Power Flow Analysis by Ramaswamy Natarajan

Computer-Aided
Power System
Analysis
Ramasamy Natarajan
Practical Power Associates
Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.A.
MARCEL
H
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ISBN: 0-8247-0699-4
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POWER ENGINEERING
Series Editors
H. Lee Willis
ABB Electric Systems Technology Institute
Raleigh, North Carolina
Anthony F. Sleva
Sleva Associates
Allentown, Pennsylvania
Mohammad Shahidehpour
Illinois Institute of Technology
Chicago, Illinois
1. Power Distribution Planning Reference Book, H. Lee Willis

2. Transmission Network Protection: Theory and Practice, Y. G. Paithan-
kar
3. Electrical Insulation in Power Systems, N. H. Malik, A. A. AI-Arainy,
and M. I. Qureshi
4. Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing, Paul Gill
5. Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, Second Edition, J.
Lewis Blackburn
6. Understanding Electric Utilities and De-Regulation, Lorrin Philipson
and H. Lee Willis
7. Electrical Power Cable Engineering, William A. Thue
8. Electric Systems, Dynamics, and Stability with Artificial Intelligence
Applications, James A. Momoh and Mohamed E. EI-Hawary
9. Insulation Coordination for Power Systems, Andrew R. Hileman
10. Distributed Power Generation: Planning and Evaluation, H. Lee Willis
and Walter G. Scott
11. Electric Power System Applications of Optimization, James A. Momoh
12. Aging Power Delivery Infrastructures, H. Lee Willis, Gregory V. Welch,
and Randall R. Schrieber
13. Restructured Electrical Power Systems: Operation, Trading, and Vola-
tility, Mohammad Shahidehpour and Muwaffaq Alomoush
14. Electric Power Distribution Reliability, Richard E. Brown
15. Computer-Aided Power System Analysis, Ramasamy Natarajan
16. Power System Analysis: Short-Circuit Load Flow and Harmonics, J.
C. Das
17. Power Transformers: Principles and Applications, John J. Winders, Jr.

ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION
Spatial Electric Load Forecasting: Second Edition, Revised and

Expanded, H. Lee Willis

This book is dedicated to the memory of my wife,
Karpagam Natarajan

Series Introduction
Power engineering is the oldest and most traditional of the various areas within
electrical engineering, yet no other facet of modern technology is currently
experiencing a greater transformation or seeing more attention and interest from
the public and government. Power system engineers face more challenges than
ever in making their systems not only work well, but fit within the constraints and
rules set down by deregulation rules, and meet the needs of utility business
practices and consumer demand. Without exaggeration, one can say that modern
power engineers could not possibly meet these challenges without the aid of
computerized analysis and modeling tools, which permit them to explore
alternatives, evaluate designs, and diagnose and hone performance and cost with
precision.
Therefore, one of the reasons I am particularly delighted to see this latest addition
to Marcel Dekker's Power Engineering Series is its timeliness in covering this
very subject in a straightforward and accessible manner. Dr. Natarajan's
Computer-Aided Power Systems Analysis provides a very complete coverage of
basic computer analysis techniques for power systems. Its linear organization
makes it particularly suitable as a reference for practicing utility and industrial
power engineers involved in power flow, short-circuit, and equipment capability
engineering of transmission and distribution systems. In addition, it provides
sound treatment of numerous practical problems involved in day-to-day power
engineering, including flicker and harmonic analysis, insulation coordination,
grounding, EMF, relay, and a host of other computerized study applications.

