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288 views52 pagesRamesh Babu Unit 1
unit 1 of ramesh babu DSP for engineering students.
Uploaded by
Nishita ShibuCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 52
Introduction to Signals
1.1 A Signal
A signal is defined as a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any
other independent variable. The signal may depend on one or more indepen
dent variables. If a signal depends on only one variable, then it is known as on:
dimensional signal. For example, ac power supply signal, speech signal, Elec
trocardiagram and the variation of room temperature are one dimensional signals
Throughout this text we concentrate on this type of signals. If a signal depend
on two independent variables then the signal is known as two dimensional age
Examples are pictures, X-ray images and sonograms. Multidimensional signal
depends on many variables.
Definition: A signal is defined asa physical quantity that varies with time,
space or any other independent variables. Definition: A signal is defined as a physical quantity that varies with time,
pace or any other independent variables.
1.2 Signal Modeling
The representation of a signal by mathematical expression is known as signal
modeling. If a signal can be represented by mathematical equation then the signal
is said to be deterministic signal. Otherwise the signal is known as random signal,
1.3 Continuous-time, Discrete-time and Digital
Signals
1.3.1 Continuous-time signal
Continuous-time signals are defined for all values of time ¢ and is represented by
x(t). A continuous-time signal is also called an analog signal. Most of the sig-”
nals encountered in practice are continuous-time signals. Fig. 1.1 shows different
types of continuous-time signals, The temperature recorded over an interval of
time is shown in Fig. 1.la. It is defined at every time instant. Other example of
continuous-time signals are the wave form of AC power supply and ECG wave
form.
, 12 Signals and Systems
©
Fig. 1.1 Examples for continuous-time signals.
1.3.2. Diserete-time signal
‘The discrete-time signals are defined at disorete-instant of time and is represented
by x(n), where m is index, Some signals are discrete in nature and some signals
may be discrete representation of continuous-time signal.
Re
00)
100
Fig. 1.2 A Discrete-time signal, Introduction toSignals 4.3
For example, the amount deposited everymonth in a savings account is discrete,
The signal is shown in Fig. 1.2.
The other type of discrete-time signal is obtained by sampling a continuous-
time signal at regular intervals. That is, the amplitude of the continuous-time
7 signal is defined at particular intervals. For example, Fig. 1.La shows the temper-
ature in a room which is continuous-in-time. If the temperature is recorded at an
interval of one hour then we obtain a discrete-time signal as shown in Fig. 1.3.
‘The discrete-time signal can be denoted by '
x(nT) =x(0)|,_,7 aay
Fig. 1.3 Sampled sequence of signal shown in Fig. 1.12.
where 7’ is called the sam ‘pesiod and» integer ranging fro1
called the time index. Westen ericsson ayer nga
of x(t), The instants at which the signal appear are called sampling instants. For
convenience we write x(n) = x(n), n=0, £1, +2. Thus @ discrete-time signal
+{—1),x(0), x(1), x(2)-.. EE oOo Oe i
1.4 Signals and § ystems
A signal that is discretized in time and quantized in amplitude is known as digital
Signal. In Processing and transmission, digital signals are usually expressed in
binary form, a string of zeros and ones. ;
Definition:
Continuous-time signals: The signals that are defined for every instant of
time are known as continuous-time signals, They are denoted by x(t).
Discrete-time Signals: The signals that are defined at discrete-instant of time
are known as discrete-time signals. The discrete-time signals are continuous
in amplitude and discrete-in-time. They are denoted by x(n).
Digitaf signals: The signals that are discrete-
gn in-time and quantized in ampli-
fe are digital signals, 4.4. Elementary Continuous Time Signals
resenting a signal using mathematical ex-
pression is known as signal modeling, In this section we are going to study about
some of the signals, that are used as input for studying the system's behaviour.
These signals include, step, impulse, ramp, sinusoidal and exponential functions.
The above signals can be used as building blocks for the modeling of more com-
In section (1.2) we discussed that rep!
plex signals.
