
the design goals initially set for each design work were basically specified as operation utilization
and/or human resource utilization in terms of the eight strategic goals.
Through conventional behavioral observation techniques and design analysis methods, a key
problem for design improvement is identified: users do not know when the glue will be used up,
i.e., uncertainty about glue consumption. (Table 1)
Iteration 1
Focusing on the key problem, an improvement idea that inserts a colored glue component in form of
a power consumption icon is proposed. This idea can make glue consumption visible and gain extra
strategic effect: competitive advantage (the process technology for the tinted core). Since the new
design can be effective in enhancing work efficiency and considerable current products are
consumed at work places, the market type of work life can be appropriately positioned for the
new idea. To reach the predefined design goals, current product appearance may remain.
Uncertainty about glue consumption is essentially a perception or usability problem. Concentrating
design efforts on humanware improvement is reasonable.
Examining its potential benefits, the new design can save trouble for users and remind customers of
preparing a new one in advance; the producer can receive patent protection and gain competitive
advantage. Nevertheless, production cost concerns require further design efforts for simplification
in manufacturing.
Iteration 2
To solve the emerging problem, a betterment idea is suggested. A battery shape (Figure 3) is
applied to the glue component design, which can greatly ease manufacturing complexity and reduce
production cost. In addition, a brief promotion message (lure), such as 50% off for next
purchase, can be printed on the stand where a glue component sits. These ideas together can help
enhance R&D effectiveness and contribute to maintaining or increasing financial returns, two
different strategic goals not specified in the beginning. The lure idea can help to lock customers
in and to attract the market type of family life, for money-saving is a critical factor in their decisionmaking. Besides, it adds new elements for senseware design.
In terms of idea benefits, the new idea can save some trouble in use and some money in purchase
for the users, and can economize production cost and gain a tool for customer loyalty for the
producer. With the lure element, customers are likely to purchase another glue stick product before
or after one is used up. Sales volume may increase positively. It is a better idea. But, is it the best?
Since products can be strategic tools, better financial performance should be anticipated. It is
possible if further design endeavor is granted. Noticeably, although the new idea can target family
users, the battery icon is less meaningful, or attractive, to the most frequent users in a family
school children - who use it for their homework regularly.
Iteration 3
To deal with the new issue, two design changes are suggested (Figure 4): replacing the battery icon
with two comic figures and promoting all concerned products by the company (other stationery
products by 3M in this case). The former design change has multiple advantages: (a) The product
becomes more attractive to young customers (less instrumentalism); (b) It provides new tools
(comic figures) for customer loyalty; (c) It facilitates to double the sales volume (either ends can be
faced up); (d) It adds entertainment ingredient (interesting transformation process) while retaining
good usability, and; (e) It may lead to faster consumption speed and higher purchase amount
(curiosities for figure transformation and for promotion lottery). Additionally, the latter design
change may contribute to promote sales of associated offerings and to enforce brand loyalty.
Obviously, the new design can enhance corporate image and change strategic directions, two new
design goals not previously defined. With properly designed comic figures, the market type of
personal life can also be targeted, suggesting a much greater market base or profit space. Design
focus shifts from humanware improvement to senseware creation. Benefits for both types of idea
adopters are multitudinous and multivalent.
Nevertheless, the former design change requires introduction of different design talents,
development of complex process technologies, and establishment of new marketing channels, to
name the most significant ones. All of which may result in increase in cost. To solve or ease the
accompanied difficulties, further design effort is necessary.
Iteration 4
If the comic figures can be appropriately designed, the new product can be a collectible toy in a
sense. Hence, it can be employed as a platform for promotion of cartoon figures by all major
entertainment companies, serving multiple clients while sharing development costs for the
expensive process technology.
Since all potential client companies are well established and have strong marketing networks, the
new design thinking can not only enhance marketing effectiveness for products by the producing
company but also solve the needs for design talents and for building new channels. Individual
customers can be targeted and market space can be expanded globally. To gain the new business
opportunity, systemware design becomes a focus. Benefits of the new idea are numerous and there
is no major shortcoming (management complexity may be one, but easily solvable), suggesting that
the design process may precede to the last step for realization.
From the design example, it can be posited that the new model is able to focus on business
performance and company needs, integrate design solutions into business strategies or company
goals, consider needs of various idea adopter types, and communicate design values in business
terms. The four design ideas in the example can be seen as four design strategies for four new
products, or as four strategic tools for a new business strategy, or as a series of business strategies
(from short-term to long-term) for a new corporate strategy. Hence, the new model can also be seen
as a process model for strategic planning.
Theoretical analyses
Basically, Step (1) is a typical idea screening process and Step (5) a standard idea implementation
process, requiring no emphasis. The ones in between are core design processes, deserving further
exploration. Through which, the relationships between goals and strategies of design and those of
business become clear. First, business goals are subject to company goals, which can be defined, or
developed, through the benefit matrix tool, and the eight generic company needs are ultimate goals
for any design activities. Secondly, key elements of strategy (direction, timing, and extent) are
already embedded in the core design processes, enabling design strategy to function as business
strategy. With the benefit matrix, design goals that can satisfy company needs can be defined,
providing concerned participants with a clear direction for development of new product project and
for synergy. Through the life hierarchy, a new product idea can be timingly positioned to meet
dynamic market needs. By using the product stratification, the extent of change that needs to be
made to a new product can be revealed and design efforts can be concentrated for effective
implementation.
Technology, aesthetics, and business are three essential elements in Industrial Design works.
Examining the development history of which, two professional education approaches
(engineering and marketing) are characteristic. The engineering approach integrates aesthetics
into technology, centering on the sciences and techniques for mass production. Fundamentally,
designers are trained to be engineers solving manufacturing problems. New products are seen as
problems in a sense. The marketing approach introduces aesthetics into business, focusing on the
knowledge and skills for mass consumption. Designers are prepared to be stylists, whose tasks are
mainly for market segmentation and product promotion. New products are viewed as marketing
tools. Intrinsically, both approaches obey predetermined company goals or align with current
business strategies.
If designers ideas are to be followed by organizations, then a product design process that can
redefine company goals or suggest different business strategies is necessary. By comparing the two
design approaches, a strategic ingredient of the new model becomes distinct. (Table 2)
Typically, the engineering approach focuses on problem-solving activities. From an abstract

product idea to its physical outcome, solutions for identified technological difficulties, i.e., design
strategy, are most critical in its NPD process. Essentially designers are engineers concentrating, in
relative terms, on process models. Normally, the perspective of a producer drives the NPD process.
For designers applying the engineering approach and in terms of the redesign example, the design
process is likely to be ended at the second iteration, resulting in a better design in usability and
manufacturability at most.
The marketing approach is inherently customer- or user-centered. In addition to solving technical
problems, issues on product positioning in selected markets, i.e., product strategy, are also crucial to
designers. For products with matured technologies, designers are often seen as stylists focusing on
product models. Opinions from the end idea adopters drive the NPD process. For designers
employing the marketing approach, the design case in example is less likely to proceed to the fourth
iteration, due to pre-determined business strategies and company goals.
The new model is business-centric. Design goals and associated business models evolve while
design processes proceed. Designers are strategists in essence, concentrating on strategic
performance for maximal benefits. Both the producers concerns and those of the users drive the
NPD process. However, unlike existing design process models and design evaluation systems, in
which producer concerns are over emphasized and placed up-front in the process, the new model
equally values both types of concerns and alternatively introduces them, starting with a users and
followed by a producers. Theoretically, such arrangement is able to reach higher success
probability in new product development (Luh: 2000).
According to studies by various scholars (Maidique and Zirger 1984: 192-203; Montoya-Weiss and
Calantone 1994: 397-417), success factors for NPD can be approximately divided into two groups:
process-related attributes (controllable factors) and selection-related attributes (less controllable
factors). The process-related factors capture the nature of the new product success and how the
project is undertaken. Eleven factors are concluded most critical, briefly: (1) a unique superior
product, (2) a strong market orientation, (3) sufficient predevelopment works, (4) sharp and early
product definition, (5) focus and sharp project selection decisions, (6) quality of execution, (7) the
correct organizational structure and climate, (8) planning and resourcing the launch, (9) the role of
top management, (10) speed, and (11) a multistage, disciplined new product process. The selectionrelated factors describe the new product project process and its situation. Five elements are
identified as most crucial, namely: (1) market potential, (2) competitive situation, (3) product life
cycle (PLC), (4) synergy or leveraging core competence, and (5) familiarity. Of the two sets,
process-related factors have by far the strongest influence on new product success.
In terms of the process-related factors, the new model is strongly market-oriented and a multistage,
disciplined new product process. It can directly help to form early product definition, to suffice
predevelopment works, to provide focus for project selection decisions, to generate a unique
superior product, to increase overall NPD speed, to shape an organizational climate for successful
NPD, and indirectly facilitate enhancement of the quality of execution, to plan and resource future
launch, and to influence the role of top management in project evaluation and selection.
In terms of the selection-related factors, the new model can be applied to estimate market potential.
In addition, the life hierarchy obeys PLC principles and can be used as a strategic tool for
advantageous competitive positioning. The product stratification can help identify key design
elements for less design effort and greater project familiarity. The benefit matrix provides a
comparison basis for design goals in various natures, which help leverage core competence.
Above all, the new model furnishes with the function of redefining company goals and/or business
strategies, a unique and powerful characteristic never seen in existing approaches. Evidently, the
business approach is most advantageous and the new model is superior in many aspects.
10
Conclusions
From above discussions, it can be asserted that the business-centered design process model
emphasizes business performance and company needs in design goals, integrates design solutions
into business strategies, balances perspectives among various idea adopter types in new product
development works, and expresses design benefits in business terms. Through the redesign example
of 3M glue stick, the new procedure can be verified as innovative, feasible, and advanced in
comparison with other approaches, and the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
The new method can be a useful and effective tool for developing new product ideas that
future organizations might seriously consider to follow.
Defining business strategies or company goals should be one essential and critical activity in
design processes.
The new process demonstrates a different design logic that refreshes the way that design is
viewed and valued.
The new system introduces useful tools (benefit matrix, life hierarchy, and product
stratification) for strategy making (direction, timing, and extent, respectively).
In general, new product projects are driven by company goals, which can be reached via business
strategies. Design goals and approaches should therefore be aligned with business goals and
associated strategies. Business orientation and strategy-centeredness are a key development
thinking that all design approaches should follow. Designers are strategists in this context and
strategists are normally ranked at higher levels in an organizational structure. However, current
industrial design education and associated professional training do not prepare, or aim to prepare,
designers to be strategists. As a result of adopting conventional approaches, designers are largely
positioned as product engineers or stylists, remaining in lower status in a new product development
team. To promote Industrial Design, to enhance quality and effectiveness of new product
development, and to improve overall performance of any business organization, reorientating
educational goals of Industrial Design and redefining designers professional roles are not only
necessary but also urgent in the new era.
11
References
Cooper, Robert G. 1986. Winning at New Product. New York: Addison-Wesley.
Manzini, Ezio. 2001. Design Systems: Scenario Building and Solution Providing in the Network
Society. Soul: Proceedings of ICSID 2001.
Tushman, Michael L. and O'Reilly III, Charles A. 1998. Winning Through Innovation. Taipei:
Commonwealth Publishing.
Dean, B. V. 1968. "Evaluating, Selecting, and Controlling R&D Projects." Research Study, No. 89.
New York: American Management Association.
Luh, Ding-Bang. 2000. "A Screening Model for More Innovative Ideas in Early Stages of the
Innovation Process." Ph.D. Dissertation. Chicago: Illinois Institute of Technology.
Thomas, Robert J. 1999. "Selecting and Ending New Product Effort," The Technology Management
Handbook, Florida: CRC Press LLC.
Luh, Ding-Bang. 2001. "Form Follows Strategy," Soul: Proceedings of ICSID 2001
Luh, Ding-Bang. 1996. "Conceptual Development Models of Products, Techniques and Markets."
Taipei: Design (75).
Luh, Ding-Bang. 2001. An Evaluation System Framework for Design Planning. Taipei: Journal
of Technology, Vol. 16, No. 3.
Starling, Grover. 1988. The Changing Environment of Business, Boston: PWS-KENT Publishing.
Luh, Ding-Bang. 2000. "An Idea Screening System Focusing on Market Dynamics. "The 10th
International Forum on Design Research Management and Education. Frankfurt: Design
Management Institute.
Maidique, M. A. and Zirger, B. J. 1984. "A Study of Success and Failure in Product Innovation:
The Case of the U.S. Electronics Industry." IEEE Trans, Engineering Management, EM-31.
Montoya-Weiss, M. M. and Calantone, R. 1994. "Determinants of New Product Performance: A
Review and Meta Analysis." Journal of Product Innovation Management, Vol. 11, No. 5.
12
Integrating the worlds most effective creative design

strategies
D. Mann Faculty of Engineering and Design, University of Bath, UK
Abstract
The paper examines the broad range of methods, tools and strategies available to designers and
attempts to distill the best of each in a bid to generate a coherent, systematic creative design
philosophy. Although using the Soviet-originated Theory of Inventive problem Solving, TRIZ as its
foundation, the proposed design method also encompasses elements of, amongst others, QFD,
Design for X, Value Engineering, Axiomatic Design and Robust Design. The paper describes the
ongoing process of integrating these methods and reviews their deployment on a broad spectrum of
real engineering design case studies.
Integrating the worlds most effective creative design

strategies
Introduction
The world of creative design is currently served by a range of tools, methods and strategies that
many might conclude is bewilderingly large. Their individual and combined effectiveness and useability is similarly a matter of concern for many designers and design managers. Taking a broad
sweep across the complete menu and matching them to the different essential elements of the design
process here segmented as definition, generation, evaluation and capture a study conducted
specifically for the paper has concluded that there is also a considerable mismatch between the
importance and the efficacy of the tools available to support each stage. The primary objective of
the work carried out for the paper, then, has been to establish ways and means of resolving some of
these issues.
In reviewing a range of tools that encompasses QFD, Robust Design, Axiomatic Design, Design
For X, TRIZ, Value Engineering, Kansei, FMEA, Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis, and a host of
lesser others, the paper suggests that there is a large and potentially confusing surplus of assistance
in the design process areas of definition, evaluation and capture, and a distinct dearth in the area of
generation with many of the methods reliant on brainstorming when the now generate some
ideas part arrives.
Whether these tools, methods, strategies and philosophies can be integrated together to form a sum
greater than the sum of the individual parts has been a matter of some debate. What does appear
clear from the analysis carried out, however, is that there are opportunities for the creation of a
unified, confusion eliminating, higher level system embracing and distilling the most effective
qualities of all. For the sake of providing this higher level system with a label, the paper proposes
the term systematic creative design.
Further analysis has revealed that TRIZ is the only one of the considered methods to explicitly
tackle the idea generation part of the design process. The paper discusses TRIZ in this context, and
reports the finding that its effective deployment offers significant opportunities for a more
systematic creative approach on condition that the earlier definition process is conducted in a
manner that takes best advantage of the opportunities afforded by TRIZ. In other words, the
distillation of best design practices that form a significant part of TRIZ show that the most effective
design solutions start from a distinctly different definition than has traditionally been the case.
While it was far from clear that any designer would actually want a seamlessly integrated creative
design system, what emerged from the study conducted for the paper was their desire to be able to
mix and match an array of methods to suit both individual taste and the demands of a particular
design task. The paper describes the process of assembling just such a system.
This paper is divided into three unequal parts. The first part describes ongoing work on the
development of TRIZ as the core of an integrated systematic creative design system. The second,
longest, part of the paper examines how the main other creativity tools, methods and philosophies
have been integrated into this TRIZ-based systematic creative design picture. To varying degrees
all of these other tools, methods and philosophies are shown to have something to enhance the
efficacy and efficiency of TRIZ. The final part presents a review of recent case study examples of
the current integrated system being used to tackle real-life design challenges in a way that
fundamentally achieves a stronger outcome than would have been possible without the integrated
methodology.
TRIZ Ongoing evolution

The future of TRIZ (Altshuller, 1988. Salamatov, 1999) has been the subject of significant
discussion in recent times (Savransky, 2000, Vertkin, 2001). Opinion differs as to whether it is still
at the beginning or has reached the limits of its evolutionary potential. The conflict can be both
understood and resolved if TRIZ is recognised as just a part (albeit an important one) in a much
bigger system. For the sake of providing this bigger system with a label, the term systematic
creative design is proposed.
TRIZ places great importance on the existence of evolutionary S-curves. In these terms, the
difference between the s-curve for TRIZ (actually, bearing in mind the different TRIZ proponents
and variations, such a TRIZ s-curve should be seen as the average of a cluster of subtly different scurves) and an average curve that might be constructed for systematic creative design is illustrated
in Figure 1.
Ideality/
Capability
current
position
composite
systematic creativity
s-curve
Composite TRIZ
s-curve
Time
Figure 1: Systematic Creative Design Evolutionary S-Curve
The conflict between is TRIZ a mature system or an immature one? is thus explained by the point
marked on the figure illustrating the current evolutionary state. The point suggests that TRIZ is at
the mature end of its evolutionary potential (thus concurring with Vertkins comment that there
hasnt been a single new concept introduced into TRIZ in the last 12 years), but that TRIZ and the
current position are still at the relative beginnings of the over-riding systematic creative design
curve.
In terms of systematic creativity it is evident that there have been many new concepts emerging in
the same period. This paper discusses the emergence and integration of some of these concepts as
they build on the four philosophical pillars of TRIZ evolution towards increasing ideality;
maximum use of existing resources; the importance of function; the systematic elimination of
contradictions as a fundamental evolution driver and their distillation into a complete problem
definition/solving process and wide-ranging selection of tools (Figure 2).
Excellence
Ideality
Resource
Functionality
Contradiction
Space/Time/Interface
Philosophy
Method
A complete problem
definition/solving process
IFR
Inventive Principles
Contradiction Matrix
S-Fields
PI Tools
Trimming
Function
Analysis
Resources
Knowledge/
Effects
Trends
Subversion
Analysis
Tool
Separation Principles
Figure 2: TRIZ Philosophy/Method/Toolkit Hierarchy

The idea that TRIZ is one s-curve (system) inside a bigger system for now called systematic
creativity design emerges from the concept of recursiveness in systems. Recursiveness as discussed
in the Viable System Model, NLP and other emerging texts on, not just creativity, but all system
evolution is an example of a concept which has not previously existed in classical TRIZ. The
current prevailing view is that recursion will be an important element in the successful realisation of
a systematic creative design s-curve.
The idea of TRIZ representing one s-curve inside a higher order s-curve explains the s-curve figure
constructed by Savransky, which suggests that the next stage of TRIZ evolution (but actually to
give some credit to the mass of other creativity research outside the current scope of TRIZ,
systematic creativity) will involve the integration of different methods.
Examining, now, ongoing work on the development of TRIZ it is possible to show that, although
the system is relatively mature, there is still scope for significant improvement and extension.
If Vertkins statement about the absence of new concepts in TRIZ in the last 12 years is correct, it
should not be taken to also mean that there has been no new work in TRIZ over the same period.
The success of www.triz-journal.com, for example, should provide ample evidence of the spread
and expansion of TRIZ in recent times.
Much of this new work on the other hand may be seen as refinement and re-arrangement of
knowledge that is largely the same as that extracted through early TRIZ analysis of scientific and
patent databases. One of the consequences of this is that TRIZ tools like the Contradiction Matrix
and Inventive Standards are often inadequate (Mann, 2002a) and in some cases fail to handle
certain types of problem altogether. One of the underlying problems discovered here is that the
world has moved on significantly since the original analysis was conducted. One manifestation of
this progress is that the Matrix, for example, often sends users looking to solve software or
electrical problems in directions that are significantly different to those being used by the most
successful inventors of the last 15 years. The world was a much more mechanical place when the
initial analysis was happening.
An extensive programme of work was instigated at the beginning of 2000 to begin to rectify this
situation. A team of researchers is now undertaking a patent-by-patent analysis of invention
disclosures over the period 1985 to 2000. The aims of this research are to:
update the Contradiction Matrix in terms of both its form (updating the list of 39
parameters for example) and content. Initial results suggest that in several key
contradictions, inventors are now using significantly different strategies to those of their
pre-1985 predecessors.
identify the emergence of new Inventive Principles
identify the emergence of new trends of evolution. In this regard, it is believed that at
least ten trend patterns not previously found in TRIZ have been uncovered.
identify the emergence of new Inventive Standards.
generate upgraded versions of the psychological inertia tools based on incorporation of
external tools and findings from psychology research.
In line with an increasing tendency for individuals and organisations to not patent their good
solutions, and in order to extract strong solutions from fields not involved in patents (e.g.
architecture, business/management, industrial design), a programme of systematic search of other
knowledge sources has also been initiated. The overall idea is to ensure that users can be offered
access to the most effective solutions from wherever they occur.
Evolving systematic creative design

The decision to base a systematic creative design method around TRIZ was made in line with the
comprehensive range of problem solving strategies contained within the method. It was noted that,
where most other methods relied upon brainstorming techniques during the idea generation stage of
a problem solving process, TRIZ had successfully identified a wide ranging array of much more
systematic strategies. The decision to base the systematic creative design method on TRIZ was
further justified because awareness of the problem solving tools within the method causes users to
define problems in often considerably different ways than they would normally. Beyond that
decision, it was clear that several other tools, techniques and methods still had much to offer to
enhance the TRIZ process. The other available methods that the research has indicated are best able
to complement and help deliver the higher order systematic creative design model are those shown
in Figure 3.
To varying degrees all of these other tools, methods and philosophies may be represented as
systems with their own series of s-curves. Rather than attempt to position such s-curve
approximations relative to TRIZ, the paper focuses only on their role in serving the higher order
systematic creative design s-curve development. All of these additional methods have already been
the subject of some form of work to explore the benefits of integration with TRIZ. The paper now
briefly reviews such work and projects how and why such integration should progress in the future.
Axiomatic
Design
Value
Engineering
TOC
NLP
TRIZ
DFMA
Kansei
QFD
VSM
Robust
Design
MCDA
DeBono
Figure 3: Integration of Innovation Tools
TRIZ and function analysis/value engineering

The function analysis/value engineering methodology initially developed by Miles (1961) is
probably the method most closely linked with and integrated into TRIZ. Park (1999) is probably the
first text to talk about both function analysis and TRIZ in the same place (albeit the understanding
of TRIZ is woefully inaccurate). It does not make any mention, for example, of the simple but
profound conceptual addition to function analysis made by TRIZ that of using the function
analysis to describe the harmful, ineffective and excessive functional relationships in a system as
well as the useful ones drawn in classical function analysis. This simple shift in thinking transforms
a method that is useful into one that offers an extremely effective means of both modelling
complexity and defining problems. Dewulf and Mann (2001) describe how the current TRIZ
addition to function analysis is being further evolved by incorporation of new concepts such as
modelling of system attributes, time-variant problems and transition between problem definition
and the selection of the most relevant tools to help solve the problem. Of all the methods
considered, the integration of function analysis/value engineering into TRIZ is to date the most
comprehensive and complete. Future evolution thus looks set to occur at the detailed
implementation rather than conceptual level.
TRIZ and QFD and robust design

The integration of the holy trinity of TRIZ, QFD and Taguchi methods was the subject of
Terninko, Zlotin and Zusman (1997). Theoretically, the three complement each other very well;
QFD is about capturing the voice of the customer and translating it into design specification; TRIZ
is about generating solutions that fit the specification; and Taguchi/Robust Design tools are about
optimising the implementation details of the solutions offered by TRIZ. The practice is currently
seen to be some considerable distance away from the theory for the large majority of users. The
biggest problem encountered by users involves the usual failure of QFD to accurately capture that
customer voice. Customers are frequently unable to describe what it is that they want other than in
terms of better than the thing they already have. Few if any customers would ask for a digital
camera given a conventional film camera and a request for ideas on creating a better solution. This
is an area where TRIZ and particularly the technology trend prediction elements is emerging as
a more effective start point than QFD. Integration of QFD and Robust Design techniques into TRIZ
looks set to continue. At least one significant conceptual level integrative step remains unexploited
at this point in time. That step sees its roots in the inadequate ability of TRIZ to handle problem
non-linearities. The strengths of Robust Design in this area and their integration into TRIZ is the
subject of Apte and Mann (2002).
TRIZ and design for X (DFX)

Design for X, and more specifically the most developed of the Xs, DFMA shares the same problem
as a good number of the other tools and methods described here, in that it contains what can be seen
from a TRIZ perspective as the insert miracle here moment. DFX is very good at defining
problems and even better at quantifiably evaluating solutions, but between the two, it offers users
little more than the suggestion now generate some ideas. That being said, the method does have
something to add to TRIZ. The already mentioned solution evaluation capabilities basically
providing a framework allowing users to benchmark manufacture and assembly times for an object
and thus provide quantified improvements between before and after situations are a useful
addition, as are the questions developed within DFMA for identifying whether parts are actually
needed in a system. This part of DFMA is closely linked to the trimming trend ideas contained in
TRIZ. Combined together, a problem solver is offered a more comprehensive list of questions to
ask when considering the simplification of technical (or indeed business) situations. There appears
little scope for additional high level conceptual integration between TRIZ and DFX. The creation of
combined DFMA plus function analysis plus trimming tools appears to offer benefits in terms of
use-ability.
TRIZ and axiomatic design (AD)

The integration of AD and TRIZ has already been discussed by Mann (1999). TRIZ can be used to
show that the AD axioms have some very meaningful exceptions, and that they are thus not
axioms, but nevertheless, axiomatic design still offers designers a series of useful rules to help
define and achieve good design. The likely future complementarity between AD and TRIZ
currently appears to be restricted to the incorporation of these useful rules into the solution
evaluation part of TRIZ, although the AD scheme for correlating the functional requirements of a
system to the selected design parameters to the subsequent method of manufacture may offer some
additional benefits to TRIZ.
TRIZ and Viable System Model (VSM)

Stafford Beers Viable System Model emerged from the study of organisation structures and
resulted in two very important conceptual findings. The first involved the identification of five
essential elements that a system had to contain if it were to be viable. The second involved the
idea of recursiveness and the discovery that the five element viability test still applied at different
hierarchical levels of consideration of a system organisation structure. Mann (2001a) describes how
this first finding contradicts the TRIZ definition of system completeness and how it ultimately
therefore provides a stronger definition of completeness than TRIZ (interested readers might also
like to examine CREAX (2002) which provides an alternative perspective on the Law of System
Completeness). The second concept of recursion is still only just being introduced into TRIZ (and
the higher order systematic creative design system proposed in this paper), and is believed to offer
significant scope for fundamental conceptual evolution of systematic creativity.
TRIZ and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA)

There are a growing number of available methods for enabling problem solvers to make legitimate,
recordable and reproducible apples versus oranges comparisons between different systems.
Several such techniques most notably the logarithmic scaling techniques of Lodge (1981) offer
the potential to enhance the solution evaluation aspects of TRIZ. Software implementations of
integrated TRIZ/MCDA can be expected to appear in the very near future.
TRIZ and Six Sigma

As described by Domb (2001), Six-Sigma is more a decision than a method. At a detailed level,
there are a number of potentially useful tools and techniques contained in (but not necessarily
created by) Six Sigma. These tools centre mainly around the process of problem measurement, and
specifically variants of Shewhart/Deming based statistical process control techniques. They offer
the potential for some small beneficial advance once incorporated into the problem definition
elements of TRIZ.
TRIZ and Theory of Constraints (TOC)

The process of integration of Eli Goldratts Theory of Constraints into TRIZ has also begun (Mann,
Stratton, 1999). The Theory of Constraints matches TRIZ in its recognition of the importance of
defining and eliminating contradictions and while it offers less in terms of strategies to overcome
contradictions, it does offer the Evaporating Cloud tool which does offer increased richness in terms
of increasing problem understanding and entry points for breaking the contradictions. Related to
this, but also a much more important area where TOC can be expected to enhance TRIZ comes with
its emphasis on modelling causes and effects inside systems. This area looks set to be the main
conceptual enhancement to TRIZ, but several other important TOC ideas (identification of
bottlenecks, strategies for overcoming bottlenecks for example) can be expected to find their way
into future TRIZ/systematic creativity models.
TRIZ and De Bono

The work of Edward De Bono is both extensive and widespread in its use. Many of the strategies
identified or uncovered by DeBono have direct equivalents in TRIZ for example the idea of
working back from an ideal rather than working forward from the known solution (albeit DeBono
has nothing as extreme as the Ideal Final Result strategy in TRIZ), the importance of function, the
need to shift from either/or to win/win thinking, the trend for systems to evolve in a manner which
sees complexity increase before it can decrease, and the concept of psychological inertia and tools
to overcome all exist in some form in both pieces of work. Elements of Dr DeBonos work that
have no direct equivalent in classical TRIZ include the Six Thinking Hats concept, water logic
versus rock logic and the flowscape tool, the po operator, and sur/petition concept. The
thinking hats concept and specifically the idea that different modes of thinking are treated very
differently in the human brain and so should be segmented is particularly useful in the context of
applying more complete TRIZ processes like ARIZ to more potent effect (Mann, 2001b).
TRIZ and NLP

Although instigated more recently than TRIZ, Neuro-Linguistic Programming has evolved from a
very similar philosophical startpoint. Both TRIZ and NLP have been built on the study and
abstraction of excellence. In the case of TRIZ, the global scientific and patent databases provided
the basis of method development; in the case of NLP it was cognitive science research into
linguistics, psychology, cybernetics and anthropology. Both have sought to study creativity from
the perspective of modelling known successful creative personalities. Latterly, NLP has drawn
additional knowledge from psychotherapy including Gestalt and Hypnotherapy. Perhaps these
latter two extensions have tended to draw NLP away from the mainstream somewhat, and certainly
exploitation of NLP in business or scientific practices for example is practically non-existent in

most fields of endeavour. This is undoubtedly a pity as NLP offers significantly greater richness
than TRIZ in many areas. Initial research to understand the areas of common ground and
opportunities for mutual benefit (Bridoux, Mann, 2002) between TRIZ and NLP have highlighted a
significant number of high level concepts that exist in one or the other but not both. By way of a
simple example, Reference 20 discusses the 9-window or system operator scheme in TRIZ and
how NLP can be used to extend its essentially two-dimensional space and time perspective into a
third dimension which might be called interface or relationship. Figure 4 illustrates this new threedimensional operator as an example of a concept that does not exist in either TRIZ or NLP, but
emerges purely from the integration of the two. The benefits of this integration are discussed in
more detail in Mann (2001c).
INTERFACE
Identity
Beliefs/Values
SPACE
Capabilities
Super-System
System
Sub-System
Behaviour
TIME
Physical
Past
Present
Future
Figure 4: Extension of TRIZ System Operator into 3-Dimensions Using NLP

The integration of TRIZ and NLP tools, methods and philosophies (both rightly claim to feature
such hierarchies of application) is very much at the beginning of what may be expected to be a long
and fruitful road, along which several important conceptual advances can be expected to emerge.
TRIZ and Kansei

As TRIZ extends further towards industrial design, architecture and the arts it becomes apparent
that issues like aesthetics are not well handled by current models. The idea that it is possible to
systematise those elements of design that relate to the things we describe as x-factors, the
mysterious wow, and other labels implying that we dont understand what makes one design better
than another one, is positively offensive to some. Kansei engineering on the other hand represents
an attempt to achieve exactly this kind of understanding of why people prefer one artifact over
another one. Kansei is undoubtedly also at the beginning of its evolutionary potential. It is already
possible to embody a number of Kansei principles and strategies into a tool integrated into the
TRIZ/systematic creativity framework, but too soon to speculate on whether the integration of the
two will create new high level conceptual benefits. All that can be said with any degree of certainty,
is that TRIZ is weak on aesthetic issues and that Kansei is currently the best available tool to
explore as a suitable foundation for integration.
Review of case study applications

A number of publications have been published in the last two years describing the application of the
evolved systematic creative design method to a broad spectrum of problem and opportunity
situations. Notable amongst these studies are the following:Wind-Turbine Design Mann (2002b) summarises a study to try and overcome the inherent
inability of commercial wind-turbines to operate in very high wind conditions. The paper describes
how the key to successful design in this situation is the fundamental need to depart from traditional
design trade-off design paradigms. The paper suggests that the wind-turbine is incapable of
operating in high wind conditions because current design practices force the designer to find a
compromise between two conflicting requirements; on the one hand to make the turbine strong, and
on the other, to be able to make it light. The paper highlights a situation definition process which
first seeks to find the root contradiction (as opposed to root cause which requires substantially
more data and drives users towards optimisation rather than innovation) of the problem, before
applying a range of the contradiction-elimination strategies uniquely contained within TRIZ.
Evolution of Bearing Systems Mann (2002c) reports the application of TRIZ-based technology
trend prediction methods to identify the evolutionary limits of existing bearing and lubrication
system design paradigms. The paper then goes on to explore the unused evolutionary potential
contained within the trends in order to identify future design opportunities and match them to
current and anticipated future shortfalls of bearing systems as may be seen from the perspective of
their end-users.
Process Design Applications Mitchell (2002) and Winkless (2002) respectively report the
systematic creative design capability being applied to coated paper and food manufacture process
applications. Both cases build on the importance of functional modelling and root contradiction
analysis as key problem definition stages. The two papers then show the deployment of conflict
elimination and trend evolution strategies to overcome limiting contradictions within those
processes.
Design for Sustainability Mann and Jones (2001) discuss the application of hierarchical spacetime-interface modelling strategies, and the deployment of trend prediction and resource
maximisation tools to derive novel design solutions to a variety of mobile power generation
equipment challenges. The paper concludes by suggesting that far greater levels of sustainability
may be achieved through more holistic design approaches.
Consumer Goods Mann (2002d) examines the application of the systematic creative design
process to the paradigm-shifting conception of novel consumer products in which aesthetic
requirements play a significant role in determining the success of one design solution over another.
Further ahead
We have speculated here that TRIZ is but one component of a higher level creativity capability we
have chosen to label systematic creative design. We believe that it is fundamental to the evolution
of such a systematic creative design model is that it will emerge initially at least (as detailed by
Savransky (2000)) from the integration of the different tools, methods and philosophies that
currently exist.
There are several emerging creativity models that have not so far been explored in the context of
their place in a bigger systematic creativity picture. These include game theory, chaos theory,
spiral dynamics and general periodicity. Work to explore the relevance and potential benefits of
integrating these models into the TRIZ-based model described here (or, indeed, the other way
around) has barely begun at this point in time.
10
In the meantime we all have problems to solve, and opportunities we wish to explore in inventive
ways. Some people may want just a few tools or strategies to help them, others may be looking for
a higher level start-to-finish process, and still others are looking for a higher level creativity
philosophy from which they hope everything else might emerge. In other words, we are all
different, work in different ways and want different things. There is currently no single creativity
entity that will satisfy every individual desire. If there ever is, one thing it will have to encompass is
due recognition of individual difference, and (to introduce a TRIZ concept) be self-adapting to
accommodate those differences. At a practical level, this might simply mean that person A likes
DeBono, TRIZ and QFD, while person B uses NLP and TOC and doesnt like TRIZ and that both
can still work effectively together. The aim of the systematic creative design framework is to
achieve this kind of flexibility. As with a systematic creativity s-curve, it is still early days. Our
hope is that weve at least realised a framework that offers users the prospect of tangible benefit
now.
11
References
Altshuller, G. 1988. Creativity As An Exact Science, Gordon & Breach.
Apte, P., Mann, D.L. 2002. Extending TRIZ to Help Solve Non-Linear Problems, paper presented
at TRIZCON2002, St Louis, MI.
Bridoux, D., Mann, D.L. 2002. Evolving TRIZ Using TRIZ and NLP, paper presented at
TRIZCON2002, St Louis.
CREAX Newsletter. 2002. System Completeness versus System Viability, www.creax.com, January.
Dewulf, S., Mann, D.L. 2001. Improved Function and Attribute Modelling Techniques and their
Role in the Problem Management Process, paper presented at TRIZ Future 2001 conference, Bath.
Domb, E. 2001. Using TRIZ in a Six Sigma Environment, paper presented at TRIZCON2001,
Woodland Hills, CA.
Lodge, M. 1981. Magnitude Scaling Quantitative Measurement of Opinions, Quantitative
Applications in the Social Sciences Series, Sage Publications, London.
Mann, D.L. 1999. TRIZ and Axiomatic Design: Compatibilities and Contradictions, Parts 1 and 2,
TRIZ Journal, June and August.
Mann, D.L., Stratton, R. 1999. Physical Contradictions and Evaporating Clouds, TRIZ Journal,
April.
Mann, D.L., Jones, E. 2001. Sustainable Services and Systems Through Systematic Innovation
Methods, paper presented at Centre for Sustainable Design Annual Conference, Amsterdam.
Mann, D.L. 2001a. Laws of System Completeness, TRIZ Journal, May.
Mann, D.L. 2001b. TRIZ Thinking Hats, TRIZ Journal, February.
Mann, D.L. 2001c. System Operator Tutorial: 3) Another Dimension, TRIZ Journal, December.
Mann, D.L. 2002a. Assessing The Accuracy Of The Contradiction Matrix For Recent Mechanical
Inventions, TRIZ Journal, www.triz-journal.com, February.
Mann, D.L. 2002b. Root Cause Analysis Paralysis, TRIZ Journal, May.
Mann, D.L. 2002c. Application Of Systematic Innovation Trend Prediction Tools To The Design
Of Future Bearing And Lubrication Systems, paper presented at SAE International Fluid Power
Exhibition technical conference, Las Vegas.
Mann, D.L. 2002d. Paradigm Shifts and Aesthetics, paper to be presented at TRIZ Future 2002,
Strasbourg.
Miles, L.D. 1961. Techniques of Value Analysis and Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, NY.
12
Mitchell, I., Mann, D.L. 2002. Overcoming Limiting Contradictions In A Continuous

Manufacturing Process, paper to be presented at TRIZ Future 2002, Strasbourg.
Park, R. 1999. Value Engineering A Plan For Invention, St Lucie Press.
Salamatov, Y. 1999. TRIZ: The Right Solution At The Right Time, Insytec n.v.
Savransky, S. 2000. Engineering of Creativity, CRC Press.
Terninko, J., Zusman, A., Zlotin, B., 1997. Systematic Innovation An Introduction to TRIZ, St
Lucie Press.
Vertkin, I. 2001. TRIZ Development From The Past Into The Future, keynote address at TRIZ
Future 2001 conference, Bath, UK.
Winkless, B., Mann, D.L. 2002. Changing The Game: Systematic Innovation in Food Engineering
Using TRIZ and Function Simulation Tools, paper presented at FOODSIM2002, Cork.
13
A social model of design: issues of practice and research

V. Margolin University of Illinois, Chicago, USA
S. Margolin Governors State University, USA
Abstract
Compared to the market model, little theorizing has been done to produce a model of design for
social need. This paper discusses a process of social service intervention that can address the
product needs of vulnerable populations. This process follows a problem-solving approach whereby
a professional or professional team works collaboratively with clients to improve their quality of
life. A number of options for how product designers might work with such an intervention team are
explored. The authors then outline a program of research. A multi-faceted approach to address
questions related to social design would include survey research and interviews, content analysis of
archival data, the development of case studies, participant observation, and research that centers on
the development and evaluation of socially responsible products. Questions related to the education
of a social designer are also considered.
A social model of design: issues of practice and research

Introduction
When most people think of product design, they envision products for the market, generated by a
manufacturer and directed to a consumer. Since the Industrial Revolution, the dominant design
paradigm has been one of design for the market and alternatives have received little attention. In
1972, Victor Papanek, an industrial designer and at the time Dean of Design at the California
Institute of the Arts, published his polemical book Design for the Real World, reissued the
following year in paperback. In that book he made the famous declaration that [t]here are
professions more harmful than industrial design, but only a very few of them (1973: 14). The
book, initially published in Sweden, quickly gained worldwide popularity with its call for a new
social agenda for designers. Since Design for the Real World appeared, others have responded to
Papaneks call and sought to develop programs of design for social need ranging from the needs of
developing countries to the special needs of the aged, the poor, and the disabled.
These efforts have provided evidence that an alternative to product design for the market is possible
but they have not led to a new model of social practice. Compared to the market model, there has
been little theorizing about an alternative model of product design for social need. Theory about
design for the market is extremely well developed. It cuts across many fields from design methods
to management studies and the semiotics of marketing. The rich and vast literature of market design
has contributed to its continued success and its ability to adapt to new technologies, political and
social circumstances, and organizational structures and processes. Conversely, little thought has
been given to the structures, methods, and objectives of social design. Concerning design for
development, some ideas have been borrowed from the intermediate technology movement, which
has promoted low-cost technological solutions for problems in developing countries, but regarding
the broader understanding of how design for social need might be commissioned, supported, and
implemented, little has been accomplished. Nor has attention been given to changes in the
education of product designers that might prepare them to design for populations in need rather than
for the market alone.
The field of environmental psychology has attempted to respond to the environmental needs of the
vulnerable. Those working in this field use an interdisciplinary approach to research and implement
solutions that create better living space for such populations as the mentally ill, the homeless, and
the aged (Altman and Christensen, 1990). Architects, psychologists, social workers, occupational
therapists, and others have worked together to explore the intersection of peoples psychological
needs and the landscapes, communities, neighborhoods, housing, and interior space that increase
feelings of pleasantness, arousal, excitement, relaxation and decrease feelings of fear and stress
(Nasar, 2000). There has not been a similar effort in the field of product design.
A social model of design practice

In this paper, we want to begin a new discussion of design for social need by proposing a social
model of product design practice and suggesting a research agenda that would examine and
develop it in the same way that comparable research has supported design for the market and
environmental psychology. Although many design activities can be considered as socially
responsible design sustainable product design, affordable housing, and the redesign of
government tax and immigration forms, for example we will limit this paper to a discussion of
product design within a process of social service intervention. Although we base our discussion on
the intervention model used by social workers, a similar model could also be applied to
collaborations with health care professionals in hospitals and other health care settings as well as to
joint projects with teachers and educational administrators in school settings. The model could also
work with teams of experts engaged in projects in developing countries.
The primary purpose of design for the market is creating products for sale. Conversely, the main
intent of social design is the satisfaction of human need. However, we dont propose the market
model and the social model as binary opposites but instead view them as two poles of a
continuum. The difference is defined by the priorities of the commission rather than by a method of
production or distribution. Many products designed for the market also meet a social need but we
argue that the market does not and probably cannot take care of all social needs, as some relate to
populations who do not constitute a class of consumers in the market sense. We refer here to people
with low-incomes or special needs such as those due to age, health, or disability.
To develop the social model we will draw on the literature of social work, a practice whose
principal objective is to meet the needs of underserved or marginalized populations. Central to
social work theory is the ecological perspective. Social workers assess the transaction that occurs
between their client system (a person, family, group, organization, or community) and the domains
within the environment with which the client system interacts. Various domains that impact human
functioning are the biological, psychological, cultural, social, natural, and physical/spatial (Furr,
1997; Germain and Gitterman, 1986). The physical/spatial domain, which concerns us in this paper,
is comprised of all things created by humans such as objects, buildings, streets, and transportation
systems. Inadequate or inferior physical surroundings and products can affect the safety, social
opportunity, stress level, sense of belonging, self-esteem, or even physical health of a person or
persons in a community. A poor fit with one or more of any key domains may be at the root of the
client systems problem, thus creating a human need.
For example, a group of children is acting out in a pre-school. An initial diagnosis blames their
parents for having poor child-rearing skills. A social worker is asked to organize the parents in a
group to teach them better child-rearing practices. The assumption here is that the parents will apply
these skills and their childrens behavior will improve. When the group meets, the social worker
learns that the parents are under tremendous stress due to multiple problems: lack of money because
of inability to find a job; low wages in available jobs; scarce transportation to get to work in distant
places; unsafe surroundings; broken playground equipment on a cement lot; and inadequate and
unsafe elevators in their apartment buildings. It is clear that the issues with which the parents are
dealing go beyond poor child-rearing skills, thus requiring that other factors, including those in the
physical/spatial domain, must be addressed.
Social workers tend to follow a model of generalist practice, a six-step problem-solving process that
includes engagement, assessment, planning, implementation, evaluation, and termination. The
entire process is conducted in a collaborative manner with the client system. Other human service
professionals may be brought in as part of the intervention. In the engagement phase, the social
worker listens to the client system and gets a sense of the presenting problem. In the next phase,
assessment, the social worker looks holistically at the client systems interaction within the various
environmental domains. The aim of an assessment is not to take a problem at face value but to look
more deeply and more broadly at the client system in the total environment to get at the roots of the
problem. The outcome of the assessment phase is a list of different needs to be addressed. In the
third phase, planning, the social worker collaborates with the client system to prioritize the needs,
trying to determine what is most pressing. Then the social worker and the client system brainstorm
in order to devise different solutions. They talk about various ideas and collaboratively decide what
will work best. Together the client system and the social worker make a list of goals and objectives
and decide who will do what by when. In the implementation phase, the intervention is guided by
the goals and objectives that have already been agreed upon.
In settings such as hospitals or schools, social workers are members of teams that include other
professionals. Among these might be psychologists, speech therapists, occupational therapists, or
probation officers. The team works collaboratively to assess a problem, and different team
members intervene as needed. The ways in which product designers could participate in a team
process with human service professionals are yet to be explored, particularly the designers
involvement in the physical/spatial domain
Lawton (1990) describes a research project for the elderly that sought to learn about the deficiencies
in the home environment and the way people cope with them. A social worker, an architect, a
psychologist, and an occupational therapist visited the homes of fifty highly impaired older people
who were managing to live alone. One of the teams findings was that many of the people they
observed had set up control centers in an area of their living room that allowed them to view the
front door and, through the window, the street. The nearby placement of a telephone, radio, and
television also enabled them to have social contact with the outside world. Additionally, on a table
within reach were medicine, food, reading material, and other items of use. If a product designer
had been on this intervention team, he or she would no doubt have been stimulated to create
products that could serve the low mobility needs of this older population.
To advance the discussion of how the product designer might collaborate with an intervention team,
we would like to suggest the following options. During the assessment phase, the designer, either as
a member of an intervention team or as a consultant, might be able to identify factors that contribute
to a problem. In the planning phase, a designer could develop intervention strategies related to the
physical environment. During implementation, the designer could create a needed product or work
with the client system to design one.
These strategies differ from Papaneks (1973) proposals for social action in Design for the Real
World. Papanek pits socially responsible designers against a commercial market that thrives on the
production of excessive and useless products. By harshly criticizing the market economy, he limits
the options for a social designer. Papanek argues that socially responsible designers must organize
their own interventions outside the mainstream market, yet he gives little guidance as to how this
might be done. We believe that many professionals share the goals of designers who want to do
socially responsible work, and therefore we propose that both designers and helping professionals
find ways to work together. In short, we believe that designers will find many more allies in
professions related to health, education, social work, aging, and crime prevention than are evident
in Papanek s analysis.
Nonetheless, Papaneks book (1973) is extremely helpful in describing the kinds of social products
a designer might create. Using as a framework a socially-oriented design office, Papanek provides
long lists of products that address social needs. Among these are teaching aids of all kinds including
aids to transfer knowledge and skills to those with learning difficulties or physical disabilities;
training aids for poor people who are trying to move into the work force; medical diagnostic
devices, hospital equipment, and dental tools; equipment and furnishings for mental hospitals;
safety devices for home and work; and devices that address pollution problems, Some of these
products, particularly medical and hospital equipment, are already produced for the market, but
there are certainly many that are not manufactured because a market cannot be identified for them.
A research agenda for social design

Design is most often understood by the public as an artistic practice that produces dazzling lamps,
furniture, and automobiles. This is how it is generally presented by the media and the museums.
One reason why there is not more support for social design services is the lack of research to
demonstrate what a designer can contribute to human welfare.
A broad research agenda for social design must begin by addressing a number of questions. What
role can a designer play in a collaborative process of social intervention? What is currently being
done in this regard and what might be done? How might the publics perception of designers be
changed in order to present an image of a socially responsible designer? How can agencies that
fund social welfare projects and research gain a stronger perception of design as a socially
responsible activity? What kinds of products meet the needs of vulnerable populations?
A multi-faceted approach can be taken to explore these questions. Survey research and interviews
with human service professionals, designers, and agency administrators can be conducted to gather
information on perceptions and attitudes and to solicit suggestions for change. Content analysis of
archival data such as journals, periodicals, and newspapers can be used to gain insight into how the
media report on issues of social design.
Another research method is participant observation. This entails designers entering social settings
either as part of a multidisciplinary team or alone to observe and document social needs that can be
satisfied with design interventions. For example, this was done in the research project conducted by
Lawton (1990) that we described earlier, except that an architect rather than a product designer was
on the investigative team.
There is also research that centers on the development and evaluation of socially responsible
products. When designers have ideas for new products, they need to conduct research on how to
translate their ideas into a finished design. They also need to evaluate these products in actual
situations to test their effectiveness. Finally, there is a need for case studies that document examples
of social design practice.
The combined research methods we have outlined are intended to explore a range of questions that
extend from the broad social context within which designers work to the specifics of developing a
product for a particular client system. The scope of research for social design includes public and
agency perceptions of designers, the economics of social interventions, the value of design in
improving the lives of underserved populations, a taxonomy of new product typologies, the
economics of manufacturing socially responsible products, and the way that such products and
services are received by populations in need. Until now, the social interventions of designers have
been hit or miss with few successes to point the way towards social support for more of the same.
The education of social designers

Design skills cut across all situations but skills in relating to vulnerable or marginalized populations
rather than to a brief from a manufacturer need to be developed by future designers. Students of
social design will have to learn more about social needs and how they are currently addressed by
helping professionals. They might do an internship with a clinical team in a psychiatric hospital, a
community agency, or residential facility for the elderly. They would also require a stronger
background in sociology, psychology, and public policy. As far as we know, there are no university
programs that specifically train social designers. We can, however, cite as a good beginning the one
year certificate program of Archeworks, a private educational institution in Chicago that is
dedicated to advancing a socially responsible design agenda. Each year Archeworks introduces a
small interdisciplinary group of students from varied intellectual backgrounds to a process of social
design that has resulted in a number of projects and studies including a device for people with
Alzheimers Disease to facilitate their getting into an automobile, a head-pointer designed for
people with cerebral palsy, and a new model office environment for the Illinois Department of
Human Services. In most cases, projects have been conducted in collaboration with social service
organizations or agencies and many have been funded by grants from public and private sources
(Archeworks, 2000).
Conclusion
Our purpose in this paper has been to describe a new social model of design practice and to
suggest a research agenda through which important questions related to the emergence of such a
practice can be addressed. A social model of design practice is needed more than ever, and we are
hopeful that concerned designers, design researchers, helping professionals, and design educators
will find ways to bring it about.
References
Altman, Irwin. and Christensen, Kathleen, eds.1990. Environmental and Behavior Studies:
Emergence of Intellectual Traditions. New York: Plenum Press.
Archeworks, 2000. Archeworks: An Alternative Design School, 2002/2003. Chicago: Author.
Furr, L.Allen. 1997. Exploring Human Behavior and the Social Environment. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Germain, Carel.B and Gitterman, Alex. 1986. The Life Model Approach to Social Work Practice
Revisited. In Social Work Treatment: Interlocking Theoretical Approaches, edited by F. J. Turner.
New York: Free Press.
Lawton. M.Powell. 1990. An Environmental Psychologist Ages. In Environmental and Behavior
Studies: Emergence of Intellectual Tradition, edited by I. Altman, and K. Christensen. New York:
Plenum Press.
Nasar, Jack .L. 2000. The Evaluative Image of Places. In Person-Environment Psychology: New
Directions and Perspectives, edited by W. B. Walsh, K. H. Crain, and R. H. Price. Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Papanek, V. 1973. Design for the Real World; Human Ecology and Social Change. New York:
Bantam Books,
The design of product/service systems from a designers

perspective
N. Morelli Centre for Design, RMIT University, Australia
Abstract
In the age of globalisation and information technology, corporate strategies are challenged to bring
production in line with a complex demand, which requires a substantial shift from production of
goods to the provision of knowledge-intensive systemic solutions. Such solutions usually consist
product-service systems, i.e. a marketable set of products and services capable of jointly fulfilling a
user's need. Given their strategic relevance, such solutions have rightly been widely discussed in
management and marketing disciplines. In the Design discipline instead, the methodological
implications of the design of PSS have rarely been discussed even though design components play a
critical role in their development.
This paper aims at contributing to the debate about a new role for designers in the definition of
innovative PSS. The paper illustrates the design process of a service (an urban telecentre),
emphasising the main methodological problems arising in the process and introducing the
methodological tools used to understand the nature of the service.
The findings from the research project reported in this paper are expected to provide elements for
discussion in the debate about the methodological implications of the expansion of designers
competence: from the design of industrial products to the definition of the technological, cultural,
organisational and social aspects of the design of a PSS.
The design of product/service systems from a designers

perspective
Introduction
In the new era, markets are making way for networks, and ownership is steadily being replaced by
access. Companies and consumers are beginning to abandon the central reality of modern economic
life the market exchange of property between sellers and buyers (Rifkin 2000: 4).
Rifkins analysis of the ongoing separation between markets and property is based on the deduction
that the main objects of exchange in the new era are no longer material products, but culturalintensive services. Exchanging goods is less important than sharing access to services and
experiences between servers and clients, Rifkin (2000: 52) argues. Such a perspective shift requires
companies to re-focus their activities from the production of products to the provision of knowledge
intensive systemic solutions (Butera 1990), (Bucci 1992), (Manzini 1993), based on a different mix
of products and services. The consequences of such a shift are quite clear to management and
marketing disciplines, which have already extended their cultural domains from production to
consumption processes (Albrecht and Zemke 1985), (Normann 2000).
Although the relevance of sharing experience between servers and clients emphasises the role of
designers in the definition of the value of transactions in the new age, such a large cultural change
has rarely been discussed within the design community. One of the reasons for the notable absence
of the design discipline in such a debate is the common view that designers activities usually deal
with material artefacts (whether industrial products, spaces or architectures), rather than on
systemic solutions including services. However some scholars such as Manzini, have repeatedly
emphasised the need for the design discipline to consider the extension of its domain to include
product/service systems (PSS) (Manzini 1993a, 1993b).
The contribution of designers to the definition of PSS would offer a better insight into several
aspects, including the technological potentials of PSS focused business and an enhanced
comprehension of users' behaviour and attitudes with respect to new products, technologies and
services. Most importantly, the design approach would be critical in the translation of cultural and
social needs emerging in the new economic system into a set of concrete elements that characterise
the experience to be exchanged by clients and servers in a PSS.
On the other hand the extension of the design domain from product to services implies a cultural
change in the design perspective and requires that the designers put themselves in a different
position with respect to old competencies (such as technological and cultural competencies) and
new ones (such as socio-economic and managerial competencies).
The TeleCentra research project has proven to be an excellent opportunity to explore such a
disciplinary shift in the design domain. This paper describes and discusses this project, which
focuses on the design of a specific PSS: an urban telecentre.
Product/service systems: what are they? Why they are relevant to designers?
PSS emerge from the need for companies to extend their mission from the production of material
products to the definition of knowledge intensive solutions targeted to specific consumption sectors.
Goedkoop et al defines a PSS as a marketable set of products and services capable of jointly
fulfilling a user's need (Goedkoop, van Halen, Riele and Rommens 1999: 18).
The element of novelty, from the design perspective, comes from the service component of the PSS:
[] Services do not qualify as property. They are immaterial and intangible. They are performed,
not produced. They exist only at the moment they are rendered. They cannot be held, accumulated,
or inherited. While products are bought, services are made available. In a service economy, it is
human time that is being commodified, not places or things. Services always invoke a relationship
between human beings as opposed to a relationship between a human being and a thing (Rifkin
2000: 84).
Because PSS are generated by the convergence of different actors during the use phase the
experiential attributes of the PSS need to be thoroughly planned. This makes the design of PSS
particularly relevant to designers.
The focus of PSS on the consumption system requires that the traditional domain of design
activities, logically located between the domains of technological innovation and management, be
extended to new cultural domains, where a thorough understanding of consumption processes is
possible (Figure 1)
Figure 1: Traditional and new domains for designers' activities
The new logical location of design activity introduces new challenges:

a) If the relationship between designers and users takes place during the direct contact with the
users, the interaction between users and the service needs to be accurately planned, in order
to address service needs, this means that a new design management methodology needs to
be introduced, to manage the pre-definition phase of the PSS.
b) Users shape the service, as well as designers and service providers do, this requires a better
understanding of users cultural, social and technological frames
c) If the service is a diachronic event, new tools need to be introduced, in order to control and
address the sequence of such events.
The following section reports on the TeleCentra research project in order to provide the elements
for a discussion on such challenges.
The case study

The PSS developed in the project is a telecentre, that is a service that provides office space and
related facilities to be let for very short periods of time (from an hour upwards) for work activities.
The service is located in a central area of Melbourne, close to the CBD; therefore its potential users
are those who visit the CBD from outer urban areas or other cities rather than telecommuters.
The process described in this paper refers to all the phases preceding the commercial phase. At
present, the TeleCentra service is not yet available on a commercial basis.
The design process

The design process of the telecentre consisted in an iterative sequence of phases in which problems
generated solutions, which in turn, redefined new problems. The process was articulated in the
following phases:
Value proposition. Definition of the needs to be fulfilled by the PSS
Definition of target users. Definition of a profile of prospective users
Analysis perceived competitor services. Analysis of the competitor services.
Product/service concept. Definition of the conceptual structure for the PSS
Use-case analysis. Analysis of several conditions of use on the basis of the available research and
information. The hypotheses generated in this phase are used to define key functions, requirements
and priorities
Prototype architecture. A prototype service is proposed in this phase, on the basis of the
indications in the previous phases
Test. The tentative architecture is tested in order to generate use patterns and other indications on
the effectiveness of the tentative solution
Final definition. Redefinition of the tentative architecture.
Value proposition
The value proposition is a short synthetic sentence that defines the main function of the PSS in
terms of the function it is going to perform and the added value proposed by the new PSS. The
value proposition of the TeleCentra is expressed in the following statement:
A system of physical and virtual tools and facilities that support nomadic workers and
virtual work teams by providing both an access point to a virtual office and a temporarily
inhabited physical space close to the Melbourne CBD.
The services added value with respect to existing services of this kind is determined by:
1)
the geographical location; unlike other telecentres TeleCentra is located close to the
Melbourne CBD; and
2)
its characteristic of being a temporarily inhabited space; the concept of inhabiting the
space refers to a professional and customisable space, alternative to the traditional office
space, in which particular activities can be undertaken, such as isolated work (away from the
distractions of the office) and meetings.
Users analysis
A survey and a series of interviews helped identify and describe different profiles of potential users.
Among them the most interesting profiles were those of telecommuters (i.e. people who divide their
work activity between their home office and their corporate office) and nomadic workers (i.e.
people working from many different locations).
A profile of those two categories of workers emerges by the interpretation of the data gathered
through the filter of a set of criteria, which, according to Bijker (1995,: 122-127), define the sociotechnical framework of each group:
Goals, (the needs each group wants to satisfy in relation to specific aspects of their work activities)
Key problems, (the problems to be solved for each group in order to achieve their goals)
Problem solving strategies, (the strategies each group believes to be admissible and effective in
solving the main problems)
Requirements to be met by problem solving strategies, (the admissibility and effectiveness
criteria for problem solving strategies)
Current theories, (theoretical knowledge supporting the activity of each group in setting goals,
identifying and selecting problems and proposing admissible problem solving strategies)
Tacit knowledge, (practice based knowledge upon which each group relies to set goals, identify
and select problems and propose admissible problem solving strategies)
Testing procedures, (procedures each group uses to evaluate the effectiveness of each problem
solving strategy)
Design methods and criteria, (methods and parameters used for proposing technological solutions
to emerging needs)
Users practice, (users attitudes towards the existing solutions to the present needs)
Perceived substitution function, (products, services or sets of functionalities each group believes
to be replaced by the proposed PSS)
Exemplary artefacts (products and services that are used as models in developing new solutions.
Often deriving from the perceived substitution function)
The analysis of these parameters reveals specific needs, problems, problem solving criteria and tacit
knowledge related to nomadic work (Table 1).
Telecommuters
Nomadic workers
Goals
Better time management for office

and personal activities.
Telecommuting as a choice.
Compensating physical distance with logical

contiguity. Nomadic work as a necessity.
Key
problems
Reducing redundancies and

optimising resources when working in
two different locations.
Finding dedicated working spaces.

Making data and reference material available in
every possible location.
Problem
solving
strategies
Have adequate facilities to work at

home. Large portable memory support
(Zip disks, CD ROM) to transfer files.
Creating similar environment at home
and in the office.
Reducing volume and weight of the material

transported in nomadic movements.
Use of a laptop or reliance on local Internet
connection to retrieve personal files and reference
material.
Requirement
s to be met
by problem
solving
strategies
Software, reference material and

previously saved files must be
available and usable by both home
and office computers.
Availability of software, reference material and

previously saved files in every work location. When
using Internet connection large bandwidth
connection is needed.
Current
theories
Telecommuting is an alternative to
traditional office work that is suitable
for those who cannot commute every
day.
There are no theoretical references to describe

nomadic work.
Tacit
knowledge
Desktop usage. File transferred using

floppy disks or email attachment.
Minimal knowledge is required to
perform day-to-day information
management operations.
Laptop usage as the ideal solution to achieve

complete independence. More problems solving
capability is required for technical problems when
far from the office. Files and personal information
are retrieved through the internet using complex file
transfer procedures
Design
methods and
criteria
Dedicated space to work at home.
Minimal infrastructure to support nomadic work.

Transportable storage (eg small luggage) is needed
for paper documents.
File storage supports (eg Zip drives, CD ROM) must
be compatible with the standard facilities available in
Internet cafs, telecentres, airport lounges.
Users
practice
Familiarity with those applications

that are needed for working in both
locations.
Familiarity with the most known applications for

managing and exchanging files included Internetbased applications.
Perceived
substitution
function
The traditional working environment.
When nomadic work is a necessity, rather than a

choice (eg salesmen) there is no perceived
substitution function.
Exemplary
artefacts
Office workstations and professional

settings.
Table 1: A profile of telecommuters and nomadic workers, according to Bijker's criteria.

(Bijker 1995)
Perceived competitor services

The perceived competitor services of TeleCentra are chiefly the result of the increasing use of IT as
a support to work activities. In some cases these services stem indirectly from this phenomenon.
For instance, the increased connectivity between geographically remote locations makes possible
the decentralisation of many office-related functions (Morelli 2001).
The analysis of competitors has been undertaken by applying the same criteria used in the users
analysis. It is assumed, indeed, that technological infrastructures and services included in the
analysis are themselves the result of the interaction between different actors and different sociotechnical frames. By applying (where possible) the same analytical filter the researcher aims at
gaining a better understanding of the socio-technical frames of the actors who shaped such services
(Table 2). Furthermore, this filter makes it possible to comprehend existing models to which
TeleCentra customers refer.
Competitors Serviced Offices
Internet Cafs
Neighbourhood
Centres
Airport Lounges
Criteria
Goals
To accommodate
medium term
office activities
and reducing their
capital costs
To provide access to
the Internet for Web
surfing, mail and
chat. Mainly
designed for
tourists.
To provide cheap
access to local (not
necessarily
computer literate)
community.
To provide access and

basic working space to
businessmen, between
their flights
Key problems
Large bandwidth
access. As many
workstations as
possible
Reduced space for
non computerperformed
functions.
Reduce costs of
infrastructure and
connection, in order
to reduce usage fees
Second hand
computers. Avoid
cutting-edge
technology.
Travels should bring

about minimal disruption
of working activities.
Problem solving
strategies
Need for medium

term temporary
offices in centra
metropolitan areas.
Provision of space
plus accessory
services (e.g.
reception,
secretarial
assistance)
Require-ments
to be met by
problem solving
strategies
Professional
services, technical
assistance.
Privacy.
Quick connection.
Low privacy
concerns. Fast and
reliable billing
system. Basic
software
applications.
Acceptable level of
access and
connection speed.
User friendliness.
Basic technica
assistance
Professional settings,
privacy, basic technical
assistance, Basic
software applications,
convivial and relaxing
environment.
Current
theories and
tacit knowledge
This service
increases small
and large business
flexibility
Internet replaces
expensive phone
calls when
travelling.
Need to expand
computer literacy
and Internet use in
disadvantaged
communities
Increased connectivity
reduces working
problems for remote
workers, when
travelling.
Design methods
and criteria
Shared facilities
and services,
representative
spaces. Computers
are not necessarily
included in the
service
Small cubicula to
accommodate a
computer.
(sometimes) coffee
area.
Adaptation of
spaces and
infrastructure
designed for other
functions.
Cubicula for computerrelated and private

working activities.
Meeting spaces
contiguous to lounge and
waiting areas
Users practice
Use of the services

offered as in
traditional offices.
Users are supposed

to be familiar with
basic Internet
applications
No particular
knowledge is
needed.
Users are supposed to be

familiar with the basic
hardware and software
applications
Perceived
substitution
function
Ownership of the
office space and
related office
services
Telephone (for
communication).
Home computer.
Computer and working

space contiguous to
lounge and waiting areas
Telephone (for
communication)
traditional office space.
Table 2: Analysis of the perceived competitor services according to their related sociotechnical frames
Definition of the product/service concept

The previous considerations provide indications about the needs to be fulfilled by the telecentre,
however there is no indication about the actual solutions to be offered with this particular PSS.
Furthermore, the above analysis does not provide any indication about what the telecentre could
become in the future.
The conceptual definition of the components of the telecentre must be articulated according to such
short and long term perspectives. In the short term the project will focus on a simple system of
products and services that satisfy the basic demands for support from nomadic workers. Such a
system should include physical and virtual elements. The main attributes of each component should
also be listed in this phase.
Use case development

Use cases are short stories about hypothetical users behaviours. The behaviour of possible
TeleCentra customers was deduced from the analysis of existing telecentres and from the
brainstorming sessions in which the value proposition and the PSS definition were formulated. Use
cases are employed to articulate problems in such a way that assists in generating a list of specific
requirements.
Use cases were described in a standard format including an actors name (usually indicated by a
common personal name), a short description of a flow of events and some indication about preconditions (i.e. conditions that have to be true before the flow of events start) and post-conditions
(i.e. conditions that have to take place at the end of the flow of events). The development of the use
case generates a list of products and services included in the system. The following section clearly
demonstrates the capability of this technique to generate a set of requirements needed in the PSS.
An example of a use case is outlined below.
Use Case 1
Title: John wants to edit his CV
Actors:
John, when using the telecentre to edit his CV
The receptionist welcoming, informing and billing John
The room assistant, assisting John
Flow of events:
John enters the telecentre
The receptionist welcomes John
The receptionist informs John about available workstations
The receptionist introduces John to the room assistant
The room assistant guides John to the workstation
John logs in and works on his CV
Time spent by John working on his CV
John finishes his work, saves the file and approaches the billing person (it could be the receptionist)
The receptionist updates Johns membership card (that helps John keep track of his use of the
telecentre)
Pre-conditions: John is a registered user of the telecentre (he has a login and password that allow
him to access the telecentres network and computers)
Post-conditions John has a saved copy of his edited CV in his online directory on the telecentres
server (or on a floppy disk).
A schematic representation of the interaction between users and products and services included in
this particular scenario is outlined in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Flow chart of user interaction with products and services for Use Case 1
Figure 2 represents the service cycle and provides information about:
1)
2)
3)
Processes
Performer of the process
Physical location of the process
However the representation in Figure 2 only includes the elements of the service cycle that are
visible to the user. A more comprehensive representation of the service cycle includes intangible
elements and technical and maintenance services provided to maintain the quality of the service.
The blueprint for the service cycle related to this scenario is represented in Figure 3.
10
Figure 3: Complete description for Use Case 1

Functional requirements for the telecentre (i.e. requirements about product and service components
needed for the system to perform the required functions) can be directly deduced by the use case.
Figure 4 is a schematic representation of the requirements logically inferred from the use case,
representing the main elements, their characteristics and their interaction.
11
Figure 4: Schematic representation of products and services for Use Case 1

The iteration of several use cases similar to the one described above provides a list of functional
requirements and related attributes as in Table 3. Budget constraints and technological limitations
require a prioritisation process for the inclusion of components and the improvement of the
attributes.
12
Functional Components
Priority
Attributes
Priority
Comments
Spaces for computing,

including Internet connected
workstations
High
Separate enough to guarantee privacy, at

the same time; located in a way that
makes team work possible, when
necessary.
High
Commercially available office furniture

was used. The model for this space was
the Den. (Duffy and Powell 1997), ie an
interactive but semi-autonomous open
space.
Large enough to allow for working with

paper documents and other cumbersome
working support.
Settings and colours of the space had to be

familiar to the customers.
At least one separate office

(to be used by home based
business to meet clients or
recruitment interviews)
High
Professional setting, Internet connected.
High
Spaces for laptop users
High
It must be equipped with Internet access

and access to printers and the local
server.
High
Graphic workstation
High
Access to scanner, colour printer and

large monitor.
High
Advanced graphic design software.
Medium
Spaces for meeting
Fax, photocopiers, b/w and

colour printers, scanners
High
High
At least 8-10 people.
High
Multimedia facilities and Internet

access.
Medium
Located in shared spaces, easy to access

and to use.
High
Automated meters and payment

systems.
Medium
Available in every work station
High
Phone Lines
High
Desks for casual visitors with

their laptop or who do not
need a computer
High
Internet-connected server
High
Secure access.
High
Technical assistance
High
Available full time
High
Memory space for personal

files
Medium
Small space, connected to the service.
High
Large, fee-based file and personal

management service.
Medium
Secure access.
High
Classroom equipped with several

workstations.
Medium
Training room
Medium
A reception space and service
High
Fast information service.
High
Payment system
High
Based on membership.
High
Budget limitations, depending on demand.

Budget limitations, depending on demand.
Budget and technological limitations.
Technological limitation, a system needs

to be designed for this specific purpose.
Already available, use depending on
demand.
Make it possible for users to keep track

of their usage of the service.
Automated.
Devices for large memory
support (eg CD burner, Zip
drivers)
Medium
Synchronisation devices for

palmtops
Low
Based on Infrared or Blue Tooth

technology.
Small Caf or water cooler

space for casual meetings
Medium
Close to the working area, but separated,

in order not to disturb other workers.
Small shop for stationery
Medium
Medium
Budget and technological limitations.

Budget limitations.
Low
Low percentage of laptop users,

technological limitation.
Space limitations.
Depending on demand.
Table 3: Functional components, attributes and priorities of a tentative architecture
Prototype architecture
In this phase the requirements deriving from the use cases and scenario development are translated
into a prototype architecture of the service. The generation of a prototype architecture is based on
the definition of functional components of the service and their attributes. The choice of building to
be occupied by the telecentre was driven by the availability of spaces. The prototype service was
13
located on the first level of a building and distributed over four rooms, across which the various
functions were distributed. The floor plan of the telecentre as designed in this phase is reproduced
in Figure 5.
Figure 5: First TeleCentra floor plan

The reception area and a large training room were located on the ground level. Some of the shared
facilities were located close to the working space (eg fax, printers and scanners). Others were
placed closer to the reception area to facilitate supervision and access from users who were not
using the telecentres computer work spaces.
Access limited by membership would preserve the professional characteristics of the environment
and to avoid improper use of the service. Membership cards would record customers login details
and service usage.
Customers would have the option to pay for the card in advance at a discounted price, in order to
encourage return visits to the telecentre. Depending on budget availability, the card could be
replaced with an electronic card that records all transactions at the telecentre (photocopies, usage,
fax, phone calls, etc). Membership cards can be defined as service evidence, i.e. an element that is
visible to the consumer, but not critical to the sequence of events that constitute the service.
According to Shostack (1982) the role of such elements is essential for the client to recognise and
judge the value of the service (like bus tickets).
The economic restrictions imposed by the project budget were not the only reason why the adoption
of an automatic payment system was excluded in the first phase of development. In fact, it was also
important that new clients found a familiar and friendly environment in which the direct contact
14
with the telecentre personnel could help in the understanding of the various opportunities offered by
this kind of service.
Test phase
The telecentre was opened for 6 months to run a test phase. During this period, the telecentres
service was offered at a discounted price to prospective users. Furthermore, some groups of people
were invited to use the telecentre as testers, in order to verify some of the functions. Information
brochures about the telecentre were distributed in the local area (especially in hotels and serviced
apartments) and through some organisations. The test phase focused on some critical design
aspects, such as:
Facilities usage (What facilities and functions were used most often?)
Performance (Do all the services offered perform at acceptable levels?)
Continuity (Does the process flow smoothly for each of the services offered to customers?)
Communications (Do clients find all the communication needs they require to work
independently?)
The test phase introduced some strategic issues upon which to focus, such as:
-
Improvement of the functions in the computer room
Redesign of the separate office
Improvement of the facilities available in the meeting room
A more professional image to be communicated to customers in order to generate an

environment closer to the concept of a club.
Improvement of the reception space
More efficient infrastructure (Internet connection, photocopiers, fax)
Staff training and coordination
More transparent billing system
Improved communication between the functional units
Design of a computer interface to empower customer use, i.e. to facilitate the use of the
services offered.
Final definition of the service

In this phase the service had been defined to the point where the project team believed the telecentre
was sufficiently developed to be launched commercially. Several changes were included in this
phase. The main change consisted in moving the telecentre to new premises where technical
problems with Internet access, phone network and reception management could be solved. A larger
and more comfortable separate office and a larger meeting room were also available in the new
location.
The functions of reception, booking and coordination of the working space were unified and
managed by the same personnel.
15
Some features of the new premises (such as a small courtyard and a kitchen) were used to
emphasise the character of a stress-free environment, in which users could attend their meeting or
get their professional work done in a quiet and relaxed setting.
Such a characteristic required that the value proposition be readdressed, providing a new attribute of
the physical and virtual services to be offered. The marketing campaign designed for the telecentre
also addressed this characteristic, which seemed to add considerable value to the service.
Discussion
In this section some aspects emerging from this case study, which are relevant to the designers
perspective, will be discussed. The section will focus on three main points:
1)
2)
3)
The generation of a design management methodology for the pre-use phase of a service;
The analysis of socio-technical frameworks converging in the PSS;
The definition of methodological tools to control the flow of events and to represent
attributes and components of a service.
Product design VS service design: a comparison

To what extent can product design and development methodologies be exported into the definition
of a service?
As seen before, products and services are produced and defined according to different timeframes:
while products are relatively well defined in their physical structure before they come in contact
with the user, services are defined by the interaction with the user. Existing product development
methodologies do not focus on post-sale phases, while the development of a service takes places
mainly in the use phase that should be carefully planned and managed, as proposed by Ramaswamy
(1996) (Figure 6).
Figure 6: The service design and management process as proposed by Ramaswamy

Furthermore, the existing product development methodology cannot be simply transposed to service
design because of the very nature of the service, in which the immaterial component has a critical
role. The process described in this paper is an iterative sequence of problematic and propositional
phases. The problematic phases aim at acquiring as much information as possible, in order to
implement the conceptual and operational structure of the service, while the propositional phases
16
are temporary configurations of the service. Problematic and propositional phases generate a
process of co-evolution, which qualify service design as a design exploration activity (Maher 1996;
Maher 1996). Although this case study only refers to the pre-definition of the service, the
management phase can be interpreted as the prosecution of such an exploration with the
involvement of customers.
Figure 7: The evolution of the design process in the TeleCentra project

The co-evolutionary approach developed in this project may offer suggestions for the development
of innovative product-development strategies. In the age of product customisation the definition of
the product is the result of a co-design process involving producers and end-users. Such a
relationship, argues Rifkin (2000: 108), is more like that between server and client than a seller and
buyer and customisation could be better managed if it were regarded as the contracting of a service.
From this perspective, the co-design of products/services should be based on intense feedback and
redefinition loops similar to the sequence of analytical and propositional phases of the TeleCentra
project.
PSS and socio-technical frameworks

The method used to generate a profile of the possible TeleCentra users is based on the assumption
that PSS are socially constructed entities, which result from the interaction of the socio-technical
frameworks of the actors involved in it.
Once possible users were identified, their profiles were compared with the socio-technical
framework of other actors involved in the telecentre, including the system of technological
infrastructure and products used. Figure 8 is a graphical representation highlighting actors,
technological infrastructure, products and services that contribute to shape the service. Each actor
either interacts directly with the service (e.g. telecommuters, nomadic workers) or interacts
indirectly by providing products and services.
17
Figure 8: A graphic description of actors, products and services involved in the TeleCentra service
It is worth stressing that technological products and infrastructure have been considered as active
agents in shaping the service, as they transfer the socio-technical framework of the actors that
generated them. The limits of Internet applications, the limitations due to security concerns and the
problems derived from the building configuration, are explained more clearly through this
approach.
This approach is suggested by social construction studies, which introduce the concept of
heterogeneous actor network as a methodological tool to understand innovation phenomena
implying strong links between social actors and inanimate objects (products and technological
systems). Callon (1989) suggests such a conceptual tool to conduct an analysis that in every stage
of the development of the PSS focuses on the continuous co-evolution of the socio-technical
framework of the various actors. The TeleCentra project approach, focuses on such networks, rather
than looking for a clear definition of the PSS as a system, which would imply the definition of the
system boundary and environment and further logical and analytical work.
From the designers perspective this approach is useful to identify the inevitable social implications
of an innovative PSS, without having to borrow the whole complexity of more traditional
sociological analysis.
Controlling events, components and attributes of a service

The design activity mainly consists in a projection into the future. In fact some languages (e.g.
Italian) use the word project to denote such activity.
18
Whilst product design has developed several methods to control such projection, because of the
specificities of services, those methods cannot be automatically transposed to service design. It is
difficult, for instance, to use product design methods, focused on material qualities, to control some
services immaterial attributes, related to time and social and cultural relations.
The use case approach in the TeleCentra project was an attempt to control such variables.
This approach is borrowed from computer system studies, where it is used to predict users'
behaviour and represent the interaction between users and the system (Cooper 1999), (Leffingwell
and Widrig 2000). Similar methods based on the description of use case scenarios, have also been
used by design firms for the development of design concepts (Covington and Hannah 1997).
Use cases are aimed at generating scenarios that represent the possible future configurations of what
is to be designed. Once a use case was generated, the next stage in the project consisted in
producing a schematic representation of the use case. Such a representation contains indications
about material elements of the service (e.g. sequence of spaces, products used) and immaterial
attributes, such as time sequences, interaction, actors involved, accessorial operations.
Such a schematic representation is the blueprint of the service. Indeed such a representation makes
it possible to communicate the service concept in a simple way.
The importance of the generation of the service blueprint is clear when some situations are
considered, such as franchising, in which the service needs to be replicated in several locations and
contexts.
Several representational techniques have been considered in the project, which derived from
computer science studies (in particular graphical representation used for use cases in the Unified
Modelling Language and the Petri Nets method), from marketing studies (Shostack 1982), and
previous design studies (Pacenti 1998).
The representations used in this project contain elements derived from such studies, with the
addition of indications that are critical to the designers activity, such as information on physical
and virtual spaces, perceivable and unperceivable elements and attributes [2].
Because of its focus on design and the capability to represent future scenarios, the use case method
can also be applied to broader strategic design studies aimed at representing short and long-term
futures. Studies on sustainability for instance, may use this approach to articulate Design-Orienting
Scenarios, which are being used to generate and evaluate possible and desirable futures in certain
consumption areas (Young 2001), (Manzini 2001).
Conclusions
The description of the design process in the TeleCentra project provides suggestions and tools for
the operational aspects related to the expansion of the design domain from the design of products to
the definition of new services. It is clear, from this project, that service design implies a
multidisciplinary approach in which designers have a critical role in a wider design team. It is also
clear that the different nature of services with respect to products challenges the traditional
designers competencies and requires a new methodological approach, which borrows methods and
tools from other disciplines.
19
This paper addresses some of the operational aspects of such a new challenge for designers. Several
aspects still need to be explored by a more extended design practice in this domain. It is clear
however, that more thorough research in this area is particularly relevant in a historical moment in
which the shift from a mature industrial phase to what Rifkin (2000) defines the age of access,
requires a thorough rethinking of the role and nature of products themselves, and consequently a
strategic repositioning of the design profession.
[1] This paper reports on the research activity undertaken for the TeleCentra project. The project
was funded by the Australian Research Council under the SPIRT scheme. This project involved an
academic institution (RMIT University) and two private partners: CoAsIt and Motile Pty. Ltd. It
was coordinated by Dr Nicola Morelli (Centre for Design at RMIT) and Prof Liddy Nevile (Motile
Pty. Ltd). The author wishes to thank Prof Liddy Nevile and Michael Abdilla for their critical
contribution to this paper and to the project.
[2] A more detailed description of the methodological exploration for the generation of a service
blueprint is in Morelli, N. 2002 (forthcoming).
20
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22

Y. Nagai Tsukuba College of Technology, Japan
H. Noguchi Chiba University, Japan
Abstract
The authors made four design experiments to know how student designers create design solutions in
translating goal description to its visual form. Firstly, in experiment 1 and 2, several thinking types
were found in the sketches of the subjects, and then confirmed that they could sum up to two
thinking modes (Metaphor mode and Form-making mode) depending on the difficulty in translating
the goal description to its visual form. In experiment 3, it was found that the subjects took varied
ways with changing thinking modes to reach final sketches depending on the difficulties of goal
descriptions. Lastly, in experiment 4, the subjects were given a very difficult goal description, and
the experimenters analyzed the sketches and words written in the sketches. As the result, some
hierarchies of meanings of goal description were found in the subjects thinking processes. The
subjects seemed to search clues of translating word to form through low-leveled words.
Consequently, the author asserted that to make creative design, designers need to go along a
thinking path with repeated changes of the thinking modes.

Introduction
Recently, computer seems to become essential tool of design works. However, designers creativity
is not increased by using computer, but rather seems to be declined. In design education, it is also
serious problem. We should pay attention to the human design activity again. In this situation, we
focused on the creative thinking process of design.
Finke made famous experiment on the creative cognition, in which they observed how the subjects
invent creative things by using given geometrical shaped parts (Finke, Ward and Smith 1992).
However, the design process usually started by setting a design goal, and designer has to generate
forms fitted to the design goal in his/her thinking process. If the thinking process shown by Finke
was a creative thinking, there might be another type of creative thinking in design. Goldschmidt had
remarkable study on the designers thinking process focused on the designers sketches
(Goldschmidt, 1994). Purcell and Gero made effort to sum up the recent studies on the relations of
designers drawings and creative thinking process (Purcell and Gero 1998). Candy and Edmonds
presented result of long time survey of certain bicycle designers thinking process (Candy and
Edmonds 1996). Maher, Poon and Boulanger presented a research on the thinking process of design
focused on the thinking path (Maher Poon and Boulanger 1996).
Based on those results, we had several experiments to know the relations of designers drawings
and creative thinking process from the view points of thinking mode and thinking path.
Experiments
For the purpose of understanding how creative thinking progresses in design process, we made four
experiments focused on drawings as important clues.
Experiment 1
Purpose of the experiment 1
The purpose of this experiment was to know how visual image of a new object is created from
verbal goal description (key words).
Procedure of experiment 1
About 80 subjects (first year class students of Chiba University) were assigned a task to design two
kinds of paperweights, one of which was to give a sense of relaxation and the other was to give a
sense of excitement. This experiment was composed of three steps in the entire process. The first
step was made for the purpose of giving training of thinking and drawing to the subjects, because
they were still in rudimentary stage in the first year design class.
At first the subjects were assigned two tasks. One was to draw the most favorite plant and the other
was to imagine an unknown plant and draw it. After a week from this initial training, the subjects
were assigned the second task that was to design a paperweight with which gives a sense of
relaxation. After 20 minutes was given for drawing, sketches were gathered and copied for using
them to examine subjects mid term output of thinking process. Then the subjects were instructed to
continue drawings. Color pencils were used for drawing this time. After 30 minutes was given for
drawing, sketches were gathered and copied again.
After a week from the last task, the subjects were assigned the third task that is to design a
paperweight with which gives a sense of excitement. The same process as the second task was
taken in this task.
Evaluation of the sketches

Methods of evaluation of sketches were made on the basis of following two ways.
Firstly, two expert design educators evaluated mid term sketches (at 20 minutes after start) in
following evaluating items by 5 steps grading (grade 3 was neutral point) on each. We thought that
two evaluators were sufficient number because the evaluation items required not so subjective
judgment and the results of evaluation would be not so different between the two evaluators.
Moreover, the evaluators were experts in design education and they used to evaluate many students
works in every days work.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Whether new form was intended to generate or not?

Whether form of ready-made objects were used or not?
What was drawing skill?
Whether a metaphor was used or not?
Whether intended to make aesthetic form or not?
Whether intended to make funny sense or not?
The number of ideas (normalized score 0 to 5).
The results of averaged grades on the evaluation items were analyzed with using the principal
component analysis method. From the result of the analysis, the values of the principal components
on each sketch were positioned onto two-dimensional distribution maps (Fig.1 and Fig.2).
4
4
36
49
3
57
17
4
17
54 48
46
18
28
20
56
34
23 24
32
8
2
10
14
30
53
26
-2
62
25
42
642737
25
26
1
38
11
21
30
-1
94513
40
66
-3
-2
-1
59
7
11
63
21
1932
47
13
2216
48
39
62
19
-3
-4
-2
15
12
14
31
-3
23 57
24
61
-2
10
3452
18 6 50
33
67
46
-1
31
9
35
-3
-4
22
51
37
27
59 55
50
63
4566
65
38
43
42
39
33
16
65
29
12
29
44 58
60
55
40
15
49
5
56
47
37
43
-1
60
58
2820
54
41
3553
51
67
61
64
36
8
52
41
44
Figure 1: (Scattered graphs of PCA, Left: relaxation, Right: excitement)

From the component loading value of each principal component, we recognized as axis X
(principal component No.1) represented creativity and axis Y (principal component No.2)
represented ability of expression.
Based on the two-dimensional distribution graphs, the first quadrant area implies creative and good
expression ability, the second quadrant area implies not creative but good expression ability, the
third quadrant area implies not creative and poor expression ability, the fourth quadrant area implies
creative but poor expression ability.
Examination of thinking process

In next step, we examined on the difference of two kinds of sketches drawn by the same subject,
those were rough sketches drawn in first 20 minutes and colored sketches drawn in next 30 minutes
in this experiment. Examination was focused on how did the subjects carry their thinking process
from the start to the end of the experiment.
As the results of the examinations, several groups of thinking types were recognized. Those were as
follows.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Type of subjects who drew sketches in evolving and modifying one sketch to get satisfied
one. We named this evolving type.
Type of subjects who drew, at first, as possible many drawings as they could imagine, then
selected one of them and refined it. We named this diverging type.
Type of subjects who drew only one or two sketches, but elaborated drawing. We named
this Adhering type.
Type of subjects who drew only one or two poor drawings. We named this Poor
imagination type.
Typical examples of sketches by those types are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: (A pair of sketches of divergent type and evolving type)
Analysis of the results of experiment 1

We looked into the relations between the number of sketches in each quadrant of the principal
components spaces and the thinking types mentioned above. Firstly, we counted the number of
samples of each thinking type in each quadrant of the principal components space. Then calculated
proportions of each thinking type in each quadrant. The results are shown in Table 1.
Evolving type
Diveging type
Adhering type
Quad I
6 (0.46)
1 (0.08)
6 (0.46)
Poor imagination type

Total
0 (0)
13
Relaxiation
Quad II Quad III
3 (0.15)
0 (0)
11 (0.55) 10 (0.67)
5 (0.25) 1 (0.07)
Excitement
Quad IV Total Quad I Quad II Quad III Quad IV
2 (0.11)
11
6 (0.4) 1 (0.07)
0 (0)
4 (0.2)
9 (0.47)
31
3 (0.2) 12 (0.86) 9 (0.56) 7 (0.35)
2 (0.11)
14 5 (0.33)
0 (0)
3 (0.17)
6 (0.3)
1 (0.05)
20
6 (0.32)
19
4 (0.27)
15
11
67
1 (0.07)
15
1 (0.07)
14
6 (0.28)
18
3 (0.15)
20
Total
11
31
14
11
67
Table 1: (The numbers of types in each quadrant)

The result was shown as follows:
1)
2)
3)
4)
The evolving type and adhering type were mostly seen in the first quadrant area of both
cases (Relaxation and Excitement).
The diverging type was scattered over the second, third and fourth quadrant areas but scarce
in the first quadrant area in both cases.
The adhering type was mostly seen in the first and second quadrant areas in case of
Relaxation, but in case of Excitement, it was mostly seen in the first fourth quadrant
areas.
The poor imagination type was mostly seen in the third and fourth quadrant areas but scarce
in the first and second quadrant areas in both cases.
From these results we found that:

a)
b)
c)
d)
Evolving type produced the most numbers of creative drawings, and most of their sketches
were abstracted forms with drawings of repeated lines.
Diverging type produced many idea sketches, and most of their sketches were cartoon like
drawings of well-known objects.
The number of ideas was not correlated to high creativity.
There was some difficulty to discriminate the adhering type and poor imagination type.
Confirmation of thinking types by preparatory drawings

As mentioned in precedent section, we assigned two preparatory tasks to the subjects before main
experiment was held, those were to draw most favorite plant and then to imagine and draw an
unknown plant. We examined and classified the way of the preparatory drawings of each thinking
type. The classification viewpoints were as follows.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Elaborative drawing
Cartoon like drawing
Intermediate (Could not categorized into (1) or (2))
As the results, we found that:

The averaged number of sketches in evolving type and diverging type were apparently larger than
the other types.
The proportion of elaborated drawings was large in evolving type and adhering type, but was
extremely small in poor imagination type, and was intermediate in divergent type.
The proportion of cartoon-like line drawing was large in divergent type and poor imagination type,
but was small in evolving type and adhering type.
Those results seemed to support our classification of the thinking types.
Experiment 2
Purpose of experiment 2
The purpose of the experiment 2 was to know how the differences of the words that were hard to
associate to form, and the word that was easy to associate to form, appear as the difference of
drawings.
This experiment was done as a part of a usual practice in first year class students of Chiba
University in Oct. 2000. About 80 subjects were assigned a task to design two kinds of flower vase
with two different keywords, one of which was give soft image and the other was humorous. 20
minutes was given for each drawing task with a ballpoint pen on a B5 paper, and finally, 74
subjects presented in both tasks.
Method of evaluation
Two expert design educators evaluated each 74 sketches with following evaluation items by 3 steps
grading.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Whether the keyword was visualized by using metaphor or not?

Whether the keyword visualized by using form itself or not?
Whether the keyword was successfully expressed in drawing or not?
Analysis on the results of experiment 2

On the basis of those evaluations, the value of rate of success was calculated in each keyword.
We found two typical thinking modes from the results, one was that tried to express a keyword by
form itself (we named it Thinking mode F) and the other was that tried to express by using
metaphor of the image from the keyword (we named it Thinking mode M). Then, we examined
the results focusing on the thinking modes.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
The number of success in expression of form of soft image was 22, and the number of
success in expression of form of humorous was 5 (Table 2).
In the group of success in expression form of soft image, the number of the thinking mode
M was 1, and the number of the thinking mode F was 14.
In the group of success in expression form of humorous, the number of the thinking mode M
was 3, and the number of the thinking mode F was 1.
In the sketches by keyword soft image, thinking mode F was 20 and thinking mode M was
3 in number.
In the sketches by keyword humorous, thinking mode M was 36 and thinking mode F was
28 in number.
Most of metaphors related to keyword soft were imaginations from plants, water and so on;
those were related with the functions of a vase. However, metaphors related to keyword
humorous were based on humorous things or humorous gestures and facial expressions.
Evaluation items__(Thinking types)
soft
humorous
Numbers of subjects
The keyword was visualized by mainly metaphor

(M)
The keyword was visualized by using form itsef
(F)
toss-up (evaluation value 2)
Total
The keyword was visualized by mainly metaphor
(M)
The keyword was visualized by using form itsef
(F)
toss-up (evaluation value 2)
Total
The keyword was

successfully expressed in
drawing
Rate of success
0.33
20
51
74
7
14
22
0.35
0.27
0.3
36
0.08
28
10
74
1
1
5
0.04
0.1
0.07
Table 2: The rate of success in two keywords
Figure 3: (A pair of sketches of F mode and M mode)

From the results, we supposed that the most of subjects used F mode when they were given
keyword soft image and used M mode when they were given keyword humorous. However, in
case of the success in expression of from with keyword humorous, most of the subjects seemed to
use F mode, too.
Experiment 3
Purpose of experiment 3
This experiment was held in October 2000 at Chiba University to know how the subjects created
different images of design objects from 5 different keywords.
The subjects were about 80 students of first year class of Department of Design and Architecture in
Chiba University. The class was divided into 5 groups (the number of members of each group was
about 15 to 16), and each group was assigned a task to design of streetlight giving different
keyword in each: calm, vigorous, familiar, cool and elegant. These keywords were selected
in consideration that they have as different meanings as possible each other. At first, the subjects
were given 60 minutes to make idea sketches, then after it, they were given 80 minutes to make a
final drawing using color pencils. The mid term sketches were gathered for examining the subjects
mid term thinking process.
Method of evaluations
Two expert design educators evaluated the drawings in each evaluation item (shown below)
according to the 3-grade system.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Whether was the keyword successfully expressed in drawing or not?

Whether was the interpretation of keyword fresh and interesting or not?
Whether was the drawing related to other keywords or not?
Whether was the keyword visualized in the form by using some metaphors or not?
Whether was the keyword visualized in the form by using form itself or not?
Whether was it good design or not?
numbers of high evaluation valued sketches (rate of success)

interpretatio
successfull
drawing
visualized
n of
number y
was not
by using visualized
Keyword
keyword
good
of
expressed
related to association by using
design
s
was fresh
sketches keyword in
form itself
s or
other
and
drawing
keywords metaphors
interesting
calm
16
3(0.15)
3(0.21)
9(0.19)
4(0.31)
7(0.20)
1(0.09)
vigorous
14
5(0.25)
5(0.36)
11(0.23)
4(0.31)
7(0.20)
1(0.09)
familiar
14
2(0.10)
2(0.14)
5(0.10)
1(0.08)
6(0.17)
1(0.09)
cool
15
6(0.30)
3(0.21)
15(0.31)
1(0.08) 10(0.29)
5(0.45)
elegant
12
4(0.20)
1(0.07)
8(0.17)
3(0.23)
5(0.14)
3(0.27)
Table 3: Results of evaluations of streetlight sketches
Analysis of the results of the experiment 3

Table 3 shows the values of rate of success in each evaluation item. The value of rate of success
was calculated by ratio of numbers of high-ranked drawings to all numbers of drawings in each
keyword.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
In the evaluation item successfully expressed keyword in drawing, the group of keyword
cool and the group of keyword vigorous were successful.
In the evaluation item the interpretation of keyword was fresh and interesting, the group of
keyword vigorous was successful.
In the evaluation item the drawing was not related to other keywords, the group of
keyword familiar seemed to be most related to other keywords. In contrary, the group of
keyword cool was seemed to have no relation to other keywords.
In the evaluation item the keyword was visualized in the form by using some associations
or metaphors, the group of keyword vigorous was in high rank order but the evaluation
value was not so high.
In the evaluation item it was good design, the group of keyword cool and the group of
keyword elegant were successful.
Figure 4: (A pair of sketches of vigorous and cool)

From these results and examined result of mid term sketches, we supposed that the subjects took
complicated thinking processes when they were given difficult keywords like vigorous or
familiar. There were some precedent researches on the thinking modes. Woo pointed out that L
mode and R mode were switched in the thinking process of design (Woo 2001). The L mode and R
mode were depended on the categories of physiological function of human brain. However, we
thought that there were more complicated relations between the physiological functions and
thinking modes. Then we needed to focus on the thinking path in relation with thinking mode when
the subject was given difficult keyword.
Experiment 4
The purpose of experiment 4
The purpose of experiment 4 was to know how create visual image from goal description that was
difficult to relate to form directly.
For getting clue of thinking process, we gathered words written in sketches and drawings during the
time subjects were thinking under the task. About 80 subjects of first year class students in Chiba
University were assigned a task to design a chair that made sad image. All the subjects developed
their ideas on B4 paper with drawings and words appeared during they thought.
Method of evaluation of experiment 4

76 sets of idea sketches and final presentation with comments were collected and evaluated by two
expert design educators based on evaluation items shown below.
(1)
Whether final form was realized keywords or not?
(2)
Whether basic function and structure of chair were realized or not?
(3)
Whether the design was fresh or not?
(4)
Whether the form was developed in the process or not?
(5)
Whether it was divergent thinking or not?
(6)
Whether the words were structured or not?
Analysis of the results of the experiment 4

We totalized the results of this experiment as follows.
(1)
The largest number of subjects (46) was seen in the item basic function and structure of
chair were realized and the smallest number was seen in the item it was divergent
thinking.
(2)
In correlation values between each item, it was seen correlation between the form realized
keyword and the design was fresh (0.49).
(3)
Weak negative correlation was seen between the items basic function and structure of chair
were realized and the item the design was fresh (-0.27).
We picked up all the words written in sketches as clues of understanding the thinking process of
subjects. Then we structured the words into hierarchy of concepts (Table 4). From this table, we can
guess how the subject draw sketches by using keywords in the hierarchy of concepts: for example,
keywords back to back stiff hang over swing lacked bow were made easy to think out the
forms. However, if the keyword was in high level of hierarchy and not directly related to form, the
subject had to break down the keyword into other keywords in low-level concepts.
In addition, we considered that there was a parting point on the ways of thinking a form of chair in
the mid hierarchy in meaning of sadness. For example, back to back and face to wall were in the
under hierarchy of alone. It could be said that solitude was one of general concept to construct
the basic meanings of making feel sad with anxiety and disappointment. A framework of
expression of the form was changed by difference of the keywords in the first class hierarchy. We
found through the observations on the sketches that the drawings by keyword pose of sadness was
clearly different from others those used keywords in third class hierarchy. In case of using metaphor
of pose of sadness, subjects seemed to think the form of chair in imaginations of when they were
sad. In contrast, with the keywords instability and restricted they seemed to think the form of
chair based on the rearrangement of their concept on physical situation in meaning of the keywords
(Fig5). Therefore the form was tended to be symbolic.
Figure 5: (A pair of sketches of sad chair)
10
1st class hierachy in meaning of

sadness
2nd class hierachy in meaning of

sadness
lonliness
3rd class hierachy in meaning of

sadness
words directly related to form

back to back
alone
face to
wall
sorrow
solitude
blockade
restricterd
pressured
compulsion
protected
getting depressed
disappoitment
uncomforable
powerlessness
pose of sadness
agony
pain
directly associated physical atributes from the word sadness
narrow
distorted
hang over
weak
swing
thin
tall
long
left up in th air
one legged
three legged
lacked
lost the back
make a hole
enveloped
bow
bent forward
hung down
low
sink
ragged
thorned
instability
anxiety
stiff
twisted
dark
blue
heavy
cold
Table 4: (The hierarchy of meaning of word sadness written in drawings)
Totalized analysis and discussions for all the experiments

From the results of the experiment 1 on the design of paperweight, we came to believe as
mentioned below.
In the beginning of design process, designer gets goal description of design object. The goal
description can be divided into two parts: one is subjective part and the other is predicative part. We
call the predicative part as keyword because the predicative part indicates the state of the
subjective part that is to be obtained after design thinking. As we saw in the experiment, even if in
the simple design process, the keyword was not directly represented its visual image at first. Then,
the subjects had to search as possible as many associations and/or metaphors of well-known
objects. This stage of thinking process was typically seen in the drawings of the diverging type.
After doing it, they might have to look into common factors in them at high abstracted level of the
11
imaginations or metaphors. This stage of thinking process was seen in drawings of the evolving
type. It was supposed that most of evolving type could include diverging thinking process in them
but not explicitly.
If the keywords of goal description were not directly related to the function (in this case give a
sense of relaxation) of utility at first, many well-known things associated from the keywords had
to be imagined in no consideration of its function of utility. This meant that the predicative part of
goal description was thought separately from the subjective part. Then, many associated things
and/or events were drawn in this stage of thinking process. The divergent thinking type was
supposed to stay in this stage and did not go forth.
However, this process was not creative yet. To make it creative, the well-known images of
associated things should be once raised to high-level abstracted thinking for form generation. This
process needed trial and error in evolving forms. Only when the abstracted form could be connected
to the function of utility, good solution will be carried out. This would be the reason why the
evolving type could generate many creative drawings.
Some part of the adhering type could be included in the evolving type, but another part of them
supposed to be included in the poor imagination type. We supposed that if most of this type could
make explicit their divergent thinking stage, they would make more good results. The poor
imagination type was supposed to be in low activated level of thinking.
From the results of the experiment 2 on the design of flower vase, we considered that as follows.
Even if it was in the same subject, different thinking modes were found in condition of giving
different goal descriptions of design of flower vase. When one gave a keyword as clue of thinking
form, if it were easy to relate to form of it, he/she would express it by drawing forms directly. For
example, the keyword soft was easy to understand to express as a form because we had many
imaginations of soft things as in a quality of themselves. However, the easy keyword had
tendency to become stereotyped in expressing a form associated with it. On the other hand, there
was another mode in the creative thinking. In case of giving a keyword of difficult to relate to form,
metaphors were used as a clue of expressing form of it. For example, it was difficult to relate the
keyword humorous to form directly. Therefore most of expressions in form by keyword
humorous were using metaphors related to states or atmospheres of humorous.
After all, we assert that, in creative thinking, the subject changed thinking mode and took the
adequate one in condition of difference of a keyword as a clue of thinking form.
We supposed that the thinking types seen in the former experiment seemed not so depended on
subjects personality but rather depended on the meaning of keyword in the goal description. Then,
we call them thinking modes that anyone can take them.
From the results of experiment 3 on the design of streetlight, we presented discussions as follows.
It seemed that as the keywords cool and vigorous were not so easy to express as the forms of
streetlight, they brought unique forms in terms of being not bound by existing styles. However, only
cool can reached to good design. The judgment whether good design or not was largely depending
on the possibilities of manufacturing and affections to circumstances. From these viewpoints, even
if the keyword were successfully expressed in the form, it would not always mean good design
and/or fresh design.
12
As the keyword elegant and calm were supposed to be easily related to metaphors and/or
associations, M mode thinking might be dominated in them. However, some acceptable designs
were seen in the group of elegant.
As the keyword familiar was supposed to be not easily related to metaphors and/or associations,
moreover it was difficult to image forms directly, both M mode and F mode were not efficient to
make images. The familiar was supposed to be most difficult keyword in this case.
Consequently, we recognized that there were different levels of difficulty in translating keywords to
forms of design objects and the subjects changed their thinking modes depended on the difficulties
of keywords.
From the results of experiment 4 on the design of sad imaged chair, we presented discussions as
follows.
We considered that it was not difficult to realize forms of a chair as an object that has, at least,
function as a chair (subjective part of goal description). Also, it was easy to remind some metaphors
associated to sad image (predicative part of goal description). However, it was quite difficult to
connect form of a chair and sad image. We confirmed it based on the result of the evaluation in
which divergent thinking was low percentage of success. In spite of the difficulties, if it could
successfully connect to the form of chair, it would be a fresh design. On the correlations between
final form was realized keywords and the words were structured, we inferred that the subjects
would try repeatedly to associate the word sad with the form of chair and searched word down
hierarchy of meanings to reach a suitable one.
We examined the thinking process of drawing by the concept hierarchy, and found that there were
two different thinking paths in this case. Based on the analysis, we presented a model of thinking
process in creative design as a translating process from keywords to suitable visual forms of it.
One of them was thinking forms by using metaphors of ones pose in sad feeling. This needed to
sink into ones mind and had to take complicated path to make form of chair. The other was
thinking forms by using conceptual metaphors and did not need complicated path. As the result, the
former case had more possibilities of success in creating new form of a chair. We discussed the
reason of it that the former case needed longer thinking path in searching suitable forms, and had to
make repeated drawings under considering good forms.
13
Figure 6 (Thinking path model of sad chair)
Conclusion
We concluded those results of the experiments and analyses as follows. There were several types of
the thinking process in design, and they could be recognized from differences of the drawings. The
thinking types could be classified into two major thinking modes (we call them M-mode and Fmode). The subjects seemed to change his/her thinking mode depending on the difficulties of
translating goal descriptions to the forms fitted to it. If it was difficult (like as humorous flower
vase and/or vigorous streetlight), he/she used metaphors to get a clue of thinking form (M-mode).
If it was not so difficult (like as soft imaged flower vase and/or elegant streetlight), he/she
directly searched forms (F-mode). However, good metaphors did not always result in good design
and also sketches from easy keyword did not always result in fresh design. The sketches directly
brought from metaphors were characterized as cartoon like and outlined drawing. Most designers
who drew this type of sketches did not make effort to generate new forms. On the other hand, most
designers who drew elaborated drawings from easy keyword did not make
effort of searching metaphors.
From the experiments, we also confirmed that the subjects took separate path of thinking in
predicative part and subjective part of goal description until he/she reached to be able to make effort
of integration with the form and basic function of the design object.
The most creative form could be generated when the designer found good metaphors associated
from the given goal description and kept effort of elaborations to make nicely fitting form to the
predicative part of the goal description. Then, we asserted that, to get creative design, designer need
to make effort of thinking in long path from goal description to the final form, and he/she needed to
change thinking modes several times during the thinking process.
14
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Finke, Ronald A, T. B. Ward and S. M. Smith. 1992. Creative cognition. Cambridge, U.S.A. The
MIT Press.
Goldschmidt, Gabriela. 1994. On visual design thinking: the vis kids of architecture. Design
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Maher, M. L, J. Poon and S. Boulanger, 1996. Formalising design exploration as co-evolution: a
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15

environment
T-J. Nam Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology, South Korea
Abstract
This paper presents a new design process framework for interaction design of computer-embedded
products (information appliances) and examines the feasibility of the framework in the design
education and practice through case studies. The main feature is the application of a new
prototyping environment that employs a widely available presentation tool, MS PowerPoint, for
building fully functional engineering quality prototypes of computer embedded digital products
without assistance from electronic engineers. The proposed interaction design process framework
involves four phases. i) to analyze the user context, ii) to create conceptual models using State
Transition Charts, iii) to develop hardware-software hybrid prototypes using the designer-friendly
prototyping environment, vi) to conduct usability studies using the prototype. Scenarios,
storyboards, concept generation tools, Sate Transition Charts, a hardware-software hybrid
prototyping method, and an automatic usability data collection method are introduced as key
practical techniques to be employed in each phase of the process framework. Case studies
undertaken in the UK and Korean universities show that the framework was feasible for the design
education and acceptable for the design students in both countries. The paper also presents how the
framework and the prototyping environment can be extended for developing interaction design of
multi-user products through the case study project of designing a set of portable information guides
for group visitors of the natural history museum.

environment
Introduction
Digital technology has changed the way we live and the artifacts surrounding us. Ubiquitous
computing (Ark and Selker, 1999) and information appliances (Norman, 1999) are becoming
prevalent as the computing technologies are widely and cheaply available. The characteristics of the
everyday artifacts have changed from static and hardware orientated to dynamic, interactive,
intelligent and complex. This implies significant transition of the objects that designers are dealing
with.
Meanwhile, the design profession has also evolved. The role of industrial designers in the early
periods of the profession was to articulate and resolve aesthetic problems of mass produced
products. In order to be effective, designers needed to have deeper understanding of production
techniques, engineering, marketing and ergonomics. Designers have found themselves responsible
to both client and consumer, sorting out ergonomic, safety and performance factors to satisfy both
parties. The dynamic and interactive aspects of the emerging digital artifacts these days demand that
designers become problem solvers not only for visual, physical and functional attributes, but also
for emotional and contextual attributes. There is therefore growing concern on how this change
should be reflected in design education and professional design practices. If these concerns are
appropriately addressed, design professionals can play an important role as coordinators in the
multidisciplinary product development team involving social scientists, psychologists, computer
scientists, electronic engineers, production engineers and other business professionals for designing
the new digital artifacts.
This paper presents a new design process framework for designing the new breed of digital
products. The framework focuses on the interaction design aspects of these products and has been
evolved both from traditional design process models and user interface design models. The
techniques to be used in each phase of the design process framework are reviewed and the
feasibility and effectiveness are examined. In particular, the paper introduces the application of a
new prototyping environment that employs a widely available presentation tool, Microsoft
PowerPoint, for building fully functional engineering quality prototypes of digital products without
assistances from electronic engineers. It also presents how the framework and the prototyping
environment can be extended for developing interaction design of multi-user products such as
mobile phones, communication devices and multi-user PDAs.
The objectives of this study can be summarized as follows.
To investigate an effective design process framework to reflect the changed design

paradigm.
To review and examine designer orientated tools and techniques to be employed in each
phase of the design process.
To develop an effective and interactive prototyping method for designers.
To examine the feasibility of the framework and the prototyping method by applying
them to design education and professional design practice.
Interaction design process framework

There have been many design process models suggested from the design research and the user
interface design fields. Among the user interface design process frameworks, Lewis and Reiman
(1993) suggested eleven phases for the user interface design: figure out whos going to use the
system to do what, choose representative tasks for task-centered design, plagiarize, rough out a
design, think about it, create a mock-up or prototype, test it with users, iterate, build it, track it, and
change it. Spreenberg et al. (1995) suggests five stages of interaction design process; understand,
observe, visualize and predict, evaluate and refine; implement. These design process models
highlight two common issues: the user and task centered approach, the iterative development and
evaluation of design concepts. One of the ways to achieve the user and task centered approach is to
draw participations of actual users from early phases of the design process. Efficient methods of
user participation have to be investigated. The user involvement is also to be continuous throughout
the design process. For the interactive development and evaluation of the design concepts,
collaboration between designers and other experts is essential. The more efficient and faster the
iterative design cycle is, the better is the quality of the design solution. For digital products,
hardware-software integrated development is also important as the two aspects are closely related.
It is also necessary to employ appropriate quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods for
reflection.
Prototyping in interaction design

When designing digital products, effective hardware-software hybrid prototypes are fundamental to
the rapid iterative design development and evaluation. The importance of effective prototyping is
recognized from the interview with designers at Samsung Electronics and its Software Design
Center. The Samsung designers expressed that, in designing digital products, such as mobile phones
and digital televisions, they have difficulties in producing good quality design solutions due to the
lack of tools to combine the software and hardware features. The development and the usability
tests of the hardware and the software are carried out separately, so designers often miss the
opportunities to improve the integrated quality as they have to wait until the final engineering
prototype is to be produced just prior to production.
The prototyping of multi-user devices, such as mobile phones and multi-user game machines and
communication devices, is even more difficult for designers to develop a concrete design ideas. The
ways these devices are used and operated are closely connected to the service and the dynamic
multi-user communication behaviors of the users. The effective prototyping allows designers to
produce more concrete design concepts with respect to the user interface and the relationship
between the software and the hardware attributes.
The proposed process framework