The second reason for my satisfaction in seeing this book added to the Power
Engineering Series is that I count the author among my good friends, and enjoyed
working with him from 1997 to 2001 when he was at ABB's Electric Systems
Technology Institute. Therefore, I am particularly proud to include Computer-
Aided Power System Analysis in this important group of books. Like all the
books in this series, Raj Natarajan's book provides modern power technology in
a context of proven, practical application; useful as a reference book as well as
for self-study and advanced classroom use. The series includes books covering
the entire field of power engineering, in all of its specialties and sub-genres, each
aimed at providing practicing power engineers with the knowledge and
techniques they need to meet the electric industry's challenges in the 21st
century.
H. Lee Willis

Preface
Power system planning, design, and operations require careful analysis in order to
evaluate the overall performance, safety, efficiency, reliability, and economics.
Such analysis helps to identify the potential system deficiencies of a proposed
project. In an existing plant, the operating limits and possible increase in loading
levels can be evaluated. In the equipment failure analysis, the cause of the failure
and mitigating measures to improve the system performance can be studied. The
modern interconnected power systems are complex, with several thousand buses
and components. Therefore, manual calculation of the performance indices is time
consuming. The computational efforts are very much simplified due to the
availability of efficient programs and powerful personal computers.
The introduction of personal computers with graphic capabilities has reduced

computational costs. Also, the available software for various studies is becoming
better and the cost is coming down. However, the results produced by the programs
are sophisticated and require careful analysis.
Several power system studies are performed to evaluate the efficient operation of
the power delivery. Some of the important studies are impedance modeling, load
flow, short circuit, transient stability, motor starting, power factor correction,
harmonic analysis, flicker analysis, insulation coordination, cable ampacity,
grounding grid, effect of lightning surge, EMF analysis, data acquisition systems,
and protection coordination.

In this book, the nature of the study, a brief theory involved, practical examples,
criteria for the evaluation, data required for the analysis, and the output data are
described in a step-by-step manner for easy understanding. I was involved in the
above types of studies over several years for industrial power systems and utilities.
It is hoped that this book will be a useful tool for power system engineers in
industry, utilities, and consulting, and those involved in the evaluation of practical
power systems.
I wish to thank software manufacturers for providing me permission to use the

copyrighted material in this book, including the EMTP program from Dr. H. W.
Dommel, University of British Columbia, Canada; PSS/E program from Power
Technologies Inc., Schenectady, New York; Power Tools for Windows from SKM
System Analysis Inc., Manhattan Beach, California; SuperHarm and the TOP-the
output processor from the Electrotek Concepts, Knoxville, Tennessee; the EMTP
program from the DCG/EPRI version, User Support & Maintenance Center, One
Networks Inc, Canada; the Integrated Grounding System Design Program from Dr.
Sakis Meliopoulos, Georgia Tech, Atlanta; and the Corona and Field Effects
program from Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oregon. Also, the
reprint permission granted by various publishers and organizations is greatly
appreciated.
Finally, I wish to thank many great people who discussed the technical problems
presented in this book over the past several years. These include Dr. Sakis
Meliopoulos of Georgia Tech; Dr. T. Kneschke and Mr. K. Agarwal of LTK
Engineering Services; Mr. Rory Dwyer of ABB Power T&D Company; Dr. R.
Ramanathan of National Systems & Research Company; Mr. E. H. Camm of S&C
Electric Company; Mr. T. Laskowski and Mr. J. Wills of PTI; Mr. Lon Lindell of
SKM System Analysis; Dr. C. Croskey, Dr. R. V. Ramani, Dr. C. J. Bise, Mr. R.
Frantz and Dr. J. N. Tomlinson of Penn State; Dr. P. K. Sen, University of
Colorado; Dr. M. K. Pal, a Consultant from New Jersey; Dr. A. Chaudhary of
Cooper Power Systems; Dr. J. A. Martinez of Universiat Politechnica De
Catalunya, Spain; Dr. A. F. Imece of PowerServ and many more. Finally, sincere
thanks are due to Rita Lazazzaro and Barbara Mathieu of Marcel Dekker, Inc., for
their help in the preparation of this book.
Ramasamy Natarajan

Contents
Series Introduction
Preface
1. Introduction
1.1 Power System Studies
2. Line Constants
2.1 Overhead Transmission Line Parameters
2.2 Impedance of Underground Cables
3. Power Flow Analysis

3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Power Flow Problem
3.3 The Solution Approach
3.4 Criteria for Evaluation
3.5 The System Data
3.6 Example IEEE Six Bus System
3.7 Conclusions
4. Short Circuit Studies