1.4.1. Unit step function
The step function is an important signal used for analysis of many systems. For
example when we turn the ignition key of a car, we actually introducing a step
voltage (a step function) to the starting motor. Likewise when we apply brake
to an automobile, we are applying a constant force (a step function). If a step
function has unity magnitude then it is called unit step function.
The unit step function is defined as ’
u(t)=1 for +20 [
=0 for t<0 18 Signals and Systems
and is shown in Fig, 16a. /
ult) 4
&)
Delayed unit step signal.
Fig. 1.6 (a) Unit step signal (b)
srom Ea, (1.2) we an Gnd that when the argument nu) 1S NO
then the unit step fiunetion is zero, and when the argument‘ in u(¢) is greater than
or equal to zero then the unit step function is unity:
ay fox the Shifted unit step faction u(t— a) is zero 1 he argued
(ra) is <0 ort < aand is one ifthe argument (1—a) > 0 orf > %
‘That is
u(t—a)=1 for 1>a@
=0 for 0
=0 for ¢<0 (17)
— Pe Fig. 1.8 Unit parabolic function
pi) = Z u(t) (1.8)
‘The unit parabolic function ean be obtained by integrating the ramp function.
: pte) = ftdiar= fe aoe (for 120)
“In otherwords, the ramp function is derivative of the parabolic function.
‘Thus FE ki .
(y= 20 as),
1.4.4 Impulse function
‘The impulse function occupies an important place in signal analysis, It is le
as
7 feou a te ittieat Tiaeietingtherpule function of Fi 19can
ee as
x=t gles) —ut—4)] (ity
The unit step function is given by
uty)
10
Lae
| —_————-
‘The unit step function shifted
by °A' is
‘The impulse function can be obtained from
Fig. 1.9 when the width A — 0. That is
3(¢) = lim x(¢)
vita)
1 2 10
= lim 5 (u(t) —at—4)] (12) :
‘The delayed unit impulse function is defined x
as Subtracting u(t — A) from u(t)
= we get a rectangular function
fae-a=1 for ra 0.13) o
ai ae ,
S(¢—a)=0 for t#a
a)
Bit-2)
a t 4 7
Fig. 1.10 Unitimpulse function _‘Fig. 1.11 Delayed unit impulse function
: Properties of unit impulse
hse *
J x(¢) 8(¢) de =x(0) es
Let us consider the product of x(r) and 6(1) which is
x(t), 87).
Let the signal x(1) is continuous at t = 0;
The impulse exists only at1=0. ; the value of x(t) at ¢ = 0 is x(0).
‘Therefore we can write
(050) =x(0)5(0) ‘a Substituting Eq. (1.15) in Eq, (1.14) we obtain
[xo sma= [soa
=x(0) J a@ae
=x(0)
provided x(f) is continuous att = 0.
. ;
x(t) (to) =x(to) 5-9) (16)
Let the signal x() is coninoous at ¢ = and the value of (0) at = ios
Some x{ to) The impulse exists only att = ap j 1.12 Signals and Systems :
* (at) = ae (gy !
Let us consider the integral }
J x(¢)5(atldt for a>0
Letat=A
= adt = dA,
Now :
4 (08 (at) = J (ZjewS
=} f 2 (4) a(ayaa
‘Using Eq. (1.14) we can write above equation as
J #05(a) a= 1x0) (uasy.
For example, let a be negative, and equal to 2 then we can write |
. i Let 22
[ose-2na= | x(§)aye toh
ee
“2POR VAM — Iowekmow 5(2) =:
=}00)
Ly t
wo ut From Eq, (1.19) we find that for a> 0
[o8tanar= 3x(0)
and from Eq.(1.20) we find that fora < 0
° 1
fae =o
We know that x(0) = J x(¢) 8(#) ae
1 ieee 7
WOT I s5a 4
= [ogsoa “i
5S. [xn 00-Har=x0)
‘Replace t by tand by ih ee
se function Tut)
4.4.5 Rectangular pul Dasha mi
The rectangular pulse function 13 defines
!
n(y=! for IS 5
=) otherwise (124) —_ 4 7 ;
Fig. 1.12 Rectangular pulse function,
4.4.6 Triangular pulse function
jangular pulse function is defined as
ew
Adlt)= \ a Ise (25)
9 \\>@
The unit tri
alt)
‘ seni)
=a 0 at i
Fig. 1.13 Triangular pulse function. Fig. 1.14 Signum function.