The proposed process framework in this study consists of four phases; context analysis, conceptual
modeling, prototyping, usability study. The framework simplifies the existing process models and
highlights key techniques that are directly applied to the practical development of design concepts.
Figure 1 shows the overview of the process framework.
Figure 1: The Overview of the process framework and the practical techniques at each phase
Phase 1
In the first context analysis phase, the design team needs to investigate usage context of the product,
create insights and specify functionality. There have been many practical techniques used in this
phase. They include focus group interview, user observation, user diary, role playing to name a few.
While these techniques provide useful insights on the context, it is often difficult to associate the
results to the concept generation of the new product. In this paper co-designing techniques with
generative tools, scenarios and storyboards are suggested as useful practical techniques in this
phase. Co-designing is based on the user centered design philosophy and stresses active user
involvement in the design process. Sanders (2000) suggests that by using generative tools that can
drive dreams and imagination of everyday people the co-designing technique provide a way to
connect the social science investigations and the practical design development. For co-designing,
designers need to consider new roles in their profession. First, they need to develop various tools
that can draw dreams and creativity of everyday people. These generative tools could be a drawing
board, Velcro covered blocks, Lego characters, board games, and a movie making process
(Pedersen and Buur, 2000). The second role of designers for co-designing is to analyze, translate
and develop the results expressed by the users using these generative tools into valid and viable
design solutions.
Other practical techniques in the context analysis phase are scenarios and storyboards. Scenarios are
reality stories in prose form and can be classified into two types: current context scenarios and
future context scenarios (Kolli et al., 2000). Current context scenarios are the description of users
activities and tasks at present situations. It allows designers and users to have a clear picture of the
present usage context. Future context scenarios are the description of the refined situations by
introducing the new artifacts or processes. It is a very early abstract model that initiates a number of
design concepts of new products in the context. Storyboards are pictures illustrating various
functions of the future product, along with explanatory text about whats happening in the picture.
Readers of the storyboard can get a general idea of the size and form of the new product in a very
general way and its context of use. Scenarios allow designers and users to make the concepts more
visual and concrete.
Phase 2
The second phase is to develop basic concept models. Users and domain experts are to be
encouraged for the early concept generation. The methods and tools need to be provided for their
active participation. Practical techniques in this phase include idea sketches, making and evaluating
concept mockups and hand-on tangibility tests. In addition to these techniques focused on physical
attribute of the products, contextual, organizational and interaction quality of the product, such as
participatory diagramming, screen slide show, are also to be used. State Transition Charts (STC) is
one of these techniques proposed to explore the organizational and interaction quality of the
concepts. STC is based on the assumption that a product interaction can be modeled by considering
states and events from the outside world. The events cause the product to transition from one state
to another. For example, a digital watch has a number of states (time displaying state, changing time
state etc.) and an event of pressing a button by a user causes the transition between the time display
state and the changing time state. STC provides a way of exploring and defining what states should
exist, what events should occur and what effect they can have on the product.
STC is similar to State Transition Diagram (Booch, 1993) that is commonly used in software
engineering. The STD is one of the software engineering models to construct a software
application. STC is however more graphical and realistic in terms of the visual components and
associated events of the product. It is also focused on the interaction between the product and users.
Creative concept modeling may be achieved through collaborative construction of STCs in a group
session . One of the methods that allow more dynamic and collaborative creation of STCs is Post-it
and Whiteboard method shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Post-it and Whiteboard method of the STC construction in a group session
Designers investigate essential states to provide for product functions and the user interface. Then
by placing and connecting the states on the whiteboard, a new STC can be rapidly constructed while
all members in a group session can participate in the construction. When states and events
connections are made, a digital image can be taken using a digital camera for the record and to
compare it with alternative STCs. This method can be extended into a new concept generation tool
for co-desiging by employing a digital media, such as electronic whiteboard and input devices
(James et al. 2001).
Phase 3
The third phase of the framework is to refine the basic concept models through efficient
prototyping. In the design of computer embedded digital products, prototyping is essential to
examine the integrated quality that involves both software and hardware attributes. The prototyping
can be classified into three types in terms of the techniques used; i) using Virtual Reality(VR) or
Mixed Reality(MR), ii) touch screen based prototyping, iii) virtual simulation driven by physical
prototypes. VR and MR (Ohta and Tamura, 1999) provides new dimensions in prototyping as the
computer hardware and software technologies are rapidly developing. In particular, MR shows a
potential in interior and architectural design fields (Anabuki et al., 2000). The bulky equipment and
the lack of reality feelings, however, hinder the technologies to be effectively used for iterative and
rapid prototyping of interaction design concepts. Touch screen has become a useful technique for
the simulation of the products such as a microwave oven (Sharp, 1988) and VCRs. Due to the
restriction on two dimensional control panels, the product controls and displays in different panels
cannot be implemented through the touch screen based prototyping technique. The best prototyping
is a hardware-software hybrid prototype that allows the controls and software attributes to be fully
illustrated within an integrated unit. Typically these prototypes are connected to a portable
computer via special interface units for input and output. The problems with this kind of
prototyping is the time and cost involved in building the prototypes. Design teams need to have
sufficient support from engineers for the construction of these prototypes. Although there is full
support from engineering teams, it is time consuming and expensive to build a series of prototypes.
For the investigation of a designer-friendly prototyping method, the following requirements are to
be considered. First of all, the prototyping method should allow designers to effectively employ the
metaphor used in the concept modeling phase. The core components of STC, states and events, are
to be smoothly integrated in the method. In fact, one of the most popular tools for prototyping
interactive systems in industry is Micromedia Director, which is originally used for the production
of interactive movies and CD-ROM titles. It employs the time line as the fundamental metaphor
that is not always consistent with the concept modeling of interactive features. The new method
should support the STCs in the framework described above. Secondly, it also needs to allow
efficient construction and incorporation of highly visual elements. Thirdly, interactive features are
commonly implemented by programming support within the tool. The programming environment
needs to be intuitive and have minimum complexity as it may be used by designers who may not
have the training in computer programming. Fourthly, the method should benefit other stakeholders
in the product development by providing evolutionary features. For example, smooth transition
from the designers prototype to the engineering prototypes increases the productivity at the later
phase of product development. Finally, software tools are to be based on the widely available
software application and not to require advanced hardware and software equipment. In order to
address these requirements, we proposed a new prototyping method based on the popular Microsoft
Office application, Microsoft PowerPoint (Nam and Gill, 2000). The method allows designers to
construct an engineering quality hardware- software hybrid prototype without the support from
engineering disciplines. The prototyping is accomplished in five steps. First, the concept models
developed using STC are transformed into a primitive software simulation (Figure 3a) that only
supports slide links between states. It illustrates the basic state transitions but cannot show any
interactive features of the prototype. The next step is to construct an interactive simulation by
adding Controls and Visual Basic for Application scripts associated with each control (Figure
3b). All the events are then translated from mouse based to keyboard based. The hardware model
including switch components are constructed (Figure 3c). Finally the hardware model is connected
to the software simulation via keyboard encoder unit developed for this study (Fugure 3d). More
detailed description of the ways of incorporating Visual Basic for Application in the PowerPoint
simulation and connecting the hardware via the encoder is presented in Nam and Gill (2000, 2001).
a)
c)
b)
d)
Figure 3: a) Primitive PowerPoint Simulation of a digital watch only supporting slide links, b)
Interactive PowerPoint simulation of a digital watch with Controls and Visual Basic for Application
scripts, c) Hardware model with basic input componets, d) Hardware-software hybrid prototype of a
simple media player connected via key encorder
Phase 4
The final phase is to evaluate the prototype through usability study. The usability study is
accomplished through both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitative analysis is carried out
as an experimental study, where a number of measures, such as time to complete a task, count of
button press and the number of breakdown, are automatically collected using the prototype and the
usability data collection mechanism within the software simulation. Qualitative analysis methods
include exploring navigation map, advanced protocol analysis by rerunning the user trial along with
video recordings. For example the raw usability data is collected in the form of [state id, event
detail, event time] in our example prototypes. These data can subsequently be restructured for the
advanced quantitative and qualitative analysis. Due to the simplicity and effectiveness of the data
collection, it is possible to conduct a usability study with large samples.
Case study
The framework and the prototyping method have been applied to a series of undergraduate design
projects in the Information ergonomics module at the school of product and engineering design,
University of Wales Institute of Cardiff (UWIC), UK and the Interaction Design module at the
department of Industrial Design, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST). At
UWIC, the framework was introduced to the second level students at the BA product design course.
The students had no prior knowledge about programming languages and electronics. An exercise
project was carried out before the introduction to the major design assignments, to design a portable
visitor guide for the Museum of Welsh Life. The project was chosen because the site provided
sufficient context for the new digital product. The module was run for 14 weeks but the actual time
dedicated to the project was about 6 weeks, for which four weeks were spent for the concept
development and software implementation and another two weeks for the construction of the
hardware model. Due to the time constraint, the evaluation was not accomplished in the module.
Figure 4 shows the hardware results of the projects. These models can drive associated software
simulations.
Figure 4: Samples results of the portable information guide project at UWIC

The interaction design module at KAIST was for the third year students in Industrial Design BSc
course. The Korean students had a basic training on computer programming and science subjects
such as Math and Physics. The module ran for 16 weeks but first 10 weeks were spent on the
introduction of interaction design issues and the exercise of the prototyping implementation. The
major design project was carried out for six weeks. The design assignment for the major design
project was to design a portable assistance device that has similar characteristics with the portable
museum guide. The Korean students had more flexibility than the UK students as they could decide
the design context and the functionality details. The example projects were a visitor guide for an
amusement park, Kyungbok Palace guide, shopping guide, concert guide, gallery guide, and
city tour guide. The framework was successfully employed in the all these projects.
Designing mobile multi-user devices

The framework and the prototyping method were also applied to the design of a mobile multi-user
device. One of the interaction design projects at KAIST was to design a set of portable assistance
devices for group visitors of the Natural History Museum in Daejon, Korea. A user scenario of the
guide was for teachers and elementary school students who need educational aids when they visit
the Museum as a group. It is necessary to support communication and other multi-user features such
as collaborative learning and a question and answer sequence. In order to address the mobility issue,
a wireless key encoder using infrared technology was developed. By placing two states in one
screen, it was possible to illustrate the interactions and state transitions of multiple devices (Figure
5a). The wireless connection enabled acceptance of two different sets of key events to control
different software simulations without conflicting the input and output mechanisms.
By using this method the multi-user interactivity could be examined at a similar level of effort and
skills for the implementation of a single-user device. The screen shot of Figure 5b shows how the
teachers and students communicate with each other for a question and answer session through the
device while they are in the Museum.
a)
b)
Figure 5: a) A set of portable museum guides for group visitors. Software simulation (top),
Hardware prototypes (middle), the wireless key encoder (bottom). b) Example screen shot showing
the communication between the teacher and the students for a question and answer session.
The usability data are automatically collected as a single user device situation. Table 1 shows a
sample of the collected data from one of the user trials. The state, events and time of the events are
recorded automatically for multiple users. These data can be used for the further analysis of the
usability study.
Device for Students
Device for Teachers
Time:sec
State ID
Button ID
Time
Difference
0.031
0.03
1.195
1.16
1.773
0.57
2.382
2.38
2.953
1.17
4.179
1.79
4.742
0.56
State ID
Button ID
Time
Difference
Table 1: Sample of usability data collected from a user trial. The table shows all the records of
when both users pressed the buttons in the devices and how the states changed according to the
button-press events.
Discussion
This case study provided some lessons and future directions for improving the framework and the
prototyping method. The concept models were evolved smoothly through the prototyping method.
There was however a gap between the context analysis and concept modeling. The student
designers expressed concerns that the findings and investigations in the context analysis phase were
sometimes not directly applied to the concept modeling phase. Ways of linking the techniques
between the context analysis and concept modeling phase need to be further investigated. The
framework and the prototyping method were feasible for student designers from both countries to
undertake the interaction design project. They were able to implement the hardware-software hybrid
prototypes without assistance from engineers during the progress of design concepts. It means the
reduction in time and cost in the design development and a fast iterative cycle of the design process.
It is possible for designers to use the prototyping method for the presentation and to visualize
interaction design ideas, in particular for developing concepts of the organizational and interaction
quality of the product. More concrete and advanced design development may be possible due to
more realistic prototypes. The prototyping method also shows a potential being a participatory
design tool where the users can actively participate in the development of interaction design ideas.
To achieve this, the method needs to be further simplified in terms of the concept modelling and the
software interface.
The framework could be applied to design projects of various digital products. This includes
existing consumer electronics products to the new information appliances and digital media
products. The usability data collection was automatically executed and it was straightforward to
translate the data into a format for further analysis.
The framework suggests new areas of design education: basic computer programming and
electronics. These skills allow designers to understand the overall product attributes. It helps for
designers to become coordinators or integrators in the product development of digital products. A
number of limitations in the prototyping tools were also found. The input method was limited to the
button types while new digital products, such as PDA and information stands, often have a touch
screen based input system. The output devices, such as display and audio, were not incorporated in
10
the hardware prototype so the question remains whether the separated display makes any impact on
the iterative development and the user study. Ways of developing wireless and multi-user
prototypes also need further investigation for more reliable and efficient implementation. Current
infrared based system is restricted in terms of the direction and the range of the receiving unit.
Different buttons, sensors, display devices are to be used for more realistic prototype construction.
Software features such as database connection also needs further investigation.
Conclusions and future work

This paper presented a design process framework for interaction design of digital products. The
practical techniques were suggested and illustrated in each phase of the framework for the purpose
of supporting design professionals. The techniques suggested include Scenarios and Storyboards,
Generative tools for co-designing in the context analysis phase, State Transition Chart in the
concept modeling phase, a new prototyping method using MS PowerPoint and embedded Visual
Basic for Applications in the prototyping phase and the automatic collection method of the usability
data in the usability study phase. The case studies employing the framework were introduced to
examine the feasibility of the framework. Our experience of designing a set of museum guides for
group visitors illustrates that the framework is applicable for the implementation of mobile multiuser devices.
The study presents a systematic approach in the interaction design of digital products. The practical
techniques presented could be useful contents in design education and practical design practice. The
effective original prototyping method that employs a cheap and widely available software
application which is suggested as a new means of visualization and concept development for
interaction ideas of multi-user devices.
The study suggests several future directions. Further investigation is to be carried out to examine
the feasibility of the process framework and impact of the new techniques in professional design
practice. In the case study, further investigation can be made regarding the comparison between the
student projects of Korea and the UK. The prototyping technique is also to be improved by
addressing the existing limitations. Ways of combining other control components and output
devices needs to be explored. Ways of incorporating the framework in the entire product
development cycle can be investigated, seeking collaboration with other disciplines such as social
sciences, computer science, electronics and manufacturing.
11
References
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Systems Journal, Vol. 38, No. 4, pp 504- 507.
Booch, G. (1993) Object-Oriented Analysis and Design with Applications, (Second Edition),
Addison-Wesley, Menlo Park CA.
James A. Landay and Brad A. Myers (2001), "Sketching Interfaces: Toward More Human Interface
Design." In IEEE Computer , 34(3), pp. 56-64.
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industrial design education, the Proceedings of IDATER 2000 Conference, August, Loughbrough
University, UK.
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Pedersen J. & Buur, J. (2000) Games and Movies: Towards Innovative Co-Design with users,
Scrivener, S., Ball, L., Woodcock A. (eds.) (2000) Collaborative Design, Springer, pp 93-100.
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(2000) Collaborative Design, Springer, pp 3-12.
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12
Design judgment: decision making in the real world

H. Nelson Advanced Design Institute, Seattle, USA
E. Stolterman Informatics, Ume University, Sweden
Abstract
Design is about creating the real world around us. Real life is complex, dynamic and uncertain.
Truth is difficult enough to know, even with the best science, but reality, the domain of human
experience, can be overwhelmingly paralyzing and beyond comprehension or understanding.
Careful, accurate description, concomitant with clear explanation, is necessary but not sufficient in
the quest for enough understanding to allow wise decisions to be made. The value of judgment is
that it allows individuals to overcome their paralysis and engage with the messy complexity of life
in a way that, when done well, can bring function, beauty, and meaning to human existence. In this
paper we will examine judgment, particularly design judgment. We argue that a better
understanding of judgment is needed if we want to improve our design ability in an intentional
manner. Judgment is a key dimension in the process of design. The ability to make design
judgments is what distinguishes a designer as a designer. The ability to make good design
judgments distinguishes good design.
Design judgment: decision making in the real world

Introduction
Design judgment holds many things in common with the other categories of judgment, but the
outcome or end is distinct because design judgment facilitates the ability to create that-which-isnot-yet. It is the type of judgment related to creativity and innovation. It is concerned with
judiciously crafting the compositional whole of an imagined design. When well executed it can
create beauty and evoke the sublime. Design judgment is the ability to gain or project insight,
through experience and reflection, into situations which are complex, indeterminate, indefinable
and paradoxical. This results in the formation of meaning and value by engendering relationships of
unity, form, pattern and composition. Judgment is a process of taking in the whole in order to
formulate a whole. The outcome of judgment is the expected unexpected outcome that yet fits
congruently, with integrity, the driving intention behind the design process in the first place. In
other words, the operational outcome of any judgment is dependent on the nature of the intention.
In the examination of design judgment we have found it productive to distinguish between several
types of judgment (these are developed in greater detail in Nelson & Stolterman, 2002). The reason
for this is that the complexity of design is such that a too simple definition of design judgment will
be both insufficiently rich and impossible to relate to the different kinds of experiences met in
design practice.
This paper is based on the idea that design judgment must be made a full and equal partner with
rational decision making in any design process. To facilitate this, judgment must be made more
intellectually accessible and pragmatically effective. The effectiveness of design judgment is not
jeopardized by an improved understanding of its nature as intuition can be threatened by too much
self-consciousness. The designerly approach, or perspective, taken in this paper, is based on the
conviction that it is possible, through intentional (intellectual) effort, to understand and improve our
capacity and skill in making judgments, particularly design judgments.
The ideas presented in this paper are not about making true judgments but are about treating
design as an aesthetic and purposive form of making the imagined real by utilizing our ability to
make adequate judgments. To be more reflective in order to understand more about the activity of
judgment will not interfere with the ability to make good or better design judgments. It will only
help. Learning to treat design as an informed process of intention and not one of chance or necessity
can improve the possibility of achieving good design outcomes.
What is judgment
Judgment is a key dimension in the process of design. The ability to make solid design judgments is
often what distinguishes a stellar designer from a mediocre one. By judgment, we mean that which
is at the heart of wisdom, in all of its manifestations. For us, judgment is the means, and wisdom is
the outcome. In fact, wisdom can be defined as good judgment, which enables right action, and
appropriate change.
Judgment is a form of decision making that is not dependent on rules of logic found within rational
systems of inquiry. Judgment, however, is not irrational because it follows its own form of
dialectic. In lieu of judgment being founded on strict rules of reasoning, it is more likely to be
dependent on the accumulation of experienced consequences of choices made in complex
situations. Learning to make good judgments is therefore not a matter of learning to follow the steps
of a technique, or to follow directions dictated by a method or algorithm, or to impose the a priori
constraints of a theory.
What one acquires here is not a technique; one learns correct judgments. There are also
rules, but they do not form a system, and only experienced people can apply them right.
Unlike calculating-rules. (Wittgenstein, 1968)
Judgment is, by nature, an elusive animal. It is as distinct from rational decision-making, as it is
from intuition. Judgment has practical, pragmatic value, and academic rigor, without it being
codified and generalized, as reason demands of its offspring, science. We believe the capacity to
judge can be designerly learned, practiced and applied in design circumstances, without destroying
its essence and value. This is unlike the case of intuition, where too much intellectual attention is
often feared by artists who feel that reason, at its best, is the opposite of intuition and, at its worst, a
mortal enemy. The ability to make good judgments is equally as essential in design as it is in
business, law, medicine, politics, art, or any other profession. For a skill that is necessary to so
many human endeavors, it is surprising that judgment making is so little understood, and so seldom
part of ones formal education. Even so, there have been some significant exceptions to the overall
lack of attention paid to the formal development of the concept of judgment.
Immanuel Kant, for example, a German philosopher in the eighteenth century, placed judgment as
one of three cognitive faculties of human beings. For Kant, meaningful propositions were not just
the consequence of empirical fact or analytic logic. They were also the consequence of normative
judgment. In addition to his categories of judgments-of-fact, he developed philosophic concepts of
judgments-of-ethics and judgments-of-aesthetics as well. His concept of aesthetic judgments (Kant,
1790) is not focused on the same outcomes as the concept of design judgments developed here but
there is some influence never the less.
John Dewey (Dewey, 1910) stated that there is an intimate connection between judgment and
inference. The intention of inference is to terminate in an adequate judgment that is equally a good
judgment, through the interpretation of facts. According to Joseph Dunne (1993), John Henry
Newman, a nineteenth century Christian apologist, proposed that judgment was made possible by
the intervention of the Illative Sense, which informed reasoning leading to correct judgment. In
Dunnes book he develops his own, well-grounded, argumentation for judgment by elucidating the
distinction between the two Aristotelian forms of knowledge; techne (Gr. productive, technical
knowledge) and phronesis (Gr. practical, personal knowledge). Dunne argues for an understanding
of practical wisdom that makes it possible to take the complexity of reality into account.
More contemporary examples of judgment focused scholarship, with close relationships to the
present work on design judgments, includes the seminal contributions of C. West Churchman
(1968). Churchman defines judgment as a well substantiated belief, a belief held collectively by
a group, in contrast to a belief held by an individual. Sir Geoffery Vickers (1995) is known, as
mentioned earlier, for his development of the concept of appreciative judgment in public policy
design. Appreciative judgment is the capacity to understand, or appreciate, a situation through the
discernment of, what is to be considered as background and what is to be considered as foreground,
in the formulation of a project context. Horst Rittle, another example of someone who has formally
developed the concept of judgment making, focused his attention on the fields of design and
planning (Rittel, 1972). Rittel went so far as to state that every logical chain of thought is ended
only by an off hand judgment, one of several types of judgment he considered, and not by reasoned
decision making.
A lack of appreciation for judgment as a legitimate means of decision making is not only revealed
by its absence in curriculums, and professional discourse, but by the negative connotations one
hears, regarding judgment, in everyday conversations. These conversations are full of comments
that are indicative of the distrust of judgment: Dont judge me. Dont be judgmental. Thats
only your judgment.
Judgment can best be understood when its considered within the context of knowledge, knowing,
and the knower. To put it simply, judgment is knowing, based on knowledge that is inseparable
from the knower. By this, we mean that judgment is based on accessing knowledge generated in
the particularity or uniqueness of a situation; knowledge that is inseparable from the knower and is
only revealed through the actions of the knower. This is in contrast to decisions that are made,
based on knowledge that can be - and is of value primarily because it is - separable from the
knower.
Judgment knowledge cannot be stored in libraries or on databases. Colleagues in controlled
experiments cant replicate it. Neither can it be memorized, or accumulated in any quantity so as to
build a field of expertise. Judgment knowledge has instrumental value only for a particular
situation, and loses its direct and immediate relevance in the next setting. Therefore, it becomes
clear that while separable knowledge deals in that which is universal, or generalizable, the
inseparable knowing of judgment deals with particulars and ultimate particulars. This implies that
designers can learn to make better judgments, but cannot learn - a priori - the kind of knowledge
necessary for particular judgments at the moment they occur. Skills and competencies can be
practiced and mastered, in support of future actions, but should not be confused as knowledge from
judgment itself. Scientific knowledge, the ultimate separable knowledge, plays a necessary
supporting role in good judgment making, but is very different in character from the knowing thats
embedded in judgment.
Knowledge that is separable is part of a continuum of knowing that moves from data, to
information, to knowledge. There is no similar continuum in judgment knowledge. However, there
is a connection to what has traditionally been considered wisdom. The outcome of good judgment wise action - has been considered, directly or indirectly, as evidence of wisdom.
Given these general definitions, we will examine judgment, and especially design judgment. We
argue that a better conceptual understanding of design judgment, in its different specific
manifestations, is needed if we want to intentionally improve our design ability. Although design
judgment cannot be separated from the designer, the designer can reflect upon the nature of
judgment making, and begin to approach the ability to make good judgments as an essential key to
accessing design wisdom.
Unfortunately judgment is often dismissed as an inappropriate means of decision making. It is also
deemed to be an unsuitable foundation for action or belief. Judgment is put into the same category
as mere opinion or conviction, which, since the time of Socrates, has not been considered a
legitimate form of knowledge in the Western tradition. Thus, it has not been considered to be a fit
candidate for accessing design wisdom, the necessary condition for right action (It is paradoxical
that we often receive the advice to Trust your own judgment, when others want some
demonstration of our personal accountability).
Judgment is also touted as the enemy of creativity. Students of creativity are constantly admonished
to suppress their judgment, to hold it in abeyance, and allow the free flow of their ideas to emerge.
Creativity and innovation are often proffered as the polar opposites of judgment. In reality, though,
well-managed judgment is a necessary component in the synthesis activity of creativity and
innovation. Without exercising judgment, creativity is diffuse, and innovation rootless.
Judgment is acceptable in day-to-day settings in the arenas of life that traditionally require
judgment calls to be made. Judges are required for beauty contests, in order to decide who is the
most talented, and in sports competitions to make decisions on whether a specific behavior is
good sportsmanship or not. Judgment takes on its most serious role in the realm of law. Judges, in
this case, are expected to make considered judgments, based on their own experience, as well as
their understanding of the qualitative and quantitative truth of a particular situation, as compared to
an idealized code of law.
And not to be forgotten is another form of judgment that has concerned humanity for millennia,
often called the final judgment. In this situation, a supreme deity sits in judgment of an
individuals life, in anticipation of the inevitable end of worldly existence, and the beginning of
eternity. The anxiety and fear of this form of final judgment filters into attitudes towards more
corporeal forms of judgment that carry the threat of punishment from some authority figure. Police,
judges, bosses, parents, teachers and others with positional authority are confronted with negative
reaction against their actual or potential for authoritative judgments. The antagonistic reaction to
this kind of ultimate authority and power over the measure of an individuals worth, often results in
the rejection of the idea of judgment all together.
Our distrustful attitude toward judgment is quite fascinating when you stop to consider that people
are engaging in judgment all the time. It is as common as breathing. In fact, nothing would ever get
done, without small or immense judgments being made by people all the time.
This is because real life is complex, dynamic, and uncertain. Fact is difficult enough to know even
with access to the best science, but reality, the domain of human experience, can be overwhelming,
and beyond comprehension. Careful, accurate description, concomitant with clear explanation, is
necessary but not sufficient in the quest for enough of the right kind of knowledge to allow wise
decisions to be made.
Therefore, without the capacity to authentically use judgment, there often emerges a situation,
commonly referred to as the paralysis of analysis, and its frequent companion, value paralysis.
These two types of paralysis result from the popular assumption that decisions need to be based on
a comprehensive, factual understanding of a specific situation. Further, this comprehensive,
accurate understanding, imbued with rational logic, will eventually lead to the correct solution. It
is also assumed that this approach renders results not swayed by any personal preferences. In other
words, that it is an objective and unbiased process. Due to their aspiration to be comprehensive,
approaches like this often lead to oversimplifications at the same time as they lead to endless efforts
in finding and analyzing all the necessary facts and information.
This is because to be comprehensive means to deal successfully with an unimaginable amount of
data and information. In order to deal realistically with the complexity and complication of large
amounts of information, within a reasonable amount of time, it is necessary to find ways to
simplify. This means ignoring or leaving things out that cannot easily be characterized. It also
means using generalized abstractions to stand in for the multiplicity of particular constellations of
sense data. In the process of simplification and generalization, nuances and subtleties are lost. Even
things that are obviously apparent are lost because they are not easily understood and conveniently
accessible through descriptive or explanative frames of reference. There is, obviously, a danger in
not dealing with the full richness and complexity of reality.
The value of judgment is that it allows individuals to overcome these forms of paralysis, and engage
in the messy complexities of life in a way that, when done well, can bring function, beauty, and
meaning to human existence.
Formal, rational decision-making processes are often held up as the standards to be used by
businesses, governments, institutions and foundations, and even by individuals, when one must
engage in complex, dynamic issues. The irony in this, is that decision-making, based on rational
analysis alone, actually creates more options and divergence, than it does convergence (in the form
of focused outcomes). This is true, even when there are resources and time enough to allow a
comprehensive process to unfold. Judgment, on the other hand, is a convergent process. It brings
diversity and divergence into focus; that is, it brings form and meaning to messy real-world
situations. Best of all, it is on time or in time which means that it takes place within the
constraints of a reasonable time frame based on a time line of realistic expectations and limitations.
This is the discipline of judgment. It is making good choices in a timely way without the delays
associated with never-ending studies.
We believe that judgment is a basic human activity. But, what exactly is this phenomenon? There
is not just one kind of judgment because reality presents itself to us with such a full richness and
complexity that it compels us to develop different configurations of judgment. In any complex
situationwhere there is a particular purpose and need to make decisions and take actionswe
rely on a number of different types of judgments. These include: intellectual judgment, practical
judgment, ethical judgment, esthetic judgment, professional judgment, and design judgment.
These various kinds of judgment relate to specific aspects of our experience of reality. People use
these judgments to deal with the opportunities, problems, questions, and uncertainty they face. Keep
in mind that we never find any of these judgment types in their pure form, there is always overlap
between them. Because we are interested in how judgment affects us as designers, we will focus
more intently on the phenomenon of design judgment.
Design judgment
In our examination of design judgment, we have found that it actually encompasses several different
types of judgment. For instance, as designers, we face situations where we may have to make an
overall judgment on the quality of a specific material or personnel used in a design. At other
moments, we may have to judge how the chosen parts of a design fit together as a wholeas a
composition. These two situations are not only different in their focus, they also reveal how
different the act of making a judgment can be, and how our skills and knowledge underlying a
judgment may differ.
We do not claim that the types of judgment presented below are the only possible ones, and we
want to be careful to recognize that we are only talking about design judgmentsthis is not a
discursive, generalized theory of judgment. Also, this not an attempt to define design judgment as
residing in the realm of the true, instead this is a concept that resides in the domain of the real. It is
an attempt to create an image of design judgment that is practical enough to help designers, and
non-designers, better understand how designing works, and improve their competence as designers.
Reflecting on design judgment, we can initially distinguish between client judgments, and designer
judgments. We can also divide design judgments into conscious or subconscious acts.
Before we explore designer judgments, let us briefly discuss client judgments. A client or someone
acting on their behalf, first of all, has to make the judgment of intention. For a client, it is always
possible to choose - or not to choose - design as a way to approach a situation. The client can make
the judgment that design is not the appropriate approach, and may instead choose a problem-solving
approach, a political approach, or even a management or spiritual approach. Design is, in every
situation, only one of many options. And sometimes design is not necessarily the right option. If a
client needs an approach that will lead to a guaranteed, and predictable, result, design is not
appropriate, since it is about creating the not-yet-existing, which, by definition, is always a risky
business. This judgment of approach, if made in favor of design, marks the entry into a design
project and is always made by the client or surrogate client.
Once within the design process, the client or clients agent must make a judgment of purpose. It is
the client who has to make the overall judgment about the purpose of engaging in a design process.
This does not mean that the client necessarily will decide what has to be the outcome of the design.
By this judgment, the client will set the stage for the design process, and also provide the designer,
or design team, with a first approximate direction for all energy, thoughts, and actions.
In the design process, the client is also responsible for making judgments of worth or value. A
designer can never make that judgment on behalf of a client. He or she might be able to suggest, or
try to influence, or educate a client to appreciate certain qualities and certain design consequences,
but the final judgment of the worth and value of a design is in the hands of the client.
These client judgments ought to affect the designers judgment on whether or not to serve the client
in the first place. The making of these seminal judgments by the client not only creates restrictions
on possible actions by the designer, but also instills accountability and responsibility by the
designer, concerning the systemic effects of the judgments. There is rarely a clear demarcation,
however, between these client and designer judgments, because of the mutual influence clients and
designers have on one another. This means that the judgments made by the designer have an impact
on the clients realm of judgment. These initial judgments are also modified and refined throughout
the design process by the cross-catalytic effect of judgments being made in the different domains of
responsibility.
It should be obvious, at this juncture, that the client does not merely provide an entry point into the
design process. The client plays an ongoing role throughout the design process, by having the
responsibility for the judgments described above. Design judgments are never made once and for
all. New ideas, creative changes, changed preconditions, and increased understanding and
knowledge, all change the context for the judgments made. Judgment making in design is fully
dynamic, and dialectic, between conscious and subconscious judgments, and between client and
designer judgments.
Designers are expected to make a lot of judgments and are held accountable for their consequences.
But since these judgments are not all of the same type and, depending on which category of
judgment the designer is engaged in, different strategies and tactics are demanded, which require
different commitments of time and energy.
The entry point - or gateway - for a designer into a design process is marked by an altruistic
judgment of whom to serve the judgment of service. Once this judgment is in place, with all its
concomitant relationship-building, contracting, and related activities, a design project can be
initiated.
Within a design project, we divide designer judgments into ten different types. These judgment
types are described in greater detail elsewhere (see Nelson & Stolterman, 2002), here we will only
briefly introduce them. Our only purpose here is to make the case that a better understanding of
design judgments is fundamental to the further development of a designers competence. Just as the
client is responsible, and accountable, for client judgmentsapproach, purpose, and worththe
designer is fully responsible, and accountable, for the ten presented below.
Default judgmentinternalized judgments of skill

Deliberated off-hand judgmentexperiential learning judgments
Appreciative judgmentdiscernment of foreground from background
Appearance judgmentjudgments of style, nature, character, and soul
Quality judgmentjudgments of excellence and worth

Instrumental judgmentjudgments of craft
Navigational judgmentjudgments in the moment in a dynamic environment
Framing judgmentdetermination of boundaries and limits
Compositional judgmentcausing distinction and diversity to stand in unity
Core judgmentsubconscious limits of value and meaning
A designer will in any design process face situations where all or some of these types of judgments
are needed. In summary, both clients and designers are elements in a compound relationship, which
is animated by the interaction of many different types of judgment. Judgments are continually being
made, and then refined, throughout any particular design process. Each set of judgments, whether
designer or client related, must be made by the accountable individual(s). If, for instance, clients
allow the designers to make judgments of purpose and/or worth, then the process becomes one of
art, rather than design. If, on the other hand, the clients are encouraged to make judgments
regarding composition, or framing and containing, then it becomes a process of facilitation, rather
than design.
The key idea is that design is a system of relationships, which include a variety of roles and
responsibilities (such as designers and clients), from which design activity, and outcomes, emerge.
It is a composition that depends on the interaction of different design roles for the emergent quality
to be produced, in the same way that oxygen and hydrogen combine to form water. Wetness is an
emergent quality, not present in either type of gas, when observed in isolation. Similarly, the role of
designer cannot exist out of relationship with a client, because design action is an emergent quality.
This plethora of judgment types creates a rich map of complex relationships. In a design situation,
neither the client nor the designer can use this map as a guideline, not even when the meaning of the
different judgment types is more developed. Its purpose is instead to make us realize that design is a
process, fully guided by design judgments of astounding variety and type. There is no temporal
aspect in the map, and there is no priority to the type of judgments necessary. In real situations,
these judgments are made all the time, in a complete dialectical relationship. Of course, certain
design processes do demand more of specific kinds of judgment, while others demand less. Yet, the
map is still valuable as a tool for reflection, and as an intentional aid for improving ones design
ability. The map can even be used as an analytical tool. Such an analysis might be helpful, to
explore ones own way of approaching a design task.
We must address at least one more type of judgment, and that is mediative judgment. All the
previously discussed types of design judgments will, in one way or another, contribute to the final
design. A designer therefore needs to make a judgment on how this whole should be orchestrated.
Thus, he or she must balance and proportion the different types of designerly judgments using
mediative judgment.
A designed whole is the emergent consequence of all the judgments made in a design process. It is a
synthesis of three wholistic domains: the adequate whole, the essential whole, and the significant
whole.
The meaning of the concept of whole, in relation to judgment in design, is one of the most crucial
things to understand about design; in effect distinguishing it from other intellectual traditions.
Design judgment has a special character, since the resulting design is something produced from
imagination, something not-yet-existing. In its various forms, design judgment relies on all our
capabilities as humans. It is based on intellectual and conceptual thinking, as well as aesthetic and
ethical considerations, and its fundamental starting block is the character of the designer.
Conclusion
As stated at the beginning of this paper, we believe that design judgment is a full and equal partner
in any form of design inquiry, on a par with rational decision-making. Design judgments are not
weakened by an improved understanding of their nature, as opposed to the mystery of intuition,
which can be threatened by too much self-consciousness. The judgments that constitute design, as
illustrated in this paper, are based on the conviction that it is possible, through intentional
intellectual effort, to understand and improve our capacity, and skill, in making any judgments,
especially design judgments.
Again, we should emphasize that we are not talking about making true judgments. Rather, we are
talking about treating design as an aesthetic and purposive approach, whereby we make the
imagined real, using our ability to make good adequate judgments. Design is about making crucial
judgments, ranging from reflexive off-hand judgments, to judgments emerging from our core being.
It is about an appreciation for the whole, and all its systemic relationships. Therefore, being more
apperceptive, in order to understand more about the self-conscious activity of judgment, will not
interfere with a designers ability to make good design judgments. It will only help to improve
those judgments.
This leaves us, as designers, fully responsible for our judgments and our actions. There is no way of
escaping this responsibility. Designers, in relationship with clients, have complete responsibility
and accountability, for their designs. This is because they have chosen, based on their design
judgments, to make a particular conceptual design into a concrete reality, without the protective
cover of true design. This leads us to believe that good design is possible to achieve through good
judgment, as an informed process of intention, and not something gained simply by chance or
necessity.
References
Churchman, C.W. (1968). Challenge to Reason. New York, NY, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Dewey, J. (1910) How We Think. Boston, MA, D. C. Heath & Co.
Dunne, J. (1993). Back to the Rough Ground; 'Phronesis' and 'Techn' in Modern Philosophy and
in Aristotle. Notre Dame, IN, University of Notre Dame Press.
Kant, I. (1790). Critique of judgment. Translation by W. Pluhar, published 1987. Indianapolis:
Hackett Publishing Company.
Nelson, H. & Stolterman, E. (2002, forthcoming). The Design Way Intentional Change in an
Unpredictable World. Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey.
Rittel, H. (1972). On the Planning Crisis: Systems Analysis of the 'First and Second
Generations'. in Bedrifts Okonomen (Norway)(No. 8): 390-396.
Vickers, S. G. (1995). The Art of Judgment; A Study of Policy Making. Thousand Oaks, CA, SAGE
Publications.
Wittgenstein, L. (1968). Philosophical Investigations, II.xi.
10

R. Oxman Faculty of Architecture and Town and Planning, Technion, Haifa, Israel
Abstract
The design of virtual place constitutes a special and new class of design. Virtual places are both
forms of information as well as information of form. Though we already have actual experience
with virtual functions in the form of virtual museums, virtual shops, virtual schools etc., there, as
yet, exists no theoretical basis informing the design of virtual place. New experience is beginning to
emerge that deals with key issues in the use of, and interaction in, virtual places. Among these
issues is designing the sense of presence in what is a virtual world. This new knowledge and
understanding is beginning to help to define this new field of design. The objective of the research
has been to determine and define the generic requirements of a virtual place from a design point of
view. The paper describes an experimental program whose objective was to identify generic design
concepts of virtual place. A goal of this work has been to make a conceptual mapping of
Cyberspace. We present the basis for the conceptual mapping employing the ICF formalism in
making the survey, analysis and the categorization of relevant sites.

Introduction
Online activities of diverse functions such as shopping, banking, and travel planning are occurring
more and more often in virtual environments. Currently, these are commonly information
environments rather than spatial experiences. However, as beside the physical environment,
networked environments become an important part of our actual daily experience, the design of
virtual space may enhance our presence and functionality in the new world of information.
The design of virtual space constitutes a special and new class of design in which the verisimilitude
of the constituents of place is becoming a central issue. However, there is a more fundamental
problem beneath the obvious requirement of reality. The design of E-place has dual importance.
It is the design of both the sense of place in terms of the information of form, as well as the
unique experience of the virtual in terms of ability to simultaneously experience the forms of
information. It is the reconciliation between making the virtual appear real and preserving the
uniqueness of the medium as conceptual space that is the essence of the design problem.
Though we already have considerable working experience with the design of virtual space in the
form of recent virtual museums, shops, schools etc., we lack a theoretical basis for design.
Furthermore, we still lack a coherent statement of the design problem. Without any doubt, among
the challenging problems is the achievement of a sense of place in this medium which might
duplicate, replace, or improve the traditional human perception of place. However, whether such an
effort should be based upon the effort to achieve an analogy with physical space is as yet unclear.
Should the virtual be like the real?
Early attempts to deal with the design of virtual space by providing a sense of place and physical
presence are beginning to emerge. Our knowledge is becoming formulated around the concept of
typological verisimilitude. That is, for each type of distinctive experience of a human function,
e.g. a bank, there is a particular form of spatial presence that is required. The place, bank, is a
distinctive spatial experience as it is a distinctive conceptual environment.
We are attempting to address the complexity of this interpretation of presence in place as it
relates to the performance requirements of virtual functions. Rather than treating the problem as the
visual duplication of actual physical environments we are attempting to conceptualize the new
design problem of place and presence in information space.
In our on-going research we are particularly interested in capturing generic knowledge related to the
following issues:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
How is the relationship between people and place transformed in electronic environments;
How should place be conceptualized in order to accommodate these transformations;
How can the conceptualization of place-based experience be achieved;
How can spatial metaphors and spatial interactions be achieved;
What experience beyond perceptual space-based experience should be accommodated?
The initial stage of the research was based upon the collection of theoretical materials as well as a
systematic survey of web-sites offering a range of interpretations of place. Following these early
stages, we have undertaken an experimental program whose objective was to identify and define
generic design concepts of virtual place. The experiment was carried on in an educational situation
in which a team of student-researchers collaboratively constructed a generic knowledge base for the
programmatic and performance requirements of the design problem. We report below on the results
of this experimental research. The experiment is a unique form of social interaction made possible
by the communication and collaboration potential of Cyberspace.
In the following sections we first briefly introduce a theoretical basis for the definition of
cyberspace and of its impact on space-time relations in virtual spaces. In the next section we present
approaches related to the spatiality of cyberspace and how we conceptualize space and place.
Following this we describe the experimental program, its theoretical assumptions, the provisions for
the collaborative construction of the knowledge base, and the methods of knowledge collection. In
the last section we present our findings.
What is Cyberspace?
The meaning of the term Cyberspace is derived from the Greek word Kyber to navigate.
There are two basic interpretations to this term. The first refers to Cyberspace as a navigable digital
space of information created by networked computers and known today as the Internet. The second
interpretation is taken from the writings of William Gibson who is commonly credited with
inventing the term. This first appeared in his novel, Neuromancer, (Gibson, 1984) in which he
refers to Cyberspace as a conceptual space within the technology rather than the technology itself.
The distinction is non-trivial, since for Gibson Cyberspace is a particular form of mental space
within the technology itself.
Place in Cyberspace
In his novel Gibson presents Cyberspace as placeless and spaceless. Spaceless in his view is
described as a visual metaphor that provides an abstracted view of the real world, but is lacking
tangible substance. In a later work (Gibson, 1986) Gibson describes that in Cyberspace there exists
neither space nor place and therefore, there is no spatiality. In fact, he proposes Cyberspace as a
linked digital information system that employs spatial metaphors in order to assist in the navigation
and interaction with data constructs. According to Dodge and Kitchin, (Dodge and Kitchin, 2001)
Cyberspace is actually transforming real world spatiality into a placelessess world. As such it is
changing the conventional relationship between people and places.
The provision of a sense of place in the virtual world requires the following components: physical
settings, a functional context, and a social setting. We consider these components in the following
sections.
The physical setting in virtual worlds

According to Benedikt (1991) Cyberspace contributes to the blurring of reality and virtually.
Similar to other media such as television and film, the sense of a place may be possible with the
representation of an analogy of the real. In the field of Virtual Reality immersion techniques have
been developed to allow us to experience the virtual as real place in mimetic spaces. According to
Benedikt, Cyberspace is an indefinite artificial world where humans navigate in information space
(Benedikt, 1991). First examples of virtual architecture in Cyberspace fall into this category. Most
of these examples of virtual architecture are mainly digital simulations of physical architecture.
They illustrate the visualization of physical architecture and focus more on visual effect and digital
navigation. Many are still lacking real interactive potential.
Architecture and interaction in Cyberspace

However, virtual architecture is more than an information-based view of architectural typologies or
navigation in the empty virtual space of inanimate architectural images, or a web address to
function, communicate and exchange information. Virtual architecture should provide consistent
cognition for the organization and navigating in Cyberspace by providing a sense of place, a sense
of function, as well as a sense of awareness of others in the same place (Gu and Maher, 2002; Kalay
and Marx, 2001).
Today, interaction with architectural metaphors allows users to be involved and experience the
environment and the sense of place in an online fashion. User interaction becomes a significant
attribute, which contributes to the experience of interaction with a virtual space in the architectural
sense.
Spatial form and virtual space in Cyberspace

Cyberspace does not have an explicit spatial form. It is accepted that Cyberspace has a spatial and
architectural form that is dynamic, dematerialized and devoid of the laws of physics. It is space in
which the mind can explore spaces that are in everyway socially constructed, produced and
abstract (Benedikt, 1991).
Holtzman (Holtzman, 1994) explains that there is no there there. It is a space without space, a
nonplace (Gibson, 1987) and yet it possesses a potential for spatiality which can contribute to the
possibility of virtual places. A virtual place need not and will not be subject to the principles of
ordinary space and time. According to Benedickt, Cyberspace is a common mental geography in
which mystical or imaginable spaces become visible. Abstract spaces of the imagination are free
from geometry and conventional typology. They can be re-invented; the formal qualities of time
and space are different. Temporality is erased and transcended within Cyberspace.
In Cyberspace there are no physical constraints that dictate the dynamics or the spatio-temporal
qualities of portrayed virtual space. In general, all principles of real space may be violated in
Cyberspace and the characteristics and constraints are only determined by the specification that
defines the particular digital space (Memarzia, 1997). Novak addresses the transient, ephemeral,
dynamic and changing qualities of mediated spatial experience when he refers to liquid
architecture. Liquid architecture is an architecture that breathes, pulses, leaps as one form and
lands as another. Liquid architecture is an architecture whose form is contingent on the interest of
the beholder (Novak, 1991).
The social setting in Cyberspace

Researchers who have explored the relationship between people and places have indicated that it is
the relationship of the two that creates the sense of a place. People are their places and place is its
people (Relph, 1976). In this view, Cyberspace, rather than as a physical location, can be
considered a place based on interest and involvement. Such places can be accessed from anywhere.
They can be defined according to modes of interaction and thus they potentially enable new forms
of social relationships based on shared interests.
This social view of Cyberspace refers to it as a place where rules of interaction are created (Dodge
and Kitchin, 2001). According to this definition, as soon as people interact in Cyberspace it gains
spatiality. A recognized virtual place such as the Lambda Mall (Williams, 1996) gains the
recognition of acting as place where people can interact by using a spatial metaphor of a mall in
order to structure an online activity. Thus the interactivity setting appears to be more, or at least as,
important as visual analogy in creating the sense of a place in an electronic environment.
The functional context in Cyberspace

In Cyberspace we can perform many functions that were once assigned to specific architectural
typologies. We can learn, read, communicate, exchange documents, make bank transactions, or buy
clothes or furniture. Virtual places in Cyberspace are actually in the historical process of replacing
traditional building types: libraries, museums, bookstores, shopping malls, schools, etc. (Mitchell,
2000). Physical spaces in virtual architectural typologies are, in fact, analogues of physical
elements. As a functional place, virtual architecture is understood as a networked place supporting
an extended range of online interactions. Without the use of the architectural metaphor, virtual
typologies remain a set of linked web pages. Architectural metaphors provide a potential basis for
linking and interacting with other virtual environments, users and online activities. Today there are
many metaphors of place that are used for information-based activities in Cyberspace: Chat Room,
Meeting Place, Conference Room, Cyber-Cafe, Shopping Mall, Virtual Bank etc. However most of
them are still lacking a perceptual sense of place, the sense of physical presence, and the kind of
interactivity that traditionally constructs our sense of place.
Towards a sense of place in Cyberspace

Cyberspace and the Internet have changed and restructured relations between people and place.
New media and spatial metaphors are being employed in changing our conceptual understanding of
what Cyberspace actually is and may become. The conceptual space that is Cyberspace is extending
both our functional and social life through interaction and communication. Currently there are two
basic metaphors for place:
1.
2.
The document metaphor, or information-based models of place this model is analogous

to Web Pages and navigation and interaction are supporting documents;
The physical place where metaphors analogous to our real experience with the world are
employed.
As was said above, in order to go beyond these two dominant models and provide a sense of place
in the virtual world, it requires physical setting, a functional context, a social setting, and
interactivity. With these general requirements in mind, the objective of our research has been to
determine and define the generic requirements of place from a design point of view.
The experimental work also includes the attempt to create a new dimension of place that we believe
is characteristic of an environment of information. This new concept of place seeks to combines
aspects of various models. It includes navigation and browsing concepts from information-based
models, social interactions from the social model, and orientation and belonging from the physical
model. In combining the physical presence attributes with the conceptual and informational
attributes it is truly unique.
Our main research objective has been to determine how interaction with virtual architecture
contributes to experiences of place in Cyberspace. This has been undertaken through a survey of,
and experimentation with, existing sites that exploit a virtual architecture metaphor. In order to
enrich this experimental work we have also attempted to map the relevant activities that are dealing
with the conceptualization of Cyberspace as well as to learn from existing precedents in the media.
The theoretical aspect of the survey has provided the definition of a range of significant issues to be
solved in this emerging field. The survey and experimentation with precedents has provided a
specific set of concepts and solutions to these issues which are characteristic of the current state of
the art. Given the relative newness of this as a field of design, and given the dramatic uniqueness of
the design field, both of these methods, the theoretical as well as the experimental, have proved to
supplement one another.
Mapping Cyberspace is, in itself, an extremely complex task. If the goal of this work is to explore
the conceptual impact of Cyberspace on the architectural design of virtual places then, somehow,
we require a medium for the conceptual mapping of Cyberspace itself. We present the basis for
conceptual mapping that was commonly employed by the student-researchers to execute the survey,
analysis and categorization of relevant sites. It is the structure of the conceptual method that
provided a common basis for the analysis, evaluation, and documentation of the relevant material
gathered on the sites. The common method also provided a social framework for collaboration on
group integration of the separate modules of knowledge that were collected by the individual
researchers.
A structure for conceptual mapping in Cyberspace

Examples of the designs that were considered of significance as exemplifying the generic
characteristics of virtual place were assembled to form a conceptual structure. This method includes
the construction of a semantic net of design concepts as a basis for selecting, storing and retrieving
precedent knowledge. It is based upon our prior work in which it has been exploited as a basis for
knowledge formalization of design precedents. The method is relevant to the study of design
precedents, in this case, of designs for web sites. In addition, the method has provided a framework
in the form of a basis of convention for the social construction of knowledge in a collaborative
process.
Employing a common method, and a formalism for the documentation of knowledge derived from
case studies of web sites, the group of researchers developed a semantic net of concepts related to
the constituents of place in virtual architecture. The method employs Case-based Reasoning as a
model for capturing and formalizing knowledge of the design problem. Case-based design is a
relevant method which has frequently been employed in capturing design knowledge. Recent works
in case-based design have also demonstrated how case libraries of collected and analyzed
precedents of prior designs can be employed as a resource for learning and study of design
knowledge which can be useful and applicable in current design. (Oxman, 1994; Akin et al., 1997;
Oxman and Heilighen, 2001)
One of the distinctive problems in representing designs, including web site designs, is the richness
and complexity of their descriptive content. Each design contains many related chunks of
information that are difficult to decompose. A theoretical model for the representation of design
cases is the Issue-Concept-Form (ICF) formalism (Oxman, 1996). This representation refers to
three coordinated abstracted levels of design knowledge which have been defined as the ICF model.
The design issue is domain-specific semantic information related to goals and issues of the problem
class. Issues may be formulated by the programmatic statement, intrinsic problems of the domain,
or by the designer himself. The design concept is a domain-specific formulation of a solution
principle, rather than the explicit physical description. The design form is the specific design artifact
that materializes the solution principle.
This tri-partite schema has implications for memory organization, indexing, and search in the
knowledge base collecting the examples from the sites. It provides a method for documenting and
storing the knowledge derived from the analysis of precedent sites, and of structuring that
knowledge into a semantic net. In distinction to current navigational systems, memory is organized
by the knowledge chunks, rather than by holistic cases. Conceptual links in the semantic network
can connect different precedents. From any node, related ICF links can be retrieved which in turn,
call up their precedents. So each site can be characterized by various concepts, or characteristics, of
place. Figure 1 illustrates a conceptual mapping of virtual place precedents employing the ICF
structure
WebPAD is a tool which will be employed in our research (Oxman and Shabo, 1999). It exploits
the ICF formalism for extracting and representing knowledge from design precedents. It provides
an environment in which new knowledge can be in-put by independent agents using the system. It
provides certain utilities that support the independent and collective construction and modification
of the case-base. To our knowledge this is a unique property of the WebPAD system. This property
addresses one of the inherent possibilities of knowledge construction in cyberspace. Figure 2
presents a screen illustration of the Web-Pad system.
Issue
Realistic
boundaries
Concept
Orientation
Form
Stairs
metaphor
Issue
Spatial
boundaries
Concept
Conceptual
Navigation
Issue
Temporal
boundaries
Precedent
http://www3.diarioelpais.com/muva2/#
Form
Pictures
metaphor
Precedent
www.artmuseum.net/vangogh/gateway.asp
Figure 1: A conceptual mapping for virtual place precedents employing the

ICF structure
Figure 2: Analyzed virtual precedent in the WebPad system
Conceptual mapping of places in Cyberspace

In the following section we present the method and findings which are the result of working with
the ICF formalism on selected site precedents which were found interesting and meaningful on the
web today.
The selection of precedents was based on site types that have a natural reference to architectural
place-based models rather than to document-based models. Those selected for study were further
processed to emphasize sites with maximal emphasis upon applications of spatial representation and
the presence of the constituents of place. The initial selection determined the following types to be
most promising for additional detailed analysis: virtual museums and exhibitions, virtual learning
environments, virtual shopping centers, virtual meeting-rooms, etc.
The following precedents are representative of the material studied in the survey and analysis:
Virtual Museums:
-
Virtual Museum of Arts El Pais

http://www3.diarioelpais.com/muva2/#
Art Museum.net - Van Goghs Van Gogh

www.artmuseum.net/vangogh/gateway.asp
Math Museum interacting with objects by video clips

www.math.brown.edu
Virtual Learning Environments

-
Alfy
www.alfy.com
The ICF in mapping Cyberspace

In encoding design knowledge, selected web-sites provided a basis for the acquisition of conceptual
knowledge. This was accomplished through content analysis of design issues, concepts, forms in
each of the sites. The virtual design domain has raised several generic issues. Among them are the
following: how the collapse of temporal boundaries can be experienced in a new way in virtual
space, how the collapse of spatial boundaries makes physical boundaries more interesting, and how
the collapse of social boundaries can contribute to new experiences in virtual places?
Design concepts are solutions that are employed as generic strategies to solve issues. In the example
illustrated in figure 1, selected concepts are extracted from the sites in order to describe the unique
virtual experiences in Cyberspace.
Metaphors function as a form solution in many of the virtual places. By using a conceptual
metaphor a new meaning is perceived which changes the root concepts. For example a spatial
metaphor can introduce visualizations, pictures and images of the real world to the user in order to
create a sense of place. However, by interacting with these metaphors a new experience can be
achieved. For example, in the museum of Van Gogh we are introduced to an exhibition hall and
pictures on the walls. However, while we navigate we experience new kinds of relations between
time and space. First, we navigate through a domestic space of the exhibition hall directly into a
mental space of a picture that was painted by Van Gogh. Secondly, we visit both in the same time
the space today and the space in the past, (See figure 3). A conceptual mapping of places on
cyberspace was mapped employing the ICF structure. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
Issue
The collapse
of spatial
boundaries
Issue
The collapse
of temporal
boundaries
Concept
Conceptual
/mental
navigation
Concept
Orientation
Form
Digital
simulation
Form
Interaction/navigation
with architectural
metaphors
Form
Video
Walk through
conceptual
Precedent
Precedent
Virtual Museum of Arts El
Pais
Art
Museum.net
Van Goghs
Van Gogh
Form
Interaction/navigation
Illsutrated metaphors
Precedent
Math Museum
www.math.brown.e
Concept
Illusions
Issue
The collapse
of realistic
boundaries
Precedent
Alfy Park
www.alfy.com
Figure 3: A conceptual mapping of places in

Cyberspace
Conclusions
As Cyberspace becomes a new frontier for design, we are entering a new design discipline. In this
paper we have introduced some of the complexity of this new field, and presented the need to
understand and redefine its theoretical basis. In order to map the complexity and the role of place
making in this new electronic dimension we have undertaken research to identify issues and
concepts. In addition we have begun to map the relevant existing design precedents and their
potential contribution to emerging identification of the objectives and possibilities of place making.
Beyond the conventional monotonic definition of visual verisimilitude as a design objective for
simulating the visual content of place, we have begun to suggest a new range of performance
requirements for place in Cyberspace. Furthermore, place in electronic environments must have
attributes that are different to those of physical place. The clue appears to us to be in integration of
modes of space time and information. This, rather than focusing on the visual recreation of spatial
environments, can enable the existences of places that provide data access and knowledge within
the visual scene. We have seen just this in the Van Gogh museum.
We can conclude that such multi-modal environments are the real design future of place in
Cyberspace. Interactivity and social presence are significant performance requirements which must
be realized. The future of place in Cyberspace is a new reality rather than a recreated reality. As
such it is truly a new design frontier.
10
References
Akin, O., M. Cumming, M. Shealy, and B. Tuncer, "An Electronic Design Assistance Tool for
Case-based Representation of Designs" Automation in Construction 6 (1997) 265-274
Benedikt, M (1991) Cyberspace: First Steps, Cambridge, The MIT Press
Dodge, M. and Kitchin, R. (2001) Mapping Cyberspace, Routledge, London and NY
Gibson, W (1984) Neuromancer, Harper Collins, London
Gibson, W (1987) Mona Lisa Overdrive, Harper Collins, London
Gibson, W (1986) Count Zero, Harper Collins, London
Holtzman (1994) Digital Mantras, The Language of Abstract and Virtual worlds. MIT Press,
Cambridge, Mass.
Kalay Y. E. and Marx J. (2001) Architecture and the Internet: Designing Places in Cyberspace
Working Paper, University of California, Berkeley
Gu, N. and Maher, M.L. (2002) Designing Virtual Architecture: From Place to User-Centered
Design, International Journal of Design Computing, Vol. 4
Mitchell, W.J.(1995) City of Bits,: Space, Places and the Infobahn, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Memarzia, K (1997) Towards the Definition and Application of Digital Architecture, School of
Architectural Studies, University of Shefield.
Novak, M. (1991) Liquid Architecture in Cyberspace in Benedikt M. (ed) Cyberspace: First
Steps, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, pp. 225-224
Oxman, 1994 "Precedents in Design: a Computational Model for the Organization of Precedent
Knowledge", Design Studies, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 141-157.
Oxman R. and Shabo, A. (1999) The Web as a Visual Design Medium in Information
Visualization Conference (IV'99) IEEE, Computer Society Press
Oxman, R. and Heylighen A. (2001) A Case With a View in Architectural Information
Management, (ed: H. Pentilla), eCAADe Conference Proceedings, pp. 336-341.
Relph, E (1976) Place and Placelessness, Pion, London
Williams, T (1996) Otherland, Orbit, London
11
A geometric aid during the first stages of product

collaborative design
D. Pallez PRISMa Laboratory, University of Lyon, France
P. Ghodous PRISMa Laboratory, University of Lyon, France
M. Martinez PRISMa Laboratory, University of Lyon, France
Abstract
The technological advances carried out these last years in the field of products development led the
researchers to elaborate the approaches that reduce the cost and time of product development,
enhance the quality of product and help the designers to be more creative. These objectives are
difficult to obtain due to a large number of phases, which should be carried out during the product
development and the large number of experts of different disciplines that are involved. Currently,
computer aided systems and software have concentrated on the capture and representation of
geometrical shape and technical information as opposed to providing supports for product design in
the earlier stages of design process. In a nonroutine design, it is delicate and extremely complex to
obtain the best products answering customers specifications. The aim of this paper is to present a
methodology to assist designers during the first stages of design. The objective is not to construct
automatically the shape but both to automate a certain number of heavy and tiresome tasks, and
assist designers during collaborative design. In the best case, this assistance makes the designers
stimulation possible by presenting them the solutions that they had not thought of before.
A geometric aid during the first stages of product

collaborative design
The will to capitalize upon the know-how of firms, and to reduce production times, mean that we
now approach CAD/CAM systems through the view of functional/conceptual modelling (Minich
and Pallez 1999). The development of CAD/CAM systems knew several phases; restricted
themselves to geometry first, they were little by little enriched with information of higher semantic
level; this information could be dedicated to specific trades that took part in the product design. By
this way, features and product modeling represent an improvement of design models by adding to
the geometry necessary information to the manufacture, for example.
The goal is to assist a CAD software user during the earlier stages of the product design. However
the current systems are still based on geometry and in order to achieve the desired goal, it is
necessary to delay computations and to introduce higher semantic level concepts (Minich and Pallez
1999). Introducing form features carried out a first effort (Salomons 1994). They assemble elements
of geometry of very low level (as faces or edges) to form generic entities easily handled by the
engineer because they could be directly associated with functionality (Feng, Huang, et al. 1996) like
sliding motion for a groove or buttress for a shouldering wall. Even if the engineer is brought to
manipulate entities he apprehends, he is still obliged to think and to generate the products shape to
be designed. Moreover form features are essentially based on geometry as it is made by current
software systems. But these ones give a too significant part to the geometrical models by
encapsulating them with specific information of various activities. And it is to go against a current
tendency of the research that tightens to oust geometry of its central position (Brun 1997). Research
tends to reverse this inclination: it makes possible the representation of the product from a more
conceptual point of view in introducing functions. The latter represents the translation of the
products specifications from the first stages of the design (that are the most determining). To
design a product that satisfies all its functions makes it possible to obtain a product of quality,
taking into account the cost, the longevity and the adaptation (Ullman 1997). Currently, only
manual or assistance techniques of functions of product development exist (value analysis,
Qualitative Function Deployment (Ullman 1997). Handled information is mainly expressed in
natural language (Figure 1a), which makes it not easily automatisable even if there exists models
making it possible to build a functional decomposition facilitating the products simulation. FBS
(Function Behaviour Structure) (Tomiyama, Umeda, et al. 1993) (Umeda, Ishii, et al. 1996) (Ranta,
Mntyl, et al. 1996) describes the product according to three levels: the first draws up functions
(Figure 1b); the second specifies how to fulfill these functions by behaviors (Figure 1c); the last
level describes behaviors like a sequence of states of the products components (Figure 1d).
Consequently, the capacity to treat functions by computer opens the way with an automation of the
earlier stages of design.
Figure 1: Overall architecture of the system
However, in a more general way, one notes that methods of assistance in manufacturers product
design are manual during the first phases of design because manipulated information is mainly
written in natural language. As a consequence, any automation attempt will be difficult because, at
this time, one knows that it is hard, computationally and automatically, to interpret the significance
of a text. Therefore, it limits the aid proposed by the different software tools; they are more used in
a verification level, as simulators for instance. So, we assume that this information can be manually
translated into more easily interpretable information by a software system: the translated
information is mathematical constraints on parameters of a relatively elevated semantic level (the
volume of the design object, the coefficient of penetration in air and so on Figure 1e). Those
parameters are called intermediate parameters and are defined as quantifiable and measurable
entities referring to the physical world and are not necessarily related to geometry. The set of
constraints using intermediate parameters defines what we call the intermediate specifications
(Gardan, Minich, et al. 1999a, 1999b). It could appear abusive to suppose that the initial
specifications (Figure 1a), expressed in natural language, can be translated into intermediate
specifications (Figure 1e). However, in a number of cases, the thing is really possible and by this
way, a starting point is obtained for the almost automatic shape synthesis. For example, in the case
of a box design, aesthetics functions may be converted as the following: the ratio of length to height
of the box approaches the gold number ( ( 5 +1)/2) . The corresponding constraints would be
length = ( ( 5 +1)/2) /height. In a larger extent, the handling of a water bottle by a human being,
which is a function, may be converted into constraints on the weight, the compactness and so on,
which are parameters. In (Gardan, Minich, et al. 1999b), we have defined an intermediate constraint
by a quadruple <IP, R, Exp, W> where IP is an intermediate parameter, R is a relation among {<, >,
=, } that must be considered as fuzzy relation, Exp is an arithmetic expression and W is the relative
weight of the intermediate constraint in comparison with the other constraints of the intermediate
specifications. For the moment, only one designer gives the weight for all the intermediate
constraints.
From intermediate constraints and a library of primitive shapes (Figure 1e), we propose to size
every shape of the library so that they verify the intermediate constraints (Gardan, Minich, et al.
1999a). We obtain what we called the solutions space, which contains all solutions (Figure 1f). We
agree that a shape is defined by what we call terminal parameters (mainly geometric and of weak
semantic level: radius, length, width). We suppose, in addition, that an expert of the design
domain has provided the software system with sufficient knowledge so as to know how to translate
intermediate constraints into terminal constraints. The latter apply to terminal parameters of a
parameterized shape of the library. For example, a weak penetration coefficient can result in a weak
radius for the circle or a weak width and an elevated length for the rectangle whether the circle and
the rectangle are parameterized shapes of the library As the shape synthesis of primitive shapes is
not very interesting from an industrial viewpoint, we have studied different methods that permit
synthesizing more complex shapes (Gardan, Minich, et al. 2000).
As we assume that terminal parameters vary in real intervals, there is a great number of shape
solutions that satisfied the intermediate constraints, or even an infinite number. However, the
conviviality of a shape synthesis software tool implies the presentation of a restricted number of
solutions to designers. It means that it is necessary to define a method of searching for the best
solutions among the synthesized shape solutions; it raises two problems: to browse the set of shape
solutions in an intelligent manner and to compare solutions between them.
The second problem consists in defining a degree with which a solution satisfies the intermediate
specifications. This degree is called Satisfaction Degree and is obtained by computing a weighted
average on satisfaction degrees of intermediate constraints affected by their weighting. The
computation of the satisfaction degree of an intermediate constraint (cf. Figure 2) is computed from
the three following points (Gardan, Minich, et al. 1999a):
- the value of the intermediate parameter for the considered solution, so-called real value,;
- the wanted value, that corresponds to the value of the mathematical expression contained in the
intermediate constraint;
- a curve depending on the mathematical relation used in the intermediate constraint.
Figure 2: Satisfaction curve associated with the = relation for the following intermediate
constraint: < IP, =, 5>
In fact, the satisfaction degree of an intermediate constraint is obtained by computing the existing
gap between the real value and the wanted value on the considered curve. The computation of the
intermediate specifications satisfaction degree for a given solution is an operation called
estimation.
We showed that the estimation of combined shapes (represented by a Boolean combination of

primitive shapes contained in the library CSG tree) could not be deduced from the evaluation of
the primitive shapes used to define combined shapes (Gardan, Minich, et al. 1999b).
Knowing how to estimate a shape solution, now we are able to browse a solutions space that is
modeled by variation intervals of terminal parameters for every parameterized shape of the library.
As we have noticed that it seems difficult to use exact optimization methods that are mainly
expressed in a mathematical way (as the Simplex method for instance), we study the possibility to
apply some stochastic methods such as simulated annealing method or genetic algorithms (Gardan,
Minich, et al. 1999a). Then, we have proposed a method more adapted to our approach (Gardan,
Minich, et al. 1999b). The latter consists first in sampling terminal parameter variation intervals.
Secondly, each sample must be estimated in order to interpolate a curve in the case where the shape
is defined by only one terminal parameter, a surface in the case where the shape is defined by two
terminal parameters or a hypersurface in the case where the shape is defined by more than two
terminal parameters. Afterwards, it is possible to determine with a mathematical method the
maximum of the hypersurface. Moreover, the best solutions are obtained by sampling over again
close to a certain number of maxima. Finally, shapes obtained by the application of the previous
method can be presented to designers (Figure 1g). Once this step is finished, designers have to give
their opinion on the selected solutions. In the case where they are not pleased with proposed shapes,
and it will be often, designers have to modify intermediate specifications, modify the intermediate
constraints weights, modify initial specifications of the product, add new intermediate constraints or
new parameterized shape in the library, and so on
In summary, the above methodology consists in translating manually functional information in
constraints on physical entities of the product to design. From this information represented by the
intermediate specifications, also from a library of parameterized shapes and expert knowledge,
numerous shapes solutions are synthesized. To encourage the conviviality of the software system,
the most promising solutions are searched and presented to designers so as to stimulate their
creativeness.
We studied the validity of our methodology in the case of a very precise domain: foundry mould
design (Gardan, Lanuel, et al. 2001). From an industrial viewpoint, the caster (foundry mould
designer) cannot take the liberty to study and to estimate a big number of solutions in so far as the
estimation of each solution is a long time consuming. Therefore, the caster uses trade rules to limit
the solutions space. On the contrary, our methodology synthesizes too many solutions. So, in that
study, we have modified our methodology by introducing some trade rules coming from an expert
of the foundry domain. The aim of the modifications was to reasonably reduce the solutions space
by determining a priori the most promising solutions families, but by preserving an area large
enough in order to preserve the property of creativity. For instance, the placement of pieces to
manufacture makes the solutions space browsing difficult. So, by automatically computing the
different possible arrangements of pieces in the mould in use including shapes for pieces, it is
possible to automatically define classes of solutions. This computation is less time consuming than
testing and estimating each placement of pieces in the mould. Finally, the application of this method
leads to a mould where the weight ratio is better of 40% than the one designed by the caster.
Figure 3: Intermediate specifications model expressed in an EXPRESSG format
Recently, we worked on the way to facilitate a collaborative function-to-form mapping. Firstly, we

have studied the problem of representation of experts multiple-view in a collaborative conceptual
design environment (Pallez, Dartigues, et al. 2001). In that study, we have defined some coherence
rules between different models. Each expert at any time can define his model and may collaborate
with the other models using a STEP standard language named EXPRESSG (cf. Figure 3). As a
consequence, when one model is manipulated, corresponding effects should be made automatically
in the others. Finally, in (Pallez, Dartigues, et al. 2002), we have improved the methodology by
studying the case of a water bottle design with three different design domains: experts on materials,
experts on geometry and manufacturers. The resulting methodology is a function-to-form mapping
in a collaborative context and is the following:
First step: Each design domain has to define its own intermediate specifications for only one
component of the product to design. The intermediate constraints are deduced from the functional
decomposition of the design product regardless of the other design domains participating in the
design process. As a consequence, in this step, intermediate specifications of a domain will use only
physical parameters of the domain. By this way, a designer of a domain can be considered as an
expert of this domain in contrary of the methodology presented previously.
Second step: Next, as we are convinced that there exist relationships between constraints from one
design domain to another, this step consists in establishing those constraints relations. There are
several ways to achieve this: either manually or semiautomatically by considering the rule if two
constraints from two different domains are deduced from the same function, then they are related
each other.
Third step: This step corresponds to the solutions space generation and it is almost the same as our
previous method. For the moment, we assume that only experts of design domains who have a
shapes library are in charge of proposing solutions by applying the methodology presented
previously.
Fourth step: Once shapes solutions are generated, experts of the design domain who do not have a
library must react to the proposed solutions by participating in the selection of the most promising
solutions. So, in this part, experts from all design domains participate in selecting solutions.
Fifth step: As it is inconceivable that a promising solution could be found after the first try of
shapes solution generation and selection, designers will be obliged to collaborate in order to modify
the weights of constraints and/or add other intermediate constraints and/or add other parameterized
shapes in their library so as to increase the satisfaction degree of promising solutions. The functionto-form mapping process starts again from the second step until a promising solution satisfies all
the designers involved in the product design.
Our experience shows us that an automatic and direct mapping of the functional information to
geometric information represents a very difficult problem for the moment. Moreover, numerous
authors are working on this computer-aided-design problem (Gorti and Sriram 1996; Ranta,
Mntyl, et al. 1996; Rosenman and Gero 1996a; Tomiyama, Umeda, et al. 1993; Umeda and
Tomiyama 1997; Zhihui and Johnson 1997). To synthesize our methodology, we have previously
proposed establishing a median difficulty level that is represented by the intermediate
specifications. We assume that the latter is obtained manually from initial specifications mainly
expressed in natural language. We concentrate on the almost automatic mapping of the previous
model into one of several shapes. The intermediate specifications model is made up of a set of
constraints named intermediate; each constraint is made up of physical parameter also named
intermediate. These parameters are quantifiable quantities that remain to a high semantic level. Our
approach is independent of design domains even though experts of design domains must define
some information, necessary to a good working of the function to form mapping. However, the
notion of perimeter, for instance, remains the same whatever the design domain considered. By
this way, there is knowledge capitalization and as and when designs are done, one becomes less and
less necessary to consult an expert of the considered domain. Information provided by designers
permits, among others, the mapping of intermediate constraints into variation intervals of terminal
(geometric) parameters. A Cartesian product of intervals defines the solutions space. On the one
hand, we have assumed that the shapes contained in the library were primitive shapes. We can show
that the addition of more elaborate shapes, or combinations of primitives shapes, don't modify the
proposed approach. However, the number of terminal parameters for those shapes increases
considerably.
Our future works are numerous. First of all, in the short-term, it is necessary to identify all the
possible relations between constraints from different design domains in order to allow more precise
communication between experts of these different domains. Then, it is important to study how to
maintain the consistency of models. In that case, future works will focus on the definition and
formalization of coherence rules between different models so as to improve the proposed multipleview model. Secondly, the application of our methodology in the very precise framework of
foundry mould design permitted us to consider the automatic creation of shapes that would enrich
the library. An evolution of our methodology would consist of not preserving shapes in a library but
to construct these shapes automatically according to concerned design domains. The idea would be
to elaborate a second intermediate model, between the intermediate specifications and the solutions
space, that would permit a less abrupt passage again between functions and shapes. Moreover,
according to our methodology, the estimation operation requires instantiation of a solution that is
the assignment of a real value to every terminal parameter of the solution. Another improvement
would consist of estimating a set of solutions rather than a unique solution: for instance, estimate
the shape circle without knowing precisely the value of the radius. The shape circle is called a
class of solution. The possibility to estimate a class rather than a shape would permit, for example,
the construction of the first satisfactory classes, of which the best would be examined. Then, in the
most promising classes, one would choose the most promising solutions.
In the long term, future works should be related to geometric reasoning: it could be interesting for
the experts to define intermediate constraints using other kind of relation. For instance, instead of
using well-known mathematical relations (, , =, ), experts on geometry would like to use a look
like relation () in order to introduce new experiences on shapes. Once it will be done, it will be
very interesting for designers, and especially for experts who have a shape library (expert on
geometry), to combine shapes contained in the library so as to be more creative. For instance,
evolutionary algorithms could be used (Taura, Nagasaka, et al. 1998; Rosenman and Gero 1996b;
Gardan, Minich, et al. 2000).
Perspectives in a more general context are also numerous and often make call to other domains of
research. In particular, works done in artificial intelligence could serve as a basis for a better
semantic understanding of functional information. It would allow software systems to provide a
more precocious aid for the function-to-form mapping. In addition, the quality of the man-machine
interface is an essential notion for software appreciated by its users. Even if improvements are
brought to software which implements the function-to-form mapping, the place of designers is still
very important in this mapping. So, a scrolling of the most promising solutions should be done so as
to give designers the possibility to intervene when an aspect of the shape solutions suits them or
displeases them. It raises important difficulties of zones designation by designers, of their
interpretation from a functional point of view and how they will speak in the next step of functionto-form mapping.
If solutions follow each other in any order, the operation will be especially long and laborious for
designers. To make it convivial, we foresee presenting solutions so that they present a geometric
continuity; by this way, their scrolling will appear like an animation. It presents the advantage
evolving solutions in a progressive manner. To provide this geometric continuity, it is necessary to
realize an algorithm that browses the solutions space and finds a solution that looks like another.
Another possibility is to realize a geometric morphing algorithm that converts progressively a
solution into the following solution. The drawback is to generate shapes that are not solutions.
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10

T. Y. Pan School of Art and Design, Coventry University , UK
R. M. Newman School of Mathematical and Information Sciences, Coventry University, UK
S. Porter School of Art and Design, Coventry University , UK
M. Tovey School of Art and Design, Coventry University, UK
Abstract
This paper attempts to identify designers sketches in different forms for a classification system by
use of verbal language. Designers have a creative vocabulary, which has rich meanings in design
communication. This study was carried out with the cooperation of 11 academic staff in the domain
of industrial design. It was concluded that none of verbal language was found descriptive enough
for the purpose of separating sketches into different forms to support a classification system. While
this study has not produced a possible means for classification of sketches using verbal language,
the methodology employed has proved interesting for future investigative styles of sketching and
communication between designers.

Introduction
Sketching is an old form of communication, which has been used to visualise, record, and exchange
information for thousands of years. People communicate knowledge and emotional feelings to
others in many ways such as verbal language, body language, words, illustrations, symbols etc.
(Horn, 1998). Artists and designers use a vocabulary, which has particular meanings in the form of
information to communicate with others.
Birtley (1990) described the way that words such as slippery, fluid, taut etc., formed a
language of car studio, which described particular forms or implied feelings. This might be useful
for classifying designers sketches into different forms. Tovey (1997, 2000) also stated that the use
of such a vocabulary could be interpreted within a small group, where designers worked together
for a quite long period of time. It would be worthwhile to study this sort of language, and to see if it
could form a basis of classifying designers sketches.
Studies concerning the identification of concept sketches have recently occupied many researchers
and several methods have been introduced (Mcgown, 1998; Purcell 1998). They have discussed
different classification systems for concept sketches in different domains such as architecture,
engineering, sculpture, etc.
The primary motivation for this study is to understand more about the verbal language of design in
designers sketches and to explore the feasibility of classifying sketches using this sort of verbal
language, and to find out whether such words have a common meaning.
Aims
The aims of the study are:
To understand and explore the meanings and the use of verbal language by designers
To investigate whether there is a common verbal language amongst designers
To investigate whether a useful classification scheme can be based on verbal language
Methods
The data collection was carried out with the cooperation of 11 academic staff in the domain of
industrial design at Coventry School of Art and Design. The workshop based session was carried
out in the following stages:
The 11 designers were asked to bring sketches with them. The collection reached a total of 19
sketches which were from a wide range of design areas. There were nine from transport design,
seven were general product design, one GA (General Arrangement) drawing, one illustration and
one practising sketch. The sketches included the range from early concept sketches to detailed
finished drawings.
Figure 1: Sketches were collected from academic staff in the domain of industrial design.
The designers were asked to contribute adjectives that they used to describe and discuss the style of
sketches. The list of adjectives reached 58 words, and included such words as Loose, Animated
etc. These were compiled into a data sheet that could be used to assign scores to the collection of 19
sketches.
The sketches were displayed one by one to all designers, and they were asked to score the
applicability of every adjective to each sketch using the following scoring system:
Scoring Figure
0
1
2
3
4
Blank
Meanings of the figure

Keyword does not apply to this sketch
Keyword has slight application
Keyword has medium application
Keyword has strong application
Sketch is exemplar of this keyword
No opinion
Table 1: Designers used the key to fill data record sheets.
Analysis of adjectives
The aim of the analysis was to reduce a small list of the number of keywords, in order to obtain
words suitable as a starting point for a classification scheme by following the three steps:
1.
2.
3.
Elimination of the adjectives which were inconsistently used by designers

Identification of antonyms and synonyms. In the case of adjectives, which have similar or
opposite meanings, one of these can be selected to represent all of the forms.
Selection of those words which provide clear differentiation between different groups of
sketches
Elimination of inconsistent use of objectives

Inconsistency of use was gauged by the standard deviation of the score given by the 11 assessors, a
high standard deviation indicating that the word was not being used consistently.
The standard deviation of the scores given by the designers for each adjective for each sketch was
calculated. The mean standard deviation was then calculated for each adjective. One examination of
the results, a natural break was found around 0.9, and sketches with a standard deviation higher than
0.9 were eliminated as being inconsistently used.
Thirty-four adjectives were thus rejected due to the inconsistency of interpretation. These words
were:
Energetic, Dynamic, Laboured, Atmospheric, Silhouette, Insensitive, Flat, Shaded, Bold,
Overstated, Clean, Defined, Evocative, Realistic, 3-Dimensional, Cartoony, Impressionistic,
Analytical, Powerful, Bright, Dull, Unresolved, Distorted, Sensitive, Crude, Graphic, Flashy,
Informative, Smooth, Precise, Descriptive, Soft, Hard, Imaginative
Identification of synonyms and antonyms
Twenty-four adjectives remained, a Pearson Rank correlation was carried out to examine the
relationship between these (See Table 3). A correlation of greater than 0.6 was used as an indication
of common or similar meaning. Likewise, a correlation lower than 0.6 was used to indicate
opposite meaning, as is common practice in statistics (Jain 1988; Sigel 1956). The results of the
definition were shown the antonyms and synonyms as follows:
Synonyms (Correlation > 0.6)
Loose, Free-spirited, Spontaneous, Vague, Grubby, Ambiguous, Fuzzy, Sketchy
Animated, Free-spirited, Amorphous
Antonyms (Correlation <- 0.6)
Loose, Tight
Free-spirited, Controlled
Grubby, Crisp
Fuzzy, Slick
After eliminating synonyms and antonyms 12 keywords were left which might be used as axes of
a classification scheme, these words were:
- Animated, Blobby, Blunt, Chunky, Exaggerated, Loose, Meaningless, Moody, Repetitive,
Resonant, Subtle, Understated
The words above can be used as the basis for a classification scheme. This would yield 4096
different classes of sketches, which is too large a number to be useful.
Visual clustering analysis

To reduce these number, words which provided the clearest classification were selected, using a
visual clustering analysis.
Two main properties in Cluster Analysis are compactness and isolation (Jain and Dubes 1988).
Compactness measures the internal cohesion among the objects in the cluster whereas isolation
measures separation between the cluster and other pattern. A Visual Cluster Analysis (VCA) in this
experiment is to use the mean of each single keyword against others, to show the clusters via the
pair of keywords in a two dimensional chart. If a pair of keywords is not useful at differentiating it
can be abandoned. The clusters appeared to show keywords that do differentiate the characteristics
between sketches.
If VCA gives a well separated cluster, the sketches in the group of that cluster can be picked out.
The similar features among these sketches can be extracted forming the basis for classification of
sketches in different groups. The classification could eventually be used to help software designers
to specify appropriate means of handling different kinds of sketch.
Selection of Visual Clusters
Sixty-six VCA charts were produced using every combination of pairs of keywords, as pointed out
earlier, every combination gives 4096, 40 pairs of keywords were rejected because there were no
clearly differentiated clusters such as Subtle/Chunky, Understated/Animated Loose/Animated,
Resonant/Chunky, Loose/Blunt, Understated/Repetitive, etc.
A further 23 combinations were rejected because there was only a single cluster such as
Animated/Repetitive, Animated/Blobby, Subtle/Blobby, Meaningless/Repetitive, etc.
This left three pairs of keywords with visually separated clusters. The most valuable clusters are
with obvious gaps arising between groups (See Figure 2). These pairs of keywords were:
-
Loose and Blobby

Understated and Chunky
Subtle and Moody
Figure 2: the three pairs of keywords were valuable clustered

Four groups emerged via the Visual Clustering Analysis in keywords Loose and Blobby.
Group A: Not loose and not blobby
Group B: Slightly loose and not blobby
Group C: Medially loose and not blobby
Group D: Strongly loose and not blobby
Four groups emerged via the Visual Clustering Analysis in keywords Understated and Chunky.
Group A: Medially chunky and not understated
Group B: Slightly chunky and not understated
Group C: Not chunky and not understated
Group D: Not chunky and slightly understated
Three groups emerged via the Visual Clustering Analysis in keywords Subtle and Moody
Group A: Medially moody and slightly subtle
Group B: Slightly moody and slightly subtle
Group C: Not moody and not subtle
Extraction of common features

The aim of this study was to pick out if there were common visual features, which would be
associated with the groups identified above. The study focused on the following aspects:
1. The drawing techniques:
This concerns the basic visual graphic techniques used in the sketches and the fundamental drawing
elements used to describe an object. They can be divided into two aspects:
-
Expression of sketching forms, e.g. the use of form line, shading, composition, colour,
template etc. to describe the shapes physically
Applied artistic techniques, e.g. abstractionism, impressionism, realism, and the use of
artistic license such as exaggeration, stretching, rotation.
2. Level of finish of the sketches

This is concerned with the sketch in different design stages, which have obvious different features.
At the very early concept stage, designers may only use line to capture the ideas as quickly as
possible, but in the design development stage, they are involved with detailed descriptions by using
a variety of media.
3. The communication of intentions
This relates to the intention of the designer when sketching. The techniques that the designer uses in
sketching to describe the form of design objects must have some meaning for conveying
information to others. For example, the concept sketch mostly uses brief form lines without much
shading which does not convey the surface details an observer, but a finished sketch usually will
have detailed shading and tidy clean lines, which communicates to an observer a lot of information
about the shape, surfaces and even the suggested materials. This part of the study aimed to discover
whether the different groups would be related to different intentions on the part of the designer.
Results
We summarise the three sets of keywords in the following tables:
Used
keywords
Separated
groups
Group A
Group B
Loose /
Blobby
Group C
Group D
Drawing
techniques
1 illustration, 1
GA, 2
rendering
Many different
techniques
were used
From brief line
to detailed
shading
Using form
line and little
shading
Communication
Expressive
of intention
level
Detailed stage By using form
line and form
shading
Sketches went Different levels
to different
of information
stages
to observer
Sketches went Different levels
to different
of information
stages
to observer
Beginning
Giving
stage
suggested shape
without details
Conclusions
Sketches were
used in obvious
different drawing
techniques, and
in different
finished levels in
both groups B
and C, which
were difficult to
categorise into
the four groups,
Table 2: The summary of set one
Used
keywords
Separated
groups
Group A
Group B
Understated
/ Chunky
Group C
Group D
Drawing
techniques
Tidy form
lines and
simple shading
Detailed
shading and
form lines
1 GA, 1
Illustration, the
rest are same
as Group B
Using form
line and little
shading
Expressive
level
At the middle
of design
stage
Detailed
stage
Detailed
stage
Beginning
stage
Communication
of intention
Well conveyed
the shape and
depth
Well conveyed
the shape and
detailed surface
Well conveyed
the shape and
detailed surface
Rough shape
without
detailed infor.
Conclusions
Set two has very
close drawing
techniques and
similar finished
levels between
groups B and C
which was
difficult to
distinguish
sketches from
the two groups.
Table 3: The summary of set two.
Used
keywords
Separated
groups
Group A
Subtle/
Moody
Group B
Group C
Drawing
techniques
Detailed
shading and
form lines
Shading and
form lines
Form lines
and little
shading
Expressive
level
Detailed
stage
At the
middle of
design stage
At the
beginning
stage
Communication
Conclusions
of intention
Well conveyed
the shape and
depth
Conveyed the
general shape
and depth
Giving rough
concept without
details
The use of drawing

techniques, finished
and communication
levels were quite
consistent in same
group with an
exception of group
C.
Table 4: The summary of set three.

By comparing the groupings, which were obtained via three pairs of keywords, we found that
sketches classified using Loose and Blobby were difficult to identify using similar sketching
features within the groups, because there was too wide a range of characteristics within both groups
B and C. They used quite different drawing techniques and were finished to different design levels.
Sketches classified using Understated and Chunky used similar drawing techniques within
groups B and C, and were finished to the same levels in all of the different groups.
The sketches classified using Subtle and Moody were clustered into three groups, and most
sketches in each group had a similar use of techniques, finish levels, and communication levels.
These classification axes are interesting for further research, but the visual classification was not
clear enough to support a classification system, which can be used to identify sketches into different
groups for the purposes of software design. Eventually none of the sets of keywords was found that
would be useful for classification of sketches into different groups for this purpose.
Although this study has not produced a useful classification system for the classification of sketches
by using verbal language of design, there have been some significant findings:
First, designers use verbal language to describe the form of design in a quite individual way, which
may not be commonly understood by others, and thus cannot be used to classify sketches.
Second, one interesting finding occurred in set three. Sketches in this set formed three groups and
sketches in each group have similar drawing techniques and the same level of finish, except for two
sketches, which visually appeared to be out of place in the group assigned by the analysis. Farther
research based on this classification may reduce this anomaly and produce a more useful result
Discussion
This experiment was carried out with 11 academic staff, but not with current real industrial
designers. It was not clear whether the results would be the same if conducted using industrial
designers, and whether the sketches would be representative of their work. On the other hand,
academics are the ones who talk about sketching (have the vocabulary), designers do rather than
talk, so perhaps academic staff are appropriate. Also, the reason for not doing it with designers was
that the experiment didnt seem to be sufficiently productive to justify the effort.
The other issue concerns the collection of sketches from a wide range of design drawings such as
GA drawing and illustration, while this may be a valuable experiment in categorising design
drawings in general. It distracted attention away from the concept sketches, which were the
intended focus of the investigation.
Only 19 sketches were examined, which is a small sample size. It is not clear whether this sample
of sketches covered the whole range of design sketches or whether it lacks some types of sketch.
However, despite the small sample size, an increased understanding of sketching vocabulary and its
relationship to the classification of sketches was gained.
Following this experiment, there are two aspects of design verbal language, which warrant farther
discussion. One is the discussion about the language of designed objects, that is the language that
makes it possible to communicate information from designers to users, and even from users to other
users. The other is the language used by designers to understand each other. This sort of verbal
language needs to be specialisted (as is the language of medical doctors, and other professions)
because it has to address specific problems, techniques and characteristics in the design process.
In both cases we need a language of design and they are both problematic. In the first case, the
language is generated by the interaction between designers and users. In the second case, which this
experiment focused on, the specialistic language is already in place, but it has proved to be very
difficult to recognise.
Conclusions
It was concluded that none of these sets of keywords was found strong enough for the purpose of
separating sketches into different groups to support a classification system.
While this study has not produced a possible means for classification of sketches using verbal
language, the methodology employed has proved interesting for future investigation of styles of
sketching, and communication between designers.
Maybe more important than design language is the idea of verbal communication of the visible
characteristics in products and sketches. The outcome appears to indicate the verbal communication
is not clear or consistent. This leads to a conclusion that the visual communication is more likely to
be successful, leading to the future experiment, which concerns the visual analysis of sketches and
the extraction of common visual features.
Acknowledgement
This research has been supported in part by Ford and the first author would like to thank Dr A.
Woodcock and all participants in Coventry School of Art and Design.
10
References
Birtley, Neil, 1990, The conventional automobile styling process, Coventry Polytechnic.
Horn, Robert E., 1998, Visual Language Global Communication for the 21th Century, Macro VU,
Inc., Washington.
Hsiao, Shih-Wen and Wang,, Hsi-Ping, 1998, Applying the semantic transformation method to
product form design, Design Studies, Vol. 19, No. 3 July.
McCullagh, Kevin 1996, 3D Computer Modelling in Industrial Design, Co-Design Journal, 07 08
09, pp. 28-35.
Purcell, A. T. and Gero, J. S., 1998, Drawings and the Design Process, Design Studies, Vol. 19,
No.4, October, pp.389-430.
Tovey M., 1997, Styling and design: intuitive and analysis in industrial design, Design Studies, Vol.
18, No. 1, January.
Tovey M., Owen J., 2000, Sketching and direct CAD modelling in automotive design, Design
Studies, Vol. 21, no. 6 November.
11

research
S. Pizzocaro Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Abstract
This paper will propose that learning - as occurring in all those circumstances whereby agents have
an uncompleted understanding of the context in which they operate - has been an effective driving
force that has characterised the reflection on design research itself.
Some forms of research as forms of learning acquire even greater importance in those
evolutionary environments - intended in the most generic terms - where heterogeneous agents
display different forms of rationality, where there is a persistent appearance of novelties deriving
from technological, behavioural and organisational innovations driven by the agents themselves,
where out-of-equilibrium interactions may frequently occur among the agents.
The general key to approach the theme shall be that learning as a form of research entails
cognitive activities of construction and modification of mental models and behavioural patterns.
But as learning may happen in different cognitive and behavioural domains as well as occurring
through different processes, a significant emphasis shall be put on those strategic sites for design
research that best perform this learning as research function in terms of:
potential skills to capture key aspects of design research development,
potential skills to manage the complexity of design issues deriving from the technology-society
interaction.
The purpose of this work is intended as an informal reflection on the learning processes in design
research. While trying an ideal framework for this reflection, an attempt will be made to stress the
relevance of the Ph.D. programmes as research strategic sites, where crucial efforts are concentrated
to produce collective learning.
Observations derived from empirical experience stem from the research context of the Ph.D.
programme in Industrial design of Politecnico di Milano. The parts of the paper focusing on this
programme experience have limited generalisability.

research
The knowledge gap and the problem-solving gap
In its wider sense learning may occur in all those circumstances whereby agents have an
uncompleted understanding of the context in which they operate. Such an imperfect understanding
may be due to lack of information about it, or more fundamentally, to an imprecise knowledge
about its structure: or, when they master only a limited repertoire of actions in order to cope with
whatever problem they face - as compared to the set of actions that an omniscient observer would
be able to conceive: or, finally, when they have only a blurred and changing understanding of what
their goals and preferences are (Dosi, Marengo and Fagiolo 1996: 2). Learning, so defined, can be
thus recognised as one of the ubiquitous characteristics of most economic and social environments.
A fundamental aspect of learning regards most often cognition (Dosi et al. 1996: 10), that is to say
the process by which decision makers form and modify representations in order to recognise some
sense of a reality which is generally too complex to be fully understood. As a consequence a
systematic gap is usually identified between the agent cognitive abilities and reality itself, the gap
taking at least two forms: a knowledge gap (involving incomplete or wrong representations of the
environment) and a problem-solving gap (between the complexity of the tasks to be faced and the
agents ability to cope with them). A similar concept is introduced as C-D (competence-difficulty)
gap (Heiner 1983).
Here, it is assumed that design research - as developed within academic contexts - experienced a
knowledge gap in the last decade, a decade when the pace of contemporary industrial production
dramatically accelerated, and a progressive, impressive shift in the nature and structure of industrial
and social organisations took place. Turbulent, uncertain and evolutionary environments have
driven industrial systems to quickly adapt to changes while ensuring in any case effective
organisation; markets have evolved in unforeseeable and unstable ways, and most organisations
have started learning to evolve in uncertain environments.
It is also assumed that - somehow adapting to turbulent environments - the domains of design
research are now slowly progressing from a knowledge gap to a problem-solving gap. The expected
sense and nature of design research will be consistent with its capability to face both a knowledge
gap (improving the cognition of a complex reality) and a problem-solving gap (improving the
competence and skill of agents having to face that complexity). In other words, it is proposed that
the part of design research developed within our academic contexts is now slowly shifting from a
condition of substantive uncertainty - a lack of isomorphism between the complexity to be faced
and the agents model of that reality, as in Dosi and Egidi (1991) - to a procedural uncertainty,
with or without substantive uncertainty.
As a premise for this reflection we will concentrate on the question: how cognition about design
research may be formalised within academic contexts?
To approach some temptative answers we shall move within limited borders:
(i) we shall consider the past and present experience of the doctoral research in the domains of
design at Politecnico di Milano as the empirical horizon for this reflection;
(ii) we shall assume as appreciable theories of reference the fields of technological and
organisational learning;
(iii) referring to extra-disciplinary fields will imply a level of generality.
An empirical background: from searching to learning how to make

research
A Ph.D. programme in industrial design in Italy was first opened by Politecnico di Milano in 1990.
At that time the domains of research were mainly centred on large scale innovation-related
phenomena, usually developed from a theoretical angle. Furthermore, proposed areas of research
and training programmes overlapped. Similarly, no clear separation could be identified between
subjective reflection and objective search.
If it is true that, in the shortest form, research is a way of asking questions (Friedman 2000: 18)
we dare say that paradoxically a form of search was experimented in absence of a clear set of
questions.
As Friedman (2000:19) further observed: What distinguishes research from reflection? Both
involve thinking. Both seek to render the unknown explicit. Reflection, however, develops
engaged knowledge from individual and group experience. It is a personal act or a community act,
and it is an existential act. Research, in contrast, addresses the question itself, as distinct from the
personal or communal. The issues and articulations of reflective practice may become the subject
of research, for example. This includes forms of participant research or action research by the same
people who engaged in the reflection that became the data. Research may also address questions
beyond or outside the researcher. The approach to design research opened by our very first Ph.D.
programme seldom exceeded the reflection borders.
This approach was motivated by various factors, partly internal to the dynamics of the discipline of
industrial design as articulated by the programme itself, partly deriving from the historical
approach to design studies that had been developed within the school, and again partly depending
on the perception of the growing complexity of the innovative process in the nineties - a systematic
gap in the definition we used above.
A relevant number of investigations carried out within the doctorate emphasised the importance of
technological change, orienting the direction of conceptual analysis towards systemic,
evolutionary, complex approaches. Whatever the motivations for the analysis of technological
change and innovation, this field of enquiry highlighted the factors and fundamental ingredients of
the process of development and transformation of industrial products, services and systems, around
which the doctoral programme was activated as a pole of concentrated theoretical reflection.
Moreover, as a starting point, a broad view of innovation was assumed, considered as a dynamic
process related to achieving competitive advantages involving the development or improving of
new products, services, technology, processes, institutions, systems, solutions. This view of
innovation encompassed not only science and technology, but the range of economic and social
activities competing in the marketplace and relevant to design in areas such as communications,
corporate organisations, education, institutions.
Research addressing research

In 2000 the Ph.D. programme was radically revised from the former intention and training
articulation, adopting the overall idea of the Ph.D. programme as a highly advanced, partly taught
programme in design research. The present doctorate programme task was elaborated as the
training of a high profile researcher, whose aim is to develop design research either in academic or
industrial contexts. Relevant steps connected with such a training are the refinement of analysis
techniques, the development of critical abilities, the organisation of an original contribution to the
knowledge in technological and industrial culture, the proposal of innovative approaches and
visions of the theory and practice of industrial design and multimedia communication and the
building of increasing skills in research planning, research strategy building and research
management.
In the continuity with the activity carried out in the previous decade, the complex of issues
investing the theme of innovation still represented the conceptual trajectory of the whole
programme. As before, an extensive approach allowed to be open to that horizon of activities and
entities (communication, firm strategies, dynamics of the market, education and public institutions)
that are part of the area of action of industrial design as physical or immaterial artefacts
themselves.
In doing that, attempts were made to foster interpretations of innovation and its relationships to
social, technical, organisational factors on one hand, and market processes on the other, arguing that
such interpretations are essential for the understanding of differences in the mode and degree of
innovativeness and, specifically, for the understanding of the role of design as a discipline and
design research as a coherent component of that discipline.
Although a strong element of continuity with the past still marked the nature of this Ph.D.
programme, the transition was obvious when the training programme moved from the overall
intention of searching in design to that of learning how to make research in design. Moreover,
this research activity is expected to go beyond or outside the researcher (Friedman 2000: 19).
Such a transition is now generating a form of knowledge - addressing the core questions of the
nature of design research itself - that the training programme had never known or experienced
before.
Learning from experience, anticipating experience

The process of learning and the nature of knowledge may not be necessarily completely understood:
nevertheless, there is wide agreement that knowledge creation requires experience. Kolb's (1984:
38) definition of learning as "the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation
of experience" offers a perspective in this direction, while emphasising the relationship between
experience and knowledge as a dynamic process of continuous reproduction and regeneration.
Friedman (2000: 13) recalled that, as Bunge suggests (1996:104-107), knowledge arises through the
interaction of many forms of learning. Thinking, experience and action all are part of a process.
Moreover, a fundamental distinction between information and knowledge (reported by Dosi et al.
1996: 23) states that while information entails codified propositions about states-of the world
(know-what), properties of nature (know-why), identities (know who), explicit algorithms on how
to do things (know-how) (Lundvall 1995), knowledge includes cognitive categories, codes of
interpretation of the information, tacit skills, search and problem solving heuristics (Dosi et al.
1996: 24).
That is the definition of knowledge that more broadly includes visions and rules of search common
to most activities of scientific discovery or technological and organisational innovation.
Furthermore, Dosi et al. (1996: 24) state that In this definition, knowledge is to varying degrees
tacit, at the very least in the sense that the agent itself, and even a very sophisticated observer,
would find it very hard to explicitly state the sequence of procedures by which information is
coded, behavioural patterns are formed, problems are solved.
The static model of learning as acquiring knowledge external to and independent of the learner is
contradicted: human knowledge is not only the product of past experience, but also the product of
anticipating the future. Knowing things involves feedforward as well as feedback, anticipating how
things may be conceived and used in the future.
We believe that the process of learning in design research may positively be coherent with these
observations and such an approach might significantly benefit from that branch of cognitive studies
focusing on the nature and changes of categories and mental models (Johnson-Laird 1983, Lakoff
1987, Margolis 1987, Holland 1986, Bateson 1972).
To paraphrase some of the above statements, an elementary level of cognition of the sense of design
research may thus take place at least:
(i) when an imperfect understanding of the (relative) world is recognized;
(ii) when actors involved are aware they can master a limited repertoire of research actions;
(iii) when actors are aware that design research goals may change in progress;
(iv) when thinking, experience and actions interact;
(v) when experience is both transformed and anticipated.
Visions of learning dynamics

It is also proposed that a number of basic regularities on cognition, decision-making and learning stemming from contributions outside design disciplines (for example Bateson 1972, March 1994,
Nelson 1993 and 1994, Kauffman 1993, Freeman 1982, David 1975, Thomson 1993, Winter 1987,
Simon 1988, Nelson and Winter 1982) - could be among the building blocks of emerging theories
of design research, so to open the horizon of its learning dynamics.
Moreover, in our opinion, a further general hypothesis may take shape: the one stating that learning
through design research entails cognitive acts of construction and modification of conceptual and
behavioural patterns hardly reducible to well defined problems.
The above hypothesis reminds similar observations developed around the experience of
management facing product development in changing environments, where two sharply contrasting
approaches - analytical and interpretive - can be detected (Lester, Piore and Malek 1998: 88-89).
Although both approaches are valid, each serves different purposes and asks for different skills.
Under the analytical approach the design of a new product is essentially seen as a problem that has
to be solved. A clear objective, identifiable resources, constraints are the factors that need to be
integrated in some optimal combination presumably leading to an ultimate solution.
But not all product development can be accommodated within a structured analytical framework:
cases are given in which non-preexisting needs are detectable, while product features emerge from
back-and-forth interactions, on going give-and-take between companies and customers: to say it
differently, nothing is fixed at the outset. When such a degree of uncertainty is assumed, product
development is an open-ended process rather than a problem-solving project, whose aim is to
interpret a situation while discerning possibilities instead at aiming at a definite solution.
We leave as an open question the hypothesis of a similar interpretive approach suitable for
design research.
Sites for research accumulation

Dosi et al. recognized (1996: 27) that a relevant achievement in understanding the functioning of
contemporary systems of production and knowledge accumulation has involved taxonomic
exercises (Pavitt 1984), trying to map families of technologies according to their sources of
innovative knowledge, while implicitly recognising firms as major, albeit not unique, repositories
of knowledge.
It has been observed (Manzini and Pizzocaro 1999: 231-232) that Ph.D. programmes could serve as
strategic sites and parallel repositories for design knowledge production and accumulation. Our
meaning of research strategic sites somehow paraphrases that of Bijker, Hughes and Pinch (1999:
191) when stating that there exist research sites at which the complexity of the seamless web is
manageable but which at the same time serve to capture key aspects of technological development.
Furthermore, the sense of strategic site is proposed for those doctoral programmes in design where
the web of research and society is rewoven by breaking down the frequently encountered too rigid
divisions among different domains (science and technology, technology and social impacts,
invention, marketing and consumption). Our meaning of design research accumulation still implies
obtaining something similar to shelf innovation as formulated within the dynamics and approaches
of concurrent engineering. Shelf innovation consists of the anticipated development of
technological solutions and components so that a heritage of innovation can be created, available at
any time for possible use in new products, being the shelf concept that of storing solutions ready for
future applications (Wheelwright and Clark 1992 and 1993). Following this model, the activities of
component invention and testing are separated from product development: in this way advanced
technologies can be incorporated in new products avoiding the risks associated with innovation.
A possible hypothesis still remains that it may be possible to conceive design research accumulation
as similar to shelf innovation, accepting that it can generate "research components or portions" that
can be shelved for future utilisation.
Here we will simply suppose that the nature of these research components might be generalised,
assuming that they can be considered as objects of learning.
It is proposed that at least four broad classes of objects of learning can be stored or accumulated
within Ph.D. programmes as research strategic sites:
(i) the states-of-the world (related to design domains),
(ii) other agents behaviour (in the domain of design),
(iii) how to solve selected design problems,
(iv) ones own characteristics (preferences in research paths).
It might well be that these classes of learning objects map into different representations of the
dimensions where learning connected to design research itself may act:
(i) the space of representations of the world,
(ii) the space of agents behaviour in a given system,
(iii) the space of actions and realised (or expected) outcomes,
where each level generates the following one: learning in the space of world representations implies
learning other agents behaviour, implying selecting design actions and preferences among a
number of possibilities, resulting in design outcomes.
Still lacking a robust background to sustain this vision, here we will not emphasise this point. We
are simply working at the hypothesis that learning through design research may be reasonably
founded on the idea of learning as a co-evolutionary process.
It is straightforward from our earlier discussion of the general view of learning that here where it is
approached for design research it rests on the co-development of cognitive representations,
behavioural repertoires and preferences in actions.
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York: The Free Press.

V. Popovic School of Design and Built Environment, Queensland University of Technology,
Brisbane, Australia
Abstract
This research concentrates on the modelling of general process knowledge that is understood to be
represented as a common strategic knowledge relevant to the various design domains, such as
product and information design. Its objective is to illustrate the connections between general
knowledge and strategies and how they interact with the domainspecific design knowledge.
The knowledge identification in this research is based on the study of designers' sketches generated
during the early stage (conceptual stage) of the design process. The applications of general and
goallimited strategies are analysed and compared within the domain of product design and
information design.The findings are used as the basis to infer the models of general design strategic
knowledge and its interaction with relevant domainspecific knowledge.