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Sources of Short Circuit Currents
4.3 System Impedance Data
4.4 Short Circuit Calculations
4.5 Computer- Aided Analysis

4.6 Limiting the Short Circuit Currents
5. Transient Stability Analysis

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Steady State Stability
5.3 Transient Stability
5.4 Criteria for Stability
5.5 Power System Component Models
5.6 Simulation Considerations
5.7 Conclusions
6. Motor Starting Studies

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Evaluation Criteria
6.3 Starting Methods
6.4 System Data
6.5 Voltage Drop Calculations
6.6 Calculation of Acceleration Time
6.7 Motor Starting with Limited-Capacity Generators
6.8 Computer-Aided Analysis
6.9 Conclusions
7. Power Factor Correction Studies

7.1 Introduction
7.2 System Description and Modeling
7.3 Acceptance Criteria
7.4 Frequency Scan Analysis
7.5 Voltage Magnification Analysis
7.6 Sustained Overvoltages
7.7 Switching Surge Analysis
7.8 Back-to-Back Switching
7.9 Summary and Conclusions
8. Harmonic Analysis
8.1 Harmonic Sources
8.2 System Response to Harmonics
8.3 System Model for Computer-Aided Analysis
8.5 Harmonic Filters
8.6 Harmonic Evaluation
8.7 Case Study
8.8 Summary and Conclusions

9. Flicker Analysis
9.1 Sources of Flicker
9.2 Flicker Analysis
9.3 Flicker Criteria
9.4 Data for Flicker Analysis
9.5 Case Study - Arc Furnace Load
9.6 Minimizing the Flicker Effects
9.7 Summary
10. Insulation Coordination

10.1 Introduction
10.2 Modeling of the System
10.3 Simulation of Switching Surges
10.4 Voltage Acceptance Criteria
10.5 Insulation Coordination
10.6 Methods of Minimizing the Switching Transients
10.7 Conclusions
11. Cable Ampacity Analysis

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Theory of Heat Transfer
11.3 Thermal Resistances
11.4 Temperature Rise Calculations
11.5 Data Requirements
11.6 Specifications of the Software
11.7 Evaluation Criteria
12. Ground Grid Analysis

12.1 Introduction
12.3 Ground Grid Calculations
12.5 Improving the Performance of the Grounding Grids
12.6 Conclusions
13. Lightning Surge Analysis

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Types of Lightning Surges
13.3 System Model
13.4 Computer Model and Examples
13.5 Risk Assessment and Conclusions

14. EMF Studies
14.1 Background
14.2 What is Field Exposure?
14.3 Existing Guidelines on Field Levels
14.4 Fields Due to Overhead Lines
14.5 Fields Due to Underground Cables
14.6 The Relation Between Electric and Magnetic Fields
14.7 Conclusions
15. Data Acquisition Systems

15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Hardware Requirements
15.3 Data Acquisition Software
15.4 Data Communication
15.5 Data Analysis
15.6 Special Data Acquisition Systems
15.7 Practical Data Acquisition Examples
15.8 Conclusions
16. Relay Coordination Studies

16.1 Introduction
16.2 Approach to the Study
16.4 Computer-Aided Coordination Analysis
16.5 Data for Coordination Study
16.6 Conclusions
Appendix A Conductor Data

Appendix B Equipment Preferred Ratings
Appendix C Equipment Test Voltages

INTRODUCTION
Power system planning, design and operations require careful studies in order to
evaluate the system performance, safety, efficiency, reliability and economics. Such
studies help to identify the potential deficiencies of the proposed system. In the
existing system, the cause of the equipment failure and malfunction can be
determined through a system study. The modern interconnected power systems are
complex, with several thousand buses and components. The manual calculation of
the performance indices is time consuming. The computational efforts are very
much simplified in the present day calculations due to the availability of efficient
programs and powerful microcomputers. The following study tools are used for
power system analysis.
Digital computer - The main frame computers are used in power system
calculations such as power flow, stability, short circuit and similar studies. The
introduction of cheaper personal computers with the graphics capabilities has
reduced the computational costs. However, the results produced by the programs
are sophisticated and require careful analysis.
Transient Network Analyzer (TNA) - The TNA is a very useful tool to perform
transient overvoltage studies. The TNAs are small-scale power system models with
computer control and graphic capabilities. The TNA allows the use of statistical run
on the switching studies using circuit breakers. With the introduction of transient
programs such TNA studies can be efficiently performed with personal computers.
Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