1.4.7 Signum function
The unit signum function is defined by
wot { rr F
ew :
‘This function can be expressed in terms of unit ‘step functio:
nas
_ Sealt)=—1+2u(t)
1.4.8 Sine function ° .
The sinc function defined by the expression
sint
Peg -
(1.28),
sine(?) = is zero at n,n £1,£2,.,.. [tis
1.4.9 Gaussian function: 1.4.10 Sinusoidal signal
A continuous-time sinusidal signal is given by
x(t) =Asin(Qr+-8) (130)
where A is the amplitude, Q is the frequency in radians per second and @ is the
phase angle in radians. Fig. 1.17 shows the waveform of a.sinusoidal signal with
A= 1,0 == witha time period of =.
AAA
Fig. 1.17 A Sinusoidal signal.
1.4.11 Real exponential signals
aQ=e"fora=0 wut
Al
4
« () :
Fig. 1.18 (a) Adc signal
signal, ~ — nentialy Growing signal (c) exponentially decaying
A real exponential signal is defined as
x(t) =4e"
(131) ESC A
where both A and a are real, Depending on the value of ta we get e
signals, If a is positive the signal x(¢) is a gtowing exponential, One ae
of signal is illustrated in Fig, 1.18b, If @ is negative, the signal x(¢) is a devayi
exponential. For a= 0 x(t) is constant, .
1.4.12 Complex exponential signal
The most general form of complex exponential is given by
xe , (132)
where s is a complex variable defined as
seotjo (133)
Therefore
Hi) =e = lon ;
Sete (1.34)
Using Euler's identity we'can expand
em, secu esa : (135) Signals and Systems
Table 1.1
s=otjQ ao>0 Find the following summations
@ ¥.8(n—1)sin2n Gi) ¥ xa(n—2) Gi) Sa a(n-gay
ned n=O, —
Ans: (i)0 (ii) x(2) (iii) a
1.7 Basic Operations on Signals
The basic set of operations on signals are
1. Time shifting 2. Time reversal 3. Time scaling
4. Amplitude scaling 5. Signal multiplier 6. Signal addition
1.7.1 Time shifting
Let us consider a signal x(¢) shown in Fig. 1.25a. The time shifting of x(¢) may
delay or advance the signal in time. Mathematically this can be represented by:
y(t)=x(¢-T) (1.48)
If T is positive the shifting delays the signal as shown in Fig. 125) and itis
negative the shifting advances the signal, as shown in Fig. 1.25(b) : a er e
xit) 5h) \ aft Find the following summations
@ ¥ 8(n—1)sin2n (ii) ¥ x(n)8(n—-2) (iii) 5 a'*3(n+3)
w= n=0, cs
Ans: (i)0 (ii) x(2) (iii) a5
1.7 Basic Operations on Signals
The basic set of operations on signals are
1, Time shifting 2. Time reversal 3. Time scaling
4, Amplitude scaling 5. Signal multiplier 6. Signal addition
1.7.1 Time shifting
Let us consider a signal x(t) shown in Fig. 1.25a. The time shifting of x(t) may
delay or advance the signal in time. Mathematically this can be represented by
¥() =x-7) (1.48)
lt = whet
If T is positive the shifting delays the signal as shown in Fig. 1.25(e) and if Tis
negative the shifting advances the signal, as shown in Fig. 1.25(b) ~ si
x(t) x(n—2) is obtained by shifting x(n) right by 2 units of time. The resul
in Fig, 1,26b. On the other hand, the signal time. The result is shown
left by three units of time. x(1-+3) is obtained by shifting x(n)
PP 373 xr-2)
b 1
~
jp
324101234 565 3SQ2jTotr2a4 sen
\ ®
3 73 slats)
S432-1 07 234558
©
Fig. 1.26 Time shifting operation of a DT signal.