Introduction
This research is based on the premise that studies of human expertise show that detailed specific
knowledge is necessary to solve problems successfully. To relate this to any area of design one has
to understand the design activity itself and what constitutes its general strategic knowledge and its
domainspecific knowledge. Design can be categorised mainly as an adaptive expertise (Popovic
2000) as designers adjust to the design tasks by utilising their knowledge which they adapt to the
current tasks and apply during the design process (Suwa, Gero and Purcell 1999).
In his research on creativity in design, Christiaans (1992) identified that for a designer to derive any
solution, knowledge of strategies, domainspecific knowledge, and general process knowledge are
required (Christiaans 1992). The process of designing asks for generating ideas which lead to new
understanding (Greeno 1978). This encompasses: (a) knowledge of implementation methods for
generating possible solutions; (b) control knowledge for guiding the search for satisfactory design. It
involves knowledge of monitoring and evaluation of ones own design process (Michell 1985). Simon
(1984) identified that ill-structured tasks utilise domainspecific knowledge and knowledge for
organising the overall solution process. This supports the claim that designers possess knowledge and
strategies to execute the tasks and monitor the design process. Love (2002) defines designing as a
nonroutine" human activity which he sees as being an essential aspect of processes that lead to a
design of an artefact. This supports the notion of design being an "adaptive expertise" within the
framework of the "nonroutine activity" of designing. It might also help to explain the utilisation and
interaction of knowledge between the domains, and within the domain, in order to look for
communality between them.
Experience plays an important role in design and problem solving (Visser 1996; Kolodner and
Simpson 1986); their research illustrates that experience contributes to problem solving activity and
brings modifications to its associated reasoning processes. In cases of successful experience,
already-known principles are reinforced and improper ones modified. In some cases "individual
experience acts as exemplars upon which to base later decision" (Kolodner and Simpson 1986).
Visser (1996) studied the use of episodic knowledge, which is "particular experience-linked
sources" in design-related problem solving. It was found that a designer used personal and other
people's experience during the problem solving activity and that previous experience could help in
procedures to be followed or avoided. It could help to predict task outcomes and the steps to be
taken in situations where immediate action is required, such as in an emergency. It may help in
selecting and applying situational knowledge chunks to a particular task domain. In cases of error, it
could suggest an explanation of failures (adapted from Kolodner and Simpson 1986).
Therefore, this research focus is on the strategic knowledge which refers to knowledge or processes
and strategies that are utilised during the acquisition or utilisation of knowledge. This knowledge
exists in varying degrees of generality or separation from specific domains. These are the procedures
that are planned or intentionally included prior to, or during, or after the design task. Strategies can be
associated within the domain or across domains.
Strategic and domainspecific knowledge

Knowledge is of major importance for understanding problem solving (Kotovsky and Simon 1990).
This is identified by the assumption that human problem solving, in general terms, is described as
an "interaction between the problem representation and cognitive action" (Reimann and Chi 1989).
That is, problem representation is a mental representation that people have (Kieras and Polson
1985; Young 1981; Hammond at al. 1982; Rouse and Morris 1986).
Domain-specific knowledge is understood to be knowledge in the particular area of expertise. There
are many studies done referring to domain-specific knowledge. They occur in well-structured or illstructured problem domains such as physics and mathematics (Larkin, McDermont, Simon and
Simon 1980; Chi, Feltovich and Glaser 1981), design (Akin 1979), and novice and expert user
models (Popovic 1998). All these studies show that detailed, specific knowledge is necessary to
solve problems successfully. However, a certain amount of domain knowledge is necessary to be
able to use strategic knowledge on a domain task.
This research intends to identify general strategic knowledge and how this interacts with the
domain specific knowledge in design. To understand both knowledge categories that are utilised
during the design process, relevant knowledge descriptions are presented. The knowledge
associated with the design field (product or information design) is called "domain knowledge". It is
the knowledge designers have within their particular area of expertise. It is a "segment of an
individual's existing conceptual knowledge that is related to a 'specific' area" (Alexander 1992).
Domains of expertise differ. Some are in the area of academic research or design while others are
driven by principles or by task performance. Tasks can be well-defined or ill-defined. Alexander
(1992) argued that this distinction between tasks and "dissimilarity among domain" plays an
important part in the interaction of domain knowledge and strategic knowledge. For the purpose of
this work, the definition of domain knowledge proposed by Alexander and Judy (1988) is used. The
generally accepted classification of domain-specific knowledge consists of four main categories.
These categories are:
Declarative knowledge refers to factual information knowing what.
Procedural knowledge refers to the compilation of declarative knowledge into
functional units chunks that incorporate domain-specific strategies; knowing
how.
Conditional (situational) knowledge refers to understanding where and when to
access particular facts or employ particular procedures.
Strategic knowledge refers to knowledge or processes and strategies that are used
during acquisition or utilisation of knowledge
The knowledge structure is manifested through the output of the procedure that will generate the
appropriate response. Benefits of procedural representation relevant to design are " the ability to
encode heuristics and to readily incorporate both knowledge processing considerations within the
same structure" (Rumelhart and Norman 1985).
Domain-specific strategies are assumed to be generated from the proceduralisation of declarative
knowledge (Chi 1981). Without a body of content knowledge, the existence of domain-specific
knowledge is unlikely. Smith and Good (1984) argued that a certain body of relevant knowledge is
a prerequisite to completing a task. Effective problem solving depends very much on the content
and structure of knowledge about the particular domain (Greeno 1978; Bhaskar and Simon 1977;
Chi, Feltovich and Glaser 1981). Strategies can be associated within the domain or across domains.
There are "goal-limited" and "general" strategies. This classification was developed by Pressley et
al. and reviewed by Alexander and Judy (1988). Goal-limited strategies include processes that are
relevant for task accomplishment. General strategies are applied more on a broader level and they
may interact with goallimited strategies. Alexander and Judy (1988) overviewed some
characteristics of the interaction of domain-specific and strategic knowledge from relevant
literature. The following three hypotheses of their interaction are found relevant to this research:
1. A foundation of domain-specific knowledge seems requisite to the efficient and
effective utilisation of strategic knowledge.
2. Strategic knowledge contributes to the utilisation and acquisition of domain-specific
knowledge.
3. Perceiving the relatedness in domain and strategic knowledge across tasks and across
domains seems to characterise competent performance.
Alexander and Judy (1988) also revealed differences between the knowledge structures and
problem solving procedures of novices and experts. This is supported by the idea that a suitable,
organised cognitive structure plays a significant role in retrieving and encoding knowledge relevant
to problem solving. Chase and Simon (1973) argued that the main differences among novices,
experts, and masters in different domains were related to their immediate access to relevant
knowledge.
Problem solving theory and knowledge representation

Reimann and Chi (1989) pointed out that mental representations can be identified on the
assumption that human problem solving in general terms can be described as an "interaction
between the problem representation and cognitive action" (Reimann and Chi 1989). In other words,
the problem representation is a mental representation that designers have of the artifacts they
design.
The theory of problem solving has been developed in the context of information processing and
cognition (Anderson 1983, 1993; Newell and Simon 1972). This framework gives opportunities to
explore hypotheses of cognitive actions and their forms of representation (Greeno and Simon 1988)
as they were manifested in the conceptual design stage.
Problem solving theory is based on problem space as a main organisational unit (Newell and
Simon, 1972), around which different models and knowledge representational systems have been
developed (Card, Moran and Newell 1983; Kieras and Polson 1985; Akin 1979, 1986). These are
based on well-defined problem solving tasks where the whole problem space is simple when
compared with interactive artifacts (Payne 1987; Carroll 1991).
Any human's task occurs in its context in which people construct its internal representation.
Hypotheses about cognitive representations of problems are developed around the idea of
problem space (Newell and Simon 1972; Greeno and Simon 1988; Maher at al. 1996; Dorst
and Cross 2001).
There are two other characteristics present in problem solving which are semantically rich (Greeno
and Simon 1988). These are (a) complexity of problem representation, characterised by complex
domain-specific knowledge and (b) domain-specific procedural knowledge that allows designers to
accomplish the task. Bhavnani and John (1997) reported Siegler and Jenkins definition of problem
solving as any procedure that is nonobligatory and goal directed". Specific procedures relate to
know-how and when to apply domain-specific knowledge during the problem solving activity such
as a specific design task.
Various types of strategies are associated with problem solving. Strategies may be divided into
those that apply weak methods and those that use strong methods (Anzai 1991). Weak methods
include general methods independent of domain-specific knowledge such as trial-and-error
processes and means-end analysis. A person evaluates and compares the current state of
information with a goal of the problem (task) to be achieved. This is understood to be general
problem solving heuristics used to explore ill-structured domains (Newell and Simon 1972) and
they are utilised in many different domains. Successful use of means-ends analysis requires the
designers to have some domain-specific knowledge (Alexander and Judy 1988) in order to be able
to associate them with the design task procedures.
The key to any problem solving activity is building the representation (Larkin 1985; McDermont
and Larkin 1978; Simon and Simon 1978). These authors found that experts spent more time on
"qualitative analysis" before they started to solve a problem. Reimann and Chi (1989) summarised
the research on the representation of ill-defined problems (social sciences). Experts with the
expertise domain (and also non-domain experts) worked on qualitative analysis and formed
representations before attempting a solution. They often had better problem representation and
therefore better solution outcomes.
Strategic knowledge and design: exploratory study

Two design domains were selected for this exploratory study. They were product design and
information design. In both fields, designers were to do the following: (a) produce novel solutions,
(b) work with information that is not complete, (c) use drawings and other media as part of problem
solving and (d) apply imagination to problem solving (Cross 1995). However, the concentration of
this study is on the analysis of visuals that designers use, as a part of problem solving, during the
early stage of the design process. Its aim is to identify how strategic knowledge is represented
across the domains and within the domain. It is understood that the utilisation of visuals is a very
powerful strategy that designers use. This analysis is based on six selected projects (information
design and product design) from practice and education. The educational projects were done in a
postgraduate program and the students whose work was analysed had three to ten years of practical
experience. Overall, the designers' experience was between three to more than twenty years. The
early stage of the design process was analysed only. The designers had already dated all visuals
during the design process and archived them as project documentation. Each project was analysed
from its beginning.
The studies of design emergence (Oxman 2002) demonstrated that a high level domain knowledge
of visual form can be seen as cognitive content. In design, word, images and shapes in combination
or independently are used to communicate the concepts and represent the understanding of the
physical world of artifacts. They are the most common media that designers use to interpret and
reformulate the design concepts. The visual language (Horn 1998; Bucciarelli 2002) might be the
media "to represent classes and structure of domain knowledge" (Oxman 2002) shown in them.
This supports the hypothesis that the images and other visuals used by the designers might convey
the strategies and knowledge representation within and across design domains. Therefore the main
objective was to identify the following for both domains:
general strategies (GS)

goallimited strategies (GLS)
domainspecific knowledge (DSK)
knowledge interaction
The visuals were divided into segments. Each segment was numbered and associated by the date of
its occurrence. The coding process of knowledge was repeated three times by the same person with
one weeks break between codings. The characteristic segments are used as representative examples
(Figures 1 to 7).
Information design
Information design was analysed using the early stage of idea generation related to web and
publication designs. Each project started with a brief or initiative from the client. However, the
designer worked together with the client in order to develop the brief further. The general strategies
that applied throughout the projects were strategic identifications of where and how to approach,
and work with, a client in order to establish design constraints. The designer applied goaldirected
procedures that were planned, intentional, or situational. Figure 1 illustrates her strategic
identification of the design direction. The segment selected from the money action planner design
(Figure 1) illustrates designer's initial strategy (GS) to understand the clients and their customers'
needs utilising general strategy (GS) and goallimited strategies (GLS) in order to acquire and
interpret what they said.
Figure 1: Designer's identification strategies and knowledge representation

Figure 1 shows that goal-limited strategies (GLS) and experiential knowledge are utilised to
interpret the needs. For example: in the first column, GLS was to look at what the "first user of a
planner" might like to expect as (a) "basic/beginning"; the second column refers to a possible
"linear approach" and the third column exhibits "references". Knowledge representations observed
in this example are (a) general strategic knowledge (GSK) that interacts with (b) situational
strategic knowledge (SSK) and (c) experiential knowledge (EK). General strategic knowledge
controls the search for the satisfactory outcome of this segment.
Figure 2: Designer's strategy of domainspecific knowledge acquisition

The illustration in Figure 2 represents the designer's strategy of how to acquire domainspecific
knowledge about the client and the users in order to apply these attributes to the design. Further
within the project, the designer was searching for domainspecific knowledge of the attributes that
might identify human experiences related to particular services and tasks. General strategic
knowledge is represented through the process of guiding a search to generate domainspecific
knowledge relevant to the task. This supports the view of design as adaptive expertise (Popovic
2000) as the designer generated the knowledge as she responded to the situation within a
nonroutine activity (Love 2002). Interpretation occurred at the end of the early stage of the design
process where all attributes were incorporated into the search for the "best fit". This is demonstrated
in the sketches presented in figure 3 where the designer used drawing to generate a solution. Here
she interpreted the attributes of the product and services by applying the semantics of "a helpful
hand", "a guiding hand" or "building blocks". The knowledge is represented as general strategic
knowledge, situational knowledge, and domainspecific knowledge. The designer's manipulation of
images and their transformation (Figure 3) might be controlled by general strategic knowledge that
guides the search for satisfactory design that is supported by domainspecific knowledge
(Alexander and Judy 1988; Oxman 2002).
Figure 3: Manipulation of images and their transformation

Segment in figure 4 illustrates sketches for the web pages for a petrol company. Each web page
design is driven by the goal-limited strategies (GLS) in reference to the information they have to
display, for example: "welcome" or "set up your order". Lines (textual information) or shapes (web
"window") and the division of the web page into activity/interact zone and execution area illustrate
evidence of domain-specific knowledge (DSK). The left side of each page has the company name
and relevant information. Strategic knowledge representation was evident from the consistency in
design of each individual web page.
Figure 4: Web page design goal-limited strategies and domain-specific knowledge

In summary, all projects from information design had very strong strategic goals that were evident
at the beginning of each project. The overall design strategy affected the choice for more specific
strategies (Brazier, van Langen and Treur, 2002). General strategic knowledge (GSK) was
represented through each segment and it was guiding the goal-limited strategies and utilisation or
acquisition of knowledge. Interaction with domain knowledge and strategic knowledge is within the
Goal-limited Strategies (GLS).
Product design
Product design visual information was analysed at the idea generation stage (beginning of the
project) and related to a hand tool, a workstation, and medical device designs. Each project started
with a client brief or written proposal that directed the designs. They had design constraints
specified that directed the designers where to search for domain specific knowledge and what
strategies to apply.
Figure 5: Hand tool segments goal-limited strategies and domain-specific knowledge

Figure 5 illustrates two segments from the hand tool design (fastening of concrete reinforcement).
The first segment shows that the designer was looking for different possibilities of fastening
techniques and that domain-specific knowledge was utilised to accomplish the task. For example:
continuous or tight twist. This segment is coded as a goal-limited strategy (GLS) as it is related to
the task accomplishment. The second segment illustrates visual thinking regarding the various kinds
of handle design. The constraints were annotated and are interpreted as domainspecific knowledge
utilised to accomplish the relevant task. For example: left and right handed, comfortable, good
transition of forces. This is coded as a goal-limited strategy. Characteristics for this projects
conceptual stage was that it incorporated 93 segments of goallimited strategies (GLS).
The integration of different design tasks occurred at the end of the conceptual phase when general
strategies were applied as goal directed procedures and represented as general strategic knowledge.
10
The decision steps were not ordered. They occurred on the basis of information available
information about fastening techniques.
The conceptual stage of the disabled childrens workstation had 232 segments coded as
goallimited strategies. Each GLS is associated with the utilisation of relevant domainspecific
knowledge. From the documentation available it was evident that the designer at the beginning of
the design process was searching for domain-specific knowledge about the station users and their
needs. Figure 6 illustrates this search which was guided by strategic knowledge relevant for task
accomplishment. For example: accommodation for children of different sizes or seat movement
expressed by annotated sketches.
Figure 6: Workstation design - goal-limited strategies and domain-specific knowledge

Figure 7 illustrates an integration of processes that were relevant for different task
accomplishments. The designer made the decision for the " table shape" that includes some goallimited strategies and domain knowledge illustrated in Figure 6 eg. table shape.
11
Figure 7: Workstation design decision for the table shape

In summary, all product design projects were guided by the constraints. Goal-limited strategies
were a significant part of each project. The designers responded to the constraints that at the same
time formed goal-limited strategies for domain knowledge acquisition or utilisation. Their goal
directed procedures were evident at the end of the process. The goal-limited strategies and decision
steps were not ordered. They were based on the problem structure and what information happened
to be available.
Knowledge connections models

The design activity provides rich material to study design formulation and related activities. This
work is based on process formulation that is part of the design activity and makes an attempt to
model general strategic knowledge and its interaction with the relevant domainspecific knowledge
within the design expertise. Models are used here to gain an insight into the design process. The
models developed are centered on two paradigms design and planning (decisions making) (Vinze
at al. 1993). The model construction is seen as design activity based on the study of the process of
designing in two different domains product design and information design. The repetition of
knowledge representation and strategies was evident in both domains.
These models are based on the comparison of two design domains. The models are constructed
using the comparison of differences and similarities (Figures 8 and 9). There are structural
variations within the models but the distinction of domain-specific knowledge was evident. The
analysis demonstrated that design is a procedurally rich domain. Within the acceptance that
domains differ, then the difference exists in the interaction of domain and strategy knowledge. It is
12
understood that with well-defined tasks domain-specific strategies play a more important role than
general strategies (Alexander 1992).
Figure 8: Information design knowledge connection model

Figure 8 illustrates the information design knowledge connection model that is guided by goal
directed procedures. The knowledge connections occurred between goal-limited strategies (GLS)
and domain-specific knowledge (DSK). General strategic knowledge was monitoring the designers'
search for domain-specific knowledge (DSK) and its utilisation in design tasks.
13
Figure 9: Product Design Knowledge Connection Model

Product design knowledge connections are illustrated in Figure 9. The strategies were determined
by project constraints. They are expanding as more constraints are taken into consideration. Goallimited strategies were determined by the project constraints. When all project constraints were
explored they were integrated by utilising relevant strategies to control the integration of the
accomplished tasks. Domain-specific knowledge interacts with both goal-limited strategies and
general strategies.
Within this framework, it is expected to have both goal-limited strategies and general strategy
knowledge (Goodchild et al as reported in Alexander and Judy 1988) that play an important part
during the early stage of the design process. Goallimited strategies include processes relevant for
the task that are accomplished in different domains. General strategies can be applied more broadly
and include the ability to relate to the current situation. The designer might be engaged here in
strategic processing of a more general nature - general problem solving procedures. When working
on a specific problem and details, the designer is utilising domain-specific knowledge that might
interact with strategic knowledge.
The models are centred on the paradigm of design and decision making based on the analysis of the
visual information. The decision steps were analysed and they are explained. It was found that the
decision steps were not ordered. They were based on the problem structure and what information
happened to be available. This is supported by the findings of Suva, Gero and Purcell (1999) who
report that designers adjust to the design task by utilising their knowledge that they adapt to the
current tasks and apply it to the design process.
14
Figure 10: Integrated knowledge connection model

Figure 10 illustrates the integrated knowledge connection model in which general strategies (GS)
are expanding to guide the search for satisfactory design. They are goal directed procedures that
guide the design projects. Their expansion depends on the accomplishments of goal-limited
strategies and their interaction with domain-specific knowledge and experiential knowledge that are
dependent on the domain (product or information design). The model is adaptable and dependent on
the complexity of design project.
Conclusion
Within the framework of expertise, developed knowledge becomes more structured and better
integrated with the past experience. It is noted that the level of expertise plays an important role in
problem representation. However, the study of representation of knowledge from visual data is very
rarely studied, with some exceptions (Goel 1995; Casakin and Goldschmith1999; Oxman, 2002).
The visual language designers use can be seen as elements that contribute to distinguish their
expertise, knowledge and skills. It is the language of design (Bucciarelli 2002) that illustrates the
thoughts and knowledge or new thought generation and stimulates creative and analytical thinking.
The integrated knowledge connection model (Figure 10) presented here is adaptable and supports
the notion of design being an " adaptive expertise" by attempting to find answers to crossdisciplinary utilisation of strategic knowledge and clarification of the utilisation of domainspecific
knowledge within the early stage of the design process. It might also support the hypothesis done
by Alexander and Judy (1988) about the interaction of general strategies, goal-limited strategies and
domain-specific knowledge. It is hoped that these models would contribute to the better
15
understanding of design as an adaptive expertise whose characteristics are cross-disciplinary

general strategies and goal-limited strategies that interact with domain-specific knowledge and
experiential knowledge.
16
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19
Acknowledgment
The author would like to acknowledge support from Montague Leong Pty.Ltd, Sydney, commercial
organisations and anonymous designers whose work was used for this research analysis.
20
SIRN (Synergetic Inter-Representation Networks): an

approach to design
J. Portugali Tel Aviv University, Israel
H. Casakin Tel Aviv University, Israel
Abstract
Our aim in this paper is to examine the relation between design and cognition in light of two aspects
related to these disciplines: (a) Cognitive sciences negative attitude toward artifacts. (b) The fact
that artifacts are the subject matter and end product of design. In our paper we firstly discuss
cognitive sciences attitude toward artifacts and show that it contradicts the reflective-interaction
approach that currently dominates the discipline of design. We then introduce SIRN (Synergetic
inter-Representation Networks) as an approach that resolves this contradiction by treating artifacts
and their design as innately related to cognition. We close the paper by discussing further research
directions.
SIRN (Synergetic Inter-Representation Networks): an

approach to design
The status of design in the cognitive science
The status of design in the cognitive science is somewhat ambivalent. To a large extent this is due
to cognitive sciences attitude toward artifacts, which are the subject matter of the design process.
Artifacts, as noted by Simon (1979), have a negative air around them one doesnt want artifacts in
ones data or empirical results. This is so in science in general and this is so in cognitive science. Its
emergence was associated with an attempt to transform the soft study of mind, thought,
imagination and language into a hard empirical and analytical cognitive science The Minds New
Science (Gardner, 1987). The negative attitude toward artifacts was (and still is) typical mainly of
classical cognitivism according to which artifacts are simply not cognitive. They are the product
of human actions, which are the outcome of cognition, and as such bodily artifacts, but not
cognition itself. The following section by Chomsky on external and internal languages (E- vs. Ilanguages respectively) is indicative:
E-languages are mere artifacts. . . the concept appears to play no role in the theory of language. .
. The technical concept of E-language is a dubious one in at least two respects. In the first place, ..
languages in this sense are not real-world objects but are artificial, somewhat arbitrary, and
perhaps not very interesting constructs. In contrast ... statements about I-language ... are true or
false statements about something real and definite, about actual states of the mind/brain and their
components ... (Chomsky 1986, 26-7, italics added).
From this view on cognition and artifacts follows two possible positions of design in relation to
cognition. First, design, like thinking, is part of cognition while bodily action and artifacts are not.
Here the process of design is essentially distinct and separated from its product the artifact.
Second, design is part of the production of artifacts and therefore it is not cognitive.
Cognitive sciences negative attitude toward artifacts is currently changing. A growing number of
studies depart from this sort of hard cognitivism. Rumelhart et al (1986) and Cole (1996) neoVygotskian approaches, Edelmans (1992) TNGS (Theory of Neural Group Selection), Johnsons
(1987) and Lakoffs (1987) approach of experiential realism, Donalds (1991) notion of the
externalization of memory, and the recent pragmatist views of embodied cognition (Varela et al
1994) as well as the action-perception approaches (Thelen 1995, Thelen and Smith 1994, Kelso
1995, Freeman 1999) among others, all tend to see the cognitive system as including the body and
its interaction with the environment and/or elements in it. These approaches suggest that in certain
tasks and contexts cognition is confined to the brain; in others to the whole body and in some tasks
and contexts the cognitive system includes the brain, the body and even stand-alone artifacts in the
environment. The latter possibility refers to cases where artifacts function as an extension of the
body a view suggested by Gibson (1979) and reproduced here in Fig. 1.
From the above perspectives it follows that bodily artifacts are part of cognition while stand-alone
artifacts are only in cases where they function as an extension to the body. In themselves, however,
stand-alone artifacts and the process of their production are not cognitive. This view does not
change the status of design in the cognitive science, at least not the design of stand-alone artifacts.
Figure 1: Scissor as extension of the body
A concise history of design methods: the two major approaches

Over the last forty years, developments in cognitive science have been significant to different
human related fields including design and urban design. Influenced by the classical cognitive
sciences of the 1960s, the so-called design methods approach proposed analytical/rational
problem solving techniques. The main concept was that designers should be capable of predicting
the effects and consequences of their designs, and describe the actions and steps that are necessary
to achieve them. The design methodology movement paid little attention to the design solutions per
se, and became much more concerned with the large network of predictions and specifications
through the different phases of the design process (Jones, 1980; Lawson, 1980). With the aim of
formalizing design processes, the design methods movement proposed prescriptive models of
design, which were based on the idea that the different steps in the design process can be optimized
and defined a priori. Thus, a strong emphasis was set on logical and objective analyses of the design
process. A main example of this approach was the revolutionary paradigm presented by Simon in
the early 1970s (Simon, 1973). In his view, design is seen as a rational search process, in which the
design problem is defined by a problem space. This problem space is carefully explored while
searching for a satisfying design solution. However, Simons and other similar approaches did not
take into account the individual properties and characteristics of the designer that they were
supposed to support. According to Dorst and Dijkhuis (1995), the main emphasis of the rational
problem solving approach was set on the process components of the design activity, but the
movement was unsuccessful to understand the knowledge structures of what designers perceive and
think. As a consequence the design methods movement failed to support real design problems.
In recent years, the study of cognitive processes concerned with problem-solving activities began to
capture the interest of design researchers. It was postulated that while solving problems under
controlled conditions, individuals might be able to externalize representations of their internal
mental processes. In contrast to the rational movement the major attempt of which was toward
prescriptive design models, recent studies proposed descriptive design models that strongly
emphasise the cognitive dimension of design (e.g., Cross, 2000). The main idea was to focus on the
interplay between the designers internal and external representations in the early stages of the
design process An example is the pioneering work of Schon (1983) on design as reflection in
action. Schon argued that the view of design as a rational problem solving process weakened the
understanding of unique design problems. Basing his approach on a constructionist view of human
perception-and thought processes (Dorst, 1996) he perceived design as a reflective conversation

between the designer and the external situation (named the environment). By identifying relevant
aspects from the design problem, the designer chooses a problem situation, or frames the problem
according to a particular situation, and develops a possible solution while evaluating and reflecting
upon the design outcome (named the design artifact). These enable him/her to check his/her
understanding of the problem situation, to create a new framing of the situation. And to verify
his/her interpretation of it on the basis of prior experiences. Current cognitive research based on the
analysis of design thinking and design behavior, saw in Schons approach a potential tool for
enhancing our understanding on the design process.
Discussion
As noted above, from the point of view of cognitive science, stand-alone artifacts are essentially
external to the cognitive system and process. In some circumstances they function as an extension
of the body, but in themselves they are not cognitive. Such a view corresponds to Simons paradigm
on design as a rational problem solving process, the end product of which is an artifact. Schons
reflexive conversation view is somewhat different. The designer talks to the environment and the
latter talks back to the designer. Here the designer (person) and the designed (artifact) form two
parts of a single design system.
Schons main concern is the process of design and he therefore makes no claims about the cognitive
process. Our concern is to look at the process of design from the point of view of cognitive
mapping and the cognition of large-scale artifacts such as cities. From this perspective we suggest,
first, that the reflective conversation view on design contradicts cognitive sciences view on
artifacts. Second that it indicates the possibility to understand the cognitive system as including in
addition to perception and action also productions (Fig. 2). Third, that the action-perceptionproduction view of cognition implies that design is an innate human capability active in the
production of small as well as large artifacts such as cities. These three suggestions are derivations
from the notion of SIRN that is introduced next.
Figure 2: Action/Perception/Production view on cognition
SIRNs four propositions and design

SIRN is an approach to cognition suggesting that artifacts and the process of their design and
production are part of cognition (Portugali, 1996; Haken and Portugali, 1996). In this section we
introduce SIRN and show its implications to design. We do so by examining the SIRNs four basic
propositions.
1. Humans have an innate capability for representation that comes in two forms: external and
internal. Internal representations are the outcome of brain processes the end product of which is
various forms of information (visual, olfactory, haptic, lingual, etc.,) that are enfolded (i.e.
represented) in the matter of the brain. External representations refer to behavior or action that
represent internal representations. External representations can be further divided into bodily and
stand-alone representations. Bodily representations (mimetic, lexical, etc.) are made by the body
and never extend beyond it. Stand-alone representations are made by the body, but extend beyond it
to become stand-alone artifacts. Stand-alone artifacts are the products of design processes. From
this follows three interrelated corollaries: (1) Design is an innate human capability. (2) Humans
perceive, learn, think and execute many cognitive operations by designing and producing artifacts.
(3) Humans design not only in order to achieve goals or intentions, but first and foremost because
they are born to design their innate capability to design and produce artifacts allows them to
achieve many of their aims, intentions and goals by means of the design and production of artifacts.
2. Many cognitive processes, those associated with the production of artifacts included, evolve as
an interaction between internal and external representations. This is typical of complex cognitive
process that are subject to The magic number seven plus or minus two that according to Miller
(1956) limits our capacity for processing information in short term memory. In his paper
Miller discusses several tactics by which the mind/brain may overcome this constraint. Haken and
Portugali (forthcoming) suggest that another trick the mind/brain/body uses to overcome this
constraint is by means of external representations and the production of stand-alone artifacts. The
production of artifacts and by implication their design are thus integral parts of the cognitive
process of humans. This is typical of sequential cognitive processes that evolve by means of an
interaction between emergent internal and external representations. Thus, one starts to develop a
thought, or an idea by first constructing it in mind in the form of an internal representation. Then
one develops it a few steps further in short-term memory. When the threshold of Millers magic
number 7 is reached, one externalizes ones internal representation in the form of a talk, a written
sentence, or a sketch, observes how it looks, etc., then internalizes it again as a starting point for
further development in mind and so on in an interplay between internal and external
representations.
3. The boundaries of the cognitive system should be perceived as distinct from the boundaries of the
brain (the skull) and the body (skin). This is the logical conclusion of propositions 1 2. In design
tasks, the boundaries of the cognitive system correspond to the boundaries of the design system.
The latter includes the designers mind and body, the design action and the produced artifact. That
is, the cognition-design system is composed of action-perception-production.
4. The cognitive system is a self-organizing system the dynamics of which is captured by the
synergetic approach to self-organization. Self-organization is a fundamental property of open and
complex systems that attain their order spontaneously and are typified by phenomena of noncausality, non-linearity, instability and chaos. Such systems are open, in the sense that they
exchange matter, energy and information with their environment, and complex in the sense that
their large number of parts are interconnected in a nonlinear fashion by a complex network of
feedback loops (Portugali 1997, 1999).
Synergetics is Hakens (1983, 1987) theory of self-organization. The theory focuses on processes
by which the local interactions between the many parts of a system give rise to qualitative changes
at the systems macroscopic state. According to synergetics such a qualitative macroscopic change
happens when a given internal or external control parameter acting on the system triggers a chaotic
movement and interaction between its many parts. This chaotic movement enfolds several systemic
order states that co-exist and in this respect compete among themselves. When the control
parameter crosses a certain threshold, the hitherto chaotic form of movement and interaction
suddenly and spontaneously give rise to a coherent movement and interaction where all the parts
behave in concert. This coherent movement is termed order parameter, and the process by which
the many parts abruptly obey the order parameter and in this way support and reproduce it the
slaving principle.
Synergetics was applied to the domain of cognition and brain functioning (Haken 1979, 1990, 1991,
1996, Kelso 1995). The basic proposition here is that the brain and its various cognitive systems are
self-organizing systems.The paradigmatic case-study here is pattern recognition by means of
associative memory: the cognitive system is given a few features of a certain pattern (i.e. face)
referring to one out of a repertoire of patterns stored in memory. This triggers a process of selforganization in which several order-states emerge and enter into a competition. This competition is
resolved when a certain order parameter "wins", enslaving the various features by means of
associative memory, and a recognition is established.
A similar process typifies the construction of cognitive maps (Portugali 1990; Portugali and Haken
1992; Portugali, 1996), behavior and action (Kelso 1995). With respect to the latter two, synergetics
suggests seeing the brain, mind, bodily behavior and action as open, complex, task-specific and
context-dependent systems that achieve their coherence spontaneously, by means of a complex cooperation and interaction between their many parts. The interacting elements of that system are,
therefore, both internal and external.
The SIRN basic model and its three prototypes as models of design
Haken and Portugali (1996) have cast the notion of SIRN into the formalism of synergetics. They
have done so by developing the SIRN basic model. The model was inspired by Bartletts
(1932/1961) scenarios of serial reproduction devised by him in his book Remembering. A typical
Bartlett scenario evolves like this (Fig. 3): a test person is given a text or shown a figure and is
asked to memorize it. He or she is then asked to externally reproduce the text or figure out of
memory, by rewriting the text or re-drawing the figure. This externally represented text or figure is
given to another test person and so on. The usual result of such scenarios is that after several strong
fluctuations in the reproduction, the text or the figure stabilize and do not change much from
iteration to iteration. Bartlett reports that the same happens when the experiments are carried out
with a single person. This experiment includes all the ingredients of synergetics and interrepresentation and can thus be regarded as a paradigm case study for the operation of SIRN
(Portugali, 1996; Haken and Portugali, 1996): A play between internal and external representations
that emerge spontaneously out of the dynamics as ad-hoc entities, strong fluctuations at the start and
an ordered state that eventually enslaves the interaction.
Figure 3: A typical Bartlett scenario

The basic SIRN model is described in Fig. 4. In the context of the present paper this model refers to
a designer that is subject to two kinds of input information: internal information that is coming from
the designers mind/brain, in the form of ideas, images, thoughts, and the like, and external
information that is coming from the environment via the senses, the designers body and/or the
information afforded from stand-alone artifacts. The interaction between these two flows gives rise
to an order parameter that governs both the designers action, and the information that feeds back
from the artifact produced to the designers mind. The order parameters are determined in line with
the theory of synergetics as described above.
Figure 4: Basic SIRN model

The basic SIRN model is applied to specific case studies by means of its three prototype submodels of design: (1) Intra-personal, that describes a solitary designer working by him/her self. (2)
Inter-personal that refers to a sequential process involving several solitary designers not necessarily
aware of each other. (3) Inter-personal with a common reservoir that describes a group dynamics
by which several designers are working simultaneously and publicly on a large-scale artifact.
The Intrapersonal submodel

The intrapersonal submodel is described in Figure 5. It refers to the Bartletts serial reproduction
experimented with a single person or to a solitary designer engaged in some creative work. A nice
illustration for this process is Brancusis Kiss that evolved as a typical process of interaction
between internal and external representations (Figure 6). As can be seen, similarly to the Bartlett
scenario, here too the figure is gradually transformed from a realistic to a highly schematized
geometrical shape. This by means of an interaction between internal representations in the form of
images, ideas, etc., that emerge at the artists mind, and external representations that represent the
artists ideas and images as they take a specific shape in the material with which the artist is
working. What is specifically interesting in Brancusis Kiss is that its final reproduction (The Gate
of Kiss) was imbedded in the cityscape of Bucharest, thus illustrating how a very personal SIRN
process goes public.
Figure 5: Intra-personal sub-model by means of SIRN
Figure 6: The evolution of Brancusis Kiss
This process is typical also of the role of sketches in design. Free-hand sketches are frequently
produced by architects and designers at the early stages of the design process. A sketch is
characterized by having an ambiguous and amorphous nature that serves the purposes of clarifying
existing design ideas stored as internal representations in the mind, and generating new ones
through external representations (e.g., Casakin, 1998; Do, et al, 1999; Evans, 1989; Fish and
Scrivener, 1990; Goldschmidt, 1992). Researchers such as Suwa and Tversky (1997) explored the
sketch as a means for gaining a better understanding of how subjects perceive and cognize content
and process components while solving a design problem. Goldschmidt (1994) proposed that the
design process often starts with vague ideas that are gradually elaborated and structured. In this
process of elaboration sketches can aid in generating and strengthening them. Moreover, different
features of a yet non-created artifact can be produced, transformed, and externalized through
sketches for communication and evaluation. Thus, a critical aspect of sketching is the possibility of
generating sequential and abstract design representations before they are clear in the mind. This
enables the identification of relevant from irrelevant information, and on the other hand, the
reinterpretation of previously unforeseen or unpredicted information. As the sketching activity
evolves, an interactive dialogue or reflective conversation is established between the designer
internal representations retrieved from memory, and his or her produced external representations
that talk back to him (Schon, 1983; Goel, 1995) until a suitable design solution is reached.
Goldschmidt, (1999) referred to this phenomena as the backtalk of self-generated sketches, which
points to the designer capability to read meaning, and discover new interpretations from his or her
own external representations. Verstijnen (1997), and Verstijnen et al (1999) claimed that when
designers have difficulties of interpretation in mind, the use of the sketch plays an important role as
a tool for aiding idea reinterpretation and problem restructuring. An example of a practical use of
the sketch is illustrated through the work of the architect Jorn Utzon (Figure 7). His sketches are not
intended as the production of just beautiful drawings, but made with the aim of understanding a
design problem, and proposing a design solution (Lawson, 1994). With the purpose of constructing
the roof of the Opera House in Sydney, a rich sequence of sketches are developed to learn about
engineering structural aspects. During this process, a sketch establishes a dialogue with another, as
ideas develop and gradually evolve from evocative conceptual sketches related to rather organic
forms, to more detailed and refined representations.
10
Figure 7: Sketches from the Opera House at Sydney, by Jorn Utzon
The difference between the examples of Brancusi and Utzon sketches is that in the case of sketches
the play between internal and external representations continues until the end product the artifact
is completed; after this stage the design process ends. In Brancusis case the play never ends
the artifact has a status of a sketch.
11
The Interpersonal process

This is the classical Bartlett scenario, as illustrated above in Figure 3. A typical experiment starts, as
noted, with a given external input and proceeds with a sequence by which each person's
externalized reproduction of the remembered input becomes an input to the next person to
remember and externalize, and so on. As above, after several initial steps that exhibit major changes
from one reproduction to the other, the story or the drawn figure stabilizes and does not change
significantly from iteration to iteration. In terms of synergetics we assert that a certain order
parameter has enslaved the system and brought it to a steady state. This interpersonal process
implies that several persons, with their individual-subjective cognitive systems, participate in
producing an externalized collective cognitive product, without being aware of their collective
enterprise. As this sequential process evolves, and its collective product constructed, each
individual's externally represented reproduction gradually becomes "more" collective and so does
each individual's internally represented remembering. The individuals engaged in the process are
thus being enslaved by the collective order parameter that emerges in the process. Figure 8
graphically describes this interpersonal scenario by means of our SIRN model.
Figure 8: Interpersonal sub-model by means of SIRN

An example in the domain of architecture can be the design of complex artifacts such as public
buildings by a design team composed of structural engineers; environmental engineers; interior
designers; etc. As the design process develops, the problem is decomposed into sub-problems in
order to answer initial programmatic requirements (Cross, 2000). In doing so, designers establish an
interactive dialogue between their own internal and external representations related to their domain
of expertise, and a sequential interplay between external representations of the other designers. A
synergetic, self-organized system among the various designers thus emerges and develops until a
design solution is found.
An additional example is Rossis (1986) concept of urban typologies as perpetuating
permanencies capable of adaptation to modifications performed by different designers through
history. According to Rossi, socially relevant buildings were able to last because they managed to
keep their external formal attributes while adapting their internal functions to new programmatic
requirements, new conditions, and uses. While the design of the building evolves or changes, a
sequentialtemporal inter-play of external and internal representations is established between
different architects that are not necessarily aware of each other.
12
Interpersonal with a common reservoir

In the intra- and inter-personal sub-models the process depends fully on the biological memories of
individuals. Here the process depends partly on biological memories, but partly also on externalized
non-biological memory termed a common reservoir. This common reservoir of external, artificial
and non-biological memory, might take the form of texts, Internet, buildings or whole cities. To
illustrate and study such processes a set of experiments city games was devised (Portugali,
1996b). Their essence is a process of sequential reproduction that is interpersonal, collective, and
public the participants observe the game as it develops. Each player is given a 1:100 mockup of a
building, and in his/her turn is asked to locate it in the virtual city on the floor. In a typical game
(Figure 9), the players observe the city as it develops, and in the process also learn the
spontaneously emerging order on the ground. After several initial iterations a certain urban order
emerges. The participants internalize this emerging order and tend to locate their buildings in line
with it. Such an experiment includes all the ingredients of the SIRN process: a sequential interplay
between internal and external representations, the emergence of a collective complex city as an
artifact, and a typical synergetic process of self-organization as demonstrated below. It is typical in
such games that after a few initial iterations an observable urban order emerges, the participants
internalize this emerging order and tend to locate their buildings in line with it.
Figure 9: Four snapshots from a typical City Game

Figure 10 illustrates graphically this public-collective SIRN sub-model. Each individual
player/agent is subject to internal input constructed by the mind/brain, and external input which is
13
the legible information coming from the common reservoir. In the above city game it is the virtual
city on the ground. The interaction between these two forms of input gives rise to a competition
between alternative decision rules that ends up when one or a few decision rules wins. The
winning rule(s) is/are the order parameter(s) that enslave(s) the system. The emerging order
parameter governs an external output, which in the city game is the players location action in the
city, and an internal output, which is an information feedback loop back to the mind/brain.
14
Figure 10: Interpersonal with a common reservoir sub-model by means of SIRN
Design and self-organization

From the above follows a view of design as essentially a self-organizing system. On the face of it
the two notions design and self-organization contradict each other: Design is commonly
regarded as an intentional, and as such externally organized process, in contrast with spontaneous
self-organized process. But there is no contradiction here. To see why let us look once again at the
various examples introduced above. Consider first the paradigmatic case study of Bartlett scenario
of serial reproduction (Fig. 3). This scenario includes all the ingredient of a self-organizing,
cognitive, SIRN system: emergent internal and external representations, strong fluctuations at the
start of the process, an emerging order parameter in the form of a schemata of an abstract shape of a
face that eventually enslaves the many parts of the system and brings it to a steady state. A similar
process takes place in the cases of Brancusis Kiss (Fig. 6), and Utzons sketches (Fig. 7). The
15
latter two case studies should be taken in conjunction with Millers magic number 7 discussed in
Proposition 3. As a consequence of the number 7 constraint on short-term memory, a design idea or
intention are usually not yet the final product but its trigger. The end product, that is to say the
artifact, emerges as noted above out of the SIRN play described above. Many design processes, in
particular those associated with complex artifacts, thus involve a sequential, self-organizing
processes.
The case study of the city game (Figs. 9, 10) refers to a much more complex process of self
organization. As elaborated recently in Self-Organization and the City (Portugali, 1999) the city is a
dual self-organizing system: On the one hand, the city as a whole is a self-organizing system whose
elementary parts are the many agents operating in it. On the other, each of the agents operating in
the city is itself an open, complex and as such self-organizing system. The agents act and interact,
with and in the city, among other things according to their cognitive maps of it. This interaction
give rise to the city dynamics and structure, that once emerges feeds back to the agents cognitive
map and so on in a process of circular causality and reproduction. The city in this respect is similar
to language. As in language each of the parts is a self-organizing system and the local interaction
between the parts gives rise to a highly (self) organized global structure. Unlike language, however,
the city is full of planning, design and attempts to control the city. In fact, each agent operating in
the city is a planner/designer at a certain scale (Portugali, 1999, Chap. 11). And yet, due to the size
and complexity of the city, none of the many planners/designers operating in it can fully control its
final form, structure and evolution.
It should be emphasized that many of the planning and design actions taken in a city the design
and construction of buildings, bridges, roads and the like require full control and external
organization. But as just noted, in the last analysis none of these designs can fully determine the
overall structure of the city not even large-scale urban design projects. From this follows two
forms of design: engineerable design that is necessary in the design of some of the urban artifacts,
versus self-organized design that typifies the design of neighborhoods, whole cities and
metropolitan areas.
Concluding notes
Our aims in this paper have been, first, to expose the ambivalent relations between design and
cognition. Second, to introduce SIRN as an approach to cognition suggesting a perception-actionproduction view of cognition. Third, to make a start at introducing SIRN as an approach to design.
The next step, with which we are currently engaged, is to put these ideas into empirical tests. So far
we have done so by means of the city games discussed above and by means of computerized urban
simulation models. Preliminary results indicate, first, that designers never come to the city tabula
rasa. Rather, each comes to, and starts to design in, the city with a conceptual cognitive map (cCM)
that refers to his/her previous experience in cities. The most prominent cCMs were found to be
mono-centric and multi-centric. Second, the first interaction between the designers and the city
gives rise to specific cognitive maps (sCM) that are dynamic and change as the structure of the city
evolves. It is according to sCMs that the design process proceeds. We have also started to
experiment with the two qualitatively distinct design processes noted above engineerable versus
self-organizing design. However, these and several other experiments and results will have to await
further publication.
16
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19

A. T. Purcell Sydney University, Australia
K. S. Sodersten Sydney University, Australia
Abstract
This paper is concerned with the question of whether or not there are forms of knowledge that can
be regarded as unique to design. On the basis of protocol studies of architects designing we identify
three types of knowledge that may be considered as candidates for design knowledge. These we
refer to as interpreted and embodied knowledge, compiled knowledge and strategic knowledge
relating to the use of design representations. Each of the potential types of knowledge addresses a
core problem in design how to move from knowledge that is abstract and conceptual to a
representation of that knowledge in physical form.

Introduction
There is no evidence that the results of such experiments are of interest to designers or educators
and attempts at applying methodologies derived from such analysis have failed over three decades.
This is taken from a referees report on a recent grant application concerned with innovation and
high level expertise in design. Needless to say the grant application was not successful. However
this comment presents a challenge to design researchers. Is design research simply concerned with
understanding the design process? As a basic research area it has considerable legitimacy. Design is
a paradigmatic example of ill-defined problem solving and ill-defined problem solving represents a
central and under-researched aspect of human cognitive capacities. Design can also be associated
with innovation and creativity, again fundamental human capacities. However we, along with many
if not all design researchers, want our field to be both a strong area of basic research and to have it
contribute to the education of designers and the practice of design. The challenge is how can
design research contribute in these areas? This paper is an attempt to begin to chart the relationship
between design research and design education. In particular we want to address the question of the
nature of design knowledge. This particular issue was brought into focus through our development
of a new undergraduate program that was based on the results of design research and recent
research in the area of teaching and learning.
Design and ill-defined problems

Before addressing this question directly we would like to focus initially on the general nature of illdefined problems and on a specific facet of design as ill-defined problem solving. In our view it is
the ill-defined nature of design problems which is at the core of both the importance of design
research as basic research and equally is at the core of design education. The nature of ill-defined
problems has been discussed extensively ( Simon,1973; Reitman, 1964; Goel, 1995), however the
basic characteristics of such problems are that the statement of the problem is incomplete and there
is no single correct or even optimal solution. These basic characteristics have a number of
consequences, for example the problem solver must discover what is relevant to the problem before
or while developing the solution. In the context of design these are important issues but another
equally important characteristic is introduced. The statement of a design problem is both incomplete
and its content is not directly related to the specific physical characteristics of the artefact (or the
representation of the artefact) that must be the end result of the process. If the designer is asked to
design a house for a specific family on a particular site, the statement of the problem has no direct
relationship to nor does it directly constrain the physical attributes of the house that might be
designed.
Not only does the statement of the problem not specify any physical attributes but the information
related to the issues that might be identified as relevant is generally at a more abstract or conceptual
level and it too does not directly relate to specific physical attributes of the design. For example
such a problem would involve issues to do with materials, structural systems, construction methods,
the experiential attributes to be associated with the home and many others. The knowledge that is
available in each of these areas simply provides possibilities that would have to be made concrete or
realised by the designer in the particular attributes of the building. Moving between the abstract and
conceptual and the physical differentiates design of physical artefacts from other forms of illdefined problem solving and, creates great difficulties for design students and it is the ways of
dealing with this problem we will argue that generates the types of knowledge that are specific to
design.
Design knowledge
Designed artefacts and the designers who produce them can be situated within a number of
contexts. A designed artefact, because it exists in the world, has a set of relationships with various
aspects of that world. For the purposes of this discussion we will refer to these aspects of the world
as environments and these are illustrated on the right of the diagram below. Once it is manufactured
or built, a designed artefact exists within a physical, biological, human and many other types of
environment. These environments are typically associated with bodies of knowledge that are the
result of research activities designed to understand what they are made up of, how they work and so
on. A designed artefact can be examined from the point of view of how it fits into these various
environments using this knowledge that is it can be evaluated. This is recognised within the
diagram by the arrows in the diagram linking the object with the various environments. While this
type of analysis and evaluation can be carried out independnantly of the designer (or a design
student) the knowledge that is involved could be used by the designer.
This is also identified in the diagram by a link to the designer and student. This relationship could
take a number of forms. For example the knowledge could inform the design process or the
knowledge could be used to evaluate the design as it evolves. However the knowledge that exists in
these areas is typically abstract and conceptual seeking to represent the underlying laws and
principles in the area. Because the designer is concerned with a specific situation for which a
physical object must be developed, there is a gap between the knowledge that is relevant to the
design and how that knowledge can be introduced into physical form as discussed above. It is
possible to reason from first principles as indicated in the diagram. However there will always come
a point where the designer has to move to a specific physical form. Once this has been done it is
then possible to assess and evaluate what is proposed but the question is do designers actually
design in this way and is this an answer to the question what is design knowledge. If they do act in
this way it would appear that there is not a specific knowledge that is associated with design. Rather
the knowledge that informs design is the use of existing knowledge from other domains unless that
is there is a form of knowledge associated with the step from the abstract to the physical and this is
one issue we will pursue in the following discussion.
Figure 1: Contexts for designers and designed artefacts
However the diagram also identifies another context within which a designer / student and a
designed artefact are situated. These are, in the case of architecture, architectural history and theory,
precedents and design representations. A particular designed artefact is a part of and therefore
related to all other designed (and possibly not designed) examples of the type and designed artefacts
generally. Some existing designs can be considered to be exemplary or at least worthy of study that
is they come to be considered as precedents. Often the content or knowledge associated with
architectural history is concerned with such precedents, the designers who produced them and the
cultural context they existed within. Designers are clearly concerned with precedents and design
students are often told to look for precedents. The question is - what is the relevance of precedents
and does this relevance constitute a type of design knowledge? This issue will be examined in the
following discussion. Finally it is clear that designers use many different forms of representations simple block diagrams, unstructured plans and sections, three dimensional representations, physical
models, detailed and explicit plans and sections and so on. In one sense these are skills and can be
taught as skills. While there is knowledge involved in these skills, it would not seem to be a
knowledge particularly associated with design. However it is possible that the strategic deployment
of these skills could involve a form of design knowledge and this issue will also be examined in the
following discussion.
Interpreted or embodied knowledge

One of these types of design knowledge is what we refer to as interpreted or embodied knowledge.
In order to illustrate what we mean we will use the contents of a protocol of a design session of an
expert architect engaging in the design of a museum. This protocol has been used in an intensive
examination of the cognitive processes involved in sketching during design ( see, for example,
Suwa, Gero and Purcell, 1998; 2000). The designer was video taped while designing but he was not
asked to think aloud during the process. Because the focus was on sketching, it was considered that
thinking aloud could interfere with the process. At the end of the design session, the designer was
shown the video tape and asked to say in as much detail as possible what he was thinking about
while he was making each mark on the paper. From this material a detailed coding scheme was
developed. Four broad categories of cognitive actions were identified: the physical, the perceptual,
the functional and the conceptual. The following description of these categories is taken from Suwa,
Gero and Purcell (1998).
The first category, physical, refers to actions that are directly relevant to physical depictions on
paper. It consists of three actions. One is to make depictions on paper, such as diagrams, symbols,
annotations, memos, and sentences. We call it 'D-action'. The second is the motion of a pencil or
hands that do not end up with depictions. We call it 'M-action'. The third is to pay attention to the
existence of previously-drawn depictions. We call it 'L-action'.
The second category, perceptual, refers to actions of perceiving visuo-spatial features of
depictions, such as shapes or sizes of depicted elements and spatial relations among elements. We
call it 'P-action'. For example, if a designer draws a new depiction near an existing one by attending
to the spatial relation between both, the new depiction is coded as a D-action, his attention to the
existing depiction as a L-action, and his attention to the spatial relation as a P-action. This P-action
is viewed as having occurred dependent on the D-action and the L-action. This way, P-actions have
inherent dependency on physical actions.
The third category, functional, refers to actions of thinking of non-visual functional issues or
abstract concepts with which designers associate physical depictions or their perceptual features.
We call it 'F-action'. For example, if a designer attends to a spatial relation between two regions and
associates it with a view from and to both places, his thought on "view" is coded as a F-action. This
way, functions or abstract concepts are not actually given in the appearance of elements and
relations, but suggested by it. Therefore, F-actions have inherent dependency on physical actions
and/or P-actions.
The fourth category, conceptual, refers to actions that deal with non-visual information which is
not inherently suggested by the appearance of elements and relations. There are three types. The
first is to evaluate the aesthetic value of design decisions made by P- or F-actions. We call it 'Eaction'. The second is to set up goals. We call it 'G-action'. A goal is sometimes set up by being
triggered by P- or F-actions, or sometimes as the subgoal of an existing goal. Once a goal is set up,
it in turn gives birth to other actions, i.e. G, F, P or physical, in a top-down way. The third is to
retrieve knowledge for making inference. We call it 'K-action'.
This coding scheme allowed all of the verbal material produced by the designer in identifying what
they were thinking about while they were drawing to be coded. These four categories (and their
sub-categories not presented here) can therefore be regarded as identifying four types of design
knowledge. The first point to be made is that reasoning from first principles does not appear in this
coding scheme just as it does not appear in any of the other design protocols we have collected. The
knowledge used in design therefore is not directly based in the various disciplines that can be
shown to be related to designed artefacts. This conclusion needs to be treated with some caution as
there may be variation between different design disciplines with some, such as engineering using
basic knowledge from the discipline more directly in the process (see Lawson, 2001). The
categories of the coding scheme can however be examined to see if they can give indications of
what knowledge is involved in design.
The first, the physical, can be seen as reflecting knowledge about what physical representations are
meaningful and useful and this issue of the use of design representations will be discussed in a
separate section of the paper. It is also apparent that these representations are ways in which
physical forms can be developed that relate to the specific design situation. That is it is a way of
dealing with moving between the under-specified, conceptual statement of the problem to a
representation of a physical form that can be developed.
The second category, the perceptual, can also be interpreted as a form of knowledge. The designer
uses the physical representations to identify and operate on visuo-spatial features of the drawings.
The knowledge involved here is how to how look at such drawings in this way. Teaching
someone how to make the various types of visual representations that are used will not necessarily
teach them how to look at the drawings in a way that allows the progressive development of the
specific physical attributes of the final artefact. What they need to be taught is how to notice and
use visual features of elements in the sketch such as size, shape and texture; spatial relations
amongst elements such as proximity, remoteness, alignment, intersection, connectedness;
organisational relations amongst elements such as grouping, uniformity/similarity,
contrast/difference and implicit or emergent spaces that exist between elements. Because these
perceptual categories are linked to the physical this discussion is also relevant to the later discussion
of design representations.
The other two categories functional and conceptual actions we would argue represent what we
have termed interpreted and embodied knowledge. This type of knowledge has two characteristics.
First it has a conceptual component but this is associated with knowledge of the way that concept
can be embodied or what it implies in terms of physical form. In the above example the idea of a
view is relatively abstract but it is associated with particular physical characteristics that are
represented in the drawing and the designer recognises. Presumably this is possible because the
knowledge that the designer has is the association between views and certain physical attributes that
create views. In addition the designer must also have as part of this bundle of knowledge, other
knowledge relating to why views are important. This is essentially derived from the basic
knowledge found in for example environmental psychology about the psychological functions of
views. The designer may not be aware of this basic knowledge but may only have the bundle of
knowledge that represents its interpretation and embodiment. Similar analyses can be made of the
categories of conceptual actions in the coding scheme.
The second characteristic of this type of knowledge is that it is often based on the individuals design
experience or on the analysis of precedents. To illustrate this we will use an example from a
protocol of an architect who had been engaged in a design activity during which he had not been
allowed to draw. Following this session there was a structured interview with the architect part of
which involved the him comparing and contrasting his experience during the design session with
his usual way of designing. The architect had found designing under these conditions particularly
difficult and was unhappy with the result because sketching for him was an essential part of his way
of designing. Part of the interview revolved around whether or not he used visual imagery while
designing. He was adamant that he did not and that he used what he referred to as memories. To
illustrate what he meant he described how he had made a detailed study of Louis Barragan and
somewhat unusually particularly of Barragans plans. This study resulted in him having a very
detailed understanding of how characteristics of Barragans plans and the physical characteristics of
the resulting buildings produced experiential outcomes that he valued. When he was designing he
did not have a visual image of barragans plans or particular buildings but the memory that
represented this particular type of knowledge he had gained based on his study. Sketching was vital
because the memory informed the sketch that was related to specific characteristics of the design
problem he was working on. These memories are clearly interpreted knowledge based on
precedents and study by the designer. The precedent does not directly enter into the design process
but only on the basis of the memories constructed by the designer.
Clearly these are only illustrative examples. However they at least identify what could be a type of
knowledge that can be classified as design knowledge and so could form the basis for research to
establish whether this type of knowledge has some generality and to characterise it more
completely.
Compiled knowledge
While much of the existing design research has focused on the early, conceptual stage of the
process, a considerable proportion of a complete design process involves design development and
detailing. During this part of the process designers use another type of knowledge, what we are
referring to as compiled knowledge. This type of knowledge is found in handbooks, workbooks,
data sheets and trade catalogues. In one respect this knowledge similar to the interpreted knowledge
discussed in the previous section. This is because it is derived from the basic knowledge areas and
is embodied in representations of physical forms. However the basis of the compiled knowledge is
not the individual designers learning and experience. Rather the author takes basic knowledge and
develops its application in a specific setting. For example the diagram below presents information
about the amounts of space that have to be allocated to accommodate tables seating different
numbers of people, arranged in different spatial orientations with allowances for circulation in
restaurants and cafes (taken from De Chiara, Panero and Zelnik, 1991).
Figure 2: A simple caf plan

What lies behind this diagram however is a considerable amount of knowledge in the area of
ergonomics and human factors. For example the size of the table is related to how each of the
objects is used in the set of activities associated with eating. A typical basic table setting in a
restaurant would involve a knife, fork, spoon, main plate and side plate and glass. The ergonomic
issues associated with using the knife, fork and spoon and their use (picking up and holding) are
shown in this diagram.
Figure 3: Ergonomic issues involved in picking up and holding a knife, fork, spoon or glass
Each of these has to be located on a surface in order to carry out the activity and consequently each
would occupy an amount of space. Given that the eating implements are typically arranged in a
specific way spatially another set of ergonomic issues become involved. For example the knife and
fork go together. In order that the user can pick them up without disturbing the other, they have to
be spatially separated. This spatial separation can be based for example on the width of the thumb.
If the other elements in a typical table setting, a plate and a side plate, are introduced, further spatial
requirements can be identified on the basis of ergonomic data. For example the spoon and the fork
have to be sufficiently separated from the plate (again the width of the thumb could be used) so that
they can be picked up without striking the plate or side plate. If the dimensions of the plate and side
plate are now included, the combination of the spatial requirements of all the elements essentially
defines the spatial envelope for a single person eating space. This basic space could then be
aggregated to give the basic table dimensions for 2, 4 or six person tables.
This represents the basic spatial requirements for table area. However other sets of ergonomic
issues are involved. The diner must sit at the table and so the chair and the diner positioned at the
table will occupy space and this dimension has to be added to the spatial requirements of the table.
Similarly the diner must move into and out from the table in order to be able to sit at the table. The
distance that the chair has to be from the table to allow access (hip to knee dimension, thigh width)
must then be included in the spatial envelope associated with the table. Finally circulation space
giving access to the tables has to be included. This depends on shoulder / hip width and the number
of people who will be moving through the space.
The diagram of the basic caf plan shown above could be developed from this type of analysis in
conjunction with a source of relevant ergonomic data such as that found in, for example, Diffrient,
Tieley and Harman (1981). However while this diagram is based on this information, it is not
immediately apparent that this is the case. For example the main dimensions given relate to the
combination of the table and chairs located in the seated position. Why the table is that size and the
fact that the space taken up by the chair when it is moved out from the table is taken as part of the
circulation space except in the main ailse is not indicated in the diagram. In other words diagrams
such as these that compile existing basic knowledge embody a number of assumptions and
decisions and this represents the danger that is associated with their use both by practitioners and
students. If they are just accepted and no attempt is made to understand their basis, their use can
lead to faulty design where the specific design situation they are used in does not fit with some of
these assumptions and decisions. Designers need to be able to use this type of design knowledge
critically and design students need to be taught not only about their existence but how to evaluate
them critically by identifying the assumptions and decisions involved. However compiled
knowledge of this type clearly represents a form of design knowledge.
Strategic representations
Designers use a number of different ways of representing their designs such as diagrams, plans
sections, elevations, models, CAD representations. Often in the educational context the emphasis
seems to be on teaching how to do each of these types of representation that is as a skill. However
one continuing theme in the design research area is the role that drawing and sketching in the design
process (Goldschmidt, 1991, 1994; Suwa, Gero and Purcell, 1998, 2000). This research has
demonstrated that the use of these types of representation plays a central role in both developing an
understanding of the problem that is brought about by the ill-defined nature of design problems.
This research also demonstrates that this understanding of the problem co-evolves with the
development of solutions to the problem. Further these representations play a central role in
unexpected discoveries relating to physical form and the identification of new goals that had not
been previously recognised. Design representations therefore play a fundamental role in the design
process far more than simply ways of documenting a design. Knowing how to use design
representations in this way therefore constitutes another type of design knowledge. While the role
of sketch drawings has received considerable attention and resulted in important insights, there is
another aspect of the use of these representations that has received much less attention. We would
argue that the design protocols on which these insights are based also reveal another important
aspect of design knowledge. Designers switch between different forms of representation at different
stages of the process and that this switching is strategic.
Figure 4: Part of a set of drawings produced by an architect during a design session
10
This process can be seen to be operating in the series of sketches taken from a protocol of a design
session with an experienced architect engaged in developing a sketch design for a museum
discussed above (see, for example, Suwa, Gero and Purcell, 1998, 2000). The order of the sketches
is as they occurred during the design session. It is quite clear that the designer is switching between
different forms of representation. The first drawing is a very simple plan representing key features
of the site. The second drawing is quite different, diagram that represents the different proportions
of the areas that are to be associated with building and with external spaces. This is given in the
brief but this drawing is a visual representation of the areas given numerically. The designer then
switches again to a more detailed but still unstructured and ambiguous (in Goels 1995) plan. The
designer continues with this form of representation in fact developing two separate versions of the
design. In moving from one sketch to the next the designer often transferred some aspects of an
earlier sketch to a later sketch by tracing over the earlier sketch. All of the sketches contain
annotations which become more detailed as the design develops. Clearly this series of switches is
not random but motivated and we would argue that what motivates the changes is a form of
knowledge. The interesting question is what is what is the nature of this knowledge, how can it be
elucidated and then how can it be taught.
An examination of a number of other protocols from other design sessions with architects reveals
both similarities and differences. The similarities lie in the strategic use of different forms of design
representations. The differences lie in the types of design representations that are used. Some
designers will move to a physical or CAD model as the design develops. Others use sections and
plans and shift the scale at which these representations are drawn. What this indicates is both that
the strategic use of design representations is a key part of the design process and that there is
variation between designers in specific combinations of design representations that they use. We
know from previous research (Goldschmidt, 1991, 1994; Suwa, Gero and Purcell, 1998; 2000) the
outcomes associated with design representations but not the knowledge in this sense that drives it.
Conclusion
We would argue that the three types of knowledge we have identified do represent potential types
of knowledge that can be regarded as design knowledge. What appears to link them all together is
that they are ways of dealing with a fundamental problem in design how to move from the
abstract and conceptual to the physical. There are also indications that there may be differences
between designers in relation to the particular ways in which the knowledge is deployed. This was
apparent in the ways different types of design representations were used. It is also apparent in the
results of some recently completed research on how designers start the design process. If design is
to be both a area of basic research and have an impact on education and practice, development of a
more complete characterisation of design knowledge and how it is used has the potential to make a
significant contribution.
11
References
De Chiara, J., Panero, J. & Zelnik, M. (1991) Time Saver Standards for Interior Space Design. New
York, Mc Graw Hill.
Diffrient, N., Tieley, A.R. & Harman, D. (1981) Humanscale 7/8/9, Manual. Cambridge, Mass.,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
Goel, V.: 1995, Sketches of Thought. MIT Press, Cambridge.
Goldschmidt, G.: 1991, The dialectics of sketching, Creativity Research Journal, 4(2): 123-143.
Goldschmidt, G.: 1994, On visual design thinking: the vis kids of architecture, Design Studies,
15(2): 158-174.
Reitman, W. (1964) Heuristic decision procedures, open constraints, and the structure of ill-defined
problems. I W. Shelley and G.L. Bryan, eds., Human Judgements and Optimality. New York:
Wiley.
Simon, H.A. (1973) The structure of ill-structured problems. Artificial Intelligence, 4, 181-201.
Suwa, M., Gero, J. S. and Purcell, T. (1998) The roles of sketches in early conceptual design
processes, Proceedings of Twentieth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Lawrence
Erlbaum, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 1043-1048
Suwa, M., Gero, J. S. and Purcell, T. (2000) Unexpected discoveries and s-inventions of design
requirements: Important vehicles for a design process, Design Studies, 21, 539-567.
12
Modelling the role of the design context in the design process.

A Domain-independent approach
I. M. M. J. Reymen Stan Ackermans Institute, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Netherlands
P. Kroes Department of Philosophy, Technische Universiteit Delft, Netherlands
T. Basten Department of Electrical Engineering, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Netherlands
Abstract
Domain-independent models of the design process are an important means for facilitating
interdisciplinary communication and for supporting multidisciplinary design. Many so-called
domain-independent models are, however, not really domain independent. We state that, to be
domain independent, the models must abstract from domain-specific aspects, be based on the study
of several design disciplines, and be useful for many design disciplines and for multidisciplinary
design teams. This paper describes a domain-independent descriptive design model that is
developed by studying similarities and differences between design processes in a few design
disciplines. The model is based on the general theory of state transitions. We modelled a design
situation as a state at a certain moment and a design activity as a transition. We also explicitly
modelled the role of the design context in design processes. In our empirical studies, we noticed the
influence of the design context on the product being designed and the design process and the
importance of communication between designers and stakeholders in the design context regularly
during the design process. Making designers aware of the role of the design context can improve the
quality of both the product being designed and the design process. The role of the design context is,
however, often not explicitly taken into account in design models. We modelled the design context
as part of the state at a certain moment and interaction with the design context as one of the
activities performed by designers.
Modelling the role of the design context in the design process.

A Domain-independent approach
Introduction
For facilitating interdisciplinary communication and for supporting multidisciplinary design,
domain-independent models of the design process are very important. Because this kind of model
abstracts from domain-specific details, it can be used in multidisciplinary teams as a common
representation of the design process. The domain-independent concepts and terminology of such a
model can be the basis for a dialogue between the members of a design team. The need for domainindependent design theory has been discussed since the beginning of design research. A primary
goal of the Design Research Society since its founding in the 1960s has been a domainindependent theory of design within the context of a science of design. A discussion meeting on the
question whether the search for domain-independent theory of designing is a reasonable or realistic
goal (McDonnell 1995) led to the issue of the aim of design research. The discussion showed a
clear division between those who want to study design per se and those who want to improve
design practice and design education. We share the second viewpoint: We believe that domainindependent design models are worth developing when they are aimed at improving the design
practice and design education in many design disciplines and multidisciplinary teams. This means
that the model should have the right generality, i.e., the general concepts used for describing design
processes must be recognisable by designers in a number of disciplines. To be domain-independent,
design models must fulfil the following three criteria: abstracting from domain-specific aspects,
being based on the study of several design disciplines, and being useful for many design disciplines
and for multidisciplinary design teams. Domain-independent models, are, for example, given in
(Hybs and Gero 1992), (Korn 1996), (Newell and Simon 1972), (Schn 1983), and (Takeda,
Tomiyama, and Yoshikawa 1990).
Many design models, however, are often said to be domain independent but in our opinion do not
deserve to be called so. Some theories, for example, do not abstract from all domain-specific
aspects and examples given to illustrate these theories are often taken from only one discipline. (For
example, Hubka and Eder (1996) take all examples from mechanical engineering and do not
consider the existence of non-material products like software.) Many general design theories are
also often based on the study of one design discipline or are made with no practical goal in mind.
Given the fact that designing in several disciplines has much in common, it must, however, be
possible to develop domain-independent design knowledge. Common characteristics of a design
process are, for example, the occurrence of design phases and the ill-defined nature of design
problems. We have chosen to develop domain-independent design knowledge by studying
similarities and differences between design processes in a few design disciplines. This paper
describes the resulting domain-independent descriptive design model.
More specifically, this paper describes how we modelled the role of the design context in design
processes. Based on an empirical study performed in the design practice (Reymen 2001a), we
noticed that the design context plays an important role since it influences the product being
designed and the design process during a whole design process. The design context determines
constraints of the design process like time-to-market and available budget and influences
characteristics of the product being designed like function, price, and quality. Factors in the design
context that influence the product being designed and the design process are, for example, users,
competitors, trends in the market, environmental laws, patents, and the company director.
Interaction between designers and parties in the design context is necessary so that designers are
informed about important external factors and changes in the design context and to discuss the
influence of these factors and changes on the characteristics of the product being designed and the
design process. Making designers aware of the design context and its role can stimulate the
communication between designers and stakeholders. This may result in an improved product being
designed and an improved design process.
The design context is, however, often not explicitly taken into account in design models. In many
models, only at the beginning of a design process, some requirements from the design context are
taken into account. Also, often a sequence of design activities is discussed, but none of these
activities concerns interaction with the design context regularly during a design process. The need
for modelling and supporting the interaction with the design context is recently discussed in the
literature, for example, in (Dorst and Hendriks 2001), (Glock 2001), and (Mitchell 2001).
In this paper, we propose a domain-independent model of the design process that gives the design
context a role in the design process. The paper starts with describing our research approach. It
continues with describing the basic theory we used to develop our model. After the model has been
described, we discuss its domain independence and its potential usefulness for supporting
communication between designers and for supporting interaction with the design context, including
some recommendations for further research.
Research approach
To follow a domain-independent approach, we studied design processes in several design
disciplines, namely architecture, mechanical engineering, and software engineering. We chose
architecture because it has already played an important role in design research and it is the
discipline the first author is most familiar with. Mechanical engineering has also contributed much
to design research and is a typical engineering discipline. Software engineering is a new evolving
discipline that started to reflect on its design processes. Together, these three disciplines are
responsible for a wide range of products and for many different design approaches.
The research question we try to answer is How to describe design processes in a domainindependent way?. We have chosen an exploratory study because design research across several
disciplines is a relatively new approach. We started the research process with a literature study in
which we explored general design literature and literature specific for the three design disciplines.
The goal of the literature study was to find domain-independent characteristics of design processes.
We also decided to explore the design practice. For that purpose, we chose qualitative research
based on an empirical approach. We performed case studies in the three chosen disciplines. We first
interviewed six junior designers at the end of the design process of one of their design projects and
we analysed the documents made during these projects. In a cross-case analysis, we compared all
junior cases. Then, we performed the same activities for six expert designers: interviewing the
expert designers, analysing their documentation, and performing a cross-case analysis. More about
the performed case studies can be found in (Reymen 2001a). We compared design processes in
each of the disciplines for similarities and differences. The similarities found have been the basis
for the development of the domain-independent descriptive design model. In an empirical study that
we performed at the end of the research process, expert designers gave feedback on our model in an
interview. The feedback was meant to judge the generality (domain independence), the relevance,
and the potential usefulness of the model for design practice. At the end of the research process, we
performed again a literature study in order to position our model.
State-transition systems
For modelling the design process in a domain-independent way, we use the general concept of
state-transition systems. This is a general mathematical theory offering concepts that are
independent of a certain discipline; it allows us thus to abstract from domain-specific aspects. A
general theory is necessary because similarities between design processes in several disciplines can
only be found on a relatively high level of abstraction. State-transition systems are also appropriate
to model the similarities we recognised in the case studies. In state-transition systems, a state is
defined as the situation at a certain moment in time; a state is changed by transitions. For the field
of designing, we translate this as follows: We let a design situation correspond to a state and a
design activity to a transition. A design process can thus be described from a static perspective by a
design situation and from a dynamic perspective by design activities. We define the design context
as part of the design situation. A design situation and a design activity are the main concepts of our
model. Both concepts are explained in the next two sections. In this section, the concept of statetransition systems is explained in some more detail.
The concept of state-transition systems is successfully used in, for example, computer science and
control theory. Many processes can be described as state-transition systems: for example, workflow
processes, logistics processes, and assembly processes. General literature about state-transition
systems can, among others, be found in (Lewis and Papadimitriou 1998) and (Linz 1996) [1]. Statetransition systems are a special form of transformation systems: The latter transform something in
something else; state-transition systems transform a state into another state. In the design literature,
the notion of transformation is widely used: In (Hubka and Eder 1996), a design process is
modelled as a process of transforming design information. In (Takeda et al. 1990), a transformation
from a functional specification to an artefact specification is suggested. More transformation
models in the design literature are summarised in (McMahon, Meng, Brown, and Williams 1995).
The concept of state-transition systems is also already used to model a design process. In (Salustri
and Venter 1991) a design process is defined as a series of time-dependent actions that transform
the information through a series of states. The theory of Salustri et al. was, however, not taken as a
basis for our model because it formalises design information rather than concentrating on the
description of the design process and it does not explicitly take the design context into account.
We use the concept of state-transition systems to describe design processes in a domainindependent way. Only the externally observable behaviour of designers is described, omitting, for
example, the cognitive aspects of designing. Also, only the basic concepts and terminology of statetransition systems (state, transition, state space) are used and translated to design processes; the
mathematical notation and definitions of state-transition systems are not used. This basic
terminology of state-transition systems is extended with terminology commonly used in technical
sciences (like entity, property, factor, representation, relation, and process). To establish a
consistent set of definitions, some definitions of state-transition systems are adjusted to the other
general definitions used. In this paper, only the main concepts and definitions of our model and
those related to the design context are described. In (Reymen 2001), a more extensive description of
the design model can be found.
A design situation
The first main concept of our design model offers a static perspective on the design process, in the
form of a design situation. We define a design situation at a certain moment as the combination of
the state of the product being designed, the state of the design process, and the state of the design
context at that moment. In the remainder of this section, we first give a definition of a product being
designed, a design process, and a design context. Then, concepts to define the state of a product
being designed, a design process, and a design context are discussed.
A product is an artefact (that must be designed) satisfying a human need. This need can be defined
by the design context. This artefact can be an object or a process. Examples of products are a
production machine, a building, a software program, a social process, a design process, a production
process, or a logistics process. The life of a product is represented by its product lifecycle. This is a
representation of the product evolution, starting from a statement about the need of the product,
continuing with its design, production, use, and reuse, and ending with its decommissioning.
Because the product itself does not yet exist during its design process, we use the terminology of a
product being designed to indicate the product during the design process.
A design process is defined as a finite sequence of design activities, necessary to obtain the design
goal. Note that the design goal may change during a design process. One or more designers can
execute these design activities, in sequence or in parallel, using one or more design aids, like
theories, methods, tools, time, space, and money. A design context is described by the set of factors
influencing the product being designed and the design process at a certain moment. Examples of
factors are other processes than the design process in the product lifecycle of the product being
designed (for example, the production process, the use process), stakeholders (for example, users
and suppliers), a company quality handbook, the company culture (image, vision, brand),
competitors, laws, patents, new technology, discipline-specific knowledge, and the situation of the
market (politics, economy, environment, culture).
The concepts of a factor and of a property are used to define the state of a product being designed,
of a design process, and of a design context. A property describes a characteristic of the product
being designed or of the design process. A property can have a set of values. Examples of properties
and their values are shape: oval, robustness: high, and development time: 6 months. A factor
describes an external influence on the characteristics of the product being designed or of the design
process. A factor has the potential to influence the product being designed and the design process
in the present or in the future. A factor can also have a set of values. Examples of factors and their
values are company colour: red, production machines: maximum diameter of 20 cm, and
environmental law: no coating allowed with ingredient X. The distinction between properties
and factors is based on who determines the property or factor and who can influence the
property or factor. A designer can determine properties but he cannot determine factors, although he
might be able to influence some design factors by interaction with the design context.
The state of a product being designed is the set of values for all properties describing the product at
a certain moment in time. The state of a product being designed can be seen as a special, second
order, property of the product being designed; it describes a characteristic of the product being
designed with a set of values as its value. A similar definition can be given for the state of the
design process. The state of the design context is the set of values for all factors influencing the
product being designed and the design process at a certain moment. In combination, this means that
a design situation is the set of values of all properties describing the product being designed, the set
of values of all properties describing the design process, and the set of values of all factors
influencing the product being designed and its design process. The definition of a design situation is
illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1: a design situation as a state
Design activities
The second main concept of our design model offers a dynamic perspective on the design process,
in the form of design activities. A design situation can be changed into another design situation by
one or more actions (causing state transitions). Designers can change the state of the product being
designed and of the design process. Stakeholders can change the design context. The design context
can also be changed by interactions between designers and stakeholders or it can change
autonomously. We model the interaction with the design context as one of the activities that can be
performed by designers. In this section, each of these actions is explained in more detail.
Designers are actors executing design activities. Designers can change the properties of the product
being designed and of the design process. A design activity is a transition towards the design goal at
that moment, carried out by a designer, causing a change of the state of the product being designed
or of the design process. We define a design goal as the goal to create one or more desired
representations of the product being designed having a desired state. Multiple representations must
be made for communication with several stakeholders, like representations for the realisation
process of the product being designed and representations for the marketing department. Usually,
the goal of a design process also induces desired properties of the design process, like budget, time,
moments for presentation of intermediate results, and guidelines for documentation. A design
activity can result in a changed product being designed as well as in a changed design process. The
above-mentioned definitions are illustrated in Figure 2. A special kind of activity is interaction with
the design context, i.e. with stakeholders in the design context; this activity can result in changes in
the design context that can also cause changes to the state of the product being designed or the
design process.
Figure 2: design activities causing a state transition

Stakeholders are actors in the design context. Stakeholders have an interest in the product being
designed and/or the design process. They can be part of the company, like the production manager
who can buy a new production machine or the logistics manager who can change the concept of
distribution of the products, or of society, like customers and users. A stakeholder can change the
state of the context; he can influence factors and can interact with the designers. Transitions in the
design context can be described by transformations or mutations. A transformation can have a goal
that may or may not coincide with the design goal. A mutation is an action in the design context
with a goal that is independent of the design goal. Mutations take place independently of the
lifecycle of a specific product, but can influence this product and its design process. Examples of
such mutations are actions of a competitor and the introduction of a new law. Taking into account
the effect of such a mutation on the product being designed and/or the design process is a design
activity.
Design model
The concepts of a design situation and of a design activity, described in the previous two sections,
are combined into a design model. The purpose of this model is to offer concepts and a terminology
for describing design processes in a domain-independent way. To explain our model, we first
introduce the concept of a design task and its relation to the design context. A design task at a
certain moment is a task to meet the design goal at that moment, starting from the current design
situation. One or more designers perform a design task by executing design activities. An
alternative formulation of a design task is a task to transform the current state of the product being
designed and/or the design process into a desired state, taking into account the design context. A
design task is often appointed to stakeholders in the design context. Each design task has a specific
design context.
Our design model is illustrated in Figure 3. A design process is modelled as a finite sequence of
design activities. Designers perform design activities to meet the goal of the design process at a
certain moment. To perform their design task, they have to take into account the whole design
situation. As explained, a design situation is defined as the combination of the state of the product
being designed, the design process, and the design context at a certain moment. A design situation
can be transformed by design activities and by actions of stakeholders in the design context. The
design context can, however, change the design situation in a direction that does not necessarily
conform to the design goal (illustrated in Figure 3 with different stars). Designers can interact
with the design context to exchange information about the design situation, i.e., to get to know and
to influence important factors in the design context and to discuss desired properties of the product
being designed and of the design process.
Figure 3: design model
Discussion and conclusion

Our design model describes a design process from the viewpoint of state-transition systems, which
is one of many different points of view to describe a design process. We made the general theory of
state-transition systems suitable for describing design processes by instantiating it with
characteristics of design processes like the concept of a design situation and that of a design
activity. We also explicitly modelled the role of the design context in the design process to make
designers aware of the importance of factors in the design context and of interaction between
designers and stakeholders. In (Reymen 2001), a more extensive description of the design model
can be found. There, also concepts like a current and desired property, a design alternative, a design
relation, a representation of a product being designed, a description of a design situation, a design
space, and a definition of designing can be found. Some aspects of design processes in practice, like
the designer and the design team and aspects like creativity and intuition, are, however, not
explicitly modelled.
Our model is intended to offer a domain-independent description of a design process. To judge if
the model is really domain independent, we have to check whether or not it fulfils the three criteria
of domain independence we stated in the introduction. The first criterion is met in the sense that our
model abstracts from domain-specific aspects. The concepts of our model are understood in each
discipline we investigated and are compatible with the concepts in general design theories. Some
designers giving us feedback on the model had, however, difficulties with the domain-independent
terminology. This difficulty can be overcome by providing examples from several disciplines. We
met the second criterion in the sense that we performed research in the disciplines of architecture,
mechanical engineering, and software engineering. The third criterion concerns the usefulness for
several disciplines and multidisciplinary teams. We found that already only studying similarities
and differences in several disciplines is useful for these disciplines, because they have to make
explicit their concepts. The comparison of concepts and approaches between disciplines can also
offer new points of view for the separate disciplines; a well-known example is software engineering
that learns from architecture a way of thinking in design patterns (Gamma, Helm, and Johnson
1995). Our model may be used as a basic representation of a design process both in design practice
and design research. In design practice, it can stimulate and improve communication between
designers and between designers and stakeholders in the design context. The communication may
result in an improved product being designed and a more efficient and effective design process. In
(Reymen 2001), our domain-independent representation of a design process is already used for
developing domain-independent support for reflection on design processes.
To be really useful for supporting communication between designers (from several disciplines) and
for supporting interaction between designers and stakeholders in the design context, the model must
be refined and extended. A major extension should be the explicit modelling of the designers and
the stakeholders and their characteristics as individuals (like personality and skills) and as groups.
For the extension of the design model, further research can be based also on multidisciplinary teams
instead of only on individual designers in a number of disciplines as we did. For supporting
communication between designers of a multidisciplinary team, support to make a common (domain
independent) representation of a design situation would be useful. Further research can concentrate
on such prescriptive representations. For supporting interaction between designers and stakeholders,
types of interaction and communication between designers and several types of stakeholders in the
design context can be studied. A topic of further research can also be the influence of the design
team composition on the interactions with the design context.
Acknowledgements
The research was part of the Ph.D. research of the first author, performed for the Stan Ackermans
Institute, Center for Technological Design of the Technische Universiteit Eindhoven.
[1] Literature about state-transition systems in general (not applied to a specific domain) can be
found in books and articles about finite automata. The definition of finite automata includes all
important concepts about state-transition systems.
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11

P. A. Rodgers Napier University, UK
M. Strickfaden Napier University, UK
Abstract
Design students encounter a wide variety of influences and inspiration during their education.
Moreover, the knowledge and skills required and utilised whilst studying design encompasses both
explicit and implicit knowledge, and iconic and canonic knowledge types. This paper explores,
comparatively, the iconic influences amongst sets of British and Canadian undergraduate design
students. Using naturalistic experimentation techniques, the studys main objective is to investigate
whether a students design influences, and subsequent artifact creation activities, are affected by
their educational context, their economic situation, their gender or age, and their geographical
conditions amongst others. With this in mind the study will seek to explore the ramifications of this
comparative study in terms of undergraduate design curriculum development and the culture and
sociology of designers and design practice, in general, in the future.

Inspiration, influences and the design students context
Design students input into artifact creation is influenced by their educational context, their
economic factors, their gender, their geographical conditions, their social constructs and their
political interests. Design is known to be a creative activity that involves the production of
something new, the result of recombining, referencing and transforming within a specific context.
Recognising that design is not conducted in a sensory deprivation chamber vacuum (Frayling in
Kwint et al.1999: xiv) demonstrates the need to take both quantitative and qualitative approaches in
design research in order to explore the influences and inspirational sources within the context of
design.
Design inspiration and influences, and the way designers utilize them is widely acknowledged and
well documented. Recently, there have been a number of research projects involving creativity in
design (Oxman 1994, 1999; Vihma 1998), inspiration in design (Rodgers and Milton 2001; Eckert
2000; Eckert and Stacey 2001), analogy in design (Leclercq and Heylighen 2002) and memory in
design (Goldschmidt 1994). Primarily, this work and other research in the area of creativity takes
the theoretical position of cognitive psychology (Liep 2001:2) whereby there is a desire to
formalize design thinking which focuses largely on the minds of the individual creator(s).
Creativity and inspiration in design is explored through several disciplines including: architectural
design (Heylighen 2000; Leclercq and Heylighen 2002; Goldschmidt 1994; Oxman 1994, 1999),
graphic design and advertising (Nixon 2002; Heller and Pettit 1998), engineering design (Vincenti
1990), and knitwear design (Eckert 2000; Eckert and Stacey 2001). These studies represent a wide
variety of ethnographical approaches including laboratory experiments (Leclercq and Heylighen
2002) and naturalistic experiments (Heller and Pettit 1998; Rodgers and Milton 2001). Leclercq and
Heylighen (2002) explore analogical thinking used by architectural design students by providing a
set of variables that are measurable quantitatively. Naturalistic experiments use combined methods
of data collection to collect information under relatively natural conditions (Bernard 1995). Heller
and Pettit (1998) and Rodgers and Milton (2001) both utilize informal and formal interview
procedures that are open-ended to differing degrees, to collect non-specific and specific information
respectively. In laboratory and naturalistic experiments, the measurable traits are reduced in order to
simplify the design process to recognizable, more quantifiable details.
The multi-dimensionality of design learning and design knowledge are difficult to measure
however, and thus a more holistic, contextualised approach which includes the aspects of social
mediation in the context of design is required (Ashton and Durling 2000: 12).
Industrial design context

Industrial design has been commonly treated as a satellite discipline to architecture (Julier 2000: 35)
and/or engineering. Industrial design can be described as being a deeply complex design discipline,
particularly within the formal education process. Industrial design instructors need to provide a
breadth of different design situations in order to prepare students with the variety of design
problems they will face in the future. In other design disciplines, such as in architecture, an architect
will always design a structure involving land, location, structural integrity and human interface.
Those structures may be used for differing purposes such as public venues or private dwellings. The
result is a number of common, teachable variables in architectural education. A second example is
graphic design, which typically manifests itself into two-dimensional information that
communicates visually and/or textually. The elements of design (i.e. colour, texture, form) in
graphic design can be deconstructed and continue to form the foundation of graphic design
education.
It is understood that all design disciplines are complex, have multiple levels that interact, and
involve a hierarchical problem solving process (Dormer 1990). Vincenti (1990: 8) describes
normal design and radical design, and states that the bulk of engineering design can be
categorized as normal. It is clear that the knowledge-base required for all disciplines of design are
enormously diverse and complex. However, the nature of industrial design varies from other design
disciplines in that the majority of design problems, especially within an educational context, can be
considered radical. Rittel and Webber (1984: 136) develop the concept of radical problems by
describing unique problems as being wicked. In industrial design the majority of problems
encountered weigh heavily towards being radical. This is because industrial design does not have
constants such as a specific location in architecture design or textual information in graphic design.
Therefore, the teachable aspects of industrial design require an extreme breadth of knowledge in
order to prepare future industrial designers for the variety of tasks they may encounter in
contemporary design practice such as the design of a lamp, the design of an artificial limb, a
running shoe design, or vehicle design.
Essentially there is no definitive prescriptive approach to creating solutions to extremely
complicated problems. There may be similarities with previous problems encountered in industrial
design, but a classical systems approach will not necessarily work. With an increased level of
complexity in teaching industrial design, the sources of inspiration that drive individual design
projects forward necessitate a cross-fertilization of perspectives. Industrial design education is the
combination of formal education and social agents (i.e. economic factors, gender, geographical
conditions, and political interests) that informs all design decision making.
Explicit and implicit knowledge in design

The knowledge-base of each individual can be simply described as diverse and complex but is
intimately bound up with economic, political, gender, social, personal and environmental
experiences. For the purpose of this paper, the idea of knowledge has been interpreted broadly to
include explicit and implicit knowledge, and canonic and iconic analogical reasoning. The
following working definitions have been established in order to explore the variety of inspiration
sources among industrial design students.
According to Vincenti, (1990: 195) explicit knowledge can be put down in words, tables, diagrams
and pictures, and implicit knowledge involves skill, judgement, intuition and associated knowledge.
Explicit knowledge includes the tangible aspects of design that are easily taught in formal situations
(e.g. lectures, seminars). Implicit knowledge can be considered the intangibles of design that are
less easy to express and difficult to measure because this type of knowledge is generally related to
personal experiences. Implicit knowledge is typically developed and transferred through social
situations. It is the combination of explicit and implicit knowledge that the industrial design student
integrates towards a finished concept.
Canonic and iconic analogy in design

Canonic analogy is based on abstract systems, prefabricated elements and geometric
correspondences and can be seen as the tangible elements of design. These analogies have formed
the basis for traditional architectural design and graphic design education as they fall into the
category of explicit knowledge. Iconic analogies, on the other hand, are objects from the natural
world or from outside of the discipline of study that may contribute to the design process
(Heylighen 2000: 17-22). Iconic analogies can be explicit or implicit but comprised of individual
aspects, typologies and categories outside of a specific design discipline. Canonic and iconic
knowledge can be further subdivided into two categories, direct design transference and indirect
design transference. There is an emphasis on iconic knowledge in this study.
Direct design transference and indirect design transference

Design transference is when an element, material, method of production, aesthetic or any other
piece of design information is taken from one designed object to another. There are many
observable examples of design transference in history, such as the use of Gothic arches and rose
window architectural details on furniture design during the Renaissance. Direct design transference
is when canonic devices or same-type artifacts directly inform design decisions. For example,
Eckerts (2000) discussion on the sources of inspiration within the knitwear industry can be
considered direct design transference. In the knitwear example, elements and specific characteristics
within this discipline of design are described as the primary influences in the creation of a new
garment (Eckert 2000; Eckert 2001). Direct design transference can be explicit, implicit or canonic.
Indirect design transference is described by Leclercq and Heylighen (2002) in their recent research
experiment with architectural students. Here, they are searching for explicit iconic analogies that are
presented unconsciously to a group of design students. Indirect design transference can be explicit
or implicit, canonic or iconic. Indirect design transference is much more difficult to trace in the
educational process since students are not often fully aware of their personal knowledge-base.
Indeed, even the seasoned designer may not be conscious of his/her design influences to a level
where it can be articulated (Sudjic 1999). For example, Heller and Pettits interviews with graphic
designer Paul Rand (1998: 8-13) illustrates Rands awareness of his sources for inspiration. Rand
describes the use of a rebus for the design of his IBM logo in the late 1970s. In his interview he
articulates direct design transference by referencing rebus as a communication form and Lewis
Carrolls use of rebus as a form of dramatization. Later he describes indirect design transference for
a Yale poster where he used a step motif and refers to the Ziggurat as a reference point for this
imagery.
Indirect design transference is less easily pin-pointed, especially after an artifact is completed. The
designer may have not been aware of the influences and/or forget references without deep reflection
on this point. At the completion of the design project, the transference becomes a process of
speculation and contemplation by design critics or historians to re-construct the said design process.
This research project attempts to get to the core of design inspiration at the earliest possible stage
within an educational context.
It is important to remember that implicit/explicit, canonic/iconic, direct/indirect design transference
occurs to varying degrees during the artifact development phases. It therefore becomes significant
to explore which architects, artists, musicians, movies or items from the natural world influence and
ultimately manifest themselves in the industrial design students end solution. Despite Vincentis
(1990) claim that implicit knowledge is inexpressible, implicit knowledge is measurable through
indirect design transference by observation, discussion and documentation whilst students engage
with the designing of artifacts. Studio instructors provide experiences, situations, experiences and
communities for the student to engage with during the design process. Increasingly, students are
asked to engage with design research that reflects all levels of information gathering through
explicit/implicit, canonic/iconic, direct/indirect design transference. Students must perform market
research, historical research, consumer demand issues amongst others whilst continually engaging
with the world around them.
Explicit
Implicit
Canonic
Iconic
Direct Design
Transference
Indirect Design
Transference
Figure 1: Areas of interest (shaded)
Preliminary comparative study

Two separate research studies were conducted using naturalistic experimentation techniques. All
information gathered considered indirect design transference sources of inspiration since there was
no attention given to the particular projects that the students were engaged with at the time of the
studies. The research methodology employed was an informal interview and questionnaire
procedure with a sample of undergraduate students at two formal educational institutions in two
different countries, the Britain and Canada. The students were interviewed independently in a semistructured manner within their studio environment. There was an attempt to balance gender when
choosing students for their independent and direct interviews. Each student was asked a total of 8
questions with several control questions. They were asked to relate one example from the past or
present that inspires or informs their present design work. The questions were a reflection of both
explicit and implicit knowledge sets. The category, their relationship to either explicit or implicit
knowledge and whether they are made occasionally (), average (), or strongly () in the
educational context is detailed in Figure 2.
Inspirational Source
Explicit
Implicit
building
three-dimensional product
author
automobile/vehicle
movie
music
magazine
designer including
architect
= strong
= average
= occasional
Figure 2: Explicit and implicit iconic inspiration knowledge

Two studies took place in 1999-2000 and 2000-2001 at the School of Design and Media Arts at
Napier University, Edinburgh. In these studies, Rodgers interviewed a total of 29, and 35 first year
students respectively. The primary objective was to explore whether a relationship could be found
between a design students level of design awareness and their design degree performance (Rodgers
and Milton 2001).
The second group of studies took place January 2002 at the University of Alberta in Edmonton,
Alberta, Canada. Strickfaden interviewed 18 third year, and 23 fourth year industrial design
students at the University of Alberta. The primary objective of the second studies was to crossreference and compare iconic sources of inspiration among British and Canadian students.
The responses of the students involved in the preliminary comparative studies were recorded into
spreadsheets where gender, age, country of origin, and frequency of responses were noted. It
became clear that in general, year 3 and 4 undergraduate students answered with a more specific
and detailed response. Responses from each student in all cases were wide ranging, as expected,
and showed a varying degree of awareness of the subject area of each question. There were some
similarities between responses in each group despite different geographical locales and different
degree programmes. These similarities can be attributed to the industrial design context being
embedded predominantly with Western societal values, the result of increased globality (Beck
2000), and mass medias visual encyclopaedism which includes imagery from many cultures,
past and present, from all over the globe at a touch of a button (Woodham 1997: 190). Examples of
the common responses from both the British and Canada studies include high profile building
design such as Frank Lloyd Wrights Falling Waters, the Eiffel Tower, and the Guggenheim
Museum (NY and Bilbao); well known high design products (Julier 2000: 69-71) such as Starcks
Juicy Salif, Apples iBook and iPod, and Alessis salt and pepper shakers; popularized and cult
movies such as Bladerunner, Star Wars, Pulp Fiction and Braveheart; and popular culture
designers such as Ron Arad, Frank Gehry, and Philippe Starck.
Explicit knowledge and educational context

The design programme at Napier University in the UK is a 4 year degree programme based within
the School of Design and Media Arts in the Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences.
Age Comparison
60
54
50
37
40
< 20 years
30
20 - 29 years
20
30 - 39 years
10
10
0
0
Napier University
University of Alberta,
Canada
Figure 3: Age comparison

The students interviewed were all of a similar age range, between 18 and 20 years old (see Figure
3), with a balance of gender (see Figure 4) and with the majority of the students being from the
immediate locality (see Figure 5).
Figure 4: Gender comparison

The industrial design programme at the University of Alberta is a 4 year BDes degree programme
in the Department of Art & Design, Faculty of Arts and Humanities. The BDes is a liberal arts
degree whereby students choose a design pathway (e.g. engineering, computers, social sciences or
general). Students have a wide range of personally chosen options from a number of departments in
addition to the Department of Art & Design. The students interviewed were between the ages of 20
and 37 with a high percentage being mature students (+25) (see Figure 3), a proportional balance of
gender (see Figure 4), and a majority of local students (see Figure 5).
Figure 5: Geographical breakdown

In order to pinpoint explicit knowledge in the student groups, the interviewer must have an intimate
understanding of the programme of study as a whole, and specific characteristics of the programme.
Explicit knowledge, in this case study, is measured through predictable responses. As in many
interview situations, a high percentage of respondents provided answers that they perceived as
correct despite the interviewer stating the interview and questionnaire was not a test. This is
known as the response effect (Bernard 1995: 229-31). Responses included Mies van der Rohe, Le
Corbusier, Ron Arad, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Philippe Starck from the Napier students. The
students had been exposed to these designers in formal lectures and seminars prior to the
interviews.
Explicit
Implicit
No
Response
building
31
21
12
29
21
14
author
54
automobile/vehicle
12
50
movie
10
49
music
60
magazine
17
35
12
designer including
42
19
144
309
59
architect
Total
Figure 6: Breakdown of explicit, implicit and no responses in Napier University students

The same patterns were discovered among Canadian students who responded with Piet Mondrian,
Gerrit Rietveld, Van Gogh, and Charles and Ray Eames; all of which they had learned through a
required design history module prior to the interview. Further examples of explicit knowledge were
demonstrated through references to Droog design (Marcel Wanders and Jurgen Bay), and to
sustainability (William McDonough, The Ecology of Commerce, and the Eco-house). Karim Rashid
was referenced most frequently (5 of 40) with the University of Alberta students since he had
visited the University as a guest lecturer the previous month.
Explicit
Implicit
No
Response
building
18
13
30
author
31
automobile/vehicle
32
movie
28
music
36
magazine
17
18
designer including
26
77
193
50
architect
Total
Figure 7: Breakdown of explicit, implicit and no responses in University of Alberta students

By providing a relatively structured interview procedure within a naturalistic setting, each student is
triggered to respond so that there can be a reliable comparison among the students. Because of this
procedure, the responses were mapped according to what was perceived being explicit or implicit
(see Figures 6, 7). Within the British student group, it estimated that 28% of the responses were
explicit and within the Canadian group, approximately 24% were explicit (see Figure 8). The
explicit responses from both the British and Canadian students are intrinsically connected with the
individual students definition and understanding of design based on their educational context.
Explicit
Implicit
No Response
Napier University
28%
60%
12%
University of Alberta
24%
60%
16%
Figure 8: Distribution of explicit, implicit and no responses
Implicit knowledge through design culture

Implicit knowledge is explored through the design cultural context, the students gender, their
geographical conditions, and other factors (e.g. personal interests, economic factors, and political
interests). Design culture has been described by many researchers, critics and historians over the
past several decades, and includes the conception, discussion, and planning of artifacts before they
are made. While these objects are the result of human decisions, the subject of design itself is not
fixed: design is constantly undergoing exploration and continually evolving. Creating a design
culture in the classroom is known to be very important as this provides a forum for students to
explore design (Ashton and Durling 2000). It is expected that the design culture will be dynamic in
relation to specific location. For example, design culture can be present in the studio, in the pub and
through the private and social interactions of the students. For the purpose of this study, design
culture is explored through industrial design.
Increasingly, a variety of design researchers describe design as searching for a problem through
identification and questioning (Heller and Pettit 1998; Rittel and Webber 1984). The ability to
conceive and develop questions is an integral part of the design process. It is speculated that the
more radical or wicked the problem, the quality and quantity of questions increase. This is due
to the need to explore levels of knowledge that are less tangible and more difficult to access.
Within a more open-ended interview process, it became apparent that the question-posing approach
towards resolving design issues in industrial design was one that most students relied on heavily.
The interviewers were constantly questioned about the questioning process. For example, a number
of students asked how designer was defined within the context of the interview. They wanted to
know if an artist like daVinci should be defined as artist, designer or inventor. The number of
questions posed by the students increased directly with the year of study. The result of the students
question-posing approach was most apparent with the Canadian group where the 4th year students
took nearly double the time to interview as the 3rd years.
It was clear that the senior 4th year students had a better grasp on the idea of industrial design
through their ability to engage with the study and the interviewer. An example of this was one
student responded to the query designer by saying that he could spout off a number of designers
but that his response had to be God. This response was then supported with the statement that
nature was the best source of inspiration. In addition, the student referred to the book
BiomimicryInnovation Inspired by Nature by Janine Benyus, and wrapped-up with a barrage of
designers names.
From a different perspective, the students grasp on design culture was demonstrated through
responses in all categories that were directly relevant to design. The most design relevant responses
were in the categories of designer, building and magazine, with the majority of these being
categorized as explicit. The incidence of design relevance across all categories was very rare,
however, two different Canadian students replied with design related movies (The Power of Ten and
Microcosmos), and design related authors (Paul Hawkins and Kenji Ekuan). These responses can be
considered to be highly contextualized within design. These students seemed to understood the
purpose of this study and design culture, particularly compared with others who provided responses
reflecting their design awareness and personal likes and dislikes. Overall, the awareness of their
sources of inspiration appeared to be relatively unconscious to these design students.
Implicit knowledge through gender

Gendered responses can be separated into two categories, stereotypical responses and designoriented responses. Stereotypically gendered responses can be described best through the categories
of automobile/vehicle, movies and magazine, however others were also present. In response to the
automobile question, the male students typically replied Porsche and Ferrari. Fewer females knew
particular model descriptors and numbers and most frequently referred to an automobile they owned
presently or one they had owned in the past. All creative responses in this category came from the
female students, examples of which were from the 4th year Canadian group. These include: my
feet, Kona bicycle, go-cart, Raymond Loewy buses and stretch-limousines. To the query
of movie, males typically responded in the genre of Science-fiction, and females responded with
Disney or romance movies. For the category of magazine, males responded with masculine
examples such as Scientific American, GQ, Muscle International, and Road and Track; whereby
females responded with feminine examples such as Cosmopolitan, Canadian House and Home, and
People. These stereotypically male and female responses reflect known gendered Western societal
values.
10
Gendered responses that were design oriented were rare. Several female students chose threedimensional products from the fashion and perfume industry, such as Issey Miyake. Male students
did not hesitate to the query designer, whereby female students had more no responses, more
personal references such as my friend, and more general responses such as Ikea and Ideo.
Several female students replied that this question was unfair in that they simply did not feel inspired
by individual designers. One 4th year Canadian student stated that she did not believe in the media
star approach to individual designers, she was more interested in ideas embodied in objects and
in groups of designers that worked with specific philosophical beliefs. Of all 105 students
interviewed, only 2 responded with the names of female designers. These were, Vivien Westwood
and a reference to the interviewer Megan Strickfaden, who is known locally for her design work.
The most interesting example of a gendered iconic inspiration source was a response to the query of
three-dimensional product from a 4th year female Canadian student when interviewed by the female
interviewer. The students response was the Keeper menstrual cup. Not only is this a highly
gendered response, it is intensely linked to the value system that this individual likely employs.
Keeper is an alternative re-usable product used during menstruation. It is considered to be a
healthy alternative to sanitary napkins and tampons, and is primarily used by the health
conscious, home birth, environmentally conscious.
It is clear that the design students implicit knowledge-base is highly influenced by their gender.
Both the male and female students show interest in a wide range of inspiration sources, however,
the context of gender within Western society must be considered as influential in the design
process.
Implicit knowledge through geography

Exploring the notion of implicit knowledge through geographical locale necessitates the gathering
of personal information from the sample groups. The students were asked to provide their
permanent home city (e.g. parents address), their place of birth and with the Canadian students,
travel experiences. From this information, the researchers were able to determine additional outside
influences and the broader context of the student.
The majority of responses of all students showed a very typical Western design attitude. Particularly
the British students who follow a relatively narrow art and design curriculum at pre-degree level in
the secondary school system. The younger students (i.e. age) with little past experience responded
more frequently with local examples of architecture. The Napier students indicated Scottish
architecture such as the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh and Buchanan Galleries,
Glasgow; and the University of Alberta students indicated architecture in Alberta such as the Grant
MacEwan Downtown campus, Edmonton and the University of Lethbridge building, Lethbridge.
For the category of author, British students replied with Iain Banks and Terry Pratchett; and
Canadian students replied with Margaret Atwood, and Thomas Wharton, all well-known local
novelists.
Replies that reflect growing globality were demonstrated best to the queries of movie, music and
magazines. It is speculated that these forms of popular culture are easily accessed through the
media, the internet and the 24-hour information world. Responses to all categories represents the
global diffusion of ideas and messages. These are shown through the examples previously discussed
in the sections Preliminary Comparative Study and Explicit Knowledge and Educational Context.
Obvious examples were J.R.R. Tolkien and J.K. Rowling for authors of recent movies; the movies
Lord of the Rings, The Matrix and Star Wars; Canadian music group The Barenaked Ladies from a
British student; and magazines such as ID and Wallpaper.
11
The most interesting example for implicit knowledge through geography was a female Japanese
student who responded with Megan Strickfaden, to the query of designer. This response may
interpreted as being an attempt to win favor with the interviewer. However, in this situation this
student had been taught by Strickfaden in design history and as a studio instructor over the past
several years. It was clear that the student was genuinely responding to the question. Furthermore, it
is well known that in the Japanese culture, teachers are highly revered due to their overt influence.
The response of this student represents the intense relationship that an individual student has to his
or her value system established by their geographical influences.
Locating implicit knowledge through geographical locale provides an interesting forum for
discussion in the context of design particularly due to increased globality and cross-fertilization
between separate cultural forms and environments. Iconic inspirations relative to geographical
origins can provide a rich environment for the student to develop artifacts. The cross-fertilization of
values and typologies among students enriches implicit knowledge. This is supported by national
and international exchange programmes that have existed for decades in design education.
Implicit knowledge through other factors

Implicit knowledge explored in multiple-dimensions from a social perspective is a complex, but
more holistic approach towards a design students sources of inspiration. The personal details of the
individual students is also a factor. For example, one Canadian student is an internationally
acclaimed athlete. This immersion in a particular lifestyle is distinctly reflected through responses
to the queries. This student responded with Kona bicycle for vehicle, Nike running shoe for product
and had no responses to popular culture categories (i.e. movie, music). Getting to the root of
inspiration means that the researcher must spend time and get to know individuals in order to sort
out the extent of their implicit knowledge-base and how this is applied to the design of artifacts.
There are, of course, many other factors that contribute to implicit knowledge not explored due to
the constraints of this paper and the preliminary stages of this study. Some of these include
economic factors and political interests. These factors and others are being examined using a variety
of information gathering techniques, and will be a topic for discussion in the future.
Conclusion and future recommendations

Discovering iconic inspirational sources in undergraduate industrial design students is a process that
requires a multi-dimensional research gathering approach. It is clear that in order to track such
references, the researchers must use a variety of methods including interviews, observational
studies, active participation and protocol analysis under naturalistic conditions. Further research is
required in this area in order to get to the roots of the design process as a collective, social process,
not just one that is enacted by individuals. Iconic references in industrial design are not limited to
the examples explored in this paper, but include many aspects of what is known in the academic
realm as popular culture.
The implications for this kind of exploration and research will inform design curriculum
development and the culture and sociology of designers in the future. For instance, implicit
knowledge needs to be recognized as the primary source of inspiration especially among industrial
design students. By recognizing that design education occurs within University studios and outside
in all social situations, formal education can better support knowledge that is personally - and
socially - based. Educational settings need to support this through providing a breadth of
experiences in theory, history and practice. In addition, design students need to be challenged to
generate their knowledge-base through creative, abstract design research. Finally, design education
requires a liberal University setting where students with a variety of backgrounds can share their
expertise and experiences. Louridas (1993) describes the designer as using an inventory of semi-
12
defined elements such as experience, knowledge and skills to create an artifact. It is the synthesis of
explicit and implicit; and educational and social contexts that orchestrate the diverse activities of
industrial designers to create artifacts of value.
13
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15
a (x 4): Combining ethnography, scenario-building, and

design to explore user experience
P. Rothstein Arizona State University, USA
Abstract
In todays marketplace, developing new user experiences significantly influences success. Like
never before, it has become vital to connect with consumers in experiential ways. Recognizing
experiences as a distinct economic offering, note Joseph Pine and James Gilmore (1999), authors
of The Experience Economy, provides the key to future economic growth.
This paper describes a (x 4), a new method for designing user experiences. Drawing from elements
found in market research, ethnography and design, a (x 4) is an effective tool that features a unique
emphasis on visual and narrative communication.
The paper includes:
background information about the emergence of user experience as a critical design
challenge.
a full description of a (x 4), including theory and the application process.
results from a research project conducted to explore and evaluate the effectiveness of
a (x 4).
a (x 4): Combining ethnography, scenario-building, and

design to explore user experience
Introduction: A new economic offering
One of the most intriguing developments in contemporary business and design is the recognition of
a core relationship between user experience and products, communications and services. A variety
of factors are fueling this recognition, including: a fundamental redefinition of human/artifact
interaction (made possible by digital technologies and internet-based communications) and the
emergence of a genuinely global marketplace and new economy (Nussbaum 1999: 17).
However, commoditization is perhaps the greatest factor responsible for shifting attention from
artifacts to experience. As noted by Hirasuna, OLeary, and Lawrence (2000), the battle over
quality in the product and service arenas has largely been fought and won. Though not universally
evidenced, a high degree of quality has become common in contemporary products and services.
Consider, for example, automobiles, home appliances, or commercial furniture. In all cases, quality
(as measured by some combination of cost, aesthetic appeal, and performance) has become
ubiquitous. Tom Peters, author of In Search of Excellence, notes that quality no longer plays a
significant role in why one product or brand is selected over another. While referencing the success
of the Six Sigma methods (which focused on helping companies achieve zero product defects),
Peters notes: The success of Six Sigma has turned quality into a commodity, so much so that it
is no longer the determining factor for which brand to buy (Hirasuna, OLeary, and Lawrence
2000: 3). With quality assured, companies are often left waging price wars as the only means to
compete for consumers dollars.
However, the commoditization of products and services should not, according to some, be seen as a
limitation to succeed and prosper in the new marketplace. Joseph Pine and James Gilmore (1999)
note that commoditization occurs with all types of economic offerings and that it is part of an
evolutionary process. In fact, they argue that the commoditization of product and service
offerings has opened the door to the emergence of a new, distinct economic offering: experience,
which they define as an offering that focuses on engaging individual consumers in unique, personal
and memorable ways (Pine and Gilmore 1999: 3). Citing examples like Disney, the contemporary
coffee experience, and staged birthday parties, Pine and Gilmore assert that experience has
become a major source of economic value in the new economy. Experience, they note,
represents an existing but previously unarticulated genre of economic output. Decoupling
experiences from services in accounting for what businesses create opens up possibilities for
extraordinary economic expansion - just as recognizing services as a distinct and legitimate offering
led to a vibrant economic foundation in the face of a declining industrial base (Pine and Gilmore
1999).
In the design professions - where one might reasonably expect some resistance to the devaluation of
artifacts - there is a growing recognition that the design of experience is a major challenge in the
twenty-first century. In the inaugural issue of Gain: AIGA Journal of Design for the Networked
Economy, the AIGA (American Institute of Graphic Arts) asserts that the design of experience has
emerged as a new discipline. Experience design is a discipline created by the reality of
communication today, when no point of contact has a simple beginning and end and all points of
contact must have meaning embedded in them . . . (Grefe: 2001).
Industrial design has also steadily recognized the importance of designing experience. During the
past decade, articles and essays about topics closely linked to the design of user experience have
appeared regularly in the IDSAs (Industrial Designers Society of America) Innovation magazine.
Some have focused on the emergence of anthropology as a valuable tool for studying daily
experience (Wilcox 1996, Nims and Robinson 1996). Others have explored how design scenarios
can be used to communicate user experiences with new products and services (Welker, Sanders and
Couch 1997, Joe 1997, Nakhtsen 1997).
Definition of a (x 4)
Based on this evidence, it seems plausible that the design of experience has become a significant
challenge for contemporary business and design groups. As a consequence, new methods and
processes are being developed. One of these -- a scenario-building tool called a (x 4) -- has been
created to explore and communicate stories about user experience. The method is loosely based on
a definition of scenario-building put forth by Suri and Marsh: By scenario-building we mean the
development of a series of alternative fictional portrayals -- stories -- involving specific characters,
events, products and environments, which allow us to explore product ideas or issues in the context
of a realistic future (Suri and Marsh 2000: 152).
a (x 4) is organized around the . . . characters, events, products and environments referred to in
this definition. This particular quartet of elements is, in fact, identified by other individuals
(Hasdogan 1996) though often defined with other words. Christopher Ireland and Bonnie Johnson,
for example, define the quartet as . . . people, places, things and processes (Ireland and Johnson
1995: 59)
As shown in Figure 1, a (x 4) consists of actors, activities, artifacts and atmosphere and can be
defined as: a framework based on the relationship between actors, activities, artifacts and
atmosphere, and used for exploring, developing and communicating scenarios about consumer
experience.
Figure 1
Origins of a (x 4)
a (x 4) draws from a variety of elements found traditionally in ethnography and scenario-building.
From ethnography, it borrows the following:
A Research Attitude
As presented elsewhere (Rothstein 1999), ethnography has become a common method employed in
business and design for studying culture and human behavior. It features a variety of individual
methods -- such as, interviews, observation, and trace analysis -- that researchers use to study
people and daily life. Developed originally by anthropologists to assist in the study of primitive
human groups, ethnography has been appropriated by many disciplines, including design, each of
which has found it effective for exploring human behavior, values, and beliefs.
A Research Method
a (x 4) is also based on the coding schemes or frameworks that ethnographers and other researchers
have developed to focus and organize qualitative data. Colin Robson (1993), notes that coding
schemes . . . contain predetermined categories for recording what is observed. They range from
simply noting whether or not a particular behavior has occurred, to complex multi-category
systems (Robson 1993: 206). a (x 4) features four categories or elements. By focusing an inquiry
on these elements, researchers and designers can economically organize and identify information
about users everyday experiences.
a (x 4) also borrows a number of key elements found in scenario-building:
An Understanding about the Focus and Goal of Stories
Scenario-building, or storytelling, has been commonly used by business planners and strategists.
Peter Schwartz (1991) defined scenario-building in a business context as follows: . . . a tool for
ordering ones perceptions about alternative future environments in which ones decisions might be
played out. Alternatively: a set of organized ways for us to dream effectively about our own future
(Schwartz 1991: 4).
Three key concepts are embedded in this definition and are critical to effective scenario
development:
scenarios are tools for perceiving, not predicting. Good scenario developers focus on describing
what might happen, rather than what they think will happen.
multiple scenarios are required to explore the future. This is necessary because the future is
uncertain. Scenario-building starkly contrasts with other planning methods that result in a single
vision. As Schwartz notes: Most other tools assume that in some way or another that if you get
the model right you can actually predict the future. Scenario planning assumes that . . . we live
in a time of fundamental uncertainty (Schwartz 1991: 140).
scenarios lead to decisions and concrete action.
An Understanding about the Value of Research

a (x 4) relies on a foundation of research and is, thus, consistent with the way in which business
scenarios are created. Schwartz argues that effective business scenarios must be based on excellent
research. He suggests that scenarios are only accepted by people when they recognize some truth in
the story. The story resonates in some ways with what they already know, and then leads them
from that resonance to repreceive the world. Observations from the real world must be built into the
story. The only way they can emerge there is for the storyteller to sample evidence from the world
before spinning the tale (Schwartz 1991: 61).
The need for this type of empirical data from daily life is, in fact, the primary reason that
a(x 4) adopts ethnographic theory and methods. Although very limited in scope, a (x 4) provides
researchers and designers with a simple tool to gather some of the information Schwartz regards as
essential for effective scenario-building.
In short, a (x 4) integrates ethnographic and scenario-building methodologies. It specifically focuses
on telling of stories about peoples experience, an activity that both ethnography and scenario
building share. As suggested in Figure 2, ethnography tells stories about the past or the present.
Business and design scenarios tell stories about the future. By bringing the two together, a (x 4)
helps create stories that integrate the past, present and future of user experience.
Figure 2
Theoretical Foundation of a (x 4)
a (x 4) is based on two theoretical assumptions relating to the design of experience.
Four Elements of Experience
a (x 4) is based on the assumption that experience is comprised of an interaction between actors
(people), activities (tasks), artifacts (things) and atmosphere (context). a (x 4) emphasizes the
interaction that occurs between the elements. That interaction is active or dynamic and constitutes
what is meant by experience.
The Two Dimensions of Experience Design and Scenario-building
Telling stories about new user experiences requires knowledge of the present as a means to guide
and fuel speculations about the future. In other words, scenario-building and experience design
include both descriptive and prescriptive dimensions. a (x 4) was developed to address both of these
dimensions, functioning as both a descriptive and prescriptive tool (as shown in Figure 3). Each
specific part of the method is designed to either explore the present, speculate about the future, or
some combination of the two.
Figure 3
Application Process
a (x 4) is applied in a relatively linear fashion (though this can be modified according to the
constraints of specific projects or assignments). The process (see Figure 4) includes four
deliverables, each of which corresponds to a different part of a three-phase development process:
Figure 4
a (x 4) Facts and Observations
The first step is to gather information about users and their everyday lives. This type of field
research, often supported by secondary research into trends, technology development, etc., is
identified by many experts as critical in the scenario development process (Suri and Marsh 2000;
Moggridge 1993; Rhea 1992; Ireland and Johnson 1995; Couch, Sanders and Welker 1997). Suri
and Marsh, for example, note: The process begins by identifying the range of users, goals, tasks
and activities which need to be considered. Ideally this exercise is based upon detailed research of
users in context interacting with products, and using methods such as user profiling, field
observation, contextual inquiry, protocol analysis and interviews (Suri and Marsh 2000: 152).
During this early phase, a (x 4) is used fundamentally as a data collection and learning tool. It
results in a highly useful body of knowledge (see Figure 4) about the users, activities and artifacts
relevant to a specific project. Collecting and managing this type of messy data is a significant
challenge which can quickly become overwhelming. a (x 4) helps address challenge because by
focusing the research on a set of essential elements.
Figure 5
Snapshots
With a body of knowledge established, the next task is to make sense of the data. Snapshots can be
effective in this process. Snapshots involve organizing, summarizing and communicating essential
information that has been learned about the four key elements. Text-based or visual illustrations,
constructed with a variety of media (e.g., photo/video, collages, hand drawn pictures, etc.), are
commonly employed.
The following examples (see Image 1 and Image 2) were developed by a group of students to
communicate information about different actors. As shown, the Snapshots were composed with
different techniques and materials. Additional Snapshots were developed for each element of the a
(x 4) framework, resulting in a comprehensive set of images to describe key information the
students had learned about actors, activities, artifacts and atmosphere.
Image 1
Image 2
Snapshots are effective in the analysis process in three key ways:
they compel researchers to organize, summarize and communicate information in the form of a
deliverable. Focusing on the fabrication of a deliverable is helpful during analysis since
qualitative data is notoriously messy and difficult to manage. Specific tasks or assignments
help reduce this problem.
Snapshots promote effective communication and understanding. This is important since analysis
results are often the foundation upon which new development projects are built. Effective
communication is, therefore, critical if analysis results are to be applied.
Snapshots remain useful throughout the development process as quick references to refocus
researchers and designers on important findings and conclusions
Visualizations
The third part of a (x 4) involves speculating about the future of user experience by creating a
highly descriptive image or set of images. Created before the development of more specific and
highly defined scenarios and concepts, Visualizations help individuals and groups break free from
overly restrictive constraints and limitations. If done properly, Visualizations create a broad,
somewhat abstract image from which specific scenarios and concepts about user experience can
later be constructed. The importance of this step should not be underestimated. As noted by Bill
Moggridge (1993), effective scenario-building is based on a willingness to suspend real world
concerns, free from constraints that often limit creativity.
Like Snapshots, Visualizations can be created in a variety of ways using different types of media
(e.g., text, image, video, drawings, etc.). A few common principles need to be considered:
Visualizations are structured around the interaction actors, activities, artifacts and atmosphere.
The goal is to illustrate or describe this interaction.
Visualizations are broad and speculative. As such, it is important to avoid developing the
image(s) with too much specificity and detail. As shown in Image 3, Visualizations express a
general tone, structure and attitude from which more detailed scenarios can later be developed.
In effect, Visualizations provide an opportunity to dream about a new experience and speculate
about the future without addressing immediate design problems or logistical issues.
Visualizations are presentational. The ultimate function of a Visualization is to communicate a
vision that provides guidance and meaning. As illustrated by Image 4, creating a final image
about user experience requires clarity, decisiveness and imagination.
Image 3
Image 4
Scenarios
With the previous steps completed, specific and detailed scenarios about user experience can be
developed. Researchers and designers start this activity with considerable knowledge and insight
about actors, activities, artifacts and the context (atmosphere) in which these all interact. They will
have conducted field research, created detailed profiles or Snapshots, and developed a visionary,
speculative image (or set of images) about a new experience. The form of the scenario can vary
greatly depending on circumstances, time constraints and/or other needs and expectations. Common
types include: written stories, illustrated stories, comics, storyboards, plays and, increasingly,
multimedia productions.
Evaluation of a (x 4)
As a part of the development of a (x 4), a research project funded by Thomsom multimedia, Inc.
was conducted to explore the effectiveness of a (x 4) as a research and concept-generating tool for
developing scenarios and designing experience. A special upper-division course, offered at Arizona
State University and called Interdisciplinary Conceptual Prototyping, was developed to introduce
undergraduate students (juniors and seniors from business, industrial design, graphic design and
interior design) to a (x 4) and experience design. As a part of the course, the student teams were
required to apply a (x 4) in the development of conceptual scenarios about user experience. Two
assignments were specified, giving the student teams ample opportunity to become familiar with a
(x 4). The assignments required the students to do the following:
complete Facts & Observations and create Snapshots and Visualizations.

develop detailed scenarios, using storyboards to define characters, plot and setting.
perform their concept (i.e., a new user experience) in front of a public audience.
Topics/Questions
The major question this research project explored was: Is a (x 4) an effective method for teaching
and developing scenarios about user experience? For this project, effectiveness was measured by
evaluating a (x 4) in terms of the following questions:
1. Was a (x 4) understandable?
This question explored the students comprehension of a (x 4) as a group of elements and a process
for gathering and analyzing data, and visualizing solutions in the form of scenarios about consumer
experience.
2. Was a (x 4) useful?
This question explored how the students define and describe the usefulness/utility of a (x 4) in
terms of immediate and future needs or circumstances.
3. Did a (x 4) produce a significant change in awareness and capability?
This question probed how/if exposure to a (x 4) changed the students awareness of
development/design and their capabilities as future members of development teams.
Methodology
The project featured six phases:
1. Instruction
During this phase, students were equipped with the basic knowledge and skill required to use a (x 4)
in the development of scenarios about user experience. Field research exercises, lectures,
presentations and readings were included during this four-week section.
2. Application Exercises
The students were required to complete two application exercises. The first involved using a (x 4)
and storyboarding to develop a specific scenario which was play-acted in front of a public audience.
The exercise required students to create characters, props and a plot - all of which were derived
from field research. The second exercise involved the students using a (x 4) to reinvent a common
experience. The project included field research at local sites (e.g., a mini-putt site, gas station, etc.)
and the development of drawings, written stories and Visualizations to describe a detailed user
experience concept.
3. Data Collection
To probe the primary topics/questions, semi-structured interviews were conducted with the students
(a total of twelve interviews). The interviews were based on an interview guide and lasted
approximately one hour. Consistent with semi-structured interviewing strategies (Robson 1993), the
students were encouraged to lead the conversation, with the interviewer (an ASU research
assistant hired to conduct the interviews) providing occasional probes and redirection to keep the
conversation relevant to the research topics.
The interviews occurred after the students had completed the second application exercise.
4. Analysis
Three methods were used to analyze the data from the interviews:
Key Word and Phrase Identification: words, phrases and patterns were identified and organized
according to students comprehension of a (x 4), their sense of the usefulness of a (x 4) and any
change a (x 4) had caused in their knowledge and attitudes.
10
Content Analysis: a content analysis was performed which led to the development of a coding
structure comprised of four categories: about the elements of a (x 4); about the process of using a (x
4); about the value of a (x 4); and other.
Summarization: based on the key topics/questions, individual summary memos were composed
for each of the interviews.
5. Observations and Conclusions
With analysis of the data complete, observations and conclusions were articulated.
Observations and Conclusions

The results of this research project suggest that a (x 4) is reasonably effective in teaching and
developing scenarios about consumer experience. Though differences were evident, the majority of
students clearly understood a (x 4) as a process or method comprised of a framework (actors,
activities, artifacts and atmosphere) and a set of exercises (Facts and Observations, Snapshots and
Visualizations). Most were also generally able to articulate the purpose of a (x 4) and gave highly
relevant examples of projects or disciplines (outside the scope of the class) where a (x 4) would be
useful. Finally, a number of the students said that exposure to a (x 4) and the design of experience
had expanded their capabilities and understanding of design.
Was a (x 4) understandable?
. . . to put it in an equation form was just so clear (Klamrzynski 2001).
The use of a common, simple framework (comprised of actors, activities, artifacts and atmosphere)
clearly helped students conduct their projects. Some noted, for example, that the four-element
framework made it easy to recall and use. As one student said: It really is an easy way to
remember the four things you need to remember and then go into more detail. (Lulling 2001). Or
as another noted: . . . it just made it so clear to have this diagram (of a (x 4)) that we could always
refer to. (Klamrzynski 2001).
All four make one system (Johnson 2001).
Most of the students referred to a (x 4) as a system that involved four interrelated elements and a
process. The majority of students understood that the integration of the four elements was an
essential feature of the system. They indicated that a (x 4) helped them focus on this interaction
rather than on discrete parts of an experience.
I think there are some good tools here (Krise 2001).
Most of the students understood a (x 4) as a tool for designing experience. They defined or
described it with a variety of words, including: practical, realistic and easy to use.
Was a (x 4) useful?
Im very structured and detail-oriented, so it really helped me (Lulling 2001).
Forty percent of the students used the word structure to describe the usefulness of a (x 4). Their
comments suggest that a (x 4) helped them manage a relatively complex development process.
Interestingly, the structure of a (x 4) appealed to both structure-oriented and more intuitive students.
For the former, a (x 4) supported common behavior patterns. For the more intuitive students, a (x 4)
enabled them to overcome the confusion and uncertainty that commonly accompanied their work.
As one of these students noted: You didnt feel like youre just blindly going into a project
(Gilman 2001).
It gives you more ways to get in contact with the user (Johnson 2001).
11
All of the students identified a (x 4) as an effective way to learn about users and to explore design
solutions from a users point-of-view. In fact, the emphasis on users was identified as the primary
purpose of a (x 4). It forces us, one student said, to go through the process of really getting in the
users head and try to actually be that person or that group of people (Krise 2001).
a (x 4) notched it up another level as far as creativity (Jepson 2001).
Thirty percent of the students emphasized that a (x 4) helped them imagine more ideas or concepts.
They emphasized that their creativity was stimulated during each step of the process. Out of the
research, one student noted, come a lot of ideas, but then those ideas double when you start
getting into the scenario-building because you start realizing that maybe one of the ideas runs into
some other idea also and then you have these two ideas work in synthesis. It kind of builds on
itself (Jepson 2001).
I thought it was a really good way to test what you had theorized about (Gilman 2001).
Nearly half of the students stated that a (x 4) was useful in helping them evaluate and test ideas.
They emphasized that storyboards and scenarios were effective tools for refining ideas and
correcting mistakes. As one student said: If I was just designing . . . without a (x 4), I wouldnt
have gone through the testing as thoroughly and finding out the experiences of the person. Its a
better way to test all aspects of what youre doing (Gilman 2001). Another noted: . . . when you
have to actually go through the scenario you start to realize the mistakes you made by the quick
judgments. (Krise 2001). These observations were somewhat surprising since applying a (x 4) as a
testing method was not a major goal nor emphasized in the course.
. . . I do think that I got some principles and some tools to help me in presenting an idea better
(Mosley 2001).
The students also highlighted the communicative value of a (x 4), indicating that it helped them
present their ideas from a users point-of-view. They felt that this was a particularly powerful way
to convey the most important aspects of a concept. I think its a more effective way, one student
claimed, to put the user in the space so that the audience can see things from the users
perspective (Mosley 2001).
When I go to work, I will for sure think about a (x 4) and how I can apply what I learned. . .
(Gilman 2001).
Perhaps the most significant finding about usefulness was that many of the students easily identified
other classes or projects that would benefit from a (x 4) (one individual had, in fact, already
successfully applied parts of a (x 4) in a final presentation in another course). Others identified a
variety of professional areas where a (x 4) might be useful, including training exercises in the
business sector, exhibit design and events coordination. In each case, the students noted that the
focus on users and the combination of research, analysis and testing would improve the likelihood
of a successful design and/ or experience.
Did a (x 4) produce a significant change in awareness and capability?