Microcomputer applications - With the advent of cheaper microcomputers
practically anybody can be provided with the necessary equipment. Data entry,
calculations, graphics and storage of the program-related documents are made very
simple. Many of the software programs from main frame are converted to
microcomputer applications. Also, the programs become more user-friendly and
very fast to execute with the larger memories available in the microcomputers. The
following microcomputer configurations are commonly used:
• A stand-alone workstation operated by a single user or a number of users at

different times. The programs and the data are stored in the microcomputer
memory.
• A workstation, which is part of a local area network, is another version of the

microcomputer application. In this arrangement sometimes the main software
is installed at the server and various users perform the calculations at the
workstation.
• Workstation connected to a central computer. This is similar to the local area

network, but the central computer may be a main frame or super computer.
• Large file transfer between various computer resources is achieved by e-mail

or through other Internet activities.
In all the microcomputer configurations, the printing or plotting devices is available

locally or at a centralized location.
1.1 POWER SYSTEM STUDIES
There are several power system studies performed to evaluate the efficient
operation of the power delivery [1,2]. Some of the important studies are:
• Impedance modeling.
• Power flow analysis.
• Short circuit studies.
• Transient stability analysis.
• Motor starting studies.
• Power factor correction studies.
• Harmonic analysis.
• Flicker analysis.
• Insulation coordination.
• Cable ampacity analysis.
• Ground grid analysis.
• Lightning surge analysis.

• EMF studies.
• Data acquisition systems.
• Relay coordination studies.
In this book, the nature of the study, a brief theory involved, practical examples,
criteria for the evaluation and typical computer software used in the evaluation are
described in a step-by-step manner for easy understanding.
Line Constants (Chapter 2) - The overhead transmission lines are supporting the
current carrying conductors. The conductor diameter, the resistance, the distance
between conductors, the distance of the conductors from the earth, the skin effect
factor, the soil resistivity and the frequency of the currents are some factors related
to the line parameters. Accurate value of the line constants are required for the
power flow, stability, voltage drop calculations, protection coordination studies and
other power system studies. The approach to the computer-aided calculations is
presented in this Chapter.
The underground cables are more complex than the overhead lines and the
parameter calculations involve the thickness of the insulation, shield and the various
materials involved in the construction. The approach to parameter evaluation and
examples are presented. The cable parameters are used in all kinds of power system
analysis. The calculated impedance values are presented in tables related to the line
or cable location. Sometimes there may be many line or cables involved in a system
and the parameters are presented in the impedance diagrams. Such diagrams will be
very useful in the system analysis.
Power Flow Analysis (Chapter 3) - Power flow studies are used to determine the
voltage, current, active and reactive power flow in a given power system. A number
of operating conditions can be analyzed including contingencies such as loss of
generator, loss of a transmission line, loss of a transformer or a load. These
conditions may cause equipment overloads or unacceptable voltage levels. The
study results can be used to determine the optimum size and location of the
capacitors for power factor improvement. Further, the results of the power flow
analysis are the staring point for the stability analysis. Digital computers are used
extensively in the power flow study because of the large-scale nature of the problem
and the complexities involved. For the power flow analysis, the acceptable voltage
levels are derived from the industry standards. The line and transformer loadings
are evaluated according to the normal, short-term emergency and long term-
emergency ratings.