1.7.2 Time reversal ; E
“The time reversal of a signal x; (¢) can be obtained by folding the signal about ¢ =
0. It is denoted by x(—¢). The signal x1 (¢) and its reflection x, (—t) are illustrated
_in Fig. 1.27a and 1.27b respectively. T. Introduction to Signals. 1.31
The signal *i(—1+ 2) is of
and x; (—1—2) is obtained by a
*1(—t+2) and x;(—1—2) are
biained by delaying x;(—t) by two units of time
ivancing x; (—1) by two units of time, The signals
shown in Fig. 1.27¢ and Fig. 1.274 respectively.
The other examples for time reversal ‘Operation are shown in Fig. 1.28,
| xt) ["
o % yt eT
iO
.
mh) 4G)
A050 2°74
2 oos lt
Fig. 1.28 Time reversal operation on CT signals.
‘The time reversal of a discrete-time signal x(n) can be obtained by folding t
sequence x(n) about 1 = 0. For the signal x;() in Fig. 1.29a the time L
signal xj (—z) is shown in Fig. 1.29b, i 1.32 Signals and Systems
Fig. 1.30 Time reversal operation on DT signals, Introduction to Signals 1.37
1.7.3. Amplitude scaling
Consider a signal x(¢) that is fed to an. amplifier with a gain 3; then the output of
an amplifier can be represented by 5
(0) =33(0) (1.50)
That is the output y(¢) is identical in shape to the input signal x(r) but its amplitude
is thrice everywhere. This concept is illustrated in Fig. 1.48. 1.7.4 Time'sealing
Letus consider a signal x(t) shown in Fig. 1.50. ‘The time scaling ofa signal can.
be accomplished by replacing rby at in the signal x(t).
Ifa=2, we get anew signal
y(t) = x(24)
Observe that x(¢) is switching from 0 to 1 atr=—1 and switebing from 1 to Oat
1=3. When y(t) = (24), (0) switches from 0 to 1 at¢ = —0.5 and switches from
1to0atr—1.5. Tn the original signal x(¢), magnitude is equal to Latr=0 and
att=2. But in the time scaled signal y(t), magnitude is equal to Tatr=Oand at
1 = 1. This behaviour shows that x(t) is compressed in
time by a factor 2. Introduction to Signals 139
Now consider another signal y/(¢) = x(at) with a= 4. Fig, 1.50¢ shows (4)
which is expanded in time by a fuctor 2, It is similar to playback the audio signal
at half the recording speed,
In the discrete-time ease, we write
¥(n) =x(an)
where a > 0.
=~ (0) =s(2m)
Let x(n) be a sequence shown in Fig, 1.51. Then we can plot time sealed signal
y(n) by Substituting different values for.
Forn=—1 aa
Similarly
¥(0)=x(0)=4
I= AQ) =a
y(2)=(4)=0 1.40 Signais and Systems
1.7.5 Signal addition
The sum of two continuous-time signals can be obtained by adding their values
at every instant. Similarly the subtraction of two continuous-time signals can be
obtained by subtracting their values at every instant.
(0. + AW) 24(0) + (0
7 1
x) ~ a) ro)
Fig. 1.52 (8) Addition of CT signals (b) Subtraction of CT signals.
‘Let us consider addition and subtraction of two signals x; (f) and x2(t) as shown -
in Fig. 1.53a and Fig, 1.53b respectively.
x)
Fi
>
° te 3
= 50 +x
The addition of two signals x (() andr) €
cc cacdiveamieatn i
(0) = 1 for 0
=0 for n<0 (1.38) The graphical fepresentation of u(m) is shown in Fig. 1.20.
ce
+
4324701234 a
Fig. 1.20 Unit step sequence.