. . . its almost like designing in three dimensions for the first time (Gilman 2001).
Most students credited a (x 4) with expanding their capabilities and awareness. Some referred to the
fact that they had learned how to conduct research better; others noted that they had gained skills in
storyboarding and brainstorming. Interestingly, most of the students (seventy percent) indicated that
learning about a (x 4) and experience design changed how they defined the scope of design and
their roles as designers. The words they chose to describe the change were revealing:
12
It kind of broadens our outlook (Pettibone 2001).

This class kind of opened my eyes (Johnson 2001).
Its changed my perspective (Jepson 2001).
Design has kind of opened up (Gilman 2001).
Its changed me (Klamrzynski 2001).
The most consistent theme was that a (x 4) and experience design had compelled the students to
reconsider the meaning and value of skills, artifacts and experience. By focusing on experience,
students saw beyond basic skills and concentrated on arguably higher level issues. This is really so
far out there, one student noted, as far as what weve been taught (in previous classes) . . . its so
different, its really hard to reel yourself in from all that weve been taught and start thinking about
how somebody is going to experience this concept (Jepson 2001).
a (x 4) and experience design also changed how many of the students regarded the significance of
artifacts (i.e., products, environments or communications). Increasingly, students viewed the
creation of artifacts as secondary to the development of user experiences. This response was shared
equally by students from business, graphic, industrial and interior design. As one product design
student noted: . . . products arent always the means of making money, its also the experience
behind it (Krise 2001).
Final Observations
Based on the results of this small study, a (x 4) seems to meet some of major criteria that a useful
research and design method requires. First, it was readily understandable to the students who
participated in the course. Without prompting, most were able to define and describe a (x 4) in great
detail. In addition, they defined a (x 4) as an integrated system or method and regarded it as a
practical (as opposed to theoretical) tool for accomplishing tasks.
Students also clearly felt a (x 4) provided tangible benefits and was, thus, useful.
As Figure 6 illustrates, the students indicated that a (x 4) helped them focus and structure their
thinking, expand their creative output, and present or communicate results.
Figure 6
Finally, learning about a (x 4) and the design of experience produced identifiable and generally
positive changes in the students awareness and understanding of design (see Figure 7). The
changes compelled the students to reconsider the meaning and value of artifacts and skills. While
recognizing their importance, the students came to realize that showcasing skills and focusing on
artifacts were secondary concerns which only gained meaning when used to support a more
13
comprehensive user experience. In sum, exposure to a (x 4) and the design of experience

encouraged the students to consider what are arguably higher or more advanced design concerns
relating to usefulness and experience.
Figure 7
14
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16
Putting it all together: bringing interdisciplinary research to

the practice of designing interactive learning tools
B. Sadler Takach Department of Art and Design, University of Alberta, Canada
J. Daniels Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Canada
C. Varnhagen Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Canada
Abstract
Working within an interdisciplinary, collaborative context to bring research into design practice
offers both challenges and opportunities in building strategic alliances for a common purpose,
integrating methods of research, and transferring or translating the resulting knowledge into action.
Integrating multiple methods requires an iterative, complementary approach to the design of
research, characterised by the need for effective communicative strategies throughout the process.
Two of the responsibilities inherent in applied research are to undertake useful research and to
report it in ways that are accessible to people working in different disciplines, and usable in
practice. We centre our discussion on three of our learner-centred studies, in which we integrated
methods from applied developmental science, information design and instructional technology and
to explore the design and use of Web sites and an interactive encyclopedia.
Putting it all together: bringing interdisciplinary research to

the practice of designing interactive learning tools
Introduction
Designing appropriate and effective learning environments must include the consideration of the
learner, the content and the learning media. Collaboration among researchers and designers with
expertise in developmental science, information design and learning is essential to a successful
process and outcome.
The nature of collaborative work among different disciplines is complex, as each discipline brings
its own concepts, methods, structures and critical aspects. The phases of a collaborative process
include building strategic alliances, integrating methods, and transferring or translating knowledge.
Each phase carries its own challenges and opportunities. The process may be initiated in the public,
practice or research spheres, and have a cyclical or interactive aspect, as the sharing of knowledge
may prompt more questions, or the application of design guidelines to a product may require more
testing. Critical input from practitioners and the public ensures useful activity.
Building strategic alliances

Strategic alliances have been formed between researchers and practitioners for benefits that include
expanded boundaries of individual investigation (Klein 1996), enhanced funding opportunities
(Herz 1994) and enriched process and practice (Hofmeester and de Charon de Saint Germain 1999).
Valuing a common goal of studying the learner clarifies our purpose, and allows for new
opportunities for collaborative research and learning that could benefit design practice. Our teambased approach involves undergraduate and graduate students and faculty members in the design of
research studies and interpretation of data, and features an iterative process towards the design,
interpretation and presentation of research. Regular meetings take place in the Instructional
Technology and Resources Lab in the Department of Psychology at the University of Alberta.
Although we are all interested in the design of optimal learning materials, at this point, there is only
one trained information designer on the team, who teaches on campus, and who entered the PhD
program in Applied Developmental Science to learn more about how children learn with
technology. Developmental psychologists draw upon a plurality of approaches to study
development and learning, including those from the cognitive and socio-cultural domains. Crossfunctional design teams, which may include psychologists, also use an iterative process, and
multiple methods to develop multimedia commercial or educational products.
The work of researchers and practitioners alike can benefit from challenging popular ideas and
assumptions (even our own) about learning with technology, and the design of learning tools. One
such notion is that introducing technology in the classroom was the catalyst for a learning
revolution. Another is the idea that the structure and function of hypermedia, with its links and
nodes, parallels the structure and function of the human mind. These ideas do not appear to be
strongly supported by research (Tergan 1997a), and in fact, because of deficiencies in design and
research, we may even have vastly underestimated the potential of interactive learning media
(Tergan 1997b).
The design of interactive media may have a critical effect on the use of learning tools, but not in the
ways we might expect. The results from our learner-centred studies suggest that learners prefer
easily-accessed, clearly presented information in an interactive encyclopedia and a non-confusing,
familiar structure in Web sites. Our complementary approaches have provided a powerful
opportunity to focus on learners' motivations, preferences and learning strategies, which appear to
be more critical factors affecting the optimal design and use of learning tools, than the presentation
of information.
Collaborative research allows participants, through learning, to become more effective practitioners
(Bray, Lee, Smith and Yorks 2000). Successful integration of key elements in interactive design
(information structure, instructional design, interaction possibilities and interface structures) is
possible only through a collaborative team approach (Hedberg and Sims 2001). Interdisciplinary
collaboration is like Moks (1996) description of interactivity design: finding a way for different
systems (human plus other) to work together.
Integrating methods
Collaborative research is enabled through defining priorities, critically assessing methods,
communicating effectively throughout an iterative process, and agreeing on how to make sense of
the results. A collaborative research process, like any group work, is characterised by tasks of
organisation, creation and negotiation. This process needs to be designed effectively (Heller 2001).
Rhetoric differs between and among research and practice cultures, and in addition to affecting how
knowledge will be transferred, it can affect the communication during collaboration. It can be
difficult to find a common language for communication (Flower, Gordon, Kolenda and Souder
1997), even if all team members are speaking English. For example, the word design is found in
the literature of many disciplines, and is often used to identify the processes and products of
planning for action and communication. Many interpretations are possible. An undergraduate
design student at the University of Alberta recently surveyed two hundred people students and
non-students, designers and non-designers for a definition of design. She received two hundred
different answers (Moffat 2002).
The question of evidence is critical to research, especially where disciplinary boundaries are lessdefined (Chandler, Davidson and Harootunian 1994). It is challenging to confront with critical
questions of validity in terms of evidence, and relevance in terms of practical significance. Critical
assessment of methods and approaches strengthens the value of research (Bray et al 2000). There
may be irreconcilable worldviews, but even confronting these makes clearer the location of
common ground. The coordination of different rigorous methods can help to validate common
findings. It must be remembered, however, that results from a study are not necessarily
generalisable or transferable to a specific population or situation. Rather, the methods may serve as
models for studying a particular phenomenon. Rapid research is done by some designers as an
effective means to get immediate answers. Yet, although undertaking research may take time due to
ethics approval (a good thing), actually conducting a well-organised study may not take as long as
may be perceived.
A multitude of quantitative and qualitative methods is available to design researchers (Hofmeester
and de Charon de Saint Germain 1999) in categories such as direct design experience (e.g. user as
developer), co-design (e.g. rapid prototyping and usability testing), co-research (e.g. visual
anthropology and think-aloud protocols), expert observation (e.g. video ethnography and direct
observation) and stimulus and interview (e.g. individual interviews, focus groups and conjoint
techniques).
Our team has worked to integrate qualitative and quantitative research methods in our learnercentred work. Each method can be assessed in terms of validity and relevance, and the approach of
integrating these methods may also be assessed. Our research methods include tracking navigational
strategies, measuring recall from presented information, recording and analysing structured and
semi-structured surveys and interviews regarding user experiences and preferences, using a think-
aloud protocol during children's representation of presented information, and observing children's
participation in the conception and rapid prototyping of an interactive encyclopedia. Tracking
navigation on the computer can verify participants descriptions of their exploration of a Web site.
Statistical tests help to describe participants and signal areas of significant relationship and possible
effects that can bear further exploration. Finding themes through content analysis can enrich
quantitative results, and confirm potential guidelines. There is still much to be learned about to how
to interpret and integrate verbal and visual data from the three studies described here.
Study one: Children's representation of information presented in print and CD-ROM encyclopedias
In this study (Sadler Takach, Varnhagen and Daniels 2002), we looked at how information
presentation in print and CD-ROM encyclopedias affects children's retrieval of information and
their visual representation of that information in research posters. Forty-three children, 26 girls and
17 boys, from three grade five classes participated in this study. The children were aged about 10 or
11 years. The materials consisted of a four-volume set of the "Junior version" of the Canadian
Encyclopedia, and a Macintosh PowerBook laptop computer displaying the starting interface for
"Student version" of the Canadian Encyclopedia on CD-ROM. Topic entries within each
encyclopedia had similar content, images and text, within a slightly different presentation. The CDROM version offered sound files, dictionary listings and a quiz. We completely crossed media
(print versus CD-ROM) and topic (lemming versus ptarmigan), and used a within-subjects research
design to control for effects of topic and media order. Participants were randomly assigned to four
different conditions. In individual sessions of 30 minutes, using a think-aloud protocol, participants
searched for information about lemmings and ptarmigans using both encyclopedias, and sketched a
small poster to show the life cycle of the lemming and of the ptarmigan. Participants then responded
to semi-structured questions about their experience using encyclopedias, topic knowledge and
attitudes towards searching for and presenting information.
We measured participants' time to search encyclopedias and to create the posters. Using a taxonomy
chart developed from an analysis of characteristics in the encyclopedias, we scored features, such as
words, images and composition, in the posters to compare participants' representation of knowledge
in research posters to the information presented in the encyclopedias. We also counted the number
of posters containing any visual or verbal reference to "life-cycle." Responses to three of the
interview questions were coded and counted to examine the effects of prior experience, topic
knowledge and attitudes towards using encyclopedias.
All participants reported some prior experience with encyclopedias (print, 88%; CD-ROM, 77%;
on-line, 21% and with the Internet (95%). Over half (56%) of the participants preferred the CDROM version (print, 28%; no preference, 16%). The print encyclopedia was "more hands-on" and
"gives more information." The CD-ROM version was "easier to read" and "easier to find [the
topic]" since "you can type in what you want and it takes you there with no page-flipping."
On average, participants spent almost twice the amount of time to search the CD-ROM
encyclopedia (7.0 min) as the print version (3.3 min). Children who had more experience using CDROM encyclopedias took less time to search for information, but there was no significant
relationship between print encyclopedia experience and search time. Nor were there significant
relationships between topic knowledge and search time (although very few children had any
knowledge of the topics used in this study), or between preference for either encyclopedia and
search time. It may be more difficult or even more interesting to search using the CD-ROM because
there are more options. Some participants suggested that the CD-ROM encyclopedia was not well
designed, as it wasn't clear where to type in a search term. In fact, the visual interface for this
version was much more complex than the adult version, and seemed to be overloaded with features.
Even children with previous media experience were temporarily confused. Other effects may
explain the difference in time.
On average, participants spent about the same amount of time to create posters after the print
version (9.1 min) as after the CD-ROM (8.7 min). This may support children's having prior mental
models of how to present information in research reports. Regarding comparison of features found
in the posters with those present in the encyclopedias, there were only two features of significance:
the use of comfortable margins, or white space, and the inclusion of paragraphs or paragraph-like
chunks of textual information. Comfortable margins, or white space is a characteristic found only in
the print encyclopedia, but we can't be sure this is a direct effect of information presentation in the
print encyclopedia. Paragraphs were found in both encyclopedias. There was no significant
relationship between prior media experience and the inclusion of information features in the
posters. Verbal comments by many of the participants, during the research and poster tasks, and in
the interview that followed, focused on the need to have easily-accessed, relevant, readable
information, with images close to related text. Many participants had preferences for specific types
of layout, mainly for the purposes of visual appeal and attracting attention to the title.
Only 18 out of the 43 participants represented "life cycle" in their posters. Children had to decide
whether, or how to represent the concept of "life cycle" as there were no life-cycle diagrams for
either topic in either encyclopedia, and only a textual reference to population cycle in both media
entries about lemmings. They used a variety of visual strategies, from circular life-cycle diagrams
with images, captions, and linking arrows to text and images with just a reference to "cycle" in
headings. Some students commented that they had learned about animal life cycles in earlier grades,
so it is possible that they had a prior mental model about how life cycles could be visually
represented.
From the preliminary results from the first study, it appears that children may come to a research
task with flexible strategies and mental models. They do not necessarily use the task to construct
new knowledge and representation but may fit the new information to pre-existing mental models.
Ease, convenience and speediness of use, and the availability and relevance of different types of
information appear to be at least as important as the specific arrangement of the information.
Study two: Children's participation in the design of an interactive encyclopedia
In this study (Sadler Takach and Varnhagen 2002), we worked with children to explore appropriate
methods to explore children's participation in the design of interactive educational media, and how
these participatory experiences can inform the design of interactive learning media. We investigated
a method that has been adapted from the methodologies of cooperative design, participatory design
and contextual inquiry. This method, called "cooperative inquiry" (Druin, 1999), is a design
approach to creating new technologies for children, with children, and involves discussion and
hands-on working groups in the rapid iterative creation of prototypes. Participatory design
processes have generally involved adults, but cooperative inquiry employs intergenerational teams.
Using a scaled-down version of cooperative inquiry, we consulted with children only as learners,
users, experts, researchers and designers to gain their insights about the kind of interactive
encyclopedias that would be useful and usable for them. Although rich data were collected from the
participants, the process of the cooperative inquiry, rather than the outcome (a prototype of an
interactive encyclopedia), was the focus of this study.
Five grade five children, aged about 10 or 11 years, were chosen at random by their teacher and
participated in three sessions for a total of two hours over three days. The first part of the study
involved a 30-minute individual session. Participants searched a CD-ROM encyclopedia for
information on lemmings and ptarmigans, using a think-aloud protocol, and then responded to
structured interview questions about how they found information, how the design of the
encyclopedia affected their ability to do so, and how they would present what they found in a
research poster. They were also asked about their attitudes towards different ways of finding and
presenting information. In a second 30-minute session, the group of five participants responded to
semi-structured interview questions about their experiences in the first session. They were asked
how CD-ROM encyclopedias should be designed to help the user find information, and who should
be on the design team. Responses were audiotaped for later comparison with written notes in the
first two sessions. In a third, 60-minute session, the five participants worked collaboratively to
design a rapid paper prototype of what they considered to be an effective CD-ROM encyclopedia in
the form of sample pages. Comments were noted, and the working process was documented with
sketches and photography. Several different types of verbal and visual data were collected,
including self-reports and responses to questions, and observational notes, photographs, and
sketches and notes done by the researcher to document the process. Data produced by the
participants included a written schedule, brainstorming notes and drawings, and their presentation
of the process, featuring screen templates and samples on a three-panel cardboard display.
Participants comments were similar to those in the first study regarding the need for easily
accessible, clear information and with images close to related text. They insisted on the need for
features that provide easy navigation to get at desired information. The students were also quite
concerned with the appropriateness of features and their functions ("no weirdo stuff," must be "easy
to understand if you don't speak English," must have "access for all ages" and we should "add voice
button, in case people can't read"). They felt that the search function should be easier to use (it was
labeled "smart" for smart search, and wasn't set apart from the other buttons ranging across the top),
and they were surprised to find that they had trouble using the help function. They incorporated into
the design of the prototype what they considered to be essential functions: search function, back
button, bookmark and a place to store notes and documents.
We believe that being involved in this type of research-based, design-centred learning was
enjoyable and beneficial for the participants. They were delighted with their efforts, and asked to
present their prototype to their class mates. Although the children found it "frustrating to work this
quickly" during the design activity, they were highly flexible, effective and innovative in thought
and action, and want to continue the task to use authoring tools to design an improved interactive
encyclopedia. We think that research and design teams could learn a lot from their collaborative
process. We will analyse all of the verbal comments using content analysis, to look for themes that
would support the development of guidelines for design. From our observations, it appears that
combining methods that directly and actively involve children enrich our knowledge base.
Working with children in an interdisciplinary, collaborative context provides a powerful
opportunity to focus not only on information presentation and other aspects of design, but on
learners' motivations, preferences and learning strategies, which are critical factors affecting the
optimal design and use of learning tools. Working with children as research and design partners is
an essential part of developing useful design guidelines for interactive learning tools. We would like
to continue to study the design process with children, and compare existing encyclopedias with one
designed using guidelines from children.
Study three: Web site structure and active learning
In this study, we investigated how the design, in terms of structure, of a Web site can impact
navigation and the recall of content (Daniels, Sadler Takach and Varnhagen 2002). We collected
data from 93 undergraduate students (58 females and 35 males) enrolled in introductory psychology
classes at the University of Alberta. Most (85%) were aged 18 to 20 years and the majority (66%)
were in their first year of study. Participants were asked to evaluate the design of one of two Web
sites (one text-based, the other, metaphor-based) on IBM-compatible computers equipped with 17inch monitors (1024 x 768 resolution). The browser control was hidden from view by using fullscreen mode with auto-hide selected so the participants had to rely on the navigational structure of
Web site to maneuver.
Participants were also asked to complete an on-line questionnaire about their backgrounds (age
range, gender, year of study, experience with computers and the Internet) and their evaluations of
the Web site (were they confused, did they like the Web site, was the text understandable). The
questionnaire featured radio buttons for easy selection, with questions presented as statements in a
Likert format. Participants submitted the completed questionnaire by clicking a button labeled
submit. After the questionnaire, participants completed a free recall task by typing in as much
information as possible from the Web site into a text box on screen. As before, they submitted their
answers by clicking on a submit button. There was no time limit, but participants were generally
finished viewing the Web site within five minutes, and were finished the study within 25 minutes.
The two Web sites viewed by the participants provided information about the imaginary
SouthWestern University with the same content, but with different structure and offering different
levels of familiarity. The text-based site was designed to include as many text conventions as
possible to satisfy some expectations of users. This site contained a choice of three different text
links (getting in, academics, and sports & rec) on the first level and offered two sub-headings
for each topic on the second level and descriptive paragraphs under each sub-topic on the third and
final level. The home page featured a logo and photograph of the university, and back and home
functions were linked to the words back and home respectively.
The metaphor-based site substituted image or icon for type wherever possible, providing
alternatives to text conventions and thus possibly disrupting some expectations for use. The
structure of the Web site was designed to represent links metaphorically, through the function of the
image, and therefore was not immediately obvious to viewers without prior experience. There were
no obvious text cues, other than those provided by roll-overs that told the viewer where the links
led, so participants had to rely on internal navigation in the Web site. The fictitious University was
situated in the prairie lands of southern Alberta, a Canadian province. This area is known for the
discovery of petroglyphs in a now-protected area called Writing-on-Stone. The first page featured a
photographic image of a wheat field (symbolic of the Alberta landscape) on which are situated three
petroglyphic characters with abstracted items. The first character is riding a blue scooter into the
image (getting in). The other two figures are already in the image; one is reading a red book
(academics) and the other is bouncing a yellow ball (sports & rec).
We assumed the unstructured nature of the Web would promote active learning, and that the
metaphor site would afford higher recall than the text site. Thus, if participants had to work through
it to understand it, they might internalise the information in a meaningful manner, which allowed
them to recall more. We thought that participants might not remember as much from the text site
because they didnt have to work so hard to navigate. We wanted to see if how well participants
liked the design of the Web sites was related to their experiences using the sites. We wanted to find
out how much of the content they could recall, in terms of idea units, and how much time they spent
navigating the site.
Participants in the text condition rated the Web site more understandable than those in the metaphor
site, liked the Web site more, thought it was easier to navigate and found that the content was more
understandable, than did the participants in the metaphor condition. Participants in the metaphor
condition rated the Web site more interesting, and more confusing, and spent more time on levels
one and two, than those in the text condition. Participants spent about the same amount of time on
level three, which contained all of the content information. Contrary to our expectations, there was
no significant effect for the amount of recall based on the structure of the Web site. Participants in
each condition recalled about the same amount of content, which suggests that structure had no
effect on recall. These results do not seem to support the perspective of active learning.
Rather than assume the Web is a revolutionary pedagogical too, we need to look at its unique
aspects and at how people are using the Web as a tool, and see if it is possible to find principles that
can help people make more effective use of the Web. These principles would be useful for
educators and end-users, as well as designers. Further work will address users situational
awareness (Ensley 1995) and the types of cues they require in the face of inordinate amounts of
information in to avoid getting lost in hyperspace.
Transferring knowledge
Working to inform design practice is a cyclical process, from the identification of a need in society,
to the development of a research-based practice, to further evaluation of designed products and
services; all of which create a catalyst for more research. Integrated into this process are the other
ways in which knowledge can be transferred or even translated to researchers, practitioners and the
public. Unlike situations of commercial development, there need not be any proprietary issues that
complicate the transfer of knowledge. Rhetoric differs between and among research and practice
cultures, and this affects how knowledge will be translated. It also affects how it will be perceived
by the public, which should be made aware of the of the value of research knowledge (Willinsky
2000).
The way in which results from statistical analysis are presented and read is different than that of
the listing of themes that might result from a phenomenological study. Presenting knowledge as
guidelines provides an interpretative summary that might appear to be applicable to design
problems, and would make it difficult to critically evaluate the methods used to arrive at the
guidelines. We could deliver a type of simultaneous translation. To provide a research report to
satisfy as many users as possible may be a challenging problem of information design, but it would
be useful in showing the complex aspects of the problem, and the approach and limitations of the
research. We really need to determine the form in which designers need information.
We may all approach both design research and practice with some assumptions about the design of
such things as learning tools that need to be challenged. In studying the user of learning tools, we
have discovered that we must also consider the users of our research results. We must clarify and
translate our knowledge to share it, and this activity not only provides a record of the process of our
meaning-making but allows for a critical review of our ideas and methods which can enhance
validity and value (Bray et al 2000).
For our actions to have impact, we must also promote public knowledge of the benefits of research.
Interdisciplinary research can offer a rich knowledge base which is useful and accessible not only to
researchers and designers, but to others interested in seeking knowledge about well-designed
learning tools. Working within such a framework, for example, we can equip teachers, already
challenged by the complex realities of integrating technology, with criteria for evaluating learning
tools. We can also provide suggestions for meeting curricular goals, such as the development of
critical thinking skills and the effective use of information and communication technologies, using
the unique characteristics of interactive learning media. We will strive to make the information
from our studies accessible to anyone seeking study results for whatever purpose.
There is a responsibility to promote research literacy through professional development and design
education. There exists a huge amount of research knowledge published in print and electronic
form. How can design practitioners learn to access, assess and apply this knowledge, and even
contribute to the bank of design-related research knowledge? Through the process of our own
research, we may begin to understand the nature of the research literacy that must be acquired, and
the value of interdisciplinary collaborations that must be understood by design students to become
effective, responsible practitioners. Even non-design students (and other citizens) would need to be
equipped with broad, interdisciplinary problem-solving skills to learn and work in a post-industrial
society (Herz 1994).
Putting it all together

Through interdisciplinary collaboration, we are gaining an enriched understanding of how
interactive learning can be designed and used more effectively, as well as how to put this research
knowledge into best design practice. There are still many approaches to explore within this type of
collaboratory relationship, such as investigating through practice-based research and the
development of scenarios to visualise best practices in an interdisciplinary context. Our common
ground lies in building strategic alliances, integrating research methods and finding ways to
translate research knowledge into a form that is useful and accessible to researchers and
practitioners in a variety of disciplines interested in designing media to empower learners with
varying abilities, preferences and needs. In challenging our assumptions about learning, technology,
disciplinary boundaries and the collaborative process, we are presented with the opportunities of a
new question: How can we improve the design of the process and methods of interdisciplinary
research and the translation of the forms of knowledge for use by a wider range of researchers,
practitioners and the public?
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and the Social Sciences: Making Connection [conference proceedings on disk.], edited by J.
Frascara. Edmonton, Canada: University of Alberta.
Tergan, S-O. 1997a. Misleading assumptions in hypertext/hypermedia research. Journal of
Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 6, 257-283.
Tergan, S-O. 1997b. Conceptual and methodological shortcomings in hypertext/hypermedia design
and research. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 16, 209-235.
Willinsky, John. 2000. If only we knew: Increasing the public value of social-science research.
New York: Routledge.
11
Images of forces
G. Sandberg Lund University, Lund, Sweden
K-G. Olsson Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
M. Lund Architect, Hillerd, Denmark
J. Lindeman Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Abstract
The paper discusses how courses in mechanics can be taught to industrial design students and
architectural students in a manner aimed at presenting concepts in such a way that mechanics
becomes an inspiration for the design process rather than a limitation to it. In the courses of this sort
that have been held, emphasis has been placed on the use of software for facilitating an intuitive
understanding of physical matters related to mechanics and how that understanding can be
transformed into design sketches. ForcePAD is a comprehensible software for making sketches and
investigating patterns in mechanics. Its aim is to enhance the conception of such factors as balance,
weight, stability, rest and movement, support forces, stress fields, and deformation. The paper is
based on experience with classes of this sort taught both at Chalmers University in Gothenburg and
at Lund University, the weekly tasks students have been given in courses of this type being
discussed.
Images of forces
Introduction
Within industrial design and architecture the structural properties arrived at in the buildings and
objects produced are often a consequence primarily of artistic intuition, of strict topology or use of
readymade solutions. Their function however is often to carry a load. The aim of teaching should be
to make the pattern of abstract forces involved both inspiring and readily accessible to the student
of design so that the structure, rather than simply being a functional necessity, provides an image of
forces.
Both Mechanics and Structural Mechanics introduce abstract symbols, conceptions and contexts,
such as those of forces, mass, equilibrium, friction, centre of gravity, stability, tension,
compression, and fracture, to mention but a few. Conceptions of this sort, which provide a means of
better understanding the action of structures, are a consequence of the science paradigm, being
based on objective qualities that are independent of our subjective interpretation of them. Courses
here have the immediate practical goal, of course, of providing the understanding and the tools
needed for the designing of structures. However, courses should also be taught in such a way that
they become a source of inspiration in matters pertaining to design. Although the conceptions of
mechanics are abstract, they relate to our understanding of how constructions form a wellfunctional structural system. It is also one of the great strengths of mechanics that both the
conception and context exist in physical shapes, mechanics allowing us to experiment with
materials and shapes so as to create the basis for an intuitive interpretation of the abstract content of
the conceptions. We readily understand what is heavy, light, stable, in equilibrium or seems to be
out of balance, or when the structure seems to be at the boundary of what it can withstand in term of
exterior forces. The abstract, absolute thinking of science is related to our intuitive understanding
since it takes as its reference the world around us, which we can observe and interpret in everyday
life. Since the abstract ideas of mechanics exist in the form of physical shapes or are related to
these, students can be trained to use them as sources of inspiration in design tasks and in
preliminary sketches for these.
The context of mechanics provides a language, one that constitutes the basis for precision in design
experiments. Design tasks can also be coupled to inner abstract ideas, the context of which is not a
direct consequence of our immediate interpretation of shapes and is to a considerable degree
independent of what our eyes alone can perceive. These experiments in shapes enable both analysis
and synthesis to be carried out, an abstract content being transformed into actions by the hand.
Thus, mechanics can also provide training in areas where abstract language does not necessarily
take on a physical shape; it is serving as a metaphor for how we interpret such non-tangible
systems.
In the following, two tasks students were given are described. Brief accounts of discussions with
students are presented to indicate how the processes referred to above influenced them and allowed
them to use elements of mechanics as a source of inspiration.
Examples - weekly tasks

Life-drawing
The mechanics of rigid bodies provides us only some few parameters by which such bodies can be
controlled. In two dimensions, there is the centre of gravity together with three conditions of
support. In three dimensions, there is an additional three conditions of support. Can this provide the
basis for non-trivial reflections regarding a particular context and for exploiting the precision of
scientific methods? If we leave the context that interests us, even in only a very slight way, through
becoming so preoccupied by precision that we find ourselves completely within a neutral
engineering frame of reference, the physical experiencing of this context and our possibilities of
investigating how we perceive it may readily become lost.
This first example starts in our perception and ends with a precise physical aspect of that
perception. The volume, the density and the location of a collection of individual elements that
possess mass govern the location of the center of gravity in a body or a system of bodies. One of the
first exercises in rigid body mechanics that students of architecture at Chalmers University of
Technology carry out aims at providing insight into this, and to train students in the use of the
principles involved as a means of expression in the designing a building. After a brief introduction
concerning the physical concepts of gravity and centre of gravity and use of them as metaphors in
painting, students are ready to gain their own experience in such matters. They are given a piece of
grey cardboard and a stick of white chalk, as well as a stick of black chalk, and gather around a
living model. The goal of the exercise is to express, through use of the concept of centre of gravity,
the balance inherent in the model. The white chalk is used to draw two types of abstract entities: a
vertical line through the centre of gravity and the support or supports involved. The black chalk is
used to indicate the balance around the vertical line through describing and interpreting the volume,
the density and the arm movement. Twice during the exercise students are interrupted in their work
to take part in a group discussion of how the balance the model demonstrates can be expressed, and
how the physical entities involved can be interpreted.
Figure 1: Life drawing with focus on balance around the centre of gravity
The initial instructions are as follows: Use the white piece of chalk to look for the abstract entities,
and use the black piece of chalk to examine the balance, either with areas of varying greyscale or
with straight lines of varying length. Despite these instructions most students work with outline
drawing and assembling a body configuration not with density, levers, and moments. The
discussion after the first intermission takes as a starting-point the difference between instructions
and what is done. Most of the students then wipe out their black coal drawing, see the middle
drawing above, and start all over.
This part of the exercise deals primarily with reflections on human perception and on physical
necessities and principles. Students are asked, so as to strengthen the insights they have gained into
the physical appearance of a balanced state, to analyse their drawings and make the center of
gravity visible on the computer screen by the use of the computer program ForcePAD. They can
also experiment with their drawings by adding or subtracting some particular mass or masses and
tracing the consequences this will have on the force-of-gravity arrow, see Figure 2 (a-c) below .
The global equilibrium, which is governed by Newton's second law, requires in the twodimensional case that three equilibrium equations be fulfilled, two for translation and one for
rotation. The direction and magnitude of the reacting forces, if these are statically determinant, are
dependent upon the position and direction of the movements that are prevented from occurring.
Figure 2: The green arrow shows the computed position of the resulting gravity force. (d) The blue
bars indicate the position and direction of support and orange arrows represent the computed
reaction forces.
The exercise also aims at enabling students to investigate the physical meaning of a movement's
being prevented from occurring. They are to ask themselves what the supports are and what the
consequences would be for the reacting forces if the position and/or the direction of a support were
changed. On the computer screen, students can also carry out their own experiments in adding
support or supports to the human body they have drawn, see Figure 2 (d). The actions and supports
that they provide a living model with are to a considerable degree obvious, whereas in the exercises
students take part in following this, dealing partly with natural and partly with built objects, they
can have greater difficulties in grasping the supports involved and how they act.
The statics of rigid bodies is a small part of classical mechanics and is primarily an extension of
Newton's first law. In textbooks on engineering mechanics, this part of the theory usually occupies
only a few pages, partly because of the simple mechanism governing it that of equilibrium and
partly because of the trivial mathematical tools available for solving predefined problems that are
presented there. Nevertheless, it is the basis for very essential decisions to be made in the design
process, those regarding the contact the body in question is to have with the external environment,
requiring that one consider carefully the consequences that different types of contact involving
the position and the directions of the support would have. Choices made here affect the overall
behaviour of the body, including the shape that is optimal, the need of external forces, the size of
the forces of contact between the body and the surrounding material, and the like.
A tripod
One task given to first-year students of industrial design at Lund University is described for
students as follows:
"Three points are defined in a horizontal plane and form an equal sided triangle. The side length is
1400 mm. A fourth point is defined 600 mm above this plane. At this position in space you shall be
able to place an item weighing at least 5 kg. The size of the base area of item is 100100 mm. The
material is corrugated paperboard in sheets of the size 1000600 mm. You can assemble the
material by using glue, staples, or by knitting. But you have to choose only one of these means. The
support of the structure must be within a circle with the diameter of 100 mm. The structure will be
judged by the way it expresses how the load is carried, including how the load is transmitted from
loading position to the support positions in the corners of the triangle. The structure should be as
light as possible and a volley ball should be able to roll under it."
The major question for the student to consider here is how the solution arrived at expresses the
external load and the path of the internal load, i.e. how the visible structure reflects the stresses
present in the material, and how the material is utilized to accommodate these stresses. Students are
to make sketches of the design of the structure intended. They are also to present arguments in
support of their solution. To illustrate this, consider how two of the students presented and
developed their arguments. Their brief sketches are presented in Figure 3 below. The drawing to
the left, (a), represents their first suggestion. The basic idea was to have the loading position
encircled by the structure. Since large parts of the structure do not contribute to the load-bearing
capacity, one can ask whether it is possible both to let their intention of encircling the load be
fulfilled and to let each part contribute to supporting the load. Allowing the structural parts to meet
above the loading position would be one solution.
Figure 3: The first suggestion for the tripod that the structure should encircle the load, (a). Two
suggestions for one leg of the tripod, (b)-(c)
(b) shows their first proposal along this line, in connection with which they argued for letting all the
structural elements have the same visual direction. One could call the three parts involved the long
element, the lower element, and the connector. Visual interest in the junction between the connector
and the lower element is created here. It is not evident, however, that this is favourable from a
structural point of view. Their third proposal is shown to the right, (c). Here the connector shows
the flow of forces in the external load instead, interest being directed at where the load is placed.
Quick simulations also indicate the flow of the internal forces here to be different.
Figure 4: Stresses in one of the legs of the tripod, blue indicates compression and red indicates
tension stresses, (a) first attempt, (b) final solution, (c) stiffeners have been attached, and (d) only
high levels of stress are shown.
Whereas the proposal at the left in Figure 4, (a), gives rise to an unclear and mixed stress field, the
connector and the lower element having both tensile and compressive states, the proposal (b) is
better coordinated. The lower element and the connector are both exposed to tensile forces, which
of course is favourable (remember, the tripod is constructed of corrugated cardboard). The
compression evident in the long element needs to be dealt with by use of additional stiffeners (c-d),
which were introduced in the final solution.
The tripod ready for testing is shown in Figure 5. Loads were applied until the structure collapsed.
This particular tripod yielded with grace under the ultimate load, its rotating downwards as the legs
collapsed. Even after the collapse the solution selected looks interesting, since the failure tells such
a clear history, see Figure 6.
Figure 5: The final solution for a load-carrying tripod.
Figure 6: Loading of the structure (left) and the structure as it appeared following failure (right).
One can conclude, on the basis of the results of these brief tasks, that the experiment the students
conducted and their discussion of it made them aware of the qualities of the material involved and
how these can be used to express and articulate the shape of the structure created and to design and
link together its various parts. These qualities are not readily apparent without a tool to make them
visible.
Reflections on force and form

An industrial designer picks her pencil and starts drafting. What you expect to see is either a soft
sketch grasping the outer shape imagined, or an abstract diagram indicating the inner functional
relations and technical interactions. The two different modes of drafted form seldom meet. They
represent two diverse paths of specialisation within the profession.
Some industrial designers emphasise the art of giving form to matter. Design is regarded as a semifree expression of art, to sculpture with a purpose or to mould a complex synthesis into a simple
form. Other designers favour the analytical approach. The design process is described in terms
like the problem comes first or to solve a problem.
However there is a third way for the designer to practise in between the pure shape moulding or the
simple problem solving.
Design is inventing. It is about finding shapes that not only have an interesting appearance but also
actually are able to contain certain tangible properties. Streamlining is the classic case. Design is
about finding solutions to precisely stated problems too, that results in expressive and original
products. The Walkman is such an example.
Designing force-carrying structures is about inventing too. A structure that integrates strong spatial
qualities with effective use of its material is second to none. Think about the Gothic cathedrals from
eight hundred years ago. The delicate stone ribbons embrace the interior space like fan-shaped
laces. They are true minimal structures that should be compared to the most efficient aeroplane
construction and yet they allow their space to be penetrated by the light from the sun and the sky
and allow their space to be cooled by natural ventilation through the open ribbons.
The seams of vintage yacht sails follow a similar structure. They function as a stiffening
reinforcement of the sail to prevent sacking. Today, yacht sails are cast in polyester or similar
plastic materials with reinforcement of stiffer textiles placed in the same fan-shapes like the seams
in the old sails. And in different products from the simple disposable cardboard cups for lunch
break coffee to the most advanced communication satellites in outer space the art of achieving the
highest stiffness from the smallest amount of material is the essential challenge for the industrial
designer.
The method at hand, using ForcePAD, gives the inventive industrial designer an efficient tool to
obtain immediate feedback from her sketches, when structural efficiency is of main concern. The
feedback of ForcePAD is a two dimensional grid-map where the direction and intensity of the
highest stresses suggest a structural pattern where material could be condensed in order to obtain
most stiffness. The method is not a magic box, and there are no automatic solutions. The classic
image of the stress trajectories from Carl Cullmans grafic-statics from the 1860s only suggest and
never define the optimal material efficient structure. And the contemporary computer algorithms
that robotically design the most efficient structure do not invite dialogue in the model-man
interface. However with the open structure of ForcePAD the industrial designer has a chance to
impose her other constraints and play with the possibilities in the design process. And step-by-step
the designer builds an experience by herself that enables her to integrate structural shapes with
efficient force carrying abilities, with forms and spaces that are both interesting and expressive.
ForcePAD
ForcePAD is an educational software programme developed at the Division of Structural
Mechanics at Lund University in collaboration with the Division of Building Design at Chalmers.
Although it was conceived for use by students of industrial design and architecture, we believe it
can be useful for other categories of students as well, due to its unique features. ForcePAD deals
with a variety of different matters of physical character within the area of mechanics, such as the
centre of gravity, loads, support reactions, deformation, and internal stresses.
A unique feature of it is its simple interface, which clearly mirrors the physical constituents
involved. The interface mimics the conditions that sketching on a sheet of paper represents. The
immediate consequences of adding material or a line or removing material by scratching, in terms
of changes in form, adds to the simplicity of working with it, allowing ForcePAD to become an
intimate part of design sketching in an educational context. Our experience with it is that it supports
in a very genuine way a reflective process on the part of the user, providing both insight and
inspiration in forming materials into shapes for creative and constructive ends. The programme
supports an iterative process of reflective optimisation that the user is guided through, rather than
its being software for simply an automatic optimization of shapes. Despite its not being software for
advanced mechanical analysis, hidden within it are in fact some advanced finite element tools
having optimizing characteristics computationally.
The figure below shows the interface. Through moving the cursor across the screen one can build
up the shape desired. The grey scale is the metaphor for the amount of material or the stiffness. By
adding support conditions and forces the student can launch computations that provide information
about the internal stresses and deformation patterns. It is simple also to scan a picture or a drawing
and paste it in on the ForcePAD working screen.
The ForcePAD application is implemented by use of a single-document interface (SDI). Thus, only
one document or model can be opened at any given time, reducing the complexity of the interface.
To make the interface as direct and as easy to use as possible, it was decided to remove the pulldown menus found in most standard applications. Instead, toolbars with large and multicoloured
icons are employed. The left toolbar contains tools for creating and modifying the model, whereas
the right one contains archive and cut-and-paste functions. The visualisation of displacements and
stresses is controlled by use of a tabbed property page at the bottom of the window.
ForcePAD is implemented in C++. User-interface components are implemented by use of the

FLTK 1.1.x library [1]. OpenGL [2] is used to implement ForcePAD's 2D drawing functions.
OpenGL is a software interface to 2D and 3D hardware which enables the direct and rapid
visualisation of displacements and stresses to be performed.
Figure 7: The transition from a physical object to a photo or sketch that is pasted in on the
ForcePAD-window so as to display the object's non-tangible qualities.
References
[1]
Fast Light Toolkit, http://www.fltk.org, 2002
[2]
OpenGL, http://www.opengl.org, 2002
[3]
The homepage of ForcePAD

http://www.byggmek.lth.se/bmresources/forcepad/forcepad.htm
10
Images of forces
G. Sandberg Lund University, Lund, Sweden
K-G. Olsson Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
M. Lund Architect, Hillerd, Denmark
J. Lindeman Lund University, Lund, Sweden
Abstract
The paper discusses how courses in mechanics can be taught to industrial design students and
architectural students in a manner aimed at presenting concepts in such a way that mechanics
becomes an inspiration for the design process rather than a limitation to it. In the courses of this sort
that have been held, emphasis has been placed on the use of software for facilitating an intuitive
understanding of physical matters related to mechanics and how that understanding can be
transformed into design sketches. ForcePAD is a comprehensible software for making sketches and
investigating patterns in mechanics. Its aim is to enhance the conception of such factors as balance,
weight, stability, rest and movement, support forces, stress fields, and deformation. The paper is
based on experience with classes of this sort taught both at Chalmers University in Gothenburg and
at Lund University, the weekly tasks students have been given in courses of this type being
discussed.
Images of forces
Introduction
Within industrial design and architecture the structural properties arrived at in the buildings and
objects produced are often a consequence primarily of artistic intuition, of strict topology or use of
readymade solutions. Their function however is often to carry a load. The aim of teaching should be
to make the pattern of abstract forces involved both inspiring and readily accessible to the student
of design so that the structure, rather than simply being a functional necessity, provides an image of
forces.
Both Mechanics and Structural Mechanics introduce abstract symbols, conceptions and contexts,
such as those of forces, mass, equilibrium, friction, centre of gravity, stability, tension,
compression, and fracture, to mention but a few. Conceptions of this sort, which provide a means of
better understanding the action of structures, are a consequence of the science paradigm, being
based on objective qualities that are independent of our subjective interpretation of them. Courses
here have the immediate practical goal, of course, of providing the understanding and the tools
needed for the designing of structures. However, courses should also be taught in such a way that
they become a source of inspiration in matters pertaining to design. Although the conceptions of
mechanics are abstract, they relate to our understanding of how constructions form a wellfunctional structural system. It is also one of the great strengths of mechanics that both the
conception and context exist in physical shapes, mechanics allowing us to experiment with
materials and shapes so as to create the basis for an intuitive interpretation of the abstract content of
the conceptions. We readily understand what is heavy, light, stable, in equilibrium or seems to be
out of balance, or when the structure seems to be at the boundary of what it can withstand in term of
exterior forces. The abstract, absolute thinking of science is related to our intuitive understanding
since it takes as its reference the world around us, which we can observe and interpret in everyday
life. Since the abstract ideas of mechanics exist in the form of physical shapes or are related to
these, students can be trained to use them as sources of inspiration in design tasks and in
preliminary sketches for these.
The context of mechanics provides a language, one that constitutes the basis for precision in design
experiments. Design tasks can also be coupled to inner abstract ideas, the context of which is not a
direct consequence of our immediate interpretation of shapes and is to a considerable degree
independent of what our eyes alone can perceive. These experiments in shapes enable both analysis
and synthesis to be carried out, an abstract content being transformed into actions by the hand.
Thus, mechanics can also provide training in areas where abstract language does not necessarily
take on a physical shape; it is serving as a metaphor for how we interpret such non-tangible
systems.
In the following, two tasks students were given are described. Brief accounts of discussions with
students are presented to indicate how the processes referred to above influenced them and allowed
them to use elements of mechanics as a source of inspiration.
Examples - weekly tasks

Life-drawing
The mechanics of rigid bodies provides us only some few parameters by which such bodies can be
controlled. In two dimensions, there is the centre of gravity together with three conditions of
support. In three dimensions, there is an additional three conditions of support. Can this provide the
basis for non-trivial reflections regarding a particular context and for exploiting the precision of
scientific methods? If we leave the context that interests us, even in only a very slight way, through
becoming so preoccupied by precision that we find ourselves completely within a neutral
engineering frame of reference, the physical experiencing of this context and our possibilities of
investigating how we perceive it may readily become lost.
This first example starts in our perception and ends with a precise physical aspect of that
perception. The volume, the density and the location of a collection of individual elements that
possess mass govern the location of the center of gravity in a body or a system of bodies. One of the
first exercises in rigid body mechanics that students of architecture at Chalmers University of
Technology carry out aims at providing insight into this, and to train students in the use of the
principles involved as a means of expression in the designing a building. After a brief introduction
concerning the physical concepts of gravity and centre of gravity and use of them as metaphors in
painting, students are ready to gain their own experience in such matters. They are given a piece of
grey cardboard and a stick of white chalk, as well as a stick of black chalk, and gather around a
living model. The goal of the exercise is to express, through use of the concept of centre of gravity,
the balance inherent in the model. The white chalk is used to draw two types of abstract entities: a
vertical line through the centre of gravity and the support or supports involved. The black chalk is
used to indicate the balance around the vertical line through describing and interpreting the volume,
the density and the arm movement. Twice during the exercise students are interrupted in their work
to take part in a group discussion of how the balance the model demonstrates can be expressed, and
how the physical entities involved can be interpreted.
Figure 1: Life drawing with focus on balance around the centre of gravity
The initial instructions are as follows: Use the white piece of chalk to look for the abstract entities,
and use the black piece of chalk to examine the balance, either with areas of varying greyscale or
with straight lines of varying length. Despite these instructions most students work with outline
drawing and assembling a body configuration not with density, levers, and moments. The
discussion after the first intermission takes as a starting-point the difference between instructions
and what is done. Most of the students then wipe out their black coal drawing, see the middle
drawing above, and start all over.
This part of the exercise deals primarily with reflections on human perception and on physical
necessities and principles. Students are asked, so as to strengthen the insights they have gained into
the physical appearance of a balanced state, to analyse their drawings and make the center of
gravity visible on the computer screen by the use of the computer program ForcePAD. They can
also experiment with their drawings by adding or subtracting some particular mass or masses and
tracing the consequences this will have on the force-of-gravity arrow, see Figure 2 (a-c) below .
The global equilibrium, which is governed by Newton's second law, requires in the twodimensional case that three equilibrium equations be fulfilled, two for translation and one for
rotation. The direction and magnitude of the reacting forces, if these are statically determinant, are
dependent upon the position and direction of the movements that are prevented from occurring.
Figure 2: The green arrow shows the computed position of the resulting gravity force. (d) The blue
bars indicate the position and direction of support and orange arrows represent the computed
reaction forces.
The exercise also aims at enabling students to investigate the physical meaning of a movement's
being prevented from occurring. They are to ask themselves what the supports are and what the
consequences would be for the reacting forces if the position and/or the direction of a support were
changed. On the computer screen, students can also carry out their own experiments in adding
support or supports to the human body they have drawn, see Figure 2 (d). The actions and supports
that they provide a living model with are to a considerable degree obvious, whereas in the exercises
students take part in following this, dealing partly with natural and partly with built objects, they
can have greater difficulties in grasping the supports involved and how they act.
The statics of rigid bodies is a small part of classical mechanics and is primarily an extension of
Newton's first law. In textbooks on engineering mechanics, this part of the theory usually occupies
only a few pages, partly because of the simple mechanism governing it that of equilibrium and
partly because of the trivial mathematical tools available for solving predefined problems that are
presented there. Nevertheless, it is the basis for very essential decisions to be made in the design
process, those regarding the contact the body in question is to have with the external environment,
requiring that one consider carefully the consequences that different types of contact involving
the position and the directions of the support would have. Choices made here affect the overall
behaviour of the body, including the shape that is optimal, the need of external forces, the size of
the forces of contact between the body and the surrounding material, and the like.
A tripod
One task given to first-year students of industrial design at Lund University is described for
students as follows:
"Three points are defined in a horizontal plane and form an equal sided triangle. The side length is
1400 mm. A fourth point is defined 600 mm above this plane. At this position in space you shall be
able to place an item weighing at least 5 kg. The size of the base area of item is 100100 mm. The
material is corrugated paperboard in sheets of the size 1000600 mm. You can assemble the
material by using glue, staples, or by knitting. But you have to choose only one of these means. The
support of the structure must be within a circle with the diameter of 100 mm. The structure will be
judged by the way it expresses how the load is carried, including how the load is transmitted from
loading position to the support positions in the corners of the triangle. The structure should be as
light as possible and a volley ball should be able to roll under it."
The major question for the student to consider here is how the solution arrived at expresses the
external load and the path of the internal load, i.e. how the visible structure reflects the stresses
present in the material, and how the material is utilized to accommodate these stresses. Students are
to make sketches of the design of the structure intended. They are also to present arguments in
support of their solution. To illustrate this, consider how two of the students presented and
developed their arguments. Their brief sketches are presented in Figure 3 below. The drawing to
the left, (a), represents their first suggestion. The basic idea was to have the loading position
encircled by the structure. Since large parts of the structure do not contribute to the load-bearing
capacity, one can ask whether it is possible both to let their intention of encircling the load be
fulfilled and to let each part contribute to supporting the load. Allowing the structural parts to meet
above the loading position would be one solution.
Figure 3: The first suggestion for the tripod that the structure should encircle the load, (a). Two
suggestions for one leg of the tripod, (b)-(c)
(b) shows their first proposal along this line, in connection with which they argued for letting all the
structural elements have the same visual direction. One could call the three parts involved the long
element, the lower element, and the connector. Visual interest in the junction between the connector
and the lower element is created here. It is not evident, however, that this is favourable from a
structural point of view. Their third proposal is shown to the right, (c). Here the connector shows
the flow of forces in the external load instead, interest being directed at where the load is placed.
Quick simulations also indicate the flow of the internal forces here to be different.
Figure 4: Stresses in one of the legs of the tripod, blue indicates compression and red indicates
tension stresses, (a) first attempt, (b) final solution, (c) stiffeners have been attached, and (d) only
high levels of stress are shown.
Whereas the proposal at the left in Figure 4, (a), gives rise to an unclear and mixed stress field, the
connector and the lower element having both tensile and compressive states, the proposal (b) is
better coordinated. The lower element and the connector are both exposed to tensile forces, which
of course is favourable (remember, the tripod is constructed of corrugated cardboard). The
compression evident in the long element needs to be dealt with by use of additional stiffeners (c-d),
which were introduced in the final solution.
The tripod ready for testing is shown in Figure 5. Loads were applied until the structure collapsed.
This particular tripod yielded with grace under the ultimate load, its rotating downwards as the legs
collapsed. Even after the collapse the solution selected looks interesting, since the failure tells such
a clear history, see Figure 6.
Figure 5: The final solution for a load-carrying tripod.
Figure 6: Loading of the structure (left) and the structure as it appeared following failure (right).
One can conclude, on the basis of the results of these brief tasks, that the experiment the students
conducted and their discussion of it made them aware of the qualities of the material involved and
how these can be used to express and articulate the shape of the structure created and to design and
link together its various parts. These qualities are not readily apparent without a tool to make them
visible.
Reflections on force and form

An industrial designer picks her pencil and starts drafting. What you expect to see is either a soft
sketch grasping the outer shape imagined, or an abstract diagram indicating the inner functional
relations and technical interactions. The two different modes of drafted form seldom meet. They
represent two diverse paths of specialisation within the profession.
Some industrial designers emphasise the art of giving form to matter. Design is regarded as a semifree expression of art, to sculpture with a purpose or to mould a complex synthesis into a simple
form. Other designers favour the analytical approach. The design process is described in terms
like the problem comes first or to solve a problem.
However there is a third way for the designer to practise in between the pure shape moulding or the
simple problem solving.
Design is inventing. It is about finding shapes that not only have an interesting appearance but also
actually are able to contain certain tangible properties. Streamlining is the classic case. Design is
about finding solutions to precisely stated problems too, that results in expressive and original
products. The Walkman is such an example.
Designing force-carrying structures is about inventing too. A structure that integrates strong spatial
qualities with effective use of its material is second to none. Think about the Gothic cathedrals from
eight hundred years ago. The delicate stone ribbons embrace the interior space like fan-shaped
laces. They are true minimal structures that should be compared to the most efficient aeroplane
construction and yet they allow their space to be penetrated by the light from the sun and the sky
and allow their space to be cooled by natural ventilation through the open ribbons.
The seams of vintage yacht sails follow a similar structure. They function as a stiffening
reinforcement of the sail to prevent sacking. Today, yacht sails are cast in polyester or similar
plastic materials with reinforcement of stiffer textiles placed in the same fan-shapes like the seams
in the old sails. And in different products from the simple disposable cardboard cups for lunch
break coffee to the most advanced communication satellites in outer space the art of achieving the
highest stiffness from the smallest amount of material is the essential challenge for the industrial
designer.
The method at hand, using ForcePAD, gives the inventive industrial designer an efficient tool to
obtain immediate feedback from her sketches, when structural efficiency is of main concern. The
feedback of ForcePAD is a two dimensional grid-map where the direction and intensity of the
highest stresses suggest a structural pattern where material could be condensed in order to obtain
most stiffness. The method is not a magic box, and there are no automatic solutions. The classic
image of the stress trajectories from Carl Cullmans grafic-statics from the 1860s only suggest and
never define the optimal material efficient structure. And the contemporary computer algorithms
that robotically design the most efficient structure do not invite dialogue in the model-man
interface. However with the open structure of ForcePAD the industrial designer has a chance to
impose her other constraints and play with the possibilities in the design process. And step-by-step
the designer builds an experience by herself that enables her to integrate structural shapes with
efficient force carrying abilities, with forms and spaces that are both interesting and expressive.
ForcePAD
ForcePAD is an educational software programme developed at the Division of Structural
Mechanics at Lund University in collaboration with the Division of Building Design at Chalmers.
Although it was conceived for use by students of industrial design and architecture, we believe it
can be useful for other categories of students as well, due to its unique features. ForcePAD deals
with a variety of different matters of physical character within the area of mechanics, such as the
centre of gravity, loads, support reactions, deformation, and internal stresses.
A unique feature of it is its simple interface, which clearly mirrors the physical constituents
involved. The interface mimics the conditions that sketching on a sheet of paper represents. The
immediate consequences of adding material or a line or removing material by scratching, in terms
of changes in form, adds to the simplicity of working with it, allowing ForcePAD to become an
intimate part of design sketching in an educational context. Our experience with it is that it supports
in a very genuine way a reflective process on the part of the user, providing both insight and
inspiration in forming materials into shapes for creative and constructive ends. The programme
supports an iterative process of reflective optimisation that the user is guided through, rather than
its being software for simply an automatic optimization of shapes. Despite its not being software for
advanced mechanical analysis, hidden within it are in fact some advanced finite element tools
having optimizing characteristics computationally.
The figure below shows the interface. Through moving the cursor across the screen one can build
up the shape desired. The grey scale is the metaphor for the amount of material or the stiffness. By
adding support conditions and forces the student can launch computations that provide information
about the internal stresses and deformation patterns. It is simple also to scan a picture or a drawing
and paste it in on the ForcePAD working screen.
The ForcePAD application is implemented by use of a single-document interface (SDI). Thus, only
one document or model can be opened at any given time, reducing the complexity of the interface.
To make the interface as direct and as easy to use as possible, it was decided to remove the pulldown menus found in most standard applications. Instead, toolbars with large and multicoloured
icons are employed. The left toolbar contains tools for creating and modifying the model, whereas
the right one contains archive and cut-and-paste functions. The visualisation of displacements and
stresses is controlled by use of a tabbed property page at the bottom of the window.
ForcePAD is implemented in C++. User-interface components are implemented by use of the

FLTK 1.1.x library [1]. OpenGL [2] is used to implement ForcePAD's 2D drawing functions.
OpenGL is a software interface to 2D and 3D hardware which enables the direct and rapid
visualisation of displacements and stresses to be performed.
Figure 7: The transition from a physical object to a photo or sketch that is pasted in on the
ForcePAD-window so as to display the object's non-tangible qualities.
References
[1]
Fast Light Toolkit, http://www.fltk.org, 2002
[2]
OpenGL, http://www.opengl.org, 2002
[3]
The homepage of ForcePAD

http://www.byggmek.lth.se/bmresources/forcepad/forcepad.htm
10

S. A. R. Scrivener The VIDe Research Centre, Coventry University, UK
K.-C. Liang Product Design Department, Ming-Chuan University, Taiwan
L. J. Ball Psychology Department, Lancaster University, UK
Abstract
In this paper we extend existing design problem-solving models by the explicit inclusion of
requirements and evaluation outcomes. We emphasise the importance of the notion of an evaluation
outcome, arguing that it is not simply the term negative or positive. Rather it is a relation
between a solution and a requirement(s) expressing whether, why, and to what extent the
anticipated effect of the proposed solution is positive or negative. Like requirements and solutions,
evaluation outcomes function as objects of reasoning (e.g., ideation). We describe an empirical
study of four design dyads engaged in a design task, in which designers talk provides evidence for
the productions and relations posited in the model. The results show that the explicit consideration
of requirements figures in 77.6% of utterances coded, that evaluation outcomes represent 42% of all
utterances, and that evaluation outcomes are involved in 21.4% of all solutions uttered. We
conclude that we need to understand how design reasoning utilises requirements, solution and
evaluation outcomes to achieve design goals.

Introduction
Design requirements are a product planning teams characterisation of the perceived needs around
the product environment, whether in terms of a device, user, process, software, system,
organisation, marketing environment, etc. (Suh 1990). Usually, these initial perceived needs are
transferred to the goals of product development. In order to work practically with goals, it is useful
if they are characterised into one or more statements. Any characterised statement about a goal is
called an objective. A design requirement is an objective that has to be met by the design
(Roozenburg and Eekels 1995).
A number of studies have stressed the importance of customer requirements as a source for new
product ideas (Logan 1997; Wood 1996). Many studies (Cooper 1987; Davidson 1976; Maidique
and Zirger 1985; Bruce and Rodgus 1991; Montoya-weiss and Calantone 1994; Walsh et al. 1992)
have found that the factors that distinguish new product success from failure are the consideration
and understanding of user requirements. Darnell, Howell and Collins (1989) also argue that the
most frequent cause of project failure during the design stage is a failure to properly define at the
outset the objectives and design requirements.
Given the recognised importance of design requirements we set out to investigate whether the
representation, or form, of design requirements influenced the extent to which they were considered
during the design problem-solving process. With this in mind we sought a design problem-solving
model which captured the role of design requirements in the design process as a basis for predicting
how representational format might facilitate, or otherwise, the consideration of design requirements.
A review of design problem-solving process models in the literature revealed that the potential role
of design requirements in the process had not been fully represented.
In this paper, we first present a model of the design problem-solving process that extends earlier
models through the inclusion of both design requirements and evaluation outcomes as inputs to and
products of cognitive processes. We then describe a protocol analysis study undertaken in order to
obtain evidence of designers reasoning about the productions and relations represented in the
model. We will argue that the results of this study support the extended model and demonstrate the
importance of requirements and evaluation outcomes in design reasoning. We will conclude that
future research should focus on understanding how design reasoning utilises requirements, solution
and evaluation outcomes to achieve design goals.
Design problem-solving process models

Many design researchers have explored the process of design (Archer 1969; Groot 1969; French
1985; Kim 1990; Lawson 1990; Suh 1990; Pugh 1991; Roozenburg and Eekels 1995; Ulrich and
Eppinger 1995; Pahl and Beitz 1996). The models discussed here have been selected because of
their historical significance and because they make a contribution to understanding the role of
design requirements in the design problem-solving process.
Observation
Supposition
Expectation
Testing
Evaluation
Figure 1: Mental process of gaining experience (Source: Groot 1969)
De Groot (1969) proposed the fundamental problem-solving process by which humans gain
experience (Figure 1). Through the continuous repetition of the process, the humans experience or
proficiency is increased. The process begins with observation through which the problem to be
solved is perceived and confronted. Having learnt from the experiences of earlier cycles, the
problem-solver proceeds on the assumption that the problem-solver can act, or can learn to react,
differently with respect to the problem observed. De Groot (ibid.) argues that one of the important
notions in learning from experience is that the problem-solving process must include a process of
observation. The problem solver is not merely trying to achieve the end, but is also trying out
something to ascertain if it is correct. In other words, a problem solver conceives of a supposition in
which he entertains the possibility of certain connections and relationships in the task situation to
actions that might solve the problem. This view of the situation generates expectations with regard
to the effects of problem-solvers actions in the problem situation which reflect on the goal or
criteria. Subsequent action of the problem-solver is followed by a process of testing to see whether
expectations are met and whether the anticipated effect is positive or negative (good or bad).
The information in respect to the value of the results obtained is then assimilated to evaluate how to
utilise the experiences gained, in the next cycle.
Kims (1990) model characterises the iterative thought process in creative problem-solving, Figure
2. This model starts with the term Problem. This term refers in a general sense to any mental
activity having some recognisable goal to be satisfied. This Problem expression represents the
result of the observation stage in De Groots (1969) model. This stage involves the clarification of
the design task, analysis of available information and initial exploration of the ill-defined design
problem space. Many of the design requirements that emerge in this stage can be used later in
evaluating solution proposals.
Problem
Ideation
Evaluation
Generate
a solution
Acceptable?
Yes
Solution
No
Figure 2: Components of the creative problem-solving process (Source: Kim 1990)

Since, typically, a design problem is ill-defined the obstacles are not obvious at the beginning, and
designers tend to apply solution-focused strategies to generate a provisional solution to remove
these obstacles. Therefore, ideation relates to the actions designed to move forward and create a
response to the problem and the design requirements. Essentially, it is the generation of a solution
or solutions. Evaluation involves the critical testing and assessment of proposed solutions against
the goals, constraints and criteria identified in the problem exploration or observation phase to see
whether the outcome is positive or negative (good or bad). If the outcome is negative, the
process moves back to the ideation stage to look for new solutions.
Hence, the fundamental problem-solving phase consists of a sequence of ideation-and-evaluation
cycles reflecting De Groot's (1969) processes of supposition, expectation and testing. According to
Kim (1990), potential solutions or intermediate results are connected, evaluated for their utility, and
examined to guide the next cycle of idea generation. The new solution idea may represent a minor
variation to an existing solution candidate. This procedure usually continues until an acceptable
solution is found. Kims (ibid.) model implicitly identifies a role for requirements in both ideation
and evaluation.
Roozenburg and Eekels (1995) develop an iterative, spiral-like design process, see Figure 3. The
cycle begins with the term Function, which is essentially the same as the term Problem in the
Kims model referring to the obstacle to be removed between the undesirable initial state and a
desired goal state. Spec refers to design requirements in the design specification that the solution
should fulfil (the numbers associated with each Spec indicating that this is developed as the
process develops). The Design step, following review of the design specification, refers to the
generation of proposed solutions. The Properties of each solution fulfils one or more functions.
The properties of the proposed solution are then compared to the requirements in the specification
to evaluate the extent to which they are satisfied by the solution.
Generally, a design proposal is consistent with one or more requirements and in conflict with
others, thus the design solution must be developed further to reduce the conflicts and
inconsistencies. Therefore, the process will return to the ideation stage to iterate further. This model
represents design as a spiral-like process in which the design solution is continually generated while
considering the design requirements and assessing the match between the solution properties and
the requirements of the design specification. The development cycle is not completed until an
approved design is found. Hence, the design process can be conceptualised as a series of solutionevaluating cycles carried out by designers to integrate the design requirements to increase the
optimality of the solution (Bailetti and Litva 1995).
Function
Spec. 1
Compare
Design 1
Spec. 2
Properties
Compare
Design 2
Spec. 3
Properties
Compare
Design 3
Approved design
Properties
Figure 3: Iterative design process structure (Source: Roozenburg & Eekels 1995)
Roozenburg and Eekels (1995) explain that experience not only feeds back to the design proposal
but also to the formulation of the problem and the list of design requirements. Through the
development, in the light of newly discovered solution variants, one will gain more understanding
of the initial design problem and design requirements, more observation or analysis may be
conducted to reformulate the design problem. Thus, the design and design specification are
developed in successive cycles, interacting strongly until they fit one another. Roozenburg and
Eekelss (ibid.) model makes explicit both processes and products. It shows that requirements feed
into both designing and that comparing involves both solutions and requirements, and that
comparing may generate new requirements.
From the above three models, it can be determined that there are three primary cognitive processes
that relate to design requirements in the design problem-solving process: observation/analysis (De
Groot 1969; implicit in Kim, 1990, and Roozenburg and Eekels, 1995), supposition/ideation/design
(De Groot 1969; Kim 1990; Roozenburg and Eekels 1995) and testing/evaluation/comparison (De
Groot 1969; Kim 1990; Roozenburg and Eekels 1995). The outputs of the three cognitive processes
are the problem/function (Kim 1990; Roozenburg and Eekels 1995), solution/properties (Kim 1990;
Roozenburg and Eekels 1995) and evaluate/compare (De Groot 1969; Kim 1990).
Of these models, Roozenburg and Eekels is the most complete in the sense that it depicts
processes, outputs, and the relations between them. What their (ibid.) model fails to represent, in
terms of the entities postulated, is the observation/analysis function and positive/good or
negative/bad outcome. For our purposes it was necessary to develop a model that was fully
representative of current understanding and which incorporated any entities and relationship not
represented in these existing models.
An extended design problem-solving process model

It has been established from the consideration of the three models above that three primary
cognitive processes are accessed: analysis, ideation and evaluation. These are presented in Figure 4
by black rectangles. The Observe or Analyse process produces the Function or Problem as the
output of investigating and clarifying the key design issues and problems involved in attaining the
goal in the task situation (outputs are represented by grey rectangles in Figure 4). This output also
provides input for the ideation/supposition process (requirement input/outputs being represented by
black arrows).
OBSERVE
OR
ANALYSE
FUNCTION
OR
PROBLEM
REQs
IDEATE
OR
SUPPOSE
OUTCOME
REQs
SOLUTION
OR
DESIGN
EVALUATE
OR
COMPARE
Figure 4: The design problem-solving process model incorporating requirements and outcomes
The Ideate or Suppose process produces a Solution or Design as output, and the Evaluate or
Compare process can produce an Outcome. The idea of an outcome is not described or
represented in earlier models. In the following we will present the rationale for its inclusion.
The Solution or Design is depicted as the input to the Evaluate or Compare process. An
evaluation is negative if the proposed solution conflicts or is inconsistent with a design
requirement(s) creating a sub-problem or new problem. If the proposed solution is confirmed as
consistent with a design requirement(s), the result of the evaluation is positive. A negative outcome,
in a sense, indicates that further work on the proposed solution is required. Of course, a positive
outcome does not mean that the design process is complete.
However, the result of evaluation is not simply the term negative or positive. Instead, we posit
that it is a relation between a solution and a requirement(s) expressing whether, why, and to what
extent the anticipated effect of the proposed solution is positive or negative. When a solution is
evaluated negatively the design process must iterate, the designer searching for an enhanced or
alternative solution. But a solution enhanced or alternative with respect to what? The answer to this
is the previously evaluated solution: but not simply the solution. Evaluation relates requirement(s)
to solution and assesses the quality of the relation. We posit that the next phase of ideation is
developed with respect to a description of this relation and its assessment. Hence, just as a solution
is explicitly represented as a product of ideation because it functions as an object of reasoning (e.g.
ideation) then an Outcome needs to be represented as the overall output of the evaluation process,
since it too can function in subsequent reasoning. Although a design proposal may satisfy some
design requirements, some may remain to be satisfied. Hence, regardless of whether or not an
evaluation is negative or positive it will contribute an outcome to the pool of those available for
subsequent reasoning. (The white arrows in Figure 4 represent the input action, while generative
actions are represented using grey arrows.) Figure 5 illustrates how outcomes appear in actual
discourse between designers. This outcome might be written more abstractly as a solution having
vertical bars close to the wheel is desirable as it satisfies the requirement of being easy to load
because it is positioned at a low height.
Quite low because weve set vertical bars as close as possible to the
wheel[solution]so its quite low [why it is easy to load]and not difficult to
load [requirement = easy to load].
Figure 5: Fragment of a transcript of a design task

The fundamental elements of the design problem-solving process have now been established and
related in the above model. Next we consider the role of requirements in the process. First, since
requirements may be determined with respect to the original function or problem, they can be
presented as the output of the observation process. Additionally, requirements may be perceived or
generated not only through the evaluation but also in the ideation process, where designers are able
to detect and understand important issues and requirements of the function or problem (Lawson
1997; Suwa et al. 1998; Suwa et al. 1999). Cross (1994) argues that proposing solutions is a means
of understanding the problem and exposing many assumptions about the problem, and specific
areas of uncertainty that could not be otherwise uncovered. As a consequence, the formulation of
the requirements may or may not be changed. Figure 4 shows the production of requirements
(REQs) within the design process as the output of the observation, ideation, and evaluation
processes. Requirement generation activities are represented using arrows pointing towards the
REQs symbol.
In essence, it is argued that design requirements provide the designer with guidelines for creating a
feasible design concept, a set of criteria against which to evaluate alternative solution proposals
(Walsh et al. 1992), and a means by which the value or quality of the design solution can be
judged. Moreover, as revealed in the discussion of existent process models, the process is
continually developing. The Outcome of an evaluation may feed into (also shown as black arrows
in Figure 4) the Ideate or Suppose process and a new or modified solution is proposed.
Requirements may then feed into the Evaluate or Compare process where the solution is further
tested yielding an Outcome.
From the proposed model, it is evident that the requirements play a primary role in the cognitive
processes of Observe or Analyse, Ideate or Suppose and Evaluate or Compare. Equally
important, in our view, is the representation of outcomes in the process model, because these
outcomes capture the relationship between solutions and requirements, and which may thereby
impose a guiding influence on the design process, both in terms of suppressing and stimulating lines
of thought.
Validating the model

The Liang-Scrivener-Ball model of the design problem-solving process presented above extends
previous models by explicitly representing requirements and evaluation outcomes. The model
predicts that the cognitive processes of Ideate or Suppose and Evaluate and Compare will draw
on, respectively, outcomes and/or requirements and solutions and requirements. In this section we
describe a study designed to uncover evidence of the new relationships represented in it. In
particular, we sought evidence of:
1. requirements, solutions and outcomes (i.e., productions);
2. solutions related to outcomes and/or requirements, and outcomes related to solutions and
requirements (i.e., relationships).
Many methods for researching design thinking have been described by Cross (1992), including
interviews with designers, observation and case studies, protocol studies, controlled tests, and
reflection and theorising. Cross, Christiaans and Dorst (1996a) argue that of all the empirical,
observational research methods for the analysis of design activity, protocol analysis has become to
be regarded as the most likely method for uncovering design cognition. We concluded that protocol
analysis would be appropriate for our purpose because of the theoretical link between thought and
language that underpins the method. If the objects and relations represented in the model were
involved in thinking then they should be evident in designers talk during design.
Task, participants and procedure

The task and information sources used in this study were the same as those developed by Cross,
Christiaans and Dorst (1996b) for an international workshop on the use of protocol analysis in
design research - Research in Design Thinking II Analysing Design Activity held in Delft, in
1994. In our study, two groups of four design dyads worked for two hours on the same design task
to develop a product concept for a product to fasten and carry a backpack on a mountain bike.
In order to confirm the expectation that new requirements would emerge during the design process
it was necessary to elucidate the requirements of the brief. The design requirements written into the
brief for the study were produced by the following analyses:
1. identification of those written into the original Delft brief,
2. identification of those reported in papers analysing the the study (Cross et al. 1996b) and other
Delft information,
3. application of the IDEO Scenario Method (Fulton-Suri et al. 1993), a visual confrontation
method, to capture additional requirements.
The original Delft brief included the additional requirements derived from 2 and 3, thus producing
the study brief.
Four design dyads participated in the study. The eight participants were all final year BSc Industrial
Design students. A design studio was equipped with audio and video recording facilities. The
drawing materials provided to the designers included A4 and A3 layout pads, pencils, black pens,
marker pens, pastels, coloured pencils, a ruler and measuring tape. They were also provided with a
mountain bike and the backpack for use as necessary during the design assignment. The verbal
discourse of each design dyad was recorded and transcribed for protocol analysis.
Coding
The encoding process was designed to capture the different relations and products identified in the
design problem-solving process model described above. Hence, the turn-structured protocol data of
the design discourse activities were encoded in terms of the design process model (see Figure 4).
The transcripts were coded as follows:
An utterance was coded as a REQUIREMENT if it:
1. matched a pre-determined design brief requirement, for example, by law the maximum width
of anything attached to a bicycle is 25.6;
2. was a requirement implicit in the other information in the brief. For example, this information
included a drawing of the backpack as a single object that conveyed an implicit requirement for
a single backpack. So when the designers uttered the phrase its only one pack when viewing
this drawing we took this to be recognition of this implicit requirement; or
3. expressed a need or want generated by the designers themselves.
The latter two were expected to arise during solution proposition or evaluation.
An utterance stating a possible or provisional design proposal in response to the brief, particular
requirements, or a problem was coded as a SOLUTION. For example, the bag could be put at the
sides of the wheels.
An utterance was coded as an OUTCOME if it expressed:
1. a Problem arising from an appraisal in which a solution is recognised as being in conflict or
inconsistent with a requirement, for example, Perhaps it is too big to put inside;
2. an Agreement if it acknowledged a solution as consistent with a given requirement(s), for
example, Using the frame of the backpack will make it easier to position the bag.
Each utterance was thus coded as requirement (R), solution (S), problem (P) or agreement (A).
Having coded the transcripts, requirements, solutions, and outcomes, were transcribed to a coding
form, shown in Table 1. Here the first column shows consecutive turns of the discourse. The design
process model (see Figure 4) predicts that new requirements can be generated during the Ideate or
Suppose and Evaluate or Compare processes. Hence, the second column, coded B(in the brief)
and NB(not in the brief) signifies whether a verbalised requirement is in the brief or not, i.e.
generated by the designers. The third column shows requirements. Similarly, solutions are recorded
in the fourth column. The solution turns may contain information as to whether the solution
generated in the Ideate or Suppose process was in response to a particular requirement or
outcome. In this case, the inputs are shown in parentheses (see, for example, Turn 99 in Table 1).
The Outcome column records outcomes. The preceding column, labelled A, records whether the
outcome was an Agreement, where the solution is confirmed as consistent with requirements,
represented by an A in the A/P column. A solution that conflicts with a requirement produces a
Problem, represented with by a P in the A/P column. Outcome utterances always refer to a
solution and requirement as inputs. These are represented in parentheses in the Requirement and
Solution columns in the appropriate Outcome row. This means that when an outcome is identified,
a requirement and a solution relevant to this outcome is also determined. Table 1 shows an example
of this transcription scheme.
Turn
Requirement
Solution
NB
(A reflector legally)
Attach to the seat post

(Attach to the seat post)
82
82
85
(22kg luggage)
89
93
(Easy to access the

backpack)
(Easy to access the
backpack)
77
79
95
Keeping that triangle

(Keeping that triangle)
The bag flap lays facing up on the
back
(The bag flap lays facing up on
the back)
(Design solution LB3.1.1)
Outcome
P
The reflectors might get in the

way
It will create the strength
Backpack can get access to it
Bag flap at the end could reach

inside and get things
Its gonna be too unstable
Use the straps, clamp the

backpack into place
99
100
105
109
(Backpack with square

frame)
(Backpack with square
frame)
(Good stability when
fastening backpack)
(Good stability when
fastening backpack)
Following the arch of the wheel

Cutting the rack off
(Cutting the rack off)
Using the buckle to fix bag
(Its gonna be too unstable)
Table 1: A fragment of the coding form for a session

To illustrate how the coding form may be interpreted, lets consider Turn 77. This shows that a
solution was proposed, but there was no evidence in the turn itself or the immediately preceding
discourse of either a requirement or an outcome being implicated in its production. In
contradistinction, in Turn 100 a solution was proposed in which a requirement matching one of
those in the brief was implicated. Finally, Turn 79 shows an outcome and its associated solution and
requirement, the latter being one generated by the designers themselves.
Results
Having prepared the data in this way, instances of explicit requirement, solution and outcome
statements and sub-categories (capturing relations between them) can be computed, Table 2. The
first thing to observe from Table 2 is that all of the predicted productions and relationships were
observed in the data, that is:
requirements were voiced (i.e., R, 11.4% of all explicitly uttered productions)

solutions were voiced (i.e., S, 46.6% of all explicitly uttered productions)
outcomes were voiced (i.e., Oxr+s, 42.0% of all explicitly uttered productions)
ideation involved requirements (i.e., Sxr, 52.0% of all explicit solution utterances)
ideation involved outcomes (i.e., Sxo, 21.4% of all explicit solution utterances)
ideation yielded new requirements (i.e., Sxnbr)
evaluation yielded new requirements (i.e., Oxnbr)
As we can see, evaluation occurs almost as frequently as ideation (as measured by outcome
utterances). Earlier we argued that evaluation is not simply a judgement as to whether a proposed
solution is desirable or not. Instead, evaluation relates solutions to requirements. The outcomes that
emerge from evaluation are statements about the strengths and/or weaknesses of solutions in
relation to requirements, comprising matter about which designers can reason as the task
progresses. As anticipated, their function in ideation is evident in the production of solutions (i.e.,
Sxo).
Groups
t
R: an explicit requirement statement
20
11
29
69
S: an explicit solution statement
26
32
45 32
135
Sxr: an explicit solution in which a requirement is implied

Sxo: an explicit solution in which an outcome is
implied
Sxnbr: an explicit solution in which a non brief
requirement is implied
Oxr+s: an explicit solution evaluation outcome in which
16
24
35
14
23 12
14 8
86
60
69
53
a requirement and a solution are implied

Oxnbr: an explicit outcome in which a non brief
4 Total
75 56
253
15
requirement is implied
Table 2: Frequency of explicit requirement, solution and outcome statements and implicit
interactions
Although only a few new requirements were generated by each dyad, the data support the idea that
they can be discovered both through ideation and evaluation. The small number of new
requirements uncovered is probably explained by the fact that the requirements of the task had been
very thoroughly established, as described above. The data further suggest that evaluation plays a
dominant role in uncovering new requirements.
The data also indicate the importance of requirements in the design problem-solving process, since
they were implicated in 77.6% of the utterances coded. In theory it may be possible to generate
solutions without reference to requirements. Within the data, the 48.0% of solution utterances
lacking implicit requirements at least allow for this possibility. However, evaluation cannot occur
without requirements and evaluation is important for a number of reasons, including:
1. it produces outcomes that enable informed correction and development to be made. It is only
through evaluation that one can know whether and why a proposal is good or bad;
2. it produces outcomes that potentially connect multiple requirements to a specific solution thus
building up evidence for and/or against it;
3. it plays an important role in discovering new requirements.
Thus evaluation outcomes serve as a means of steering ideation through moves, for example, to
build on the strengths or correct the weaknesses of a promising solution, or to open up a new line of
enquiry when the evidence against a solution indicates that it is not worth pursuing further. The
greater the number of requirements the greater the potential for evaluation and outcomes, and hence
control over ideation.
10
Conclusion
We have extended existing design problem-solving models to explicitly represent requirements and
evaluation outcomes and their relationships to cognitive processes. We have emphasised the
importance of the notion of an evaluation outcome, which is not simply the term negative or
positive. Rather it is a relation between a solution and a requirement(s) expressing whether, why,
and to what extent the anticipated effect of the proposed solution is positive or negative. Like
requirements and solutions, evaluation outcomes function as objects of reasoning. We have sought
and found evidence in designers talk for the (new and old) productions and relations posited in the
model. The results of this empirical study show that the explicit consideration of requirements
figures prominently in the utterances coded. Likewise, the importance of the role of evaluation
outcomes seems clear (representing 42% of all coded utterances). Although less prominent,
evaluation outcomes are involved in over one fifth of solution utterances. It is reasonable to
conclude from this evidence that requirements, solutions and evaluation outcomes feature
prominently in design reasoning. But how are these facts weighed, balanced and integrated, and
how do they contribute to decision-making, e.g., whether to ideate, evaluate further, or undertake
new analysis of the problem? The study reported here can contribute little to answering these
questions. Hence, future research should focus on understanding how design reasoning utilises
requirements, solution and evaluation outcomes to achieve design goals.
11
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13

P. Seitamaa-Hakkarainen Savonlinna Department of Education, University of Joensuu,
Finland
K. Hakkarainen Deparment of Psychology, University of Helsinki, Finland
Abstract
This study investigated expertise in the process of professional-level weaving design. A working
hypothesis of the study was that the weaving-design process is best considered as a dual-space
search between the visual, composition space and the technical, construction space, subject to
external (environmental, contextual) and internally generated constraints. The study analyses
expertise in weaving design by examining how professionally experienced designers (n=4) and
advanced students (n=4) of weaving design solved a professional weaving-design task. The
participants were asked to solve the task while thinking aloud in two design sessions. The data
consisted of (1) verbal protocols, (2) video protocols, and (3) written and drawn material produced
by the participants. We analyzed the data through qualitative content analysis and problem-behavior
graphs (PBGs). The present results indicate that weaving design shared many prototypical
characteristics of design process. An examination of the nature of weaving design indicated that the
participants, regardless of the level of expertise, focused on composition design in the first design
session and construction design in the second design session. There were, however, substantial
differences within the groups of participants concerning the role of different design spaces during
their problem solving. An analysis of the relative importance of the composition, construction and
constraints in the participants designing indicated that they followed identifiable design
orientations (i.e., composition orientation, composition-construction orientation, and constraint
orientation).

Introduction
Any design task requires a very complicated process of searching for a workable (i.e., aesthetic as
well as functional) solution that can be reached in a practical and effective way. Generally, the
design space is ill-defined in the sense that there are no definite criteria for testing whether a
proposed solution is successful or not (Simon 1977; Akin 1986; Goel & Pirolli 1992). Moreover,
the design space cannot be defined unambiguously. The designer has to structure and limit the huge
design space by using external and internal constraints (Goel 1995). Designing involves various
elements that must be considered and related to each other, within the constraints in order to create
a functional and aesthetic solution (Goel 1995).
In general, the design-task environment in the professional context of textile design is typically
specified in a customer's brief. The design tasks provide information of both the design constraints
and design elements (Seitamaa-Hakkarainen 2000). The design constraints specify the context of
the textile by answering questions: what kind of textile, to whom, where and for what purpose the
textile is going to be designed. In other words, user, place, function (i.e., purpose) of the textile and
resources available (time, money, equipment or legislation) define the context of the entire artifact
to be designed and thus they constrain the design context (Goel & Pirolli 1992; Lawson 1991).
In the present study, it is proposed that the weaving design process may be characterized as a dualspace search through composition and construction spaces (Seitamaa-Hakkarainen 2000; SeitamaaHakkarainen & Hakkarainen 2001), like many other areas of problem solving (Goel & Pirolli 1992;
Goel 1995; Goldschmidt 1997). Composition space, which is seen as a domain-independent design
process, consists of the organization of the visual elements and principles selected and manipulated
during design process. The visual elements consist of shape design, color design, and pattern design
elements. Construction space, which is seen as a domain-specific design process, consists of
organization and manipulation of the technical elements and principles. The technical elements
include material design, structure design (e.g., weave and density) and design of production
procedures (e.g., technique, yarn floats). Technical design strongly influences textiles surface. The
selection of the visual elements requires a search through the composition space, and the selection
of technical elements requires search through the construction space. The pivotal aspect of the
weaving design process is the gathering and utilization of domain-specific knowledge, in
conjunction with the visual and technical characteristics of the desired textile. Given this as a
starting point, the knowledge of traditional weaves, models and techniques of weaving, the study of
materials and their interrelationships and the organization of visual elements then become crucial in
bringing the textile into the realm of the tangible (Seitamaa-Hakkarainen & Hakkarainen 2001).
Our previous analysis of the novices design process by using problem-behavior graphs showed that
novices started to design from the composition space and only occasionally manipulated visual and
technical design elements in a parallel way (Seitamaa-Hakkarainen 1997; Seitamaa-Hakkarainen &
Hakkarainen 2001). A very important feature of the novices design process was the dominant role
of the development of the composition of the textile. Due to the complexity of the weaving design
problems and the many levels of detail that had to be considered, the novices designing occurred
mostly in the composition space; design of a composition was the novices focus until the end of
the design process. Due to the limits of the novices domain-specific knowledge and lack of an
iteratively developed understanding of the principles of weaves, they could not control the technical
elements nor manipulate them together with visual elements. Unlike the novices, the experts did not
start by considering one design element at time; rather, the experts connected many of the design
elements together from the very beginning. In the middle of the process they did move back and
forth between composition and construction spaces. By revising design elements cyclically and
iteratively, the experts incrementally developed the design and effectively carried previous ideas
into the other design space (Seitamaa-Hakkarainen 1997; Seitamaa-Hakkarainen & Hakkarainen
2001).
The dual-problem space model provides a plausible way to account for a variety of expert-novice
differences (Bereiter & Scardamalia 1987; Klahr & Dunbar, 1988). Seitamaa-Hakkarainen &
Hakkarainen (2001) made a corresponding prediction concerning the nature of expertise in weaving
design. However, working with different spaces can also be seen to reflect on different design
orientation. Given the rationale outlined above, the investigators pursued research objectives of the
present study through the following approach, 1) analyze the role of the underlying design
constraints and the relationship between composition and construction design elements; and 2)
examine the different design orientations of the weaving design.
Method
Participants and experimental task
Eight participants, four professional weaving designers, and four advanced students of weaving
design participated in the study. Each participant had quite similar educational backgrounds,
specializing in weaving design having at least some professional working experience. However, the
experts had extensive professional expertise, and two of them were highly regarded weaving
designers in Finland. The participants were asked to solve an authentic, small-scale weaving-design
task selected to represent general and stable features of the professional design tasks, but, it differs,
however, in one respect from the characteristics of a full-scale design task and that difference was
necessitated by the logistics of data collection. The task was to design a wall-hanging textile for a
planned day-care centre called Little Prince. The participants were given a design brief containing
some background information and an architectural plan including some information about the
intended location of the textile to be designed. They took part in two design sessions, both of which
had time limits. They were allowed to use one-and-a-half hours for designing the textile in the first
session and one hour in the second session. In the second design session, the participants were
asked to continue their previous design at a more detailed level and produce working instructions
for the weaver.
Method and data analysis
The study was carried out by using the thinking-aloud method, i.e., protocol analysis, following
closely to Ericsson and Simon's (1984) protocol-analysis technique. Accordingly, each participant
was asked individually to think aloud from the beginning of the problem solving to the end of it.
The data were from 1) verbal protocols, 2) video protocols, and 3) written and drawn material
produced by the participants during design sessions. Following data collection, the recorded
protocols were transcribed according to the audiotapes. Further, in order to increase the reliability
and validity of analysis, the verbal protocols were cross-referenced with the observed activities seen
in the video recording as well as with notes and sketches produced during the design sessions. The
systematic observations of the video protocol were coded manually in two-minute intervals.
We applied qualitative analysis of the contents to the protocols and used the data to construct
problem-behavior graphs (PBGs). For the qualitative content analysis, the transcribed protocols
were segmented into statements identifying single thoughts or main ideas, i.e., the meaning of the
content (regarding segmentation of data for content analysis, Chi 1997). Each statement was coded
along several independent dimensions. The focus of qualitative content analysis consisted of the
design development phases, design activities, type of sketches, and design content variables.
The coding schemata consisted altogether of 29 variables but only design content variables will be
reported here (for complete classification see Seitamaa-Hakkarainen 2000).
For each statement the nature of content was identified (a) constraints, (b) composition design or (c)
construction design. The constraints of design form a general frame for the design, and they are
identified or inferred from the external source or internal aspect of the design situation. The
constraints can reflect some of more external issues about (a) users, i.e., aspects of the persons for
whom the textile will be designed; (b) environment and atmosphere i.e., aspects of the local place
and the atmosphere of the environment. In general, constraints involved consideration of desired
aspects of the quality of the day-care center and its intended atmosphere. Nevertheless, the designer
could generate more internal constraints during design, which were classified (d) function of the
textile, which reflects desired properties for the textile. The function of textile may support certain
purposes (hiding, function for touching and softness). Finally, the constraints may be connected to
(d) finishing, installation, resources and maintenance aspects.
Each verbalized statement was further classified according to the elements of composition and
construction design it contained. The elements of composition design were (a) shape or form; (b)
pattern; (c) color or color scheme. On the other hand, each statement was coded on the basis of the
elements of technical design. Construction design consisted of three elements: (a) material,
including warp and weft or figure shot; (b) structure, including weave, profile draft/motif, long
draft, density; and (c) production procedure, i.e., finger-manipulated techniques, yarn floats,
Finnish ryjy rya pile, thread grouping, weaving plan etc. To analyze the reliability of the
classification, two independent coders classified a sample of the participants transcribed protocol
statements (f=268) together with corresponding videotapes. The agreement coefficient between
ratings given by two independent raters was as high as .92 in the case of main content, .85 for
constraints, .94 for composition and .96 in the case of the construction design elements.
After completing the qualitative content analysis, problem-behavior graphs (PBGs) were
constructed for each participant. The analysis of the problem-behavior graphs generally captures
well temporal aspects of a subjects design activity and domain content and helps to examine the
interaction between composition and construction designing in each participants design process
(see also Chi 1997; Suwa & Tversky 1997). Design elements were described graphically as a set of
moves from one knowledge state to another (i.e., propositions connected with particular design
elements). It also represents unsuccessful attempts at reaching a solution, i.e., dead-ends. Following
the segmentation of the protocols into statements (i.e., the unit of analysis reminded the same), each
subjects solution process was analyzed by using special problem-behavior graphs developed by
one of the present authors (Seitamaa-Hakkarainen 1997; 2000). Every design element considered
during that episode was represented as a trace of moves in the graphs. Each of a given participants
verbalized statements was coded according to the design element or their relationship represented.
This method made it possible to analyze whether the participants were processing design elements
serially or in a parallel way i.e., within and between design spaces.
Results
The nature of the experts and the advanced students design protocols was studied qualitatively,
using qualitative content analysis. Data from the protocols were examined by analyzing
frequencies of the participants design statements. The total number of protocol statements
produced by the participants was 3185, which consists in 1986 statements produced in the first
session, and 1199 in the second session. The mean number of words in a statement was ten (M=
10.3, SD= 7.4) in the first session, and nine (M=9.0, SD= 6.5) in the second session. The number of
participants protocol statements varied from less than 200 to over 250 in the first design session,
and from less than 90 to about 250 in the second session.
Each participant differed in her design proceeding and producing different types of sketches, notes,
and working instructions with varying degrees of completeness. Furthermore, each participant
processed her design problem in an individual way, and subsequently, designed a unique plan for a
weavable textile. Participant 1 designed a Finnish ryjy (i.e., rya rug) during her design sessions by
relying on finger manipulation technique. While analyzing the design task, she rapidly produced
many different design ideas, generating five thinking sketches, one prescriptive sketch and three
final alternatives in the first design session. Participant 2 relied on more complex weave
techniques, and her design was based on a loom-controlled technique (weft-faced compound type of
summer and winter weave) with Finnish rya technique in the middle area. She constructed five
thinking sketches, two prescriptive sketches, and one final alternative during the first session. Table
1 illustrates the participants individual weaving design projects in the first and second design
sessions, the number of protocol statements, the time they used, the episodes and the type of the
textile being designed.
Participants
Students
Participant 1
Participant 2
Participant 3
Participant 4
Experts
Participant 5
Participant 6
Participant 7
Participant 8
First Design Session
Second Design Session
Type of
Production
Time
(min)
Statements*
Design
Episodes
Time
(min)
Statements*
Design
Episodes
68
64
63
66
234
260
228
275
12
18
13
7
32
44
52
29
133
228
241
105
8
14
14
6
FM
LC
FM
FM
62
53
58
57
236
191
286
276
13
13
16
12
29
18
22
28
134
94
100
164
7
5
7
8
LC
FM
LC
LC
Note: Total number of statements (propositions) verbalized includes silence statements. Type of production of textile
(LC = Loom controlled; FM = finger manipulated)
Table 1: Individual weaving design projects in the first and second design sessions
Participant 3 designed a textile in which the ground consisted of weft-faced compound weave and
half rya rug piles. During the first design session, participant 3 produced five thinking sketches, one
prescriptive sketch together with a small demonstration, and one final alternative. Participant 4s
design theme was based on an abstract colored-surface design of the Finnish rya (i.e., half-rya) and
she produced four thinking sketches, one prescriptive sketch and one final alternative in the first
design session.
Participant 5s design was based on weft-faced compound weave (loom controlled), although
certain color areas required pick-up. She used 15 minutes to structure the design task and the design
brief, and ended up with an idea of an abstract form of colored-surface design. She produced two
sets of thinking sketches, prescriptive sketches, and final alternatives. Participant 6s design
process in the first session took 53 minutes and consisted of 13 episodes. She, like some of the
others, designed a textile with a complex type of weft-faced compound weave, in which the pattern
and color areas (i.e., figures) are to be done by pick-up between the shed. Because the ground
consisted of different weave structures (tabby, twill, and rep, for example), this kind of textile
requires extensive use of the pick-up technique. The participant 6 produced two very complex and
detailed alternatives in the first design session that differed substantially from one another.
Participant 7s design was also based on weft-faced compound weave, although certain color areas
required pick-up. Her design was based on abstract color and pattern designs. She produced only
one thinking sketch, one prescriptive sketch and a final alternative. Participant 8 designed a weftpatterned textile, completely based on a loom-controlled technique. Her design theme comprised
abstract colored areas and patterns. Participant 8s design output consisted of a thinking sketch, a
prescriptive sketch, a final alternative, and a demo drawing, along with some extra copies of
sketches of the shape related to them.
Analysis of the frequency distribution of the contents of the participants' design process showed that
composition design was a very important part of the first design session regardless of the level of
expertise. Constraint represented aspects to be used to define the design context. These constraints
limit designing, but they are not the focus of designing. While composition space referred to the
principal meaning of the visual design, the construction space referred to the technical aspects of
the design. By selecting and manipulating these composition and construction elements the designer
actually constructs the artifact to be designed. Table 2 presents the proportions of design statements
representing these three design aspects in the first and second design sessions.
Participants
Design Space
in the First Design Session
Constraints
Composition
Construction
Total
Design Space
in the Second Design Session
Constraints
Composition
Construction
Total
Participant1
.17
.77
.06
1.00
.11
.37
.53
1.00
Participant 2
.14
.57
.29
1.00
.08
.48
.44
1.00
Participant 3
.38
.34
.28
1.00
.02
.30
.68
1.00
Participant 4
.13
.82
.05
1.00
.13
.03
.84
1.00
Students
.21
.63
.17
1.00
.09
.29
.62
1.00
Total
Participant 5
.27
.61
.12
1.00
.11
.17
.72
1.00
Participant 6
.15
.47
.36
1.00
.05
.00
.95
1.00
Participant 7
.29
.42
.29
1.00
.13
.32
.55
1.00
Participant 8
.36
.31
.33
1.00
.19
.19
.62
1.00
Experts
.26
.46
.28
1.00
.12
.17
.71
1.00
Total
Table 2: Proportion of design statements representing the three design aspects in the first and
second design sessions
The analysis suggests that the designing related to constraints played an important role in the first
design session. Both the advanced students (M= .09; SD= .05) and the experts (M= .12; SD= .06)
dealt with constraints designing, which reduced substantially towards the second design session.
Further, out of all verbalized protocol statements produced during the first session (f=1686), a
substantial proportion (.53, f=893) were focused on composition space. The composition elements
consisted of shape, pattern, and color design. The mean proportion of the advanced students
protocol statements representing composition design (M= .63, SD= .22) was higher than that of the
experts (M= .46, SD=.12) in the first design session. In the second design session, however, the
mean proportion of composition design decreased substantially in the advanced students design
process (M =.29; SD=.19), and even more in the experts (M=.17; SD=.12) designing. The
proportion of protocol statements representing construction design was somewhat higher in experts
than the advanced students designing, in the first design session. In the first design session,
construction design did not play a dominant role in the subjects verbalized protocol statements.
The mean proportion of construction space design increased in both of the groups from the first
design session to the second.
Participants 7 and 8 from the experts group appeared to equally consider all of the design spaces in
the first design session, whereas participant 5 considered composition space relatively more in the
first design session than did the other experts. Moreover, participant 6 appeared to consider to a
greater degree construction design space, moving more and more towards the construction design
space as the main aspects of designing in the second design session. We can conclude that while the
subjects considered both design spaces (composition and construction spaces) and related aspects of
designing i.e., design constraints, nevertheless, within-group differences were relative larger than
the differences between the groups of advanced students and experts. Since both of the groups have
extensive backgrounds in weaving design, the differences between the groups were, in fact, smaller
than differences between the sessions. Even starting with the same motif, all unique art and craft
works differ in style due to the craft persons individual perspective, interpretation and the
characteristics of the technique used. Moreover, each artist or craft person has his/her individual
style and sources of inspiration. Such diversity of approaches extends to all areas of art and has
been well documented (von der Wert & Frankenberger 1995; Eisentraunt & Gnther 1997 ). Thus,
one possible explanation for the observed patterns of designing may be found in the different design
orientations, which reflect an individuals design style.
To better understand the processes of design that the different subjects engaged in, the present
investigators decided to carry out a further analysis focused on examining how the designers
personal orientations affected the relative importance of the composition, construction, and
constraint design spaces. Thus, the next step was to construct a group of characteristic variables that
might specify a designers way of working. In order to examine whether the subjects designing
represented an identifiable design orientation beyond the level of expertise, a K-means cluster
analysis (see Aldenderfer & Blashfield 1984) was conducted by using SPSS for Windows (7.5).
Through cluster analysis the researchers were able to form homogenous groups and identify highly
similar cases by analyzing patterns of relationship between the design elements. Variables used in
the cluster analysis were the proportions of constraint, composition and construction statements in
the first design session. The analysis focused on the first design session because it was hypothesized
that the design orientation would have the strongest effect when the designer begins to develop his
or her design ideas and begins to structure the problem space. Table 3 presents the final cluster
centers that emerged from the analysis.
Cluster centers
1
2
Composition
.80
.55
Constraints
.15
.18
Construction
.05
.26
Table 3: Final cluster centers in the first design session
First Design Session
3
.36
.34
.30
Cluster 1 refers to as composition orientation; cluster 2 is composition-construction orientation; and

cluster 3 is as constraint orientation. The first cluster emphasized the composition orientation as the
main content of design. In addition to composition design, construction design was also emphasized
in the second cluster. This second cluster is therefore called composition-construction orientation.
Characteristic of the third cluster was a rather equal emphasis on all of the design spaces. The
emphasis on the constraint design was substantially stronger in the third orientation than in the
other two orientations, therefore it was termed constraint orientation. Table 4 presents the cluster
memberships of each participant.
Participants
Level of expertise
Orientation Cluster
1
Advanced student
Composition
2
Advanced student
Composition-Construction
3
Advanced student
Constraint
4
Advanced student
Composition
5
Expert
6
Expert
7
Expert
Constraint
8
Expert
Constraint
Table 4: Cluster membership of the participants
Distance from the

cluster center
.04
.05
.05
.04
.16
.13
.08
.06
Participants 1 and 4 represented the composition orientation, and both of them were advanced
students designing a Finnish rya rug and relied on finger-manipulation techniques. The second
orientation type was called composition-construction orientation indicating that both composition
and construction design elements were emphasized. Participant 2 from the advanced students
group, as well as the experts 5 and 6 represented composition-construction orientation. All of these
participants relied on more complex weave techniques than did the composition-oriented
participants; the designs were mainly intended to be produced by loom-controlled techniques.
Design Orientations
Composition
There was a very short period

of problem structuring (about 2
minutes) in the very beginning of
the first design session.
There was an immediate
production of a number of thinking
sketches.
Composition design was the
main focus of the whole first
design session, and color design
was the main composition
element.
The construction design and
construction elements are not
considered in separate design
episodes.
There was a short
consideration of the production
procedure which implicitly direct
the development of design idea but
does not refer to weave structures.
The design process was
mainly serial in nature
Composition construction
All participants had a separate

problem-structuring phase lasting 5
to 15 minutes.
External design constraints were
considered in a relational way i.e.,
through connecting design
constraints with design elements.
After the beginning of the
design session the external design
constraints were not considered very
intensively.
Composition design was the
main aspect of designing from the
beginning of the session but,
somewhere in the middle of the
session, the process started to move
between composition and
construction design spaces.
Moving between composition
and construction spaces transformed
the designing towards a parallel
process.
Constraints
All participants had a long
separate problem-structuring
phase lasting almost 20
minutes.
The constraints related to
the environment and the users
were investigated extremely
carefully.
After the beginning of the
design session, the external
design constraints were also
considered once and a while.
The composition and
construction design were given
an equal consideration, and
participants started
continuously to jump between
the composition and
construction design spaces
somewhere in the middle of this
session.
The design process was
parallel in nature.
Table 5: Typical features of three different orientation
Participant 3 from the advanced student group, and the experts 7 and 8, represented the constraint
orientation and their design processes appeared to represent a more equal processing of all the
aspects of design. These constraint-oriented participants typically proceeded through the design
spaces in a balanced way; i.e., they focused equally on all aspects of designing. Yet their design
process focused more on the external constraints than that of the participants representing
composition orientation or composition-construction orientation. Both expert participants designs
relied on complex weaving techniques, which were mainly produced by loom-controlled methods.
In participant 7s design, some pattern areas were designed for finger-manipulated pick-up
techniques. Participant 3s design was based on finger-manipulated technique (i.e., half rya rug),
and the ground of the textile consisted of summer and winter weave. Table 5 present typical
characteristics of design of participants representing each of the three orientations. The problembehavior graphs had important role in the emergence of these orientations.
Discussion
In the present study four advanced students and four professional weaving designers participated,
and they solved a representative professional weaving design task by thinking aloud. The design
task, however, took only 1-2 hours to solve so that it may not represent all aspects of real-life
weaving design assignment. Further, the participants were allowed to select the type of production
(e.g., finger-manipulated or loom-controlled) themselves so that the types of designed, woven
textiles varied between the participants. Regardless of these methodological limitations, the study
material provided content-rich and detailed information about advanced students and professional
experts weaving design process.
Goel and Pirolli (1992) argued that the structure of "design problem space" and task environment is
similar across various prototypical design areas. Although there are general features that are
common for all design processes, there are, however, also substantial differences concerning
domain-specific knowledge and design elements used within a particular field of design.
The interaction between domain-general and domain-specific aspects of designing was specifically
addressed in the present investigation. Design research indicates that there is a great deal of
variation between individual designers in their ways of approaching and solving design tasks, not
only between different disciplines but also within the same one (see, for example, Eisentraunt &
Gnther 1997; see also Akin 1986). However, the special nature of the prototypical design tasks,
design processes and the role of the visualization in the design process represent the prototypical
aspects of the all design fields.
The present investigators provisionally identified two fundamental problem spaces of designing:
composition space, and construction space. However, while designing composition and
construction design elements one must always deal with external and internal constraints, which
frame the entire task environment. As stated in the previous section, the designing related to the
constraint space played an important role in the first design session but, apparently, decreased in the
second design session. The overall analysis of the role of the design spaces suggests that the
participants focused strongly on the composition design during the first design session. The
composition space had a more dominant role in the advanced students designing than that of the
experts, in the first design session. In the second design session, construction design was generally
more emphasized in both groups design process. To conclude, in general, the participants design
process apparently started by identifying design constraints, continued through developing a visual
design idea, and ended by considering the technical possibilities of giving the visual idea a more
concrete form.
Our expectation had been that subjects having an extensive background in specializing weaving
would not differ substantially from each other in terms of working with the composition or
construction spaces and dealing with design constraints. Therefore, it appears to be understandable
that differences between the groups of advanced students and experts were not statistically
significant. It was proposed that designers might represent different types of design orientations
according to relative importance, for them as individuals, of processes related to the composition,
construction and constraint spaces, which is to say, their design orientation. The significance of
design orientation appears to arise from the fact that all participants had a large amount of
specialized weaving design knowledge, skills, and experiences. Designers who are familiar with the
same professional content still often have entirely different ways of solving design tasks, and their
solutions can be of a very different quality as well. Moreover, the course of reaching solutions can
also vary in different design tasks. In other words, it was expected that, beyond the level of
expertise, each participant would approach the solution of the textile-design task in their own way.
Three prototypical design orientations were found. The first orientation emphasized composition
designing (participant 1 and 4), the second orientation focused on composition and construction
design (participants 2, 5 and 6), whereas the third orientation (participant 3, 7 and 8) emphasized
design constraints equally with the two other design spaces in their designing. However, more
empirical study on the individual design orientations and their relation to the visual representations
and problem structuring phases may be needed, in order to explain satisfactorily individual
differences in the design process.
There are multiple ways of expressing ones own design ideas but the choice of medium, such as
materials or techniques, constrains ones way through the multitude of possibilities. All design
elements are needed for producing a woven textile and, in this sense, equally important (although
the relative importance may vary from one to another design). Further, the analysis indicated that
the type of production did not completely control how design elements are used; rather, individual
characteristics of the designer appeared to have effects, as well as his or her design orientation and
expertise. However, the analysis does not indicate that design orientations would represent a
permanent propensity to approach design tasks in any particular way: the present study focused on
only one design task, thus the results cannot be generalized to other tasks. It is possible that the
design orientations emerged from situation-specific or task-related factors, and that the participants
would follow different orientations in different kinds of situations. Therefore, the design
orientations may be regarded as descriptive categorizations that, in the context of the present study,
would help to understand the differences and similarities of the participants. Nonetheless, the skills
of the experts in weaving design evidently involved interactive and parallel processing between
domain-specific knowledge and domain-general knowledge. The dual-space model of weaving
design developed in this study appears to have implications over or above the present study.
10
References
Akin, . (1986). Psychology of architectural design. London: Pion Limited.
Aldenderfer, M. S., & Blashfield, R. K. (1984). Cluster analysis. London: SAGE Publications.
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Chi, M. T. H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: A practical guide. The
Journal of the Learning Science, 6, 3, 271-315.
Eisentraunt, R. & Gnther, J. (1997). Individual styles of problem solving and their relation to
representations in the design process [Special issue]. Design Studies, 18, (4), 369-384.
Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1984). Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press.
Goel, V. & Pirolli, P. (1992). The structure of design problem space. Cognitive Science, 16, 395429.
Goel, V. (1995). Sketches of thought. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Goldschmidt, G. (1997). Capturing indeterminism: Representation in the design problem space.
Design Studies, 18, (4), 441-456.
Klahr, D. & Dunbar, K. (1988). Dual-space search during scientific reasoning. Cognitive Science,
12, 1-48.
Lawson, B. (1980/1991). How designers think: The design process demystified [Second Edition].
Cambridge: The University Press.
Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P. (1997). Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P. (1997). Composition and Construction
in Novices and Experts Weaving Design. Techne Serie, Research in Sloyd Education and Crafts
Science A (2). Helsinki: Piima-Offset.
Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P. (2000) The Weaving-Design Process as a Dual-Space Search. University
of Helsinki, Department of Home Economics and Craft Science. Research Report 6. Julkaisuapu
Deltta
Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, P & Hakkarainen, K (2001). Composition and construction in experts and
novices weaving design. Design Studies.
Simon, H. A. (1977). Models of discovery. Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company
Simon, H. A., & Lea, G (1974). Problem solving and rule induction: A unified view. In L.
Suwa, M., & Tversky, B. What do architects and students perceive in their design sketches? A
protocol analysis [Special issue]. Design Studies, 18, (4), 385-404.
Von der Wert, R. & Frankenberger, E. (1995). Strategies, competence and style problem solving
in engineering design. Learning and Instruction, 5, 357-384.
11
Contributions made by the authors

This study is based on professor Pirita Seitamaa-Hakkarainens doctoral thesis. She designed the
study, collected the material, and developed methods used in analysis of the data. Dr. Hakkarainen
provided theoretical and methodological guidance during the process and participated in writing of
the present article. Grants provided by the Academy of Finland for both of the contributors made
finishing of this manuscript possible.
12
D. Sless Coventry University, UK and Communication Research Institute of Australia, Australia
Abstract
I start from two assertions: philosophy is our highest form of practical reasoning; design is our
highest form of practical adaptation to our environment. I ask a question. What necessary
conditions must exist for us to do both philosophising and designing?
The method of argument I use is based on the philosophical methods of Wittgensteins
Philosophical Investigations and the principle of parsimony or Occams razor: what is the simplest
set of ideas necessary to answer the question.
The area of design on which I draw most heavily is the area in which I have done most of my
designing and researching: information design.
The argument leads to seeing designing and philosophising as either panaceas or prostheses. If we
change the aspect in a Wittgensteinian sense, we can move between these two.
The practical and social implications of this conclusion suggest that designing philosophy (in the
full ambiguity that the phrase implies) may well be one of the most important aspects of intellectual
life in the 21st Century.
Starting assertions
I start from two assertions: philosophy is our highest form of practical reasoning; design is our
highest form of practical adaptation to our environment.
Necessarily (in a logical sense) arguments have starting points that are not themselves dealt with
within the argument itself. These starting points are the assumptions, articulated or unarticulated, on
which the argument is grounded.
No argument about design or philosophy takes place without being grounded in a whole web of
experience, a form of life. I can no more exclude this experience than the air I breath. However, if I
were to try and elaborate the starting points in all their wealth of detail, there would be no end to it.
Indeed, as each one of us experiences the web from different positions, there are many different
starting points, leading us into many arguments over what we share and do not share by way of
understanding our forms of life. In my view, this is not a productive way to spend ones intellectual
life, though I grant that many do, and derive great pleasure from the endless elaboration.
I am starting, then, from two assertions that I do not intend to either explain, defend, or define in
this paper. Rather, I am going to rely on what I hope is a shared understanding of what it might
mean to do philosophy or design, and see where the argument takes us. I have adopted this
somewhat austere approach so that instead of endless justification the argument itself can be the
most visible part of the paper.
Note what I am not doing. I am not behaving as a scholar, treating philosophy or design as objects
of study; nor am I behaving as a journalist, giving you an account of what I have discovered about
these things. Rather, I am concerned with them as practical activities, things to do. I am interested
in doing philosophy, doing design.
A question
What necessary conditions must exist for me to engage in both philosophising and designing? I
stress necessary, but not sufficient, conditions for doing philosophy and design. Doubtless, the list
of sufficient conditions would be large and would vary with different philosophical and design
activities. My question is about foundations, not assumptions; and it is a question about practice,
not essences.
The traditional way of approaching the question of foundations is to dig deep, to look for essences,
underlying true propositions on which an intellectual edifice can be built. Russell and Whiteheads
project to discover the foundations of mathematics in logic was such a project, and it is the one
that Wittgenstein, from whom I take inspiration in this paper, so vehemently disagreed with. He
argued that logic was no more basic than mathematics; logic and mathematics are just different
language games.
So I am not asking a foundational question using the digging deeper approach. I am not creating a
new language game (in Wittgensteins sense). I am, however, approaching the question of
foundations from a novel perspective, inspired, as I said, by Wittgensteins Philosophical
Investigations. I am also inspired by the principle of parsimony, or Occams Razor: what is the
simplest set of ideas necessary to answer the question.
With these inspirations in mind, I ask again: what necessary conditions must exist for me to engage
in both philosophising and designing? To use the building metaphor implicated in the term
foundations, I am asking what must always be there for the building to be useful as a building.
However, because I am dealing with something that we do, rather than with an object, it is more
appropriate to ask: what must I be able to do in order to do philosophical or design work?
I will deal first with doing philosophical work. I want to suggest to you that communicating is the
foundational basis of philosophy.
I have already developed the arguments for this conclusion in detail (Sless 1986, 1990). In this
paper I will summarise the main points of the argument
If I want to do philosophy I must engage in communicating. I have to argue, articulate, write and so
on. Without these communicative activities, philosophy is not only impossible to do but also
impossible to even conceive of. For this reason, communication is foundational. I must be able to
communicate to do philosophy. However, it could be argued that communication is only trivially
foundational; that the ideas which philosophy engages with are more important than the process
which carries them. But this argument is only sustainable within a conception of communication as
a transmission process. There are good reasons to suggest that a transmission view of
communication is unacceptable for all but the most limited technical and instrumental view of
communication (see, for example Reddy 1979; Shepherd 1993; Sless 1986; Shrensky 1998). The
alternative, a dialogical view of communicating makes communicating, central to all forms of
intellectual activity: communicating is the process that leads to the creation of ideas rather than
being simply their conduit.
From a dialogical point of view communicating is foundational in a non-trivial sense, and is a
necessary condition for engaging in philosophy.
Foundations and certainty

I now take this argument further to show that communicating is foundational in the sense of
providing us with truths, but not the truths sought by classical philosophy.
I begin with an observation that must necessarily be true of all communicative phenomena:
communication depends on signs. To communicate is to assume the logical pre-existence of signs.
Therefore we need to have some notions of signs in order to carry the argument further.
My understanding of what a sign is (Sless passim) has in part derived from Peirce (1958). A sign
can only be a sign if it is one of the elements in a tripartite relationship consisting of the sign itself,
a user of the sign, and what the sign stands for. These three elements are inseparable; it is
meaningless to talk about the properties of a sign in isolation from the other two elements, since a
sign, qua sign, has its properties only by virtue of the tripartite relation it is in.
In principle anything can be a sign. A sign can be a material object, an imaginary object, an idea,
another sign. It derives its sign properties by virtue of its relation to users and referents, not
because of anything intrinsic to it. The only partially intrinsic property of a sign is that it should be
distinguishable by the user from its referent. This distinction is necessary because a sign cannot
stand for itself. Similarly, a referent can be a material object, imaginary object, an idea, even
another sign, and it enjoys its properties by virtue of the relation it is in with a user and a sign.
The process of linking signs and referents through the stand-for relation is called semiosis. It is an
action, something we do. Semiosis the stand-for relation is invoked by the user and acts as the link
between the sign and its referent. The stand-for relation accounts for communicating, and crucially
locates agency (people doing things) within the process.
Creating new signs: letness

Here is another important question: how do we create new signs, new stand-for relations?
Answering this question is critical to doing philosophy, and, as you may have anticipated already,
critical to doing design.
I will develop the argument in relation to the origins of axioms in mathematics.
Mathematics depends on axioms but has nothing to say on the origins of axioms - where they come
from, how they come into being. Yet every mathematical system depends on statements which take
the form "let x stand for y". Once x is given its new status, the operations performed on it are as if
it were y. .... However, "let x stand for y" is not part of any rule inside a mathematical system. It is
the method by which the system comes into existence. The axioms of mathematics come from such
humble primary propositions. This is not to be confused with a picture theory of meaning, where
terms in the language correspond to facts in the world, the theory of language that Wittgenstein
adopted in his earlier Tractatus but repudiated and abandoned in his later investigations.
Wittgenstein in both his earlier and later work was concerned with how language worked, or rather
how we work language. I have suggested the principle of letness (Sless 1986) to explain how
language is possible in a protological sense.
Let x stand for y, is the simplest expression of the nature of semiosis. The core operation which
links the x and the y is contained in the term let. Letness is at the heart of semiosis,
communicating and hence doing philosophy.
Letness is characterised by a fundamental anarchy. It is subject to no logic, no rules of inference,
no causal relations or moral imperatives. We may of course attach these things to letness
retrospectively or even at the time when a new stand-for relation is created but there is no necessary
requirement for letness to be subject to any imperative. Further, letness is not reducible to some
other state, condition or explanation. When a mathematician says let x stand for y, we cannot
reduce this statement down to some more basic construction - untie its logical knots or reveal its
inner workings. It stands alone. Letness we may take to be the central metaphysical necessity of
the semiotic point of view (Sless 1986).
Two things emerge from these arguments. First, there is a kind of certainty in letness about how we
make communication work, though not the kind of certainty sought in classical philosophy.
Secondly, and perhaps perversely, there is here a fundamental anarchy: in principle we can make
anything stand for anything. In practice we exercise a degree of control over what can stand for
what through our cultures, our ways of life. Consistency of usage occurs because it is practical; it
works.
Yet the fundamental anarchy of letness is always present. It erupts in tropes, humour, science, the
arts, design and madness.
Letness is an incredibly simple principle on which to build the entire edifice of communicating and
hence our highest form of practical reasoning, philosophy. How can such richness and complexity
arise from so simple an act? I am indebted to people working in the area of complexity theory for a
suggestion. Using computer modelling, researchers have found that a remarkably simple set of
starting rules can lead to highly complex patterns and structures which can remain stable on the
edge of chaos, as it were. These researchers were looking at highly determinate systems, ones in
which numerical computations and simple laws of cause and effect applied. Letness, however,
suggests something outside computation or cause and effect. Letness does not imply indeterminacy
so much as non-determinacy, not unpredictability so much as non-predicability - something outside
a systems view of the world, even a very fuzzy open-ended system.
Creating new things: design

If you have been following the threads of this argument and you are familiar with some of the
recent history of design theory then you may sense the general direction in which I am heading.
First I need to move from language, communicating and philosophy to design. This may seem like
a large leap, but it is quite a small step.
Taking Wittgensteins view that language is something we use, it is just a step to realise that
language is something we create, albeit slowly and over many generations. Language, we might
say, is one the prime examples of collaborative design at work, and it is always a work in progress;
new product features are developed all the time, old ones are modified or discarded. At some point
in time each feature that we now take for granted was new. And features we now use routinely will
almost certainly be changed by future conversations. Iterative testing and development is not a late
20th century invention, not as far as language is concerned.
Some of us, I think, assume that design is primarily concerned with material objects. I am
suggesting to you that doing design is a much more generalised activity, indeed may well be the
most generalisable of human activities.
Second I want to draw attention to something in Wittgensteins philosophical methods and suggest
that these are as relevant to philosophical language (or at least the current prototype version that we
are testing) as they are to designed objects. One of the most difficult things to discern in
Wittgensteins philosophical methods, in the way he did philosophy, is the repeated pattern of
questioning or interrogation that he uses. He describes it at times as a kind of therapy, a therapy
applied to the philosophers patterns of language use. Through his methods he demonstrates that if
we attend to the way in which we use language, many of the traditional problems of philosophy
dissolve. Is this a kind of usability testing? Well yes, but much more. It is also to do with changing
the problem definition so that a modified or new usage can occur. How like a designer! And how
unlike a philosopher bound by propositions and arguments.
And what is at the core of Wittgensteins method of analysis? He often used the term changing the
aspect, and he was intrigued by the distinction between, as he put it, seeing and seeing as
looking at something anew from a different point of view. Once again, how like a designer. Let us
make x stand for y and see what happens. Letness.
This then brings the two activities, doing philosophy and doing design, together. Hence the title of
this paper: Designing philosophy. This is, I believe, an original conclusion.
Doing both
Where does this take us? It is relatively easy to see how creating, using, and changing language is a
non-determined, non-predictable activity. This is not to suggest that using language is not orderly,
far from it. Without the order and regularity of a common shared usage, there can be no language. It
is for this reason that Wittgenstein in the Philosophical Investigations spends so much of his effort
arguing against the idea of a private language. It is also for this reason that Wittgenstein
continually returns to the idea of language games usage governed by sets of rules. But these are not
the immutable rules of nature, the basis of cause and effect, predictability. These are humanly made
rules, like the rules of a game, rules that can be made, changed, broken, and subverted, but not as a
result of blind cause and effect or their nemesis randomness, uncertainty, indeterminacy, or chaos,
but rather through human action and human interest.
I would like to suggest that much of our design of material things is similarly non-predictable, nondetermined. This takes us to the so-called wicked problems view of design. However, I come to
wicked problems from outside a systems view of design methods and design problem solving. This
is not to suggest that designers subvert the laws of physics. But there is an aspect of doing design
occurring in a realm in which choosing or creating an appropriate metaphor, for example, is as
essential as choosing the right material to fabricate an object. Our highest forms of practical
thinking and our highest forms of practical adaptation to our environment come together
in designing philosophy
Unfinished business
Yet there is a residual and necessary (in a logical sense) incompleteness to designing. Rules were
made to be broken. Going back to letness, nothing ever does nor can completely stand for
something else. Gdel demonstrated this through a mathematical proof (Gdel 1931), though I
think it is much more easily demonstrated by going directly to the nature of stand-for relations.
This incompleteness is at odds with many of the design manifestos that we have inherited from the
last century and earlier, ideas that inform both design education, research, and practice. Problem
solving, creating order, harmonious balance, synthesis are the terms in which the vision of
design is cast. These visions recur, even when they claim to be new:
We are faced with the task of building a new approach to design, which yields useful, useable, and
desirable products for people (The Nantucket Manifesto, October 1998).
Here is a vision of resolution, closure, achievable ends, complete solutions. In a word, a panacea.
Yet, as I hope I have shown, such a vision is a chimera, forever, necessarily and logically beyond
reach. Indeed if we change the aspect, that is, look at any design from a different point of view, it is
a minor transitory thing, a brief adaptation to a changing environment, a prosthetic device.
How then do we reconcile our historical trajectory with our lived experience?
Working at the boundary

In a recent paper (Sless 2002) I gave some examples of how design problems get redefined in the
scoping stage of a design project. For example, I talked about the special instructions that had to be
designed for a medicine in order to help patients deal with some of its possible side effects. In the
scoping stage it became apparent that redesigning the medicine was a better option than redesigning
the instructions. This type of boundary shifting is common in design practice: the nature of the brief
is changed, the problem is redefined.
One of the ways of dealing with the boundary problem is to extend the boundaries ever outward.
Indeed, one way of telling the story of design in the last century is to see it as a series of transitions
in which design progressively extends the boundary of its problem solving domain, beginning with
designing individual objects, moving through designing for mass production, then designing entire
systems, societies, biological ecosystems, forms of life. This story is predicated on the vision of
design as offering ever more comprehensive panaceas, boundaries extending ever outwards.
But the visions of a panacea are, as I suggested above, a chimaera. Consider the problem of
terrorism. Consider the problem of global warming. How would you design a solution to
these problems? Where is the boundary of the problem ? Is there a therapy in Wittgensteins
sense. Is a solution possible?
To even engage in a debate about these issues is, through language, to be involved in designing
philosophy. I would like to suggest that what we do at these boundaries is critical to designing
philosophy and the emerging challenges of our time.
References
Gdel, K. 1931. On formally undecidable propositions of principia mathematic and related systems
I. In S. G. Shanker 1988. Gdels Theorem in focus. London: Croom Helm.
Peirce, C S. 1931-58 Collected Papers, Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press.
Reddy, M.J. 1979. The Conduit Metaphor, in Ortony, A. (ed) Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge
Mass.: MIT Press.
Shepherd, Gregory J. 1993. Building a discipline of communication. Journal of Communication 43
(3), 83-91.
Shrensky, R. 1998. The ontology of communication, PhD thesis, Canberra: University of Canberra.
Sless D. 1991. Communication and certainty Australian Journal of Communication 18 (3) 19_31.
Sless D. 2002 Philosophy as design: a project for our times: Paper presented at the 3rd
International Conference of the Design Education Association, Cardiff March 14 2002. available
online: www.communication.org.au/html/paper_33.html.
Sless, D. 1986 In Search of Semiotics. London: Croom Helm.
Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical Investigations, translated by G. E. M. Anscombe, Oxford:
Basil Blackwell.