Short Circuit Studies (Chapter 4) - The short circuit studies are performed to
determine the magnitude of the current flowing throughout the power system at
various time intervals after a fault. The magnitude of the current flowing through the
power system after a fault varies with time until it reaches a steady state condition.
During the fault, the power system is called on to detect, interrupt and isolate these
faults. The duty impressed on the equipment is dependent on the magnitude of the
current, which is a function of the time of fault initiation. Such calculations are
performed for various types of fault such as three-phase, single line to ground fault,
double line to ground fault and at different location of the system. The data is used
to select fuses, circuit breakers and surge protective relays. The symmetrical
component model is used in the analysis of the unsymmetrical faults and mutual
coupling.
Transient Stability Analysis (Chapter 5) - The ability of the power system

consisting of two or more generators to continue to operate after a change occurs on
the system is a measure of the stability. The steady state stability is defined as the
ability of the power system to remain in synchronism following relatively slow load
changes in the power system. Transient stability of the system is defined as the
ability of the power system to remain in synchronism under transient conditions
such as fault and switching operations. In a power system, the stability depends on
the power flow pattern, generator characteristics, system loading level, the line
parameters and many other details. Typical stability runs and the example results
showing the acceptable and not acceptable results are presented in this Chapter.
Motor Starting Studies (Chapter 6) - The majority of the load in the industrial
power system consists of three-phase induction and synchronous motors. These
motors draw five to seven times the rated current during energization and this
causes significant voltage drop in the distribution system. If the terminal voltage
drop is excessive, the motor may not produce enough starting torque to accelerate
up to rated running speed. Also, the running motors may stall from excessive
voltage drops or under voltage relays may operate. Further, if the motors are started
frequently, the voltage dip at the source may cause objectionable flicker in the
residential lighting system. By performing the motor-starting study, the voltage-
drop-related issues can be predicted. If a starting device is needed, the required
characteristics and rating can be determined. Using a computer program, the voltage
profile at various locations of the system during motor staring can be determined.
The study results can be used to select suitable starting device, proper motor
selection or required system design for minimizing the impact of the motor starting.
Power Factor Correction Studies (Chapter 7) - Usually, the power factor of

various power plants is low and there are several advantages in improving them.
The power factor capacitors provide an economical means of improving the power
factor. When the power factor improvement capacitor banks are installed in both

high voltage and low voltage levels, then there are several factors that require
careful consideration. Some of the important items are:
• Sustained overvoltages.
• Resonance frequencies of both high and low voltage capacitor banks.
• Voltage magnification at low voltage capacitor banks.
• Back-to-back capacitor switching.
In this Chapter, these aspects of the power factor correction are discussed.
Harmonic Analysis (Chapter 8) - Nonlinear power system loads such as

converters, arc furnaces and vapor lamps draw non-sinusoidal currents from the
source. The voltage distortion produced in the system depends on the system
impedance and the magnitudes of the harmonic currents injected. If the system
impedance is low, the voltage distortion is low in the absence of harmonic
resonance. In the presence of harmonic resonance, the voltage distortion is
responsible for interference in the computer system, additional heating effects in the
rotating machinery, overheating and failure of power factor correction capacitors,
additional line voltage drop and additional transformer losses. Also, the harmonic
frequencies induce voltage in the communication circuits. The harmonic analysis is
performed using frequency sensitive power system models.
Flicker Analysis (Chapter 9) - There are several industrial loads such as arc
furnace, traction load, a particle accelerator and motor-starting condition. If the
process of applying and releasing a load on a power system is carried out at a
frequency at which the human eye is susceptible and if the resulting voltage drop
great enough, a modulation of the light level of incandescent lamps will be detected.
This phenomenon is known as flicker. This Chapter evaluates the techniques for the
calculation of the voltage drop and using the frequency data in a graph to assess the
voltage flicker level. Also, certain measures to control the flicker in the power
system are discussed in this Chapter.
Insulation Coordination (Chapter 10) - The power system transients are

disturbances produced due to switching, faults, trapped energy, induced voltages,
inrush currents, ferro-resonance, loss of load, neutral instability and lightning. The
transients produce overvoltages, overcurrents and oscillatory behavior. The
overvoltages may damage the power system equipment due to flashover through
insulation breakdown. Usually a flashover will cause a temporary tripping and
reclosing operation. Permanent insulation damage will cause a sustained power
outage. Overcurrents can cause excessive heating and hence possible equipment
damage/tripping. The oscillatory type of transient may produce power quality
problems such as nuisance tripping, voltage notching, swings and sags. The power