1.6.2 Unit ramp sequence
‘The unit ramp sequence is defined as
ra) =n) for n>0 4
=0 for n<0 (1.39)
A324 012348
pine Fig. 1.21 Unit ramp sequence,
163 Unit-sample sequence (unit impulse sequence)
ogden re gage The unit impulse function has the following properties
(n) =u(n) —u(n—1)
n
u(n) = > 5(k)
kan 7
Ss x(n)5(n—no) = +(n0)
n=?
(1.41)
(1.42)
(1.43) 1.8
Classification of Signals
The signals are classified according to their characteristics. Some of them are
WPRWNH
6.
- Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
Deterministic and random signals
. Periodic and aperiodic signals
. Even and odd signals
Energy and power signals
Causal and non-causal signals
1.8.1 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
These signals are discussed in detail in section (1.3),
—— . ; rt 1.54 Signals and Systems
1.8.2 Deterministic and random signals
Deterministic signal: A deterministic signal is a
signal exhibiting no uncertainity of value at any
given instant of time. Its instantaneous value can
be accurately predicted by mathematical equa-
tion,
Ex: AsinQr
Random signal: A random signal is a signal characterized by ur
its actual occurrence. Some random signals are shown in Fig.1.79,
1.8.3 Periodic and-aperi
i lodic signals
Aconinovr tine sito) sido be peri aseg
AT) =x(0) for ati t
off
Period. A signal is aperiodic irae show Introduction to Signals 1.55
: » Fig.4.80° A periodic signal.
A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition
x(1)=x(0+N) forall N (1.53)
tod value of N for which Eq. (1.53) holds is known as fundamental pe-
cel ee oe valve of then the discrete-time
signal is aperiodic, An example for periodic discrete-time signal is in Fig. 1.81.
Here the sequence is repeating after every four samples.
i. Complex exponential and simusoidal
periodic signals, Consider a sinusoidal
Epes sce and 6/is radians, The fi cone
=e 7 or hertz (Hz). For a
(1.54)
(1.55)
(1.56) ‘1,56 Signals and Systems
“The ten is Known 28 findamental period or time period 7 and Oo is
‘8s fundamental frequency. Consider » complex exponential signal
atj=2
Fora petiodic signal x(¢)=200+7),
‘Therefore,
a{t47) = aft) i gar
‘bq, (1.58) and (1.59) ae aaa fe? = from which we have
Or=25 —
or
ra
a Contin for Diseretetine situs! signal bw prioaic
‘cow of cominous-iw ign, sould! signa we edad
Harrie cone, total he raid segeeces are periodic
‘sete dine vpn pen
fa} =Aidaign +0)
er A ample op a afr a seAi especcey
‘A ice sgl pris nd only if
veil) locate
rma ( 61) cna
ns W)~Aaials 8) +8)
= Aside 9)
1.) ea
‘20m
Paper ashes
==[5] From Eq, (1.65) we find that, ft the discrete-time signal to be perio, the fom
‘damental frequency oo} must be rational multiple of 2, Otierwase t= ts
time signals is aperiodic. The smallest valve: ‘of positive integer MY, fbr some ite
‘ger m, isthe Fundamental period, 1.8.4 Symmetric (Even) and Anti-symmetric (Odd) signals
Syinmetrie (Even) signal: A continuous-time signal
x(¢) i8 sald 10 be symmetric (even) signal i it satisfies
the condition
a
Example of a symmetric signal is 2(f) = Acost as
shown io Fig 1.84
x(t) forall ¢ (1:66) {aE ei be aterm
‘tii econ
Moris ¥} fea 2
ump of etal
eFiglas
‘eyo cn beam
s=ab)enh
het ome mpm i
= Sei aa
ei
Sedenataed
=Wnnsi
‘tt 6
Shanna
eh gba
Sateen tet |A diserote-time signal x(n) is even if it satis-
fies the condition
x(-n)=x(n)| forall a» (1.72)
‘An extiiple of even signal is shown in
Fig. 1.86.
“The signal x(n) is sad fo be an odd signal if
x{-n)=—x(0) forall a (1.73)
‘Ay example of odd signal ig shows in
Fig. 1.87. For an odd signal x(0) = 0.