M. Stacey Computer and Information Sciences, De Montfort University, UK
C. Eckert Engineering Design Centre, University of Cambridge, UK
C. Earl Design and Innovation, The Open University, UK
L. Bucciarelli School of Engineering, MIT, USA
P. J. Clarkson Engineering Design Centre, University of Cambridge, UK
Abstract
As designing is a diverse phenomenon, but design processes have many important features in
common with some other design processes, we can gain insights into how and why designers do
what they do by making cross-domain comparisons. In this paper we propose a research programme
for design studies: systematising these insights by using comparisons between design processes to
compile a catalogue of patterns of designing sets of features of design processes linked by causal
mechanisms, that in combination with each other give a wide range of design processes their
distinctive forms. The catalogue of patterns should include patterns describing features at different
levels, linked by different sorts of causal mechanisms, so that different theoretical views and scales
of description should be integrated in a richer unified understanding of designing.

Design research: mapping a diverse phenomenon
Designing is a diverse, extremely complex and enormously variable phenomenon, so diverse that it
is not obvious whether it makes any sense to regard it as one thing, distinguished from nondesigning by more than superficial characteristics. What scope do universal theories of design really
have? Perhaps the crucial determinants of the nature of design are neither universal nor peculiar to
individual episodes, but are shared by types of designing. What types of designing? And what are
the crucial determinants of the nature of design?
We have no definitive answers to these questions to offer. What we propose in this paper is a
research programme for developing a richer and broader understanding of designing, by examining
and mapping the similarities and differences between design processes. The goal of this research
programme is to develop a progressively more coherent body of theoretical understanding of
design, by working upwards from individual case studies.
This includes both comparisons between apparently-similar processes within one industry and
between apparently-dissimilar processes producing radically different products, for instance
helicopters and sweaters. We find similarity and difference relationships that cut across
conventional industry boundaries understanding them gives insights that are beyond the scope of
universal theories of design and unreachable through single-industry process models.
While design is the focus of our interest, our local and incremental approach to developing
theoretical understanding of complex human activities means that we are not fundamentally
concerned with the boundaries between design and non-design; our project can and should
encompass the similarities and differences between types of designing and other complex human
activities such as the practice of science. In contrast top-down universal theory approaches to design
necessarily make the difference between design and non-design a central issue (see Love, 2002);
this may be a fundamental mistake.
Design as a function of technology and culture

The nature of an artefact both its physical structure and operating principles, and its intended
purposes (see Kroes, 2002) exerts a powerful causal influence on the process through which it is
designed. And design processes are constrained by human cognitive capabilities; although some
designers have exceptional abilities, the findings of cognitive psychology give us universal
constraints on what is possible for designers. Between these poles, a variety of cultural factors
influence how designing happens: At the social level, the business models of the companies
involved in the process (see for instance Eckert and Demaid, 2001), and their structures and social
organisation. At the individual level, the knowledge, skills and values participants get from their
professional training and experiences. Only some of these factors are unique; important elements
are shared by the members of particular groups (see Bucciarelli, 1994; Henderson, 1999). Among
the very wide range of factors that influence what happens in a design process, some serve to
increase diversity, others serve to increase uniformity.
This richness creates a methodological problem for design research: the sheer scale and complexity
of comprehensive descriptions or explanatory theories of how complex artefacts are designed.
Design researchers are forced to focus on limited subsets of the phenomena in front of them (for an
illustration of this, see the twenty analyses of the same data reported in Cross, Christiaans and
Dorst, 1996). Even rich case studies of individual processes or working environments are
necessarily partial; ethnographers deal with this by adopting as a methodological axiom the view
that different ethnographic accounts of the same culture can be equally valid. Universal theories of
designing focus only on some aspects of a few significant parts of the design creation process. And
descriptions of design differ radically in the scale of the phenomena they describe, as well as in the
coverage they claim and the theoretical and methodological assumptions they embody. For instance
Smithers (1998) presented a theory of the types of knowledge designers use; Papamichael and
Protzen (1993) and Gero and Kannengiesser (2002) offered theories of the types and sequences of
description creation in design; many engineering methodologists have based their views of
designing on the theory of technical systems, for instance Andreasens (1980) theory of domains.
Many other researchers have presented views of design to highlight particular aspects of designing,
for instance Taylor (1993) stressed the inherent complexity and parallel nature of designing; we
(Eckert, Stacey and Clarkson, 2000) highlighted the role of sources of inspiration in idea
generation.
In order to make comparisons between design processes, we need to reduce the complexity of the
problem by focusing on a limited subset of the phenomenon of design, as well as a limited set of
design processes. Thus the research we do and the results we produce will necessarily be piecemeal,
but they should be cumulative. In order to integrate our findings both with other comparative
studies and the insights generated by the wide range of approaches to the study to design, we need a
way to formulate our results that facilitates combination, both to create richer composite analyses
and to reveal conflicts. In the rest of this paper we discuss our experiences of transferring insights
between design processes, and the meta-theoretical view our experiences suggest, of how to do this
systematically to build a structured mosaic of theoretical understanding of design.
Comparative analysis: useful in practice

This papers draws on empirical studies undertaken by the authors in a variety of different domains
and industries. The first author undertook a broad and detailed study of design in the knitwear
industry, focusing on communication (Eckert, 1997, 2001; Eckert and Stacey, 2000) and the role of
inspiration (Eckert and Stacey, 2001), interviewing and observing over 80 designers and technicians
in 25 companies in Britain, Germany and Italy (see Stacey and Eckert, 1999 for a methodological
discussion of our approach). The broad range of companies studied make it possible to compare
patterns of activities across both similar and dissimilar companies, to assess the causes of observed
behaviour. In the knitwear industry everyone followed the same steps, so that the design process as
described in a detailed flowchart model (Eckert, 1997) proved remarkably universal; however there
were very large differences between companies in the effort put into the different stages and the
amount of backtracking to earlier stages. Eckert and Demaid (2001) compared design processes in a
variety of industries characterised by needing to meet very rigid delivery deadlines. They identified
consistent patterns across industries determined by the business models of the companies. How they
sold their products had a huge effect on patterns of communication in the design process as well as
on risk taking. Some companies design their own ranges and sell them through shows. They do
market research, but have no direct interaction with the buyers who make purchasing decisions for
retailers. They are free in their design, but take a high risk. At the other extreme some companies
work very closely with buyers for retailers, who give them briefs for designs and guarantee the
purchase of a certain number of designs. These companies communicate with their buyers, but have
no direct contact with the market. They undertake a large amount of rework to satisfy their buyers,
but carry little risk until the relationship with their buyers becomes tenuous.
More recently the first author has been studying the design of complex engineering products,
focusing on change processes in helicopters (Eckert, Clarkson and Zanker, in press) and diesel
engines; and on process planning and communication in the automotive industry (Eckert and
Clarkson, 2002; Eckert, Clarkson and Stacey, 2001), interviewing between 12 and 25 engineers and
engineering managers in each company. She has gained interesting insights into engineering
processes from her understanding of knitwear design. A stark example is the similarity in
communication behaviour between artistic knitwear designers and technical knitwear technicians,
and conceptual designers and analytical designers of diesel engines. Knitwear designers greatest
skill lies in gaining a tacit understanding of the space of contemporary fashion and placing their
own designs within this context (Eckert and Stacey, 2001). They communicate their ideas highly
efficiently amongst themselves by specifying changes to known examples of designs that are
interpreted within the shared context of contemporary fashion (Eckert and Stacey, 2000). Arguing
with verbal explanations referring to rational criteria from within a tacit context represented largely
in visuospatial terms is extremely difficult; therefore the strength of subjective belief often replaces
rational arguments. This mode of communication does not work well with people who do not share
the context; it often appears handwavy (quite literally) and unspecific. The designers come across as
inarticulate and less knowledgeable then they really are. Several years after observing the discourse
of knitwear designers, we studied change processes in diesel engines, and interviewed several
designers who were involved in the conceptual design of a new four-cylinder engine. The head
designer had to make fundamental design decisions weighing up trade-offs, and defining the
fundamental design that would later be realised and tested in several thousand person-years of
design effort. This individual has a tremendous tacit knowledge of the properties of diesel engine
designs. He uses the companys old engines as well as competitor engines both as inspiration for
reassurance rather than copying and as communication aids. When he has different design
options, he might decide to follow a similar path to his competitors trusting them to have gone
through a careful analysis process. Although design decisions are backed up with analysis, he
follows his subjective instincts. In a discussion of degree titles it emerged that the diesel engine
conceptual designers often dont have a degree and if so feel strongly that they should be bachelors
of art rather than science, because they see themselves as artists. They describe their work as an art
rather than an exact science. Their mannerisms are remarkably similar to the knitwear designers
including the gestures they make and the subjective beliefs with which they argue. In consequence
their more analytical colleagues experienced them as vague and found it difficult to question their
design decisions. When the author pointed out the similarity to knitwear design and explained the
difficulty of rational explanation in communication about objects with emergent spatial or
behavioural properties, designers from both groups found this very enlightening and requested that
this issue be included in a formal feedback presentation. The conceptual designers had never
realised that their way of talking was perceived as unscientific and therefore had not provided the
rational arguments that they could have constructed; and the analytical engineers had never realised
that this way of talking resulted from the task the conceptual designers were doing rather than their
personalities (the two are of course not unconnected).
So we have found that cross-process comparisons, focusing on a few locally-relevant aspects of
designing, have enabled us to identify and explicate important causal influences on what happens in
design processes. However what we have not yet done is formulate the results of such comparisons
in a form that facilitates the development of a systematic body of understanding about design.
Similarity between instances of designing

Our understanding of the diverse range of human activities we label designing is influenced by the
similarities we perceive both between pairs of design activities and across large categories.
Similarity between domains arises from common features of designs or processes. Different
categories of features correspond to a spectrum of layers of design descriptions (Eckert and Earl,
2002). At one end of this spectrum lie the designers domain knowledge and the organisation of the
process whilst at the other end lie the details of components and the production processes that
produce them. In a central layer, the features of products, which include solution principles,
function and layout, link 'upwards' to the knowledge and process layers and 'down' to production
and component layers. Common features between domains can be examined in each of the layers
separately. However, in identifying similarities between domains it will be necessary to look across
layers. Just as common features (and distinguishing features) can be used to compare domains, so
can common relationships between features. Not all shared features will have the same significance,
either in our perceptions or in theoretically grounded reasoning. Moreover distinguishing features
may overwhelm the similarity due to shared features. One purpose of the research programme we
propose here is to change peoples perceptions of similarities and differences by raising awareness
of factors other than superficial product characteristics and conventional divisions between
industries.
People commonly perceive design as having a unity beyond being the activity of creating a plan
for an artefact to meet a practical need; and many commentators have argued that it is
fundamentally characterised by a cycle of proposing a partial solution, evaluating the solution,
reformulating the problem and proposing another solution to the revised problem (Asimow, 1962;
see Cross, 2000). But we suspect that much of the perceived unity comes from design activities
sharing many characteristics with some others; in order to make sense of the relationships between
individual processes and the range of design activities, we need to consider other kinds of similarity
relationships.
Most intuitively, similarity classes can be defined where all elements in the class share a set of
common features. In mathematical analyses of similarity, closures arising when no more elements
can be added to a class without reducing the numbers of features they all share are the critical
similarity classes. These similarity classes are related in a lattice structure (Ganter & Wille, 1999)
which provides a 'map' of potential similarity relationships. Similarity can also be based on
tolerance relations defined by shared features. Tolerance classes are maximal sets of mutually
similar elements, that is each pair of elements shares at least one feature (Schreider, 1975; Zadeh,
1971). This tolerance similarity is not transitive so that if domain A is similar to B which is in turn
similar to C then A may not be similar to C. Similarity classes themselves are the subject of a
tolerance relation based on sharing a common domain. A weaker definition of similarity classes
relaxes the condition for common features to exist between each pair of domains in a class,
allowing a chain of connection. Two domains A and C can be similar through a domain B which
shares features with A and (not necessarily the same features) with C. A stronger specification takes
into account the number of shared features. An m-connection arises from m shared features and
corresponding similarity requires that domains share at least m features. Classes defined by chains
of m-connections correspond to the multidimensional structures of complex systems (Johnson,
1995).
In measuring the strength of similarity it is necessary to consider both shared and distinguishing
features as well as their significance (Tversky, 1977). The 'diagnostic' or classificatory value of
features is dependent on the domains being compared. The strength of similarity between domains
can reinforce itself in this classificatory role. Similarity is then perceived as greater within the
group. The significance of features is also dependent on the range of domains being compared.
Features common to all domains in a range have little or no significance. However, adding more
domains, which do not share these common features, can increase the significance of the original
features.
Patterns of designing
The characteristics that some instances of designing share with some others come in clusters
different instances of designing can have a lot in common because what they share includes
powerful determinants of the form of the designing process. Clusters of consistently shared
characteristics form patterns. If we observe such a cluster, we can hypothesise that the shared
characteristics are linked by causal relationships, or are all symptoms of some as yet unrecognised
underlying cause. We can test such a hypothesis in two ways: by looking at other design processes
to see if the presence of some of these attributes predicts the presence of other attributes; and by
trying to construct and test theories of how the attributes are causally related.
In our view, recognising and making sense of patterns of designing is crucial to developing a rich,
multi-level understanding of design. [Note that we avoid the term design pattern; this refers to an
abstractly-formulated solution to a recurring problem, together with a description of the type of
problem it fits and the consequences of using it, an idea introduced into architecture by Christopher
Alexander (Alexander et al., 1977) and widely adopted in software engineering (notably, Gamma et
al., 1995). This notion has long been implicit in much engineering practice.]
Patterns of designing can be detected at all the scales at which designing can be analysed and
described of time, number of participants, the portion of the whole artefact being considered, and
the activities that are the units of analysis. Moreover, given sufficiently rich observations of design
processes we can look for patterns comprising features at different levels of description. But
identifying similarities that can be represented as patterns of designing is not trivial: it involves
finding the right abstractions of observable phenomena; this requires imagination and reframing the
design situations in different conceptual terms.
Causal stories: elements of theories of designing

Even if the elements of a group of characteristics appear to be consistently present or consistently
absent in a range of design processes, the group will be unpersuasive as a pattern of designing until
we have a causal explanation for why these features are related. Thus the next step given a putative
pattern is hypothesising one or more plausible causal stories for how the features share common
causes, or are linked by a chain of cause and effect. The instances of designing under study can then
be scrutinised for supporting or disconfirming evidence. Hypothesising causal relationships enables
the generation of more focused questions about what is really going on in an episode of designing.
But the processes of designing complex artefacts are immensely complex and variable, and the
causal mechanisms that influence the form of designing may operate with different strength. Causal
influences on some aspect of designing may collide, chains of causality may be blocked or modified
by other influences. So we should ordinarily formulate our causal stories in terms of causal
pressures rather than rigid determination. We may observe only part of a previously defined pattern
in another design process, so that some characteristic of the process is predicted by the pattern but is
absent. We should look for reasons why the causal mechanisms that according to the pattern should
produce it are blocked, as well as for evidence that they are not operating. Either finding should
enable us to refine our formulation of the pattern or suggest a new one.
We retain an open mind on the question of whether a science of design is possible, or whether the
study of design is necessarily a humanistic discipline (see Darke, 1979, for an articulation of this
view). But the collection of patterns of designing has the form of scientific research what we are
after is understanding regularities and causal processes, by hypothesising and testing covering laws
relating observable variables in the form of clusters of characteristics of design processes, and
partial theories in the form of causal stories for why the elements of the pattern are related. Such
covering laws and pieces of causal explanation formulated as patterns of designing are local and
fragmentary pieces of a fuller theory subsuming all valid universal theories and accurate process
models, that it may be impossible ever to complete.
A research programme in comparative design studies

Because designing any complex artefact involves an extremely complex process, and design
processes are influenced by a wide variety of phenomena at several levels, complete causal
explanations of why everything happens and the way it happens are infeasible. But design processes
are neither completely dissimilar from each other nor completely unpredictable. We can aim to
develop an understanding of design that explains the nature and effect of major causal influences on
design processes; and that predicts to a useful degree the form of design activities and the problems
they will meet. The immensity of the task of developing a complete theory should not worry us,
provided that our theory fragments not only function as free-standing explanations of interesting
phenomena, but can also be combined to understand what happens when different interesting
phenomena occur together.
We propose that cataloguing patterns of designing should be a significant part of future empirical
design research. Researchers should take opportunities to use previously documented patterns to
gain insight into new design processes. At the same time they should take opportunities to test,
corroborate, falsify and refine previously documented patterns as well as add new ones. In each
case they should explicitly raise the question of how general are the phenomena they see in
individual cases. Through an incremental process of critical evaluation by a diverse body of
researchers everyone who wishes to participate we can incrementally develop a progressively
greater understanding of similarities and differences between design situations, and the causal
influences that give design processes their form.
The view of design processes as varying in similarity to each other along different dimensions, and
the research programme we outline here, is independent of the theoretical assumptions and
foundations that underlie any particular approach to understanding what is going on in design. The
comparative programme should encompass and orient a variety of different theoretical and
methodological approaches to design studies. It should provide a basis for examining the scope of
particular analyses and their relationships to similar analyses of other design processes; and for
relating different theoretical perspectives on the same phenomena.
We welcome the participation of researchers with different concerns and theoretical viewpoints.
Patterns of causal influence can spring from technical, organisational, social and cognitive causes,
and can act at many different scales, and a key part of the programme we propose is looking to see
how different patterns describing different types of phenomena interact. Researchers tend to
interpret phenomena that they see on one specific layer and attribute problems to the cause they are
most familiar with. Sociologists tend to attribute problems to the interpersonal nature of design,
psychologists to cognitive factors, business researchers to organisational processes. For instance
Eckert (2001) described a variety of causes for breakdowns in the communication of design ideas
between commercial knitwear designers and knitting machine technicians (and argued that the
primary causes were the inherent difficulties of describing knitted structures in the available
representations and the participants lack of understanding of the nature of their communication
problems, while several secondary causes made resolving the problems harder). The two groups are
socially as different as possible: young university trained women versus older men trained on the
job with little formal education. Sociologists repeatedly commented that only when they heard this
fact, they understood why the two groups dont communicate. However we have also observed
communication difficulties between socially homogeneous engineers with different areas of
expertise and mental representations what Bucciarelli (1994) termed different object worlds
(Eckert, Clarkson and Zanker, in press). Comparative studies that allow us to test causal hypotheses
should enable us to assess the validity of different explanations.
Comparative analysis through observational studies

While theoretical analyses and experimental studies of designing in more or less realistic scenarios
can yield important insights, particularly into the cognitive processes involved in particular kinds of
problem solving, the primary source of information in the comparative design research programme
will be studies of actual commercial design processes through interviews and observations.
Sociology offers many different methodological approaches for studying cultures. Ethnography (see
for instance Agar, 1980; Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995) has been widely adopted as a way to
understand work cultures to assess the real requirements for software systems (for instance
Suchman, 1987; Viller and Sommerville, 2000; see Anderson, 1994; Button, 2000), and has been
taken up by many design researchers (notably Bucciarelli, 1988, 1994) including ourselves (Eckert,
1997, 2001). Ethnographic methodology can be applied to developing analyses of design in terms
of cognitive analyses of expertise (Ball and Ormerod, 2000) and knowledge-level analyses of the
information used and transmitted by the participants in a design process (Stacey and Eckert, 1999),
as well as sociologically-oriented analyses of the types of statement that members of design teams
make to each other (Minneman, 1991) and the role of visual representations in structuring design
processes (Henderson, 1999).
In an ethnographic study the researchers join in the daily life of the groups they are studying and
attempt to learn the skills and perspectives of the actors, while remaining conscious of their role as
an outsider. This dual perspective enables the ethnographer to make sense of how the participants in
the culture themselves see what they do and why they do it. Ethnographic studies are traditionally
very detailed studies of one culture, which do not make any claims to generality. The criterion for
validity is that assertions ring true to the participants in the culture; some researchers have
attempted formal validation exercises with their participants, this is not unproblematic
(Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995). However the rich data and insights gained by ethnographers can
allow us to interpret behaviour we see in other situations. For example Anderson (1994) pointed up
the analogy between Levi-Strausss (1969) study of marriage and gift-giving among Amazonian
Indians and the social processes involved in experts helping their less knowledgeable colleagues
customise software (Mackay, 1990). While some ethnographers argue that researchers should enter
a culture without prior hypotheses, in practice hypothetico-deductive reasoning and explicit
hypothesis testing is an important part of ethnographic fieldwork (Hammersley and Atkinson,
1995); we have argued that this is an essential part of understanding how cultural factors and the
nature of the artefact interact to determine the form of the design process (Stacey and Eckert, 1999).
Comparisons between design domains can provide a rich source of hypotheses to test and refine in
observational studies; their use should be enhanced by making testable hypotheses available in a
systematic catalogue of patterns of designing.
In most of our own empirical studies of engineering, applying ethnographic methods is infeasible;
we are largely reliant on interviews (Eckert, 2002). The information gathered is less rich, and
suffers if the interviews are away from the engineers normal workplaces. Nor can we always take
statements in interviews at face value, as ethnographers well know. However we find interview
studies to be effective given appropriately selected informants, especially if assertions can be
discussed with several people with different viewpoints. We are able to actively test hypotheses
derived from cross-industry comparisons. We employ aspects of the ethnographic mindset: we
recognise the importance of understanding the participants own perceptions of tasks, situations and
cultures; and that interpretations are selective and partial, so that different accounts may be equally
valid. However, central to our approach is generating and testing more general and abstract causal
processes, and using comparisons between situations to test hypotheses and rival explanations.
The return journey: practical applications of comparative design studies

Our approach is pragmatic. It aims to provide useful insights into particular situations from the
richness of the immense variety of other design processes. While we are intellectually interested in
understanding the nature of design, our ultimate goal is to find ways to support and enhance the
work of practising designers. In the development of computer support tools, methodologies and
management procedures, it is crucial to know the scope of phenomena the techniques are designed
to address. It is necessary to identify the root causes of problems. The catalogue of patterns we
envisage should provide designers, managers and software developers facing local practical
problems with a toolkit of concepts with which to make sense of design processes they want to
improve. Our comparative design research programme is intended to enable the transmission of best
practice between companies and between industries by enabling the recognition of which design
processes share needs and problems, instead of relying merely on the similarities between products.
We also believe that our comparative approach can yield benefits for design education in a variety
of design disciplines, which try to develop their own models and teaching methods without
benefiting from each others experiences. Many working designers we have met in knitwear design
as well as engineering fail to understand the nature of their colleagues work for instance knitwear
designers typically fail to comprehend that knitting machine technicians do designing (Eckert,
2001) with visible adverse consequences for design processes. We find that designers in
subjective fields like knitwear design lack understanding and respect for the technical, problem
solving aspects of their own work, while designers in technical fields like engineering lack
understanding and respect for the holistic, perceptual or subjective thinking involved in design. All
these designers would benefit from a greater understanding of the similarities and differences
between different kinds of artistic and technical design. In the long term, this more sophisticated
view among designers may influence public understanding of design. The recruitment into different
design professions is influenced by the publics perception of the different fields, for example many
believe that textile design would be more creative than engineering. Stereotypes perpetuate old
gender divisions and attract certain personalities to certain fields.
Acknowledgements
Claudia Eckerts contribution to this research has been supported by the EPSRC block grants to the
Cambridge University Engineering Design Centre. This paper was written while Louis Bucciarelli
was a visiting professor at the Delft University of Technology. Several members of the Cambridge
EDC have participated in our empirical studies of engineering design processes, particularly Tim
Jarratt and Brendan ODonovan. We are very grateful to all our informants in many companies who
have given their time to interviews and observations.
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12
Information and cognitive process: a communication theory

for design
P. K. Storkerson Institute of Design, Illinois Institute of Technology, USA
Abstract
Design lacks a direct language for discussing meaning as it is experienced and constructed by
receivers, and it lacks operational methods for measuring meaning and relating it to the design
decisions that determine the spatial and temporal composition of communications. Thus, at the heart
of the design process itself is a lacuna.
This paper describes a theoretical approach to bridge the gap by examining how users construct
meaning. The proposed cognitive process model is based on the processes of perception, thought,
and memory: species wide competencies that underlie the manifold social and cultural code systems
of communicative forms. A method is derived to make inferences about that user constructed
meaning on the basis of observable outcomes. The research protocol provides a robust, repeatable,
in situ method that can be used in different communications situations for exploring highly varied
communication questions, and for extending empirically substantiated theory. The research method
can support the development of a larger analytic base for communication design. The research
provides methods in which communication outcomes can be clearly demonstrated, with the
potential for replacing survey and focus group analysis in those situations where they are dubious or
ambiguous with a tool that is simpler to use, more direct in its measures, easier to interpret, and
which can be unobtrusively embedded into pre-existing communications.
The theory and research demonstrate that it is possible to use empirical methods in non-positivist
ways to creatively explore subtle and meaningful ideas about communication and design. The
results of such explorations can be used to create new ways of designing communications.
Information and cognitive process: a communication theory

for design
Let us begin with two simple premises. First, what distinguishes much designed communication
from art and other forms of expression is accountability, i.e. that it is required to communicate
something specific: either a set of data or facts, or a specific frame for looking at data or facts.
Second, the communication of data and facts relies on frames for interpreting them. Without frames
of reference, facts are meaningless. The dependence of communication on the frames it must
communicate is the conundrum. Often communicators can presume that competent receivers
already possess the appropriate frames. Let us take financial communications as an example. For
professional readers, the presentation of a companys history of earnings growth and its current
price earnings ratio will cue a frame of reference within which to look at the stock price. But, we
can quickly imagine three scenarios in which the strict information display model is not adequate.
Scenario 1: the frame of reference is unknown or problematical. The information is an enigma that
cannot be placed into the readers known frames. It needs a new frame of reference to make it
intelligible. Scenario 2: the reader is not a professional, but a consumer who needs to be educated as
well as informed. Scenario 3: the readers arena of action is substantially separated from the
domains of the information. For example, the reader is presented information about a specific stock
or sector, but he or she must use the information to make decisions about personal spending, and
retirement goals and strategies.
Designers are currently confronting these scenarios, reflected in new information requirements of
changing markets, customization of information for consumers who are increasingly acting as their
own fiduciaries, and particularly in terms of delivering information and providing information
interfaces that are directly actionable by end users. New approaches range from consolidated
information statements, to smart agents, to qualitative (low-resolution) displays. These
considerations bring us to an aspect of communication design that complements the notion of
communication as information display or message: a cognitive process model of communication.
Basic tenets of the cognitive process model can be summarized as follows. The content of a
communication is comprised by the receivers formation of a concept: an interpretive frame or
frames of reference, which make the communication intelligible. The communicative content is not
expressed information or subject matter. The content is what is not expressed: what is created by the
receiver using his or her cognitive faculties. Thus, most importantly, communication is the guiding
of cognition, a rational, human, species wide competence. This competence is a constant, which
underlies varied cultural and social beliefs. It is also implicit in communications, as artifacts, which
are created and received not as objects in themselves, but as vehicles of communication.
The cognitive process model of communication proposed here sees the communication not as the
transmission of information, but as a series of challenges, rewards, and resources that provoke and
guide the receivers perception, thought, inference, recognition, and memory. This model
complements information presentation or message approaches by concentrating on the receiver as
the one who constructs the interpretive frame. It recognizes the receiver as an active participant. It
balances this by recognizing the communication as an active participant as well. The
communication is not merely a tool, but an interactive partner: indicating the situation, modeling
roles by displaying comportment that is appropriate to the situation, and steering the receiver
toward the frames it wishes the receiver to invoke.
When we speak in terms of the document, we speak of its meaning, while when we speak of the
readers participation, we speak of interpretation. The focus on receiver participation stresses
interpretation. The term interpretation can be taken in three ways: identification, meaning or
implication, and evaluation. Of the three, identification is primary and objective: it is who or what
we are seeing or what is happening. Comprehension grows out of the inner consideration of
external objects and events, and evaluation is ones sense of the objects as related to ones goals and
desires. Identification is a highly objective, non-idiosyncratic, and rational process. It is out
orientation to the outside world. We count on its objectivity to keep us from walking into doors and
falling down stairs. Communicators count on the rationality and consistency of this process among
receivers and thus on the ability to anticipate, encourage, and accommodate it with appropriate
affordances.
Theory orientation
This paper presents the cognitive process model through research conducted at the Institute of
Design, Illinois Institute of Technology [Storkerson, 2001]. At the heart of this model is the notion
that a receiver must, select or create a frame of reference to make a communication intelligible.
That frame defines the communications meaning or content, as distinct from its subject matter, and
it is the primary communication goal or prerequisite. Again, the subject matter may be the price of a
car, while the content may be Should I buy this car if I want to retire in comfort in fifteen years?
Increasingly, communications are combining symbolic modes such as language, with sensory
modes: visualizations including charts and diagrams, sounds, motion, navigation, etc. In doing so,
they mix two different human cognitive systems. The distinction can be demonstrated directly. Take
the sentence The house fell on my head, and ask how we make sense of it. In terms of word
meanings, it is difficult to find linkages between house to head that specify their semantic
relations, but it is very easy to make up a little imagined visualization, and watch the house lift up,
rotate, turn upside down and fall on my head [Waltz, 1981]. On the other hand, it is hard to imagine
visualizing symbolic calculation like the old chestnut All men are mortal. If A. is a man. Then, A.
is mortal.
Sensory and symbolic cognitive systems are complementary and distinct (Figure 1). Sensory
systems tell us about experience and operate according to experiential dimensions of time and
space. They function narratively, like the house visualization, and are tied to specific events and
locations. Sensory systems organize the flow of experience spontaneously, into the discrete events
and entities of perception, and resolve them by coherence. Symbol systems are category driven.
They require the naming of events and entities: their construal in terms of general categories that
are not tied to any such specific places and events. Symbol systems concentrate on a finite number
of items, calculating and inferring answers on the basis of reasons rather than some overall
coherence. Finally, sensory modes give us experiential knowledge, which is incommensurable with
symbolic knowledge. The house visualization does not just give us more information about the
sentence, it tells us what the sentence might mean in terms of experience.
Figure 1: Mixed model of cognition [after Farah, 1989]

In graphic and multimedia communications, the symbolic and sensory modes must be integrated to
give a single experiential-conceptual amalgam. This cognitive integration gives graphic
communication its power. Cognitive processes combine perception and thought to form concepts or
inferences, which are projected or imagined and compared with direct perception (Figure 2). When
projected inferences and direct perceptions match, the result is recognition, which is a combination
of sensory and conceptual elements resulting in a phenomenology or sense of knowing or grasping
(Figure 3).
Figure 2: Cognitive process
Figure 3: Cognitive phenomenology
For example, I see someone new who looks vaguely familiar. I dont remember her, so I try to think
of whom she looks like. I think of someone, visualize the person as of when I last saw her, and
compare that image with the person in front of me. I recognize and isolate the resemblance, e.g.,
eyes or hair. Now, recollections and feelings about an old acquaintance also enter my mind in a
flood.
Graphic and multimedia communications harness the knowledge built into sensory cognition and
apply it to other domains. A stock price graph relies on symbol systems to refer to days and to
indices, but it is sensory cognition - the ability to run movies in the head - that is behind the implied
motion of diagonal lines and that enables viewers to intuit that prices are rising and falling.
Thus, graphic communications leverage sensory knowledge and use it to teach about other things,
and to imply narratives.
Image-text composites are even more fascinating. Consider the photograph of Figure 4, left. By
itself, this image has little discernible meaning. Now, forget the image and consider the sentence:
Joanne used the press as the press used Joanne. By itself, this sentence is enigmatic. When,
however, the text is placed next to or over the image, the two are combined. Now, we have a new
interpretive frame. Its a picture of Joanne. We are looking through a picture taken by a press
photographer whom Joanne is fending-off by shielding her face. She is a celebrity and the press are
using her by invading her privacy. But, if she is using the press, her pose is also ironic. She is,
perhaps, both fending-off and attracting the press. She is negotiating her celebrity. We cannot
know these things in the veridical sense of warranted proofthe picture could be staged and the
caption was certainly addedbut the combined image and text convey the meaning by supporting
new interpretive frames and afford us the phenomenology or sense of knowing what we are seeing.
Phenomenological knowing is a primary goal of information design. That intuitive sense of
grasping makes information actionable. Such composite presentations are all the more persuasive
because as receivers, we think we are making our own interpretations.
Figure 4: Image-text cross mode cognition

Once defined, cognitive processes and outputs can be measured as memory. Psychologists have
demonstrated that memory is not a record of stimuli, but of cognitive activity: work and successful
results. We remember the things that we make sense of and we see them as significant in terms of
some set of events or discourse. We remember them as we interpret them: in the forms of meaning
they have for us. We do not, for example, remember details in noise and clutter; we do remember
configurations with form and structure. Memory can be seen in three aspects: retention,
comprehension which is the depth of processing that is reflected in the entities remembered, and
interpretation which is the structure or organization of what is remembered.
Given that memory tracks cognitive work and its results, the primary cognitive act is integration,
the organization of the perceptual field into distinct events and entities. Successful integration
results in phenomenological knowing which can be measured as confidence. The cognitive work
involved can be measured as processing time or latency. The primary record of cognitive process is
long-term retention: recall (Who was the president during the civil war?), or recognition (Who is in
this picture?). Comprehension can be measured by the conceptual level of memory. Ericsson and
Simon have demonstrated that verbalizations are limited by the sophistication of comprehension
(Ericsson and Simon, 1996). Finally, interpretation can be measured as the selectivity and structure
of memory cues (what part reminds a receiver of what other part).
Figure 5: Cognition and memory
Experiments
This model makes an ambitious claim that bridges from cognitive processes to interpretive content:
If I know what you remember of a communication, I know how you can think about it, and by
knowing how you can think about it, I know what you think. Experiments can help determine
whether this claim can be sustained. Two experiments were devised for this purpose. Both used a
computer program to show movies and ask questions about them. Each movie was eight to twelve
seconds long with a single event on video and a spoken text with a single statement or proposition
(Figure 6).
In the first experiment, 40 movies were shown individually to 120 subjects, both male and female,
from 18 to 60 years of age and with varying levels of education. The relations between the modes
(video and spoken text) varied according to whether the video and words explicitly presented
common subject matter, or concepts, if they implicitly presented common concepts, or if there were
no credible common concepts or subject matter presented. Interpretation was operationalized as the
integration of video and words into a whole. Processing, or cognitive effort was measured by
latency: the length of time required to either make the integration or decide that it was not possible
to do so. Phenomenological knowing was operationalized as reported confidence. Thus, after each
movie, subjects were asked whether the video and words made sense together (yes or no). Then,
subjects were asked how condent they were of the response. Records were made of responses and
response times.
Figure 6: Experimental movies and questions

From the data, movie scores were constructed for each movie. A movies integration score could
range from 0% if all subjects reported segregation, to 100% if all subjects reported integration. Its
confidence score could range from 1 if all responses reported low confidence to 3 if all responses
reported high confidence. Both responses and response times or latencies were collected as data.
Movie scores showed normal distributions with rates of integration varying from approximately
10% to 90%, confidence scores ranging from approximately 1.8 (low-medium confidence) to 2.8
(high confidence) and latencies ranging from .2 sec. to 10 sec (the maximum allowed by the
program). The mean score for integration of movies was 44%, which means that on the whole
movies were integrated 44% of the time. On average, it took almost 2 seconds to respond to the
integration question, about 1 second of which was keying and reaction time. The mean score for
confidence was about 2.4, indicating that most responses were in the moderate to high confidence
range. The confidence latencies averaged near one second, indicating that confidence was not a
considered judgment but a feeling that could be quickly reported.
Integration latency showed a significant U-shaped relationship to integration score (Figure 7),
indicating that the movies that were most often either integrated or segregated were processed most
quickly. Those with scores near 50% took substantially longer to process, indicating that they were
more difficult and required more thinking. Movies with integration scores near 50% were movies
on which subjects split as to whether they could be integrated. In itself, this could be a matter of
cultural or individual differences in interpretation, but other measures indicate that individual
interpretations were not so idiosyncratic. The relationship between integration score and latency
indicates that behind the apparent differences in interpretation for movies with scores near 50%,
there was greater difficulty in interpretation. This was a strong relationship with an Rsq greater than
40%, significant at the .000 level.
The movies that were difficult to process were also reported as ambiguous. Subjects were most
confident of their judgment with movies scoring high and low on rates of integration (figure 7).
Their confidence dropped as the integration scores approached 50%. This was a very strong
relationship with an Rsq. of 61%, significant at the .000 level.
Figure7: Integration, cognitive difficulty, and confidence

Finally, background information was collected including age, gender and educational attainment.
There were some differences between groups: greater tendencies to integrate, slightly different
mean reported confidence levels, etc. but the relations were the same for all groups.
Second experiment
Experiment 2 focused on the effects of perceptual disturbances on interpretation and memory. This
experiment used 20 of the movies which were used in experiment one, but here, the temporal
relations between video and spoken words were altered yielding nine Delay States including
synchronized presentation (identical to experiment one), and with either video or spoken words
delayed: by one second, with one second overlap, with no overlap, or with a one second gap
between whichever mode was first and the mode presented second (Figure 8).
Figure 8: Delay, precedence, and integration

As in the first experiment, immediately after each movie was shown, subjects were asked if video
and words made sense together, and to report their confidence in their judgment (low, medium, or
high). Also, as in experiment 1, latencies were measured (Figure 6).
The Integration and Confidence results of experiment 2 showed the inhibiting effect of Delay State
on Integration (Figure 8). Integration was highest in the synchronous 0 Delay State, with a score of
52%. It dropped to as low as 35% for Delay States 2 and 3. It dropped significantly, to 43%, with
only a 1 second delay. Figure 8 also shows that it made little or no difference which mode was
delayed, indicating that neither mode carried a predominance of meaning.
Since there was no one-to-one correspondence between videos and words, a delay of one mode
merely altered already arbitrary adjacencies of words and video. It appears that subjects were
attempting to integrate modes based on perceived onset as a cue: trying to realign video and words
using sensory or working memory. The temporal misalignment of modes was perceived as such
because it violated the expectation that things that belong together start together. The lesser effect
of a 1 second delay was consistent with compromised cognitive function as delays approach the
limits of perceptual memory.
Integration and memory

In the second part of experiment 2, subjects were tested on their memory via recognition. The
strategy was to re-run each of the movies, presenting one of its two modeseither the video or the
spoken wordswhile presenting the other mode from four movies including the correct match
10
(figure 9). Subjects were asked to correctly match video and words that belong together in the same
movie. In this way, either video or spoken words could serve as a cue for the recollection for the
other, and it might be possible to detect which movies were remembered.
Figure 9: Recognition test; matching video and text

The overall rate of correct identification (Memory) was high: 86% of movies were correctly
identified, compared to a chance 25% correct response rate. The overall Memory Latency, i.e. the
time it took to match video and words was 8.1 seconds. This reflected the difficult job of matching
video and words, which involved memory and discrimination between memories while
presentations were being shown. The mean confidence was 2.55, indicating that subjects were
moderately to very confident of their recollection. Given the high level of correct answers, most of
the calls were probably easy.
The major single finding with respect to memory was that the movies that subjects had integrated
when they first saw them were substantially better remembered than movies that they had not
integrated (Figure 10). Only 7% of integrated movies were not remembered while 13% of not
integrated movies were not remembered. For integrated movies, the variable Delay (regardless of
which mode has precedence) had no significant relationship to memory, but for segregated movies,
delay improved memory from 72% scores for synchronized presentations to as high as 85% for
delay states of one second. As figure 10 shows, memory was highest for overlapping or gaps
between modes.
11
Figure 10: Memory, delay, and integration
This finding points toward a second factor beyond integration affecting memory: i.e., cognitive
effort itself. Research on cognitive interference, challenges like the one presented by temporal
shifts, indicates that such interference may inhibit initial learning, like integration, but may also
actually facilitate longer cognitive effects like memory. (Battig, 1966, 1972) Interference and
facilitation effects are generally beyond the scope of this paper.
Conclusion
This paper has proposed a cognitive processing model of communication in order to bridge the gap
between the physical configuration of communications and received meaning. The goal of this
model was to make a path by which meaning can be operationalized, and tested against physical
variables. It accomplished the goal by relating meaning to cognitive processes with measurable
indicators.
The experiments cited are formative, but they present a strong case for the validity, researchability
and potential usefulness of the cognitive process model. They demonstrate that cognitive processes
are measurable and consistent across a broad population, and that they are related to primary
interpretation (integration), phenomenological knowing (confidence) and memory (recognition).
The use of time delays indicates the potential importance of sensory manipulations in the inhibition
or facilitation of integration and memory as well as the organization of memory (interpretation).
These are formative experiments initiating a larger research program which can include many other
hypotheses and variables. The experimental method has demonstrated the validity of the theoretical
approach based on cognitive function can be resolved into specific predictions and those predictions
can be tested. It has the potential for application as a method for gaining access to a broad range of
variables through cognitive processes. The method can be refined and extended in many ways:
12
Refinement of variables: Specific parameters like the lengths of movies, and specifications like
the use of videos and spoken texts as distinct from images and written texts could be altered for
comparison and for refinement.
New Variables: This method could be used to examine a wide variety of variables including the
use of still photographs, superimposition of text, video montage and quality, the speakers age,
race, sex, manner of speaking and tone of voice.
Sequence Testing: Experiments could be extended to include associations between different

movies and sequences of movies. It could be used to study the effects of photographic variables,
sound, or music, and it could be used to access a broad variety of socio-cultural attitudes as they
affect interpretation, comprehension and memory.
Human-Computer Interaction: Methods could be extended to the domain of human-computer

activities : eliciting and steering human motivation.
In situ testing: The experimental methods used here could be applied unobtrusively outside of
the laboratory, in real-world situations and integrated into design processes.
The approach and the research presented in this paper has direct implications to communication
design on 3 levels: findings, theory, and meta-theory: i.e., a theoretical base that can be used to
produce hypotheses regarding design practice.
Findings: It generates findings in the domain of communication design: practical advice for
communication designers. Some findings may be surprising, such as the facilitating effects of
interference. These findings can be used to predict and measure results, and to creatively
explore new design possibilities.
Modeling: It presents a theoretical model of communications that is testable: it can be used to

make hypotheses that can be affirmed or refuted.
Empirical methods: It builds an experimental method that can be used to generate and test new
hypotheses and in that way to refine, extend and produce new models.
Using this simple procedure, it is possible to incorporate assessment into communications as

they are being used.
This approach demonstrates that it is possible to build models that are both theoretically
sophisticated and empirically researchable. It takes a step toward communication design as a
theoretically informed, research-based enterprise that can specify and design communicative
outcomes and assess performance.
13
References
Battig, William. 1966. Facilitation and Interference. in Acquisition of Skill, edited by Edward
Bilodeau. New York: Academic Press, p.213-241
Battig, William. 1972. Intratask Interference as a Source of Facilitation in Transfer and Retention.
in Topics in Learning and Performance, edited by Richard Thompson, James Voss, Wilfred
Brogden. New York: Academic Press, pp.134-146
Ericsson, Karl., Simon, Herbert. 1996. Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data. Cambridge:
MIT Press, pp. 1-10
Farah, J. Martha. 1989. Text and Pictures: a Neuropsychological Perspective. in Knowledge
Acquisition from Text and Pictures, edited by Heinz Mandl, Joel Levin. New York: North Holland,
p. 60
Lakoff, George., Johnson, Mark. 1999. Philosophy in the Flesh: the Embodied Mind and its
Challenge to Western Thought. New York: Basic Books, 624p.
Storkerson, Peter. 2001. Cross Mode Communication in Multimedia. (Ph.D. diss., Institute of
Design, Illinois Institute of Technology). 169p.
Waltz, David. 1981.Toward a Detailed model of Processing for Language Describing the Physical
World, Proceedings of the Seventh International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence,
IJCAI-81, University of British Columbia, pp. 24-28
14
A field study methodology using self-photography of

workplace activities
E. Tamaru Human Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan
K. Hasuike Human Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan
M. Tozaki Human Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan
Abstract
The design of a new tool or technology for a workplace should take into account the broad range of
activities that go on in a given work environment. This paper describes an observation methodology
in which the users -those who actually work in a given environment - photograph their own
activities, acting as their own investigators. In this methodology, some visual tools are used to
enhance communication in the design process. During follow-up interviews of the workplace
activities between designers and workplace users, the self-photographs serve an important role as a
medium to help designers understand how users function in the workplace. An interaction map,
which visualizes the structure of the work practice, promotes and mediates interaction between the
user community and the design team. In addition, the self-photography helps to give users a sense
of participation in the investigation process. This helps users become involved in the design process
thoroughly and smoothly. By applying this observation technique to three design projects, it is
confirmed that the self-photo methodology is effective not only as an observation tool but also as a
mediating tool among the various communities across the entire design process.
A field study methodology using self-photography of

workplace activities
Introduction
The development and deployment of a new tool or technology affects a broad range of work
activities and people, necessitating changes in various kinds of activities. A new tool or technology
does not stand alone; rather its use depends on people, organizations, and other tools and
technologies (Suchman 1987). In other words, a new tool or technology is embedded into a sociotechnological network. From this point of view, the design of a new tool or technology must be
based on a proper understanding of practical user activities in an actual workplace.
Our main research interest is to develop a methodology for observing the work practices of users in
order to design a new tool or technology. How to reflect the field study data into the design is also a
significant research issue. Another interest is the collaborative design process. Various kinds of
people, such as designers, researchers, planners, and developers, are involved in the design process.
Close communication among these participants is necessary (Bodker 1996, Kensing 1998). We
focus especially on how to share information about users work activities during the design process.
In this paper, we describe a methodology, called self-photo study, to understand users' work
practices from an ethnographic approach. Our research focus is to develop a photographic field
study methodology, and self-photo study is one such methodology. Based on three experiments we
conducted using self-photo study, our research confirms the effectiveness of self-photography for
data gathering and shared understanding among users and the design team. Furthermore, we discuss
how this methodology helps the interaction between the user community and design community in
the design process.
Self-photo study
In order to understand the work practices of users (or workers) we are developing a simple
fieldwork method, in which the users themselves serve as investigators; each user photographs his
or her own work practices (Bly 1999: Mountford 1991: Gaver 1999). This method is called "selfphoto study. In our trials of this method, each subject was given a disposable camera and was
asked to take photographs during the course of a typical workday. They were instructed to record,
through the photos, their activities related to work, communication, and relaxation. Each photo of
an activity contained places, people, artifacts, and so on. After the film was developed, the subjects
were interviewed about the photos. Some of the questions were as follows.
- What place is this?
- What kind of activity are you performing here?
- What kinds of tools and documents are you using in this photo, and how are you using them?
- With whom are you working or communicating here? What kind of technology is mediating such
communication?
Photographs and interview data are arranged on a workplace data sheet, which consists of several
fields, such as photograph, place, time, activity, people, artifact, communication, and so on (Figure
1). Then an interaction map is created from the workplace data sheet (Figure 2). This map
visualizes the relationships between or among workplaces, workers, artifacts and activities. After
the interviews, subjects and members of a design team hold a workshop to discuss their activities
through the workplace data sheet and the interaction map.
Three experiences in self-photo study

The self-photo study method was applied to three different kinds of design projects. Here we
present overviews of three case studies and characterize the results.
Case 1: Design of the next-generation mobile technology for salespeople
Objectives
The design objective was to design and develop a new mobile technology for salespeople. We
surveyed a sample of the Tokyo sales force. These salespeople in Tokyo were already working with
the current mobile technologies, such as the portable PC and the cellular phone. Our survey
objectives focused on understanding a sales representatives work practices in a real field,
interactions among salespeople and issues in current mobile technologies. We also sought to obtain
perspectives on the design of new mobile technologies to support sales forces. The subjects were
nine sales representatives from the general Tokyo sales force, including several sales managers.
Features of their work practices
The mode by which a sales representative works is inherently mobile. Among the nine salespeople
participating in this study, the typical activity pattern in the daytime is to visit a customer, introduce
the products that the salesperson represents, ask the customer about his or her needs and issues,
make a proposal to solve those needs and issues, and make a contract. Each morning and evening,
in preparation for visits with customers, the salesperson works at his or her primary office. Such
deskwork includes creating proposals and writing up contract documents.
From the self-photo study, it turned out that despite the use of mobile technology, the salespeople
did not elect to work anytime and anywhere. Because the documentation and related work takes a
lot of time, even if the salesperson had come to rely heavily on mobile technology, he still created
documents at his office, not in impromptu settings such as cafeterias, libraries, or customers
offices.
The most radical change brought about by mobile technology is the shortening of turnaround time.
Sales representatives access their company's Intranet to download the documents needed to service
customers or access the Internet to get the information for answering the customer's question from
the customers work site. Sometimes customers ask their sales representatives some questions
which they cant answer quickly. To answer such difficult questions, the sales representative
collaborates with support staff. The Tokyo sales force has back-office support staff who investigate
various kinds of queries. The sales representative sends an e-mail to a member of the support staff,
delegating the investigation from an impromptu setting (e.g., a cafeteria) as soon as he or she leaves
the customers work site. This employee investigates via the Internet and e-mails an answer back to
the sales representative. As soon as the sales representative receives the e-mail, he or she can then
give the customer an answer. The remarkable change brought about by the use of current mobile
technology is this sort of improvised correspondence between sales representatives and their
customers.
Characteristics of photos
Many of the sales representatives activities proceed through communication. The chief
characteristic of the photographs they took is the large number of people with whom they
communicate. Moreover, many of the locations or settings in which these photos were taken are not
fixed and monotonous places (e.g., the home office), but rather are varied spaces outside the office
(e.g., customer sites or restaurants). The representatives workplace changes to a great degree.
When photographs are arranged in sequence, we can see the dynamics of these changes.
Furthermore, each photograph contains many visual cues, such as communication partners and
artifacts. These cues help us understand the activities that are going on at that moment. It can be
said that these features make the self-photo study technique very suitable for this application
(Figure 3).
Case 2: Design of a casual-communication space of a research institute

Objectives
A research institute consists of researchers with various specialties. The design objective was to
design a space for free and active discussion in a relaxed atmosphere by fostering impromptu
encounters between the researchers. The objective of this investigation focused on a) understanding
the typical activities of researchers, b) understanding how to link the new communication space and
the existing flow of activities, c) what kind of resources are conducive to positive communication.
The subjects were ten researchers including several research managers. Most of them are IT-related
researchers.
The work styles differed in many ways between the general researchers and the research managers.
The fundamental work style of a general researcher is that all activity is independent and proceeds
according solely to the researchers own work. In other words, these researchers work all day at the
PCs on their desks. In the few moments when theyre not at their desks, they are either talking with
their colleagues or they taking a tea break for relaxation. Such poor communication and discussion
among the researchers is the essential issue of the current workplace. On the other hand, research
managers spend much of their time communicating, such as attending formal meetings, having
informal discussions, or coordinating activities. It is far from easy to reserve enough time for their
own research.
We can find out the characteristics of a typical researchers work style by studying the photographs
these general researchers have taken. A remarkable feature of these photos is how little the
dynamics of their workplace change, because they spend the whole day sitting at their desks, getting
up for tea breaks, and returning to their desks. In this routine, the photos taken before the tea breaks
look just the same as the photos taken after such breaks (Figure 4). Since these researchers work
independently, another characteristic of these photos is that they contain very few people.
Moreover, an IT researchers main tools are his PC and his software, and most of his activities
occur in a virtual workplace. Physical objects are very few; indeed most of the researchers objects
are virtual and therefore cant be seen in the photos. This explains the photos lack of variation. In
this application, we were able to some extent supplement the lack of data by interviewing the
researchers, but the photos themselves provided little information.
Case 3: Layout design of a head office based on a new concept

Objectives
The design objective was to promote the strategic nature of the head office and to incorporate this
nature into the facility and the layout design. Changing the layout affects the work style, the
document management method and the technology deployment. Therefore, at the beginning of this
project we surveyed the work practices of the head office staff by using self-photo study. Our study
objectives were, a) to obtain the perspective necessary to support a new work style, a new document
management methodology and a new technology design for the strategic staff and b) to incorporate
the work practice into a layout design that reflects the strategic role of the head office. The subjects
were nine members of the head office staff of a combined general affairs and personnel department.
The head office staff combines the work style of the mobile sales force and that of the researchers
self-containment. Although the head office staff members do not work outside the office the way
sales representatives do, they do move around inside their home office's building. It can be said that
they are mobile workers inside a single building. On the other hand, prolonged activity at a desk is
also essential for this staff. Unlike the case at the research institute, the head office workers use a lot
of paper documents and physical tools to process physical objects. These two types of work style
are intermingled, it is hard to say which is predominant. Such seemingly contradictory
characteristics are inherent in their work.
Although the work style of the head office staff resembles that of the researchers in some aspects,
their photos are very different. The photos taken by the head office staff contain a rich variety of
visual cues (Figure 5). Because these employees handle a lot of paper documents, their photos show
various physical tools, such as seal impressions and filing folders. In addition, because the head
office staff members are also mobile workers inside their office building, the dynamics of a
sequence of photos resemble those of the sales forces mobile work, and changes in the settings of
the photos are clearly seen. Moreover, their photos show various people with whom the staff
members are communicating. Based on these features, it can be concluded that, even though these
photos were taken by a worker inside an office building, this methodology proved to be suitable for
application to this type of semi-mobile workforce.
Data gathering by photos

The important features of self-photo study related to data collection are as follows.
- The subject takes his or her own work photos, thus acting as the investigator.
- The interviewer and interviewee study the photographs together during the interview.
The first point contributes to the user's feeling of participation in the study, while the second point
contributes to the sharing of a common context between the users and participants of the design
project (designers, planners, developers, and so on). From these two viewpoints, we examined the
data collection capability of self-photo study.
1) Sharing a common context during an interview
The primary reason to use photographs is to share the context of the workplace between users and
participants of a design project. Because the participant has not actually been in the workplace
about which the user is talking, the photographs provide the participants with a shared context and
various cues that trigger questions. Compared with conducting an interview without the benefit of
photographs, interviewing with the aid of photos makes it easier to ask the proper questions and to
gather a lot of interview data. Photographs are a tool for remembering and reproducing the contexts
of work activities and for mediating the interaction between users and participants.
Of course, conducting an interview at the actual workplace, such as Contextual Inquiry (Beyer
1997), can create a richer context than a photograph can. But as we see from these three
experiments in self-photo study, work activities now tend to take place in a variety of settings, not
in limited or fixed workplaces. Therefore, methodologies that rely on workers having a real or fixed
workplace face new limitations. On the other hand, this methodology, in which the user takes
snapshots of his or her work activities, puts these contexts into photos, which aid the interviewing
process. This methodology is suitable for investigating the latest modes of working.
Furthermore, thanks to the decision-making process that underlies actually setting up and snapping
a photo, users awareness of their workplaces increases, and the situations depicted in the photos
become strongly embedded in their minds. This helps users easily recall these situations even if the
interview occurs a few days after the snapshots were taken.
2) The worker's feeling of participation

Compared with observation techniques such as shadowing, the greatest difference with the selfphoto study technique is that the subject, who is usually observed by others, photographs himself or
herself. The most important effect of this is the user's feeling of participation in the investigation or
design activities. It is important, not only in the design stage but also in the investigation stage, that
users participate deeply in all of the design processes, especially from the early stage of
investigation onward.
Because this method gives users control over the photography, the users are less self-conscious
(e.g., they dont feel chased), than when they are shadowed. Several users in our experiments
echoed this sentiment:
User A: "I like taking photos personally, so this experience was very enjoyable."
With shadowing, it would be impossible to obtain such a positive comment. So self-photo

methodology increases the feeling of participation, benefiting both the investigation stage and the
design stage.
In some cases, subjects didnt take the photographs that the investigators had instructed them to
take, because they controlled the timing of the photos. Instead, the subjects snapped scenes that they
themselves wanted to take, sometimes to show themselves in the best light. But the merits, such as
the increased feeling of control, the diminished self-consciousness or feeling of resistance, and the
strong sense of participation, outweigh this drawback.
Interactions among communities in the design process

The design process proceeds through interaction among various design communities. As we
described above, the photographs mediate communication between the user and the design team
communities during the interview. Here we discuss various interactions between these two types of
communities and the mediating tools in some stages of the design process (Figure 6).
1) Sharing work practice data among the design project team

During interviews, only a few interviewers are present, since the more interviewers there are the
more pressure the interviewee feels. Therefore, design project team members must share their
interview data and work practice data with each other after the interviews. A design project team
10
usually consists of various specialists, such as a designer, a planner, an engineer, and so on. Here
we discuss what kind of methodology is efficient for sharing data, referring to our layout design
experience.
The design team assembled for Head Office Layout consisted of one staff member in charge of
layout, four researchers, two office designers, and one sales representative. A self-photo interview
took an hour for each subject. Two or three interviews were conducted each day. Only two
members of the design team participated in the interviews as interviewers. After the days
interviews were completed, all of the design team members gathered in the interview room to share
their experiences and discuss the data they had collected.
Figure 7 shows a scene of data sharing among the design project team members. In this scene,
several photographs are arranged in sequence on a table, so that the design team can visualize the
flow of workplaces and activities. While the members who attended the interview explained each
photo to the other members, they all were studying the photos together, often pointing to various
photos or to items in them. Each individuals input and opinions reflected his distinct specialty,
resulting in a balanced and integrated discussion. In this way the interviewers could share the
interview data and discuss the users work practices in a way that involved all of the design project
team members.
In this data-sharing and discussion process, the role of the photograph is very critical. One designer
made the following comment.
Designer A: "We can see the activities going on in the photos. We designers often take photos of a
facility itself before and after changing the layout. But these photos contain not only the hardware
of the office but also the behavior."
11
Another designer pointed to one photo, a snapshot of a meeting that the user regarded as critical to
his activities.
Designer B: "This one shows the knowledge community for Mr. Tanaka."
A knowledge community cannot be seen, of course, but this designer realized that a meeting (or
those attending it), as depicted in one of the photos, stands for the users most important knowledge
community. Indeed, the designer referred to the photo as This one, as if the knowledge
community had become a tangible, visible object.
We consider the self-photo a mediating tool for sharing interview data among design team
members. In this case, it is critical to capture the activities on film. In our experiments, some photos
focused on an individual physical object such as a document or a tool (Figure 8). Although such
photos provide some information, it is not enough to understand the work activities. The lack of
information about relations among objects and workers in such photos will make it impossible to
fully convey the activities that are actually going on in that workplace.
On the other hand, even photos that show only an array of tools or other objects can inform our
understanding of such activities. For example, the way tools are arrayed may reveal how they are
used. Photos including people are also very informative. They show how users interact with tools
and any other artifacts or how they interact with their colleagues. We can capture the rich
information about users work activities from such photographs.
However, it isnt always easy for a self-photography to capture human interactions or humanartifact interactions. Certainly the sales force and the head office staff found it relatively easy to
snap situations in which people in the field were communicating with each other. Such
communication is frequent, and often the users asked their colleagues to photograph them (the
users) during such communication. But this is not the case in fields such as that represented by the
research institute, in which we saw barely any photos that included people. Thus it can be hard to
12
understand the work activity going on from such self-photos. For shared understanding and
promoting communication among the design team members, the lack of interaction on the photos is
an essential issue.
2) Communication between design team and user community
As described above, self-photo study is thought of as a methodology to involve users more fully in
design projects. The visual material of self-photo study is useful as a mediating tool that provides
opportunities to promote and organize interaction between a design team community and a user
community, in the early stage of the design process; it is especially useful as an aid during and after
interviews and for discussing and coordinating a rough design direction.
In the head office layout design project, we organized a workshop for communicating between
these two communities. The objectives of this workshop were as follows.
a) Following the self-photo interviews: Describe to the user community the results of the self-photo
interviews and how the design team understands the users activities.
b) Sharing rough design direction: Introduce the initial idea of the rough direction of the design
policy, and discuss whether or not it would be proper for their work practices, and whether or not
this design policy is acceptable.
In our workshop, the users community consists only of those who participated in the self-photo
study, not all users.
a) Following the self-photo interviews:
The design community members create an interaction map from self-photo interview data. In other
words, this map visualizes the design teams conception of the users' work practices. In the
workshop, users are shown this interaction map and are asked for their feelings about whether the
design teams understanding of their work practices is adequate or not. The users are also asked
whether any other important workplace activities or communications have not been uncovered by
the self-photo and/or interview process. The primary objective of this activity is to understand more
fully the work practices through supplementary information and to complete the interaction map. In
our workshop session, users watched the interaction map for a while, and then several users
expressed an opinion like this one:
User B: "I think this map is close to my idea of what my work activities entail."
Very few workplaces and activities were added to the map, as most of these had already been
included on the interaction map. This means that interview with self-photos can fully collect the
work practice data and the interaction map represents and visualizes the overall structure of the
user's work practices quite accurately. Although the formal description format of the interaction
map is under development, our experiments confirmed that a visual tool such as an interaction map
is able to mediate communication, and to help a shared understanding of work practices between
both communities.
b) Sharing rough design direction:
The objective of this activity is to share and discuss an initial design direction. We prepared two
mediating materials, the design policy and scenario. To foster an energetic discussion, we proposed
an extreme idea. For example, one design policy is that "workplaces must go wherever the work
actually takes place. The consequent direction is twofold: a) Reduce the space allotted to fixed
desks, and b) then deploy mobile technology to realize the mobile work style. Such a proposal
13
serves as a kind of platform for communication between the design team community and the user
community. In our workshop, some users offered opinions like this one:
User C: "If I accept that design policy, your individual proposals are acceptable. But I dont
necessarily accept your premise."
This comment promoted an active discussion about the direction of the workplace design among the
participants. In addition, one user read the scenario and said,
User D: " It's me. I want to work like this."
It is essential to hold the workshop with such visual materials and to discuss and achieve a
consensus for the design policy and direction in the early stage of the design process involving the
user community. The users participating the self-photo study experiments attended the meeting
positively, arguing the issues and offering their opinions actively. In this way, the self-photo
methodology shifts the user's participation from the investigation stage to the design stage
smoothly.
3) Reorganizing a community to include two or more design teams
Another type of communication is the interaction between one design project teams community
and anothers. This means some design projects will utilize the work practice data collected by
another design project. Here we discuss how to describe and share work practice data to facilitate
communication between different design project communities.
In this discussion, we refer to the case of an electronic-paper design project. This device can display
and handle any information like the paper, and it would replace the physical paper in the future. The
project utilized the work practice data of sales representatives (Hasuike 2002). In this project, the
designers created a scenario based on the sales forces mobile work data, and simulated the scene
using an electronic-paper for mobile use. They conducted an interaction analysis experiment using
this scenario. In the experiment, a subject acted as a mobile worker who was required to interact
with a mock-up of an electronic-paper in a pseudo-practical work environment. The design team
observed the subject's behavior and interaction with this mock-up. In this project, the electronicpaper was designed for general-purpose use, so the designers had to consider various kinds of
scenarios, and the mobile work scene was one of them.
In this way, self-photo data stored into the work practice database mediates the interaction between
different design project teams. Self-photo database consists of workplace datasheets and interaction
maps. The workplace datasheet format, which shows both the photos and text at once, provides the
work practice data and its context simultaneously. Members of this design project team did not
share the context of these work practice data. For this situation, visual tools such as the interaction
map and self-photos itself and workplace datasheet format may be meaningful for interpreting the
work practice data. If written text data with no visual material are stored into the database, it is very
hard to reproduce their work practices vividly. Hence, these visual tools promote the reproduction
of the context and interpretation of work practice data by another design project team, and
accelerate the interaction between different design communities.
Conclusion
Because a tool or technology is embedded into the socio-technological network in which it will be
used, the development and deployment of a new tool and technology requires an understanding of
users work practices and the participation of users into the design process. Some methodologies
14
already exist for this purpose. As a method for understanding a user's actual activities, there is a
simple ethnographic method, which is represented by Contextual Inquiry (Beyer 1997). User
Participatory Design (Schuler 1993) is a key methodology to involve users in the design process.
In this paper, we have proposed self-photo study as a photographic field study methodology, and
we have confirmed this methods effectiveness and applicability through three case studies. From
these experiences, we have confirmed that self-photo technique is useful not only as a simple
observation method, but also as a mediating tool for promoting the interaction in the design process.
From the viewpoint of an observation technique, the self-photos provide a shared understanding of
what is happening in the workplace, and help the design team to gather the rich data of workplaces.
From the viewpoint of the interactions, it is confirmed that the tools of self-photo study, such as the
self-photo itself, the workplace datasheet that shows the data and context at once, and the
interaction map that visualizes the structure of a users work practices, can effectively mediate the
interactions between the users and designers communities.
The self-photo study methodology still has room for improvement as an observation method,
especially for the aim of investigating a virtual workplace. In addition to such current issues, our
further work focuses on a) how to formalize the visual tools and create the pattern languages to
promote the communication between users community and designers community, b) how to create
the scenario by utilizing the work practice database, c) how to organize design communities
involving users and provide opportunities for communication in the whole design process through
enhancements to the self-photo methodology.
Acknowledgements
Sala Bly and Elin Pedersen originally had researched self-photo study for a sales force at FX Palo
Alto Laboratory. We had collaborated with them in Tokyo sales force's survey using self-photo
study.
15
References
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56-61.
16

H-H. Tang National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan
J. S. Gero The University of Sydney, Australia
Abstract
This paper reveals the close connection between design knowledge and sketches in an attempt to
propose a holistic view of design studies. Two sets of experimental protocol data were analyzed. We
first observed the interaction between meaning-based design knowledge and sketches in our
residential house design project. The protocol collected in a museum design was analyzed using
design content-oriented coding scheme to show detailed linkages between perception-based and
meaning-based knowledge and sketches. The results demonstrate a close link between design
knowledge and sketches. The dichotomy of design knowledge was proposed to pinpoint the
importance of design media, such as sketches in this study. As a result, the design process should be
studied from the combination of design knowledge and sketches.

Design sketches and design knowledge are amongst the most important issues of design research.
There have been significant findings regarding these two aspects (Gero & Rosenman 1990;
Goldschmidt 1991; Suwa and Tversky 1997; Purcell and Gero 1998; Heylighen, et al. 1999;
Uluoglu 2000; Varejo, et al. 2000; Goldschmidt 2001). The emerging problem of design research
is failing to connect these results to form a holistic view of the roles of sketches and knowledge in
design. Design knowledge includes the perceptual recognition and discovery of interesting visuospatial features and consolidation of ideas presented on paper. Similarly, design sketches require
design knowledge to form an understandable presentation and to read the conceptual meanings
revealed by drawings. This study intends to explore the inter-linkages between design knowledge
and design sketches through cognitive behaviors of designers.
Design knowledge and sketches

The knowledge used in designing can be distinguished using various types of categorizations. The
recent researches tend to include every aspect of the design process into the framework of design
knowledge. For example, the recent computational model of design knowledge (Varejo, et al.
2000) proposed an ontological framework for knowledge-based design systems. This structure
included design requirements and artifact descriptions. This structure also included five major
design activities that are applied to manipulate knowledge and to generate end products. A similar
structure of design prototypes has been proposed in design studies to identify the different aspects
of design knowledge in terms of function-behavior-structure (Gero 1990).
There seem to be two distinct kinds of design knowledge. One is the normative description of a
knowledge body and its attributes describing the content of a design unit, for example, the
components of a living room. The consensus of the content of a design unit among designers and
clients establishes the foundation of communication. The extra personal interpretation of a design
unit, however, differentiates a designer from the others. The other kind of design knowledge is the
relationship between these design units and their attributes describing the knowledge designers use
to reason the design problems, to realize the solutions, and to progress the design process. For
example, how to establish a proper circulation connecting a garage and a living room may both
produce and resolve the problem of a pathway in a house.
This concept of dichotomy has been defined as declarative and procedure knowledge of meaningbased representations in cognitive psychology. The former includes all explicit knowledge of
various facts of the world, while the latter includes how to perform various tasks based on
declarative knowledge. Anderson (2000) proposed detailed structures of them as propositional
networks and schemas.
The sketches studied in this paper refer to depictions made by pens on papers. The content of our
exploration includes the cognitive activities that are related to sketches. They are drawing sketches,
looking/revising sketches, and perceiving visuo-spatial relationships in sketches. In a sense, we try
to explore the interactions between design knowledge and sketching that includes physical
depictions and cognitive events of designers.
Two sets of data were analyzed from our research project and from Suwas (Suwa and Tversky
1997; Tang 2002). The data of Suwas project contained encoded protocols of one expert and one
novice architects participating in a museum design. The details of this have been published (Tang
and Gero 2001a; Tang and Gero 2001b; Tang and Gero 2001c; Tang and Gero 2001d). The data of
our research project contained a collection of protocol and videotapes of 5 experts and 5 novices
participating in a residential house design (Tang 2002). The 5 experts had more than 25 years of
experience in residential house design. We observed the general features of design knowledge and
sketches in these 12 data sets, and analyzed further the detailed relationship between design
knowledge and sketches using encoded protocol.
Observing design knowledge

We first observe the design knowledge and sketches following the dichotomy of declarative and
procedural knowledge. In terms of declarative knowledge, our observation found that the experts
produced more complete lists of requirements in regards to the same design brief than the novices
did. Although both briefs in the residential house and the museum design provided detailed
functional requirements, these experts still produced their own checklists regarding different aspects
of the design. The issues concerning the experts in the experiments were much richer than those
outlined in the design brief and those concerning the novice designers. For example, the concern
about building materials and council restrictions were important in the experts design processes of
museum, but not so in the novices processes. This implies that the knowledge body of a design
unit, a residential house or a museum, in architectural experts consists of more detailed attributes
and these then enable experts to produce more thorough solutions regarding different aspects.
In the residential house design setting, we inadvertently omitted the specific requirement for a
second toilet. During the experiments, none of the novice designers detected this problem in their
designing processes. All experts however detected the lack of the toilet in the requirements and
expressed concern about it within the experimental duration. It is possible that novices would have
found out this missing requirement if given more time. This situation demonstrates one of the wellknown differences between novice and experts. The efficiency of experts implies that they are more
familiar with the attributes of the knowledge body than novices.
Design sketches play a role as detection aids in these situations. These experts detected the missing
requirement when scanning through their sketches. Sketches serve not only as an external memory
aid, but we speculate that the spatial configuration of the residential house reveal the missing
features. The mismatch between spatial configuration and the attributes of a residential house
enables them to discover the missing requirements.
In terms of procedural knowledge, we found that the experts had more organized and longer scripts
to advance the design process. In residential design, experts took care of different aspects of the
design in clear order, while in museum design the experts explored the unknown issue of the
museum in a systematic way.
All of the experts controlled the design process more effectively than the novices did. In the
experiments of residential houses, all the experts finished the design with scaled details within 45
minutes. These results imply that the procedural knowledge experts possessed enabled them to cope
with design problems more effectively and efficiently. One very experienced designer in residential
design appeared to simply describe the design on the papers without ostensive thinking. We could
speculate that he utilized his declarative and procedural knowledge without hindrance in solving
this problem, which he had been doing for the past 25 years. The design quality however was
obviously better than the novices.
Different experts however had different ways to approach design. For instance, some preferred to
draw bubble diagrams and reason about the requirements, alternatively following the design
methods, while one expert, being also a senior lecturer of design, preferred to list all the
requirements on the right side of the papers first, Figure 1. After reasoning the requirements, he
started to draw corresponding drawings on left side of the papers next to the requirements. These
could be regarded as personalized aspects of procedural knowledge, which were established
corresponding to their personal capacities and experience.
Figure 1: A sketch of the expert architect who wrote requirements first on the right side and then
drew ideas on the left side.
The efficiency of procedural knowledge of experts includes their utilization of sketches. The experts
in residential house design tended to draw firmly and carry on the progress without trial and error in
sketches. In the novices sketches, modifications and even erasure could be observed frequently.
The very experienced designer in residential design who appeared to simply put his design on
papers produce the final design in 20 minutes, Figure 2. The quality was however satisfactory. We
speculate that his rich procedural knowledge of utilizing sketches enables him to map the
conceptual requirements and visual configuration on papers precisely. The interaction between
requirements and visuo-spatial properties then further shape his knowledge. The expert in the
museum design did not possess such rich knowledge of museum design, so his design was not as
precise as the sketches we saw in the residential house design, Figure 3. If given 10 years
experiences in museum design, his sketches might look as precious as these in residential design
with the aid of his knowledge in mapping functions and forms in terms of museum design.
Figure 2: The design produced by the very experienced designer in residential design who appeared
to simply put his design on papers.
Figure 3: The number 4, 5, 6, 7 sketches produced by the expert in the museum design.
These observations reveal a close interactive connection between design sketches and knowledge.
To explore the details further, we investigated the linkages between knowledge and sketches using
protocol analysis. The relationship among sketches and design activities in different cognitive levels
are examined in our encoded protocol. In the following, we first describe our method and then
present the analytical results.
Observing the interlink between design knowledge and sketches

This study applied retrospective protocol analysis in the following study (Ericsson and Simon
1993). The subjects were an expert and a novice architect participating in a museum without
interference. After design sessions, they gave protocols with the aid of videotapes documenting
their design processes. The protocols data were segmented and analyzed by design content-oriented
coding scheme (DCOCS) devised by Suwa and his colleagues (Suwa and Tversky 1997; Suwa,
Purcell et al. 1998; Suwa, Gero et al. 2000). Each segment in the design process was categorized
through four cognitive levels, physical, perceptual, functional, and conceptual. There were
dependencies hidden in these levels, for example, a perceptual seeing instance depended on a
physical drawing instance. These dependencies established the perpendicular linkages in specific
time duration, a segment. The foci of our exploration are these linkages. They reveal the
relationship between design knowledge and sketches. In the encoding process, two coders
participated. Details of these encoded data have been published (Tang and Gero 2000; Tang and
Gero 2001). To clarify the terminology, the instance in DCOCS refers to an observed occurrence of
a specific activity in a level; for example, depicting a line is a drawing instance (D-instance) in the
physical level. An instance describes an occurrence of an event. It could be drawing, looking,

perceiving, and functional referencing, in short L-instance, P-instance, and F-instance.
In the previous discussion, we focus on knowledge of meaning-based representation according to
Anderson (2000). Meaning-based representations attempt to conceptualize some significant aspects
of an experience. Another comparable kind of knowledge Anderson proposed is knowledge of
perception-based representation that attempts to preserve much of the structure of a perceptual
experience. In the design research community, perception-based representation has not received
much attention as one kind of knowledge. We however suspect that the perception-based knowledge
makes the design process different from pure scientific rational activities. Designers have to
reflectively interact with media that could be sketches, short-term memory, or computer-mediated
material. Perception-based knowledge is the channel for the communication between designers and
media.
The concept of different representations proposed by Anderson (2000) therefore was applied to
analyze our encoded protocol. They consist of perception-associated instances and functionbounded instances. The perception-association instances could be the bases for perception-based
representation, with the function-bounded being the bases for meaning-based representation. For
example, the connection between a depiction and its corresponding visuo-spatial relationship could
be stored as knowledge of perception-based representation. Similarly, the semantic connection
between a depiction and its corresponding functional reference could be preserved as knowledge of
meaning-based representation.
Knowledge of perception-based representation

These perception-associated instances referred to making different kinds of depictions, looking at
existing depictions that are drawn in previous segments, and attending to visual features and visuospatial relationship through existing depictions.
The identification of perception-associated instances was done by checking whether an instance had
either direct or indirect associations with a visuo-spatial relationship. A direct perception-associated
instance meant that this instance was perceived as part of a visuo-spatial relationship. We identified
the relationship from video images and protocols. For example, the designer reported Then I try to
see the symmetry within the site along this line, here is one, here is another.., and, at the same time
we saw that he drew a line in the middle of the site. We recounted consequently that the site and the
line were perceived as parts of the symmetry, and thus these D-instances were perceptionassociated. An indirect perception-associated instance was a source instance perceived by a Pinstance, the first, which was included within another P-instance, the second. This source instance
therefore had one direct perception-association from the first P-instance, and at the same time had
one indirect perception-association from the second P-instance.
The numbers of perception-associated and non-perception-associated instances of both participating
designers were calculated. The results indicated that more than 60% of the D-instances were
perception-associated, while 80% of L-instances were perception-associated, Table 1. There were
about 15% of P-instances being perception-associated. These experts had more perceptionassociated instances than the novices in terms of D-, L-, and P-instances.
Percentage (%)
Novice (SM01)
PerceptionNon-perceptionassociated
associated
Drawing instance
59.0
41.0
Looking instance
79.8
20.2
Perceptual
14.9
85.1
instance
Expert (EM01)
PerceptionNon-perceptionassociated
associated
71.1
28.9
88.6
11.4
17.0
83.0
Table 1: The percentages of perception-associated and non-perception-associated instances of the

novice and the expert architects.
The linkages between sketches and different cognitive actions, including drawing, looking, and
perceiving, are the structure of a perceptual experience in Andersons definition of perceptionassociated representation. They are design knowledge applied in the design process if these linkages
are retrieved from designers mind, or they are design knowledge learnt during the design process if
these linkages are created in the new situation. The non-perception-associated D- and L-instances
represent the doodles and revising that are pure external representation without reflection to the
designers attentions yet.
The results indicate that this expert had better abilities in utilizing the sketches because more than
70% of drawing and looking actions were utilized in this perception. This implies that this expert
had better knowledge to master the media and to provoke more opportunity in sketches. These
linkages are knowledge of perception-based representation, and this connection in the design
process is evident. Designers learn perception-based knowledge to use media in design processes,
and in turn apply it to facilitate the progress of design.
Knowledge of meaning-based representation

We examined further the relationship amongst D-, L-, P-, F- instances to explore knowledge of
meaning-based representation. D-, L-, P-instances are related to the media that designers use to
reflect their thoughts and ideas. Some of them were arbitrary without conceptual intentions and
meanings, such as purposeless doodling on papers, but some were given meaning through
designers intentions. One square might represent a garage in a residential house, and an emergent
space between two circles could represent the tension between two buildings. In our analytical
structure, the linkage between D-instance and F-instance and the linkage between P-instance and Finstance respectively represents these two situations.
The method to identify a function-bounded instance was checking whether an instance had either
direct or indirect functional references in a segment. A direct function-bounded D-instance meant
that a designer knew the functional reference of a depiction when it was created. For example, in a
segment a designer reported First, I tried to place the building over here, so you enter here, you
see all the things and finally come to the building., and, concurrently in the video, we saw that he
drew a square inside a big circle. We consequently recounted that he has attached a functional
reference to the square, and thus this D-instance of drawing a square was function-bounded.
In contrast, an indirect functional reference was one in which a designer attaches meanings to a Dinstance through L-instances or P-instances. In the first case, the L-instance had a direct functional
reference and the D-instance has an indirect functional reference. In the second case, the P-instance
had a direct functional reference and the D-instance had an indirect functional reference and a direct
perception-association.
The results indicated that more than 55% of the instances were function-bounded, Table 2. The only
exception was the P-instance of the novice designer. On average, the expert had more linkages than
the novice. It is notice worthy that 77% of the experts depictions were function-bounded. This
means his drawings were meaningful and close connected to his conceptual reasoning.
Percentage (%)
Drawing instance
Looking instance
Perceptual
instance
Novice (SM01)
FunctionNon-functionbounded
bounded
63.9
36.1
73.7
26.3
38.5
61.5
Expert (EM01)
FunctionNon-functionbounded
bounded
77.0
23.0
71.8
28.2
56.1
43.9
Table 2: The percentages of function-bounded and non-function-bounded instances of the novice

and the expert.
These findings describe the connections between sketches and the functional references that
designers used to conceptually reason the design problem. Sketches are utilized as part of the
conceptualization of some significant aspects of an experience. They are part of design knowledge
of meaning-based representation. The concepts and meanings of a design are stored in its
representation so that we can see it is important in design education and practice to learn knowledge
through reading drawings and plans of famous architecture. Design research has speculated that
sketches do not only present the perceptual features of design but also the functional aspects of
design (Goldschmidt 2001). Here, we examined the detailed linkages between depictions and
abstract ideas. They formed design knowledge of meaning-based representation. As for those nonfunction-bounded instances, they were unfruitful attempts in design. They had not been utilized by
the designers to visually reason the design issues, but being pure external representations without
connections to the content of design.
Nature of the main findings

This study attempts to elicit a holistic concept in studying design activities through the interactions
between design knowledge and sketches. There are three main findings in response to it. First, there
is a strong connection between design sketches and design knowledge. The details of this
relationship were observed in the design process. The complex networks amongst physical actions,
visuo-spatial perceptions, and functional attachments were revealed. Our empirical data showed
statistically significant relationships between them. Second, there is perception-based and meaningbased design knowledge, which are concordant with human knowledge representation (Anderson
2000). The former is applied to understand sketches and discover interesting visuo-spatial
relationships, while the latter is applied to visual reasoning and functional attachments. Third,
design sketches are perception-related and function-associated. Drawing and looking sketches
require both perception-based and meaning-based design knowledge to effectively and efficiently
utilize, or the design sketches are just meaningless doodles and graffiti of designers.
In conclusion, the strong relationship between design sketches and design knowledge is established
by the inter-linkages amongst physical actions, visuo-spatial perception, and function-associated
conception. It is this network which constitutes the essence of design knowledge, and its complexity
makes design activities interesting and arduous to understand. The concept of close connections
between design knowledge and sketches has impact in design thinking, methodology, and
education. Design knowledge could not be learnt purely verbally, and sketches have to be part of
design expertise. However, this concept should be extended to design media and design knowledge.
The media are any kind of material designers apply to externalize ideas, to internalize visuo-spatial
relationship, and more importantly to communicate reflectively with themselves and others.
Hopefully, this paper could establish part of common ground for studying design activities
holistically.
10
References
Anderson, J. R. 2000. Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications. New York: Worth Publishers.
Ericsson, K. A. and H. A. Simon. 1993. Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data. Cambridge,
MA.: MIT Press.
Gero, J. S. 1990. Design prototypes: a knowledge representation schema for design. AI Magazine
11(4): 16-36.
Goldschmidt, G. 2001. Is a figure-concept binary argumentation pattern inherent in visual design
reasoning? Visual and Spatial Reasoning in Design II, Bellagio Conference Center, Bellagio, Italy:
KCDCC, University of Sydney.
Suwa, M., J. S. Gero, et al. 2000. Unexpected discoveries and S-invention of design requirements:
important vehicles for a design process. Design Studies 21(6): 539-567.
Suwa, M., T. Purcell, et al. 1998. Macroscopic analysis of design processes based on a scheme for
coding designers' cognitive actions. Design Studies 19(4): 455-483.
Suwa, M. and B. Tversky. 1997. What do architects and students perceive in their design sketches?
A protocol analysis. Design Studies 18(4): 385-403.
Tang, H.-H. 2002. Exploring the Roles of Sketches and Knowledge in the Interlinked and
Multimode Design Process Using Protocol Analysis. Doctoral Thesis. Architectural and Design
Science. Sydney: The University of Sydney.
Tang, H.-H. and J. Gero. 2001a. Roles of knowledge while designing and implications for CAAD
system. CAADRIA'01 University of Sydney: Key Centre for Design Computing and Cognition,.
Tang, H.-H. and J. S. Gero. 2000. Content-oriented coding scheme for protocol analysis and
computer-aided architectural design. CAADRIA 2000, Singapore: CASA.
Tang, H.-H. and J. S. Gero. 2001b. Cognition-based CAAD. CAADFuture' 01, Eindhoven, The
Netherlands.
Tang, H.-H. and J. S. Gero. 2001c. S-creativity in the design process. Computational and
Cognitive Models of Creative Design, Heron Island, Australia: KCDCC, The University of Sydney.
Tang, H.-H. and J. S. Gero. 2001d. Sketches as affordances of meanings in the design process.
Visual and Spatial Reasoning in Design II, Bellagio, Italy: Key Centre for Design Computing and
Cognition.
Varejo, F. M., C. S. D. Menezes, et al. 2000. Toward an ontological frame work for knowledgebased design systems. Artificial Intelligence in Design '00, Mass: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
11

B Tellefsen Norwegian School of Management, Norway
Abstract
The paper builds on research undertaken in Norway and Australia in constituent market orientation
and models of affective design cognition to develop a more coherent and integrated theory frame
for modeling designing in organisations, particularly the increasing number of design organisations
undertaking virtual multidisciplinary teamwork.
Attempts to develop an integrated theory of the interactions between stakeholders have focused
mainly on the properties of designed artifacts, the characteristics of the design problems and brief,
or on the technical, social and communication processes. This has been less than fully satisfactory
and resulted in a lack of adequate theoretical integration with underlying individual human
processes, human values, motivations, feelings, eccentric proclivities, and the political foundations
of human social behaviour.
This paper combines constituent market orientation with recent findings from brain research to
develop theory to provide guidance for designers and design managers wishing to improve their
effectiveness and efficiency in commercial contexts.

Introduction
This paper focuses on improving the performance and management of design activities through
findings from constituent market orientation and affective cognition.
Improving the performance and management of design activities is important because of their key
roles in innovation and social and economic development. Innovation is the process of transforming
new scientific knowledge into products, systems and services that bring economic and social
benefits and is strongly shaped by design activities (Commonwealth of Australia, 2001; Dept of
Industry Science and Resources, 1999, pp. 3, 9-10; Innovation Summit Implementation Group,
2000; Love, 2002; Love, 2000; Love, 2000; Love, 1998; The British Council, 2001).
Designers and design teams undertake the transformation of new human knowledge into designs for
real-world products, systems and services, and thus play a key role in innovation processes on
which social and economic development depends. Improving design teams performances increases
commercial and social benefits by improving efficiency and effectiveness of design processes:
offers immediate and direct improvements in innovation (Baird, Moore, & Jagodzinski, 2000;
Sarsfield, 1998). Successful design teams offer competitive advantage. They shorten time to
market, reduce life cycle costs, improve designed outcomes, minimise risk of adverse economic
consequences of design failures, and reduce the intrinsic costs of the design process.
Achieving the full potential and efficiency of design teams has been elusive (CIPD, 1999;
D'Hertefelt, 2000; Macmillan, Steele, Austin, Kirby, & Spence, 2001). Research has not resulted in
well-developed strategies for the optimal management of multidisciplinary design teams. This is
due to: conceptual difficulties; poor theoretical foundations; the direction of research efforts; and
poor integration between theories, findings and theoretical perspectives, especially between human
and technical issues (see, for example, Dixon, 1987; Love, 2000, 1998; Lovins, 1993; ODoherty,
1964; Pugh, 1990). We need a unifying theoretical framework that spans across: the individual
subconscious cognito-affective basis of design activities, team interactions, technical issues
associated with complex design problems, communications between stakeholders, and the
interactions between design activities and other organisational, business and commercial processes.
This requires pragmatically useful definitions of core concepts. The following definitions by Love
(2002; 2001; 2000; 1998) align with other disciplines and with major dictionaries:
Design - a noun referring to a specification for making a particular artifact or for undertaking a
particular activity. A distinction is drawn here between a design and the manufactured outcome.
Designing - non-routine human internal activity leading to the production of a design.
Designer - someone who is, has been, or will be designing. Someone who creates designs
Design process - any process or activity that includes at least one act of designing alongside
other activities such as, calculating, drawing, information collection, many of which can be
routine or automated.
This paper brings together business and organisational issues associated with design teams in
commercial contexts and individuals behaviours and internal functioning. It points to a coherent
theory stream that includes individual activities, construction of knowledge, and commercial
organisations dynamics that offers two practical benefits:
1. Improvements to how designing is undertaken at individual and team levels to better
support the vision, mission and strategic organisational outcomes of planned organisational
processes.
2. Improved understanding in management as to how expertise and other resources used in
designing can be better used to gain competitive advantage and organisational security.
The underlying problematic has three parts:
The lack of a comprehensive model of designing spanning the large number of disciplines
and theoretical domains that are involved, which would provide a sound basis for analyses
to support improvements to designed outcomes. For a multidisciplinary field such as design
research, it would be expected that theories have identifiable and theoretical support for
their relationships to all of Friedmans six sectors (Friedman, 1999). They must form at least
one continuous pathway through all nine levels of Loves (2000) meta-theoretical hierarchy.
Epistemologically and conceptually, the body of literature of research into designing and
designs is marked by confusion, conflation and confabulation of ideas and analyses (Love,
2000).
Lack of conceptual and epistemological bridges between theories about: individuals

designing, design processes and business processes.
In combination, theories of constituent orientation and physiologically based theories of design

cognition offer the means to address these problems and provide epistemologically sound bridges
between the different classes of theories.
The theories and research findings of Constituent Market Orientation (CMO) are supported by
research findings about the physiological processes underpinning human cognition, motivation,
attention, and agency. This is an important issue. Most theories about business, management,
organisations, planning, design, group and individual behaviour and motivation have inadequate
causally based epistemological foundations. Their justification is tenuously, and epistemologically
inadequately, based on correlations between information about external properties more appropriate
to theory making about simple passive physical objects. The combination of CMO and
physiologically based theories of human cognition explain how the orientations of stakeholders can
positively shape design processes and designed outcomes, and improve design management.
This paper consists of five sections. The second section provides an overview of constituent
orientation and constituent market orientation. The third section describes the contribution new
brain research findings make to providing a sound causal foundation for constituent market
orientation to improve designing, design management and business outcomes. Section four
demonstrates how constituent market orientation and affective cognition theories provide insight
into improving design outcomes and managing design processes successfully. Section five provides
a summary and a short list of improvement heuristics for designers and design management.
Overview of Constituent Market Orientation (CMO)

This section draws on Tellefsens (1999; 1995) extensive research into top-management led
programmatic and natural learning based on feedback from the constituents (market-back) theory
of Constituent Market Orientation (information from 235 CEOs, 244 market managers, 188
purchasing managers, 163 personnel managers, 179 union representatives, 154 PR managers, and
175 lobbying managers). His findings indicate that these theories are broadly applicable to a wide
range of organisations, including design organisations.
Like all living creatures, organisations can only be understood and defined in their environmental
context. When constructing a business solution, many constituencies and stakeholders determine the
business ideas market value, effectiveness, and efficiency. These include: labour markets;
downstream markets; collaborative markets; upstream markets including suppliers, market
regulators such as industry associations; governments; and general influencers like the media and
the public. Market-oriented leaders direct their attention and efforts towards these constituent
markets to maximise a business unit's competitiveness. The above distribution of attention and the
associated learning patterns forms the constituent market orientation of an organisation.
Market orientation is a theory of environment-driven organizational learning and innovation.
Individuals learn through interacting with their environment. The closer the interaction with a
particular part of the environment, the more the individual learns about that part. If an individual
has no direct interaction with a part of the environment, that part will become unknown and
invisible. Commonly, the constituent market orientation of an individual becomes unbalanced and
results in increased focus on some constituents and partial ignorance of other constituents.
The individuals group membership configuration is the most important factor of their orientation.
Intense learning occurs primarily in face-to-face groups. Groups with frequent contacts and internal
double and triple-loop learning establish a strong culture with common beliefs, values, goals,
priorities, language, habits and recognition patterns. In larger group contexts, they form a subculture. The number, type and heterogeneity of an individuals cultural traits (often referred to as
the individuals personality) depend on the number and type of social groups he or she belongs to.
Each individual's consciousness is limited, tending to routinise behavior, and result in focusing on a
limited set of social relations. When an individual is preoccupied with something due to habits
or previous learning of beliefs, values, priorities and goals other things are unattended, invisible
or not comprehended.
Crossan et al (1999) say the same limitations apply to groups sharing mental frames, paradigms,
observations and experiences. These limitations combined with in-group double-loop learning;
result in many groups developing distinct, homogenous, and stable sub-cultures. These factors
interact with other organisational, management and leadership factors in significant ways. An
organization institutionalizes what tasks are to be carried out by whom, who works with whom, and
the rules and intensity of interactions. The nature and structure of the institutionalization has
profound impact on the emergence of distinct sub-cultures within industrial clusters, networks of
cooperating firms, single firms, and inter- and intra-organizational work-groups. The tighter groupinternal relations are, and the looser the group-external relations are, the stronger the sub-cultures of
individual groups become.
The market orientation of many firms is primarily downstream. Most businesses also have other
constituents (stakeholders) such as suppliers, staff, regulators, government agencies, the media and
customers. The complex interconnected markets or networks in which most organisations operate
dictate that a constituent orientation is required to fully realise value inherent in these markets and
associated stakeholder relationships. The value of the product, systems or services is defined and
created through identified interactions between the organisation and upstream and downstream
constituents.
Consciousness is limited and the agents of the organisation (typically leaders or managers) become
preoccupied because of previous learning, beliefs and values, leaving other parts of reality to
become incomprehensible, invisible or unattended. CMO provides a means to map, define, and
prioritise these alternative realities and relationships. The cognito-affective research findings
provide causal explanations that support these high-level CMO models.
CMO based organisations succeed by focusing on market behaviour optimisation through managed
interaction with their constituents and the development of systems and architecture which allow
them to respond quickly and correctly to signals from across their network. Specific business units
or work groups may demonstrate orientations that differ from the organisation and other groups.
Leaders need to support integration through programs designed to generate double loop learning
across work groups and business units.
Business success depends on being oriented toward the needs of multiple constituents. Members of
the organisation must know the constituencies, how they are affected by and how they value
solutions. Members of the organisation must develop a common purpose and a common set of
solutions. These solutions must also satisfy diverse wants, goals, and agendas of each constituent. If
not, people will exit the network, whose social legitimacy is reduced (Tellefsen, 1999, 1995).
In designing, as in other forms of business, there are two main organisational traditions:
organisations focused on individuals, and team-based organisations (Tellefsen, 2000). In
organisations built on the individual, the overall task is divided into subsets of functionally defined
sequential tasks until each sub-task is small enough to be handled by one individual. Authority is
delegated down a hierarchy from individual to individual. When an overall task is split up, two
organisational challenges arise:
Hierarchic integration of expertise to manage the total task.

Horizontal co-ordination among experts to link activities along value producing chains and
networks.
Integration and co-ordination are the domains of individual managers. The line of command is the
vertical integration axis and can be very efficient in stable environments. The individual focus tends
to overload the hierarchy, and extensive control of lower levels, bureaucratisation, and inflexibility
follows. Limited span of control produces many vertical layers. Since the hierarchy is top-down,
experts at lower levels are not expected to take part in co-ordination and integration and lack the
motivation and insight to do so. This tends to create adversary political groups, since only one truth
can be used to legitimise the use of power and selection of means and solutions. The idea fight
becomes a war of organisational dominance and personal position in the hierarchy, and directing
resources to own causes.
Team-based organisation originated in the group-oriented Japanese society. The team defines
purpose, goals, values, strategies, products, and the means and methods to be employed. Every team
member contributes to integration and co-ordination. The organisation is driven and directed
bottom-up. Instead of leaving the problem detection and solution to individuals who dictate to
others, team members all listen to the environment and share information in horizontal systems. The
team works on the problem definition and solutions until it has reached a common understanding
and consensus on what to do. Creating solutions often requires more time and effort in teams.
Implementation is normally faster and less prone to sub-optimisation, conflict, misunderstandings,
and mistakes, but compromises may eliminate optimal solutions. When a team works optimally,
leaders emerge. Leaders at one level become members of the next level team until accumulation is
reached to take care of the total task. Rewards are group based (Manz & Sims Jr., 1995). Team
proponents believe that individual expertise only has value when combined with the expertise of
others. Focus is on totality, integration, synergy and co-ordinated change. This allows flat structures
with decisions close to the point of value creation.
Team socialisation processes can make teams self-centered, reducing their effectiveness, creativity
and quality of outcomes. The lack of room for distance, alternative thoughts, and divergent and
competing power structures may reduce the production of new tacit knowledge that the group
solution is so adept at turning into tacit knowledge. By including members from other cultures,
institutions, teams and constituencies on a rotating basis, this problem of lack of heterogeneity and
inward focus can be eliminated.
Team-based organising is easily extended to creating flexible, cooperative networks within
industrial clusters. These networks can be anything from strategic to taking care of one-shot
innovation and design tasks where expertise from many vocations and institutions need to be
combined. Often the networks consist of several hierarchy levels, from governance groups to
permanent and ad hoc administrative, developmental, implementing and production teams.
Physiological basis of human affective cognition in designing

Designing involves many internal and external phenomena relating to: designers internal creative
processes involving partially completed design solutions, underlying semiconscious 'design worlds',
feeling-based valuing and decision making structures; and the communication of these between
designers and other stakeholders. In organisational terms, it includes: the internal processes of
individuals; the group processes of multidisciplinary design teams; and interactions between design
teams, other parts of their organisation, and other social and economic stakeholders.
Communication between these stakeholders requires common explicit knowledge, the codification
of tacit knowledge, and situations for shared experience that multiply tacit knowledge
(Johannessen, Olsen, & Olaisen, 2000).
Human somato-sensory processes play a significant role in design-related activities and their
management. Recent brain research indicates that all of the internal and external aspects of
designing are more determined by the physiology of body processes than previously realised (see,
for example, Bastick, 1982; Damasio, 1994; Miller, 2000; Reilly, 1997).
The significant roles of physiologically-based somato-sensory processes in human cognition is
widely supported by the neurological literature. Studies indicate that the affective brain and body
systems associated with feelings, emotions, values and subjective perception provide the initiation
and regulation of conscious thoughts, including the creative ideas essential to designing (see, for
example, Badgaiyan, 2000; Bastick, 1982; Damasio, 1994; Davis, 2000; Fabri, Polonara, Quattrini,
& Salvolini, 2002; Fleckenstein, 1992; Franklin, 1999; Love, 2000; Macaluso, Frith, & Driver,
2002; Miller, 2000; Mogi & Tamori, 1997; Paller, 2000; Sloman, 2001). Important to designing is
the way that the areas of brain central to gathering experience for use in later circumstances, is
comprehensively linked with sensory and motor systems in both top down and bottom up
arrangements (Miller, 2000). Reilly (1997) concluded that processes from the sensory motordomain form the neurological foundations for computation in higher-level human cognition and
creative cognition.
The emerging physiological picture is that designing is based on highly interdependent cognitive,
affective and motor processes consisting of multiple parallel neurological and hormonal processes
operating together in both brain and body (Damasio, 1994).
Damasio (1994) has drawn attention to the way human development has occurred through a
layering of new physiological systems on top of, or alongside, existing systems. This results in
older systems being reused in new ways, or in collaboration with new systems. Early in evolution,
the simplest brain neurological/hormonal processes of an organism were concerned with
managing the organism by sensing its environment through its boundary and modifying (using its
motor and other physiological systems) its boundaries responses to its environment. These
primitive proto brain processes are distributed through the organisms structure and essentially
concerned with feeling an organisms environment and drawing on past experience to produce
relatively automatic responses that maximise the organisms survival possibilities.
The strong interdependence of feeling, motor and cognitive processes in humans are a consequence
of the evolution of elementary proto-brain systems distributed throughout early organisms.
Through human evolution, the layering of new physiological systems onto, and alongside, old
systems has resulted in the foundations of human design cognition being actualised through many
alternative parallel processes. These underpin much of the complexity and differences that mark
human responses to their environments. One of the most significant to human behaviour, and
especially designing, are the separate parallel neurological pathways associated with direct
response and as if responses. A practical example, the experience of a personal insult produces
direct responses in terms of thoughts (cognitive responses), feelings and emotions (affective
responses), and gross and subtle bodily behavioural and physiological changes such as heart rate
(motor responses). Thinking about the same experience, results in similar, but not identical, as if
responses. These responses are a result of the as if experience being processed by slightly
different neurological and hormonal pathways some of which are more open to conscious
management and manipulation.
Although actualised through multiple parallel biological systems, human cognito-affective-motor
processes are limited. It is impossible for a human to think of or process everything at the same
time. The internal flow of events is strongly shaped by neurological and hormonally based
dispositional mechanisms grounded in each individuals prior and current experiences, mental
models, habituation and the conscious direction of their attention (Badgaiyan, 2000; Damasio,
1994; Miller, 2000).
The ability of an individual to refocus their attention does more than bring a different situation to
their minds eye. It results in dispositional changes to their neurological, hormonal and memory
systems that influence their ability to learn, act, and make decisions. This extended physiological
understanding of the basis of cognition, decision making and action provide causal explanations and
epistemological foundations for the observed consequences of CMO.
If brain areas associated with the affective aspects of cognition (feelings and emotions) are
damaged then the result is usually the appearance of dysfunctions such as schizophrenia, manicdepressive disorders and a profound failure to make sensible and successful judgements. Miller
(2000) and Dimasio (1994) have described patients with pre-frontal cortex being strikingly normal
upon superficial examination, able to carry on a conversation, with normal IQ scores and
performing familiar routines without difficulty. Their ability to organise their lives is, however,
profoundly impaired.
One might expect that equivalent organisational malaises might ensue where organisation models of
interaction and learning do not appropriately include equivalent affective processes. It indicates
that models of human designing and organisational processes are likely to benefit from a broader
picture of human psycho-neuro-physiological functioning. It also implies that many aspects of
organisational models of designing are more easily conceptualized and addressed if account is taken
of the reality that human thought processes, decision-making, precognitive processes, and actions
depend on physiologically based somato-sensory and somato-motor states and processes.
Physiological somato-sensory and somato-motor aspects of human thinking are particularly
relevant in understanding closure of cognitive activities that determines human behaviour in
designing and in organisations. Closure refers to the usually subconscious stopping, starting,
continuation or redirection of human internal or external processes. For example, the connections of
axons in a developing babys brain involve closure processes shaped by a wide variety of
environmental and intrinsic forces. All human development and functioning, including design
cognition is dependent on closure processes. In the case of cognition, and especially creative design
cognition, physiologically based somato-sensory and somato-motor issues are important because
they enable closure in cognition (Bastick, 1982).
Closure processes are implicit in Rosens (1980) conclusion that all forms of analysis depend on
intuition processes that shape an individuals logic (see, also Walton, 1997). They are a core part
of primary cognitive processes such as those that underpin the human information coordinating
behaviour that Spink (2000) identified as an important element of human information management
(as in designing).
These factors point to the human activity of designing being run through with closure-based
activities. Simplified models of relationships between physiologically based feeling states; closure,
design cognition, and individuals internal design optimization processes are described in Love
(2000)
Rosen (1980) has shown that intuitive closure processes are often faultily described in terms of
object attributes (a category confusion between activity and property). For example, whether a
human is correct to say that 5 is the correct answer to 2+3 usually focuses on the properties of the
numbers 2,3 and 5 and the closure process is assumed to be similar. In physiological terms,
according to Bastick (1982), this involves physiological self-perception processes that lead to an
individual feeling confident that the answer (5) is correct. Closure happens where peoples internal
state moves from them feeling uncomfortable, that the process is not complete and fully checked;
to feeling comfortable, that it is complete, and that they can proceed.
Increased understanding of the neurological/hormonal mechanisms underpinning closure provide
further physiological explanation of the causal phenomena that underpin the findings of Constituent
Market Orientation research, and the benefits that accrue from moving to team and constituent
orientation-based organisational models.
The implications of both these findings have not yet emerged in design theories.
Constituent Relations in Designing and Design Management

Designing involves many disciplines (Friedman, 1999; Margolin, 2000) and is conceptually and
epistemologically complex, especially collaborative designing involving multiple quantitatively and
qualitatively based disciplines.
Throughout history people have worked together to accomplish tasks, make decisions and solve
problems too big or complex for one individual. An organisation requires a common purpose,
accepted by the group performing the overall task (French, Bell, & Zawacki, 1994). The task is best
defined, organised and executed if the group has a shared understanding and accepts a common
purpose. The group participates ideally in developing a goal hierarchy, a strategy and solutions;
activities and knowledge that helps the group achieve the purpose (Aranda, Aranda, & Colon,
1998). In addition to internal management factors, the history, culture and competitive climate
influence outcomes. The organisational challenge is threefold:
-
Creating open, inclusive systems for transferring explicit knowledge and storing shared
memory (single-loop learning (Argyris, 1977)).
Establishing meetings for shared development of learning and transfer of tacit knowledge
(double loop learning (Argyris, 1977), or generative learning (Senge, 1995).
Creating a learning environment (Fifth discipline (Senge, 1995) and triple-loop learning
(Argyris, 1993; Senge, 1995)).
Tellefsen & Love, (2001) indicate that leadership of an organisation has to construct and manage
four parallel systems in addition to the system for current operations. To establish and maintain a
holistic business idea the leadership group needs to use:
1.
The power system: Ownership that establishes who we are, social legitimacy, authority to
make decisions, risk-taking, the distribution of values gained and consumed (including
financing of investments, distribution of revenues and costs, liquidity and profits)
2.
Internal driving forces: Common beliefs, purpose, values and objectives of the
organization
3.
Strategy making processes: The processes and systems for developing organization-wide
agreement on who we are, our image, who we want to relate to and exchange values with
(the stakeholders), who the others are (competition and other constituents), how to
compete (defining moral and wanted behavior) and with what (technology and know-how).
4.
Operative management and systems: Management processes and procedures, including

methods for task delegation, solving disputes, accountability, value production, value
distribution, delegated risk-taking, Development and integration of real-world and virtual
systems of operations.
The Constituent Market Orientation analysis of an organisation is represented in Figure 1 below

(Tellefsen, 1999).
Figure 1: A model of constituent orientation

In Figure 1 above, the antecedents determine the extent of constituency based market-oriented
learning that takes place within the organisation. This learning provides the human competitive
edge that makes an organisation more effective and efficient than similar organisations. The focus
of CMO here is the consequences of the direction of attention of members of an organisation
towards different important constituents of the market within which the organisation operates.
Important findings that emerged from Tellefsens research and from the ensuing theory model are
as follows.
10
1. The higher the conflict level within an organisation, the lower the external driven
learning.
2. The better the nerves among top leaders, the more market oriented learning occurs.
3. The more the leader is preoccupied with proper market orientation, the more market
oriented learning occurs in the organisation.
4. Increased focus on constituents performing prime activities in the value chain (Porter,
1985) increases market oriented learning, whereas focus on others (government, media,
industry organisations, etc) lowers the aggregate externally driven market oriented
learning.
5. Top manager signals related to the content of market orientation increases market
oriented learning in the organisation. Other signals weaken the market-oriented learning.
6. Higher environmental and internal turbulence, more intense competition, and higher
degree of differentiation (from competitors) all strengthened the significance of CMO
for outcomes. The opposite states of course weakened the effect derived from the
learning.
7. A higher CMO led to getting more of whatever consequences are listed at the bottom of
the model. The exception is the costs where higher CMO led to lower total per unit costs
in an organisation.
Perhaps of most interest in terms of exploring a common ground of practice amongst stakeholders
in design processes is:
8. The most important factor for a high constituent orientation is varied personal
backgrounds within the leadership team. One-sided backgrounds, regardless of which it
is, reduces the organisational CMO learning intensity, though it may improve learning
with constituencies with same background as the leadership group.
Taken together these factors reinforce a single point for the integration of design activities into
larger organisational purposes:
Simultaneous learning in many dimensions and directions is beneficial for the organisation. This
learning has to be integrated through interdisciplinary and inter-organisational teams.
The obvious explanation for this is that innovations are complex and involve a series of groups that
have to act together regardless of ownership and other institutional arrangements.
Organizations that consist of heterogeneous groups with strong sub-cultures become difficult to
govern and lead. Common language, perceptions, values, experiences, goals and habits are weak.
Performance and behavior become unpredictable for the organization as a whole, and the
organization will not be able to develop a common identity and image. The challenge to the
leadership is to establish programmatic learning loops led from the center of power. The purpose of
programmatic learning loops, is to establish common purpose, values, and objectives. They must
also result in, a common understanding of language, facts, and the environment, with its internal
processes and structure, constituents and stakeholders. From a strategic point of view, it is essential
11
to establish definition between us and others: the limits and borders of the organization and its
competition. To establish a strong common culture in the organization, the common elements
established by the leadership must be communicated to all members of the organization, and be
implemented in all decisions regarding leadership style, organizational architecture, structures and
processes, strategies, operations, services and products, and be reflected in all external
communication with the constituents. An alternative, to this organizational approach to producing
and exchanging values in the sub-groups of an organisation, is the market solution of distance and
freedom of choice among the actors. Resource-based and agent-based theories of networks have
explored the feasibility and economics of these alternatives: administrative versus market solutions
of exchange (Conner, 1991; Dahlstrom & Nygaard, 1999; Heide, 1994).
Knowledge management is a key factor in the above issues ( see, for example, Prusak, 1997).
Learning theory distinguishes between tacit and explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge can be
communicated through a common language, which includes the meaning and feelings attached to
body language, pictures, sound, and any form of symbols including written language. Knowledge
can also be tacit, and can occur at several levels: individual, work group, networks, firm, industry,
language group, etc.
Summary and conclusions

The paper has given an overview of the contributions and impacts of Constituent Market
Orientation and new brain research findings for improving designing, design management, designed
outcomes and business outcomes. It has sketched out an alternative theory framework aimed at
improving the effectiveness and efficiency of organisations that include design activities that
seamlessly stretches from the physiological underpinnings of human functioning in designing to
theories of management and organisational learning.
The current lack of integrated theory impacts adversely on design management, leaving design
managers managing complex design team situations on the basis of partial, contradicting, suboptimal and, sometimes irrelevant knowledge. The lack of theory also impacts adversely on
software development for supporting complex innovation processes. Research in this area requires
an integrated theory framework that draws on new knowledge from brain and neurology research,
and is coherent with theories from management and organisational learning, and which
pragmatically bridges across issues of structure and agency in human individual and group
behaviours.
There are significant benefits for stakeholders:
Large organisations with in-house multidisciplinary design teams: Improved economic
efficiency, increased potential through innovation, minimization of cost and risks of failure.
Organisations providing design teams services: Increased competitiveness, profitability and
capacity for additional work, minimization of risk.
Government: a direct, positive and immediate impact on the rate of innovation. Shortening of
time to gaining social and economic benefits.
Research Councils: benefits to research viability because efficient and effective multidisciplinary
design activities improve the conversion of new scientific knowledge into real products, systems
and services with economic and social benefits.
12
Design Research field: New coherent and comprehensive theory foundations and radical
extension of theory in fields of participative design, collaborative design, computer supported
cooperative work, group decision support services, and virtual teamwork.
Small businesses involved in designing: A theory model and strategies to support participation
by individuals and small organisations in collaborative design teams.
Lessens the need for ownership control of collaborative arrangements: CMO across institutions
and disciplines will increase the benefits of network solutions.
13
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17

A. Tomes Sheffield Hallam University, UK
P. Armstrong Keele University, UK
Abstract
Every dominant movement in art has depended upon the development of an accompanying critical
discourse. Using the writings of design critics and design journalists, this paper suggests that there
are similar, albeit under-developed, discursive dimensions to the reception of innovative design.
Critics, advertisers and commentators offer vocabularies of appreciation analogous to the critical
discourses of artistic avant-gardes. These suggest the manner in which a design should be used or
experienced, the nature of experiences that should follow and the discontents with earlier forms that
inspired it.
A major implication is that the lukewarm enthusiasm of the UK public for good design is unlikely
to be overcome simply by exposure to it. Good design, of some kinds at least, can no more be
expected to speak for itself than good art. It needs to be approached with some understanding of
what it sets out to do, what is to be gained by engaging with it, motivated, where appropriate, by a
new sensitivity to the shortcomings of what went before. Except amongst those already inclined to
value design innovation, such frames of mind are unlikely to arise spontaneously. They depend on
the promulgation of appropriate vocabularies of appreciation from within the relevant design
communities, and these, like the discourses of modern art, will need to possess a critical and
historical dimension.