system transients are modeled using the transients program and are analyzed in the
time domain. In this Chapter, the approach to the transient modeling of the power
system and solution approaches is presented with suitable examples. The transients
due to energization, de-energization, fault clearing, back up fault clearing and
reclosing are demonstrated with suitable examples. Approaches to minimize the
transients are also discussed in this Chapter.
Cable Ampacity Analysis (Chapter 11) - Cable installation in the underground

or in the cable trays are commonly used to transmit power within the generating
station. Also, the cables are used to transmit power at distribution level in the urban
areas. The current carrying capability of the cable is determined by the maximum
conductor temperature rise. This in turn depends on the conductor characteristics,
losses in the dielectric and shield and cooling arrangements. The analysis involves
the application of thermal equivalent circuits at the maximum loading conditions.
Grounding Grid Analysis (Chapter 12) - In the substations and generating

stations part of the fault currents are diverted through the grounding grids. During
the ground fault conditions the fault currents through ground grid causes the grid
voltage drop and hence the neutral voltage rise. The purpose of the safety analysis is
to evaluate the following:
• Grid potential rise.

• Maximum mesh voltage rise.
• Touch potential rise.
• Step potential rise.
• Allowable touch voltage and allowable step voltage.
• Safety performance analysis.
In order to calculate the above quantities, data for the soil resistivity, fault current
magnitude and duration and the geometry of the ground grid are required.
Lightning Surge Analysis (Chapter 13) - The lightning surge is one of the
major sources of external disturbance to the power system. The lightning surge can
strike the power system as a direct stroke or as a back flashover strike. The surge
current through the system depends on several factors such as the tower and
conductor configuration and the tower footing resistance. The system performance
is analyzed for the overvoltages without and with lightning arresters. The benefit of
having lightning arresters in the system to control the adverse effects of lightning
surges is demonstrated.
EMF Studies (Chapter 14) - Electric and magnetic fields exist wherever there is
electric power. Field calculation approaches are discussed both for the overhead
lines and underground cable circuits. The acceptable levels of radiated fields are

presented from various industry standards. This type of study can identify the levels
of field exposure and compare the existing levels with the industry standard values.
Some mitigation measures are also identified.
Data Acquisition Systems (Chapter 15) - The data acquisition techniques are
used to evaluate the power system performance under various conditions. When
there are several parameters to be measured in a system, a simple data acquisition
system can perform this function. When fast transients are to be measured, data
acquisition systems are used along with very small time step. There are several
types of data acquisition system software available for various applications. Also,
there are different communication protocols available to perform the data transfer.
In this Chapter, the following important data acquisition systems will be analyzed:
• Steady state analysis.

• Transient analysis.
These analyses include examples of performance analysis, graphical representation

and the approach for effective report preparation.
Relay Coordination Studies (Chapter 16) - The main objective of protection

coordination analysis is to minimize the hazards to personnel and equipment during
fault conditions. The studies are performed to select the fault-clearing
characteristics of devices such as fuses, circuit breakers and relays used in the
power system. The short circuit results provide the minimum and maximum current
levels at which the coordination must be achieved in order to protect the system.
Traditionally, the coordination calculations were performed in graphical sheets
using the time current characteristics. With the cheaper and faster microcomputers
available at the design and consulting offices, the time current characteristics of
various protective devices can readily be presented in graphical form. The
necessary settings can be calculated and presented along with the protective device
characteristics in order to verify the coordination.
Example 1.1 - A 160 MW cogeneration project is being planned for development

at a river bank. The plant will have one steam turbine driven generator unit of 90
MW 13.8 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase and a steam turbine driven unit of 70 MW, 13.8
kV, 60 Hz, three-phase. The generators will have individual circuit breakers and a
three-winding transformer, 13.8 kV/13.8 kV/138 kV. There will be one 138 kV
circuit breaker and a tie line to the other end of the river, which is 2 miles. Prepare
a simple one-line diagram of the proposed scheme and list the required system
studies.