“The even and odd parts of a signal x(n) can be
‘obtained using the following relations
sda hieyexicn) 78)
xan=zeed—anm] 0-75),
te iES Energy and power signals
Conse & volage vr) sou misuse A
Coral 5 jig acre). Teja
neous Home gated in trance i dened
rib wniv)
=e ae
=F am
Veg ee 0 7 nc
a eriecmsnrny crvce sme eian
Teg etar ict veces il
a fo pie
es.
|
a oe
BS Fini
coy Ne tearm
eps fii 1.68 Signa and Systems
: of it
‘The square root of P is known as tm.s value f the signal
Fora dicen sgl x(n) the energy i ened
B= ¥ bln?
“The averiyé power af a dikcret-time signal x(n) is defined a
5
P= in sig SMe
“A sigaal ix un energy signal if and only (€ the total energy of the sigan
For an enerzy signal P= 0. Similarly the signal is said to be power
sverage power ofthe nipaol i inte. Fora power signal & = +. The sig
doe oot satisfy above propertios are neither energy nor power
Definition:
‘A signal (0) i called un energy signa ithe energy satisfies.
For an energy signal = 0. ‘180, Sigma and Syaterns
Practice Problem 1.41 :
‘Find Which lf the following aro energy. signals? ‘Which ave powor signals?
‘Which ae neither ee or ower
eta ca m(*) cay aan) ere 2)
Ans Energy sig) Eco al
Gv) won)
4.8.9 Causal and non-causal signals.
“A continuous vgn.) is ado be exsal @) = 0 for F< 0,6
the gals mods Po a anal sal af) ~ 0 fore > 0.
Similarly scrote signal) isa 0 Be oma {n) = 0
‘otherwise he signal is nom causal, For an-etkauaal decet-tme signal
forn> 0.
‘Solved Problem 1.28 Fn which ofthe Glow
can folowing some ate
O-ni= eH
Gi) aft) eal) Introduction to Systems
poiom mein it
a oan ai poe
‘enn gr i
‘eso A by ue cep ae
‘te ue al sa rea ie pone
‘7 ipl pce a ete So
os ot Bt ec =
fom cote Senne aes a te ee
tor
‘Ranion Aveta na pp)
‘neh en poe
Ten mmr cue
Sra pa to so
ppeeectmotnies
‘ets ere hese cen ”
‘css el men
See) ste apes f
ort 2.24 Causal and non-causal systems
A canal cys (sore fr hh the Ui a aby Ue ¢ epi pe
Dot punt no at fate nt These ovens sar 7
Bilapatves
Tt Sua yeni oe whe eat SABE Om ves 2.25 Linear and non-linear systems”
Superprsitiin pringiple stan shat the respone 10. weighted sunt Of
te ea the weighted sam of the outputs comespanding 19.cach sf ‘
‘al ipa signals. & ayer it uses the xsperpasition pring ts said tb
Tine system.
Af a urbitrary inpie s4(¢) produces cmtpat x (¢)) and an aetsitra
reales cutpt y(t) then the symem is finear ifthe impor a
Procicesn ulpl ayi (1) +5530), where anil bare constants
Tat
Man(n + teste) = eT he) eb hea (e))
‘Smilaty for x dicretestine linear
Festi brain) = ae Ons BT
‘Frown the superposition Promerty we: can find that zem input 2.2.6 Time-invariant and time-variant systems
Este i sid Yo be Ypne-invarian fis. ng-outpi
‘With te, ‘that we applied a pyene
tai taut ye) a8 how in Fig. 24,1 Sey
{hen for «ime variant syne the ip its Sepa
j oe
et
Flg.24 A Timeinvartant aystom.
Pest itn lout
ia
alt —T) for a tite invariant
N= The—7})
"no eu 467) th the Fora Linear Time-invariant sytem (LT) the coefhclents of ferential equa-
jon descriting the system are constants. If tb coulcents are function of time
then the system i linen ie-varant syste. FOES Exacpin ee bownded nd tou gman, ‘Aa input sgl 2) is sald be
(M €~ fora, Silty the output
[pif