Art Critics: what do they do?
You cannot explain Mondrian's painting to people who don't know anything about Vermeer.
Rosenberg (1952)
It is 1967 in the Art World of North America. Jules Olitskis painting Feast is on show. For most
people outside the art world, it is simply a tall rectangular canvas sprayed with red paint locally
smudged with vague darker patches. But that is not how matters stand inside it. For the initiate, this
work stands in relation to others, in a dense field of critical commentary, visual sensibility and the
social currency deriving from them. It makes sense, that is, in relation to particular conceptions of
the nature of art and of art history. Not unconnected with this, it also stands in relation to a
lucrative and rapidly expanding art market.
The critic Clement Greenberg, once the isolated champion of abstract expressionists such as
Jackson Pollock, William De Kooning, and Robert Motherwell has become the sought-after adviser
of both painters and gallery owners. He has also been adopted as a guru by a group of postgraduate
students of art history at Harvard University. For the students, Greenberg possesses the charisma of
a once-isolated prophet who has been proved right in the important case of the first generation
Abstract Expressionists. For the critic, the young academics provide theoretical and historical
backing for his judgements. The consequence is an ossification of both, a dogmatism of judgement
backed up by a doctrinaire version of art history. This insists that the defining feature and
touchstone of authenticity in each of the arts is truth to its medium in painting, the flatness of the
canvas and the boundedness of the frame. In Greenbergs view, each genuine avant-garde is a
reaction to the exploration of these properties by previous avant gardes, with painterly and flat
styles in dialectic alternation. Painting which falls outside this schema is to be regarded as mere
fashion, not an authentic forward move in the evolution of modern art. According to Greenberg, the
current direction of evolution is through Post-Painterly Abstraction, a cool flat-toned reaction to
the explicit working of the paint in Abstract Expressionism. It is an intellectually tidy version of art
history which has no place for such prominent movements as Dada, Surrealism and Pop Art (Reise
1992). Partly for this reason it generates intense controversy.
In his 1965 introduction to The Artist in America, Greenberg has already identified Jules Olitski
with the coming of Post-Painterly Abstraction, seeing him as an artist who seeks to continue and
expand Abstract Expressionism rather than break with it entirely (Greenberg 1993: 215). In his
introduction to Olitskis work at the Venice Biennale of 1966, Greenberg comments specifically on
the spray paintings:
In the first sprayed paintings linear drawing is displaced completely from the inside of the picture
to its outside, that is, to its inclosing shape, the shape of the stretched piece of canvas. Olitskis art
begins to call attention at this point, as no art before it has, to how very much this shape is a matter
of linear drawing and, as such, an integral determinant of the pictures effect rather than an imposed
and external limit. The degree to which the success of Olitskis paintings depends on the proportion
of height to width in their inclosing shapes is, I feel, unprecedented. Because they attract too little
notice as shapes, and therefore tend to get taken too much for granted, he has had more and more to
avoid picture formats that are square or approach squareness. He has had also to avoid picture
formats that are long and narrow, simply because these tend to stamp themselves out as shapes less
emphatically than formats that are tall and narrow do . .
The grainy surface Olitski creates with his way of spraying is a new kind of paint surface. It offers
tactile associations hitherto foreign, more or less, to picture-making; and it does new things with
color. Together with color, it contrives an illusion of depth that somehow extrudes all suggestions
of depth back to the picture's surface; it is as if that surface, in all its literalness, were enlarged to
contain a world of color and light differentiations impossible to flatness but which yet manages not
to violate flatness. This in itself constitutes no artistic virtue; what makes it that - what makes
Olitiskis paint surface a factor in the creation of major art is the way in which one of the
profoundest imaginations of this time speaks through it.
Several features of these passages speak to the argument we will make in this paper. Firstly, they
situate Olitski as a motive force in the new phase of art history, with implications for how his work
should be viewed. As Lucie-Smith (1969:111) put it, we are to see Olitskis work as experiments
with a critique of abstract expressionism . Secondly, the work is described in terms of Greenbergs
conception of truth-to-medium in painting. Namely, the description concentrates on what the artist
does with the rectangular frame and the flat surface. Thirdly, the reader is offered instruction on
how to look at the work so as to pick up on these aspects - and on the experiences which are
supposed to follow from that looking. The absence of lines, for example, is to be seen as a
displacement of drawing from the picture to its frame. This, in turn, should be seen as calling
attention to the role of the frame in determining the overall effect of a picture, and thus as a
comment on painting as such. Fourthly, there is an authoritative assertion that the work is major art,
perhaps with the unspoken implication that the sensitive viewer ought to be able to experience it as
such. In sum, Greenbergs writings on Olitski, and probably most critical writings on most art, offer
a vocabulary of appreciation through which the critic believes the work ought to be experienced.
Vocabularies of appreciation
Since the work of White and White (1966), we have become accustomed to the idea that new
movements in art do not succeed through the unaided persuasion of the work itself, nor do they do
so through spontaneous movements in taste. Rather they are actively promoted through a dealercritic system. Dealers of the kind Boime (1976) called ideological support young artists who
appear to have prospects, acquiring in return a stock of their work whilst prices are still low. They
then work to create a public for the new art, with the dual aim of publicising a form of art in which
they believe and drawing a profit when its prices appreciate. The balance between these two aims,
of course, varies with individual dealers.
Whilst much has been written about the dealer, or entrepreneurial, component of the dealer-critic
couplet, the way in which critical writings work to create a public for new art has received little
attention. We will use the term vocabulary of appreciation to refer to the medium through which
this is achieved. As the term implies, it includes ways of talking and writing about the new art
which highlight and valorise the intentions behind it and the experiences it is supposed to produce.
Typically in avant-garde movements, the intentions, the values, and the talk about them, derive
from a particular critique of the artistic modes against which they are a reaction. Because of this, the
vocabulary of appreciation associated with an avant garde is simultaneously a vocabulary of
deprecation towards its predecessor form, one which articulates and emphasises its limitations. Here
Clement Greenberg, in a characteristic move of avant-garde criticism makes his case for postpainterly abstraction by showing his readers how to see clich and degeneration in the diffusion of
abstract expressionism which preceded it:
Having produced art of major importance [abstract expressionism] turned into a school, then into a
manner, and finally into a set of mannerisms . . The most conspicuous of the mannerisms into
which Painterly Abstraction has degenerated is what I call the Tenth Street touch which spread
through abstract painting like a blight during the 1950s. The stroke left by a loaded brush or knife
frays out, when the stroke is long enough, into streaks, ripples, and specks of paint. These create
variations of light and dark by means of which juxtaposed strokes can be graded into one another
without abrupt contrasts. . . In all this there was nothing bad in itself, nothing necessarily bad as art.
What turned this constellation of stylistic features into something bad as art was its standardisation,
its reduction to a set of mannerisms, as a dozen, and then a thousand, artists proceeded to maul the
same viscosities of paint, in more or less the same ranges of color, and with the same gestures
into the same kind of picture.
(Greenberg 1993: 193)
As this passage demonstrates, vocabularies of appreciation are more pro-active than mere
description. Greenberg is showing his readers how to pick out the technical similarities in different
painting so that they can be seen as clich. As with paradigm shifts in Kuhns picture of scientific
revolutions (Kuhn, 1962), those involved in new artistic movements actually see the world in
different terms, both the new art to which they are committed and the old against which it is a
reaction. For this reason vocabularies of appreciation include ways of looking as well as ways of
describing, sensitivities to the intentions behind new forms which are simultaneously sensitivities to
the limitations of what went before.
It is the mission of critics to share their experience of the work with a wider public, writing of it in
language which assumes the values it pursues and the validity of the technical means by which it
does so. The same language, as we have pointed out, also stresses the limitations of what has gone
before. To the extent that writing of this kind succeeds, it does so not simply by getting people to
try the new art for themselves, but by persuading them to look at it as the critics do, to see what they
see and to feel as they do. In the process the new audience comes to assimilate some of the aesthetic
culture within which the new art originated, its discontents with previous forms and the version of
art history in which its solutions are the main direction of artistic development.
Vocabularies of appreciation in design

Adolf Loos
Thus far we have seen that the artwork itself reveals its full meaning only through the vocabulary of
appreciation which comes into being alongside it, a vocabulary which it is the business of the critic
to publicise. The result, when it works, is a public which looks in new ways at much else besides
the new art. Importantly, it is likely to share the avant garde artists' impatience with the forms
against which they are in reaction, thereby seeing art in the context of a new version of art history.
Those convinced by Greenbergs interpretation of the role of the frame in abstract art, for example,
would likely see continuities with its role in representational art. Each form of art, then, is
apprehended through a vocabulary of appreciation which is both critical and historical.
We will now argue that much of this is true of the way we apprehend the designed artefact. In this
field, there are obvious counterparts to the innovative art critic. A prominent example is the pioneer
architect and polemicist of modernism, Adolf Loos (1870-1933). A practitioner rather than a
systematic theorist, Loos writings were less concerned to advance a coherent position than to
persuade people to see things differently. To this end, they were exaggerated, full of hyperbole,
untenable contradictions and paradoxes (Maciuika 2000). Our concern here, however, is less with
the mechanics of Loos rhetoric than with the intentions behind it.
His well-known essay , 'Ornament and Crime' (1908, reprinted in Loos, 1997), is a convenient
starting-point. As the title states explicitly, Loos aim was to undermine the appeal of decoration,
not by reasoned argument from hard evidence (indeed, how could he?), but by creating a series of
disreputable associations between a love of ornamentation and various forms of immature and antiDurling D. & Shackleton J. (Eds.) Common Ground : Design Research Society International Conference 2002, UK. ISBN 1-904133-11-8
social and behaviour. To this end, his essay begins not with his actual target - the then-current
Viennese taste for decoration - but with the tattoos of Papuans and the doodles of children, forms
of decoration which Loos connects in a parody of evolutionary recapitulation:
When man is born, his sensory impressions are like those of a new-born puppy. His childhood
takes him through all the metamorphoses of human history. At two, he sees with the eyes of a
Papuan, at four, with those of an ancient Teuton, at six, with those of Socrates, at eight, with those
of Voltaire.
It is only after lodging these connotations in the minds of his readers that Loos moves on to the
Viennese taste for wallets and leather goods covered with Rococo ornamentation, and tin
bathtubs that aim to look as if they are marble (Maciuika 2000). Having made his point, Loos then
wraps it up in an aphorism so that his readers can carry it around with them:
I have made the following discovery and I pass it on to the world: The evolution of culture is
synonymous with the removal of ornament from utilitarian objects.
Logically, empirically, scientifically, and even politically, the argument is ridiculous (Banham
1999:18). Loos knew it and so, judging by the essays notoriety, did his readers. That, however, was
not the point. As a pioneer of modernist architecture, Loos saw decoration as childish and
unsophisticated, not in a considered way, but as part of his immediate experience. Whilst his style
of writing may not have added up as logic, it made every sense as an attempt to persuade his readers
into this way of seeing. The aim was not so much to encourage them to reflect on the meaning of
decoration, but to frame their next encounter with it, to superimpose the image of the tattooed
Papuan and the childish doodle, as it were, on the ornate object or building. At the time Loos was
writing, this new way of seeing also required a new version of design history to justify it, one which
saw the Vienna Secession not as the revolt of a vigorous avant garde against academic conservatism
but as a regression to a primitive state, a taste for decoration destined to be superseded by a mature
and sophisticated functionality.
Reyner Banham
Writing almost half a century later than Loos, Reyner Banhams day job was in academia rather
than in practice. Possibly for this reason, the philosophy behind his design journalism was more
systematic than Loos', or perhaps just more systematically expressed.
His view of aesthetics as realised in what is now called active consumption (de Certeau 1984) set
Banham apart from those modernist designers for whom use tended to equate with the narrower
considerations of ergonomics and functionality from which appropriate form was supposed to
follow. This dissent surfaced in articles such as Machine Aesthetes (1958) which pointed out that
the smooth plain surfaces rendered onto reinforced concrete in the White Architecture of the
Thirties had little to do with the look of actual machines or with truth to material. Rather they were
products of amateurish misunderstandings of both by aesthetic fumbletrumpets. Banhams
opening up of the supposed fusion of form and function in modernism marked an important
moment in its slow leakage of authority. Even amongst those broadly sympathetic to modernism, it
was a scepticism which was in the air. Thus Lynes, (1959: 338): Modern architecture, even when it
doesnt work and it often doesnt looks as though it ought to. Thirty years later, Ewen
(1988:210-211) was less sympathetic, The machine look which they produced, however, contained
a paradox. In many cases it could only be achieved by painstaking hand-craft methods. and There
is a greater concern that the building should look rational rather than that rational methods should
be employed in its design.
Banham, then, was an early interrogator of the air of rational inevitability with which modernist
design had hitherto been presented. For if its aesthetics did not, after all, follow from function, they
must be just aesthetics. In practice, Banham observed, much of the form justified in the name of
functionality was actually that of classical geometry, in which respect modernism could fairly be
castigated as retrograde and academic. And even when it did express a genuine functionality, it was
a legislated functionality, not one derived from the actual practice of users. In this respect
modernism could fairly be accused of authoritarianism, an accusation which certainly resonated
with the slum-cleared inhabitants of the Brutalist flats of the 1950s.
Once suspicions of this kind are planted in our minds, we begin to look differently at modernism
which brings us back to our main line of argument. An autobiographical example will illustrate. In
that quintessential representative of functional White Architecture, the New York Guggenheim,
there are a number of spiral arms which end in blank walls. At the time of a visit by one of us in
1996, one of them bore a notice attributing the slogan form follows function to Louis Smith, the
mentor of Frank Lloyd Wright. It was Lloyd Wright himself, apparently, who took the next step,
declaring that form and function are one. There was not even a chair from which the visitor could
reflect on the relevance of these proclamations to his imminent need to retrace his own steps - the
point being that the prior existence of a discourse of scepticism towards the modernist project
sensitises the spectator to performative contradictions of this kind. Alert to the possibility of handcrafted unevenness in the supposedly machine-like curvatures of the Guggenheim, sure enough we
find it.
Contemporary design journalism

It is in the work of innovative thinkers on design (and major art critics) that vocabularies of
appreciation are at their most visible, and this is because they are trying to change them. In order to
do so, they need to draw out what is ordinarily taken-for-granted, what we habitually attend to, what
meanings we attach and the standards or icons of design against which we make our judgements. In
the ordinary way of things, these matters are largely implicit; we apprehend the designed object
without reflecting overmuch on how we do so. Following major changes of taste, that is,
vocabularies of appreciation sink back into what Bourdieu (1986) called the habitus, giving rise to
the illusion that design (or art) can speak direct to our unsocialised humanity. But this is an illusion:
spontaneity is not instinct.
This means that we should not expect to find vocabularies of appreciation systematically set out in
the everyday journalism of design. As the ideas of pioneer thinkers slowly filter into the small
change of routine description, they become familiar and can be evoked through a repertoire of stock
phrases. A kind of shorthand evolves, which comes to stand for a whole look and a whole way of
appreciating it. Readers of style magazines and newspaper colour supplements are bombarded with
articles about interior decorating and home makeovers which are full of these terms and phrases.
The objects and room-settings are shown in pictures accompanied by a vocabulary of appreciation
now reduced to slogans or adjectives. If, for example, an item is described as clean and functional,
we now know that we are intended to experience it through the lens of a popularised modernist
aesthetic, one which looks for and finds virtue in simple geometric form and undecorated surfaces.
Even in these truncated forms, however, vocabularies of appreciation still display occasional traces
of the tendencies outlined earlier. That is, they also work as vocabularies of deprecation towards
rejected styles. In this vein, the journalist Jonathan Margolis (2000) offers his readers a compact
reprise of Loos fulminations against decoration:
It is common today to enter a working class home and find amidst the swirly carpets and ornate
three piece suite, a couple of stunning modern Scandinavian items.
If Margolis echoes Loos modernist functionalism, Friedman (2002a) urges her readers to look at it
with the scepticism of Banham:
The modern movement dictated that white should be one of the commandments of contemporary
design, simple pure and light . . [but white] . . is actually a singularly unfunctional and
inappropriate colour for furnishing fabric, wall covering or carpet in London in particular, one of
the filthiest, greyest cities in the world.
Notice too the echo of Banhams charge of authoritarianism against modernism. In the following
extract, also from Friedman (2002b), the historical dimension to a vocabulary of appreciation is
visible, in this case a version of history which sees the initial excesses of modernism gradually
softening as architecture opens to the influence of its users:
A house has to be eclectic and have a bit of history. You have to bring some meaning to
ownership, not just be a tenant in your own home. Modern architecture has always been
extreme..todays architects are less doctrinaire in their approach.
Despite these adjustments, continues Friedman, many users have still not assimilated the modernist
vocabulary of appreciation, even in its softened version: inexperienced buyers of the new can still
feel overwhelmed by what they see as the expectations of contemporary design.
Friedmans mention of personal history points to an important difference between the way we
experience art and design. For most of us, most of the time, artworks are viewed in social spaces set
apart from everyday life. Even the wall-space over the mantelpiece may be thought of as such a
place. In contrast, the designed object is often part of everyday life. Whilst the difference is
obviously not a hard and fast one, it means that design is more likely than art to carry associations
of the aspect or phase of life into which it fitted. Although most of these associations are private,
enough of them are public to create a market for works of design intended to dispel them if they are
unpleasant or to tap into them if they are pleasant. Thus Deyan Sudjic (2001) explains the early
success of Habitat as a cheap and simple way of covering up decor which by the early 1960s had
come to carry associations of scrimp and save:
the foam sofas, plastic wastepaper buckets , Art Deco wallpaper, brushed aluminium up-lighters
and rush matting helped a generation liberate itself from the bleak memories of their parents world.
Conran showed how the lingering odour of utility furniture, coin-in-the-slot gas fires and bath times
limited to three inches of water a day could be dispelled with a coat of orange paint, a floor sander
and a scattering of ethnic durries.
However, the terms in which Sudjic describes the Habitat package hints at a vocabulary of
appreciation which now sees through it. It seems now to be seen as a cut-price veneer of fake
modernism which could only work so long as it succeeded in staving off its association with the
sadness it typically covered up. On a par, perhaps, with the boy racers hopeful addition of a rear
spoiler to his parents cast-off Rover saloon.
The use of design as a way of tapping into (mostly) pleasant associations is signalled by one
meaning of that complex adjective retro. At its simplest level, retro indicates that a piece is to be
viewed not as an embarrassing relic of an obsolete style but as a keepsake from a simpler, nobler,
and better past. The aluminium-spoked steering wheel is intended, perhaps, to evoke the world of
pre-war motoring with its open roads, its absence of speed limits and casualties largely confined to
pedestrians, animals and cyclists. But retro may also signal that we are to understand a display of
past design as a knowing, ironic and even post-modern framing of kitsch. An example is the revival
of the 1960s lava lamp by a company called Mathmos, named tongue-in-cheek after the bubbling
life force in the sci-fi cult film Barbarella (Tyrell 2001). The commercial success of objects of this
kind bears witness to the appeal of demonstrating our own sophistication by a suitably framed
display of its cheap and tacky antithesis. Need we also add that such a display depends on a
vocabulary of appreciation which is also a vocabulary of deprecation and which is historical in its
nature?
Design also differs from the fine arts in the matter of functionality. Typically the functional
counterpart to the aesthetic vocabulary of appreciation is a combination of the book of instructions
and the sales brochure. Though the two overlap, the first concentrates on how to use the product and
the results which should follow, whilst the second focusses on the improvements these represent
over previous designs. In this respect, the brochure works rather like the historical dimension of
avant-gardeist vocabularies of appreciation. As with certain artworks, moreover, it is sometimes
possible to build statements of both kinds of usability and historical movement - into the physical
form of the product itself. The transparent barrel of the Dyson vacuum cleaner is an interesting
example. This not only declares a technological advance over previous types, but also guides the
user on the disposal of the dust. This mention of product semiotics, however, leads away from the
main topic of our paper.
Conclusions
There are times when design seems to work with an immediacy which suggests that its appeal is
direct to the central nervous system. If all design actually worked like this, the education of the
public into the appreciation of good design would require nothing more than exposure to it. And
should this direct and simplistic approach fail - as we think it always has - the disillusioned
would-be missionary is at least left with the consolations of snobbery. To the extent that good
design remains a minority taste, it is one which speaks of a refined sensibility.
We think this whole picture is misleading. Sensibilities are manufactured; in the fine arts through
the agency of the dealer-critic system; in design through the writings of pioneer critics as filtered
down through style magazines, advertising and other media of design journalism. In the writings
examined in this paper, we catch these critics in the act of cajoling their publics into looking at
things differently, describing them in different terms. These writings are the verbal component of
what we have called vocabularies of appreciation, ways of paying attention and describing which
have developed alongside the modes of design or schools of art to which they are attached. It is
these specific vocabularies of appreciation, not some more generalised refinement of sensibility,
which enable us to read works of art and design more-or-less as they are read and intended within
their native aesthetic communities.
Since the arts and designs of the twentieth century were importantly characterised by a succession
of avant-garde movements, each defining itself in reaction to what went before, vocabularies of
appreciation possess a critical-historical dimension, in which the meaning of a work lies partly in
what it rejects. Modernist design, for example, invites the eye to wander over its bland surfaces,
luxuriating in relief from the decoration which might once have been applied to them. Thus the eye
sees through the lens of a version of design history and vocabularies of appreciation are
simultaneously vocabularies of denigration. For the lover of good design, it follows that failure to
be up with the game signifies not merely a lack of good taste; it is bad taste. As Poggioli (1968) put
it, the typical form of the ugly for the avant garde is ex-beauty, the clich.
From all this it follows that a wider appreciation of good design depends on the dissemination of its
associated vocabularies of appreciation. This would require design criticism and the journalism
derived from it to be far more explicit on the matter of what to look for in good design and what
experiences are supposed to follow. That instruction of this kind would strike some of its current
public as crass only symptomises the strength of the exclusionary tendency. With the expansion of
higher education in art and design, vocabularies of appreciation are now increasingly acquired in
the course of professional training, with the fluent and confident mastery of them serving as a sign
of initiation. In more traditional social forms the love of art could legitimate inherited privilege by
denying the long process of socialisation through which it had been acquired (Bourdieu and Darbel,
1992). By similarly suppressing their educational origin, contemporary vocabularies of appreciation
can serve to define a community of spontaneous good taste against an excluded philistine
majority. With a wider public understanding of what to do with good design, all that would have to
go, but that is only to say that design cannot simultaneously be popular and exclusive.
References
Banham, P.Reyner. 1955 . Vehicles of Desire, Art. 1st September 1955:3. Reprinted in A Critic
Writes: Essays by P. Reyner Banham. 1999. Berkeley, California: University of California Press pp.
3-6.
Banham, P. Reyner. 1958. Machine Aesthetes, New Statesman, 16th August 1958, 55:192-193.
Reprinted in A Critic Writes: Essays by P. Reyner Banham. 1999. Berkeley, California: University
of California Press pp. 26-28.
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York: Basic Books.
Friedman, Lisa. 2002a A paler shade of white. Financial Times Feb 9th.
Friedman, Lisa. 2002b Property: softness and steel Financial Times Jan 12th.
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Vengeance 1957-1969. Ed. John OBrian. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
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Twentieth-Century Design Criticism. Design Issues, Summer2000, 16 (2):75-86.
Margolis, Jonathan. 2000. This Table is bought by rich and poor, style gurus and those with no
discernible taste, in identical stores from New York to Riyadh. What is the Secret of IKEAs
appeal? Financial Times 2nd Dec. 2000. How to Spend it. 8-12.
Poggioli, Renato. 1968. The Theory of the Avant-Garde. Tr. Gerald Fitzgerald. London: Belknap
Press of Harvard U.P.
10
Reise, Barbara M. 1992 Greenberg and the Group: a Retrospective View. pp. 252-263 in
Frascina, Francis and Harris, Jonathan (eds.) Art in Modern Culture: an Anthology of Critical Texts.
London: Phaidon press (for Open University).
Rosenberg, Harold. 1952. The American Action Painters. Art News, 51 (8) Dec. p. 22.
Sudjic, Deyan. 2001. Conran the Egalitarian. Observer, Sunday August 26.
Tyrell, Paul. 2001. From Kitsch to Cool. Financial Times. Weekend, 29th September 2001.
White, Harrison, C. and Cynthia, A White. 1993. Canvases and careers: Institutional Change in the
French Painting World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
11

B. Tuncer Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
R. Stouffs Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
S. Sariyildiz Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
Abstract
The study of precedents plays an important role in design and design education. Architecture
students prepare analyses of prominent precedents with respect to various criteria. Such design
analyses are represented and communicated through abstractions. Collections of these abstractions
are stored, related, managed, and presented in digital environments. Such web-based environments
can serve as an extensible library of design precedent analyses. The use of an extensive library by a
collection of students requires a flexible and extensible information model for relating and
integrating the various contributions. We propose a methodology that establishes an information
model for digital architectural analysis environments. This model facilitates a rich information
structure of abstraction entities and their relationships, both structural and semantic, offering
increased value for accessing and browsing this information. Specifically, a rich information
structure allows one to access the information from alternative views to those that are expressed by
the individual abstractions. In this paper, we start by discussing precedent-based learning, and
describe the abstraction model currently used for precedent documentation and analysis. We then
present our methodology for achieving a rich information structure. We end the paper with a
description of an implementation of this methodology as an architectural analysis construction and
presentation environment for a second year design studio.

Precedent-based learning
The study of precedents plays an important role in design and design education (Akin, Cumming,
Shealey and Tuner 1997). While practitioners can rely on their own and their colleagues
experience in the process of a new design, students can only draw upon documented examples of
success and failure from known architects. Especially in the early stages of design, it is common
practice for architecture students to collect information on prominent buildings relevant to their
design task. The rationale for banking on so called precedents is straightforward: it is wrong to
wish to reinvent the wheel over and over again. We should learn from our elders and adopt their
successful solutions to problems similar to the ones we cope with (Goldschmidt 1995: 70).
Precedents as finished and complete design objects contain knowledge of design. A study of such
precedents can yield, among others, heuristics used by the designer, design principles for various
purposes and situations, and prototypes from building typologies.
Architecture students often prepare case studies for their design studio projects, gathering
information about existing buildings with similar functionality to the subject of their project. They
present this in the form of collages on paper, or as hyper-documents. By integrating the respective
results into a common library, students can draw upon others results for comparisons and
relationships between different aspects or buildings. There have been attempts at collecting and
organizing these results into computational environments (e.g., Madrazo and Weder 2001; Madrazo
2000) as a collection of categorized and hyperlinked documents. The EDAT example (Akin et al.
1997) additionally offers the students a tool to present their work in the design studio and is
extendable in different ways, e.g., for carrying out performance analyses on the stored test cases.
Such environments for precedent-based learning generally use an abstraction model or a documentbased model. They use collections of abstractions for representing, storing and presenting design
information. A drawing or text specifies a single abstraction; each abstraction expresses a different
aspect of the design object, such as form, function, acoustics, structure, process, space, and
organizational relationships (Schmitt 1993: 39). Abstractions are expressed as documents of various
formats, e.g., drawings, diagrams, 3D models, images, simulations, and texts. Such computational
environments treat the individual abstractions as entities or objects that are organized and related
according to various categories and attributes. The purpose is to offer a flexible organizational
framework and enable easy indexing and retrieval of documents.
There may be many different reasons for retrieving information on precedents in an electronic
environment. Given a group of precedents of a specific building type, e.g., theaters, one may be
interested in a particular theater hall because the works of that particular architect are of interest.
Or, one may want to look at all foyers in order to get an overview of different circulation schemes
used in theaters. Alternatively, one may want to deduce rules of thumb about designing theater halls
with good acoustics by looking at theater halls that are considered to be examples of good acoustics.
Such cases can be enumerated for pages. In general, information retrieval in such environments are
based on keyword searches. Documents are indexed such that each document is represented by a set
of keywords. This indexing can be done manually or automatically. Information retrieval actions
within precedent-based learning environments generally fit one of the following two categories.
Firstly, one may want to retrieve a specific known document that resides in the repository. If the
retrieval query contains one or more of the documents keywords, the retrieval will be
straightforward. Secondly, one may want to retrieve all documents pertaining to a certain concept or
topic, including their links to other related documents. Such an overview of relevant documents
may provide the necessary information in order to establish or verify a certain design aspect. The
possibility of interpreting the entire document structure seeking information related to a concept of
interest is an important requirement in such an environment.
As a result, the use of an extensive library by a collection of students requires a flexible and
extensible model for relating and integrating the various contributions. Specifically, there is a need
for an information organization that enables a user to access information independently of the
individual viewpoints of the authors of the information space. The approach described in this paper
provides a methodology for modeling information in such a way as to provide a rigorous recipe
when creating cooperative information environments for creating, managing, and presenting
architectural analyses.
A recipe for digital architectural analysis environments

Rich information structures
Information structures are created, at a minimum, by a collection of information entities, an
organization of these entities, and a specification of the relationships between these entities. In the
context of an architectural analysis, the individual abstractions and their relationships define the
information structure. A dense information structure offers better support for searching and
browsing this structure. Searches in a larger structure will offer more results while a denser
structure can serve to distinguish entities by their relationships. Browsing a structure is also
facilitated by its density as additional relationships offer more ways to move through the space.
This density is directly defined by the authors of the information space. Therefore, we aim to
support the authors with a methodology for increasing the structures cardinality and its
interrelatedness towards a richer structure: augmenting the structures relatedness with content
information, and expanding the structure through the replacement of abstraction entities by detailed
component substructures.
In a syntactic manner, an abstraction can be considered as a compositional structure of data entities
and relationships. While each abstraction touches upon a different aspect, abstractions relate
through commonalities, similarities, and variations in vocabulary and compositional structures.
When the abstractions are numerous and diverse, recognizing these relationships creates a tight
network in which the individual abstractions no longer stand out. Such a network of abstractions
can be said to embody a rich representation.
A rich information structure of abstraction components and their relationships, both structural and
semantic, offers new possibilities for accessing, viewing, and interpreting this information. First, it
allows one to access specific information directly instead of requiring a traversal of the abstraction
component hierarchy. Individual components can be reached and retrieved more quickly when
provided with more relationships. Second, components can be considered from a different point of
view. The location of a component in the structure is no longer only defined by its place in the
abstraction component hierarchy. Instead, components provide direct access to other related
components, forming a part of the first components context. Third, one can access the information
structure from alternative views to those that are expressed by the individual abstractions. New
compositions of components and relationships offer new interpretations of the structure and
generate views not inherent in the structure as created by the original abstractions. Such
interpretations can lead to new abstractions.
Document decomposition by content

A document management system commonly provides for an organization of documents with
respect to categories or keywords. However, a categorization with keywords offers little
information on the importance of a concept as specified by a document keyword, or on the portion

of the document this keyword applies to. Furthermore, users may opt to simply ignore keywords
which apply to only part of a document. In this way, these document properties offer only a
quantitative rather than a qualitative valuation of the document. Instead, by allowing the user to
select portions of a document for assigning keywords, many more keywords that better fit parts of
documents can be specified and associated with the appropriate document portions. This will make
the documents inherently related by content.
Decomposing documents by content creates a richer information structure. Replacing documents
with component structures automatically increases the number of information entities.
Decomposition relationships between document components extends the network of relationships.
Furthermore, a document decomposition enables the relating of keywords to document components,
allowing for the specification of keywords that may otherwise be ill-suited to relate to the document
at large. Document components that share the same keyword can be considered additionally related.
Separation of syntax and semantics

Document decompositions can be represented in various ways. We choose to consider a structural
decomposition of a document as opposed to a semantic one, that is, document components are
defined as subsets of the overall document and using the same representation. This approach to
decomposing documents provides a uniform structure that is easily adaptable, unlike a semantic
decomposition. In this structure, the semantics of the decomposition are separately specified by a
categorization of the document components. This semantic keyword structure is derived from an
analogy with the semantics of a system of architectural types. A structural document decomposition
particularly applies to texts, images, and simple line drawings, as these lack any strong inherent
structure. All composed of symbols from a relatively small vocabulary, i.e., characters, pixels, and
line segments, in simple one- and two-dimensional patterns, they are represented in a similar
structure and can be operated on in a similar way: divided into smaller parts and the parts organized
into a hierarchical structure (figure 1).
Figure 1: An exemplar image decomposition hierarchy from the design studio application.
Separating semantics from syntax allows a semantic organization to augment the document
structure without imposing a specific representational structure. This semantic organization can be
specified as a compositional structure of descriptive keywords, in various ways (figure 2). Such a
semantic structure assists in achieving a rich information structure. When keywords are organized
in a structure, relationships between keywords define additional relationships between document
components.
Figure 2: Schematic diagram of four different semantic structures for descriptive keywords. a) a
linear structure, b) a hierarchical structure, c) a network structure, d) a combination of the previous
structures.
The separation of syntax and semantics ensures extensibility and flexibility of the overall
representation and avoids the imposition of a fixed frame of reference. The semantics can easily be
altered at any time without requiring an adaptation of the syntactic structure. Users can alter either
the decomposition or the categorization without affecting the other. Furthermore, the user has full
control on the effective positioning of any document within the categorical organization, by
selecting either or both the number of keywords assigned and the level of decomposition. This
flexibility avoids a rigorous and tedious process when using an application of this methodology.
Architectural types as semantic guideline

Within a discipline, members structure shared knowledge through the definition and classification
of common concepts. Architects generally classify building designs based on spatial and formal
features. This classification introduces the concepts of type and typology. Types in architecture
assist, besides the communication of shared knowledge, the analysis of existing buildings, and the
design of new buildings (Leupen et al. 1997: 132). The concept of building types plays a central
role in architecture, although there is no single definition of type and various approaches to the
subject exist. Building types, e.g., museums, offices, and libraries, generally define classes of
buildings that have common, often functional, characteristics. However, the functional
classification is not the only aspect of building types. Generally a type can be described as the
encoding of prominent features of a design object. Such features include function, form, and
context. According to Moneo (1978), a type can be defined as a concept which describes a group
of objects characterized by some formal structure. This implies a grouping of objects by certain
inherent structural similarities. These objects are not isolated from a spectrum of concerns from
social activity to building construction. Type as a formal structure is defined by the relationships
between all these aspects and the elements that make up the whole. This definition of types as a
structure of aspects, elements, and their relationships makes it possible to formalize a building type
as a network of components, concepts, and their relationships.
Relationships between types play an important role; a type is related to and dependent on other
types. According to Johnson (1994: 347-348), a relationship has first to do with identifying
characteristics of elements. These make the elements recognizable as belonging to some family of
elements. Second, a relationship relates to the distance between the elements, be it an abstract,
conceptual, mathematical, semantic, or physical distance. Relationships between types result in
formal and spatial organizations and ordering principles (Ching 1979). Types and their relationships
can be represented in a graph system, as nodes and edges. Type as a concept has no notion of
representation. Nor does a typology prescribe a particular semantic structure. The structure may be
expressed linearly (figure 2a), or hierarchically, offering various levels of detailing (figure 2b).
When parts of the hierarchy are reused at various locations within the structure, a network structure
results where types can have more than one parent type (figure 2c). The structures complexity
can be extended or reduced according to individual cases. The overall structure may also constitute
a combination of various dependency substructures, describing different aspects or parts of a
typology (figure 2d). In this case, the individual substructures may be considered as different
dimensions within the semantic model.
We can consider types in their most simplistic form as keywords. Keywords are commonly used as
a means for the categorization of documents in document management applications. Elements of
such a semantic structure do not necessarily need to be considered conceptually as types in the
architectural sense. Types in this context are used to denote the dependency between elements.
When these elements are related according to a semantic structure, they are more than simple
keywords or attributes. As types are associated to documents, in the form of keywords,
relationships between types induce additional relationships between document entities that
otherwise do not exist. These additional relationships tighten the information structure already
defined by the document entities and their relationships.
Visualizations
Imposing a semantic structure on keywords as types also facilitates the assignment of keywords to
document entities and components. When keywords are organized in a structure, these are more
easily visualized and conceptualized, facilitating a conceptual organization of documents with
respect to this semantic structure. In particular, effective visualizations allow efficient and fast
access to data, and provide a better overview of data entities (Papanikolaou 2001). Visualizations
that facilitate visual exploration and manipulation support the process of relating appropriate
keywords to document entities and components. For example, a hierarchical structure of keywords
allows for an effective overview of the entire structure in a single view that can be used when
assigning keywords to documents and when creating new keywords within this structure. Even
without any control mechanism to ensure the consistency of the positioning of new keywords in the
hierarchy, the clarity of the structure enables the user to better determine which location may be
appropriate for placing a new keyword in the hierarchy.
Automation
Types in architecture usually have various formalizations related to them. Formalizations of types
make it possible to search for instances of types within documents of different formats. Since types
are conceptual entities, with instances of these associated to design documents, the format of a
document defines the respective types formalization: as a keyword, an image, a sketch, etc.
Formalizations of types in different formats can assist in automating the classification of documents
by automatically recognizing instances of types within documents. Recognizing instances of types
in documents provides both qualitative and quantitative information about the importance of these
types for the documents. It also enables a specification of exactly which part of a document a type
applies to. This automation facilitates the process of relating and categorizing documents.
The process of document decomposition may be (semi-)automated using pattern recognition
mechanisms and artificial intelligence techniques. Image recognition mechanisms for images (e.g.,
Koutamanis 1995; Barrow and Tenenbaum 1981), shape recognition mechanisms for simple line
drawings (e.g., Chase 1989; Krishnamurti 1981), and keyword or concept recognition mechanisms
for texts (e.g., Greenberg 1999) will assist in presenting the user with suggestions about document
components corresponding to a given categorization. Other formats require similar, though
different, recognition techniques. While there has been a lot of research into the field of image and
pattern recognition, especially in engineering, remarkably few practical applications of this research
in the field of architecture exist. We do however expect these technologies to mature and be able to
serve this purpose. These technologies will surely provide a considerable benefit in the uptake of a
system utilizing document decomposition.
Representational structures
The representation of a document decomposition requires the definition and recognition of the
composing structure and relationships. Components and substructures can be recognized as
instances of types. These may be grouped into more complex structures, creating structure to
structure relationships corresponding to relationships between types. Substructures may also belong
to more than one structure, in reference to the formal structure described by Moneo (1978). Types
do not impose any particular representational decomposition on the document or abstraction
depicting an instance of a type. Instead, different abstractions require different vocabularies that
have their origin in the domains of the respective abstractions. These vocabularies may overlap but,
more often, they will offer alternative descriptions of related types reflecting on the function and
context. A syntactical framework that offers representational flexibility is needed to define the
vocabularies that express these structures. We propose the adoption of XML (eXtensible Markup
Language) (W3C 2002) as a common syntax for describing document decompositions and their
integration into a single information structure.
Design studio application

We developed a first prototype for the presentation of architectural analyses on the web in order to
illustrate the presented methodology (Tuner, Stouffs and Sariyildiz 2001). Ottoman Mosques
served as a case study for this work. XML was adopted as a common syntax for the representation
of document structures and their integration into a single information structure. Based on its results,
we are currently developing a new system for the construction and presentation of a body of
architectural analyses in the context of a design studio.
This design studio will start in September 2002 as part of a new curriculum to implement a three +
two year bachelor and masters program. The design studio will be offered in the fourth semester to
about 350 students. The central design theme of this studio is a small public building, in
particular, a theater. The students will be given a relatively complex functional program and will be
requested to design and work out the materialization of this theater.
The students will begin the studio by analyzing selected precedents (historical and contemporary) of
the relevant building with respect to various criteria (composition, program, construction, context,
type, etc). Documentation of these precedents are presented to the students in the form of drawings,
pictures, and texts. Until now, such documentation was commonly provided in the form of a book.
In this studio, instead, this documentation will be available on the web within the same environment
that the students will use for the presentation of their own analysis results. The result will be a
common library such that students, in later design activities, can draw upon other students results
for comparisons and relationships between different aspects or buildings.
The students will be provided with a keyword hierarchy corresponding to a system of architectural
types as a structure to hook up their contributions. In general, and depending on their knowledge of
the domain, students can collaboratively define and extend this structure. Additionally, the students
will be offered a tool for the decomposition of images and texts, such that the various components
can be more accurately organized in coordination with the keyword hierarchy. These and other tools
are integrated within a presentation environment for analyses. The user interface provides views for
individual documents and all their related documents at one glance, and visual overviews of the
entire document and keyword structures and their links. We are developing tools to create the
keyword structure, and view it as a semantic map; to intuitively decompose documents and relate
them with keywords; to generate pages to draw sections and views on a plan, relate the respective
documents, and then to generate web pages from these, as entry pages to analyses.
Representation
The content of the system is provided as a number of abstractions from selected precedents and a
type hierarchy. Abstractions may be decomposed into constituent entities, in correspondence to the
adopted typology. Abstractions in the form of images can be broken up into smaller images using
an image processing application. Abstractions in the form of text are immediately structured in
XML. Currently we consider only text and image abstractions. The result is a component hierarchy,
with the top-level elements corresponding to the various abstractions. The type hierarchy depicts
the semantic structure for this component hierarchy, with each component entity assigned at least
one type from the type hierarchy. The type hierarchy itself can be imported from an external source
or collaboratively composed by the authors of the analysis. Both the type hierarchy and the
collection of abstractions can serve as access points into the analysis.
The structure of both type and component hierarchies is specified by the XML grammar and
encoded in the DTD (Document Type Definition). It specifies the kinds of elements, their properties
and attributes, and their possible nesting. Both hierarchies are recursively defined. The type
hierarchy is defined in XML by using the type name as the tag and by nesting the elements
according to the hierarchy. An ID additionally identifies each type and is used for linking types to
components. Components are also identified by an ID; the component hierarchy is defined by using
this ID as the index, and by nesting the elements.
In this organization of types and components, various kinds of component relationships can be
distinguished. Components are initially related by the abstraction hierarchy these belong to. By
assigning types to components, components that share the same type are implicitly related. The type
hierarchy further relates components, these relationships are derived from the nesting of the
respective types in the type hierarchy. Additionally, explicit relationships can be specified between
components.
The resulting XML structure forms a flexible source for further manipulation and traversal.
Components can be flexibly categorized and grouped according to their relationships and attributes,
offering various views of the information structure. Views can be traversed and linked using both
explicit and implicit relationships. The documents are transformed and visualized using XML
related developments (W3C 2002).
Interface
The interface allows the user to view both the type and document hierarchies and their relationships
in an intuitive way. These views include both in-world and out-world views (Papanikolaou and
Tuner 1999). An in-world view presents a component (or type) together with its immediate
neighbors within the hierarchy, and displays all other components that share a type with it (figure
3). Such a view allows one to browse the structure, interpret the relationships, and as such lead to
interesting out-world views. While the types serve for the most part as binding elements in the
structure providing relationships between the components, when traversing the information
structure, the content as available in these components is the most important aspect. As such, while
the components type, and its location in the type hierarchy, may be presented as properties of the
component, the relationships are specified primarily as component-to-component relationships. This
not only ensures that links are presented as shortly as possible, facilitating a swift traversal, but also
shifts the focus onto the content, rather than the structure that surrounds it. Types further serve a
role as index to the information structure.
Figure 3: A snapshot of an in-world view from the prototype application.

In addition to the different in-world views, structural maps provide visual feedback to the users on
their traversals and selected views by presenting the location of the currently viewed node within
the hierarchy. Such views also give an overview of the scope and depth of the semantic structure
guiding the analysis. Figure 4 presents some exemplar out-world views as clickable maps that offer
an overview of the entire type hierarchy in relationship to the related documents.
Figure 4: Three snapshots from out-world views of the type hierarchy. The focus of this figure is on
the graphical representation of the type structures, not on the types themselves. a) a 2D list view, b)
a 2D dynamic tree view, c) a 3D dynamic network view.
Tools
We are developing and implementing a number of tools, using Java and SVG, in order to facilitate
the development of keyword structures and the decomposition of images and texts, and to construct
image maps that can serve as guides into parts of the information space. A first tool serves to create
the keyword structure, and view it as a semantic map (figure 4b). This tool extends on an existing
freeware application for building up and viewing network structures. Another tool assists the user in
the decomposition of image abstractions. Image abstractions are decomposed by selecting
rectangular areas from the images (figure 5), selecting sets of keywords from the type hierarchy
(figure 4b), and attaching these to the image components. The same application also offers a tool
for adding hotlinks to images, allowing for the development of image maps that can serve as a
content map or index to a collection of related documents. The base image may constitute a plan of
a building, markers can then be positioned on the image and related to the appropriate documents.
From this information, a web page is generated containing the respective image map (figure 6).
When one moves the mouse pointer over a marker, a preview image of the related document
appears. Markers can be clicked to browse to the respective document. Currently we provide for
section markers, indicating where on a plan a section is taken, and in which direction (figure 6a),
10
and view markers, defining where a picture or an elevation is located in relation to the plan (figure
6b).
Figure 5: A snapshot from the image decomposition tool showing two rectangular areas drawn on
the loaded image in order to create two image components.
11
Figure 6: Generated web pages containing image maps that serve as a content map or index to a
collection of related documents. a) image map with section markers, b) image map with view
markers.
12
Conclusion
Analysis plays an important role in design and education. An information structure that integrates
the different abstractions or aspects of an analysis, such that the analysis can be interpreted and used
in ways other than the original abstractions present, would be particularly useful in an educational
setting. As the web gains more importance in all fields, including cooperation in educational
projects, providing software that makes it possible for team members scattered over diverse sites to
share and manage information while maintaining a comfortable, easy-to-use interface becomes
crucial. It seems to us that enriching the information structure both by detailing the components and
by tightening the structure through content relationships would provide a more powerful structure
in such a system. Especially in analysis, one is not just interested in one or more specific documents
to be processed or built upon, but in interpreting the structure seeking information related to a
concept of interest. Targeting a largely unfamiliar audience, the indeterminacy of viewpoints
provides the possibility to anticipate individual requests from the audience. Unexpected viewpoints
derived from the information can also invoke new interpretations of existing information, which in
turn can lead to creative discoveries. In such a context, a rich information structure where the views
one can derive are not simply defined by the original documents is particularly worthwhile.
Acknowledgement
This paper is based on an earlier paper submitted for presentation and publication at the sixth
international conference on Design and Decision Support Systems in Architecture and Urban
Planning, 2002.
13
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15
Telling tales: understanding the role of narrative in the design

of taxonomic software
S. Turner School of Computing, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
P. Turner School of Computing, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
C. Raguenaud School of Computing, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
J. Kennedy School of Computing, Napier University, Edinburgh, UK
Abstract
This paper draws on concepts from the structuralist analysis of narrative to explore aspects of the
role of stories in the small group design process. A brief review of relevant narratological concepts
is provided. Their application in a preliminary analysis of case study data from a team designing
taxonomic software is then reported. It is concluded that narratology, and in particular the notion of
focalisation, has useful descriptive potential in this context, and may help to elucidate some
difficulties in design communication and documentation. Suggestions for extension of the work are
included.
Telling tales: understanding the role of narrative in the design

of taxonomic software
Introduction
In this paper we present a case-study based exploration of the role of stories in the small group
design process. Small group design activity has been the subject of much research and theoretical
development. Shared space, physical resources and embodied action (e.g. Robertson, 1997;
Dourish, 2001; Tang, 1991 and Radcliffe, 1996) have received considerable attention, as have the
study of the elements and dynamics of the design process (e.g. Olson et al 1992; Olson et al 1996;
Potts and Catledge, 1996, Ball and Ormerod, 2000) while the social constructivists have also made
their case (e.g. Bucciarelli, 1994; Lloyd 2000). Again from a social perspective, collaboration styles
have been studied by Maher et al (1997) while the pattern, structure and substance of
communication within and outside the team has received the attention of a number of researchers
(e.g. Cross and Clayburn-Cross, 1996; Cahour and Pemberton, 1998; Perry and Sanderson, 1998;
Reid and Reed, 2000). We contribute to this last theme by illustrating how stories steer the design
work, act as communication tools and create obstacles to mutual understanding. This last point is
explored and illustrated by way of a narratological analysis. The paper shows how such an analysis
can help both to describe and understand the process and the communication difficulties which
arise. Our analysis (and illustration) is based on a study of a small group of designers developing
taxonomic software for botanists in a project known as Prometheus II.
As practitioners and occasional theorists of user-centred design (UCD), this paper forms part of a
developing strand of research into the role of narrative in the user design process. In contrast to the
more familiar study of narratives in design (i.e. the use of the ubiquitous scenario) we are interested
in how the concepts, vocabulary and constructs of narratology can provide us with a means of
analysing, describing and illustrating the subject matter and dynamics of design meetings.
Elsewhere we have discussed how the desire to commit to a coherent joint design story submerges
many competing narratives, with predictably unfortunate results (Turner, Turner and McCall 2001).
We have also shown how a strong narrative structure is an essential component of a successfully
engaging collaborative virtual environment (Turner and Turner, 2002) and how the actions of the
designer as narrated in many reports of UCD bears a startlingly close resemblance to the stylised
story of the heros journey found in myth and folktale (Turner and Turner, 2001).
Our focus complements the work of Lloyd (2000), who identifies four main roles for stories in the
design context: in giving an account of progress to others; as a convenient index to past events or
discussions, as competing rationales for the same object so a specification may be regarded as a
flexible resource for efficient selling in the salesmans discourse, but a defined starting point for the
designers and as the socially constructed meta-story of the process itself. We are specifically
concerned with the role of stories (or story fragments) which are told by designers about actual and
potential user behaviour and about the role of the software under development. The analysis draws
on structural concepts from narratology to analyse how the design team tell stories which arise from
the same set of agreed user requirements, but are different in subtle, often unacknowledged, but
insidious details.
A very brief introduction to narratology

Of necessity, this paper can only touch upon the richness of narratological theory, and the reader is
referred to publications such as Onega and Landa (1996), Bal (1997) and Herman (1997), for
thorough introductions. For our purposes, we use narratology to mean the study of narrative texts,
the representation of a series of events meaningfully connected in a temporal and causal way
(Onega and Landa, 1996:3). A text may be in any medium, thus encompassing the spoken word,
film and pictures and as well as written material. In recent decades narratological analysis has been
adopted in many disciplines beyond its original domain of literary theory, most pertinently for us in
discussions of the design process (e.g. Lloyd ibid) and organisational theory (e.g. Czarniawska,
1997; Pentland, 2000). Our treatment draws on the structuralist tradition of narratological studies.
Post-structural theorists have addressed, inter alia, the central but vexed question of the relationship
between author and reader in the construction of a story, but this is beyond the scope of the
preliminary analysis presented in this paper.
Some basic concepts
We consider design communication in relation to the three levels of narrative commonly adopted by
literary narratologists, at least those of a structuralist persuasion. To paraphrase Bals (1997)
definition, these are:
The text itself the set of linguistic signs which appear on the page, or are spoken or otherwise
presented;
the story which the text conveys;
the fabula the underlying events and circumstances of which a given story is only one possible
account.
In our case we will consider the taxonomical software project outline as the fabula, and the story
level as containing the set of explanations of how taxonomy is currently practised, how the new
software will support (or change) this process, how the software will be used, how the software will
work and so forth. The text consists of the words spoken by the designers, recorded as the verbal
protocol of the meeting, together with the documents authored by project members (not considered
further in the current paper. Our discussion very largely concerns an exploration of the story level in
the design meetings studied.
The structural analysis of stories in literary narratology has focused on a wide range of story
features, including but not limited to: characters, their characteristics and values; different types of
narrator and the relationship between narrator and point of view; the actions available to particular
types of character; the cross-cultural persistence of a set of story themes; the reflection of cultural
norms in what is valued, condemned or left unsaid; the role of the narratee (the reader, viewer or
listener) in shaping the story; intertexuality (the way in which all stories necessarily relate to all
other stories known to author or reader); and the treatment of temporal perspectives. We focus here
on two main aspects: the differing emphases in the stories told by designers, and the manner in
which these stories are told from different perspectives. A little more should be said here about the
treatment of perspective in narratology.
Focalization, voices and roles
Every story has a narrator. This may be an external voice, whether the author of a novel or an
academic paper, the witness taking the stand in the courtroom, or the teller of an anecdote in the
coffee room. Equally, the narrator may themselves be a character in the story. However, the story is
necessarily told from someones (occasionally somethings) perspective, and this is not always that
of the narrator. It is the owner of this perspective whom Bal (1997) and other theorists term the
focalisor. Sometimes the change of focalisor is explicitly introduced (I asked her to tell me how it
all started and she said), but frequently the adoption of a focalising persona is subtle and unsignposted. Just as for the characters in the story, each focalisor has their own set of characteristics
and values. Events are thus seen and told through the filter of perceptions and conceptions
belonging to the focalisor (Lodge, 1980), as well as the narratological lens.
Focalisation can be regarded as a variant on Bakhtins work on the role of voice and related
concepts. (Bakhtin, 1981, 1986 note that these dates are misleading, since Bakhtin was active in
the first half of the twentieth century.) For Bakhtin, language is a cultural tool and speech is a form
of mediated action. Speech comprises utterances which are always oriented towards a particular
addressee. Thus in the context of user centred design, language mediates the interplay between
designers and designers assuming the role of users with the utterance being the appropriate unit of
analysis. An utterance is speech terminated by a change of speaker, and reflects a point-of-view or
voice in Bakhtins terminology. Our current analysis is accordingly at the utterance level. (A
further key element of Bakhtins argument is that both speaker and listener are active in the process
of constructing meaning c.f. post-modern narratology this aspect is not taken further in this
paper, but will be the focus of further analyses.)
Having equipped the reader with a basic set of narratological concepts and vocabulary we now turn
to our case study.
The Prometheus II case study

One of the aims of plant taxonomy is the communication of taxon (groups of specimens or other
taxa) concepts. This communication allows exchange of ideas and the development of taxonomic
knowledge. Part of the communication is based on plant and taxon descriptions. Descriptions
provide a textual account of what specimens look like so that the identification of specimens is
made easier and the idea behind a taxon can be conveyed to other taxonomists that can in turn use
it. However, these descriptions use non-standard words and concepts. It is for example possible to
find several definitions of what a leaf is depending on the taxonomist that uses it and on the plant
group that is described. The word used to talk about these descriptions itself, character, is
ambiguous and Colless (1985) collected nineteen different definitions. This makes objective
communication impossible and as taxonomists usually use their own concepts to understand other
taxonomists descriptions, it may lead to misunderstanding.
The purpose of the Prometheus II project is the definition of a data model and a database system
that would support objective understanding and comparison of plant descriptions. The approach is
twofold. Firstly, a standard structure for descriptions is devised, so that manipulation of descriptions
by a computer system is made possible. This standard structure is designed to be able to capture all
possible descriptions. Secondly, terms are always accompanied by a definition, so that similarities
in terminology and concepts can be explicitly recorded. This allows taxonomists to access the
definition of a term to make sure they understand it as the author of the description intended. This
also allows reasoning about these terms and concepts so that implicit relationships can be
discovered, more concepts compared accurately, and checks are possible to ensure that only valid
comparisons are performed.
Dramatis Personae
At the time of the first meeting in the series studied (see section immediately below) the project was
just starting to design the first in a series of three conceptual data models for plant classification.
The model was to be used to drive the design of an initial software prototype for testing with users
and with a specimen data set. Further iterations would develop two further data models and three
prototypes of increasing degrees of complexity and sophistication. The core project members taking
part in all the observed meetings were:
E the project manager at institution A (a school of computing), a database specialist, although

originally a biologist
F the project manager at institution B (a botanical institute), a botanist and taxonomical
software specialist
G a research assistant at institution A, a database specialist

H a research assistant at institution B, a biologist
Other personnel contributed to some meetings, specifically another database specialist and a
research student investigating data visualisation issues, both members of institution A.
The approach to analysis

We should stress here that this was a preliminary study to explore whether and how narratological
concepts could be applied to inter-team communications in the design phase. One of the first two
authors attended each of 5 successive meetings between designers in the project. Meeting 1 was
audio-taped, and meetings 2 and 3 videotaped. Problems with equipment prevented recording of
meetings 4 and 5, but the attending author took detailed written notes, including verbatim records in
instances where stories or fragments of stories were voiced. Meetings varied in length, but in total
material from around 7 hours of meetings was collected. Informal questioning of the second two
authors (members of the design team) by the first two authors, together with project documentation,
provided the context for the data obtained from meetings.
The approach to subsequent analysis (by the first two authors) was both bottom-up and top-down.
The meeting data (for this study confined to the combined verbal protocol generated by the
participants, forming the text in narratological terms) was reviewed several times, at first to gain
familiarity with the content, and on later passes to make a preliminary identification of aspects of
storytelling in the meetings. Once stories or story fragments had been identified, a more finegrained narratological analysis was applied using the concepts from the literature identified above.
The next section summarises the preliminary results of this work, drawing out the varying roles of
story in this particular instance of design process.
Analysis
Each of the meetings comprised discussion (or continued discussion) of a series of draft documents
prepared by G, the computing research assistant. The documents were intended to capture the
current understanding of the conceptual data model for classifying plant specimens. In later months,
the project would turn its attention specifically to usage aspects, but even at this stage there was
much discussion of the concrete details of current and potential taxonomic practice. Our first step
was to interpret and form an understanding of the text we had captured. This process is necessarily
and unavoidably subjective and the end result is a series of different stories about the design
process. This analysis of the meeting data uncovers evidence of differing stories on several levels.
These are now discussed, with verbatim extracts from the meeting protocol (in italics) included by
way of illustration.
Variations on a theme
The analysis of the text (the collective verbal protocol) reveals there are at least two stories
concerning the purpose and direction of the project in terms of the benefits to be gained from the
taxonomic software, and to whom these benefits will accrue. These do not conflict fundamentally,
and indeed are both present in one of the high level project descriptions (Napier University, 2002),
but their differing emphases have consequences when the practical usage implications are
considered. These parallel variations distilled from the meeting protocols can be summarised as set
out below.
Variation a The taxonomist as expert. The taxonomic classification of botanical specimens is a
complex task, requiring the exercise of expert judgement. The software will support taxonomists in
this task and be as easy to use as possible.
Or as the project description (Napier University, 2002) states one of the main challenges in the
project will be to create a user-interface that allows the specification and subsequent use of the
character framework in an easy way for taxonomists to use. Statements regarding the equivalence of
concepts must remain under the control of the taxonomist
And in parallel
Variation b The need for consistency. Classification of specimens in current taxonomic data is
inconsistent; this makes comparisons and reuse of descriptions difficult. The software will help the
taxonomic community by enforcing consistency.
Or again from the project description ..a three year project concerned with increasing the rigour
and precision with which taxonomists can store, integrate and disseminate their data taxonomic
output is fundamental to all fields of biology that refer to organisms, and taxonomists in turn use
data derived from these sources when refining past classifications. However, in taxonomy there is
no single way of interpreting data, even though rigorous scientific methods are used to collect them.
The result is confusion when using names and ambiguity when reading descriptions
The above variations are rarely voiced explicitly during the meetings, but surface in the designers
discussions of how the software will be used. As we shall see in the next section, they generally
belong to different focalisors in stories of current practice and potential software use.
Characterisation and focalisation in usage story fragments
Contributions to discussions about current and future taxonomic practice are frequently expressed
as fragments of stories. The fragments concern the interplay between several characters: the
taxonomist, both as a practitioner using current tools and as a future user of the software; the
software itself; and a shadowy entity which we might characterise as the taxonomic community.
From a close analysis of the story fragments we can see the characteristics ascribed to each
character. For example, taxonomists are variously idiosyncratic, trustworthy, rigorous, and require
flexibility. Here is an illustrative extract from meeting 1:
F: so the only sensible way forward is to give the user some credit and hope that theyre going to
put appropriate units.
Taking the analysis a stage further, stories of taxonomists and the software can be seen to adopt
different focalisors. (As we briefly explained above, a focalisor is the character from whose
perspective events are perceived.) All the four designers frequently narrate fragments about how
taxonomists currently work, or how they will do so once the software is in place. In the meeting
protocol, the designers most frequently focalise their remarks from their own primary perspective,
whether this is as taxonomist or database designer. This is H, a biologist, describing the practice of
measurement in relation to landmarks in meeting 3. She is placing herself in the role of the
taxonomist recording the measurement:
H: Landmarks are used to highlight where youve made a measurement
And E, a database specialist, commenting about taxonomic practice but on the evidence of the
terminology used, speaking from her own perspective
E: So the taxonomists, when theyre describing something, theyre entering structure, property,
value
However, the database specialists sometimes focalise the perspective of the prospective user of the
software (extract below), and the biologists in turn speculate about how the software might work
from a technical perspective:
G: When you read the description at breast height you dont have a picture of the person who
described it so how do you know how high it is
And quite frequently the identity of the current focalisor is unclear who, for example are we in
the fragment below?:
G: and we have problems for comparisons because we have to understand what breast height
means
The values implicit in different variations of the project story, and the characteristics ascribed to
users surface in how users actions are described. When the focalisor is a user, flexibility and ease
of use tend to be emphasised, even if the speaker is a database designer, as in the second extract.
(The extracts are discontinuous):
H: You have to put a unit on, but you are allowed to choose what unit you put on there.
E: they dont stop and think am I doing one like this or doing one like this or doing one like this
Conversely when speaking as a database designer or member of the taxonomic community,
expressed values are of consistency and clear structure, while users are characterised as
idiosyncratic, as in the statement below from one of the biologists. Note that this is also a very rare
instance of point of view being mentioned explicitly:
F: I think you see from point of view of reproducibility and consistency then if you just let them use
free text then you start to lose meaning and comparability.
Thus we have a situation in which parallel versions of stories of purpose and use, with their
attendant values, flow through the meetings side-by-side. In the meeting itself, we suggest that
designers are aware of these subtle differences, and although navigation through the eddying
streams and currents of story can be a lengthy process incorporating diversions and false starts,
there is an impression of consensus. However, this fragile achievement has to be created anew at
the beginning of each session. At least two factors can be identified at work here. Firstly, between
most meetings discussion is filtered and condensed onto paper, a medium much less forgiving of
parallelism, ambiguity and inconsistency than ephemeral speech. Secondly, a further problem
hampering the achievement of mutual understanding in the design meetings is the nature of our
cognition. As early as 1932, Bartlett demonstrated experimentally that stories are reconstructed
rather than recalled. When he asked people to read and remember a story he found that of the
original material little was retained except for isolated and striking details. Moreover these details
were only remembered if they fitted into the individuals pre-conceptions or prior experience. In
practice this means that memories are recalled as gist.
Discussion
It is noticeable from reviewing the meetings that discussions of apparently quite small points of
envisaged usage, and the conceptual model that such usage would entail, are very prolonged. This is
confirmed by one of the designers, who noted that the first version of the conceptual data model had
taken rather longer to agree than originally envisaged. Any causal relationship between different
perspectives adopted by designers, the differing values that belong to those perspectives, and the
different contexts of story fragments, and the elusiveness of clear resolutions cannot of course be
proved. But we suspect at least some obscurity was contributed by these narratological phenomena.
In particular, the concept of focalisation at the level of usage stories has allowed us to suggest some
of the reasons for prolonged discussion. (We should add here that we do not believe that the project
studied was exceptional in its deliberations. Most of the many design projects with which we have
been involved have encountered similar difficulties.)
The subtle and multi-stranded nature of design narrative we have illustrated above adds an
additional explanation for the lack of systems such as gIBIS (Conklin and Burgess-Yakemovic,
1991) and QOC (MacLean et al., 1991) which attempt the capture of formal and unambiguous
design rationale. The central role of the story in the design process also supports the growing
tendency within the human computer interaction community to document designs by scenario.
There would appear to be scope for a suite of parallel scenarios, embodying stories told by different
focalisors and with different emphases, but which nonetheless are satisfied by the eventual design
solution.
As for the next steps in this work, we intend in the short term to extend the preliminary analysis
described in this paper by (i) examining the continuity of stories between meetings and documents
(ii) tracking any systematic change in focalisation of usage stories over time, and (iii) by applying
the concepts of the active listener or narratee to the data. We will then refine the analytical concepts
for application to a more extended and complete series of design meetings. In the longer term, there
are other aspects of story to address. In particular, we suspect that that there may be stereotypical
stories of users and usage which cross different design domains.
Coda: So what do the designers think they are doing?

Within the text of the meetings, there are explicit references to the project story that is to be
presented to the outside world, more specifically the community of fellow researchers. Here the
issue is one of deciding the emphasis of a formal story for publication in academic forums. For
example here are E and F discussing the academic story in meeting 2:
E: As far as Im concerned the important conceptual idea is that were tracking the usage of
defined items, [murmurs of agreement] thats what we need to make sure is captured in the
conceptual model and published..
F: Thats my view as well.
This is not just a matter of presentation or spin; the plot of the agreed academic story will partially
determine the focus of the projects work. Thus, just as in the writing of a novel, the projects
fabula (or activities) will be arranged to match an agreed story.
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17
Do we see within-subject change?

Four cases of engineering student design processes
J.Turns University of Washington, Seattle, USA
C. J. Atman University of Washington, Seattle, USA
M. Cardella University of Washington, Seattle, USA
R. Adams University of Washington, Seattle, USA
Abstract
Engineering design is a key facet of engineering practice and engineering education. Our goal in
improving engineering education is to understand what contributes to design knowing and learning.
Our study focuses on changes in student design processes over time and explores this issue through
a within-subject experimental design. Eighteen engineering students solved three engineering
problems as freshmen and later as seniors; the students provided a verbal protocol while doing so.
We present case studies of four students who represent four distinct patterns of change in design
process based on our analysis of these 18 verbal protocols. This work contributes to design
research community efforts to understand the nature of design cognition and design expertise.
Do we see within-subject change?

Four cases of engineering student design processes
Introduction
Understanding design cognition represents an important direction for the design research
community. Research questions involving design process, knowledge and communication strategies
can and have been asked. Such fundamental knowledge of design is critical to those responsible for
developing design education, designing tools that support design activity and creating design
methodologies that work. Fortunately, much research already exists that sheds light on design
cognition.
Frameworks for studying expertise provide a useful means for organizing much of that work.
Ericsson and Smith provide one such framework in their 1994 book on expertise (Ericsson and
Smith 1994). They identify three important elements critical to research into the nature of expertise
(1) identifying tasks that will elicit the expert performance, (2) determining what contributes to
expert performance by analyzing performance on the tasks, and (3) focusing on the acquisition of
expertise (Ericsson and Smith 1994).
How far has the design research community come relative to this framework? In terms of the first
element identifying tasks that will elicit the expert performance a variety of tasks have been
used to probe design expertise. For example, researchers have asked participants to rate activities
on a master list as important and unimportant in overall design activity (Newstetter and McCracken
2001) and identifying factors that they would take into account in solving a design problem
(Bogusch, Turns and Atman 2000). In general, the most common task has been to have participants
simply design a process or product relative to given requirements (e.g., design a bicycle, design a
playground, etc.). Researchers have chosen tasks for their familiarity, their novelty, and/or their
complexity. For example, Adelson and Soloway (1985) and Schraggen (1993) have conducted
studies using tasks of varying levels of familiarity and complexity.
In terms of the second element, the design research community has also made clear progress in
understanding the nature of expert design performance through research using the tasks described
above and a wide variety of research design and data collection methods. For example, in a series
of expert-novice studies, Atman and her colleagues found that more experienced designers as
compared to less experienced designers (1) spent more time engaged in design, (2) had a different
distribution of time across design steps (e.g., problem definition, data gathering, evaluation, etc.),
(3) progressed farther in the design process (4) transitioned more frequently among design steps, (5)
considered a wider variety of design criteria, and (6) created solutions of higher quality (Atman and
Bursic 1996; Bursic and Atman 1997; Atman, Chimka, Bursic and Nachtmann 1999; Mullins,
Atman and Shuman 1999; Atman and Turns 2001). Concerning progression, these findings suggest
that more experienced designers utilize not only the earlier steps of the design process (eg. defining
the problem, analysis) but also those steps that come later in the process, such as making final
design decisions and communicating that design (Atman et al. 1999). Moving up a level, Cross has
comprehensively reviewed studies in which participants completed design tasks while providing
verbal protocols (Cross 2001). In that review, Cross identifies problem formulation, solution
generation, creativity, sketching, and opportunism as key areas where researchers have reported on
expert design behavior.
The third element of the expertise framework, understanding the acquisition of expert design
performance, represents one of the current challenges in research on design cognition. In contrast
with the first two elements of the framework, little research has focused on understanding the
acquisition of design expertise. Issues in studying design acquisition include how processes change
over time, what range of changes exist, and what types of processing of experiences contributes to
growing design expertise. Fortunately, the existing research on design cognition provides a good
foundation for understanding the acquisition of design expertise.
In this paper, we present data that contributes to understanding the acquisition of design expertise.
Our contribution stems from a within-subject study of student design abilities using a verbal
protocol analysis methodology. Specifically, we have analyzed the design behavior of specific
engineering students at different points in time (at the beginning and at the end of their course of
study). This within-subject approach allows us to gain a deeper understanding of the change in
design processes within specific students. Our goal is to explore the general question of how
individual student design ability changes over the four-year period of an education in engineering.
Our questions include:
What does change look like for individual students?
Do all students exhibit a change in design process?
Is an individual students change in design process consistent across different problems?
Is an individual students change in design process consistent across different measures of
design performance (i.e., time spent, number of transitions, and progression)?
Can various patterns of change be identified?
The paper is organized as follows: in the next section, we describe our experimental design, data
collection methodology, and analysis approach. In the subsequent results section, we present both
summary results concerning the patterns of change that we identified and case studies illustrating
each of the change patterns. The discussion is devoted to addressing each of the above questions in
light of the results.
Method
Our current study of engineering student design processes uses a within-subjects design. Eighteen
subjects participated as freshmen and then later as seniors. We also collected data from an
additional 14 freshmen and 43 seniors so that we could address issues such as pre-test effects and
the extent to which the within-subject participants represent the entire population of engineering
students. This paper focuses only on the within-subject data.
Part one: Problem definition and data collection
Each participant was asked to complete three problems and to provide a concurrent verbal protocol
(a think-aloud protocol) while completing the problem. In the first two problems, participants
were asked to design a solution for a stated set of requirements. The first problem asked the
participants to design a ping pong ball launcher that would function as part of a game. This
problem, which we refer to as the Ping Pong Problem, was stated as follows: In an attempt to
avoid boredom at Benedum Hall, creative engineering students developed a challenging new game.
A ping-pong ball is to be launched at a bullseye target, and points are awarded according to the
accuracy of the landing. However, the ping-pong ball cannot be thrown at the target. It is up to you
to design a device which will lift the ping-pong ball into the air and land it at the target. An
accurate landing is desired while also maintaining a long flight time. Given that the center of the
landing area is 5 meters away from the launch site, and the entire launching assembly must not be
greater than 1m x 1m x 1m in dimension, design a ping-pong ball launcher for this game.
In problem two, participants were asked to design a method for crossing a busy street at their
university. The Street Crossing Problem was selected so that the participants would be more
familiar with the context of the problem, and thus possibly utilizing a different design process. It
read: College campuses are often overcrowded with pedestrians crossing the streets, since walking
is a popular form of transportation for college students. One busy intersection at Pitt is the crossing
of Fifth Ave. in front of the bookstore. Dangers at this intersection include heavy traffic and busses
which run against the general traffic flow. The University would like to design a cost effective
method to cross Fifth Ave. which would reduce the possibility of accidents at this intersection.
Your work should contain a detailed description of your design and should include any relevant
diagrams and calculations. Estimate both the costs and the benefits associated with your design.
Please clearly state all assumptions which are needed in your analysis and try to keep your design
simple yet effective.
The third problem asked the participants to identify important factors to be addressed in designing a
retaining wall for the Mississippi River. The results of this analysis are presented in (Rhone,
Atman, Turns, Adams, Chen and Bogusch 2001).
Part Two: Analysis of product and process data for each problem
We analyzed the participants products and processes for each problem. To assess the product
quality, two scorers evaluated the solutions to each problem using a rubric developed by a team of
five engineering professors. The scorers first classified each solution (e.g. bridge, tunnel, crossing
guard) and achieved an inter-rater reliability level of 93%. They then applied the appropriate rubric
to the solution. For this portion of the scoring they agreed at a 94% inter-rater reliability level. To
explore design process, we analyzed the protocols provided by the students as they solved the
design problems. To do this, the protocols were transcribed and then segmented into idea units.
Two coders then independently coded each segment according to a coding scheme representing
steps associated with design activity. The coded design activities were: problem definition (PD),
gathering information (GATH), generating ideas (GEN), modeling solutions (MOD), feasibility
analysis (FEAS), evaluation of alternative solutions (EVAL), making decisions (DEC) and
communicating the design (COM). After coding a transcript the two coders met to compare results,
record the initial reliability of the coding and, if an initial 70% reliability level was met, negotiate
disagreements to consensus. If the initial inter-rater reliability level for a transcript was below 70%,
the transcript was recoded. The coders achieved an average reliability of 81% on the Ping Pong
problem protocols and 83% on the Street Crossing protocols.
We entered the codes into a software package called MacSHAPA (Sanderson, Scott, Johnston,
Mainzer, Watanabe and James 1994). Using the software we then printed timelines of the coded
data for each of the subjects. This enabled us to compare how different subjects spent their time.
Example timelines are included in Figure 1 in the results section.
Part Three: Classify subjects in terms of extent of change
By comparing the timeline representing the freshman performance to the timeline representing the
senior performance, we investigated changes in participants design processes. In a number of the
comparisons, we observed a multifaceted pattern of change in that the senior performance differed
from the freshman performance on a number of dimensions (e.g., number and frequency of
transitions, extent of progression to the later design activities, and amount of time spent solving the
problem). We called this pattern simply change. In other cases, the process changed but primarily
because the amount of time increased dramatically. We labeled this pattern more of the same. We
also noticed instances where the senior design process looked remarkably similar to the freshman
design process. We labeled this pattern no change. Finally, for one participant we noticed a
pattern of simplification, characterized by fewer design activities or fewer and less frequent
transitions in the design timelines provided by the participant as a senior. The quality of product
score was not used in this classification of change.
Using these four categories of change, we categorized each freshman-senior pair of timelines.
Because our data consists of 18 subjects each solving two problems, we ultimately categorized 36
pairs of timelines. The process of categorization began with four coders classifying each pair of
timelines. The initial inter-rater reliability was 72%. We arbitrated the cases where only one coder
disagreed (three of the four coders had assigned the same category) by negotiating the coding until
consensus. For the other cases, two coders reclassified the timelines and then discussed them until
an agreement was reached on the classification.
Results
Participant
Table 1 shows the distribution of participants
in the change categories. In the table, C
represents change, M represents more of the
same, N represents no change, and S
represents simplification. As the data in the
table suggest, we found that the design
processes of most participants changed from
the freshman to the senior year. We also
found that some participants displayed
change on one problem but did not display
change on the other. We identified only one
instance of simplification.
In the remainder of this section, we illustrate
the patterns of change through case studies.
Figure 1 presents results from four
participants that illustrate each of the four
patterns of change. The freshman results are
presented on the left and the senior results are
presented on the right. In addition to
including the timelines, the figures include
actual values for the quality score (maximum
score is 3.618), the number of transitions, and
the total time engaged in design. All timelines
in Figure 1 represent participant performance
on the Ping Pong problem.
A
B
C
D
E1
F
G
H
I
J
K
L1
M
N
O1
P
Q
R1
Change
More of the Same
No Change
Simplification
Ping Pong
Problem
C
C
C
C
C
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
N
N
N
N
S
5
8
4
1
Street
Crossing
Problem
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
M
M
C
N
N
N
M
11
3
4
0
Participants E, L, O, and R are the subjects of

Case Studies 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively.
Table 1: Categorization Results
Case study 1: Change

The timelines in Figure 1a represent a
participant whose senior design process differs from the freshman design process on many
dimensions. The participant as a senior (a) received a higher quality score, (b) spent more time
solving the problem, and (c) had more transitions among design steps. Additionally this participant
as a senior progressed farther into the design process, specifically by spending much more time
addressing issues of feasibility and spending some time in the decision and communication steps.
While the amounts of time that this participant spent in the final two steps was very small it is still
notable that the participant reached these steps. Only 16% of the participants from the full dataset
spent time in decision, and only 15% spent time in communication. For these participants who did
spend some time in these steps, the average amount of time spent in decision was 11.5 sec and the
average amount of time spent in communication was 6.6 sec. Finally, the participant for Case Study
1 also demonstrated explicit generating (GEN) behavior, behavior that was absent from the
freshman design process.
Case study 2: More of the same

The timelines in Figure 1b represent a participant who spent dramatically more time as a senior, but
whose design process did not seem qualitatively different from his/her process as a freshman. In
looking at the figure, we see that this participant as a senior (a) received a slightly higher quality
score, (b) spent more time solving the problem, and (c) had more transitions among design steps.
However the frequency of transitions did not change. Additionally, this participant did not progress
any farther into the design process. It is as if this participant is simply repeating the same general
process used as a freshman, but spending much more time.
Case study 3: No change
The timelines in Figure 1c represent an instance of no change. As a senior this participant (a)
received a higher quality score, but (b) spent the same amount of time solving the problem, (c) had
the same number of transitions among design steps, and (d) did not progress any farther into the
design process. Concerning the progression finding, the participant displayed more feasibility
behavior as a freshman than as a senior but displayed more gathering behavior as a senior than as a
freshman.
Case study 4: Simplification
The timelines in Figure 1d represent an instance where the design process seems to have simplified
over time. We note that the participant as a senior (a) did receive a higher quality score and (b)
spent more time solving the problem, but (c) had fewer transitions among design steps, and (d) did
not progress any farther into the design process than he/she had as a freshman. While the participant
displayed more decision behavior as a senior than as a freshman, the participant also displayed
more evaluation as a freshman than as senior. Overall, the participant spent time in more design
steps as a freshman than as a senior.
Discussion
Our over-arching goal is to understand what contributes to design knowing and learning in
engineering. With our current study we are trying to understand the acquisition of design expertise
in engineering students. Earlier we identified several specific questions that interest us. Based on
our results, we offer some tentative answers.
What does change look like for individual students? These results suggest that change may look
quite different for individual students. In our analysis, we found that five participants design
processes changed on multiple dimensions on our first problem while eleven participants design
processes showed this kind of change on the second problem. We were also able to distinguish three
other patterns for characterizing freshman to senior change in design processes.
A. Quality = 1.205; Transitions = 10; Time = 4.04

00:00:00:00
Quality = 1.880; Transitions = 32; Time = 11.76
00:04:15:00
PD
GATH
GEN
MOD
FEAS
EVAL
DEC
COM
00:00:00:00 00:04:15:00 00:08:30:00
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EVAL
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COM
B. Quality = 1.612; Transitions = 6; Time = 2.08

00:00:00:00 00:04:15:00 00:08:30:00 00:12:45:00 00:17:00:00 00:21:15:00 00:25:3
00:00:00:00
PD
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GEN
MOD
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EVAL
DEC
COM
PD
GATH
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COM
C. Quality = 0.00; Transitions = 6; Time = 2.99

00:00:00:00
PD
GATH
GEN
MOD
FEAS
EVAL
DEC
COM

00:00:00:00
PD
GATH
GEN
MOD
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D. Quality = 0.00; Transitions = 17; Time = 2.54
00:00:00:00
PD
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FEAS
EVAL
DEC
COM
00:00:00:00
00:04:15:00
PD
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DEC
COM
Figure 1: Example Timelines Illustrating Patterns of Change. From top to bottom, the figures
illustrate (A) change, (B) more of the same, (C) no change, (D) simplification. In these timelines,
the x-axis represents time and the y-axis corresponds to design activities used in the coding scheme.
The location and width of each tick mark indicates the starting time and duration of an activity,
respectively.
Do all students exhibit change in design process? Twelve of the eighteen participants displayed
multi-dimensional change on at least one of the two problems, and most participants had some form
of change. We are intrigued by the one instance of simplification. However, we also found that
three participants had design processes characterized as no change for both problems.
Is individual student change in design process consistent across problems? These results suggest
that design performance may be different across design problems, and also that change may differ
across problems. As Table 1 shows, half of the participants displayed the same pattern of change for
each problem while the other half had different patterns of change across the two problems (for
example, participant M displayed a pattern of more of the same on both problems whereas
participant F displayed two different patternsmore of the same on Ping Pong and change on
Street Crossing). This is consistent with our analysis of the full dataset (all 65 participants). For
example, we found that more students engage in evaluation behavior on the second problem than on
the first (Cardella, Atman, Adams and Turns 2002).
Is individual student change in design process consistent across different measures of design
performance? In our work, we have used a variety of measures to characterize design performance.
These measures have included final quality, total time, number of transitions among design steps,
and progression to later stages of design. As our coding scheme suggests, student change may not
be uniform across these different measures. For example, in the instance of more of the same
described in case study 2, the participants performance changed in terms of quality score and
amount of time spent on the problem, but not in terms of complexity of the process. These results
suggest that the different measures may provide different insights into change in design ability.
Can various patterns of change be identified? As our coding scheme illustrates, it is clearly
possible to identify various patterns of change. Our codes of change, more of the same, no
change and simplification represent such patterns. In our upcoming work, we will be gaining
increasing precision with such efforts to categorize and characterize the change exhibited by these
subjects. This work will put us one step closer to understanding what contributes to the acquisition
of design expertise.
Concluding remarks
This study attempted to characterize levels of change in engineering design expertise. We see this
as a first step in understanding the acquisition of design expertise. We saw that most students
acquired some expertise as a result of their engineering education as evidenced by change in their
design process behavior. We were able to answer our initial questions regarding change and
identified features associated with skill acquisition in designan increased amount of time devoted
to solving the design problem, an increase in number of transitions between design activities,
progression into the latter steps of the design process and an increase in product quality. These
features are consistent with our findings from previous studies.
The results from this study suggest the need to unpack overall change into compact dimensions for
further analysis. We still need to address the question of why some students exhibited change on
some measures but not on others. Another question that is raised is how some students were able to
invoke a sophisticated design process as part of their freshman performance. How did some
students acquire some level of expertise prior to their engineering education?
While the current analysis does not clarify how an engineering education may have contributed to
the acquisition of design expertise, we have shown that student design processes do change after
that education. As future studies further explore the acquisition of design expertise, we may begin
to see the answers to these questions.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by grants from the GE Fund and NSF grants DUE-9254271, RED9358516, DGE-9714459 and EEC-9872498. We would like to gratefully acknowledge the students
who participated in the study, and the students who helped us to code the protocols, specifically
Jacob Burghardt, Louise Cheung, Jennifer Chin, Julie Christianson, Cathie Scott, Jennifer Temple
Bettina Vuong, Robert Tai, Eddie Rhone and Alison Schwerzler.
References
Adelson, B. and E. Soloway (1985). The Role of Domain Expertise in Software Design. IEEE
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Make a Difference? Research in Engineering Design 7(7): 240-250.
Atman, C. J., J. R. Chimka, K. M. Bursic and H. N. Nachtmann. 1999. A Comparison of Freshman
and Senior Engineering Design Processes. Design Studies 20(2): 131-152.
Atman, C. J. and J. Turns. 2001. Studying Engineering Design Learning: Four Verbal Protocol
Analysis Studies. In Design Learning and Knowing, edited by M. McCracken, W. Newstetter, and
C. Eastman, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum: 37-60.
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do Students Think is Important? Frontiers in Education Conference Proceedings, Kansas City,
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Bursic, K. M. and C. J. Atman. 1997. Information Gathering: A Critical Step for Quality in the
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10
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11
A critical analysis of John Geros function-behaviourstructure model of designing

P. E. Vermaas Delft University of Technology, Netherlands.
Abstract
According to John Geros (1990) function-behaviour-structure model of designing, designers
transform in three steps desired functions into a design description of an artefact that can perform
these functions. Firstly, designers transform the functions into required behaviours of the artefact.
Secondly, these required behaviours are transformed into a description of the structure of the
artefact. And thirdly, designers transform this description of the structure into the design description
that tells how the artefact can be manufactured. In this paper I present and review Geros model of
designing and show that a precise understanding of this model depends on the precise meanings of
the notions function, behaviour and structure. I consider three attempts to characterise functions,
behaviours and structure of artefacts and assess how these characterisations affect the model. Also I
consider an elaboration of the model by Rosenman and Gero (1998).
A critical analysis of John Geros function-behaviourstructure model of designing

Introduction
In this paper I give a critical analysis of John Geros (1990) function-behaviour-structure model of
designing. An attractive aspect of this model is that it breaks up designing in distinct steps, and that
it gives a characterisation of the knowledge used in designing. Gero takes designing as a process in
which functions are transformed into a design description of an artefact that can perform these
functions. A designer makes this transformation according to Gero in three steps. Firstly, he or she
transforms the functions into required behaviours of the artefact. Secondly, these required
behaviours are transformed into a description of the structure of the artefact. And thirdly, if this
description of the structure is satisfactory, the designer transforms it into the design description that
tells how the artefact can be manufactured. The knowledge a designer uses to make these
transformations is by Gero characterised as knowledge collected by the designer during earlier
(alike) design tasks. This design knowledge is brought together in what Gero calls design
prototypes. A less attractive aspect is that a precise understanding of Geros model depends on the
precise meanings of the notions function, behaviour and structure and that Gero initially did not
properly lay down these meanings. It is therefore not that clear what Gero initially meant with the
distinct steps of his model.
In this paper I present and review Geros model of designing. I consider three attempts to
characterise functions, behaviours and structure of artefacts and assess how these characterisations
affect the understanding of the model. Also I consider briefly an elaboration of the model by
Michael Rosenman and Gero (1998).
I start by sketching Geros (1990) model. Then I discuss what Gero initially had in mind when
speaking about functions, behaviours and structure of artefacts. Thirdly, I consider two proposals
for more precise definitions of functions, behaviours and structure. One is by Robert Cummins
(1975), the other by Rosenman and Gero (1998). I argue that these characterisations of functions,
behaviours and structure change the understanding of the model considerably: from Geros initial
characterisation it follows that the knowledge needed to make the different steps of Geros model
cannot be merely scientific knowledge, whereas Cummins definitions and those of Rosenman and
Gero seem to allow that scientific knowledge is sufficient for making these steps. Fourthly, I
describe Rosenman and Geros (1998) elaboration of Geros (1990) model. By this elaboration,
designing is a process in which human purposes are, via functions and behaviours, transformed into
a description of the structure of artefacts that can be employed to achieve the purposes. This
elaborated model introduces new steps in designing, namely, transformations between purposes and
functions, and decompositions of purposes, functions and behaviours. These new transformations
require that design knowledge is again more than just scientific knowledge. I end by analysing the
new purposes-functions transformation by means of the description of designing proposed by
Houkes, Vermaas, Dorst and De Vries (2002).
Geros model of designing

In Gero (1990) designing is characterised as a process in which desired functions F are transformed
into a design description D of an artefact that can perform these functions. A design description of
an artefact consists here of information needed for manufacturing the artefact. Gero analyses this
design process and assumes that there do not exist transformations F_D that translate functions
directly into a design description. He thus rejects the possibility to model designing as a process in
which designers directly arrive at design descriptions on the basis of the desired functions. A model
F_S_D according to which designers firstly transform functions F into a description of the structure
S of the artefact and then into a design description, is rejected as well; Gero assumes that direct
transformations S_D exist in general, but that direct transformations F_S are not.[1] Instead, Gero
comes up with a model of designing in which F is transformed indirectly to S. This indirect
transformation makes use of a detour via the behaviours B of artefacts. Spelled out, Geros model is
as follows. Firstly, designers transform the functions F into required behaviours Br of the
artefact.[2] This step F_Br is called formulation. Secondly, designers transform these required
behaviours into a candidate structure S of the artefact. This step Br_S is called synthesis. Thirdly, it
is checked what behaviours Ba this candidate structure actually exhibits. This step S_Ba is called
analysis. Fourthly, designers compare these actual behaviours with the required behaviours, Ba_Br,
which is called evaluation. Finally, if the comparison is satisfactory, the candidate structure is
transformed into a design description of how the artefact can be manufactured. This final step S_D
is called production of design description. Given that the evaluation step Ba_Br yields a satisfactory
result, Geros model can thus be taken as consisting of the following sequence of transformations:
Figure 1: Geros model of designing

The evaluation step Ba_Br may also result in the rejection of the candidate structure S. This amounts
to iteration: after the evaluation the process restarts with a new synthesis step Br_S' yielding a new
candidate structure S', or continues with a reformulation step Ba_Br'&F' yielding new required
behaviours Br' and/or new functions F'. In the first case, designing continues with the step S'_Ba'. In
the second case, designing may start all over again with the step F'_Br'.
Geros model simplifies designing by suggesting that designers transpose directly a desired function
F into a behaviour Br, and then into one chunk of matter with structure S. A more reasonable
description is that the desired function is firstly decomposed into a set of subfunctions and that
these are transformed into a set of required behaviours. These behaviours may then be decomposed
themselves into a set of subbehaviours, and these subbehaviours are transformed into components
of an artefact with specific structures. These decomposition steps are part of Rosenman and Geros
(1998) elaboration of Geros model of designing, which is presented in the second half of this
paper.
Design knowledge according to Gero

How do designers manage to make the different transformations and derive from desired functions,
the behaviours, the structure and the design description of an artefact? Geros (1990) general
answer to this question is that designers proceed by employing what Gero calls design prototypes.
A design prototype associated with a particular design process, brings together all the requisite
knowledge appropriate to that particular process. It schematises knowledge from alike design cases
about the functions, behaviours and structure of artefacts (relevant to the design process) and their
relations in terms of, for instance, the dependencies between variables of functions, behaviours and
structure. The design prototypes available to a designer originate from his or her own experiences
with earlier design tasks. But despite this personal nature of prototypes, Gero suggests that likeminded designers will tend to agree on their general content.
Designing using these prototypes goes then as follows: A designer begins with the functions desired
by a client. These functional requirements (plus other behavioural or structural requirements the
client may have) are used to retrieve potentially useful design prototypes, that is, prototypes that
schematise knowledge about designs that have those functions (and satisfy those possible other
requirements). These prototypes represent what the designer remembers when he or she examines
the clients requirements. In this way the designer acquires information about the directions the
design process can lead. It facilitates the formulation step F_Br by providing behaviours consistent
with the desired functions. And it introduces candidate structure of the artefact needed for making
the synthesis step Br_S. Also it helps guiding the analysis step S_Ba because prototypes indexed by
a given structure S indicate the more regular behaviours Ba that structure is used for in designing.
The reformulation step Ba_Br'&F' is supported by prototypes because prototypes indexed by a given
behaviour Br' yield information about possible alternative functions F' linked to this behaviour Br'.
That is, prototypes at least enable the transformation Br'_F' part of reformulation.
Geros claim that designers use knowledge in the design process they have collected during earlier
design tasks, is primarily a claim about how designers acquire their knowledge. It implies that they
acquire design knowledge only by designing, or, less strictly, by designing and by taking in
knowledge other designers have acquired while designing. Geros claim is liberal about the types of
knowledge that can become design knowledge: any bit of knowledge that can play a role in a design
task can become design knowledge. The claim thus does not impose some kind of constraint or
upper bound on design knowledge. On the other hand, design knowledge should enable designers to
make the different steps discerned by the model. It should therefore minimally consist of knowledge
that enables the designer to transform function into behaviours, behaviours into structure, and vice
versa. Design knowledge may, for instance, consist of experiential trial-and-error knowledge
collected by craftsmen. In our modern times design knowledge consists of all types of knowledge,
ranging from design skills to pure scientific knowledge, and from technological knowledge about
operational principles, fabrications techniques and norms, to commercial knowledge.
In the remainder of this paper I now consider the following rather academic question: Can design
knowledge, taken as that knowledge that enables designers to transform functions into structure of
artefacts, in principle consist of solely scientific knowledge? It is not my intention to argue that
designers indeed do or can design on the basis of only scientific knowledge, nor to argue that Gero
assumes that this is the case.[3] I merely use this question as a tool to analyse Geros model of
designing. As I have said, a precise understanding of Geros model depends on the precise
meanings of the notions function, behaviour and structure. Lets therefore consider attempts to
characterise these notions.
Geros original characterisation of functions, behaviours and structure

Gero (1990) does not give explicit definitions of what he means with the notions function,
behaviour and structure of artefacts; he limits himself to giving examples of functions, behaviours
and structure of a window. Functions of a window are the provision of daylight, the control of
ventilation, and the provision of view. Behaviour is light transmission, ventilation restriction and
view transmission. And the structure of a window consists of the dimensions of the glazing and the
frame. Most of these examples suggest that function, behaviour and structure are all physical
concepts. Some examples, however, counter this suggestion. The function provision of view and
the behaviour transmission of view seem to introduce concepts that fall partly outside the domain
of the natural sciences and to refer to more human related or intentional concepts as well.
In Gero and Rosenman (1990) more examples of functions, behaviours and structure of artefacts are
given, and these confirm this latter conclusion. Gero and Rosenman write that functions of artefacts
may refer to the goals associated with artefacts. The goal of a shelter may, for instance, be that it is
portable. Examples of behaviours are that the portable shelter can be erected within a specific time
span and the security and costs of a door. Goals, times to erect a shelter, and costs are
clearly concepts that fall outside the domain of the natural sciences.[4]
By these characterisations of functions, behaviours and structure, it is plausible that scientific
knowledge is not sufficient for designing. In order to make, for instance, the formulation step F_Br,
designers sometimes have to be able to transform the goal portability of a shelter into a required
maximum time to erect that shelter. And since these features of artefact are not fully physical
concepts, science cannot provide for the knowledge sufficient for making this transformation.
Hence, designers need to draw from other sources of knowledge as well.
A characterisation of functions, behaviour and structure by means of Cummins

If one tries to be more precise about what is meant by functions, behaviours and structure of
artefacts, structure probably does not yield too much difficulty: the structure of an artefact refers to
the materials it consists of including the topology and the geometry of these materials. The
definition of function and behaviour is, on the other hand, more problematic. For defining functions
one may take ones recourses to philosophy because there much work has been done on the
conceptual analysis of functions. One, for instance, could turn to Robert Cummins (1975) theory of
functions. If one does so, the understanding of Geros model changes considerably.
In Cummins (1975) theory the functions of a system e.g., biological organs, human behaviour,
artefacts are those capacities of the system that figure in an explanation of a capacity of a larger,
containing system. For instance, the propellers on a plane have the function to provide thrust
because they have the capacity to provide thrust and because the planes capacity to fly is in part
explained by this capacity of the propellers to provide thrust. And the heart has the function to
pump because it can pump and this capacity explains the capacity of the circulatory system to
transport oxygen, waste, et cetera, through the body. Capacities of material systems are on their
turn taken by Cummins as the physical dispositions of those systems. Physical dispositions are
properties of systems that manifest themselves conditional on specific antecedent occurrences:
when a system has the disposition breakable, it falls to pieces conditional on that it hits a hard
object; a propeller has the capacity to provide thrust if it is rotating and provided with fuel. If now
the behaviours of an artefact are identified with these physical capacities or dispositions of an
artefact, one obtains a clear set of definitions. The structure of an artefact refers to the materials the
artefact consists of, and to the topology and the geometry of these materials. The behaviours of an
artefact refer to the ways in which the artefact reacts physically to physical occurrences. And the
functions of the artefact refer to those behaviours that figure in explanations of behaviours of larger
systems that contain the artefact.
A consequence of this set of definitions is that Geros model simplifies considerably. For instance,
the formulation step F_Br becomes trivial: the desired functions F become identical to the required
behaviours Br: both refer to the same dispositions of the artefact to be designed. (Cummins
definition of function requires that this disposition figures in an explanation of a disposition of a
larger system that contains the artefact. At the end of this paper I describe how this disposition and
larger system can be chosen.) A second consequence is that scientific knowledge seems almost
sufficient to making the other steps in Geros model. Both behaviour and structure are now physical
notions. Hence, the analysis step S_Ba can in principle[5] be made by deduction from scientific
laws, and synthesis Br_S can in principle be made by abduction from these laws. Evaluation Ba_Br is
simply a logical comparison. The only role non-scientific knowledge still can play is to provide for
the means to cleverly choose the laws used in the analysis and synthesis steps, and for the
transformation Ba_Br' in the reformulation step Ba_Br'&F' (the Br'_F' part of reformulation is again
trivial).
An obvious response to this conclusion is that one thus clearly should not adopt this set of
definitions if one wants to properly understand Geros model of designing. However, as I show
next, Gero himself seems to accept in Rosenman and Gero (1998) definitions that come close to
Cummins.
Rosenman and Geros characterisation of functions, behaviour and structure

In Rosenman and Gero (1998) Geros model of designing is revisited, and now definitions of
functions, behaviours and structure of artefacts are given. In the definition of structure, a difference
is made between homogeneous and complex artefacts: the structure of an artefact that consists of
one homogeneous element is the artefacts material arrangement; the structure of an artefact that
consists of a complex of homogeneous elements includes the identification of the elements of the
artefact, the material arrangement of these elements and their connectivity. The behaviours of an
artefact are defined as the artefacts actions or processes in response to given circumstances of the
physical environment. And the functions of an artefact are the results of those actions or processes
of the artefact in response to the physical circumstances (i.e., the results of the artefacts
behaviours).
By these definitions, functions, behaviours and structure all are physical concepts.[6] The structure
of the artefact refers to the physical make up of the artefact including its topology and geometry.
The artefact exhibits by its structure certain physical responses to circumstance in its physical
environment, and these are the behaviours of the artefact. These physical behaviours effect certain
results, and these are the functions of the artefact.
When Rosenman and Geros definitions are compared to those developed on the basis of Cummins,
one can conclude that the definitions of behaviours and structure are basically the same, and that
those of functions differ on two points. Firstly, Rosenman and Gero take a function as the result of
a behaviour, whereas in Cummins a function refers to the behaviour as a whole. Secondly,
Cummins is much more selective than Rosenman and Gero: by Rosenman and Gero all possible
behaviours of an artefact yield functions of those artefacts (artefacts thus have many functions in
addition to those for which they were designed), whereas by Cummins only those behaviours that
figure in explanations are functions.
The consequences of Rosenman and Geros definitions for Geros model are now the following.
The formulation step F_Br becomes an abduction step in which one determines a physical
behaviour Br on the basis of the result F of this behaviour. The synthesis step Br_S also becomes an
abduction step in which one determines the physical structure of an artefact on the basis of its
physical behaviour. The analysis step S_Ba becomes a deduction step in which the physical
behaviours of a given structure are derived. It thus again looks as if scientific knowledge is almost
sufficient to making all the steps part of designing.
This latter conclusion may be challenged because Rosenman and Gero (1998) not only have given
precise definitions of function, behaviour and structure but also elaborated Geros (1990) model. By
this elaboration, which I introduce next, new steps have been introduced that cannot be made by
scientific knowledge only.
Rosenman and Geros elaborated purpose-function-behaviour-structure model

By Gero and Rosenmans (1990) original examples functions of artefacts were allowed to include
goals assigned to the artefact. In their (1998) paper they separated functions and goals by
identifying the purposes of an artefact as distinct to its functions. The general outlook on designing
is that humans exist in a natural physical environment and operate in a socio-cultural environment.
This latter environment prescribes values and goals and establishes together with the former
environment the needs of humans. In order to satisfy these needs humans create intentionally
artefacts. Rosenman and Gero (1998) now define the purposes of an artefact as the answers to the
question of why the artefact does what it does, or what it is for. That is, the purposes of an artefact
are the needs of humans that can be achieved with it. By this outlook designing becomes a process
that transforms purposes into a design description of artefacts with which those purposes can be
achieved.
Rosenman and Geros elaborated model of design is now Geros original model modified in the
following way: Firstly, in order to incorporate purposes, they introduce two new steps. The first
step is one in which required purposes are transformed into required functions. This step Pr_Fr
together with the original formulation step Fr_Br, is called problem formulation. The second step is
one in which the actual functions are interpreted for purposes. This step Fa_Pa is called realisation
of utility. Secondly, Rosenman and Gero make a more systematic distinction between what is
required and what is actual; they not only differentiate between required and actual behaviours, but
also between required and actual functions and between required and actual purposes.[7] Thirdly,
they consider explicitly the decomposition of purposes, functions and behaviours into subpurposes,
subfunctions and subbehaviours, respectively. Fourthly, Rosenman and Gero seem to drop the
distinction between a description of the structure of an artefact and a design description that tells
how the artefact can be manufactured. Fifthly, the analysis and evaluation steps are made more
general. Analysis now consists of the transformation S_Ba_Fa. And evaluation consists of a
comparison of the actual and required behaviours, functions and purposes.
The extended model for designing can be captured by the following sequence (I have omitted steps
which represent the decomposition of purposes, functions and behaviours):
Figure 2: Rosenman and Geros elaborated model of designing

The evaluation steps can lead to acceptance of S as the structure of the artefact or to reiteration via a
new synthesis step Br_S' or via reformulation Ba_Br'&Fr'.
Rosenman and Gero again speak about design prototypes that capture the knowledge that enable
designers to make these steps. They seem to hold that these prototypes include knowledge about the
decomposition of functions and behaviours. But they seem not to expand prototypes in such a way
that they also include knowledge about the two new steps Pr_Fr and Fa_Pa. Hence, the way in which
designers make these purpose-functions steps is left mysterious; Rosenman and Gero (1998) only
characterise these two new steps as teleological reasoning (for a philosopher, intentional reasoning)
whereas all other steps are characterised as physical or causal reasoning.
Lets again return to the question of whether scientific knowledge suffices to design. Function,
behaviour and structure are physical concepts by Rosenman and Geros (1998) definitions. Hence,
the steps Fr_Br, Br_S and S_Ba_Fa can in principle be made on the basis of scientific knowledge. But
purpose is an intentional concept. The new transformations Pr_Fr and Fa_Pa thus fall partly outside
the domain of science, yielding the conclusion that designers, when designing, need to draw also
from other knowledge sources. The same conclusion holds for the decomposition of purposes into
subpurposes. The decompositions of functions and behaviours, on the other hand, fall again in the
domain of the natural sciences, and can therefore in principle be made on the basis of scientific
knowledge. Hence, by the inclusion of the concept purpose Rosenman and Geros (1998) model
again rules out that design knowledge can consist of scientific knowledge only.
From purposes to functions: plans

The problem formulation step Pr_Fr in Rosenman and Geros (1998) elaborated model may be
analysed by means of the description of the design process as developed by Houkes et al. (2002). In
this latter description it is assumed that the design process is primarily a process in which plans are
developed which users can carry out to achieve specific purposes. These plans consist of a series of
considered actions where some of these actions typically involve the employment of artefacts. It is
not claimed by Houkes et al. that the design process is concerned mainly with developing plans for
users designers are of course most of the time occupied with designing the artefacts that are used
as part of the plan. Instead it is claimed that, conceptually speaking, the development of plans
comes first, and the designing of the artefacts part of these plans comes second.
Spelled out in more detail (and tailored to the model of Rosenman and Gero (1998)), designers start
with required purposes Pr. Then they develop a user plan U that consists of a series of considered
actions {Ai} for which holds that when they are carried out by users, the required purposes are
achieved. This plan U is called a user plan because it is a plan developed for users by designers
(although, of course, users can also develop their own user plans). The actions {Ai} part of the user
plan, are to result in a specific state of affairs and may involve the use of artefacts. The functions of
an artefact used within an action Ai are now defined as those physical dispositions of the artefact
that explain that the action Ai results in its specific state of affairs (here Cummins (1975) theory of
functions is adopted: the artefact is taken as part of the action Ai and the disposition of this action to
result in a specific state of affairs is the disposition that is to be explained by the artefact its
functions). To give an example, assume that the required purpose is to have a bottle of milk warm
enough to feed a baby with. The plan can then consist of the following three actions: put a bottle of
cold milk in a container with warm water, wait a couple of minutes, and take the bottle out. The
container of warm water used in the second action has heating up the bottle of milk as one of its
dispositions, and this disposition explains that this action results in a warm bottle of milk. Hence,
the function of the container is to heat up the bottle of milk.
The formulation step Pr_Fr can thus be analysed as consisting of a planning step Pr_U={Ai} and a
function determination step Ai_Fri. The concepts of purposes, plans and actions are not physical
concepts, hence it is clear that these transformations of purposes into user plan and actions into
functions cannot be made on the basis of scientific knowledge only. Other knowledge about, for
instance, human plans and actions, has to be invoked as well.
Conclusions
According to Geros (1990) original function-behaviour-structure model designing is a process in
which required functions are transformed into design descriptions of artefacts via the behaviours
and structure of those artefacts. A first conclusion is that given Geros original characterisation of
the concepts function, behaviour and structure, scientific knowledge does not give sufficient means
to designers to make these transformations since by that characterisation, functions and behaviours
of artefacts are not physical concepts. Secondly, attempts on the basis of Cummins (1975) and by
Rosenman and Gero (1998) to make Geros model more precise by defining the concepts function,
behaviour and structure, yield that these concepts are physical concepts. It follows that scientific
knowledge is now in principle almost sufficient for designing. Hence, these attempts changed the
understanding of Geros model considerably. Thirdly, Rosenman and Gero (1998) have elaborated
Geros model to a purpose-function-behaviour-structure model in which designing is a process in
which required purposes are transformed into design descriptions of artefacts via the functions,
behaviours and structure of those artefacts. This elaborated model adds transformations between
purposes and functions to Geros original model, and it can be argued that science does not give the
means to make these transformations since purpose is not a scientific concept. Hence, scientific
knowledge is again not sufficient to design, although it still is almost sufficient for transforming
functions to structures. Fourthly, the transformation of purposes into functions can be analysed by
Houkes et al. (2002).
Acknowledgements
It is a pleasure to thank Kees Dorst, Wybo Houkes, Jeroen de Ridder, and especially Larry
Bucciarelli for helpful discussions and comments. Research for this paper was part of the program
The Dual Nature of Technical Artefacts, which is supported by the Netherlands Organisation of
Scientific Research (NWO) and research efforts by the Techn group.
Footnotes
[1] More precisely, Gero assumes that direct transformations F_S exist occasionally, but that it is
not considered designing if one uses such transformations.
[2] Gero (1990) uses a different terminology and notation. The actual behaviour of an artefact with
structure S is denote by Bs and the required behaviour is called the expected behaviour and is
denoted by Be. The present terminology and notation conforms to the terminology used in
Rosenman and Gero (1998).
[3] Gero (1990) gives a list of types of knowledge design knowledge consists of, and it seems
evident that this list contains more than scientific knowledge.
[4] Gero and Rosenman (1990) examples of the structure of artefacts all fall within the domain of
science.
[5] I here assume that science provides with ample laws.
[6] Rosenman and Gero (1998) sometimes discern socio-cultural aspects of functions, behaviours
and structure. These aspects refer to the interests of designers to pay attention to some functions,
behaviours and structural features of the artefacts, and to ignore others. For instance, designers pay
attention to only those functions of artefacts that are considered to be relevant for its prospective
use. And they describe only those features of the structure of an artefact that enables its
manufacturing and the derivation of its relevant actual behaviours. The existence of these sociocultural aspects of the descriptions of functions, behaviours and structure do, however, not force
one to take function, behaviour and structure as socio-cultural concepts themselves.
[7] Rosenman and Gero (1998) sometimes speak about required purposes but usually just call them
purposes simpliciter. Their term of actual purpose is utility.
References
Cummins, Robert. 1975. Functional analysis. The Journal of Philosophy, 72: 741-765.
Gero, John S. 1990. Design prototypes: A knowledge representation schema for design. AI
Magazine. 11 (4): 26-36.
Gero, John S. and Michael A. Rosenman. 1990. A conceptual framework for knowledge-based
design research at Sydney Universitys design computing unit. Artificial Intelligence in
Engineering, 5 (2): 65-77.
Houkes, Wybo, Pieter E. Vermaas, Kees Dorst and Marc J. de Vries. 2002. Design and use as
plans: An action-theoretical account. Design Studies, 23: 303-320.
Rosenman, Michael A. and John S. Gero. 1998. Purpose and function in design: From the sociocultural to the techno-physical. Design Studies, 19: 161-186.
10

J. Verwijnen UHIAH, Helsinki, Finland
Abstract
This paper states that in order to contribute to epistemology design must clarify its ontological
perspective. The act of designing occupies a position fundamentally different from the natural
sciences that examine only things or matter and is also beyond the social sciences that deal with
people and their relations. In this paper design departs from the relationship of people and things, of
subjects and objects. It proposes that within the relationship of subjects to objects, of people to
things and thus also of designers to the products they design, there are three different ontological
positions. A corresponding epistemological position of people and things is to be found in the
notion of a material culture. Because things have become aesthetic objects, they are finalities, not
instrumentalities, not means to an end. Kants notion of the aesthetic judgement shows a train of
thought that links to the conceptual aspects of the design process. Design as a material practice
condenses, transforms and materializes concepts. These concepts are singular and not universal. It
is a perspective not of things made, but of things in the making, a discourse of designing itself
and diagrammatic in nature. The notion of concept in design is an own level of analogous
reasoning.