Solution - The one line diagram of the proposed system is shown in Figure 1.1.
The required system studies are:
• Load flow analysis - To make sure that the line and transformer loadings are
within acceptable limits.
• Short circuit studies - To make sure that the circuit breaker ratings and relay
settings are performed to meet the new load flow conditions.
• Transient stability studies - To ensure that the system is stable under desired
operating and some contingency conditions.
• Cable ampacity studies - To select the 138 kV cable.
• Ground grid analysis - Ground grid for the substation and generating station
and related safety performance.
• Protection coordination studies - To get all the relay settings.
• Switching surge analysis - For insulation coordination.
PROBLEMS
1. A 520 MW cogeneration plant is to be developed at 13.8 kV level. The plant

will consist of six gas turbine units each 70 MW, 13.8 kV and two steam
turbine units with a rating of 50 MW, 13.8 kV each. The voltage is to be
stepped up to 345 kV at the local substation and the power is to be delivered
through a three-phase overhead line of 3 miles. Draw a one-line diagram of the
system and identify the ratings of the circuit breakers and step up transformer
units. What are the system planning studies required for this project? Refer to
Figure 1.1.
2. Is it necessary for the above developer (Problem 1) to perform harmonic

analysis? Explain.
3. There is a political form opposing the electric distribution system in a school

district. This is a health-related issue due to an overhead line. The electric
utility planners want you to look into this subject and recommend to them
suitable studies to be performed. What will be the recommendation?
4. A 230 kV transmission line is being installed between two substations at a

distance of 35 miles apart. There is a 340 feet river crossing involved in this
project and it was planned to install one tall tower at each end of the riverbank.
There will be one dead end tower following the tall tower for mechanical
considerations. Is there a need to perform special studies to reduce any risk
associated with this installation?

138kV
Circuit Breaker
2 miles
D-
138kVBus
ST Unit
MVA = 70 170 MVA
13.8 kV 13.8kV/13.8kV/138kV
Three Winding Transformer
Figure 1.1 One-Line Diagram of the Power Plant for Problem 1
5. A generating plant is proposed with four 200 MW generators as shown in

Figure 1.2. There are two step-up transformers and a ring bus arrangement to
connect the generators to the utility system. In order to proceed with the
project, what power system studies are required?
200 MW 200 MW
200 MW
200 MW
Line 4
Figure 1.2 One-Line Diagram of the Proposed Generating Plant and Ring Bus
REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical

Distribution for Industrial Plants, 1993 (Red Book).
2. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 399, IEEE Recommended Practice for Power

System Analysis, 1990 (Brown Book).

2
LINE CONSTANTS
2.1 OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
Transmission line parameters are used in the voltage drop calculations, load flow,
stability analysis, short circuit study, line loading calculations, transient analysis and
the performance evaluation of the lines under various loading conditions. The line
parameters are evaluated based on the installed line and tower configuration data.
The basic theory of line parameter calculations is involved and is explained well in
Reference [2]. The line constant calculation procedures suitable for computer-aided
analysis are discussed in this section.
Series impedance - The general method is well suited for the calculation of the
overhead line parameters as described in [1]. This procedure is explained using a
three-phase, 4 wire system shown in Figure 2.1. The voltage drop along any
conductor is proportional to the current. In steady state, the relation between the
voltage drop, impedance and the current is given by:
dV
[—] = [Z] [I] (2.1)
dx
dl
[—] = jco[C] [V] (2.2)
dx
Where [I] = Vector of phasor currents

[Z] = Series impedance matrix
[V] = Vector of phasor voltages measured phase to ground