Ontological perspectives
Despite years of usability research in product design, design research has not really developed a
philosophical understanding of the shift in thinking that has taken place. Usability perhaps correctly
shifts the focus of attention of design research away from production to consumption and mirrors a
similar shift in the fields of sociology and cultural studies. But the relationship of people and things,
subjects and objects, entails more than just a shift of sides. At the same time we witness that objects
are increasingly becoming part of what is called a symbolic economy or an Erlebnisgesellchaft.
This means we face experiencing subjects that are in the midst of things, in and among objects.
Designers thus need to imagine and understand the experience of objects by subjects. This
experiencing is much more an act of aesthetic judgement by a singular subject than the cognitive
reasoning of a universal subject. How does this shift in thinking from universal subject to singular
subject take place. It starts with a difference in ontological perspective and in my opinion it would
be important for every design research to very carefully look at the ontological position it departs
from [1]. This paper postulates that there are three different positions within the relationship of
subjects to objects that design is concerned with.
The first ontological perspective is what I would call the Cartesian position of subjects that are
(supposedly) in control of objects the subjects handle purposeful and the objects they create are
thought to be meaningless. The entire problematic of subjects and objects in modern western
thought is conventionally, if crudely, traced to Descartes cogito, which sees the world in terms
of, on the one hand, human subjects (a mind or consciousness which thinks, knows, believes and
ascribes meanings and values to the world) and, on the other hand, objects (the world seen as
matter in motion, as a collection of things which interact, which can be observed and grasped in
the form of facts, but which are in and of themselves devoid of subjectivity, of mind or spirit, of
meaning or essence). (Slater 1997: 101). This has generally been the predominant view of the
making of things the epistemic view of engineering. For this position knowledge about things is
in the first instance instrumental and objective. Things, products are generally without meaning and
people are considered to be universal subjects. It is a world of arguments of pure reason.
Secondly, out of a certain opposition to the Cartesian point of view another position developed,
which is perhaps exemplified most radically by Baudrillard. This position acknowledges the fact
that probably more of our daily lives is spent interacting with material objects than interacting with
other people. Strictly speaking, the humans of the age of affluence are surrounded not so much by
other human beings, as they were in all previous ages, but by objects. (Baudrillard 1998:25). He
turns the Cartesian position around and departs from the fact that in contemporary society the
objects now control the subjects. At first this may seem ridiculous, but if we look more carefully a
lot speaks for the fact that we in our daily choices of things are perhaps the victims of fashion,
maybe without even realising it. This position developed with the growing awareness of the
emerging consumer society. It influenced the cultural turn of sociology and the rise of cultural
studies to a dominant field of research on consumption.
This position has a long and complex history and partly reaches back to Hegels Phenomenology of
Spirit first published in 1807 as it was offering a way out of the dilemma how objects relate to
subjects, how human subjects can know the world of objects, how they can assimilate it
intellectually, and how they can know that their knowledge is valid. The profoundly influential
insight of Hegel ..., is that the relation between subject and object is in reality dialectical and
interrelated, not external and mechanical. It is a relationship or process of mutual constitution of
subject by object and object by subject. Human subjects actively engage with the object world,
transforming, moulding and creating it through their intellectual and practical efforts. In working
on the world, individuals and societies recreate it in relation to their needs and projects. Their
needs their subjectivity, their meanings for the world are thus objectivated, take material
form, in the objects they produce. (Slater 1997: 102-3). The object world is thus human
subjectivity made manifest, but in contrast to non-dialectical, positivistic views the world works
back on subjects. In transforming the world we also transform ourselves. The world we have made
is indeed objective and becomes the new environment in which we live, by which our subjective
experiences are formed and in which we define and refine our needs, desires, projects and plans
(Slater 1997).
A third position has lately become more manifest, which states that objects and subjects are both
meaningful perhaps on a sort of equal footing. Within sociology and communication theory, for
example, that until recently only dealt with relations between subjects, a repositioning of the
artefact seems to be at stake. It concerns the view that interaction and communication are factually
not possible without the mediation of things, of objects (Dant 1999; Schiffer 1999). One of the
many aspects of this view is that objects in our present condition of society have increasingly
become a part of flows global flows that comprise of information, of images, of money, of goods
and of people that are increasingly being connected and that circulate ever faster (Lash and Urry
1994; Castells 1996). What happens is that there is less and less difference between the nature of
these flows: from those of objects (goods) to those of subjects (people). Further, the flows of
images through the cable networks increasingly represent objects that are made up of signs, no
longer symbols. As a consequense their meaning becomes more aesthetic and less cognitive. This is
a change in the condition of objects in the form of their presentation and therefore also of what
they represent and thus of the way they interact with people. There are more and lengthier
explanations for this phenomenon, but the consequence is that objects, things, products take on a
new dimension, no longer being able to be subsumed as a particular by a universal and knowing
subject. The process of subsuming refers to the way people appropriate things and judge them as in
Kants Critique of Judgement that we will come back to later.
A material culture based on object form

This ontological perspective of meaningful subjects and meaningful objects has an epistemological
body of knowledge that corresponds to our position of subjects and objects. For this the author
suggests the notion of a material culture based on object form as the culture of our contemporary
society that characterizes the relationship of people to things, products and spaces. It answers to the
question how we, under modern social conditions, relate to the thing-like nature of much of our
social life. Modern consumption has increasingly become a question of object relations: a question
of how human and social subjects with needs relate to things in the world, which tend to satisfy
them. Obviously design comes into the picture here and it includes the design of material and
symbolic goods, services and experiences. Instead of an idea of consumption as subjects using
objects I argue that the world of things is really culture in its objective form, it is the form that
humans have given the world through their mental and material practices.
A major shortcoming of many theories on culture is that they identify culture with a set of objects,
such as the arts in themselves, rather than seeing it as an evaluation of the relationship through
which objects are constituted as social forms. Culture is always a process and is never reducible to
either its object or its subject form (Miller 1987). For this reason this paper is based on the notion of
a dynamic relationship of people and objects. In the same way I want to argue for the idea of a
process also of the making of things, the design process. People appropriate objects, but how do
ideas get into things and what happens with them afterwards? [2]
If we accept that things have ideas, intention in them (what we might call the design process) and
that the knowledge of the making (what we might call the production process) is embodied in the
artefact, the question becomes: How do we get it out, how can we extract it and what form does this
extracted intention take? The hypothesis of this paper is that this intention can only be verified
through conceptualisation and that the form therefore is conceptual or diagrammatic. Within the
design process exists a level of concepts [3]. These concepts are part of the decision-making
process of a project and do not belong to the universality of pure reason. Instead they are singular,
individual concepts that have a similar mode of operating as reflective judgements do for Kant.
Judgement
There is, as we have seen, increasing evidence that a particular object, a product is now judged as
an aesthetic experience, as part of an event, by a subject that needs to be singular and make its own
choices. As subjects become singular and experiencing, a shift from epistemology (universal
knowledge) to ontology (existential meaning) is involved. Epistemology logically entails
instrumental rationality, because theorein is the understanding of the natural sciences and
positivism. Instrumental rationality is thus the use of the scientific rationality of pure reason. In
the natural sciences and in positivism things and social things are reduced to what are more or less
variables of Newtonian time-space. The Cartesian I think is determined by the universalism of
the logical categories. Traditionally the epistemological subject would know things according to
these categories of classical logic, but, if we follow Kant, then the experiencing subject needs to
know things in terms of the ontological structures proper to things themselves. Therefore Lash
(1999) states that the experiencing subject is no longer above the world in a hierarchical sense of a
subject-object relation with things in the world, but is situated in the world among objects.
Subjects therefore no longer know objects instead they now experience them. As a consequence
the (designed) object gains vastly in status. It comes to take on ontological structure a structure of
meaning. This meaning is not reduced to epistemological and utilitarian functions, but allows the
object to be invested with affect, desire, and care, to be lived by and lived with (Lash 1999). For
experiencing subjects these objects become finalities, ends in themselves and not instruments, not
means to an ends that knowing, universal subjects deal with. Several authors (Lash 1999, Bhme
1999) have lately pointed out how Kant in The Critique of Judgement breaks with the notion of
universalist individualism for an idea of freedom based on singular individuality. With The Critique
of Judgement there is evidence for a meaning of being through reflexive judgement of objects, of
things in fact through poesis [4].
Much has already been said about the limitations of positivistic, instrumental means-ends type
thinking for design (see, for example, Nigel Cross: Designerly Ways of Knowing), but in my
opinion these positions do not go far enough. This paper postulates that the only way out of
theorein and its instrumental rationality, whose logic determines us to be positivist and utilitarian
with regard to things and people is through the notion of poesis. Not through praxis and practical
reason or its ethics, but through the notion of reflexive judgement that the problem of the located
finality in the aesthetic object leads us to. It is judgement and particularly aesthetic judgement that
connects us to the kind of conceptual thinking in the decision making of the design process.
Aesthetic judgement
What is judgement according to Kant? A judgement happens every time we think something about
something. A judgement is a mental act which in some way decides whether a thing is this or that
(Burnham 2000). In the Introduction to his Critique of Judgement Kant makes a set of distinctions
between different types of judgement. First he draws our attention to determinate judgements,
which happens when we encounter something well-known from experience and we have a universal
rule, principle or law that we can apply to the situation. A determinate judgement is one that has a
concept in advance. Other people can come along and use the same concept that we applied it
has a certain universal validity. A second type is indeterminate judgement, which occurs, when a
situation is rather new and no well-known concept can be applied. It is a judgement that creates the
concept in the same act as making the judgement. In fact universal judgements of the first sort are
rare, because they never have much to say about the particular detail of our real empirical
experiences. Thus we constantly need to develop new (empirical) concepts out of given experiences
by indeterminate judgements. Once developed others can share these judgements they have
wider validity. Then there are judgements of sensual interest, concerning for example ones taste
for food. This judgement is entirely subjective and it is only valid for the person who makes it. The
next type is teleological judgement. Teleological judgement happens when we judge something to
have been produced according to an idea of it, seeing something caused by its telos (purpose).
Finally there is aesthetic judgement about things we call beautiful (such as art): we do not have a
well-known concept in advance and we do not have to form a new concept either, but the
judgement takes place by way of feeling. It is as if we are thrown back entirely onto our own
resources as a thinking subject (Burnham 2000). But these judgements are not entirely subjective
they may have a wider validity; i.e. we can communicate about them. Both teleological and
aesthetic judgements are reflective, that means not determined by given concepts and thus do not
contribute to a knowledge (of universal subjects).
Kant in his Critique of Judgement is very concerned with the fact how such a judgement can happen
and what its legislative principle may be. In this paper we are not. Lakoff and Johnson (1999)
particularly criticise Kants notion of a priori constructions and deconstruct it. Their point is that in
conceptual reasoning our minds operate along metaphors that are embodied in ourselves. The
substance of their claim about the metaphorical grounding of cognition in our embodied situation is
that conceptual structures resemble perceptual ones in interesting and explanatory ways.
Imagination is the place where figurative meaning emerges from perception and metaphor is the
place in language where this embodiment can be seen (we use metaphorical terms). This is not in
contradiction with the part of Kants Critique of Judgement that is interesting for us: that aesthetic
judgements are reflective and do not proceed by predetermined concepts. What does Kant have to
say to us?
In Kant's Critique of Judgement there seems to be a train of thought that we can build upon for a
hypothesis of the design process. It mainly is the part, where the gap between pure reason and
practical reason is referred to and how in aesthetic judgement the faculty of judgement links with
reason. Between the epistemological question what can I know? of theorein and the ethical what
should I do? of practical reason is no bridge except by the position of judgement that asks what
may I hope for? Kant states that it bridges that in an analogical way (through an as if position).
Thus the singular individual no longer determined can engage in thoughts of a more bricolaging
nature in the making of things. This is similar to the bridge that concepts in the design process need
to make between the cognitive analytical level that belongs to the problem definition and the
resolution of that problem as final form. No ethics or practical reasoning show a way out and in my
opinion neither do any references to the praxis of design either.
The design process

Thus the idea of design as a material practice - an activity that works in and among the world of
things is also one that condenses, transforms and materializes concepts. This paper argues for a
notion of concept as the need for an idea within the field of professional imagination that guides the
concrete decision-making process in design projects, which keeps the design together the concept
as a generator of form. But this idea is not final or finished form (yet). Different disciplines operate
with different ranges of imagination. Design imagination is fundamentally different from
sociological or historical imagination as it has to operate prescriptively, as it has to generate form,
not just descriptively, not just describe existing things. Consequently within the world of objects
exists a rupture between descriptive (design products) and prescriptive (design process) modes of
operation. In other words descriptive discourse in design (i.e. existing design history and theory)
has not really led to design methods. My question is: what would it mean for design history and
theory to think in relation not to things made but to things in the making? [5]
This perspective of things in the making is in this paper understood:
as a discourse of the process of designing itself ( as prescriptive mode)
as connected to a conceptual diagrammatic level of designing
The question that follows is: does an internal discourse of design, of projects and how they were
thought exist? Peter Eisenman addresses this in the field of architecture and calls it architectures
interiority. Rarely has architecture theoretically examined its own discourse, its interiority. My
work on the diagram is one such examination. It concerns the possibility that architecture can
manifest itself, manifest its own interiority in a realized building. The diagram is part of a process
that intends to open architecture to its own discourse, to its own rhetoric . (Eisenman 1999, 37)
Within a design process the notion of concept may be understood as the generation of a personal,
singular idea illustrated by analogies, diagrams, sketches etc. that guide the design process. It helps
to make coherent decisions by the designers. These concepts are increasingly being illustrated
consciously, but in some cases need to be reconstructed analytically. In the contemporary design
process they are often communicated and discussed in an early stage of the project.
Diagrammatic reasoning
In contemporary design processes a conceptual level seems to exist and it operates with diagrams as
an intermediary for the negotiation of form. Noting how radically our reasoning differs from the
rigorous standards of formal logic, we call it intuitive (Simon 1995). In this context I would like to
introduce a scheme that represents the design process as a diagonal movement from immaterial
thoughts originating as cultural, artistic ideas to the production of matter, where these ideas need to
meet the requirements of production processes and engineering systems. It identifies three main
levels within this diagonal movement that all represent design knowledge and praxis. The
relationship between these levels is specific for each project, but may also have generic aspects
within the oeuvre of one designer or a school of designers. My hypothesis is that even if the
design process appears as a fluid connection through all three levels, in reality there are large jumps
in the kind of reasoning between these levels. These levels appear as:
a level of analysis and theory. This is a terrain of cognitive theoretical logic, pure reason,
instrumental rationality and determinate judgement. This level has grown rapidly in importance.
The amount of data that a project is confronted with today show this. Even if we reject the logic
of instrumental rationality, it still rules on this level and has to be adopted to as the lingua
franca of analysis and theory.
a conceptual level at the edge between the virtual and the real that operates with diagrams as a
sort of professional shorthand and that for different reasons (group work, participation)
increasingly is developing an own life (generative diagrams, templates etc.). Here reflective
judgement rules and instrumental rationality does not. Concepts are connected by analogy, not
by pure reason. Within a professional discipline there are specific systems of thought that the
concepts will need to relate to.
a level of final form in which the things or products present themselves in their material form.
This has for a great deal been the domain of categories of style and art history.
The Notion of Concept: Themes + Narratives Meet Engineering Systems

Diagrams as abstract machines between the VIRTUAL and the REAL
ART/CULTURE
Themes
ARTIFICIAL
Engineering Systems
ANALYSIS, THEORY
VIRTUAL
Analogies
Mental Constructions
CONCEPT
Scenarios
Diagrams
Immaterial
FORM / PRODUCT
SPACE
REAL
Production of Matter
Although the concept develops out of the analysis of a problem, it does not do so mechanically or
automatically [6]. Between analysis and concept in reality a complex creative jump occurs. Much
of the potential of the diagram as an abstract model (of design) lies between the virtual and the real.
The variables in a diagram that emerge from analysis may include both formal and programmatic
configurations. A diagram is therefore not so much a thing in itself but a description of potential
relationships among elements, not only an abstract model of the way things behave in the world but
a map of possible worlds. The diagram has an increased actuality, because professional practice is
more and more characterised by providing open-ended solutions through mediating between
production and distribution systems and through the participation of new groupings of actors in the
design process (for example in mass-customisation).
In the past five years an increased interest in the diagram has led to a series of publications and
mentions in conference presentations. In his introduction to Peter Eisenmans Diagram Diaries
Robert Somol (1999) traces the history of the diagram and states about its actuality in architecture
that: In general the fundamental technique and procedure of architectural knowledge has
seemingly shifted over the second half of the twentieth century, from the drawing to the diagram.
(Somol 1999: 7). In this conflict it seems as if the conventional drawing is a static tool of the
representation of a product (of final form) and the diagram a process tool that is dynamic and
flexible. It is particularly this quality of the diagram that points to the kind of thought, the kind of
reasoning that it works with and through.
Notes
1
A research needs to answer the question of how its specific research subject relates to the world
of theory and knowledge (epistemology), which needs to be based on a statement of what the
world must be like (ontology) in order for us to have knowledge of it. Thus the researcher
approaches the world (being in the world) with a set of ideas, an ontological framework that
specifies a set of questions (epistemology) that are then examined (methodology, analysis) in
specific ways (Denzin and Lincoln 1998). In other words in every research there is always an
ontological perspective which sees or encapsulates (our being in) the world in a specific sense
and there is an epistemological position which suggests that knowledge or evidence of the world
can be generated by observing, participating or interpreting certain sources.
Dant (1999) provides an interesting view on this question: The process of cultural
appropriation of material things is not reducible either to production or consumption but is to
do with a series of types of interactions between people and objects. These interactions with
things touching, making, looking at, talking and reading about, using, storing, maintaining,
remaking and so on are social in that they are learnt and shared within culture. Material
objects are physically formed within a culture but are also socially constructed in the ways that
they are fitted into routine, everyday practices and ways of life. Culture is embedded and
disembedded throughout the life of the object while the processes of production and
consumption are organised around economic exchange.
What is a concept generally? Concepts are ideas formed by the process of abstraction and
provide categories for storing experience in our case of projects and their relationship to other
projects, their presence in the past. Abstraction is usually defined as the formation of an idea by
mental separation from particular instances in our case abstraction from final project form.
Concepts are formed by removing some of the detail of particular instances so that what remains
is only the essence of the thing, concentrated on the main, for example, poetic, organizational or
technical response to the problem. Concepts make it possible to communicate knowledge and
imagination. In addition to allowing to generalize knowledge and imagination and to
communicate it to others, concepts give enormous powers of thought. Concepts allow to
associate volumes of information (about other projects and cases) with a single idea and to
communicate or process this information rapidly whenever we think of it or talk about it.
Concepts are often connected by analogy, for example by colour, material, form, type, common
experience (such as film, music, literature or bible/religion) etc. (Hatch 1997). It is the
conceptual slippage of analogical thinking that this paper argues for as the different kind of
reasoning necessary for the introduction of the new as a concept for a project.
Within the triangle of theorein, praxis and poesis, design research so far has almost always been
based on theorein or epistemology and its instrumental reason. Further, a lot of design research
increasingly refers to praxis (and its practical reason). This paper focuses not so much on praxis,
but on the notion of project and its singularity. It will make a case for the element of poesis and
the analogical reasoning of reflective judgement within the design process of a project.
This question, first posed by the philosopher William James, was the point of departure for The
Pragmatist Imagination conference in May 2000 at Columbia University, New York (Ockman
2000).
It is perhaps possible to interpret form follows function as a universal concept that operated at
an intermediary level between the analysis of functional requirements and the outcome of final
form. The problem of such a universal concept is that it works as a modernistic meta-narrative
of the sort that contemporary postmodernism has rejected. This rejection is a part of a
movement towards a singular individuality of design and also the designer versus the universal
judgement and pure and instrumental reason that traditional modernism appealed to.
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Artifacts, Behaviour and Communication. London: Routledge
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In: Diagram Diaries edited by Peter Eisenman. London: Thames and Hudson.
10

N. Wakabayashi Tokyo University of Technology, Japan
T. Watanabe Tokyo University of Technology, Japan
R. Takahashi Tokyo University of Technology, Japan
Y. Harada Tama Art University, Japan
Abstract
The purpose of this research is to investigate and propose an expressing method of information
making good use of 3-dimensional space. Under the theme of information design on a 3dimensional space, we treated a virtual aquarium as a subject matter. This research focuses on
development of effective methods of designing techniques which can be utilized in making
interactive content on the internet through the actual development of "Aqua Project". Focusing
particularly on real time 3D graphics, we will propose a representation technique that utilizes
words, images, and geometric models all integrated into 3D space. We searched for ways to
efficiently structure information, provide an intuitive user interface, and furthermore realize
dynamic handling and interactive representation of information. In this research, we have
constructed and investigated an experimental model, by the technology of Real Time 3DCG, which
can show both of the information on observer's request and the simulated aquatic creatures and their
surrounding environment in the virtual fish tank simultaneously in the 3-dimensional space. We
have developed and verified "Aqua Place," a web contents of virtual aquarium containing 3dimensional simulation by VRML and viewpoint technology (web3D technology) within a virtual
fish tank. Through this development and verification, we focused on the functions for observation
in 3-dimensional space and on the method for revealing information about creatures as a database.
In conclusion, it demands an operating condition that makes it possible to observe each individual
creature as well as an information design of 3-dimensional ecosystem simulation in a virtual fish
tank.

This research was conducted under the theme of representation and communication of information
in 3-dimensional space. We have constructed virtual aquarium making use of 3-dimensional
WWW techniques in order to investigate inevitable functions and tools for our virtual aquarium and
to consider the potentiality of the community with using our techniques as well.
In constructing an experimental virtual aquarium, we used VRML (Virtual Reality Modeling
Language), which is general 3-dimensional WWW environment at present, and networking
environment. The virtual aquarium is realized as an aquarium contents composed of three virtual
fish tanks described in 3-dimensional modeling environment with VRML, which are accompanied
by the database function providing information for each creature in the tanks, and linked mutually
to the web pages described with HTML.
With this structure, we aim to propose a new study environment through the experience, discovery
and observation in virtual space by practically operating the interactive environment to access the
fish tanks which allow users to move freely in the 3-dimensional space and to access the
information for simulated ecosystems and creatures in there.
The following points provide an overview of this research. The most important point in
constructing a virtual aquarium on a network is that it is necessary to realize not a mere simulated
representation of actual aquarium but to realize the features of VRML 3-dimensional space and the
interactive environment of Internet.
One of the aims of this research project is to provide users with new viewpoints for observation
without limitations of time and space, which is difficult to get in the real aquarium. In achieving
this, we considered the subject under the following three headings: (1) Observer's Point of View; (2)
Spatial Sailing Eyesight; and (3) Database Function.
In order to construct contents that can allow the users to experience the observation, we focused on
observer's point of view. Generally in the actual aquarium, the mainstream for display is to show
water tanks with the simulated model ecosystems of the certain sea areas getting the fish,
inhabitants and ecological conditions such as coral of the area together.
It can be regarded that they serve the information centered on "watching" viewpoints in this style of
display.
After conducting a survey on visitors' viewpoints in the aquarium, who are observers at the same
time, we classified the result into following three groups.
1)
Viewpoint for watching

A viewpoint for looking the water tank as a whole including the surrounding environment
and atmosphere of interesting fish and its behavior pattern or relation between other fish and
inhabitants.
2)
Viewpoint for observation

A viewpoint for watching a certain fish or inhabitant in the water tank and comparing its
peculiarity to others.
3)
Viewpoint for studying

A viewpoint for studying far more detailed background information and reference materials
than those of their observed result to compare with the subject for analysis.
It is no more necessary to watch the fish or inhabitants through the thick glass in the simulated 3dimensional virtual fish tank. Users can get the same eyesight as fish to observe freely in the tank as
if they sailed in the sea. This "spatial sailing eyesight" provides users with the following viewpoint
or ways of observations:
1)
2)
3)
Observation from various angles making good use of 3-dimensional virtual spaces
Viewpoints for experiencing the trailing and searching
The achievement of dynamic and interactive viewpoints for observation
Besides, we also considered that to provide a substantial database function is essential for users
analytic observation. It is general in the real aquariums that the detailed information related to the
subject is provided in the ways of indirect or supplemental, such as illustrated guides, reference
books or videotapes. This may raise a question because the visitors cannot get the answer soon if
they wonder or discover something while they are watching. In the virtual aquarium, on the
contrary, users can use the reference function directly without changing pages or frames they are
watching. This function was realized for providing the viewpoint of "studying," by directly linking
the 3-dimensional model data of sailing fish and other inhabitants in the tank to the text data and
picture data such as names or ecological conditions of them.
Let us now look at our configuration of the models in detail. "Aqua place," the virtual contents we
have constructed this time, was constructed with the cooperation of Tokyo Sea Life Park. We
considered their displaying aquatic inhabitants and ecosystems as a good model and sampled three
water tanks for our virtual fish tank modeling. We also constructed a part for illustrated guide as a
reference function, which is a linked library providing the information on the aquatic creatures in
each virtual tank such as names and so on. This is useful for realizing the interactive environment
that allows users to switch freely on either the virtual fish tank or on library.
This time, we realized the function for "observation" on a basis of standard VRML specification
and as for the difficult part for VRML, such as representation of details for fish, was covered by the
combination with interactive 3-dimensional WWW environments with viewpoint. The function for
"studying" was realized as web contents by the mutual linkage between VRML files and HTML
files.
Illustration 1: The sitemap of Aqua Place

The "aqua place" is, as you see in Illustration 1 The sitemap of Aqua Place, composed of
following three parts: (1) Virtual fish tanks; (2) Illustrated Guide; and (3) Backyard. (See
Illustration 1 The sitemap of Aqua Place)
(1)
Virtual Fish Tanks for Simulation

This part is constructed by VRML modeling techniques and divided into three virtual fish
tanks for simulation: (1) Voyagers of the Sea, A fish tank for Tuna; (2) The South China
Sea; and (3) The Indian Ocean.
(2)
Illustrated Guide
This is the part of providing information on the aquatic creatures sailing or inhabiting in
three kinds of virtual fish tanks, such as names, classifications, characteristics and habitats.
In constructing this part, we referred the common illustrated guide for Japanese elementary
school children as a basis of information level.
(3)
Backyard
This is the part of providing information on our web site, ways to link the download site of
VRML browser, operation manual or document of our site.
Here under is the explanation of how to realize the Spatial Sailing Eyesight. The VRML browser
serves two kinds of walk through mode called walk and fly that allow users to move around
freely in the 3-dimensional space and subject centered 3-dimensional indication mode called
study. It also serves the function to move the viewpoint freely by operating the mouse in the
virtual space called plan, pan, turn or roll and so on.
Followings are the conditions defined for movements in the space regarding the feature of each
virtual fish tank.
1)
"A virtual fish tank for Tuna" simulated the ecological condition of ocean migratory fish,
so that there is no definition for seabed or the surface of sea. Therefore, users can move
freely with the fly mode in 3-dimensional space of VRML browser.
2)
As "The South China Sea" and "The Indian Ocean" simulated the environment of coral or
rocky seabed, we defined walk mode to move on seabed as a default and to be modified
into fly mode if it is necessary to move in the space.
Turning now to the point of realization of the viewpoint for observation. Not only for watching the
relationship and movement of fish in the whole ecosystem, but with the definition of some other
viewpoints, such as looking down from the top, looking up from the bottom, or eyesight of the
sailing fish, we realized functions that allow users to change the viewpoint indication by the
selection from the menu.
On the other hand, there is the possibility to have an analytic viewpoint for "observation" to pick up
a target fish. There are viewpoints provided to observe the target more analytically by closing up a
certain fish, observing from various angles or "trailing" to observe a sailing movement of a subject
in a fixed frame.
As for the realization of the database function in our virtual aquarium, definition of anchor points
for each fish make it possible to indicate the name of a fish or to link the specified web page by
pointing with the mouse, so that we realized a handling function for specifying necessary
information and referring them directly, which is related to the illustrated guide part which
introduces the information on names of fish or on their ecological conditions.
For the moment let us look closely at modeling of the virtual fish tanks for simulation. We
constructed our virtual aquarium on the basis of aquatic inhabitants and the ecosystems displayed at
Tokyo Sea Life Park.
The first point is on modeling of the aquatic creatures and their fish tank. Modeling execution for
fish, rocks or coral was done in the divided group according to the environment of each fish tank.
We sampled three water tanks that show abundant kinds of fish among the water tanks of Tokyo Sea
Life Park: (1) Voyagers of the Sea, A fish tank for Tuna; (2) The South China Sea; and (3) The
Indian Ocean. We also selected the fish and inhabitants that have a characteristic forms and ways of
sailing for modeling: six kinds from "A fish tank for Tuna"; seven kinds from "The South China
Sea"; and eight kinds of fish and coral from "The Indian Ocean." Here are the names of fish in each
fish tank; Katsuwonus pelamis, Thunnus albacares, Thunnus thynnus, Euthynnus affinis, Thunnus
alalunga and Mola mola are in Voyagers of the Sea, A fish tank for Tuna; Neoniphon samara,
Naso vlamingii, Sargocentron spiniferum, Gymnothorax javanicus and Diodon hystrix are in The
South China Sea; and Pterois volitans, cheilinus undulates, Zebrasoma scopes, Acanthurus sohal,
Chiromis virdis and Dascyllus aruanus are in The Indian Ocean. Constructing platform was
Windows personal computer and MetasequoiaLE R2.0, which is a standard modeler. WindowsNT
was used as a server for data and 3-dimensional WWW and description format was based upon
VRML 2.0. These models were converted into VRML format with utility software and were laid in
each fish tank.
Second point is how to optimize the complex model. In the case of modeling multiple kinds of
models such as a fish tank of an aquarium including fish, coral and rocks, it becomes difficult to
execute real time rendering process for enormous polygon data. We have developed "Aqua Pallet,"
the utility software in order to reduce the amount of polygons and to optimize the form of the
polygon itself (See Illustration 2 The operating panel of Aqua pallet). This software converts the
polygon data that are composed of quadrangle patches made up by MetasequoiaLE into triangular
ones and reduces the amount of polygons at the same time. Therefore, we made it possible to
realize a complex form with fewer amount of polygons (See Illustration 3 The reducing the
amount of polygons).
Illustration 2: The operating panel of Aqua pallet
Illustration 3: The reducing the amount of polygons

It is also possible to define the texture with using "Aqua Pallet." We can easily specify the texture
with the definition of color, coefficient of reflection or diffusion for the model. We also applied the
texture mapping to add the marking pattern and texture that are peculiar to the fish. With this
process, we made it possible to make up models and to provide specific details of the fish, coral and
the rocks.
The next point is on simulation of the sailing. In order to simulate the model fish as if they are
sailing (swimming) about in the tank, it is necessary to simulate model of each fish's sailing way.
According to their form and ways of sailing, fish are roughly divided into following three groups
(See Illustration 4).
Illustration 4: Three groups of the fish

1)
Sprinter type (Shape of a round fan, Japanese UCHIWA)

Using whole of flat body and show sudden movements such as acceleration from the slow
movement, agile. The fish of this type sails slowly in an ordinary way, but in the case of
catching food or sailing away from enemies, they accelerate with a swing of their body or
tail fin. Cheilinus undulates is an example of this group.
2)
Fin operating type

Fish of this type are good at controlling the complex and close movement of the pectoral fin
to stop and turn suddenly. When they are hurrying, they fold their pectoral fins and sail with
swinging tail and tail fin. Diodon hystrix is an example of this group.
3)
Type of long distance runner (Tail fin operating type with streamlined and flashing surface)
As they cruise the ocean at a high speed, they can cruise with less movement by tail fin.
They fit their pectoral, dorsal and pelvic fin to the trunk of the body and sail with swinging
of the crescent-shaped tail fin. In reducing speed, they open the fins. Thunnus thynnus is an
example of this group.
We made good use of morphing, one of the basic functions of the VRML, in order to realize the
above features in the VRML environment. Morphing is a function that connects two polygon
models that have the same number of polygons, and forms automatically the intermediate shape
between them (See Illustration 5).
Illustration 5: A sample of morphing

In the shape transformation of the animation, generally used are the techniques of a bone animation,
sometimes called a skeleton animation, which is to define the frame of the shape to show the
transformed outward appearance along with the transformed movement of the frame.
However, it is impossible to define the frame for the modeling in the VRML environment, we
developed a utility software based on FFD (Free Form Deformation) method for the shape
transformation. This method is hard to occur the twisting, cracking or boring between the adjoining
polygons, by transforming the space itself, which defined the 3-dimensional shape (See Illustration
6). Making use of this advantage to represent the movements of fin and tail fin, it becomes possible
to simulate characteristic sailing way of each fish, and resulted in three simulation models of fish
tanks with kinds of fish (See Illustrations 7,8 and 9).
Illustration 6: Transformation of coordinates by FFD method
Illustration 7: Fish tank of voyagers of the sea
Illustration 8: Fish tank of The South China Sea
Illustration 9: Fish tank of The Indian Sea

As we aimed to provide an experience of observation in our virtual aquarium, realization of the
observation for the details is also an important question. Therefore at the part of illustrated guide,
we prepared the embedded window to represent the targeted 3-dimensional model for observation
in details. This function is constructed with the basis of 3-dimensional WWW environment of
Viewpoint corporation, which can realize the 3-dimensional representing environment by installing
a personal plug-in to web browser and can realize interactive 3-dimensional environment that
enables to zoom up, zoom out and parallel translation with the mouse operation. The 3-dimensional
WWW environment by Viewpoint corporation is a technique that can provide highly qualified 3dimensional visual images by a description of compact 3-dimensional model data and unique
mapping techniques which does not become rough even in the case of enlarging. With this, we
have got the model data that is fine and shaped in detail beside the modeling and mapping data for
VRML, we achieved the detail representation for observation as is seen in Illustration 10.
10
Illustration 10: An example of embedded window

With the environmental simulation in the fish tank, it is difficult to represent a certain subject
centered in a window or represent a subject in a close up mode, because it moves to follow the
sailing simulation. Our mode for observation in Illustrated Guide explained above, on the contrary,
can provide the observation in fine detail that we cannot see in the simulating fish tanks. We
embedded the 3D view window to the guide page to observe the target freely such as using zooming
up or zooming out.
Realization of the above functions enables users to experience the studying process of observation,
discovery, studying and investigating, through the action of "watching," "observation" and
"studying" by the interactive mouse operation. Followings are the result of investigation on our
models.
As we used a standard web browser and describe the 3-dimensional environment and models by
VRML, the common 3-dimensional WWW environment, we found out the problems and questions
as follows.
1)
Problems of representation with HTML

Representing related information in an independent window is suitable for observation one
by one, but a new window hides the subject and operation that the users have done on the
former window. The operating environment described in HTML doesn't follow the direct
and interactive operation.
11
2)
Problems of representation with VRML

The problem for representing the quality of 3D real time rendering
The problem for representing the quality of 3D real time rendering response
The necessity for correspondence with the bone animation when animating the model
3)
Functional questions on Viewpoint

The necessity for correspondence with the bone animation when animating the model
The necessity for correspondence to the multi object
The necessity for developing the data converting utility, which should work independently
Considering the questions and problems listed above, we got the subjects as follows for further
investigation or to be improved in the future.
1)
The subjects related to the representation

Representation of the environment that provides information without taking the eyes off
from the subjects
The 3-dimensional ways of representing information that correspond to the 3-dimensional
subjects.
2)
Viewpoint for observation

Making it possible to control the time axis such as set back, put forward or stop the linear
flow of the time.
Taking steps against the decline of quality in representing patterns or details with zooming
mode.
Simulating characteristic sailing way of each subject represented by animation.
Simulating to represent the behavior pattern of the fish in the ecosystem of the virtual fish
tank.
It is concluded that showing the information within the observed fish tank is effective in expressing
the relation between the objects and information, attribute itself of information or background
information. On the other hand, it is necessary to conduct a further investigation on the way of
showing information and on the types of information varied according to the aims and conditions of
observation.
With the VRML, the processing of the 3-dimensional data is executed in the client computer, so that
the representing conditions are influenced by the users' environment. Smooth representation with
the various conditions, such as the processing load for animating on the VRML browser, may be the
important question to be answered so that it is necessary to have higher techniques for real time
rendering or a better representing format of 3-dimensional data.
As for the operating possibility, jumping to other pages by the linkage button is the basic operating
steps for interaction. Therefore, to realize an interactive operating environment like getting
response for the operation in the same page, it is essential to have original extensions and to
introduce new plug-in modules for establishing the unique operating environment such as FLASH
or Director. The further investigation is necessary on the points of operating environment in 3dimensional space and of representing information, including the introducing and development of
new interactive environment described above.
Besides, in the case of observation environment for studying, the sorts and ways of indicating the
information according to the aims or conditions of observation, become important subjects to be
investigated. It is also necessary to investigate the user interface on the basis of reconsideration of
12
the user model and of representing ways for information to make good use of the features of 3dimensional space with the model constructed this time.
13
References
Naoki Wakabayashi, 1996, HyperMedia Design, Computer Graphic Arts Society,
Naoki Wakabayashi and Yasushi Harada, 1997, Information Structuring and Envisioning for
Design of Multimedia Sightseeing Guides, Japan-Korea Design Symposium
Naoki Wakabayashi and Yasushi Harada, 1998,The Structuring and Presentation of Information
for Multimedia Tourist Guides, Asia Design Symposium.
Naoki Wakabayashi and Yasushi Harada, 2001,Visualization and Handling of 3-Dimensional
Information Structure, Asia Design Symposium V.
14

T. Wiegers Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
R. Dumitrescu Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
J.S.M. Vergeest Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
Abstract
Little is known about the effectiveness of shape manipulation activities carried out by designers,
especially in the early phases of design. For the development of improved shape manipulation tools
it is necessary that their effectiveness can be evaluated. We propose a method to gather empirical
data on designers' shape manipulation activities and to analyze the effectiveness of these activities.
We applied this method and conducted an experiment to observe designers at work. The test
subjects worked on three clay modeling assignments. We compared what would be an ideal way for
designers to create shape, to how they actually did it in practice, when using clay. We identified the
modeling activities the designers performed, how these activities could be systematically described,
and which parameters played a role. Finally, we analyzed the effectiveness of some of the activities.
Further research could investigate in which contexts an increase in effectiveness can be achieved.

Introduction
Current CAD systems support shape generation in many ways, but they are not appropriate for the
very early stages of shape design. Ideating designers may think of complex shape elements and at
the same time leave parts of the shape vague or undefined. They need computer support for easier
manipulation of complex curves and surfaces, but not at the cost of reduced freedom of form and
creativity (Wiegers and Vergeest 2001).
CAD systems have been evolving for some decades, and they supported parametric design for
regular shapes (Shah and Mntyl 1995). For freeform shapes, researchers have proposed several
methods (Elsas and Vergeest 1996; Bidarra and Bronsvoort 2000; Marsan, Chen and Stewart 2001)
and new interaction devices (Murakami and Nakajima 2000; Djajadiningrat 1998). But still, reports
on effective CAD methods for free form ideation hardly exist. Even empirical data on early free
form manipulation is scarce.
To fill this gap, we observed designers to gain insight into their methods of free form modeling.
The designers had to perform shape modeling assignments in a laboratory setting. Their
performances were video taped and their shape manipulation activities were identified. A geometric
description of the change in shape was made, and the required time was noted. Furthermore, it was
considered which alternative activities could achieve the same shape.
The ultimate objective of this research is to support the development of more effective and intuitive
free form manipulation methods. This paper reports a method to describe observed freeform shape
manipulation activities. The method will be used to identify those activities that can be done more
effectively if appropriate computer support is developed. Future research will address the feasibility
of the proposed support means, and designers expectations of their relevance and applicability.
Approach
During shape conceptualization, designers often express their ideas in some way, not only to
communicate them to co-designers, but also to enable reflection on their own concepts. To express
ideated shapes, various methods are used, such as sketches, spoken descriptions, gestures and
physical models. Freeform shapes, however, are difficult to describe. Sketching and physical
modeling of freeform shapes generally requires much time and effort and therefore interferes with
the designer's creative flow of thoughts. Traditional CAD (Computer-Aided Design) suffers from
the same problem. It is our goal to develop means that improve the effectiveness of shape
conceptualization.
It is difficult to gather generalizable data on a design process. No design can be created twice by the
same designer under the same circumstances. If we want to gather data about multiple, similar
design processes, we need different designers. Even if their grade is the same, they will differ in
experience, personal approach, favorite methods, etc. Another problem is the large variety of
products that are conceptualized in different industries. Furthermore, there is the question whether
observations should be done in a real, industrial, environment or in a laboratory setting. Companies
usually do not perform the same design assignment twice. A laboratory experiment, however, can
be questioned on its relevance for the industrial situation.
One approach to minimize the effect of these influences of differences among designers would be to
observe hundreds of designers who are performing the same design assignment. However, this
would be an expensive and time consuming approach. Another approach is to perform an

experiment that demonstrates that at least in some cases the effectiveness can be improved. In the
situation where little is known about the effectiveness of individual activities, and about the
methods to gather data and analyze it, such a demonstration would be an important step forward. If
it can be shown that an increase in effectiveness is possible, further research can be done to
investigate in which contexts this increase can be achieved. For these reasons we decided to take the
latter approach.
For conceptualizing a satisfactory shape, designers often want full freedom of shape, as with clay
modeling. However, for many shape manipulations it is advantageous to impose specific
constraints, e.g. preserving the ratios when scaling a shape element. Apparently, which method is
most effective depends on the context of the shape modification. To develop effective support for
shape conceptualization, we need to know which activities a designer can use to realize the intended
shape, and how effective these activities are. The effectiveness of shape manipulation can be
improved if ineffective activities can be identified and replaced by more effective alternatives. To
estimate the effectiveness of modeling activities, criteria should be specified. These criteria are
needed both for observed activities and for proposed ones. The following sections will discuss what
criteria can be used and which problems we should be aware of.
Estimating effectiveness
Shape models often support a kind of discussion between a designer and his ideas. If the shape a
designer intends is available as a tangible model, the designer can evaluate and further develop his
ideas, without the need to keep all the details of the current shape in his mind. An ideal situation
might be when a designer can have an exact, tangible model of the intended shape, as soon as he
has conceptualized it. However, in practice, such a model is often not exactly as intended, and it
may take much time and effort to generate it. The more time is taken up by generating the model,
the longer the ideation task will be delayed. Similarly, the more mental effort the modeling takes,
the more the designer's attention will be focussed on the modeling instead of the ideation. Also, the
more a shape model differs from the intended shape, the more awareness is required from the
designer during the evaluation and the subsequent development of the shape. In summary, the
effectiveness of a designer's modeling activity depends on its duration, on the amount of cognitive
effort it requires and on the degree to which the result of the activity reflects the intended shape.
Measuring the duration seems relatively easy. However, it is not always clear where a specific
modeling activity ends and where the next one starts. Another problem arises when a designer
combines activities, e.g. a designer may press a clay model to flatten its top surface and
simultaneously shrink its height. In such cases, an estimation can be done, based on the data
available on a video tape and the expertise of the researcher. For a systematic description of
modeling activities, activity sequences should be selected that do not contain many ambiguities for
interpretation. The designer's mental effort too cannot be seen from the video tape. Therefore, the
test subjects will be interviewed after they have finished the assignments. For each assignment, the
subjects will be asked whether they thought the task was difficult. Also, the resemblance of the
model to the intended shape will be tested through an interview question.
Elaboration of the research method

To gather the required data and analyze it, the method should contain the following steps:
1. Conducting an experiment in which designers work on modeling assignments.
2. Comparing the ideal way for designers to create shape, to how they actually did it in practice.
3. Identifying the modeling activities the designers performed, and the parameters that played a
role.
4. Describing the modeling activities as a mapping of an initial shape onto the resulting shape.
5. Analyzing the effectiveness of the different shape modeling activities.
The experiment
An experiment was conducted in which the test subjects had to perform three clay modeling
assignments:
1 Modeling an existing soap box in clay. The modeling was only concerned with the appearance of
the outside. The box could be modeled as one solid, without a hollow inside or a separable lid.
2 Enlarging the box by 20%, for a larger bar of soap.
3 Rounding the top of the box, to make the box suitable for holding a larger, rounder bar of soap.
Figure 1: The soap box and the bars of soap to which it had to be adapted
The original soap box is shown in Figure 1, together with the bars of soap to which it had to be
adapted.
Figure 2: Results of assignments 1, 2 and 3 respectively

The experiment was performed by 17 test subjects, all students of the Delft University of
Technology. All sessions were video taped and analyzed. The results of the first analyses are
reported by Baak and Groeneboom (2001) and by Toledo and Weelderen (2001). Figure 2 shows
the clay models generated by one of the subjects. A comparison was made between how designers
ideally could create shape and what was observed during the experiment (Wiegers, Vergeest and
Dumitrescu, 2002).
For this study, one of the sessions was selected for a more detailed analysis. The analysis concerned
the identification and the description of the subjects shape manipulation activities. We zoom in on
a part of the subjects work to record his activities in detail. The observed activities have been
described by recording:
- the initial shape, i.e. the shape before the activity started
- the shape the subject intended
- the shape the subject actually achieved

- the operations the subject used to achieve that shape
- the duration of the activity
- the shape parameters that were changed
- the effort it took.
Figure 3: A depression along the length axis and the width axis of the box
The shape manipulation activities described in this paper are part of a sequence that was performed
by the first test subject. These activities concern the generation of a depression, which runs over the
length axis all around the box, and also along the width axis, see Figure 3.
Figure 4: Initial shape Si and intended shape Sn

We consider in particular the profile of the depression. Before the subject generated the depression,
the top of the box had a cross section as shown in Figure 4. We call this the initial shape Si. In the
same figure, Sn depicts what we assume was the intended shape.
Activity
Tool used
Duration
(seconds)
Initial shape
Press
Stick
71
Cut
Knife
46
Push & Cut

Stick & Knife
78
Smoothness
Rounding radius
Knife position
and orientation
Prevent cutting too
deep.
Prevent pushing
down the surface.
Tool position
and orientation
Prevent widening of
groove.
Groove guides tool.
Achieved
shape
Parameters
(geometric)
Parameters
(physical)
Effectiveness
issues
Depth
Width
Force of pressing
Width of stick
Depth independent
from width.
Depth independent
from course, if
surface is flat.
Depth depends on
course at roundings.
Figure 5: Experiment data
To achieve the intended shape, first a metal stick was pressed into the top surface of the clay model,
see Figure 5. This resulted in the shape Si+1. The intended shape can be recognized, but there are
some imperfections. At the top, some clay protruded and at the bottom the surface is irregular.
Furthermore, the walls of the depression are not quite perpendicular. The subject used a knife to
remove the protrusions at the top. This results in shape Si+2. Next, the stick and the knife were used
to remove clay and sharpen the inner edges of the depression. The subject ends up with shape Si+3,
which shows a slight deviation from the intended shape.
The activity sequence described above contains some simplifications. Actually, several repetitions
of activities occurred. For example, the stick was first pressed into the top surface of the box, along
its length axis and along its width axis. The stick was also pressed into the side walls of the box and
into its bottom surface. Other simplifications are:
- The course of the depression is not considered. However, some manipulations influenced the
profile and the course at the same time (e.g. the pressing of the stick into the surface).
- The cross sections Sn in figure 5 are not precise. Actually, the cross section of the depression
varied along its course.
- The geometric expressions of the achieved shapes are not exact; they are an approach to describe
the basic problem.
- The order of the activities is not analyzed in detail. For example, pressing the stick into the clay
model had to be done in several steps.
- Transitions from one activity to the next were sometimes gradually, not discrete.
Geometric description
Figure 6: The change from Si into Sn

P1, P2, P3 and P4 (Figure 6) are points in R2. P1 and P4 define the line Si, SiR2. Si can be described
as a mapping from the parameter space u (u R) as follows:
S i (u ) = (1 u )P1 + uP4
u [0,1]
Sn is the polyline defined by the points P1, P2, P3 and P4, where SnR2. Sn can be described as a
mapping of u as follows:
u2 u
u
P1 + P2 if u [0, u 2 ]
u2
u2
u u2
u u
P3 if u [u 2 , u 3 ]
P2 +
S n (u ) = 3
u
u
u
u
3
2
3
2
1 u
u u3
P4 if u [u 3 ,1]
P3 +
1 u 3
1 u3
u, u 2 , u 3 [0,1]
where u2 maps the parameter space to point P2 and u3 maps the parameter space to point P3.
A hypothetical shape manipulation activity that changes Si into Sn can be described as a mapping of
from Si to Sn as follows:
M ( S i , ) = (1 )S i + S n
[0,1]
where (R) is a new parameter space that maps the initial shape to the intended shape.
Parameter in this expression controls the depth of the depression to be made. takes over the
function of the applied force and duration of pressing the stick. Below the expression is elaborated
for the separate parts of Sn.
u u
if u [0, u 3 ] M (S i , ) = (1 )(
( 1 u )P1 + uP4 )+ 2 P1 + u P2
u2
u2
u u
u u2
If u [u 2 , u 3 ] M (S i , ) = (1 )(
( 1 u )P1 + uP4 )+ 3
P2 +
P3
u3 u2
u3 u 2
u u3
If u [u 3 ,1] M ( S i , ) = (1 )(
P4
( 1 u )P1 + uP4 )+ 1 u P3 +
1 u 3
1 u3
The line P1P4 is mapped onto the polyline P1P2P3P4 . The distance between the original line P1P4
and the new line P2P3 is controlled by .
The above expressions describe the change from Si into Sn. Other shape manipulation activities can
be expressed in a similar way.
Discussion
The actual performed activity sequence appears to be rather complex. A large part of the time was
spent on activities that were in fact only refinements of the first activity, which was pressing a stick
into the clay box. That activity itself could be considered in more detail as a process in which the
groove grows in depth. The activity could also be subdivided into separate subactivities, each
generating a part of the groove, at different positions on the clay box. After the first activity, an
intermediate shape Si+1 was achieved (Figure 5). In Si+1 the intended shape can already be
recognized, though extensive elaboration was done on Si+1. This recognition can be considered as a
quick feedback and may help the designer to evaluate already while manipulating the shape.
We note some differences with other common methods. In many CAD systems, for example, the
details of a shape element must be defined completely, before a 3D representation can be shown.
However, once the shape element is fully defined, no additional smoothening is necessary, like with
clay modeling.
Which method is preferable depends on the context. If the designer already knows the exact shape
and dimensions, using a CAD system may be appropriate. This method may be especially
advantageous for large models, because working a shape element in clay requires more time if the
shape element is larger.
If the designer is just playing with the shape, clay modeling may be used because the designer
already receives tactile and visual feedback while manipulating the model. This immediate feed
back enables early evaluation, while the designer need not yet worry about exact details. At the
faculty of Industrial Design of the Delft University of Technology, one of the assignments is to
design a new product and build a working model. During this assignment, several student teams
choose clay modeling for their shape ideation. Also, in the automotive industry small clay models
are used for ideation. By creating small-scale clay models, designers exploit the advantages of clay
modeling and minimize the time needed for smoothing the surfaces and other finishing activities.
CAD models are often generated in a later phase, when more has already been decided about the
model.
This study shows that it is possible to describe designers' shape manipulation activities by
geometric expressions. Computers can easily calculate these expressions. This paper presents the
description of activities that were actually performed with traditional modeling methods. However,
for the description of modeling activities, it is not necessary that the activities actually have been
performed, or can be performed with traditional methods. Sometimes, a physical modeling activity
is very laborious, but its geometric description is simple. For example, the second assignment in our
experiment was the enlargement of the soap box that had just been made. The subjects had to remodel virtually every detail. The scaling can be described geometrically as a mapping of from Si
to Sn. The scaling can then be controlled by only varying the value of .
Conclusions
A method was presented to describe shape manipulation activities. The shapes before and after the
activities are recorded in geometric expressions. The activities themselves are characterized as a
change of a parameter value within the expression. The effectiveness of the activity sequence is
influenced by multiple characteristics, such as the durations of the activities, the amount of effort
that was required and the degree to which the generated shape reflects the intended shape. The
method was applied to describe a sequence of activities that were actually performed by a test
subject. The results show how the time spent was divided over the identified activities, and how
these activities contributed to the generation of the intended shape. The proposed method can be
used to describe not only activities that can be actually performed, but also hypothetical ones. Some
shape ideation activities are laborious when performed by physical modeling, while their geometric
description can be simple. Such activities are good opportunities for the development of more
effective support methods.
References
Baak P, Groeneboom J, 2001, "Changing specific shape aspects", Delft, Netherlands: Delft
University of Technology.
Bidarra R, Bronsvoort WF, 2000, "Semantic feature modeling", Computer-Aided Design 32(3):
201-225.
Djajadiningrat JP, 1998, Cubby: What you see is where you act - Interlacing the display and
manipulation spaces, Thesis, Delft, Netherlands: Delft University of Technology, ISBN 909011724-5 (11.22).
Elsas PA van, Vergeest JSM, "Displacement feature modeling for conceptual design" ComputerAided Design, 1998, 30(1):19-27.
Marsan AL, Chen Y and Stewart P, A finite element approach to direct surface manipulation,
ASME, DETC2001, DAC-21103.
Murakami T and Nakajima N, 2000, "DO-IT: deformable object as input tool for 3-D geometric
operation", Computer-Aided Design 32(2000):6-16.
Shah JJ and Mntyl M, 1995, Parametric and feature-based CAD/CAM, New York, John Wiley
and sons, ISBN 0-471-00214-3.
Toledo R van, Weelderen M van, 2001, "Form adjustment by designers", Delft, Netherlands: Delft
University of Technology.
Wiegers T, Dumitrescu R, Vergeest JSM, 2002, "Freeform shape manipulation using contextdependent constraints and parameters", submitted to International Design Conference - Design
2002, Dubrovnik, May 14 - 17.
Wiegers T, Vergeest JSM, 2001, Extraction of CAD tool requirements from industry and from
experimental design projects, ASME, DETC2001, DAC-21144.
10

M. Wilkinson University College Northampton, UK
R. Sale University of East London, UK
Abstract
Increasingly connected, empowered and informed consumers have ever higher demands and
expectations of product and service provision. Organisations which are not sufficiently agile and
responsive to meet such expectations will face failure.
Collaborative Envisioning - a methodology for enabling collaboration across supply chains using
design tools to meet consumer demands in the new economy - has been developed by the authors in
a demonstration project titled Beyond the Fridge which was described and discussed in a paper
given at the 10th International Forum on Design Management Research & Education and analysed
with recommendations in a paper given at the 4th European Academy of Design Conference.
Beyond the Fridge considered large corporations with effective control over their own supply
chains. The barriers to SMEs developing new business models in response to new customer, user
and consumer requirements are quite different from those faced by large corporations and tend to
centre around the fragility of the companys position in the supply chain and its defence of this
position.
This paper reports on the development of the Collaborative Envisioning methodology to engage
with SMEs, the utilisation of design skills within this process and the role of universities and design
academics as partners with SMEs.

Review of current practice
Typically technology transfer and product innovation rely on a transfer, from one sector to another,
of ready made solutions in the form of technology, materials and processes which have proven
performance in an equivalent application, or a commercial buyer / seller relationship between an
employer and a service provider, whether internal or external. These models imply a one way,
solution driven transaction and are generally predicated upon a financial contract or driven by a
technology promoting agency or product champion, acting either alone or pursuing an individual
goal within an organisation.
Technology transfer is normally tied to defined technical performance indicators associated with
product or process outcomes and a solution will be judged to have been achieved when these
indicators are met. The solution driven nature of technology transfer is described by 3M:
Successful innovations in one industry result in innovative solutions in another (Meads 1998).
Lambe and Spekman ask the question how do corporations renew their core technology, products,
and processes as a basis for continued competitive vitality and identify inter-company alliances as
a key route to external technology acquisition:
An alliance is defined as a collaborative relationship among firms to achieve a common goal that
each firm could not easily accomplish alone. Within this context, the most common forms of
alliances include joint ventures, technology licensing agreements, and various forms of R&D
consortia (Lambe and Spekman 1997).
That one or more organisations should form a relationship to achieve a common goal presupposes
that each firm has identified the goal and is confident that achievement of that goal will generate
commercial benefit to the firm. Innovation and technology transfer are thus explicitly solution
driven.
Solution driven alliances are becoming increasingly common in buyer / supplier relationships in the
automotive industry:
Since a large portion of the production of complex products is done by outside suppliers,
particularly in Japan, it has become increasingly clear to researchers that the success of many of the
foremost Japanese firms has depended on their ability to gain competitive advantage based on
establishing strategically important relationships with suppliers (Wasti and Liker 1997).
Alliances and co-development partnerships offer frameworks for the transfer of technology and
joint new product development but they do not alter the underlying transactional nature of the
buyer / supplier relationship.
Collaborative models have been developed to overcome the linearity of a new product development
process where a project is passed from department to department within an organisation in discrete
phases with each department signing-off on the project before the next takes it up a methodology of
cross-functional linkages has been developed to facilitate overcoming rigid interdepartmental
boundaries, building cooperation, and accelerating the development of new products from new
technologies (Jassawalla and Sashittal 1998). An example of a cross-functional linked process is
concurrent engineering (CE):
CE has become a widely recognised means for achieving improved product development
performance by challenging the logic and practice of the traditionally sequential product
development processes (Clausing,1994). The aim is to avoid the unnatural separation of work into
upstream and downstream activities through increased integration, most successfully achieved
through multifunctional teamworking. CE can be defined as: ..the delivery of better, cheaper,
faster products to market, by a lean way of working, using multidisciplined teams, right first time
methods and parallel processing activities to consider continuously all constraints.
This requires radically changing the way products have been traditionally developed within western
manufacturing organisations and impacts all aspects of the business (Jukes et al., 1997).
Jassawalla and Sashittal have proposed that while there is a clear consensus ... that high level
cross-functional integration improves new product development processes, there is now a need to
re-evaluate the methodology, especially for high-technology industries (Jassawalla and Sashittal
1998):
We contend that although the concern for cross-functional integration endures, major shifts have
occurred within and outside high-technology firms that call for a re-examination of the ways in
which cross-functional linkages are conceptualized. Many firms have integrated leading customers
and suppliers in technology/product development processes, adopted features of horizontal,
boundary-less organizations and innovative ways of managing technology and people, and
experimented with cross-functional teams to manage NPD task environments. These developments
call not only for a re-evaluation of traditional thinking about cross-functional linkages but also for
the adoption of a more up-dated vocabulary that speaks to the practical realities of managers
responsible for NPD processes in leading high-technology firms (ibid.).
The term which the authors select to describe the next generation of cross-functional linkage
relevant to NPD processes is collaboration (ibid.).
Both concurrent engineering and Jassawalla and Sashittals concept of collaboration are predicated
upon cross-functional, multidisciplinary teams. The key difference between these methodologies is
that collaboration within the team is not an absolute requirement of CE, where the emphasis is upon
parallel processing.
The methodologies are united in their intent to integrate upstream and downstream activities within
a horizontal new product development process. Such horizontality, however, while being crossfunctional and multidisciplinary, does not extend beyond the limits of the established supply chain
of customers and suppliers, and is thus, essentially, product and technology focused.
The need for new models

In an article in the September 1999 issue of ID, Stefano Marzano, Managing Director of Philips
Design, expressed his conviction that:
in the coming decade we'll see a whole raft of cross-industry partnerships springing up - between
electronics and telecommunications companies on the one hand, say, and furniture manufacturers,
textile manufacturers, soft furnishers or ceramic tile producers on the
other.
Companies need to seek fresh inspiration beyond the limited horizons of their own fields and
markets. Only in that way will they be able to embrace new paradigms and create new value
tomorrow (Marzano 1999).
The need to embrace new paradigms through collaboration to develop innovative solutions is
discussed in Design Export News (Vol. 14, 1999). The Department of Trade and Industry defines
innovation as the successful exploitation of new ideas and Maxine J. Horn, CEO of The British
Design Initiative argues, like Stefano Marzano, that such success can best be achieved through
collaboration:
The real issue is that if key members of the supply chain worked collaboratively then all parties
would benefit from the involvement of the others and more successful innovation should result.
Mostly, organisations do not need convincing that innovation is good for business, they know that
already. What they need is a change in attitude towards sharing the costs and risks involved.
Members of a potential supply chain need to be open to collaborative shared risks and reward deals,
rather than straight cash (Horn 1999).
The change in attitude from normal transactional models, which Ms Horn describes as off the
shelf or in a narrow context, to the involvement and sharing of a collaborative partnership opens
up opportunities for innovation in all aspects of new product development not available in the
normal new product development sequence of problem identification or technology availability,
brief, specification and solution. The need for a shift away from transactions in strategic
partnerships (Davis and Meyer 1998) and the benefit of alliance over transaction (Lewis 1999) will
create the need for multidisciplinary collaboration outside established supply chains.
Arrogance and design education

Search for new models of design practice raises fundamental questions about the commissioned and
transactional nature of product design/client relationships in practice and the origins and precepts on
which this model is based.
It is now the norm rather than the exception for design students to graduate with a high level of
professional skills and exemplars of project work which will ensure employment. However it could
be argued that in the time compressed/curriculum overloaded environment of higher education we
may be guilty of producing students who are good at doing 'that' but may not have been encouraged
to find answers to 'why design' and 'how design'.
As American industrial designer J. Gordon Lippincott explained in 1947
Good industrial design means mass acceptance.
One only needs to replace 'mass' with 'niche' to understand how relevant this philosophy is to
today's commodified market place. Design has always had a strong political dimension - Rosy
Martin in 'Feminist Design: A Contradiction' identified that:
Design at its broadest sense is power, control and defining new possibilities to aim
for.
If we accept that products communicate ideas, values and aspirations then it may be fruitful to
examine some of the assumptions which underpin the educational model of product design practice
and binds to manufacturing, markets and society.
Design can be radical and reforming; Design at its best is potent, said Graham Vickers in 1992.
However design is also very good at recycling ideas (many of which may be inherently ill
conceived, perform badly and are far from radical). Small incremental steps may be in the interests
of a stable market place but it leaves both manufacturers and end users vulnerable to factors of
change which may be qualitative and unpredictable.
Design is democratic, or is it? Margaret Bruce declared that:
Women are invisible in the profession of industrial design. The consequences of this are two fold.
First women's 'tactic knowledge' is not drawn upon during the design process and secondly design
opportunities and markets which met women's needs and concerns are underdeveloped.
The tacit knowledge of women is not the only area not drawn upon - much of the 'design process'
learned in HE pays lip service to inclusivity of human experience and wisdom.
'Design solutions' is a phrase which is in itself dangerously value loaded. We know of no absolutes;
design solutions have an emotional/social shelf life that is fragile and the wrong kind of design
intervention is as likely to exacerbate problems as resolve them. 'Problem solving activity' is a
notion which links the idea of 'good design' with a set of moral values where 'fitness for purpose' is
tied into a life of honest toil. These ideas just wont do in today's sophisticated and empowered
market place.
It is not uncommon to hear the benefits of 'added value' and branding preached in University design
studios - the question is whose values are we adding here. One person's 'added value' benefit in a
product may be another person's barrier to accessibility. Products are not necessarily purchased to
fulfil primary functions. Lessons from the recent past (G3, etc) demonstrate the problems
associated with 'value added' driven by single/technological concerns over all else may fail.
In spite of design being promoted as having an economic purpose from Henry Cole in the 1850's
through Henry Dreyfuss in 1950:
There is only one reason for hiring an industrial designer and that is to increase sales of a product
to the NEDC and DTI slogans of the 1980's 'design business' movement.
'Good design is good business'
'Design is good for growth'
'Design for Profit.'
There is very little real evidence to support the claims that our current state of financial stability and
wealth is related to these claims for design.
The promise of the social benefits of design and the promise of 'labour saving-time saving'
machines and 'paperless-offices' which has often underpinned justification for innovation in
appliances do not deliver either, housework has actually increased since the original labour saving
products (vacuum cleaners and washing machines) with technology rich machines demanding
increasing attention and expertise from the user. To be effective design education has to challenge
traditional transactional models of practice. Taking a client brief without greater levels of exchange
and immersion in contextual issues will no longer serve students career interests, or the clients or
the customers and end users. A research culture which seeks to reposition the product designer and
redefine the design offer is a must in curriculum design and delivery.
Evidence from this research indicates that many clients, SMEs and corporates require design help to
help themselves to grow their own businesses. The limits of the design offer in this case may cover
much more or much less than traditional transactional model. Questions about how design can be
embedded in an SME supply chain become as important as the product concept itself. To continue
the way we are is at best an inadequate preparation for professional practice and at worst it is
arrogant.
Beyond the fridge

As a platform to develop a new methodology for multidisciplinary collaboration outside established
supply chains, a collaborative partnership was established between Electrolux Group, Sainsbury's
Supermarkets 3M UK plc, University College Northampton and University of East London,
resulting in a demonstration project titled Beyond the Fridge.
The demonstration project addressed commercial food safety, marketing and technological issues
existing in the storage and delivery of chill and frozen foods, from production to consumption (the
chill chain).
The commercial aim was to develop a physical system to improve chill chain compliance at a
critical point in the chain where a trial could best demonstrate consumer, retailer and manufacturer
benefit at reasonable cost. The project aimed to integrate the overlapping and complementary
concerns of the food retailer to improve customer service efficiency and the white goods
manufacturer to add value to domestic refrigeration products.
Other technological issues concerning logistics and retailer/consumer relationships with regard to
electronic shopping, stock control and emerging high performance materials were significant in
shaping the project.
Commercial aims were developed through a number of stages of realisation based on the
development of short, medium and long term visions of the retail and domestic food supply chain
tied to an identified gradient of current, near and future technologies.
An iterative process of new product development across the technology gradient was generated by
the partners in the project, resulting in physical models and proof of principle test rigs.
Storyboarding describing the commercial and user benefits at each level of technology enabled the
partners in Beyond the Fridge to relate the models to the vision at each step.
This approach also facilitated the presentation of Beyond the Fridge principles to a wider audience,
particularly senior management outside the project team, and confirmed the vision as a mutually
supported concept.
The outputs from Beyond the Fridge exceeded the original project objectives and, in terms of input
and output the hypothesis, now described in the term 'Collaborative Envisioning', has succeeded in
passing the test of the demonstration project. The level of success is assessed below, where
guidelines will be proposed for the initiation of Collaborative Envisioning projects in fields other
than the retail food supply chain.
Other outcomes were achieved, perhaps the most important of which are the ongoing relationships
between the collaborators who share an eagerness and commitment to developing Beyond the
Fridge concepts. However, it is significant that these relationships are generally at a personal rather
than corporate level and have begun to shift and migrate as individual careers develop and partner
organisations restructure and realign.
The process of Collaborative Envisioning necessarily requires working across and through
corporate boundaries and thus reverses the normal, exclusive and introspective approach to new
product development to become an outward-going, shared and inclusive process. The enthusiasm
for Collaborative Envisioning amongst those who took part in Beyond the Fridge has allowed the
network of formal and informal linkages around the project to continue to grow.
Issues arising from beyond the fridge

Two aspects of Beyond the Fridge which could have been viewed as positive or partly positive may
actually have acted as brakes on the dissemination of the project outcomes within the collaborating
commercial organisations.
Modest budgetary requirements, which could be resourced at division or section level without board
approval, allowed the project to be flexible and responsive but meant that the value of the project
had to be resold into the company from operational to board responsibility, effectively grouping a
mid to long term strategic initiative with immediate tactical issues and competing prototypes and
test rigs against off-the-shelf solutions.
Similarly the relationships which have been established have been at an operational level within the
project team. Although a high level of awareness at divisional board level was raised within
Sainsburys and Electrolux, the user collaborators, at the project presentation, Beyond the Fridge
has not forged new connections between the boards of the two companies because the project was
already funded from existing budgets and the presentation was not part of a staffing or capital
expenditure bid. This meant that board members were able to be supportive and enthusiastic
without committing to the project or becoming further involved.
That the project was able to be responsive has already been noted and, during the course of Beyond
the Fridge, both Sainsburys and Electrolux underwent restructuring which necessitated changes
within the project team in terms of skills, job function and business focus. In the context of bringing
the project back into the businesses, this is both a strength and a weakness: the project was able to
evolve rapidly to maintain the collaborators engagement through periods of change but the
characteristics of tactical rather than strategic support, discussed above, meant that the project did
not drive new business in the manner predicted by Stefano Marzano: the culture of Collaborative
Envisioning developed within the project team and those closely associated with it but
Collaborative Envisioning did not become a corporate driver.
A methodology for collaborative envisioning

The work carried out by the academic partners in the formative stages of Beyond the Fridge in
summarising existing supply chains and proposing ideal supply chains, presented using the design
tools such as storyboarding, conceptualisation and prototyping, indicates that the process of
Collaborative Envisioning, and establishing a common language to describe a mutually shared
vision which is the corner stone of the process, begins before the collaboration is in any sense
formalised. The experience of Beyond the Fridge indicates that the skills necessary to embody a
mutually shared and supported vision must be central to the project from the outset.
Thus it can be stated that partners initiating a Collaborative Envisioning project must:
-
be able to generate measurable benefit from a process which may not generate any
commercial or financial gain
have the skills to communicate a vision across cultural, commercial and disciplinary
boundaries.
It is argued above that academics and designers are well placed to fulfil these two roles, and, in the
case of Beyond the Fridge, the initiators were design academics.
Analysis of the project indicates that the academic partners were key actors at every stage, from
data gathering to prototyping. The intention at the outset of the project had been that ownership of
the project would steadily shift from academic to commercial partners, reflecting the tightening of
the focus of the vision, the increasing reality of the tools used to express it, from icons to test rigs,
and the opportunity for commercial partners to become more actively involved in the generation of
the tools through for example, beta-prototyping, testing and on-site trialling.
It is likely that ownership tended to reside with the academics throughout the project for similar
reasons to those already noted for the lack of success in implementing tactical solutions derived
from the Beyond the Fridge strategy. A remedy for this might be described as Selling the project
back into the businesses through the development and implementation of separately funded tactical
solutions derived from a long term collaborative vision. Whilst these tactical solutions would be
owned by the commercial partners and, if taken up, would drive migration of the Collaborative
Envisioning project from an academic into a commercial environment, the success of the
Collaborative Envisioning process is not contingent upon the commercial partners buying tactical
elements out of it.
To build upon and consolidate the successes of Beyond the Fridge, it is therefore further proposed
that stop/go critical decision points be written in through the course of the project at the project
definition stage. The anticipated effect of this will be to underline and reinforce the commitment of
the individual partners in achieving each deliverable output, rather than leaving responsibility with
the academics and whoever happened to be available from the commercial partners.
In summary, it can be proposed at this point in the development of the Collaborative Envisioning
methodology that key requisites for successful multidisciplinary, trans-sectoral innovation include:
-
initiation by partners able to accrue tangible benefit where no conventional commercial

return can be demonstrated
integration of envisioning skills from the outset
low-level, non-restrictive intellectual and non-disclosure agreement
early trust building activities
frequent critical decision points, including at least one to carry the project to a future phase
strategic commitment with tactical gains costed and deliverable subject to separate funding.
The SME supply chain environment

SMEs unlike large corporates are often unfamiliar with what goes into a new product development
process and may be unused to working with external specialist agencies, or to the idea of
partnership.
Early feedback from SMEs on current research at UCN and UEL indicate that SMEs are less
permeable to the introduction of new knowledge and practices. SME manufacturers may have
developed a highly personal or specialised area of expertise which represents their 'life-line' to
survival in their supply chain. SME culture may be defensive of that knowledge and the idea of
sharing knowledge or creating new opportunities in product or process in partnerships with others
an anathema to business development.
As with corporates a lengthy 'honeymoon' period may be necessary between the academic partner
and SME to build confidence and understand what is on offer, the nature of the relationship and
where design effort might be most effective. It is important that the standardised 'design solution'
offer is not promoted early on. In the experience of the authors pressure for an immediate results
driven scenario may close down space for more strategic discussions.
Several SMEs that UEL and UCN are now working with have had an unrewarding experience of
working within the conventional transactional design model, and are seeking help which is tailored
to and inclusive of their own requirements within the supply chain.
The scope of trust building activities between SMEs and university design agencies can be varied
and may cover some or all of the following:
-
transfer of know-how, knowledge and information between partners
introduction to research methods to increase knowledge of upstream and downstream issues
exposure to university technical facilities
audit of SMEs in-house resources, protocols and facilities
creating a forum for discussion on strategic issues
brief framing and writing
sourcing other partners
advice on development of in-house resources
agreeing IPR framework and way of proceeding
buy into the partnership offer including a network of NPD skill providers.
Many SMEs also have limited new product development and testing facilities and the offer to the
SME may include this resource or help and advice in acquiring these facilities.
It is a characteristic of many SMEs that they are centrally controlled by an entrepreneur who may
quite rightly have strong feelings of ownership and responsibility towards the business and
employed staff. It may be that key negotiation, flow of information and decision-making activities
are all focused on this one person. Whereas the dynamic state of many corporates and their staff
makes collaborative team working difficult for outside agencies as partners, so the reverse is true of
SMEs where because of the small scale of organisation changing the way something is done may
radically impact on all other systems and processes and many internal staff.
A collaborative project which is not properly embedded in an SME is itself vulnerable to failure.
There is a real danger to projects which are the sole ownership of the MD. A project must be seen
and understood to be of critical concern and benefit to all major players within the SME.
To summarise, the evidence of this research work as far as it has gone indicates design interventions
in SME supply chains require designers to rethink much of the offer they have been trained to
deliver.
Within many SME environments a traditional closely proscribed design consultancy 'solution' may
be leaving the SME with something they have not contributed to, find it difficult to have confidence
in and do not know how to take further or continue to work with. A more flexible, 'closer-in', and
bespoke response to individual SME circumstances may ensure an increase of design effectiveness
in this sector. While the research in this area continues it is a conclusion of the authors at this stage
that linkage between design research of this nature and what is taught and learned in design
education is critical towards evolving a new theory of practice towards curriculum development.
The barriers to SMEs developing new business models in response to new customer, user and
consumer requirements are quite different from those faced by large corporations and tend to centre
around the fragility of the companys position in the supply chain and its defence of this position.
Further challenges to SMEs are presented by the strategic fragmentation of large corporations, such
as that occurring in the telecommunications industry where smaller, more agile specialist groups are
being spun out of debt-laden parent companies. Typically in these circumstances, the spin-off is
helped and guided into the market place, with a phased programme of support prior to achieving
full profitability.
Existing small specialist companies without external support in the market place are thus threatened
by new entrants with large company backing and reduced financial targets. These existing small
companies are equally threatened if the large corporations in their sector are consolidating rather
than fragmenting because, if a large company identifies a smaller ones activity as being a potential
source of revenue, the larger company may either force a takeover of the smallers business or
become a competitor in its field of activity with an artificially discounted price structure and big
player leverage.
The challenge for designers in working with SMEs to develop opportunities in and around their
supply chains lies in developing enabling strategies that are effective for innovation in a threatened
and defensive business environment.
10
References
Bruce, Margaret. 1985. 'A Missing Link: Women and Industrial Design.' Design Studies, July 1985.
Davis, Stan and Meyer, Christopher. 1998. Blur: the speed of change in the connected economy.
Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Dreyfuss, Henry. 1950. 'The Industrial Designer and the Business Man.' Harvard Business Review,
1950.
Horn, Maxine J. 1999. Collaborate to Innovate. Design Export News. 14: 12-13.
Jassawalla, Avan R. and Sashittal, Hemant C. 1998. An examination of Collaboration in HighTechnology Development Processes. Journal of Product Innovation Management. 15 (3): 237-254.
Jukes, Sarah A., Lettice Fiona E. and Evans Stephen. 1999. Improving Product Development
Performance: two approaches to aid successful implementation. In: Managing New Product
Innovation: Proceedings of the Conference of the Design Research Society: Quantum Leap:
Managing New Product Innovation, London, Taylor and Francis Ltd.
Lambe, C. Jay and Spekman, Robert E. 1997. Alliances, External Technology Acquisition, and
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New York: The Free Press.
Lippincott, J. Gordon. 1947. Design for Business.
Martin, Rosy. 1985. 'Feminist Design: A Contradiction.' Feminist Arts News, December 1985: 26.
Marzano, Stefano. 1999. Strategic Futures developing strategies for sustainable business. ID.
September 1999.
Meads, Ray V. 1998. Beyond the Fridge. Presentation by 3M at J Sainsbury plc, 26 October 1998.
NEDC. 1987. Design for Corporate Culture. Report, 1987.
Vickers, Graham. 1992. 'Style in Product Design.' Issues in Design. London, Design Council.
Wasti, S. Nazli and Liker, Jeffrey K. 1997. Risky Business or Competitive Power? Supplier
Involvement in Japanese Product Design. Journal of Product Innovation Management. 14 (5): 337.
11

A. Woodcock VIDe Research Centre, Coventry School of Art and Design, Coventry University,
UK
S.A.R. Scrivener VIDe Research Centre, Coventry School of Art and Design, Coventry
University, UK
S. Clark VIDe Research Centre, Coventry School of Art and Design, Coventry University, UK
X-H. Sun VIDe Research Centre, Coventry School of Art and Design, Coventry University, UK
Abstract
This paper uses a software development project, comprising of end user representatives, evaluators
and developers to consider the value of an interface mock up in establishing common ground within
a large, distributed software development team. It introduces the scope of the project - to develop an
integrated, web- based, platform to support team working (UNITE) - and then considers the role of
the mock up of the interface in helping the team understand the underlying concepts behind the
project, and in facilitating discussion, agreement and understanding between stakeholders. Lastly
the paper evaluates the success of the mock up in achieving these aims.

Introduction
The UNITE project has been funded by the EU-IST Programme for 2 years and concerns the
development of a web based, Ubiquitous and Integrated Teamwork Environment to support the
needs of mobile workers, acting as members of virtual project teams. This requires the integration
of traditional computer supported co-operative working (CSCW) tools (e.g. joint calendars, video
conferencing, email) in a seamless environment structured around tasks and communication needs.
The development of such an environment involves the contribution of a number different research
groups from UK (Coventry University), Holland (Pentascope), France (IBM and Steria), Germany
(FhG-IAO and FhG-SIT), Portugal (ADETTI) and Israel (IBM) with different groups responsible
for software development and integration, evaluation and user testing.
Since there was no pre-existing system, a Semantic Model (SM) was developed to forward an
underlying understanding of the proposed system, and to allow communication between the
different stakeholders (especially developers) at the early stages of the project (i.e. before and
during the iterative development of the system) about the UNITE concept and its implications. The
SM was used to drive, and became embedded in, the interface mock up (a version of which is
shown in Figure 1). The role of the SM was to provide a framework to guide development and to
provide a communication environment and overview to facilitate the rapid development of a
coherent system.
The SM defines a set of concepts and a basic framework about what the UNITE platform should be
(see below for more details). The inspection of the SM and interaction with the mock up (in
particular) could potentially enable end user representatives to talk to the developers (in a shared
language) about the functionality and where the mock up did not meet their previously described
requirements.
Previous papers (e.g. Reinema. et al 1998 and 2000, Woodcock et al, 2002) have described the
organization of the consortium, the UNITE concept and the progress of the project towards
developing an integrated platform. In summary, UNITE provides a platform which integrates
different collaboration modes and requirements, and provides a project/task centred environment
allowing its users to concentrate on the task in hand, rather than becoming distracted for example,
by having to memorise the addresses of team members, their location and preferred working
practices, and application centred information. Additionally, as a web based environment, the
platform is available for users wherever they happen to be working. By providing a virtual working
space for all project members tacit knowledge (Polanyi, 1966) can also be spread more easily
around the group so promoting group learning, awareness and camaraderie between a team which
may rarely meet face to face (Woodcock et al, 2001).
This paper considers the role of the mock up during system development with regard to its
embodiment of the SM and as a communication support for encouraging interaction and reflection
amongst the project members, i.e. as a means of establishing common ground between project
members. The paper is divided in to three parts. It commences with a section outlining the interface
and its key components. From this, we will introduce the SM, which is the theoretical basis of the
system development. The rest of the paper examines the nature of discussions centred on the
interface and will present the results of a survey of team members to consider whether the interface
was successful in achieving its aims.
The interface mock up

The need for a mock up interface was postulated in the first quarter of the project. The end user
representatives wanted a physical representation of the UNITE concept as they found the written
specifications of the requirements and the SM hard to understand and relate to practical experience.
The developments of the mock up culminated in the production of a web- based demonstrator
system, see Figure 1 below, which developed into a vehicle for discussing the Semantic Model and
its implications for user behaviour.
As can be seen from Figure 1, the system offers a message centre, document repository, shared
calendar, address book, bookmarks, meeting management, support for communication and
collaboration, and security services centred around the needs of the project team. The message
centre for instance presents a unified view of all forms of messages, whether these are voice mail,
email etc enabling all asynchronous communication between team members to be sent and received
from one place. For synchronous (real time) communication, users gather in 'collaboration areas'
which are defined by the project team at project initiation, to suit their needs and the
communication preferences of the team members. These are shown as discrete areas (top right) of
the interface where different collaboration 'scenarios' are available, without showing the technical
details of the required tools and services. By entering one of these collaboration areas, services such
as text chat and application sharing are automatically opened and become available to everyone
who has been invited to and enters the area.
Individuals
project tools
Platform
support
Other project
members
Peter
Peters
communication
preferences
New arrival in
project office
Project
tools
Collaboration
areas
Project
working
space
Collaboration
scenarios set up
for this particular
project
Figure 1: The UNITE interface
A UNITE virtual workplace as shown by the mock up provides users with a number of tools or
services, which can be assembled from a pre-existing reservoir of current services. Each project
manager, when initiating a new project, can select from these services those facilities that best suit
the needs of the project and its members. For example, a project team may consist of people, who
spend a lot of time travelling, and working from different offices, using different communication
tools. In setting up the Virtual Project Office (VPO), the contact details and preferences for each
team member are added to the system and the services and tools required to contact individuals will
be configured. This means that if you go into the VPO, for example to discuss a forthcoming
meeting with colleagues, the UNITE platform will contact them for you whether this is by phone,
email, SMS, or text chat. You are thereby freed from the onus of trying to remember different
phone numbers, the location of the rest of the team, etc., and so can remain focussed on the task in
hand. Also, by using one of the collaboration areas, a predetermined set of tools and services is
provided for use by your team (for example, application sharing, videoconferencing) without any of
the team having to select and open applications.
The platform hides the details of each tool or service behind a unified user interface, manages them
and provides a consistent look and feel across all elements, functional modules, and windows. It
clearly indicates a user's location in the Virtual Project Office (VPO) at all times; in particular, it
indicates the user's current collaborative work context unambiguously. The VPO offers users
awareness and intuitive navigation like a real team office, but without imaging an office in 2D or
3D. The majority of user activities take place within the Web browser window, although
collaboration tools do launch their own application windows. At the moment, UNITE users can
access the platform from a desktop PC via the UNITE project Portal using a regular Web Browser.
In the future, they will also be able to use mobile phones (e.g. WAP browser) or other portable
devices (e.g. PDA).
User interface
Virtual Project
Office Configuration
Physical Rooms
and Resources
Document
Management
Calendar
Management
Address book
Management
Event
Management
Personal
Personal
Personal
Agents
Agent
Agent
Security
Platform
Configuration
Team Agents
Bookmark
Management
Communication and Collaboration Services
Figure 2: Overall configuration of the basic platform

As each development partner (i.e. IBM, Steria, FHg-SIT, ADETTI and Coventry University) is
responsible for the development of one or more modules (Figure 2), the integration of the elements
into a unified and consistent whole was paramount. In order to reduce the inconsistencies and
maintain an overall framework for the project a semantic model was used to guide development.
The Semantic Model

It is not the aim of this paper to discuss the semantic model, or its adequacy as a representation of
teamworking. Rather we are concerned with its usefulness in helping the project team understand
the basic concepts behind UNITE and their implications.
Personal context
of Person P1
Teamwork context
P2
P1
p1
Personal desk of P1:
personal subcontext
under P1s control
Personal context
of Person P2
p2
Collaboration areas:
Shared subcontexts
under team control
Personal desk of P2:

personal subcontext
under P2s control
Figure 3: Diagrammatic representation of the semantic model
The semantic model (shown diagrammatically) in Figure 3 was used from the start of the project to
specify a set of relationships which governed the behaviour and functionality of the UNITE
platform. It is its theoretical base and deals with context closure in team collaboration. It defines
two kinds of work contexts and their relationship: the personal and teamwork context. For the users,
the personal work context contains a set of tools and interfaces just valid for the individual; the
teamwork context contains collaboration services and interfaces built from another set of tools and
shared with the team members within one project. For example, when in the personal context area
(the circles in Figure 3), the user is able to get into contact with their Personal Assistant (for e.g.
messages from a teamwork context), export resources to a teamwork context, and select to enter a
teamwork context (also called Virtual Project Office). Likewise the SM gives rise to the following
types of relationships:
when at or from his/ her personal desk in the Virtual Project Office the user can see all team
members, get contacted by others, access all project resources, change to a collaboration area or
move to anothers personal desk to initiate communication.
when meeting at a personal desk, each member has to agree to the collaboration and access to
each others resources.
when meeting in a collaboration area: the possibilities are defined by a collaboration scenario
and available collaberative resources. These are under the control of the team .
Clearly, if the development team were to produce an integrated, coherent and usable system they all
needed to understand the Semantic Model and its implications. The SM also had to fulfill the
requirements of the end users and help in their instantiation in a usable and effective system.
Although it was not essential for the user representatives and evaluators to understand the SM it
was believed that its accurate embodiment in the user interface would enable a coherent, integrated
system to be produced which would faciliate the acquisition of a user model of the system and
reduce the number of usability issues. The mock up was one of a number of verhicles for doing this.
The role of the mock up in the project

To gain insight into the role of the mock up, a questionnaire was sent to the technical and
management leaders of the project to determine what role they thought the mock up had in the
project and the extent to which they believed it had fulfilled that role. The mock up was believed to
be able to fulfill the following roles:
to guide the project team in sharing a common understanding of the UNITE platform. For
example, experience with previous projects had shown that paper descriptions were always
insufficient to visualise implementations ahead of time, thereby leaving people with their own
interpretation. This may be due to the fact that people do not take the time to sufficiently
analyse paper documents, and the difficulty of representing something that does not already
exist. Looking at a realisation of concepts is much more efficient. G.Lacoste, project manager
to save resources. Without mock ups, assembling prototype implementations would be more
costly/ elaborate and difficult because of lack of common understanding. While the actual
implementation has to realize a specific set of features and services down to the fine details and
may be restricted in scope by limited time and resources, the mock-up could present a gross
overview and be more free in sketching features and services.
to enable the refinement of the user interface through iterative development and feedback.
to be the forerunner of an actual implementation and thus guide developers in implementation
planning. In an implementation such as UNITE's (which is research driven), a lot of decisions
have to be taken in the process from design, specification, coding, unit tests to final integration
tests, which cannot always be predetermined. A mock-up can help in such situations to clearly
recall what the original design specification was - at least from the user interface point of view;
it can help in the experimentation with alternatives and their consequences; and it allows
feedback on these.
to be a promotional tool. The mock up should allow light-weight demonstrations of the UNITE
platform without the need of the surrounding, heavy infrastructure (Internet access, servers of
many types, etc) thereby demonstrating to potential users what a UNITE implementation could
provide to them in terms of benefits, functions and services and help users in preparing for an
installation.
to help users understand advanced features. It could help in discussing with users which specific
features, out of a set of possible ones, would have which effect, and would be appropriate for
them. It can help to explain to users that a current implementation is just an intermediate step in
the evolution of more powerful versions.
to serve as a bridge between the semantic model (SM) and the actual implementation. The SM
provides a formal framework for the purpose of specifying and verifying the basic concepts of
UNITE platforms, the mock-up although it draws on the SM, is more informal and is put in
terms that are closer to users.
To summarise the mock up was supposed to facilitate understanding within the project team, act as
a promotional tool, provide a means of interpreting the SM and provide insight into future systems.
Assessing the role of the mock up in the project

The evaluation of the utility of the mock up by the managers and the end user representatives
showed that it was not thought to be as useful as it could have. This might have been due to the
difficulties in its development and relatively late manifestation in the project lifecycle.
Whilst everyone had agreed that the mock up would be a valuable tool in the project, its actual role
was controversial, and indeed some of the intended functions became contradictory. For example,
the underlying semantic model was not well enough understood by the developers. This lack of
understanding became manifest during the production of the mock up, derived from information in
the project documents. The mismatch between the mock up and the SM meant that the mock up had
to be more closely aligned to the SM before it could be released to the user representatives. This
alignment was brought about by pre-releasing mock-ups to developers, who would engage in their
own iterative development cycle, prior to release to the user representatives. This lengthened the
mock up development time, and deferred in depth user representative involvement in project
development.
The third version of the mock up (shown in Figure 1) allowed the basic concepts of UNITE
(personal context, teamwork context, personal desks within teamwork context) to become clear to
all developers and from then on it was used as a common base. The iterative development and
achievement of a common understanding took longer to establish than had been anticipated, so
there was not enough time left in the given timeframe to get feedback from the users on either the
GUI or the Basic Platform functional view. In terms of easy trials the mock up partly achieved this,
as it was possible to show users efficiently what UNITE can be.
Communication regarding the mock up interface

In terms of communication and management, the two-year project has scheduled quarterly face-toface meetings, supplemented by more focused workshops to address user/evaluator or developer
issues, and teleconferencing sessions on a needs basis, on-line chat and uses BSCW for document
sharing and email. In this section, we examine some of the emails to determine what issues were
discussed in relation to the mock up and analyse the transcipt of a teleconferencing session to
illustrate the way in which the use of the mock up promoted further discussion amongst the team.
During the development of the mock-up, one set of emails centred on the discussion of the meaning
and understanding of the Semantic Model. Of these, a sample of 155 emails was collected during
the first year of the project. In terms of the project lifecycle, the emails occurred at the stage when
the mock up was conceived to the time when the first version was mature enough to be subjected to
initial evaluation, and a partial understanding of the semantic model had been achieved within the
project.
The emails were analyzed to determine who initiated discussion, who was involved in the
discussion, what was its focus and severity, the cause of the discussion and whether issues were
resolved. 40 of the emails focused on the semantic model and the mock up. In all instances the
developers initiated discussion, e.g. by proposing a mock up to the agreement of the project
(especially the end user representatives). In the iterative development stages, when developers
produced a new version of mock-up, the users commented on it, sometimes resulting in conflicts.
Such comments related to interface features, such as the size of text, online help, colour of
background, and location of some functions; project management and the semantic model. Also
specific issues were raised indicating that the mock up was not seen as a true representation of the
SM such as the mock-up does not separate personal work context and team work context clearly
from each other, and Ambiguity in collaboration areas was noted. Important, deep issues were
not resolved through emails but at face to face meetings, or through teleconferences.
Crucially, the analysis of the emails (and the questionnaires) regarding the interface shows that the
semantic model was not well understood at that time, and that a common ground from which to
proceed and resolve misunderstandings could not be successfully established asynchronously. This
necessitated additional teleconferences and workshops, some of which were minuted and published
as open documents on 'BSCW' - the shared project's document repository.
Discussion showed that a significant amount of work was still required for the mock up to
appropriately represent the missing functions. Especially it needed to be improved to reflect the
main concepts of UNITE, with regard to the integration of team members in the project office.
For example, central to the UNITE concept is the personal context area, under full control of its
owner, which provides the UNITE user with a private space to perform work outside any project
space. However, this personal work area should also provide an overview/ peripheral view on all
projects that the owner is involved in, in particular notifications related to these projects. Secondly,
the personal desk of a team member supports individual work within the context of a given project.
When a personal desk is occupied, its owner can use all objects relevant to that context, and he or
she has control over other team members that attempt to enter this personal desk. Thirdly, the
collaboration area provides team members with a series of collaboration scenarios that they can use
without specific permission from any of the other team members.
There had been a problem communicating some of these issues and their implications. The early
mock up was criticised for not addressing these basic concepts, and in its representation of the
working space as a 2D floor plan, which was found not to be meaningful. Rather it was felt that the
users screen needed to be structured as a collection of different areas including ones to:
indicate that a team member requests entering the users personal desk (e.g. in order to contact
that user), and to enable the user to control entry to his or her personal desk;
provide information on the team membership, independently from who is currently working in
the teams office;
indicate who is working where, in an area at the top of the screen (as shown in Figure 1);
enable navigation within the various contexts and sub-contexts available at the teams office;
provide details on the current context the user is in, e.g. on a collaboration scenario, on the work
performed at a personal desk, etc.
Whilst it is obvious that a representation of these issues may not be most appropriately represented
as a 2D virtual office, it is not clear what form of representation would in fact be most appropriate.
In order to get the system up and working the functionality had to be represented in some way.
It was appreciated that the mock up could not simulate every feature. However, all those features
stated for inclusion in the Basic Platform had to be present so that they could be visualised by the
users and the developers, and everyone could share the same view through a concrete representation
of the user interface.
It was agreed that in order to achieve this common ground much closer interaction was required to
clarify issues that were difficult to resolve with the semantic model as described in project reports.
Closer interaction was also required between the developers to define the set of detailed interactions
that needed to take place between each of the platform features and the user interface. Subsequently
one of a series of developers workshop was organized to discuss implementation issues.
To summarise, the inspection of the emails shows that although problems were raised about the
mock up and the SM, they were not immediately resolved. This is also noted in the responses to the
questionnaire (see below). At this stage of the project neither email nor synchronous chat was used
successfully to support in depth discussion of complex issues relating to the semantic model. The
analysis of the minutes of the teleconference illustrated that the mock up was seen as having
different roles and that these might be conflictual (e.g. the notion of an evolving interface based on
increased understanding, conflicted with the notion of it having to be an accurate representation of

the SM).
Semantic model and the mock up

A questionnaire was distributed by email to project members to consider the role of the semantic
model in relation to the mock up. Responses were received from the major stakeholders of the
project i.e. user representatives, project manager, developer, evaluators and the interface developer.
The results are summarized below:
Most of the respondents thought that the mock up was helpful in clarifying issues relating to the
Semantic Model. User representatives and the evaluators in particular saw it as their most accessible
way of gaining insight into what the project was about. It therefore provided an opportunity for
common ground to be achieved in the project which had not been possible through inspection of
project documents or in meetings.
Clearly, the mock up was a focal point for discussions, usually because it did not adhere closely
enough to Semantic Model. For example the earlier mock ups with avatars provided a better
representation of the SM, although these were criticized by others for their inappropriate use of
room metaphors. The mock ups force discussion about the scope of the model which was
undoubtedly valuable and deepened understanding. The mock up was seen as an essential step, as
it is not necessarily easy for everyone to discuss concepts in abstract terms only. Through it the
whole development team was brought into the discussion of the SM and misunderstandings became
apparent.
So we would argue that the value of the mock up lay in its ability to uncover subtle difference in
interpretation of the SM. Without the mock up the developers would not have achieved such a clear
understanding of the SM. However, their reluctance to release any version of the mock up which
did not closely adhere to the SM, or might have raised the users expectations seriously curtailed its
opportunity for the evaluators and user representatives to have the same level of input at the
conceptrual stages of the project.
The early mock ups lack of functionality meant that it was not possible at this point to assess the
extent to which a system and interface architecture based on the semantic model is useful, so that
the user representatives did not have a clear picture of the overall concept. It took a while to resolve
the remaining conflicts of SM and mock up interface in a number of areas such as the users
relationship with collaboration areas, the centrality and importance of collaboration on the interface
(i.e. it is a major concept of UNITE but only a small part of the interface); the way in which people
and their collaboration with others are represented on the interface. It was felt that when
misunderstandings regarding the functionality of the system had arisen they were never fully
resolved in email correspondence.
In summary it was important for the project to share the UNITE concept or vision. This has been
variously articulated through the SM, mock up, meetings and project documents. All of these have
played a role in articulating and bringing to life the UNITE vision for the different stakeholders in
the project. However, it is believed that the mock up has played a crucial role in furthering common
understanding amongst the team. This has been at the cost of other roles the mock up could have
played in the project.
Discussion and recommendations

The need to establish quickly a common understanding of the system concept is central to many
software development projects. Where the team are highly distributed and working in a modular
fashion (see Figure 2), having inconsistent or partial understandings of the overall system may lead
to costly delays, overspending of resources and lowering of satisfaction.
The UNITE project attempted to develop a common ground amongst project members by
presenting the UNITE vision, firstly as a SM. However, there was either some reticence to discuss
the implications and relationships within this model at the start of the project, or these had not been
fully understood. Time was lost because misunderstandings of the SM led to a premature generation
of code, which subsequently had to be revised and/or did not integrate with that in other modules
(see Figure 2 for the importance of integration between modules).
The interface mock ups did provide a means of opening up the SM for those who could not fully
understand the implications of the SM. However, the necessity for the mock up to adhere closely to
the SM guidelines, and not raise user expectations by providing functionality which would not be
supported in the final system, limited its usefulness as a means of providing early, iterative
feedback from potential users and a wider discussion of the implications of the SM on real work.
When the mock ups were produced they fulfilled most of their functions and were used by the team
to understand the UNITE concepts.
The analysis of the emails and the questionnaire regarding the mock up clearly shows that
communication in distributed, technology driven teams remains an issue. Emails providing
comments are sent but there is no feedback as to whether they have been read or their contents
acted upon. Additionally, asynchronous communication does not seem to be the best mode for
discussing complex issues of this type thereby necessitating additional, unscheduled meetings
between sub groups at which real work is done.
In conclusion, the establishment of a common ground, with regard to the underlying concept of
UNITE was hard to achieve, without the mock up it may well have been impossible. It may be
supposed that distributed, software development projects of this nature may suffer from similar
handicaps.
In terms of recommendations for the conduct of future research and development projects we would
emphasise the need for a theoretical base, such as UNITE's semantic model to guide development.
However, merely documenting this formally is clearly insufficient. Adequate time should be
allotted at the start of the project to ensure that everyone has a clear overall picture of the project. It
is obvious that long, technical documents are not reader friendly, and have a negative effect on the
ability of people to take in new knowledge and concepts.
To facilitate this, and provide an equal opportunity for all project members to understand
underlying concepts, many different representations may have to be produced, geared towards each
members needs. For example, system specifications drawn up by development team may be
accurate, but unintelligible to those without technical training, who need to understand the basic
concepts and what these mean for them at the level of 'doing work'. Figure 1, may be flawed in
terms of its representation of the SM, but it provides a concrete, comprehensible example of most of
the underlying concepts. In all projects there is a rush to coding, to meeting the first set of
deadlines. This emphasis causes people to progress on the basis of incomplete understanding,
whether it is a software or product design project.
10
Additionally, steps must be undertaken to facilitate, rather than inhibit discussion of underlying
concepts, for example time should be allocated in meetings to discuss underlying concepts to ensure
that there is a real common understanding, each members opinions should be received nonjudgmentally and responses made to queries.
In summary, in the past the role of mock ups has been seen primarily in terms of facilitating user
centred design, and in terms of generating early, iterative feedback to the developers (for example
on functionality and usability). In this paper we have considered a different and somewhat
overlooked role of the mock up in distributed projects, which is in their ability to provide a common
ground and language for people to discuss and understand theoretical issues underpinning the
project.
Acknowledgements
This project is funded by the European Union under the Information Society Technologies (IST)
Programme (Project No. IST-2000-25436). This work was partially supported by the IST UNITE
project; however, it represents the view of the authors only.
The authors would like to thank the members of the UNITE project for providing the information
and material on which this was based.
11
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Reinema, R., Bahr, K., Burkhardt, H.-J., Hovestadt, L.: Cooperative Rooms -- Symbiosis of Real
and Virtual Worlds; In: Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Telecommunication
Systems, Modelling and Analysis, Nashville, Texas, March 2000
Woodcock, A., Meier, C., Reinema, R., van Bodegom, M. (2002), An integrated approach to team
working, in Proceedings of the Annual Ergonomics Conference, Homerton College, Cambridge
UK, April 3rd-5th, published in McCabe, PT (ed), 2002, Contemporary Ergonomics 2002, Taylor
and Francis, UK, pp 429-436
Woodcock, A. and Reinema, R. (2001) Enhancing the Distribution of Tacit Knowledge Through a
Ubiquitous and Integrated Teamwork Environment. Paper presented at Workshop on Tacit
Knowledge at ECSCW Conference, Bonn, Germany
12

T. Y. Wu The Department of Industrial Design, Chang Gung University, Taiwan
B. I The Department of Industrial and Commercial Design, National Taiwan University of Science
and Technology, Taiwan
Abstract
Peoples lifestyle and living quality have changed dramatically in the 21st century. Nowadays, more
and more consumers are concerned about looking for a product which is not only for functional and
aesthetic pleasure but also emotional satisfaction. Products are objects that can make people happy,
angry, proud or ashamed, secure or anxious. Products can empower, infuriate or delight they
have personality (Marzano 1998). This new trend has pushed the market toward a more
emotionally-orientated approach in the manufacture of many future products. Today, consumers
have a desire to see the extra value for the satisfaction at emotional level. Therefore, the study of
product value at emotional pleasure will be a benefit to the future design for product designers. As
we know, the frame structure of creating a pleasurable product has involved many aspects:
cognition, cultural value, and the expression of physical feature on such a product. This paper tries
to focus on the study of products physical form towards pleasure. The major issues in this study
focus on the contours and complexity of the product form to the pleasurable emotion. The research
includes visual psychology and perception. Arnheims theory of pictures, symbols and signs has
provided a basic concept of designing the experiment. An experiment is conducted to demonstrate
the relation between complexity and contours in product form. Hopefully, the result of this study
will make a contribution to the future study in design areas.

The motivation and background OR introduction
With the growth of the lifestyle quality, consumers have a dramatic change in the needs of product
quality in terms of more sophisticated concepts and emotional attached products. In other words,
consumers require a new product, which has not only functional intelligence, economic fit, but also
emotional satisfaction. Mr. Marzano, the manager of Phillips Corporation, believes that products
are objects that can make people happy or angry, proud or ashamed, secure or anxious. Products can
empower, infuriate or delight they have personality (Marzano, 1998). This has implied that
products should be able to carry an emotional function in order to fulfill the trends in the future
market. A designer should notice the sensation, perception, and feeling in consumers minds in
order to ensure their satisfaction and psychological happiness in both function and aesthetics.
Facing this new marketing, manufacturers should pay more attention to the consumers desire and
needs, and also, the products image, which has become more important in ensuring a high
corporation identity in comparative markets. Nowadays, it is believed that the research in
pleasurable products becomes more convincing and important during the design process.
Pleasurable products psychologically and physiologically affect our daily lives in many aspects.
For instance, the impact of iMac demonstrates a success in computer market. Through a transparent
material and an elegant form, the passion derived from iMac conveys a fresh, sweet like jelly-look
image which arouses the warm and sweet feeling of the users when they confront it. This is a very
convincing example to a designer in approaching pleasurable design, especially the cool High-Tech
products. The warmth and friendliness of a material or of a shape can provide a magnificent
sensation to replace the traditional feeling of the cool technology products. The same successful
product, new Beetle, has also shown the power of its elegant shape, cultural meaning, and memory
connection to the users. The streamline body with soft and bright pastel colors gives a pleasure
element to the drivers. Compared with the heavy industrial environment of other automobiles, new
Beetle demonstrates a perfect sample to connect with nature by using the metaphor of a bug shape
and bright colors, which appears to be more harmonic, peaceful and pleasurable. Hence, if a
designer can take advantage of these affective elements and integrate them into a design, it can
create extra value in a product (Jordan 2000 & Desmet 2001).
President of Frog design, Mr. Hartmut Esslinger, believes that form should follow emotion. All
products without emotional elements cannot be durable in the comparative market. (Sweet, 1999)
The challenge to a designer in the future is how to create a product with a pleasurable factor.
Study purpose
This paper purposes to focus on the study of visual elements to a shape towards the affection in
pleasurable vocabularies such as cute, pleasure, happy, friendly and so on. The experiment tries to
focus on the study of information delivering in the difference of contours and complexity related to
the pleasurable vocabularies. The study realms include three different typical contours and five
different levels of elements. These five levels of complexity are created by using facial elements,
since facial changes can reflect the emotion directly deep in the mind and also people can detect
easily through a physical change of the mouth, eyes, muscle of the cheeks and so on.
Literature reviews
The process of reaching a goal involves a lot of emotional reaction and experiment retrospection,
and it can bring out pleasure, sadness, depression and many other reactions. Those emotional
reactions can be detected through the changes of the face. The facial change appears more physical
reaction in terms of skin movement, which can be easy to identify (Butler: 1999).
Eyes and mouth have been considered to be the best expression features and emotion reaction on
our face. In the combination of all the facial features such as eyes, eyelashes, nose, and mouth, it is
able to express the complicated emotion: happiness, enjoyment, anger, sadness and so on. In 1992,
Aronof, a psychologist, uses 12 adjectives as the keywords to describe the emotion such as friendly,
good, pleasure, harmony, simple and brightness in design. Lundqvist (1999) uses these 12 pairs of
adjectives for the study of facial emotion. The result of the experiment proved that the features
combination of eyes and mouth on the face have the most powerful intergradient of delivering very
strong emotion.
As we know, there are many emotional interactions between people and people, and between
people and objects. It can be reflected through consumers decision making when they purchase a
product. Thus, to create a good strategy, the study of consumers emotion has become more and
more important in the field of marketing research. A case study in personal mobile phone
conducted by telecommunication research center in Holland (KPN) tends to analyze the emotional
factors of the consumers. And the result is valuable for the guidelines of the future design. In the
study, EMOcard are applied to the emotional measurement in order to evaluate the value for the
products. The result of that experiment demonstrates that consumers emotion and attitude are
directly connected with the affective elements appearing on the product shapes. A positive
conclusion goes to those products carrying these factors: Pleasant, Professional, Enjoyment, and
Sophisticated appear to be more emotional affection to the consumers (Desmet: 2001).
Kansei Engineering is a new method to evaluate the image to a product. Furthermore, it allows
designers to control or understand users emotion and perception to a product, through systematic
processes. This method becomes more useful for researchers in doing emotional study. With the
research results, a designer can take advantage of understanding lifestyle as well as the consumers
behaviour, and finally integrate these fragments into his products. This process definitely can help
corporations win a lot of marketing share.
The images, somehow conceived by a different person, can communicate different levels of
meaning. They can demonstrate a realistic object or represent a highly abstract social meaning
through visual shape. They also can describe the things of our environment themselves. Like
abstract paintings, they commonly show the style that is more abstract than the way these people, or
happenings would register on a photographic plate. Images deliver the meaning of the reality in
two opposite directions. They can demonstrate between the realm of practical and abstract things.
The interpretation/decoding process to the images involves many factors, for instance, the culture
and the age of viewers. A young boy rationally may see images in a more realistic way, while
adults can see the same images with more abstract minds. Thus, the different level of this mind
process will create a different interpretation of the things/ images.
Visual psychologist, Arnheim states that the image can be served as a picture or as a symbol. They
can also be used as mere signs. The theory consists of three functions of images: sign, picture, and
symbol. A simple line can state a visual form or structural quality through a created image. Hence,
it can represent an abstract social meaning in our living environment. For instance, it can be
represented as a nice-marriage through a created form with very smooth curves, to represent a badmarriage through a zigzag shape. It is because, when people perceive the image, the image
constructed by lines can represent three levels of meaning: sign, picture and symbol. Those three
functions will not stand only into one particular image, but some other images, which can also
represent the above three functions at the same time. For example, a triangle can mean a sign of
danger, or a picture of a mountain, or a symbol of a tree-hierarchy. In this case, the image itself
does not tell which function is intended.
An image serves merely as a sign to the extent to which it stands for a particular content without
reflecting visually its characteristics, words, and alphabets (ex. a, b and so on). The letter and
words are considered as a sign because, in this case, they are created for serving similar purposes of
identification and distinction. This is also shown to the portrayal. It is because the portrayals
operate as the references to the particular figures for whom they stand.
Images are pictures to the extent to which they portray things located at a lower level of
abstractness than they are themselves (Arnheim, 1969). The pictures are created by catching or
rendering the relevant elements- shape, color, movement- of the objects or activities they depict.
For instance, a child may draw a rough circle and two straight lines to identify the papas head and
two legs. He does not describe all the details of the face features on the head, but we still can
understand it. It is because we can complete the image in our mind based on the past experience or
knowledge we have. The fact is that a picture or image can be completed at any level of
abstractness, even if different viewers perceive with different interpretations.
An image acts as a symbol to the extent to which it portrays things which are at a higher level of
abstractness than is the symbol itself (Arnheim,1969) for instance, a portrait of King Henry III, is a
picture of king. At the same time, it can stand as a symbol of kingship and of the quality of strength,
and brutality.
The human mind can be forced to produce replicas of things, but it is not naturally geared to it
(Arnheim, 1969 ). This has implied that the shape of a product could confuse a user through
appearance since visual perception of a user is connected to the significant form of a product. The
complexity of line construction and line shape can cause part of the affections through the form
generation, and this has given the user a random imagination during the visual interaction. It is also
true that the smoothness of a swelling curve tends to be more friendly, soothing, warm, and
pleasurable.
To the extent of visual perception, the different degrees of abstractness in product shape could
deliver different levels of function in three categories: sign, picture and symbol. And each level
will cause different arousal or meaning to a user when perceiving it. In other words, all the details
of the product shape should deliver some sorts of meaning to the users, both in a still image and in a
dynamic interaction. In product design, being a designer, we should know what the shape means to
the users. The different scale of abstraction of product shape is associated with the cultural
difference, contours and complexity of the form. To clarify the meaning of the shape, designers
have to understand the needs and the perception of consumers to the products. This study tends to
answer this question through a theoretical research and an experiment.
Methods
Selected subjects
Thirty subjects including 17 females and 13 males were involved in this experiment. The average
age is 20 years old. They are second year college students currently studying in industrial design
department (10 persons), medical management (10 persons), and industrial engineering
management department (10 persons). All subjects consented to the experiment.
Stimuli
Fifteen stimuli were used in this experiment, which include three columns and five levels (3x5).
(See Fig. 1) At vertical columns, three basic contour shapes were created for each column:
rectangular, circle, and the combination of straight line and curve. Within each column, there are
five levels from very simple feature to very complicated feature. Level V is considered to be the
most complicated feature in this experiment. It contains two eyes, a nose, and a mouth. Level IV is
considered to be less complicated than level V. It contains two eyes, and a mouth. Followed with
the sequence, level I does not carry any detail on the top surface. (See Fig 1)
Each stimulus was generated in the 3D Allias software. Each stimulus is created with almost the
same amount of volume and surface, and presented with the same view angle and the same quality
of light source in the screen. When processing the experiment, stimuli were randomised to appear in
the computer screen at the front of subjects. Thirty subjects were divided into two groups. The
second group started with the test from the opposite sequence of the first group in order to avoid
peer/learning affect.
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
Figure 1
Questionnaire
The adjectives adopted in the questionnaire were quoted from Aronoffs research, a psychological
research study in facial emotional psychology (Lundqvist, 1999). Some adjectives were derived
from authors previous study in emotion to the can opener project. In the questionnaire, it includes
seven pair of adjectives: boring/ fun, not pleasure/ very pleasure, unfriendly/ very friendly,
unfamiliar/ very familiar, not cute/ very cute, ugly/ pretty, and dislike/ like. Seven scaling
measurement evaluation system is used to evaluate the subjects emotion to the stimulus.
Experiment procedures
In the experiment, every 15 subjects were arranged in the same room at an appropriate distance
where subjects can see the computer image clearly. The subjects were asked to watch the stimuli in
the computer screen for enough time, and then answer the identical questions intuitionally in the
questionnaire. The sequence of stimulus had been randomized organized. Two groups of subjects
(15 each) took the test followed with the opposite order of the randomized stimulus.
Data mining and analysis

After gathering 30 questionnaires, MANOVA software in Window SPSS is given to analyze the
difference between the contours of shape and the complexity of elements. In addition, the Duncans
Multiple Range Test is used to test if there is a significant difference within the complexity between
each two of the levels.
Result and analysis
a) The result of statistic
The result of MANOVA test demonstrates as follows:
1.
Six pairs of adjectives (cute, fun, like, friendly, pleasurable, pretty) to the type of contours and
complexity of elements do not have a statistic significant difference. The result states that there
is no interaction between the type of contours and complexity of line elements. Although P
value is less than .05 only in familiar adjective, it shows that there is a significant difference
(See Table 1).
2.
The statistic result shows that seven pairs of adjectives to the complexity have a significant
difference (See Table 2). In addition, the result shows that six pairs of adjectives to the
contours have a significant difference (See table 3).
F
Significance
Not cute/ Very
1.78 .077
Cute
Not Interest/ Very 1.36 .211
Interest
Not Familiar/ Very 2.24 .024
Familiar
Not Friendly/ Very 1.44 .178
Friendly
Dislike/ Very Like 1.29 .244
Not Pleasurable/ 1.43 .183
Very Pleasurable
Not pretty/ Very .62
.761
Pretty
Table 1: Complexity and contours
Not cute/Very
Cute
Not Interest/Very
Interest
Not Familiar/
Very Familiar
Not Friendly/
Very Friendly
Dislike/ Very Like
Not Pleasurable/
Very Pleasurable
Not pretty/ Very
Pretty
Table 3: Contours
F
Not cute/ Very Cute 29.92
Significance
.000
Not Interest/ Very 42.07

Interest
Not Familiar/ Very 9.03
Familiar
Not Friendly/ Very 29.31
Friendly
Dislike/ Very Like 11.94
Not Pleasurable/
34.38
Very Pleasurable
Not pretty/ Very
7.52
Pretty
Table 2: Complexity
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
F
Significance
26.10 .000
17.43 .000
2.11
.122
16.86 .000
10.17 .000
22.47 .000
8.90
.000
3. Duncans Multiple Range Test is given to test if there is any significant difference between each
two levels of complexity.
(A) Based on the statistic result of cute adjective on table 4, the average demonstrates that the
more complex stimulus is, the cuter stimulus is. Among five levels of element complexity, the
average of the max. and min. value between (group 1, 2), (group 2, 3), and (group 4, 5) shows no
significant difference. Hence, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in the
complexity among 1, 3, 5 levels.
(B) Based on the statistic result of familiar adjective on the table 5, the average of statistic result
demonstrates that the more complex stimulus is, the more familiar stimulus is. Among five levels of
element complexity, the average of the max. and min. value between (group 2,3), and (group 1,4,5)
shows no significant difference. Hence, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference on
the complexity between 2, 3 and 4, 5 levels
(C) Based on the statistic result of fun adjective on the table 6, the average of statistic result
demonstrates that the more complex stimulus is, the more fun stimulus is. Among five levels of
element complexity, the average of the max. and min. value between (group 1), (group 2, 3) and
(group 4, 5) shows no significant difference. Hence, it can be concluded that there is a significant
difference on the complexity among 1, 3,5 level.
(D) Based on the statistic result of like adjective on the table 7, the average of statistic result
demonstrates that the more complex stimulus is, the more likeness stimulus is. Among five levels
of element complexity, the average of the max. and min. value between (group 1, 2), (group 2,3)
and (group 4, 5) shows no significant difference. Hence, it can be concluded that there is a
significant difference on the complexity among 1, 3,5 level.
(E) Based on the statistic result of pleasurable adjective on table 8, the average of statistic result
demonstrates that the more complex stimulus is, the more pleasurable stimulus is. Among five
levels of element complexity, the average of the max. and min. value between (group 1), (group 2,3)
and (group 4,5) shows no significant difference. Hence, it can be concluded that there is a
significant difference on the complexity among 1, 3, 5 level.
(F) Based on the statistic result of pretty adjective on table 9, the average of statistic result
demonstrates that the more complex stimulus is, the prettier stimulus is. Among five levels of
element complexity, the average of the max. and min. value between (group 1, 2, 3) and (group 4,
5) shows no significant difference. Hence, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference
on the complexity among level 1,2, 3, and 4, 5.
(G) Based on the statistic result of friendly adjective on table 10, the average of statistic result
demonstrates that the more complex stimulus is, the friendlier stimulus is. Among five levels of
element complexity, the average of the max. and min. value between (group 1, 2 , 3) and (group 4,
5) shows no significant difference. Hence, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference
on the complexity among level 1, 2,3 and level 4,5.
Cute
Average
Complexity Attribution Familiar Average Complexity Attribution
L1 2.6778
L2 3.1667
L3 3.6667
L4 4.7889
L5 4.8000
Table 4
Grp 1
Grp 2
Grp 3
Grp 4
Grp 5
Fun
Complexity Attribution
Average
L1 2.6444
L2 3.7667
L3 3.8889
L4 4.8889
L5 5.0889
Table 6
Grp 1
Grp 2
Grp 3
Grp 4
Grp 5
Subset 1
Subset 1, 2
Subset 2
Subset 3
Subset 3
Subset 1
Subset 2
Subset 2
Subset 3
Subset 3
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
Table 5
3.5222
3.8222
4.3667
4.6556
4.7556
Like Average
L1 3.1222
L2 3.5444
L3 3.7222
L4 4.4444
L5 4.5444
Table 7
Pleasur
able
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
Table 8
Average Complexity Attribution Pretty

3.1333
3.7333
3.8333
4.9333
5.1778
Grp 1
Grp 3
Grp 2
Grp 4
Grp 5
Subset 1
Subset 2
Subset 2
Subset 3
Subset 3
Friendly
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
Table 10
Average
3.5556
3.8111
3.8667
5.1111
5.3222
Complexity
Grp 1
Grp 2
Grp 3
Grp 4
Grp 5
Attribution
Subset 1
Subset 1
Subset 1
Subset 2
Subset 2
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
Table 9
Grp 2
Grp 3
Grp 1
Grp 4
Grp 5
Subset 1
Subset 1
Subset 2
Subset 2
Subset 2
Complexity Attribution
Grp 1
Grp 2
Grp 3
Grp 5
Grp 4
Subset 1
Subset 1, 2
Subset 2
Subset 3
Subset 3
Average Complexity Attribution

2.9222
3.3333
3.3889
3.9222
4.1333
Grp 1
Grp 2
Grp 3
Grp 5
Grp 4
Subset 1
Subset 1
Subset 1
Subset 2
Subset 2
Average of Adjective
Complexity vs Adjective
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
Series1
Series2
Series3
Series4
Series5
Series6
Series7
Level/Complexity
Figure 2: 1 Cute, 2 Familiar, 3 Fun, 4 Like, 5 Pleasurable, 6 Pretty, 7 Friendly
The result of statistic analysis

(a) According to the MANOVA result, the adjective familiar does not have significance to
contours. It is assumed that the complexity of elements is more dominated than contours are.
Therefore, subjects might lose the focus, and lay more stress on the complexity when tested.
(b) Within 7 pairs of adjectives, 4 pairs of adjectives (cute, fun, likeness, pleasurable) are grouped
into 3 levels (level 1,3,5), which suggest 3 levels of stimuli can represent 5 levels in this case.
(c) It is shown that there is a positive relation between complexity and adjective. In other words, the
more abstract (the less complexity), the more fun, cute, pleasurable, and likable is. Beside
familiar adjective, it proves, the more concrete, the better expression is (See table 11). This result
can refer to Arnheims theory.
Conclusion
In this study, three conclusions were found. First, the complexity of product shapes can affect
consumers perception to the product. Based on Arnheims theory, less complexity shape can
provide more imagination spacing, while more complexity shape can provide more concreted form
to the product and also give clearer image to the consumers. This result is confirmed through a toy
design, which requires a funny shape and perhaps a smile feature, which catch many attentions from
children. Second, the result of statistic shows that pleasurable adjective has a positive relationship
with others (Fig. 2). For instance, the cuter, the more pleasurable. The more friendly, the more
pleasurable. Third, the complexity of the product shape has a positive relation with seven
adjectives. The less complexity shape has lack of demonstrating a pleasurable semantic, such as
cute, friendly, fun and so on. For example, in Florida, a facade of Disneys hotel designed by a
famous architect, Michael Gray, is constructed by seven figures in snow-white story, which
demonstrate the happiness and pleasure to the customers. Fourth, the consumers emotion has a
preference of liking more complexity shape in this case. Fifth, based on this result, it will be more
efficient by illuminating some of stimulus for the future experiment. Therefore, simply, level 1,3,5
are suggested to represent the whole range of 5 levels in the future experiment.
In this study, because of the limitation of using facial features as stimuli, it is lack of the
representation of whole aspects of a product shape such as general cognition and visual perception.
In the reality, far more complicated factors within a product shape such as the color affection,
material sensitivity, and operation cognition should also be involved. In order to understand the
meaning of form completely, the study of compound factors will be the suggestion for future
research.
10
References
Albus, Volker, Kras, Reyer & Woodham, Jonathan. Icons of design- the 20th Century. Prestel,
London
Butler, Gillian and McManus, Freda (1999) Psychology: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford
University Press, NY.
Barthes, Roland, (1967) Systeme de la Mode, Laureate book Co.,
Cross, Nigel (2001) Achieving pleasure form purpose, Design Journal, vol.4, p48-58
Crozier, Ray, (1994) Manufactured pleasures, Manchester University Press, Manchester & NY
Demirbilek, Oya & Sener, Bahar (2001), A design language for products: designing for happiness,
international conference on Affective Human Factors Design, Asean Academic Press.
Desmet, Pieter & Overbeeke Kees (2001) Designing products with added emotional value: Design
Journal, vol.4, p32-47
Arnheim. (1969) Visual Thinking, Berkeley, Univ. of California
Lundqvist, D, Esteves, F, Ohman, A. (1999) The Face of Wrath: Critical Features for Conveying
Facial Threat, Cognition and Emotion, 13 (6). 691-711
Marzano, S. (1998) Thoughts, Blaricum, the netherland: V+K Publishing.
Patric, Jordon, (2000) Designing pleasurable products, Taylor& Francis, London
Pantzar, Mika, (2000) Consumption as work, play, and art: representation of the consumer in future
scenarios, Design Issues, vol. 16, 3
Sweet, Fay (1999). Frog: Form Follows Emotion. Thames and Hudson, London
Stongman, K. T., (1996) The psychology of Emotion, John Wiley & Sons, NY.
Vihma, Susann (1989) Semantic visions in design, proceeding of Symposium on Design Research
and Semiotics, UIAH
11

A. Yagou University of Thessaly & AKTO Art & Design, Greece
V. Tsironi AKTO Art & Design, Greece
Abstract
Common ground, defined as the ability to communicate across fields, provides the background
for this paper. Communicating across fields is very significant in the design domain in general and
particularly in design management, as both areas are highly interdisciplinary. The paper traces the
common ground theme in the contemporary practice of design and design management in the
Greek context. The state of Greek design is briefly presented and then the issue of design
management is discussed through a number of interviews with related professionals. The cultivation
of a common ground, by all parties involved, appears to be a crucial factor in the establishment and
development of design management in the country. Further research is suggested in specific sectors
of the local industry.

Introduction
The theme for this conference is common ground and it provides the key concept for this paper.
Herbert Simon (1996: 137) describes common ground as the ability to communicate across fields.
This ability is very significant in the design domain, which is interdisciplinary par excellence
(Scrivener et.al., 2000). Furthermore, this ability is particularly important in design management, a
sub-discipline resulting from the interaction between design and management, two cultures with
different interests and values. This paper will explore the common ground theme in relation to
design management in a specific local context, that of Greece.
More specifically, the paper will present recent research on the development of design management
in Greece. The main objectives of the research consist in tracing the past of design management in
the country, identifying its current problems, and suggesting directions for its future development.
As the field of design history and theory is practically virgin in Greece, it was decided that the
research would have to take two forms.
Firstly, the research consisted of a bibliographic survey on the state of Greek design in general and
of Greek product design in particular. A concise presentation of this bibliographic survey provides
the necessary background. Despite the significant dearth of sources on the state of design in Greece,
this brief historical account gives a basic view of this domain and indicates some of its
shortcomings.
Secondly, a series of semi-structured interviews were conducted with a number of individuals who
have been active in the last two decades in Greece, in the fields of design, design education, design
management, and administration. The interviews focus on the state of design management in
Greece and they have been used to explore the common ground issue in relation to the design
sector in Greece.
The state of the design domain in Greece

It is generally acknowledged that in Greece the design domain in general is in a state of chronic
underdevelopment, and produces very poor results compared to most European countries
(Tzirtzilakis, 1989) (Vokotopoulos et.al., 1992; Adamou, 2001). This might be generally attributed
to the orientation of the Greek economy to non-productive sectors, and to the direct or indirect
dependency of the local economy from foreign capital (Mouzelis, 1978; Tsoukalas, 1992).
Pre-war developments of the design sector were limited in scope and the production of Greek firms
was mainly based on copying foreign designs, in order to suppress cost. To give a characteristic
example, copying or adapting foreign designs constituted standard practice in the furniture sector in
the mid-war period, when a certain blooming of industry and design was taking place (Parmenidis
and Roupa, 2002: 61, 99-100). After the war, there was a brief rise of design-related activities in the
late fifties and early sixties, thanks to a group of art theorists, architects, businessmen, and other
professionals. In 1962 they established the Centre and the Society of Industrial Morphology, aiming
at creating the foundations for local design development, but this initiative was short-lived
(Tzirtzilakis, 1989: 115).
State support has been non-existent until the late seventies. Then, design-related activities in Greece
were relatively developed and reached a peak during the late eighties and the early nineties, thanks
to the activities of the Hellenic Product Design Centre, which was founded in 1979 and operated
under the auspices of the Hellenic Organization of Small and Medium-Sized Industries
(EOMMEX). However, funding was discontinued and the Hellenic Product Design Centre was shut
down in 1993 (Vokotopoulos et.al., 1992: 21-22) (Private communication with C. Karabelas and G.
Adamopoulos of EOMMEX). Generally, the competitiveness of many Greek products is based on
low prices rather than quality (Vokotopoulos et.al., 1992: 9). A clear indication of the present
shortcomings of the local design scene compared to other European countries is provided by the
limited or non-existent representation of Greece in the activities of the European Community
Design Prize (ECDP), which was launched in 1988 as a joint initiative between the design
promotion organizations of the Member States and the Commission of the European Communities
(Thackara, 1997).
One of the main reasons that hinder the development of product design activities in Greece is the
fact that there are no Industrial Design Departments in Greek Universities. Design is taught as an
elective course in some engineering or architectural departments, or in occasional seminars by
various private or public institutions. Autonomous product design departments belong to private
design colleges, which, however, do not have higher education status, according to the Greek law
(Vokotopoulos et.al., 1992: 23-24). The inadequacy of formal design education in Greece is
responsible to a great extent for the fragmentation of design activities and discourse in the country.
Design activities are primarily carried out by architects, engineers of various specializations, or
designers educated in private institutions or abroad (Karabelas, 1993). A survey of contemporary
design in Greece reveals that most of it never reaches mass production but remains at prototype
level or is produced as one-off (Karabelas, 1993). The public awareness of design is very limited
and design is practically equated with styling (Yagou, 2001: 134; Vokotopoulos et.al., 1992: 9).
However, there are positive signs of change. There are some indications that the related
professional and academic communities are gradually becoming more mature and, therefore, more
interested in the combination of design with management, which appears to be a challenging
direction for the near future. In March 2002, the founding meeting of the Hellenic Design Society
took place in Athens. The Society aims to promote design activities in this country and revitalize
the design discourse. A number of design competitions recently organized by private and public
bodies will also perhaps support this aim. Finally, new design-related departments have been
established in private and public institutions.
Attitudes of Greek firms towards design and design management

The common ground theme appears to be a crucial one in the formation of the design
management domain in general: Design management was created because in practice it was
discovered that there is a large communication gap between managers and designers. Its as if were
talking about two different tribes speaking a different language and having different cultures. They
dont understand each other. And they cant communicate with each other. The need to unite gave
birth to an intermediate common aim, somebody who doesnt have to be industrial designer or
manager to deal with design, in order to be able to understand and translate, to speak both
languages, to know both cultures and understand the demands of one side so that he/she can express
them to the other side and vice versa (Interview with economist/administrator) (Tsironi, 2002: 76).
How does this apply to the Greek reality? Following the presentation of the state of design in
Greece in the previous subchapter, we will now use the material of the interviews in order to focus
on specific issues of design management, and relate these to the general structural and
organizational problems of the Greek design domain.
The practice of design management in the Greek business context becomes complicated by the way
firms are structured and managed. The size of Greek firms is a key factor in the way such firms tend
to organise and develop themselves. The problem with Greek firms is that, because they dont
have the range and, respectively, the production runs of foreign firms, they try to reduce the size of
the company or to keep it as small as possible, with the minimum number of employees. [] Greek
firms are essentially family-based (Interview with designer A) (Tsironi, 2002: 82). Duties are not
distributed, but usually gathered under the authority of a single member of the family, who acts as
the boss and has practically full responsibility for running the company. Generally, in the Greek
firm, one has to deal with the boss. [] In a sense, firms are structured like this, the starting point is
the family, so there is basically one person who has all the responsibility and makes all the
decisions (Interview with designer A) (Tsironi, 2002: 80-81). This means further that this person
generally undertakes a variety of roles, usually including both roles of designer and manager. [It
is] one-man show. He is the businessman, the manager, the designer (Interview with
designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 69). In the Greek company, it is the general director who, in a
sense, does everything (Interview with designer A) (Tsironi, 2002: 80). In this case, the dialogue
between design and management, which has been mentioned as forming the foundation of design
management, doesnt really exist. Both activities are essentially carried out by the same person.
This situation is exacerbated by the fact that firms are generally ignorant about design. At this
moment, Greek firms dont know about design (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi,
2002: 95). Even when they do know about it, it doesnt attract much attention and it is not
considered as an activity which might be relegated to specialists. As a result, it is dealt with in an
informal way. Design is performed either by the businessman/director himself, or is even left to
technical staff. First of all, we have to perform this leap, to decide that it is not the businessman
who does the design, or it is not the chief technician who does the design (Interview with
architect/designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 101). The need for design expertise is not recognised.
They think they dont need it. They act intuitively (Interview with design theorist/educator)
(Tsironi, 2002: 97). Similarly, other disciplines closely related to design, such as ergonomics, are
not considered as demanding a specialist treatment. Ergonomics? No, they think they can do it
themselves (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 98). This casual attitude
towards design implies that professional design input is not valued in Greece and is in low demand.
I do not have the experience of a firm in Greece that deals with industrial designers. [] From
what I know, the situation is not so good. [] I hear about things happening here and there, but in
the end very few things are happening (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi, 2002:
97). Even when design expertise is sought after, this often happens in a non-systematic, ad hoc
basis. Here in Greece, there are few companies who employ designers. Some employ them
occasionally, some perhaps not at all. They might simply be getting a few ideas [from them] from
time to time (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 87-88).
The product development process is quite informal and unstructured, if it exists at all. New products
often result from copying foreign products which have been successful. Market research exists, to
a certain extent, primarily through trade fairs, in which [Greek businesspeople] participate and
which they visit. There is, to a small extent, production; they are informed about it to some point.
What definitely doesnt exist is new product development. Very few people know about this. What
happens primarily, or at least what has been happening so far, is small modifications in existing
products. There is no substantial new product development from scratch (Interview with designer
A) (Tsironi, 2002: 81). The complexity and cost of new product development appears daunting for
Greek firms, and is therefore avoided. There is a tendency [in Greek firms] to start new product
development and in the course of the project they realise that there are many difficulties in applying
all these innovations that exist in a new product. So there are many cases when several firms
suspend the product development process (Interview with designer A) (Tsironi, 2002: 83).
Given the doubt whether [Greek firms] have realised the value of design itself (Interview with
architect/designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 101), it is probably wildly optimistic to consider the
role of design management in their activities. How can design management exist, when design
itself doesnt have a secure place in the Greek company? (Interview with designer/educator)
(Tsironi, 2002: 69) There is hardly a need for design. [] Companies are still on a medieval level
of thinking about what a product is, [] a thing, not even an object, a thing which I sell
(Interview with designer B) (Tsironi, 2002: 119). In Greece, we designers are forced to act as
design managers. Because nobody knows the meaning of the term and nobody thinks that it is
necessary (Interview with designer B) (Tsironi, 2002: 115). The general impression is that design
management is practically non-existent, despite its great potential for small and medium sized
industries. I have the feeling that in Greece nobody has a clue about design management. []
They have not understood what a powerful weapon design management could be in Greece
(Interview with economist/administrator) (Tsironi, 2002: 76-77). More specifically, discussing the
furniture sector, it is stated: Design management [] I havent seen it (Interview with
designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 69). In more general terms, it is claimed that [] management
in general is something new for Greece, not to mention design management (Interview with
designer A) (Tsironi, 2002: 82). There seems to be an issue of maturity, which Greek companies
fail to reach. Their activities remain on an elementary level, where design management is probably
a luxury they cant afford. The companies which collaborate with the Design Management
Institute have reached a high degree of maturity. [In Greece], were talking about companies who
need much more basic things, to be able to take advantage of more basic things. So perhaps design
management has a very low priority (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 98).
This of course becomes in turn a major drawback to any further development.
Focus on the issue of design teams: members and problems

We will now focus on some remarks on design group work and on the interaction between various
specialists involved in the design and design management process. We will comment on some of
the views expressed by the people interviewed, which are related to the attribution of roles in design
management and to issues of communication.
First of all we observe that there seems to be no consensus regarding the question of who does
what. This lack of common ground might be attributed to the background of the interviewees, in
other words, each one of them seems to assign a more important role in the design team to people of
ones own specialisation: The third level of design management is the project itself. The first and
most important thing for a design project to start is the existence of the so-called design brief. What
is the design brief? It is design before design. The design brief is not the job of the designer. It is the
job of anyone but the designer (Interview with economist/administrator) (Tsironi, 2002: 74). An
economist? Im afraid he wont understand things very well (Interview with
architect/designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 103). It is difficult [] for somebody who is an
economist or of a different specialization, to suddenly become the head of the [design] team
(Interview with designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 66).
The variety of opinions extends to educational issues, specifically regarding the area of education in
which design management belongs. It is acknowledged that designers should know the business
side of design (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 86). Also, the view is
expressed that design management courses would be attended by management and administration
students, [] also by specialists from this area, i.e. production managers, engineers, administration
people, as well as designers (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 86).
However, the relevance of design management to studies of economics is questioned, and the view
is expressed that design management belongs [] definitely in a technical faculty. Its not a
financial matter. Economists cant do it (Interview with architect/designer/educator) (Tsironi,
2002: 102). Given the interdisciplinary character of knowledge in general and of design
management in particular, the attempt to label and classify design management in this way is rather
worrying. Furthermore, it is believed that a design manager is very important [...] especially as a
good assistant of the design department. Not as the person who will take the final decisions. If this
kind of cooperation exists, I consider it very important. Otherwise, it shouldnt exist at all
(Interview with designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 66). We sense here the conception of the lone,
creative designer/hero, who faces the reactions of the others. This might be an indication that the
concept of the design team itself is not assimilated by Greek designers. This conjecture should be
further explored, but it is underpinned by the fact that Greek designers generally have very limited
interaction with team work in industry, as already mentioned in the survey of local design.
Where opinions do not differ is the realisation that there are no design management specialists to be
found in Greece. I follow the people who write about design management abroad, I have never
seen any Greek name. This is a very new area of management and a Greek person who goes abroad
will not choose to deal with it, he/she will choose Finance or Marketing. They are established,
design management is very new (Interview with design theorist/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 93). This
of course obstructs any potential developments in the field, even in the case of firms with a positive
stance towards design. Perhaps the firms wanted to employ a design manager and could not find
one. I cant rule this out (Interview with designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 70). Which is in turn
emphasised by a sharp but possibly true realisation: We say that there are no Greek design
managers. But are there many Greek designers who could be serious and adequate enough in order
to realise a project from A to Z with all its demands? My feeling is that there arent
(economist/administrator) (Tsironi, 2002: 77).
Conclusions and implications

Our research findings have provided an introduction to the current state of the Greek design domain
in general, and of design management in particular. The combination of the bibliographic search
with the interviews point to a wide range of issues, which directly affect the state of design
management in Greece. Innovations are usually imported, often with significant time-lag, and
most companies do not recognize the need of adding value to products through local design input.
On the executive level, the need to commission and manage design is inadequately understood and
leads to confusion of professional roles. On the level of public administration, support for any
initiatives related to the management of design is lacking. Also, the academic environment is not
sufficiently developed to encompass design management. These shortcomings in turn affect the
quality of professional design available today in the country, as designers are forced to operate in an
underdeveloped and adverse context, which offers them limited opportunities.
In more general terms, [in Greece] it is very clear that one has borrowed a design ideology
primarily produced abroad, in other words forms that are beautiful, forms that one can see their
evolution, can understand the rules to design and transform them, and here one doesnt have the
technostructure. The structure of tools, of people, of knowledge, etc. (Interview with
architect/designer/educator) (Tsironi, 2002: 107) This quote expresses the fact that an
aesthetic/formal ideology has been borrowed, adapted, and used, whereas the
technical/professional/managerial ideology remains in an embryonic state. What could be done to
face this situation? During the recent founding meeting of the Hellenic Design Society in Athens,
the designer and educator G. Haidopoulos made a sharp and substantial remark: The post-war
history of design in Greece has been fragmented and heroic. It is no longer possible to have a heroic
attitude against design in this country. In other words, it is absolutely vital to develop a coherent
and systematic approach against design, with the contribution of all related parties. This is
supported by the fact that Greek companies are nowadays forced to operate in a pan-European and
often global context, which presents unforeseen problems and demands new and highly creative
solutions.
A minimum of consensus, as well as a high level of communication between all interested parties,
is an absolute prerequisite for further development, given the fragmentation of design-related
activities in Greece. The common ground of each others language should be discovered and
cultivated, if anything significant is to be achieved in the near future. Further research is necessary
on the subject, especially in the form of extensive, sector-specific case studies. Such studies would
identify and demonstrate the range and variety of problems faced by certain sectors, as far as the
interaction between design and management is concerned.
References
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Karabelas, Christos. 1993. Greek product designers, Athens: EOMMEX Hellenic Product Design
Centre. (In Greek)
Mouzelis, Nikos. 1978. Modern Greece: Facets of underdevelopment. London: MacMillan.
Parmenidis, George, and Roupa, Efrossini. 2002. Bourgeois furniture in Greece, 1830-1940: A
process of construction of design ideology. Athens: NTUA Press. (In Greek)
Scrivener, Stephen, A.R., Ball, L.J., Woodcock, A. 2000. Collaborative Design, Proceedings of
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Simon, Herbert. 1996. The sciences of the artificial. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
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industrial design. Athens: Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE). (In Greek)
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Biographical notes
This section provides brief biographical notes on all authors and co-authors, listed in alphabetical
order.
Tokio Abe MS is Professor and Dean of the Economics Department of Akita KeizaiHouka University, Akita, Japan. The affiliated societies are: Information Processing
Society of Japan; Japan Industrial Management Association; Japan Society For Design
Engineering; The Operations Research Society of Japan; Association for Computing
Machinery. Professor Tokio Abe teaches at the university: Information Management and
Design; Introduction to Industrial Management; Information Science; and Seminar of
Information Analysis and Design. Principal areas of research interest are: Mechanical
Engineering Design Education; Analysis and Design of Information Data Processing.
Professor Tokio Abe has publication in areas of Introduction to Computer Operations,
and has been working for the development of Mechanical Engineering Design
Methodology for beginners for more than ten years and developing the design
methodology of Management Information Analysis and Design by Doing.
Robin Adams is a Research Scientist at the Center for Engineering Learning and
Teaching in the College of Engineering at the University of Washington. She received
her Ph.D. in Education from the University of Washington, her M.S. in Materials Science
and Engineering from the University of Washington, and her B.S. in Mechanical
Engineering from California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo. Her areas
of research include cognitive processes in design behavior, iteration in design activity,
designing assessment tools, creating instructional resources, and supporting a researchinformed approach to engineering education. She was formerly the Local Evaluator at
the University of Washington for the Engineering Coalition of Schools for Excellence in
Education and Leadership (ECSEL), which was funded under the Engineering Education
Coalitions Program of the National Science Foundation.
Khaled Ahmed B.Sc. M.Sc. is Assistant lecturer in the Department of Architecture at

Mansoura University, Egypt and a Ph.D. candidate at Welsh School of Architecture,
Cardiff University in Wales, UK. Professional experience includes appointments as
Architect in Abdulrahman Alnaiem Consultant Office in Jeddah, Arab Bureau for Design
and Consultation in Cairo, and Senior Architect in Zein Consultant office in Cairo, Egypt.
Principal areas of research interest are public participation in the design processes and the
traditional Arab-Islamic urbanism. Khaled Ahmed has published in areas of public
housing, traditional architecture and urbanism and public participation in housing design
processes.
Katerina Alexiou Dip. Arch. Eng. is a PhD candidate at the Bartlett School of Graduate
Studies and the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (CASA). She is a member of the
Technical Chamber of Greece. Principal areas of research interest are: artificial
intelligence in design; Design and Planning Support Systems; collaborative design and
planning; learning models in architecture and urban planning.
Margaret Alrutz is a graduate student in the M.Des. Program at the Institute of Design,
Illinois Institute of Technology. Her study track is in Human-Centered Communication
Design. She holds a BA in Comparative Literature (1990) from Brown University.
Professional experience includes work in the fields of education and product
development.
Akiyuki Ando is Professor in the School of Communication, Tokyo Keizai University.

He has a background in commerce and information systems and has also lectured at Chuo
University, School of Commerce, Surugadai University, School of Economics,
Takachiho University, School of Commerce, and Kokugakuin University, School of
Economics. He has served as a member of the Steering Committee of National
Programming Contest for High School Students (Ministry of International Trade and
Industry), the Committee for Investigation of Computer Facilities in Metropolitan High
Schools, Bureau of Education, Tokyo Metropolis, the Executive Staff of Information
Processing Education Research Committee Japan. He is a Councillor of the Association
for Social Information Japan, a member of the Operating Committee of the Japan Society
for Management Information and has headed a Special Research Group of the Japan
Study Society for Office Automation. Professor Ando recently completed a sabbatical at
the Open University Business School.
Peter Armstrong is currently Professor of Management at Keele University, UK. After

seven years as an R&D engineer, he returned to university to study sociology and is now
best known for his research on the social aspects of accounting. He has also published
widely on industrial relations and other aspects of management. Professor Armstrongs
involvement with design research dates from 1995 and in association with Anne Tomes,
and he has completed three research projects funded by the UK Design Council and
published in leading journals and at international conferences in the design field.
Cynthia J. Atman is Director of the Center for Engineering Learning and Teaching in
the College of Engineering at the University of Washington where she also holds an
academic appointment as Associate Professor - Industrial Engineering. Dr. Atman
received her BS in Industrial Engineering from West Virginia University, her MS in
Industrial and Systems Engineering from Ohio State University and her PhD in
Engineering and Public Policy from Carnegie Mellon University. Prior to joining the
faculty at the University of Washington, Dr. Atman was an associate professor at the
University of Pittsburgh where she co-chaired the 1997 Frontiers in Education conference
with Larry Shuman. Dr. Atman's research interests include engineering education;
modeling cognitive understanding of the design process; and developing effective
communication methods for technical information. She teaches courses in human factors
engineering and engineering education
Nahed S. Baba is a PhD Research Student, at Nottingham Trent University, UK.

1990-to date: Assistant Lecturer, Faculty of Specific Education, Ain Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt. BA in Textile Printing(1986), Faculty of Applied Art, Helwan University,
Cairo, Egypt. Field of interests, teaching and researching in textile printing methods such
as batik, stencil, tie-dye, block printing, and silk-screen; studying the theories of design in
general and ethnic design specifically. Finally, she is interested in examining the Nubian
motifs decorating architectural structures and woven baskets before the 1964 flood.
Nahed has presented two papers at the CADE2001 conference at the Glasgow School of
Art entitled, Digital Creativity: Crossing the Border, and The Transformative Effects
of CAD on Nubian Motifs, which was given at the Postgraduate Forum. Also she has
participated in different types of exhibitions in Cairo, but the most recent exhibition was
in London, 2000, The Black History in Willesden Green Library, London. Her first
solo exhibition will be in Paris 1526 April called: Transformations: The Nubian
Heritage& Contemporary Design.
Linden J. Ball is a Senior Lecturer in the Psychology Department at Lancaster

University. Following research positions at Plymouth and Loughborough Universities, he
joined the University of Derby in 1993 as a Senior Lecturer, and held various posts
(including Head of Psychology and Reader in Cognitive Psychology) before moving to
Lancaster in 2000. Lindens general research interests relate to theoretical and applied
issues concerning the nature, development and computer-based support of expert thinking
and reasoning. Much of his research has focused on design expertise, and he is currently
investigating the nature of decision-making and solution-generation processes in design,
and the links between sketching and cognition. He is also keen on triangulating research
data on design deriving from different methodologies such as cognitive ethnography and
verbal protocol analysis. Linden has produced over 80 publications, including journal
papers, book chapters, edited books, conference papers and professional articles.
Twan Basten (1969) is an assistant professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering

at the Technische Universiteit Eindhoven. In 1993, he received a Master's degree (with
honours) in Computing Science from the Technische Universiteit Eindhoven; in 1998, he
received his PhD degree in Computing Science from the same university, with a thesis
titled "In Terms of Nets: System Design with Petri Nets and Process Algebra." His
current research interest is the design of complex, resource-constrained embedded
systems, based on a solid mathematical foundation, with a special focus on
multiprocessor systems. Twan Basten has publications in the areas of workflow
management, formal methods, and system design. He is an associate member of the
IEEE.
Michael Biggs MA PhD FRSA ILTM is Research Tutor in Art and Design at the
University of Hertfordshire, UK. He has degrees in both Fine Art and Philosophy, and
was Senior Research Fellow in Philosophy at the University of Bergen. His principal
research interest is in the uses of diagrams and other visual forms of communication, and
in non-textual notations, e.g. music. He has specialised in Wittgenstein's use of diagrams
and has recently re-edited Wittgenstein's published works for Blackwell and Routledge.
He was the graphical consultant for the recent electronic edition of Wittgenstein's
manuscripts [Nachlass] for Oxford University Press, and is currently a member of an
international research team investigating the integration of electronic resources for
scholarship in the humanities. He has experience as a supervisor of practice-based PhDs
and MA(Res), PhD by published works, and has been a PhD examiner.
Alethea Blackler, BA(Hons), Cert. Ed, MA is a PhD candidate in Industrial Design at

the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) in Brisbane, Australia. She works at
QUT as a part time lecturer of both postgraduates and undergraduates in Industrial
Design Research and Ergonomics, and lecturer and course coordinator in Design History,
Theory and Criticism. She is also currently working on the development of online
postgraduate courses in human factors at the University of Queensland and design for
ageing at QUT. She has previously worked as a freelance designer and design teacher.
Her principal areas of research interest are the intuitive usability of products and design
education.
Stella Boess is completing her PhD degree in the Advanced Research Institute, School of
Art and Design, Staffordshire University, UK, and has published various papers in
connection with the degree. She has received scholarships from the German DAAD and
from Staffordshire University, and lives and works as a consultant designer and
researcher (ergonomics) in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Areas of work include public
design and consumer products design. Previous experience includes appointments as
designer and researcher, Landmark bv, Rotterdam, and as Research Associate,
Staffordshire University, UK. Degree in product design from Hochschule der Bildenden
Kuenste Saar, Germany. Current research interests: user-centred design, qualitative
research, design philosophy
Prasad Boradkar is an assistant professor in the School of Design at Arizona State

University in Tempe. Having studied mechanical engineering and industrial design in
India, he received his graduate degree from the Ohio State University in Ohio, and has
held positions at the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands as well as ITT
Technical Institute in California. His primary investigations center on historical
developments that have influenced the built environment and the objects that have
evolved within it over the last century. He is currently involved in a multi-disciplinary
research project to identify productive points of convergence between the disciplines of
design, media studies, cultural theory and popular music aimed at defining a space of
creative activity where the meeting of different research, practical and pedagogical
methodologies can be fruitfully examined.
John Broadbent is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Design, Architecture and Building
at the University of Technology Sydney in Australia. He graduated and received his
doctorate in the biological sciences at Reading University. John worked as a
microbiologist in Nigeria and Australia for almost a decade. Having gained a Graduate
Diploma in Environmental Studies, he then worked as environmental consultant for over
a decade. During this latter period John lectured in the Design School of the (then)
Sydney College of the Arts, which merged with the University of Technology Sydney in
1988. His lecturing today spans information retrieval, research methods, technological
change, design futures, systems thinking. His current research is into design as a
sociocultural evolutionary guidance system. This work is based broadly on the holistic
sciences of chaos and complexity, and more specifically on Ervin Laszlos General
Evolution Theory. John has published some 20 journal articles, 40 book
chapters/reviews/reports and 15 conference papers.
Margaret Bruce is Head of Department of Textiles, UMIST, UK and a Professor of

Design Management and Marketing. She has carried out a number of international
research programmes in the fields of design and innovation management, which have
been published in over 200 papers and five books. Currently, Professor Bruce has a
research programme on design and innovation management in the supply chain. Also,
Margaret is a Strategic Advisor to Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
Charles Burnette PhD MArch BArch University of Pennsylvania, USA, is former

Director, Graduate Program in Industrial Design and Advanced Driver Interface
Design/Assessment Laboratory, University of the Arts, Philadelphia. He has been Chair,
Industrial Design Department; Principal, Charles Burnette +Associates
(Research/Industrial Design/Architecture); Dean, School of Architecture, University of
Texas at Austin; Director, Philadelphia Chapter American Institute of Architects/Center
for Planning, Design and Construction; Research Associate/Principal Investigator,
Institute for Environmental Studies; and Designer, George Nelson & Co. He was made
Fellow, American Institute of Architects for research and service, received a Pew
Fellowship in the Arts, was elected Director, IDSA, and served on the Advisory Council,
School of Art and Design, Helsinki among other activities. He has lectured or taught in
14 countries and currently consults on a website for children in Korea. His publications
include Designing for Human Behavior (Wiley) and many research reports and papers,
most related to design thinking, design education or the development of comprehensive
design support systems.
Kathryn Burns is the Project Manager of the Centre for Product Design Information
(CPDI) based in Birmingham Institute of Art and Design. Kathryn has a passion for
improving the product development process and securing more investment in R&D
resources. Prior to managing CPDI, Kathryn spent over 15 years in industry working
chiefly in manufacturing companies, ranging from SMEs to multinationals. Her
experience encompasses writing software for process control systems, project
management, product management and marketing.
Chokeanand Bussracumpakorn (self motto: Learning + Thinking + Doing =

Innovation) is currently conducting his PhD research, The Networks of Design
Innovation, in the Design Department at Goldsmiths College, University of London. His
research involves an innovative idea on how to encourage UK SMEs to create their
innovative products by employing a collaborative network with external resources. His
particular interests are in the areas of Innovation, Design Management, Industrial Design,
and New Product Development. In 2000, he achieved the Degree of Postgraduate
Diploma (PgDip) and Master of Art (MA) in Design Management at Birmingham
Institute of Art and Design, UCE in England. In 1996, he achieved the degree of
Bachelor of Architecture in Industrial Design at King Mongkuts Institute of Technology
Ladkrabang in Bangkok, Thailand.
Monica Cardella is a graduate student in the Industrial Engineering program at the

University of Washington. She received the B.S in Mathematics from the University of
Puget Sound in 1995 and the M.S. in Industrial Engineering from the University of
Washington in 2002. She is currently pursuing a Ph.D. She is a research assistant in
Engineering Learning and Teaching in the College of Engineering at the University of
Washington. Her research interests include engineering education, engineering design
processes, and the role of sketching in engineering design. Prior to entering graduating
school Ms. Cardella taught physical education to preschoolers and spent a year
performing community service as a member of AmeriCorps.
Hernan Casakin D.Sc, M.Sc is a Research Fellow in the ESLab (Environmental

Simulation Laboratory), Department of Geography and the Human Environment at the
Tel Aviv University, Israel, and a Lecturer in the Department of Architecture, College of
Judea and Samaria, Ariel, Israel. Professional experience includes appointments as
Research Fellow, Graduiertenkolleg Kognitionswissenschaft, FB Informatik (Department
of Cognitive Sciences and Informatics), Hamburg University, Germany. Principal areas
of research interest are: design processes and design methods; design and visual
cognition; design and education; spatial cognition and cognitive maps; visual analysis of
architectural design; and contemporary history of architecture. Dr. Hernan Casakin has
publications in the areas of design cognition, design education, and spatial cognition..
Cristina Cerulli graduated in Architecture from the Universit degli Studi di Firenze,
Florence, Italy. She was then awarded a MSc. in Computer Aided Building Design at
ABACUS (Architecture & Building Aids Computer Unit Strathclyde), University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow. She joined the Processes Research Group of the School of
Architecture at Sheffield University in May 1999, when she started working full time as
Research Associate on the ADS Project. She currently holds an EPSRC Research
Associate Industrial Secondment (RAIS) in collaboration with Building Design
Partnership, where she practices as an architect while disseminating the outcome of
completed research. She is also completing a PhD on Capturing and Managing Project
Information to Facilitate the Briefing, Design and Construction Processes.
Chun-Di Chen is a lecturer in the Industrial Design Department, Chang-Gung

University, Taiwan, and continues to practice as an industrial designer. His principal
research interests are mediated visual design communication and design information and
communication
Chien-Hsiung Chen received his Doctoral, Master's, and Bachelor's degrees in Industrial
Design (Ph.D. and MFA at The University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, USA and BS at
Tatung Institute of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan). During his academic study at the
University of Kansas, Mr. Chen incorporated design knowledge from various disciplines
(e.g., Industrial/Interaction Design, Human Factors/Ergonomics, Cognitive Psychology,
and Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence) into design research studies and
applications. Mr. Chen is currently a faculty member at the Department of Industrial and
Commercial Design in National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei,
Taiwan. His cross-disciplinary research interests involve Industrial/Interaction Design,
Human Factors/Ergonomics, Color Theories and Applications, Design Languages and
Representation, Design Research and Planning, Human-Computer Interaction, and
Product Internationalization and Localization.
Robert Chen (Chien-chung), position: Principal Lecturer, Programme Leader in

MA/MSc Design and Manufacture, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK. Education
history: Ph.D. (1993), King's College, University of London, UK. M.Phil. (1991), De
Montfort University, Leicester, UK. Postgraduate research (1983), National Tsukuba
University, Ibaraki, Japan. BSc. (1980), National Cheng-kung University, Tainan,
Taiwan.
Yu-Tse Chen received his Bachelor's degrees in Industrial Design at Tatung University,
Taipei, Taiwan. He is currently a first year Masters student at the graduate school of
design in National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan. His
research interests involve Product Design, Knowledge-based Expert Systems, and User
Interface Design
Bo-Ching Chiou received his Bachelor's degrees in Industrial Design at Tatung

University, Taipei, Taiwan. He is currently a first year Masters student at the graduate
school of design in National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei,
Taiwan. His research interests involve Product Design, Human Factors/Ergonomics, and
User Interface Design
Sean Clark is a designer and technologist with an interest in collaborative computing

and computer support for creative activities. He has a degree in Computer Studies and
professional experience as a University researcher, commercial Web designer and
Internet consultant. His recent projects include an Arts Council "Year of the Artist"
exhibition in 2001 and various community arts developments with the Charnwood Arts
organisation. He currently works as an interface designer on the EU-funded "UNITE"
project in the School of Art and Design at Coventry University. He has co-authored over
20 academic papers and exhibits and presents his work regularly.
John Clarkson took a BA (1984) and PhD (1988) in Engineering at the University of
Cambridge, before seven years working in design consultancy with PA Consulting
Group. He returned to the University of Cambridge in 1995, where he is now Reader in
Engineering and Director of the Engineering Design Centre, and a Fellow of Trinity Hall.
His major research interests include the development of design methodologies to address
specific design issues; medical devices; inclusive design; and the use of intelligent
systems to support design process management.
Rachel Cooper is Professor of Design Management at the University of Salford. She

leads a research group in Design and Innovation and undertakes research into Design,
Design Management and New Product Development. Professor Cooper was Judge for the
Millennium Products, which were included in the Millennium Dome and exhibited
through the Department of Trade and Industry and Foreign Office. In January 1999, she
was appointed by the Rector of the Royal College of Art to be advisor to the newly
created Helen Hamlyn Research Centre. Professor Cooper undertakes funded research
work for the Design Council and the Engineering and Physical Science Research
Council. Professor Cooper has published four books in the area of Design and over 250
academic papers.
Anthony Crabbe is leader of the Design Contract Research Unit at Nottingham Trent
University. The Unit grew out of his experiences as a departmental research co-ordinator,
where his interests moved progressively from his original academic background in
Critical Studies, into cross disciplinary research, drawing on skills he had learnt earlier in
industry.
Christopher Crouch co-ordinates Studies in Visual Culture at Edith Cowan University

and is Visiting Professor in the School of Visual Arts at Beijing National University. He
has published widely on the history and theory of design practice - most recently in a
chapter "Introducing Universal Design to a Colonial Context" in Universal Design, 17
ways of Thinking and Teaching published by Husbanken, Oslo. His book Modernism in
Art, Design and Architecture (Macmillan) is a standard text in many art school courses.
His new book Design Culture in Liverpool 1880-1914 will be published later this year by
L.U.P.
Lucy Daly is a project officer at UMIST, funded by EPSRC. She is currently working on
a project with UMIST and the University of Salford, investigating the integration of
technology throughout the supply chain into the design process. Prior to this, Lucy
worked on an ESF project under the ADAPT initiative. This involved producing and
disseminating training to SMEs in the textiles and clothing industry on marketing,
innovation and design. Lucy is also undertaking a PhD looking at the effect of ecommerce on the supply chain of SMEs in the textiles and clothing industry.
Jason Daniels is a PhD student in Psychology (Applied Developmental Science:

Instructional Technology). His research centres on how the design and structure of
hypermedia impact learning.
Patrick Dillon and Tony Howe have worked together for over a decade, first at the
University of Reading where they ran an undergraduate course in technological
education, and now at the University of Exeter where Patrick is Professor of Telematics
in Education and Tony is an Honorary Research Fellow. Tony Howe, who is a lifelong
teacher and designer, still works as a part-time Lecturer in Technological Education at the
University of Reading. He believes that design education has lost its way in recent years
and he likes to challenge the current orthodoxy. Patrick Dillon is interested in education,
culture and technology as an interdisciplinary field.
Dennis P. Doordan is co-editor of the journal Design Issues. He has a Ph.D. from
Columbia University and extensive teaching experience in architecture and design
programs. Currently, he has a joint appointment on the faculties of the School of
Architecture and the Department of Art, Art History and Design at the University of
Notre Dame. He has published books and articles on a variety of topics related to
twentieth century architecture and design. He has contributed catalog essays for
architecture and design exhibitions organized by The Art Institute of Chicago, The
Carnegie Museum of Art in Pittsburgh, the Guggenheim Museum in New York City, The
Toledo Art Museum, and the Wolfsonian Foundation in Miami Beach, Florida. He is the
author of Twentieth Century Architecture, a new survey of this topic published by
Laurence King in 2002.
Christopher Dowlen has a degree in Automotive Engineering and spent ten years in the
motor industry, working in design and development areas. After spending a brief spell as
a Finite Element consultant he moved to South Bank University to teach design subjects.
He has run South Bank University's BSc honours degree in Engineering Product Design
since 1999. He is a member of the IED's Education and Training Committee.
Raluca Dumitrescu received her Engineering Degree in Manufacturing Engineering

from Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania in 1998. From the same university,
she received her M.Sc. Degree in Quality in Engineering and Design in 1999. She had
worked one year in Dublin City University, Ireland as a postgraduate research student.
Since 2001, she is a Ph.D. student at Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Design,
Engineering and Production. Her research interests include 3D geometric modeling,
CAD/CAM, free form shape design and manipulation.
David Durling is Director of the Advanced Research Institute, Staffordshire University,

UK. His education was in furniture design and industrial design. His PhD, completed as a
mature student, was in design education. His working background has been in product
design and industrial furniture mainly as a consultant. He has practised design and
conducted applied research across industrial design, furniture and interiors. He has a long
track record of specialised applied research and development in science laboratory
planning, related furniture and servicing systems, and fume cupboard design, with
designs marketed through several companies in UK, Europe and the Middle East. Recent
more theoretical work seeks to understand the nature of designers' learning. Dr Durling
has held several professional positions including regional chair, Chartered Society of
Designers. He is currently Chair of the international Design Research Society, and edits
its popular emailed 'Design Research News'. He was a member of the assessment panel
for Art & Design for the UK Research Assessment Exercise 2001. With John
Shackleton, he was Co-Chair of the DRS conference Common Ground 2002.
Chris Earl is in the Department of Design and Innovation at the Open University. His
main research areas since joining the Open University in 2000 are planning complex
design processes, generative design descriptions and shape representation for design.
Previously he was at the University of Newcastle, Faculty of Engineering where he
conducted interdisciplinary research on the design of engineer-to-order products and on
planning their manufacture and assembly. He has degrees BA, MSc in Mathematics and
PhD in Design.
Claudia Eckerts education encompassed mathematics, philosophy, computer science

and artificial intelligence, as well as experience of commercial software development.
She completed a PhD in Design Studies at the Open University in 1997 followed by an
ESRC-funded postgraduate research project, based primarily on a very large scale
ethnographic study of the knitwear design process. Her research on knitwear design has
focused on process modelling, the communication of design ideas, the use of sources of
inspiration in various aspects of design thinking, and on intelligent computer tools for
designers. She is now a Senior Research Associate at the Cambridge University
Engineering Design Centre, where she is investigating planning processes, design
modification processes and communication in large scale engineering projects. Analysing
design processes using both a range of conceptual paradigms and cross-domain
comparisons is her core research interest.
Marina Economidou is currently working towards a PhD in Occupational Psychology

by research into designers personalities. Her research interests span Psychology, Design
Management, Marketing and Strategic Management .
Monika Fendl (Dipl.-Ing.), is research assistant, Department of Architecture, Dresden

University of Technology, Germany. Study grant from Studienstiftung des deutschen
Volkes. 1997 completed studies in architecture (Hons.). Professional experience
includes five years of teaching architectural design of social facilities and healthcare
buildings. Funded research project Planning and design methods in architecture
sponsored by DFG Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft since 2000. Research visits: UK
(London, Coventry, Oxford, Milton Keynes in 2000), NL (Delft in 2000), USA
(Cambridge, Pittsburgh, Columbus, Cincinnati, Berkeley in 2001), UK (London and
Reading in 2001) and USA (Cincinnati, Chicago, Buffalo, Raleigh, Philadelphia in 2002).
Conferences: Coventry, Delft, Reading and Philadelphia. Presentations: Reading
University in 2001 and University of Cincinnati in 2002. DRS membership since 2001.
Additional research interests: architectural design curriculum, knowledge-based
databases. Submission of doctoral thesis: July 2002. Publications about planning and
design methods and architectural design of social facilities and healthcare buildings in
German and English.
Daniel Formosa has worked on projects ranging from the design of IBM's first personal
computer to innovations in wound care for Johnson & Johnson. Instructional materials
for Ortho Pharmaceutical's birth control pills are helping reduce unwanted pregnancies.
His work on the original line of OXO Good Grips kitchen tools earned Design of the
Decade award and is included in the Permanent Collection of the Museum of Modern Art
in New York. Dr. Formosa is a member of AIGA's task force on voting in the US and is
co-director of the Universal Design Product Development Initiative Project at the
University of Buffalo. In addition to driver interfaces, recent projects include product and
interaction design for Hewlett Packard and XM Satellite Radio. Dr. Formosa was a
founding partner of Smart Design in New York, where he continues to serve as a research
consultant. He is principal of Daniel Formosa Design Inc.
John Fraser's area of interest concerns the use of Communication and Information
Technology for collaborative design work in international educational contexts. Some of
the questions he addresses are - does the use of ICT influence the decision making
strategies of students? - and - do the structural aspects of a problem-solving process
significantly determine outcomes? Currently he is involved in a research project called
DesignLink. This has been set up to give students the opportunity to work collaboratively
across national and cultural borders. The intention of the project is to examine the idea
generating, solution-seeking and decision-making methods and processes that design
students adopt when using information and communication technology (ICT) in
computer-supported co-operative work. The research concentrates on distributed teams
of design students drawn from Indiana University-Purdue University-Indianapolis (USA),
University of Missouri-Columbia (USA), Southampton Institute of Higher Education
(UK), the University of Ulster (Northern Ireland), Cali-Colombia (South America),
Toronto (Canada), Denver (USA), Nebraska (USA), and from Richmond American
International University in London.
http://www.richmond.ac.uk/academ/spprog/designlink.htm
The author would be very interested to know of anyone who might be interested in
joining the third phase of DesignLink.
Ken Friedman is associate professor of leadership and strategic design at the Norwegian
School of Management, Department of Knowledge Management, and visiting professor
at the Advanced Research Institute of the Staffordshire University School of Art and
Design, UK. Friedman's research on the foundations of design is an attempt to develop a
philosophy and theory that will anchor robust practice in the field. Friedman has
published articles and books on management and organization, information science,
philosophy and art. In the 1980s, he was publisher and CEO of The Art Economist
Corporation in New York. He serves on the Editorial Advisory Board of
ARTbibliographies Modern. He is also a practicing artist and designer who has been
active in the international laboratory known as Fluxus. Friedman has edited special issues
of such journals as Built Environment and Performance Research. With David Durling,
he was co-chair of the La Clusaz conference Doctoral Education in Design: Foundations
for the Future.
John Gero is Professor of Design Science and Co-Director of the Key Centre of Design
Computing and Cognition, at the University of Sydney and is currently Visiting Professor
at MIT. He is the author or editor of 34 books and over 450 papers in the fields of design
science, artificial intelligence, optimization and computer-aided design. He has been a
Visiting Professor of Architecture, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, or
Computer Science at UC-Berkeley, UCLA, Columbia and CMU in the USA, at
Strathclyde and Loughborough in the UK, at INSA-Lyon in France and at EPFLLausanne in Switzerland.
Franca Giannini graduated in Mathematics at the University of Genova in 1986. From

1986 to 1989 she worked in the research and development department of Italcad
Tecnologie e Sistemi where she was integrating boundary and CSG representations in the
Autotrol S7000 solid modeller. Since 1989 she has been working as a researcher at
I.M.A., where she has been involved in some National and International Projects on
geometric modelling, production automation and graphical user interface. She has also
acted as program committee member of International Conferences on the topic, like
Eurographics99, FEATS'2001, SMI,ACM SoCG2001. She is also the co-author of a
patented system for automatic feature extraction and has developed hierarchical boundary
models for feature based representation. Her research interests include product modelling
and methods and tools for distributed design.
Gabriela Goldschmidt is Associate Professor in the Faculty of Architecture and Town

Planning, Technion Israel Institute of Technology. Her principal area of research
interest is design thinking/cognition and reasoning, and in particular visual reasoning in
design. She has lectured and taught in numerous universities in the USA and Europe
Naomi Gornick is Associate Professor of Design Management at Brunel University, UK.

She consults in advanced programme development at London Institute and Kingston,
Middlesex and de Montfort Universities and Regents Business School. From 1989-2001
Naomi Gornick has initiated and directed post-graduate Design Management programs at
the Royal College of Art and Brunel University. Naomi Gornick is a design management
and training consultant for clients in industry and design both in the UK and the USA.
She lectures and writes. In September 2000, Naomi Gornick was a Keynote speaker at the
annual IDSA conference(Industrial Designers Society of America) in New Orleans. She
was a jury member for the annual IDSA Awards in Boston, August 2001. She is a jury
member for 2002 IDSA Catalyst Awards and 2002 RSA Student Design Awards. Naomi
Gornick was founder Chairman of the CSD Design Management Group in 1981.
Jos Gotzsch obtained her Master of Science (MSc) in Industrial Design Engineering at
the University of Technology in Delft - the Netherlands. Currently she is an Associate
Professor in the Department of Technology Management at the Grenoble Graduate
School of Business (Groupe ESC Grenoble) in France. Professional experience includes,
since 1991, the management and teaching of courses for business students in the field of
Industrial Design, Technical Knowledge for product managers and Web-Design
Management. Prior experience, from 1986 1992; one year as Industrial Designer
Trainee at Pentagram in London, England and three years as an Industrial Designer at
Philips Corporate Design in Groningen, the Netherlands (Domestic Appliances and
Personal Care Division). She then spent two years as a Product Development Manager at
the Group Sommer Allibert in Grenoble, France. Areas of research interest: Design
Management, Success Factors in Design Management, Communicative Aspects in
Product Design.
Kai Hakkarainen, Ph.D. is a Research Fellow of the Academy of Finland and the
director of the Centre for Research on Networked Learning and Knowledge Building,
Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, Finland
(http://www.helsinki.fi/science/networkedlearning). He specializes in cognitive research
on learning, thinking, and expertise. He is currently a visiting scholar at the Institute for
Knowledge Innovation and Technology (IKIT), Ontario Institution for Studies in
Education, University of Toronto.
David Hands is both a lecturer and Research Fellow in Design Management at the
University of Salford. He has worked extensively within the area of design policy
analysis and designing against crime. Currently, David is undertaking Doctoral research
into embedding crime resistant thinking into the briefing process for both product and
spatial designers. He has recently curated an international architecture exhibition at
CUBE, Manchester that looked at emergent design and architectural practices in the
Northwest of England.
Kimitake Hasuike is a researcher and a designer in the Department of the Human

Interface Design Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan, and is a member of the
Japanese Society for the Science of Design, and Human Interface Society of Japan.
Research background is Human Interface Design, Design Process, Design Methodology;
especially Human Interface Research and Interaction Design Studies. Principal areas of
research interest are: the interaction design and analysis method; user-centred design
process; the collaborative design process; the design methodology based on ethnography;
and user participatory design approach from a social aspect.
Yasushi Harada, Tama Art University. He is an instructor at the Information Design

Department of Tama Art University. His present research areas are the visualization of
the dynamic information (like knowledge, news, experience), and the method for spatial
expression of the relation information elements. His professional experience includes an
assistant professor of visual communication design field of Institute of Art and Design,
University of Tsukuba, art director for promotion design in Toppan Printing Co., Ltd, and
art director of advertising design in Recruit Co., Ltd. He graduated from a visual
communication design course in the School of Art and Design, University of Tsukuba,
having researched a three-dimensional typography. Mr. Harada moved to Tama Art
University from Tsukuba University, in April this year.
Richelle Harun is a Doctoral student working with UMIST and the University of Salford
investigating the integration of technology - throughout the supply chain - into the design
process. She has presented papers to conferences looking at design competencies and the
skills and capabilities of the designer and how they can provide value to new product
development and the design process.
Jung-Pyo Hong is an associate professor of Dept. of Industrial Design at Chonbuk

National University, South Korea. Professional experience includes Visiting Professor of
University of Bridgepoint in USA, Director of LG Electronics Design Center, Jury
member of Korea Industrial Design Award (KIDA), Korea Good Design Selection,
Korea Industrial Design Exhibition and LG Electronics Design Competition. He was also
an Evaluation Board Member of 1999 Korea Industrial Design Support Project, Board
Member of National License Committee and Editor of Journal of Korean Society of
Design Science and Journal of Korean Society for Science of Design. He has published
more than 30 papers in journals such as Design Studies, KAID, Journal of Korean
Society of Design Science and Journal of Korean Society of Design Science, and he has
opened more than 40 personal and group exhibitions in USA and Korea. Principal areas
of research interest are: design development process, product aesthetics and creativity.
Sandra Horne-Martin is a research assistant at Birmingham Institute of Art and Design,

University of Central England. Her research interests include design theory, design
education and environmental and furniture design. Her PhD considered the influence of
classroom space on the practice of teachers. Publications include: The Classroom
Environment and its Effect on the Practice of Teachers, the Journal of Environmental
Psychology, special issue on childrens environments, December 2001.
Jung-Sik Jang, Dept. of Digital Media Design, Graduate School of TECHNO DESIGN,
Kookmin University, Seoul, Korea. Jang received a masters degree in Industrial Design
at the College of Design, Kookmin University, and is currently in his doctoral program
studying the Interactive Design of Digital Media Design at the Graduate School of
Techno Design, also at Kookmin University. He is a development manager of
Nipponet.net in Japan, an assistant professor in the Product Design department at
Sangmyung University, and an instructor for Computer Applied Design, Interface Design
and Product Design at both Kookmin and Seoul Womens Universities. Recently, he has
been absorbed in the study of Interactive Interfaces for Web3D and counts Interface
Design, Web3D, Dynamic User Interfaces, etc. as his major fields of study
Marie Jefsioutine is Senior Research Fellow in Digital Media, Birmingham Institute of

Art and Design, University of Central England. Her first degree was in Experimental
Psychology (BSc Hons) at Sussex University, after which she worked as a Speech
technology consultant for Logica Cambridge Plc, and then as a research assistant in
Psycholinguistics at Cambridge University. Having studied Computing Cognition and
Psychology to masters level at Warwick university, and Communications with
Electronic Graphics (PgDip) at Goldsmiths College, University of London, she has
worked in multimedia design for over ten years. This has included work for the BBC
Open University and Goldsmiths College Design Department. At Birmingham Institute
of Art and Design she was Producer of The Virtual Gallery of Contemporary Design and
works with research groups across the Faculty. Marie is currently involved in usability
research and was instrumental in setting up the Facultys Digital Media Usability
Laboratory (User-Lab).
Robert Jerrard is Professor of Design Studies, Birmingham Institute of Art and Design,
University of Central England. His research interests include design theory; technology
diffusion and work based learning. He is a Council member of the Design Research
Society and has published widely. Recent publications include Design Management Case
Studies (2002), with D. Hands and J. Ingram, published by Routledge. More recently he
has been appointed to the editorial board of Art Design and Communication and is an
Associate Editor of the Design Journal
Wolfgang Jonas Born 1953, study of naval architecture 1971-76 at the Technical
University of Berlin, research on the computer-aided optimisation of streamlined shapes,
PhD in 1983. 1984-87 consulting engineer for companies of the automobile industry and
the German standardisation institute. Since 1988 teaching (CAD, industrial design) and
research (system theory and design theory) at the University of Arts Berlin and at the
University of Wuppertal. 1994 lecturing qualification (Habilitation) in design theory.
19942001 professor for process design at the University of Art and Design Halle /
Burg Giebichenstein. Since 10/2001 professor for design theory at the Universtiy of
Arts Bremen.
Lorraine Justice is currently the Director of the Industrial Design Program in the
College of Architecture at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech). Dr.
Justice has been in higher education for the past fourteen years, teaching in the areas of
Industrial, Graphic and Computer Human Interface Design. Prior to joining Georgia
Tech, Dr. Justice was Acting Chair and Associate Professor in the Department of
Industrial, Interior and Visual Communication Design at Ohio State University. While at
Ohio State, Professor Justice was awarded a National Endowment for the Arts grant on
the integration of technology and design, a SIGGRAPH Educators Grant, and a team
Smithsonian Award in Education for the Mission to Mars exhibition developed in
cooperation with the National Science Foundation and Apple Computer. Dr. Justice has
focused her research in the area of design research and technology. She has published and
presented her work worldwide on topics such as interface design and animation. She is a
NASAD evaluator for design programs within the United States and assists educational
institutions worldwide with curriculum development. She was recently made a Fellow of
the Industrial Design Society of America (IDSA). Before joining academia, Professor
Justice worked in industry for ten years as a professional designer for Battelle, Goodyear
and Metatec. Dr. Justice has consulted on software design with corporations such as
Apple, CompuServe, Chemical Abstracts, CheckFree, Microsoft, NCR, and Lutron. Dr.
Justice received her B.F.A. in Painting, Masters in Industrial Design, and Ph.D. in
Communication.
Toni-Matti Karjalainen, M.Sc.(econ.) conducts doctoral research at the University of

Art and Design Helsinki where he belongs to the multidisciplinary Meaning of form
research group. He has worked as a researcher in TAI Research Centre (Helsinki
University of Technology) since 1998, recently in a project that benchmarked the
practices of so-called platform thinking in various industries. His areas of responsibility
have been product identity, differentiation, and brand management. At the time he is
starting new efforts focusing on product portfolio management and design concepts. In
recent years, Toni-Matti Karjalainen has presented papers in various international
conferences on the topics of his doctoral research that deals with design semantics and
brand identity. He also writes occasionally for a Finnish design magazine Muoto.
Ina Klaasen is a lecturer in Urban Design and Regional Planning at the Faculty of
Architecture, Delft University of Technology. In this capacity she has chaired the
working committee for Inter-University Study Groups on Urban Planning and has been a
committee member of the Spatial Planning and Research Section of the Dutch Institute
for Spatial Planning and Housing (NIROVSRPO). Recently she was project leader of
the faculty research project De Architectonische Interventie (The Architectural
Intervention) and chief editor of the associated publication series. She is a core editor of
Journal of Design Research (Delft University of Technology). She has been a member of
Provincial Council of North Holland, has worked as urban planning policy consultant for
the Municipality of Amsterdam, and is now a member of the Amsterdam Council for
Urban Development
Jin-A Kim is a part time professor of Dept. of Industrial Design at Chonbuk National
University, South Korea. Professional experience includes the Designer of Byeoksan Co.,
Research Fellow of Industrial Design Development Center, Chonbuk National
University, part time professor of Chonnam National University, Howon University,
Damyang National College and Chonju Technical College. She published more than 5
articles in journals such as Asian Design Conference, Journal of Korean Society of
Design Science and Journal of Korean Society of Design Science. Principal areas of
research interest are: design philosophy, design history and design education policy.
Sungkon Kim is a full-time lecturer in the Department of Design at University of Ulsan

in South Korea. Professional experience includes researcher the Department of Multi
Dimensional Information Presentation at ETRI (Electronic Telecommunication Research
Institute) in Korea and Software development team leader at Institute of DDR (Digital
Dream Research) soft. Educational background includes BS in Department of Industrial
Design at KAIST (Korea Advanced Institute of Technology) and MDesign in Institute of
Design at IIT (Illinois Institute of Technology). Principal areas of research interest are:
Virtual Reality Applied Design, Human-centered Software Development Process, and
Design planning Methodology.
John Knight is Usability Engineer, Birmingham Institute of Art and Design, University
of Central England. Johns first degree was in Fine Art (BA Hons), at University of
Wales, and subsequent to studying User-Interface Design at masters level (London
Guildhall University), has worked on a number of usability research projects ranging
from information systems at the British Library to digital media evaluation (Whirlpool).
In addition he has also worked as a visiting lecturer and external examiner (London
Guildhall University) on BSc and Msc computing courses. He manages User-Lab as well
as collaborating in research with the aim of making usability usable to the art and design
community.
Peter Kroes studied physical engineering at the Technische Universiteit Eindhoven (The
Netherlands) and wrote a Ph.D. thesis on philosophical problems concerning the notion
of time in modern physical theories (University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands, 1982).
Since 1995 he is professor in philosophy, more in particular philosophy of technology, at
the University of Technology Delft. His main areas of interest are philosophy of
technology and philosophy of science. Important publications: Time: its structure and
role in physical theories (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1985), Technological development and
science in the industrial age (Dordrecht: Kluwer Acad. Publishers, 1992), Ideaalbeelden
van wetenschap; een inleiding tot de wetenschapsfilosofie (Amsterdam: Boom, 1996),
and The empirical turn in the philosophy of technology (ed. with A. Meijers), Research in
Philosophy and Technology, Vol. 20, JAI Press, 2000.
Aren Emre Kurtgz PhD MSc is a Part-time Instructor in the Department of Industrial
Design at Middle East Technical University (ODT), Ankara Trkiye. He was a
member of the Executive Board of ETMK Turkish Society of Industrial Designers,
between 1988-2000. He currently teaches the undergraduate course Meaning in Design
and graduate level courses on Advanced Project Development in Industrial Design. His
principal areas of research interest are: cultural studies; semiotics; design history and
criticism; and the history, theory and techniques of drawings for design. Dr. Kurtgz has
publications in areas of media research and design criticism.
Andreas Larsson, M.Sc., is a Ph.D. student at the Division of Computer Aided

Design, Lulea University of Technology. With a background in Computer Science
and Human Work Science, he is currently investigating socio-technical aspects of
distributed engineering. The research approach is to perform ethnographic studies
in order to achieve a better understanding of how environments for distributed
engineering are used today, and how well those environments match the needs of
global design teams. His research interests are tools and methods for distributed
engineering. Andreas received his M.Sc. in Computer Science from Blekinge
Institute of Technology in 2000.
Bryan Lawson is Dean of the Faculty of Architectural Studies at the University

of Sheffield. He studied at the Oxford School of Architecture followed by a
period in the Applied Psychology Department at the University of Aston in
Birmingham where he obtained his Masters and Doctorate. He is a qualified
architect. Bryan Lawson has considerable experience of design research and
research in computer aided design. He is the author of three major books, How
Designers Think, Design in Mind and The Language of Space. He was the
originator of the GABLE CAD System in the 1980s. He has held research grants
from EPSRC, EEC, RIBA, ARCUK, NRDC amongst others.
Cherie Lebbon is a Research Fellow in the Helen Hamlyn Research Centre at the Royal
College of Art, London. Her main role within the Centre is as a member of an
interdisciplinary research team drawn from the HHRC, the Engineering Department at
Cambridge University, the Design for Ability Unit at Central St Martins School of Art
and Design and the Design Council. This externally funded research project, i~design,
seeks to provide information to support more effective take up of inclusive design
strategies and methods. In addition she works as a research consultant with the Design
Council and several design companies. She is visiting professor at Glasgow School of
Art, University of Westminster and Staffordshire University and external examiner at the
University of Derby. Previously she was course leader in Product Design at Staffordshire
University (UK).
Jin-Ryeol Lee PhD is a full time professor of design at Chosun University, Gwangju,
South Korea. Professional experience includes senior consultant of R&C Korea Co.,
Senior Research Fellow of Industrial Design Development Center, Chonbuk National
University, Korea. He was awarded from Korean Marketing Association in 2001. He has
published more than 20 articles in journals such as Journal of Korean Society of Design
Science, Korea Marketing Review and Korean Journal of Marketing. Principal areas of
research interest are: design management, design marketing, design psychology, design
research and design strategy.
Kun-Pyo Lee is professor in the department of Industrial design at Korea Advanced

Institute of Science and Technology. He graduated from Chungang University (BA.
1982), Illinois Institute of Technology (MS. 1985) and Tsukuba University (PhD. 2001).
Professional experiences include appointments as vice president of Korean Society of
Design Science, Ergonomic Society of Korea and Korean Society for Emotion and
Sensibility; Editor in Chief, Journal of Design Research (Korean); Member of DRS, and
JSSD; Member of organizing committee for the conference Doctoral Education in Design
at La Clusaz 2000. He is also involved in consulting activities for major corporations
domestic and abroad: Samsung Electronics, LG Electronics, Johnson & Johnson. Major
areas of research interests include design methodology, human-centered design, cultural
user-interface design, design planning. Awards he received include best paper award at
2nd Asian Design Conference, Co-winner of Grand prize of the 1st Osaka International
Design Competition, Designer of the Year by Korean Design Monthly.
Lai-Chung Lee is assistant professor at the National Taipei University of Technology in

Taiwan, where he teaches product design and design practice at the undergraduate level.
He also teaches computer-mediated communication and interaction design at the graduate
level. He received his Ph.D. from Coventry University, Great Britain, in 2001. His
research interests are international cooperative design project, computer-supported
collaborative design. He has published conference papers in the area of design
management and collaborative design.
Kuei-Chia Liang is an Assistant Professor in the Graduate School of Design

Management, and Director of Product Design Department, School of Design, MingChuan University, Taiwan. He was an in-house industrial designer and design consultant
for many years before commencing a PhD programme in 1995 in the Colour and Imaging
Institute, University of Derby, and was awarded his doctorate in 1999. His research
interests are design management, the practice and theory of design, user-centred design
and design education.
Jonas Lindemann, received his MSc degree in civil engineering in 1997. He is currently
a Ph.D. student at the Division of Structural Mechanics at Lund University. His research
interests include visualisation of finite element simulations, methods for distributing
finite element systems using CORBA and DCOM, and development of user interfaces for
computational codes and educational tools in structural mechanics.
Stephen Little is Senior Lecturer in Knowledge Management for the Open University
Business School. He has degrees in Architecture, and Applied Psychology. He has been
researching technology and organisations since leaving architectural practice in 1981 to
undertake a PhD on the organisational dynamics of innovation in computer aided
architectural design. He has worked in Australia, based at Griffith University, Brisbane,
and the University of Wollongong NSW. He has also held visiting appointments to the
Urban Research Program at the Australian National University and the Fujitsu Centre for
Managing Information Technology in Organisations at the Australian Graduate School of
Management. He joined the OU in 1999 following three years in the Department of
Business Information Technology, Manchester Metropolitan University, and is currently
researching Anglo-Japanese knowledge creation and electronic governance and inclusion
for peripheral groups within the global society.
Terence Love is post-doctoral research fellow at the We-B Research Centre in the
School of Management Information Systems at Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia.
He was awarded his PhD in Engineering Design at the University of Western Australia.
His early research, following his degree at Lancaster University in 1974, was in
developing computer assistance for optimising engineering design solutions. His current
research focuses on: designing in management information systems; multidisciplinary
design processes; design futures; the internal physiology of human designing and the use
of designed artefacts; doctoral and professional education. He has published or presented
over 50 papers on his research.
Tom Loveday, MVA (SCA) BArch (SAIT) is a lecturer in design in the Interior Design
Program of the Faculty of Design Architecture and Building at the University of
Technology, Sydney and has taught in architecture and interior design since 1987 in
South Australia and Sydney. Tom Loveday has been a practicing architect, registered in
South Australia. Teaching areas are design theory, studio practice and communications
and computing. Research areas are art theory, philosophy and art and gender. Tom
Loveday is also a practicing artist and PhD Student at Sydney College of the Arts,
Rachael Luck BA Dip. Arch. MSc. ARB is a Research Fellow in the Research Group for
Inclusive Environments within the School of Construction Management and Engineering
at the University of Reading. She worked as an architect in practice before her academic
appointment in 1992. Elected onto Council for the Design Research Society, since 1997
she has been Honorary Secretary for the DRS. Principal areas of research interest are;
user involvement in the design process, inclusive design, corporate real estate practice
and project briefing processes. Research experience includes; RIBA award investigating
research in UK Architectural Schools; project briefing involving users in the building
design process; design of inclusive environments for deaf and hard of hearing people;
analysis of corporate real estate practice, taken to the Architecture Department of the
University of Melbourne, Australia; evaluating construction research activity in UK
universities.
Ding-Bang Luh PhD(IIT) MPd(NCSU) BS(NCKU) is Associate Professor in the

Department of Industrial Design at the National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.
Professional experience includes Assistant Researcher, National Science and Technology
Museum, Kaohsiung; Patent Reviewer, National Central Bureau of Standards, Taipei;
Instructor, National Cheng Kung University, Hochwen Polytech and Tainan Women's
College, Tainan; Assistant Design Engineer, Interior Design Department, Yuloong
Automobile Engineering Center, Taoyuan; Assistant Interior Designer, Giant Interior and
Advertising Company, Taipei, and; Design Assistant, TV Section, Chunghsing Electric
Appliances Company, Chungho. Principal areas of research interest are: design planning,
design strategy, design evaluation, design process, idea measurement, presentation
techniques, exhibit design, interdisciplinary design and research, and design education.
Dr. Luh has publications in areas of idea screening, design management, design strategy,
innovation planning, perspective theory, design curriculum, design philosophy, and
educational exhibit design.
Morten Lund, graduated as an architect from the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts,
School of Architecture, 1983, conducted research in the same place 1989-1992, on the
staff of the Danish Railways Design Department, 1983-1989, visiting teacher at various
Nordic schools of architecture and design, teacher at Danmarks Designskole, 1992-1999.
He was guest professor at Lund University, 1999-2001 and rector at Grundtvigs Folk
College, 2002. Morten Lund's research and teaching deals with the meeting between
architecture and technology, minimizing the use of resources in structures and spatial
composition and expression.
Ade Mabogunje is the Associate Director of the Stanford Center for Design Research.
Dr. Mabogunje's research focuses on the development of tools and methods to support
engineering design teams working in highly competitive environments. Before coming to
Stanford he worked for several years in the energy industry and continues to work closely
on industry related engineering projects. He is currently engaged in the design and
evaluation of tools to support learning during new product development.
Christopher Maggs is Professor of Nursing Practice and Development, responsible for 2

acute medical wards at Mid Staffs general Hospitals NHS Trust. One is 26 beds acute
elderly medicine, the second, opening 1st June 2002, is a new Professorial Rehabilitation
and Re-Enablement Unit for 24 patients. His PhD is in Economic and Social History, his
MA is in Health Care Ethics. Author of several key publications in the history of nursing
and in nursing research, both qualitative and quantitative. Responsible also for a clinical
leadership programme for all clinical staff employed by NHS accredited at Post-Graduate
Masters Level.
Doug Mahar, PhD, BA(Hons) is Head of School (Acting) of the School of Psychology
and Counselling at the Queensland University of Technology. His previous academic
appointment was in the Division of Psychology at the Australian National University,
where he also served as Co-Director of the TRUST project in the Institute of Advanced
Studies. He is currently Deputy-Chair of the QUT University Human Research Ethics
Committee and is a past president of the Australasian Society for Experimental
Psychology. His principal areas of research include the processing of sensory
information, memory processes, and human computer interaction.
Darrell L Mann BSc(Hons), MSc, C Eng, MI Mech E Director CREAX nv, Belgium.
Darrell is a mechanical engineer by background, having spent 15 years working at RollsRoyce in various R&D related positions, and ultimately becoming responsible for the
companys long term future helicopter engine strategy. He left the company in 1996 to
first help set up a high technology company before entering a programme of systematic
innovation research at the University of Bath. He first started using TRIZ in 1992, and by
the time he left Rolls-Royce had generated over a dozen patents and patent applications.
In 1998 he started teaching TRIZ and related methods to both technical and non-technical
audiences, and to date has given courses to over 1000 delegates across a broad spectrum
of industries. He continues to actively use TRIZ in addition to teaching and researching,
setting up an IPR-based company in 1997 which currently has over 50 patentable
inventions at various stages of exploitation, and consulting regularly with companies
around the world to solve problems or help exploit new opportunities. With over 80
TRIZ-related papers and the book Hands-On Systematic Innovation to his name, Darrell
is now one of the most widely published authors on TRIZ in the world.
Sylvia Margolin is a faculty professor in the Masters of Social Work Program at

Governors State University south of Chicago. She received both her MSW and Ph.D.
degrees at the University of Illinois, Chicago, where her doctoral research related to
socially-isolated youth. Dr. Margolin has worked as a clinical social worker in a number
of primary and secondary schools. Published work focuses on interventions for children
of divorce and peer-rejected young people.
Victor Margolin is Professor of Design History at the University of Illinois, Chicago.

The founding editor, and now co-editor, of Design Issues, Professor Margolin has
published widely in the fields of design history and design studies. Besides numerous
articles, his books include Design Discourse (editor), Discovering Design: Explorations
in Design Studies (co-editor), The Idea of Design (co-editor), and The Struggle for
Utopia: Rodchenko, Lissitzky, Moholy-Nagy, 1917-1946 (author). His most recent book
is The Politics of the Artificial; Essays on Design and Design Studies (author).
Toshihiko Matsuo is a designer in the Department of the Human Interface Design

Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan. Design background is Industrial Design and
Human Factors. Principal areas of design interest are: the design of office printers and
multi-functional machines; the total design process based on user requirements
throughout design, manufacture, sales, and maintenance; user-oriented design; the
collaborative design process.
Andrew Milne, M.Sc. B.Sc. is a Ph.D. candidate in the Design Division of Stanford
University. Andrew is currently researching the integration of technology tools into
physical work settings to support geographically distributed engineering design teams.
His research interests include Engineering Design, Human-Computer Interaction,
Ubiquitous Computing, Product Design, Communication Technologies, and Innovation.
Andrew earned his M.Sc. in Electrical Engineering and B.Sc. in Mechanical Engineering
at the Pennsylvania State University. He has 5 years of industrial experience in systems
design and consulting.
Marina Monti graduated in Mathematics at the University of Genoa in 1984. From

1984 to 1986 she was researcher at the Politecnico of Milano in the field of geometric
modelling and graphic interfaces. Since 1986 to 1997 she worked in research and
development departments of Italcad and Computervision respectively, where she
developed and integrated parts of the Autotrol S7000 solid modeller: during this time she
was working mostly in the field of solid and free-form surfaces modelling and standards
for the product data exchange; she participated in several national and international
projects aimed at the definition of the ISO_STEP standard and at the development of
tools based on it. Since the end of 1998 she works as a researcher at the Institute of
Applied Mathematics in Genoa and her interests are mainly in the field of product
modelling and computer aided design.
Nicola Morelli is a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the Centre for Design at RMIT University.
His area of interest is in the design methodology for product/service systems, design of
IT-related products and services, design for short and long term sustainability. He was the
project manager of the TeleCentra research project, funded by the Australian Research
Council. His previous academic experience includes research activities at the Centre for
Design at RMIT University and Politecnico di Milano (Prof Ezio Manzini). Dr Morellis
work has been published in several international journals and books. He recently coauthored the book Design+Environment, with Lewis, Gertsakis, Sweatman and Grant.
Yukari Nagai PhD is a member of staff of the Department of Design, Tsukuba College
of Technology, which is a unique national three-year college for those with visual and
hearing disabilities in Japan. Dr Nagais subjects are design fundamentals and theory of
visual communication design. Principal areas of research interest are research into design
creativity and thinking process of creative design. History: Graduate School of
Musashino Art University 1986-1990 (Master of Art). Study abroad in Netherlands
(NUFFIC) 1988-1989: Lecturer of Kiryu Junior College 1999-2000: Lecturer of Tsukuba
College of Technology 2000-now: Graduate School of Science and Technology Chiba
University 1999-2002 (PhD): Research Abroad in U.K. under the Japanese Government
(at Loughborough University 2002). Conference Presentation: at 5th Asian Design
Conference (Korea, 2001) grant from foundation of Ibaraki-prefecture Science and
Technology, at Design 2002 International Design Conference (Croatia 2002) grant of
the Japanese ministry of Culture and Science.
Tek-Jin Nam is an Assistant Professor in Industrial Design at Korea Advanced Institute

of Science and Technology (KAIST), Korea. He received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in
industrial design from KAIST and the PhD degree from the Department of Design,
Brunel University, UK. His PhD investigation was concerned with Collaborative Design
Environments for 3D CAD. Before joining KAIST, he worked as a lecturer in the School
of Product and Engineering Design, University of Wales Institute Cardiff, Wales, UK,
where he taught Information Ergonomics, CAD and product design practice modules. His
current research interests are in the areas of Computer-Supported Collaborative Design,
Human-Computer Interaction, Interaction Design, Computer Aided Design and Business
Issues in Design.
Harold G Nelson, President and Co-founding Director. Dr. Nelson is working as a

consultant to corporations, governmental agencies and educational institutions in the
areas of: Organizational Design Competence, Leadership Development, Social Systems
Design and Systems/Design Education. He has worked with organizations, universities
and corporations, state and national governmental agencies, as well as foreign
governments and the United Nations. He is Past-President of the International Society for
Systems Science. He is a member of the Systems Renewal Institute's Learning Resource
Council, a member of the Design Research Society and has been a Fellow in the
International Systems Institute. He has been a faculty member at the university level and
has been a researcher in both disciplinary and interdisciplinary fields. For over 12 years
Dr. Nelson was the Director of the Graduate Programs in Whole Systems Design and the
Whole Systems Design Institute at Antioch University. He is a registered architect in the
State of California.
R. M. Newman, BSc. PhD. Ceng. MBCS, is a Principal Lecturer in the School of

Mathematical and information Science, Coventry University. His teaching and research
activities are in CAD, virtual prototypes of products and computer network systems.
Roger Newport is Professor of Industrial Design and heads the Birmingham Centre for
Design Research at Birmingham Institute of Art & Design, University of Central
England. His background is in design practice, overseas development and teaching.
Research interests are mainly in the area of new product development including the
access structure of product design information, the relationship between new
technologies and design innovation, the management of risk and the development of a
patent for a one-piece universal joint.
Hisataka Noguchi is Professor of Industrial Design, Graduate School of Science and

Technology, Chiba University. Dr Noguchi's speciality is research into creative thinking
process of design, and methods for idea generation support using computers.
Karl-Gunnar Olsson received his MSc in civil engineering at Lund University,

Engineering, with a Licentiate at the same place, 1997. He is currently Associate
Professor and Head of Structural Design at Chalmers School of Architecture. His recent
research is aimed at the perception of mechanical matters particularly within architectural
education.
Rivka Oxman is a tenured Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Architecture and Town
Planning, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. She received her B.Arch, M.Arch.
and D.Sc. from the Technion. She is a well-known researcher in the field of Design
Studies and Design Computation, and her research and writing have appeared in the
major international journals in the field. Dr. Oxman is a member of the editorial board of
several important journals, among them Design Studies, as well as being a member of the
board of major international conferences in the field of Design Studies and Design
Computation.
Denis Pallez is currently an associate professor in the department of computer sciences at

the University of Lyon, France, in the PRISMa laboratory. He obtained his PhD in
computer sciences in January 2000 at the University of Metz (France). He also spent four
months as an invited researcher at the institute of technology at Montreal (ETS). His
research interest is in the area of CAD/CAM including conceptual and functional design,
needs and functions modeling, intelligent CAD systems, shape synthesis, technical data
management systems.
Ting Yong Pan is a PhD research student at the School of Art and Design, Coventry
University. He gained his B.Eng (1991) in Graphic Design from Wuxi Light Industrial
University, China. His research interests include sketching behaviour, CAD in design
process, and 3D modelling.
Malcolm Parry B.Arch, RIBA, ACIBSE is the head of the Welsh School of
Architecture, Cardiff University, UK. He is a past president and fellow of the Society of
Light and Lighting and a broadcaster on architectural issues. The main interests of
research are aspects of Welsh Architecture, housing, day lighting and energy use,
museum lighting and conservation. He is active in matters of architectural education,
working with the RIBA and the Architects Registration Board UK and the European
Association of Architectural Education.
Chengzhi Peng (BArch, MSc, PhD) is a Lecturer in Architectural Computing at the

School of Architecture University of Sheffield. He has been working in the field of
architectural computing research and application since 1989 when he joined the
Edinburgh Computer Aided Architectural Design (EdCAAD) research unit at the
Department of Architecture University of Edinburgh as a postgraduate research student.
Since arriving at Sheffield in 1995, Dr Peng has received research grants from the
Nuffield Foundation, RIBA Trust Research Awards, EPSRC to work on various projects
related to computer supported collaborative design, and, more recently, from the Arts and
Humanities Research Board to work on a project dedicated to the modelling of the
historical city form of Sheffield. His recent book, titled "Design through Digital
Interaction: Computing Communications and Collaboration on Design," was published
by Intellect Books in Autumn 2001.
Silvia Pizzocaro, PhD, is senior researcher at Politecnico di Milano. Academic

experience includes appointments as Professor at Politecnico di Milano since 1996 for the
Degree course in Industrial design; tutor and research supervisor within the Department
of Industrial Design and Technology of Architecture of Politecnico di Milano; postdoctoral research fellow; co-ordinator for research projects funded by the European
Commission; co-ordinator of the Operative Centre of the Ph.D. programme in Industrial
Design at Politecnico di Milano; scientific co-ordinator and chair of the organising
committee for the Design plus Research conference held in May 2000 at Politecnico di
Milano; scientific co-ordinator of the related project proposal supported by the European
Commission within the Human Potential Programme, High Level Scientific Conferences.
Principal areas of research interest are: theory of design, the design of research into
design, doctoral education in design, research methodology. Published in leading
journals.
Vesna Popovic, Bach (Arch), MAF (Industrial Design), PhD is Associate Professor in
Industrial design at the Queensland University of Technology where she is responsible
for the leadership and development of the Industrial design discipline. She has worked as
an industrial design and ergonomics consultant and was involved in different
international projects. She has a number of realised designs and some of them received
significant awards (18 Awards). She has been publishing in refereed and non-refereed
publications. Principal areas of research interest are applied product design research,
research in design thinking, design cognition, design theory and human factors and
applied ergonomics as related to design. She is a Fellow of the Design Institute of
Australia, Member of Human Factors Society (USA), Ergonomic Society of Australia
and Design Research Society (UK). She was the Executive Board Member of the
International Council of Societies of Industrial Design (ICSID) Education Chair from
1997 - 2001. She has been an ICSID adviser since 2002.
Juval Portugali, Head of the Environment and Society Graduate Program Ph.D at the
Department of Geography, The London School of Economics and Political Sciences.
Specialization: Cognitive Geography, theories of self-organization with respect to
cognitive maps, urbanism, agent-based modeling, socio-spatial change, spatial and
regional archaeology. Current research: Inter-representation networks and the
construction of cognitive maps. The city as a self-organizing system. 2D and 3D urban
simulation models. Recent Books: Implicate Relations: Society and space in the IsraeliPalestinian conflict, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, London, Boston 1993. The
Construction of Cognitive Maps, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, London,
Boston 1996 (Ed.). Self-Organization and the city, Springer, 1999, Berlin, Heidelberg.
A. T. Purcell is from the School of Architecture, Design Science and Planning in the
Faculty of Architecture, University of Sydney, Australia. He has a PhD in Psychology but
has worked in the area of design and architecture since completing his PhD. His interests
lie in how designers design and how people interact with and experience both the
designed and everyday world and the relationship between the two. He is also interested
in how this knowledge can inform the education of designers and how non-designers can
be educated about design.
Isabelle Reymen (1973) graduated in June 1996 as Burgerlijk Ingenieur Architect (Civil
Engineer Architect) at the Faculty of Applied Sciences of the Katholieke Universiteit
Leuven, Belgium. In September 1996, she started a Ph.D. at the Stan Ackermans Institute
(SAI), Center for Technological Design at the Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, The
Netherlands. She received her Ph.D. degree in April 2001 with a thesis entitled
Improving Design Processes through Structured Reflection: A Domain-independent
Approach. Since February 2001, she continues her research at the SAI as a postdoc. In
that position, she has also involvement in design education for the SAI programs. Her
areas of research interest are multidisciplinary design, reflection on design processes,
design team composition and performance, and design management. Isabelle Reymen has
publications in the areas of domain-independent design.
Paul A. Rodgers is a Reader in Design within the School of Design and Media Arts at
Napier University. Prior to joining Napier University, Dr Rodgers was employed at the
University of Cambridges Engineering Design Centre (EDC) as a post doctoral Research
Associate between May 1996 and November 1999. Before that, he was a Senior Lecturer
in Computer-Aided Product Design at the University of Wolverhampton. Dr Rodgers has
a PhD from the University of Westminster in 1995 for his work entitled Product
Performance Assessment. His current research interests include iconic influences and
inspiration in design, the application of AI and KBS design tools to conceptual design,
design knowledge, the communication and collaboration of designers in dispersed teams,
and design work via the Internet. In 1990 Dr Rodgers obtained his BEd in Design and
Technology, followed in 1991 by his MA in Computing in Design, both from Middlesex
University.
Paul Rothstein is an Assistant Professor of Industrial Design at Arizona State University

(ASU) and the Director of DESiGNSPACE, an interdisciplinary research and design
environment at ASU. In addition to teaching undergraduate and graduate coursework,
Paul focuses on exploring and developing new methods and processes for sparking usercentered business and design innovation. He lectures widely, conducts corporatesponsored research and offers professional workshops relating to experience design and
the application of field research in design. Before arriving at ASU, Paul was at the
Illinois Institute of Technology's Institute of Design where he was the recipient of the
IDSA's Gianninoto Scholarship and the Fahnstrom/McCoy Product Design Fellowship.
He was also a senior designer and program manager for Polivka Logan Design in
Minneapolis where he was responsible for leading crossfunctional teams in the
development of products and strategies for 3M, Cray Research, PUR, Telex, Caire and
other manufacturers and corporations.
Bonnie Sadler Takach MVA is an assistant professor of Art and Design (Visual
Communication Design), and is a partner specialising in information and educational
design in the firm, Real-Life Comedia. She is working toward a PhD in Psychology
(Applied Developmental Science: Instructional Technology). Her research focuses on
research literacy for designers, and research-based design of children's educational
hypermedia, involving children as research and design partners.
Roger Sale MA RCA, FCSD, FRSA, FRCA Chair of Industrial Design (UEL). Roger
Sale has been active in Design Education, Research and Consultancy for the past 28
years. Having trained at the Central School of Art and Design he has headed up Product
Design at the Chelsea School of Art (The London Institute) and at the Royal College of
Art from 1987-92, responsible for the Industrial Design, Industrial Design Engineering
and Design Management Masters programmes. Roger Sale joined UEL in 1994 where he
set up the Industrial Design Centre, building on the industry links he had established at
the RCA. He was appointed visiting Professor of Industrial Design at University College
of Northampton in 1999 which has strengthened the research links in design between the
two universities. IDC is characterised by collaborative, interdisciplinary, cross-sectoral
design research and consultancy projects with a strong user focus.
Gran Sandberg, PhD (Lund University) is the Head of Division of Structural

Mechanics at Lund University. He is the Dean of the Industrial Design Programme, He is
also the Director of the Centre for Scientific and Technical Computing in Lund. Principal
areas of research interest include: structural mechanics, computational strategies,
probabilistic methods in applied mechanics, and new methods in teaching. Professor
Sandberg has published papers in various fields of structural mechanics, computational
mechanics and education.
Sevil Sariyildiz heads the Chair for Technical Design and Informatics, Faculty of
Architecture, Delft University of Technology. She is responsible for the integration of
ICT in the curriculum at the Faculty of Architecture and is a member of the educational
council at the faculty. She is a member of the VROM-Raad, advisory council to the
Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment ministry, of the Stuurgroep Dagindeling,
advisory board to the Social Affairs and Work ministry, and of the SKOR foundation of
the Education, Culture and Science ministry. She chairs the Design Research Foundation,
is founder of the ICKT-Bouw institute for the building sector, and a member of the
Technika 10 council. She has been project leader of and participant in several European
projects. Her research interests include the application of structural grammars to the
design of dynamic buildings, and integrating the assessment of constructibility into the
design process.
Stephen AR Scrivener is Professor of Design and Associate Director of the VIDe

Research Centre, Coventry School of Art and Design, Coventry University. He is a
council member of the Design Research Society and CADE, treasurer of DEED, on the
Advisory Board of the journal, Digital Creativity, and a member of EPSRC Peer Review
College. Following appointments at De Monfort and Loughborough Universities,
Stephen joined the School of Art and Design, University of Derby, in 1992 as Assistant
Dean, and was appointed Director of Research for the university from 1994 until moving
to Coventry in 1999. Stephen has supervised to completion eighteen PhD students and
examined another fourteen. His principal research interests are user-centred design,
computer-mediated collaborative design, sketching and cognition, and the theory and
practice of design research. Stephen has produced over 100 publications, including edited
books, book chapters, journal and conference papers and professional articles.
Pirita Seitamaa-Hakkarainen, Ph.D. is professor of Craft Science at the Savonlinna

Department of Teacher Education, University of Joensuu. The title of her doctoral thesis
was The Weaving-Design Process as a Dual-Space Search. Her current research
interests focus on facilitation of collaborative design processes through technology-based
learning environments. She is currently a visiting scholar at the Institute for Knowledge,
Innovation and Technology (IKIT), Ontario Institution for studies in Education,
University of Toronto.
John P. Shackleton BSc MA PhD is a Lecturer in Industrial Design, and Research

Leader at the Design Research Centre, Brunel University. He came to design after
several years in the aerospace and automotive industries as a research and development
engineer, where his professional experience includes appointments with British
Aerospace, Cape Warwick (Environmental Engineering Division) Ltd., and Monroe
Automotive (UK) Ltd. He gained his PhD in Industrial Design from Chiba University in
Japan in 1997, having undertaken research in collaboration with Mitsubishi Motors, and
with Sony Creative Design, and having been twice awarded the annual prize for
research by the Japanese Society for the Science of Design. He subsequently lectured in
Design Systems at Chiba University before taking up his current post in the UK. His
research interests are consumer perception of products and their role in the emergence
of new product groups, and the use of computing to support the design process. With
David Durling, he was Co-Chair of the DRS Conference Common Ground 2002.
Bhzad Sidawi is a PhD candidate at the Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff

University. He has a BSc in Architecture from the University of Damascus, Faculty of
Architecture and Urban Design and an MPhil in CAAD from the University of Bath. For
his Masters research, he wrote software for analysing the solar gain for buildings. He has
spent 10 years practising architecture and using CAD tools in Damascus, Syria.
Benjamin Singer is a graduate student in the M.Des. Program at the Institute of Design,
Illinois Institute of Technology. His area of study is Human-Centered Product Design. He
has a BS in Electrical Engineering from Northeastern University (1987) in Boston,
Massachusetts. Ben worked for twelve years in the design and development of electronic
circuits for computer hard drives.
David Sless is Director of the Communication Research Institute of Australia. David

graduated from Leeds University in 1965. In 1975 he was awarded an MSc by Durham
University for his research in design methods in information design. In 1976 he became
the Foundation Chairman of Standards Australia Committee on Signs and Symbols. In
1985 he was invited by Industry and Government to set up the Communication Research
Institute of Australia. Under his direction the Institute has provided advice and advanced
communication and information design services to over 200 large organisations in
government and industry. In 1995 he was Foundation Director of the Advanced Studies
Program at the International Institute of Information Design. He is Professor in Science
Communication at the Australian National University, and Senior Research Fellow at the
Information Design Research Centre at Coventry University. In 2001 he became CoChairman of the Information Design Association in the UK, and in 2002 he was elected as
a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts. David is routinely asked to provide independent
advice to senior management in business and government on communication and
information design issues. He has appeared as an expert witness before government
inquiries and courts. He is a frequently invited speaker at international conferences in
North America, Europe and Asia, and is the author of over 180 publications.
Kristine Sdersten BArch DipHEd is a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Architecture,

University of Sydney, Australia, where she is Associate Dean (Undergraduate Studies,
Coordinator of the Bachelor of Design (Architecture) Program and Year 2 Coordinator in
this program, in which she currently teaches design and communications. Professional
experience includes appointments as a lecturer in the Sydney College of the Arts, NSW,
Australia, visiting lecturer at the University of New England, NSW Australia, visiting
examiner at the University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia and University of Tasmania,
Australia, practicing architect and director of an architectural practice in Sydney,
Australia. Principal areas of research are architectural design education, architectural
design curriculum development, and learning in design. She has publications in the areas
of higher education research and development, design education curriculum and
pedagogy.
Martin Stacey studied cognitive psychology before doing a PhD in Artificial

Intelligence at the University of Aberdeen (1992) and postdoctoral research on intelligent
computer support for design at the Open University. He is now a Senior Lecturer in
Computer Science at De Montfort University. His major research interests are in the
psychology of design, intelligent systems to support design process planning, and in
human computer interaction aspects of design support systems; he teaches software
development methods and human computer interaction.
Patrick J. Starr is a Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Minnesota

in the USA. He has developed and taught courses in Design and Operations Research,
which includes model building, simulation and optimization. He has advised nearly 50
groups of students in the capstone Senior Design course since 1972 and since 1992, has
advised the creation of 16 vehicles for student competitions including cross country solar
vehicle races, Formula SAE events and SAE Mini-Baja events. His current interests
include exploring ways for engineering students to quickly develop design skills in a
team setting.
Erik Stolterman is at the Department of Informatics, Umea University, Sweden. In 1991, he

received his Ph.D. in Informatics at the same university. His main work is within information
technology and society, information systems design, philosophy of design, and philosophy of
technology. Stolterman is also one of the founders of The Advanced Design Institute. Apart
from the academic scholarly work, Stolterman is engaged in consulting, seminars, and
workshops with organizations and companies.
Peter Storkerson received his M.F.A. in Visual Design from the University of
Massachusetts, Dartmouth, and his Ph.D. in Design from the Institute of Design, Illinois
Institute of Technology. He is co-chair, Expert Group for Knowledge Presentation,
International Institute of Information Design. His publications include Explicit and
Implicit Graphs: Changing the Frame Visible language V. 26 #3/4, Hypertext and the Art
of Memory (co-author, Janine Wong) Visible Language, V. 31, #2, and Jan Tschichold
and the Language of Modernism Visible Language v.30#2. From 1999 to 2001 he was
visiting Assistant Professor in Communication Design at The University at Buffalo, State
University of New York.
Rudi Stouffs received a B.Sc. in architectural engineering from the Vrije Universiteit
Brussels and a Ph.D. in architecture from Carnegie Mellon University. He has been
assistant professor at the Department of Architecture at CMU and research coordinator at
the Chair for Architecture and CAAD at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
Zurich. He is currently a researcher and teaching coordinator in the Technical Design and
Informatics group at the Faculty of architecture, Delft University of Technology. His
research interests include computational issues of description, modeling and
representation for design in the areas of information exchange, collaboration, shape
recognition and generation, geometric modeling, visualization, and robotic manipulation.
He is principal investigator of the Dynamic Digital Design Representations project
funded by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research and has participated in
research projects in the areas of document management funded by the Swiss National
Science Foundation and robotic manipulation funded by the Japan Research Institute.
Xianghong Sun, is a visiting scholar at the VIDe Research Centre from the Institute of
Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, where she was awarded a PhD in
Engineering Psychology in 2001. Her research interests relate to HCI, mental workload,
and Human Factors.
Rina Takahashi Tokyo University of Technology Creative Lab. She is a chief instructor
of Creative Laboratory on Katayanagi Advanced Research Laboratories at Tokyo
University of Technology. She concerns the studies focusing on Information Design
through the techniques of DTP and Web designing. She has engaged in the promotion of
Digital Loca, the software for 3D-animation production at HUMAN Co., Ltd. not only by
producing contents for demonstration and designing the package for the product but also
by providing for users the supporting services. She graduated from the Department of
Visual Design at Faculty of Design of Okayama Prefectural University. Her major was
production of 3D animation in the Course of Media Design.
Ko Takeuchi is a designer in the Department of the Human Interface Design

Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan. Design background is Industrial Design.
Principal areas of design interest are: the design of printers for home use; web-based
systems; the design of interactive system; the user study; user-oriented design process;
the collaborative design process. A commitment to the effective design of interactive
learning tools connects these interdisciplinary collaborators from the University of
Alberta, Canada.
Eriko Tamaru is a researcher in the Department of the Human Interface Design

Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan, and is a member of the Association for
Computing Machinery, Japanese Cognitive Science Society and Information Processing
Society of Japan. Research background is Cognitive Science, Computer Science;
especially Human Interface Research and Computer-Supported Cooperative Work and
Workplace Studies. Principal areas of research interest are: the photographic field study;
the collaborative design process; design methodology based on ethnography; user
participatory design approach from a social aspect; computer-supported collaborative
learning based on situated cognition and action.
Hsien-Hui Tang PhD MA is a visiting assistant professor in the Graduate Institute of

Architecture at National Chiao Tung University, Taiwan. Principal areas of research
interest are design knowledge, design sketches, creativity, and computational media.
Brynjulf Tellefsen is Associate Professor of Market Orientation at the Norwegian

School of Management, Department of Leadership and Organisational Management. He
earned his Ph.D. in business at Columbia University in 1977. His research fields are
market orientation, knowledge management, and industrial buyer behaviour. Tellefsen
edited the book Market Orientation in 1995, and he has published articles on constituent
market orientation internationally. After four years at State University of New York, he
served as Dean of the Norwegian School of Marketing for ten years. After merging with
the Norwegian School of Management in 1993, he led and introduced several study
programs. He has been an officer of the Norwegian Marketing Association, and a visiting
scholar at several business schools around the world. Tellefsen was Vice Chairman of
NAMM; a research consortium funded by the Norwegian Research Council to study
market oriented product development and market development in the food industry.
Zara Teng (Chao-hui), education history: BSc. (2001), Department of Industrial Design,
Hua-fan University, Taipei, Taiwan. MA/MSc. research student on MA/MSc Design and
Manufacture, De Montfort University, Leicester, UK.
Anne Tomes is currently Professor of Design Research at Sheffield Hallam University,

UK. Before her move to academia, she gained industrial experience in new product
development and worked for twelve years as a marketing consultant with many top
organizations. Professor Tomes has researched and published widely within the
marketing area and has written two student management textbooks. Her theoretical and
practical interests currently focus on design management and product innovation, in
which fields she has recently completed three large scale projects sponsored by the
Design Council
Peter Trlind, Tech. Lic., is a Ph.D. student at the Division of Computer Aided
Design, Lule University of Technology. His research interests are tools and
methods for distributed engineering. He received his MSc in Mechanical
Engineering from Lule University of Technology in 1996.
Mikio Tozaki is a researcher in the Department of Human Interface Design

Development, Fuji Xerox Co., Ltd., Japan, and is a member of the Human Interface
Society, Japanese Society for the Science of Design. Research background is Industrial
Design, Ergonomics; especially Human Interface Research and Usability Engineering.
Principal areas of research interest are: the analytical method of the context of use; survey
of user requirements; the collaborative design process; design methodology based on
ethnography; user participatory design approach from a social aspect.
Vassiliki Tsironi is completing her Bachelor of Arts in the Department of

Product/Industrial Design of AKTO art and design (Athens), a private college validated
by Middlesex University. She has been receiving the best student award in all the years
of her studies, has participated in various committees as student representative, and is a
member of the Hellenic Design Society. She is particularly interested in the interaction
between design and management, which was the subject of her final year research
project, and intends to pursue postgraduate studies in the area of Design Management.
Bige Tuncer is a researcher and educator at the Chair for Technical Design and
Informatics, Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology. She received a
Bachelor of Architecture from Middle East Technical University and a Master of Science
from Carnegie Mellon University in the area of Computational Design. Subsequently, she
worked as a junior faculty member at the Chair for Architecture and CAAD, Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology Zurich. As part of the teaching team, she received one
national and one international award. She also participated in a research project for
creating a virtual toolset for the Swiss AEC industry funded by the Swiss National
Science Foundation. She is currently in the process of completing her Ph.D. Her research
focuses on an integrated document model for representing architectural information.
Other research interests include precedent-based design, e-learning environments, and
information visualization.
Phil Turners research interests centre on the application of activity theory to design. He
is also an active member of the Human Computer Interaction research group at Napier,
where he is a senior lecturer. Until recently he was Napier manager for the EU project
DISCOVER, which concerned the design of virtual environments for practising
emergency management, and is now also part of the Napier BENOGO project team.
Susan Turner is a lecturer and researcher in the Human Computer Interaction research
group in the School of Computing at Napier University, Edinburgh. Her current designrelated interests are aspects of narrative in the design process and design for a sense of
place and presence in virtual environments. She is currently working on the latter topic
for the EU project BENOGO, which aims to replicate the experience of real places in
virtual environments.
Jennifer Turns received the B.S. and M.S. degrees in Systems Engineering from the
University of Virginia in 1990 and the Ph.D. degree from the Georgia Institute of
Technology in 1999. She is currently an acting assistant professor in Technical
Communication at the University of Washington (UW). She is also a faculty affiliate with
the UW Center for Engineering Learning and Teaching and the UW Program for
Educational Transformation through Technology. Dr. Turnss research focuses on
studying engineering learning and engineering education, including the learning of
engineering design, the development of a holistic understanding of engineering, and the
role of information technology in engineering education. Dr. Turns is a member of the
American Society for Engineering Education, Association for Computing Machinery, and
the Society for Technical Communication.
Connie Varnhagen PhD MA is an associate professor in Applied Developmental

Science (Spelling, and Instructional Technology) in the Department of Psychology. Her
research supports the development and evaluation of instructional technology for
teaching and learning.
Joris S.M. Vergeest received his M.S. Degree in Physics and Computer Science in 1974
from the University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands. From the same institute he obtained
his Ph.D. degree in Experimental High Energy Physics in 1979. He has worked one year
as a research fellow at CERN, Geneva, Switzerland. Since 1984 he is associate professor
at the Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Design, Engineering and Production,
and is involved in lecturing and research. His primary research topics include image
processing, computer graphics, 3D geometric modeling, automatic shape design based on
constraints and optimization, robust processing of imprecise geometric models, efficient
numerically controlled machining, automatic robot path generation from CAD data,
configuration space analysis, product data representation and conversions, product model
standardization, CAD model sharing among dissimilar systems, ISO-STEP, engineering
process observation and optimization, reverse engineering, free-form shape pattern
recognition, shape reuse methods.
Pieter E. Vermaas is presently a research fellow at the Philosophy Department of Delft

University of Technology, the Netherlands, where he is involved in research on
philosophy of technology. He collaborates in a research programme, called The Dual
Nature of Technical Artefacts (http://www.dualnature.tudelft.nl/). This programme aims
at developing a coherent conceptualisation of technical artefacts, taking into account that
they are on the one hand designed physical structures that, on the other hand, realize
intentionality-bearing functions. Vermaas part in this programme consists of research on
functions of technical artefacts. Vermaas obtained his Ph.D. at the Institute for History
and Foundations of Mathematics and the Natural Sciences, Utrecht University, the
Netherlands, with research in the field of the philosophy of quantum mechanics.
Jan Verwijnen is Head of the Department of Spatial and Furniture Design since 1992
and Director of the Future Home Graduate School since 1999, a cross-disciplinary
doctoral education. He is involved in several Finnish Design Research projects and shares
with the Department of Textile and Fashion Design the teaching of fashion students at
MA level. In 2000 and 2001 he acted as the Academic Expert for Art and Design for the
European Commission in the Socrates/Erasmus programmes. Among the research
projects he initiated and coordinated are a European R&TD funded (INFO2000)
Electronic Design Agency in 1997 and from 1997 2000 a Finnish R&TD (Tekes)
funded University Research for the Virtual Apartment System, (VIRAPS), a research
into the flow of information in building industry and proposal for a participative model
that is presently being commercialized. Winning entry to the invited competition for the
regeneration of the Admiralty Basin of Tallinn port. It is a 100,000 m2 mixed use project,
the largest single development for the inner city of Tallinn.
Trysh Wahlig is a graduate student in the M. Des. Program at the Institute of Design,
Illinois Institute of Technology. Her focus of study is in Human-Centered
Communication Design. She received her BFA from Virginia Commonwealth
University in Communication Art and Design (1996). She balances her time between
freelancing in communications, interaction design and being a working artist.
Naoki Wakabayashi is a professor at the school of media science of Tokyo University of

Technology. His professional experience includes appointments as a professor at
Department of Design, Okayama Prefectural University, Advertising Division of the
cosmetics company Shiseido, doing R&D on design systems mainly for package design,
and participated in a development project for a total manufacturing process. He went to
work for Fuji Xerox Research Center, where he designed copy machines and user
interface, while researching the use of computer systems as a designing tool. He obtained
an M.A. from Tsukuba University in the field of Uses of Computer Design, had studied
computer graphics at MITIs Industrial Products Research Institute.
Taichi Watanabe is an assistant professor in Tokyo University of Technology's school

of media science. He has undergraduate courses of basic programming, graphics methods
and graphics programming. He received a B.A. from Keio University, in the field of
curves and surfaces for computer aided geometric design. He received an M.A. in the
field of 3-D real-time graphics technology from Keio University in 1996. Prior to joining
the faculty at Tokyo University of Technology, he worked at 3D-CAD group at Ricoh
Company and Lattice Technology. His research interests include 3-D real-time
processing, geometric modeling, physically based modeling, and its application to
computer graphics.
Tjamme Wiegers received his bachelor degree in electronics. He has worked several
years in software development. He developed system software for defense systems,
visualization software for VLSI chip design and software for industrial systems. In 1992
he started research at the Delft University of Technology, at the Faculty of Industrial
Design. He is involved in research and in supervising students working at labs. He did
research on information use during conceptual design. His current research concerns
shape ideation. This research includes empirical studies and analysis to get insight into
the methods designers apply to model free formed shapes, and how these methods can be
improved. The student labs involve product design and prototype building, research
methodology and literature study.
Mark Wilkinson BA, PhD, MCSD Senior Lecturer, Product Design, University College
Northampton. Professional experience and appointments encompass product and
furniture design consultancy to national and multinational corporations, including the
design of a UK market leading range of food storage products, Director of the British
European Design Group, a design network supporting the international exhibition of UK
design excellence, Head of Design and Management at The Designers Workshop, a
division of ttsp architects, and Director of Bowman (Oxon) Ltd, specialist builders.
Current research interests are methodologies for design and innovation practice, and
impacts of new technologies and social change, particularly within the built environment.
Mark has publications in the areas of design process, design management and product
design curriculum development.
Andre Woodcock has a BSc in Psychology and Social Biology, an MSc and PhD in
Ergonomics. She is currently employed as a Research Fellow in the VIDe Research
Centre at Coventry University UK, where her roles include the management of the
student research culture, the design and delivery of an independent learning MA in
Research Methods in Design. She has recently completed the management of a DTER
funded investigation of the in-car safety and security needs of women drivers and was coorganizer of a recent workshop on Tacit Knowledge at the ECSCW Conference in Bonn.
She has worked with Stephen Scrivener on a number of projects in the field of computer
studies/human factors, and on two EU funded projects. She has a special interest in the
design and development of CSCW systems, and the integration of ergonomics into
design.
Andrew Wootton is a practising designer and Research Fellow in the Design and
Innovation Research Group at the University of Salford. Since gaining his MA in
Industrial Design in 1995, Andrew has worked on a number of research projects
examining design, innovation and new product development. Andrew is currently
engaged on a number of projects, including: Design Drivers - an EPSRC-funded research
project investigating the role of the designer as a driver of change and advocate of new
technologies/methodologies in product development projects; Design Against Crime - a
joint Home Office and Design Council funded initiative investigating the impact that
holistic design thinking can have in reducing crime, and which aims to embed crime
prevention within professional practice and education; Design Against Crime in Europe an ERDF-funded research investigation of design-led, crime-reduction practice in
Europe; and Telegenesis - an EPSRC-funded collaborative project with Cranfield &
Loughborough Universities examining the use of distributed design teams in the
aerospace, construction & design sectors. Andrew is also Design Manager for the Salford
Centre for Research and Innovation (SCRI), an EPRSC Innovative Manufacturing
Research Centre (IMRC).
Artemis Yagou currently works for the Department of Architecture, University of

Thessaly (city of Volos), where she teaches History and Theory of Industrial Design, and
Design for Small Scale. She also works for AKTO art and design (Athens), a private
college validated by Middlesex University, where she supervises BA projects and
prepares the curriculum for the MA in Design to begin in September 2002. She has
completed a PhD on the relationship between form and technology in consumer products,
with emphasis on the design of radio sets (Department of Architecture, National
Technical University of Athens). She also has an Electrical Engineering degree from the
same University, and an MA in Industrial Design from Central Saint Martins, London.
Her research interests include history, theory, and curriculum development.
Theodore Zamenopoulos Dip. Arch. Eng. is a PhD researcher at the Bartlett School of
Graduate Studies and the Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis (CASA). He is a member
of the Technical Chamber of Greece and he has worked as an architect in Thessaloniki
and Athens, Greece. Principal areas of research interest are: computational models in
designing and planning; Planning and Design Support Systems; artificial intelligence in
design and planning; learning methodologies; multiparticipatory design and planning.
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PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONFERENCE

HELD 5 -7 SEPTEMBER 2002, LONDON, UK

First published 2002

Printed in Great Britain

International Review Committee

Seiji Wada, Mitsubishi Electric Corporation, Japan

David Durling, John Shackleton

Professor Richard Buchanan

"The uses of theory in design"

Professor Penny Sparke

"Design and Culture Revisited"

Authors and Titles

Teaching the writing and role of specifications via a structured

Understanding design iteration: representations from an

Design for the urban poor in Egypt: satisfying user needs or

A control based approach to artificial design and plan generation

Developing a method to support human centred designers in

Examining the transformation of the visual characteristics of the

The rhetoric of research

Intuitive use of products

An Indian who doesn't know how to grow the maize

A very strange thing: commodity discourse in cultural theory

Generations in design methodology

Intentionality and design

The study of UK SMEs employing external organisations to

Well-defined versus ill-defined design problem solving: the use

Design rationale and information management in the

Using visual communication resource shifts to inform CMC

Human factors considerations in Human-Webpad interaction a discussion on color application

Design behaviours: the innovation advantage - the multi-faceted

Contract research in design

The study of design and the ethically reflexive student

An interpretive framework for research on the history of

Early car history - investigation of the establishment of a 'design

The use of the Internet by architectural practices in the UK

MAPLE/D: a systematic method for the architect of the future

Automobile instrument panels for the real world

Designing within a computer-mediated-communications

Theory construction in design research. Criteria, approaches and

An innovative approach to the aesthetic design

'One-on-one': a pedagogic base for design instruction in the

The designer as strategist: response from MA alumni

A method for designing and analyzing interaction design at

Design, risk and new product development

Folding, blending and implicate order: reconceptualisation in

Comparison between communication instruments for people

Common Ground - a product or a process?

The importance of explaining industrial design diversity

On semantic transformation. Product design elements as brand

A study in making a software development process visual

Urban and regional design: a practical science

Understanding the user-experience: tools for user-centred

Deciphering myths in design: towards restoring the materiality

Distributed design teams: embedded one-on-one conversations

Understanding characteristics and typology of proportion in

Remote usability testing for information appliances through

Intervention strategies for alleviating problems in international

Building on virtual common ground: design participation for the

Building better relationships between design research, design