I iy
} NEUTRAL CONDUCTOR
\
2.8M
I
R Q
2.8M ° 4k
2.8M
4M
•T 15. 9M
F I
C
18 4M
13. 4 M 1
r >r 1 1.
Figure 2.1 A Three-Phase, 4 Wire Overhead Transmission Line
where the self impedance (Zjj) and the mutual impedance (Z;k) are:
— + AXii) (2.3)
(2.4)
where the complex depth pp is:
(2.5)
R = Resistance of the conductor, Ohms/km

h = Average height of the conductor above the ground, m
dik = Distance between conductor i and k, m (see Figure 2.2)
Dik = Distance between conductor i and image conductor k, m
GMR = Geometric mean radius of conductor i, cm
x = Horizontal distance between conductors, m
(0 = Angular frequency, Radians/s
AR = Carson's correction term for resistance due to ground return effects

dik
Figure 2.2 Distances Between Conductors i and k
AX = Carson's correction term for reactance due to ground return effects

p = Resistivity of the soil, Ohm-m
Uo = Permeability of free space, H/m
The earth affects the capacitance of the conductor since its presence alters the
electric field of the conductor. In charging a conductor above the earth, there is a
potential difference between the conductor and the earth. In order to calculate the
capacitance of the conductor to earth, a fictitious conductor is assumed below the
earth's surface at a distance equal to twice the distance of the conductor above the
ground. Now if the earth is removed, the midpoint provides an equi-potential
surface. The fictitious conductor has a charge equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign to that of the original conductor and is called the image conductor.
The perfect earth behaves as a conductor. But in the presence of multiple

conductors, due to higher harmonic frequencies and higher earth resistivity values,
the effective resistance and the reactance increases. The increased values are
calculated using Carson's equations. Carson's correction terms AR and AX account
for the earth return effect and are functions of the angle cp (q> = 0 for self impedance
and (p = cpik in Figure 2.2 for mutual impedance) and of the parameter a:
a— (2.6)
with D = 2 h; in meter for self impedance

= 2 Dik in meter for mutual impedance

For a < 5, the correction factors are given in Reference [1]. For a > 5 the following
finite series is used:
(Cos</> VJ Cos 26 Cos3^ 3Cos5d 45Cos7<z5 VÎO" 7
AR = --- -, + - — + - —- - -- - ^— Q/km
a2 a
3
a
5
a
7 A/2 J
(2.7;
Cos^ Cos3^ t 3("os50 45Cos7^ 1 4fe>io" "l/Vrv! /I O\
— -^3— -5— -— ~7
v a a a y *v z
The trigonometric functions in the above equations can be calculated directly

from the geometry of the tower-conductor configuration using the following
relations:
hj + hk . xik
Cos (p - - c Sin (p — - (2.9)
Dik Dik
The above procedure can be extended for multi circuit lines. Carson's equations
for the homogeneous earth are normally accurate enough for power system studies.
Shunt capacitance - The capacitance between the phase conductor and the
ground can be calculated knowing Maxwell's potential coefficients. Maxwell's
potential coefficients [P] and the voltage [V] are given by:
[V] = [P][Q] (2.10)
where Q is the charge per unit length of the conductor. The diagonal elements PJJ
and the off-diagonal elements are calculated using the following equations:
1 2 hi
Pii= - In—^ (2.11)
27tsO ri
— (2.12)
dik
where 80 is the permittivity of free space. Knowing Maxwell's potential

coefficients, the capacitance matrix can be calculated using the relation
[C] — [P] '. In the capacitance matrix, the off-diagonal elements Cik — CRJ.

Elimination of ground effects - The ground effects can be included in the phase
conductors. Assume equation (2.1) has the following form:
V Zll Z12 I
(2.13)
Vc Z21 Z22
where V and Vg are system voltage and ground conductor voltages respectively.
Since Vg = 0, then:
dV
(2.14)
dx
(2.15)
Solving the above two equations:
dV i
=(Z11 -Zl2Z 2 2 Z2l)I (2.16)
dx
For the capacitance calculations, the same type of approach can be used. The
impedance components calculated using the above approach accounts for the
ground conductor effects.
Effective self and mutual impedance - If the self (Zjj) and mutual impedances
(Zik) of the individual conductors are known, then the effective self and mutual
impedance of the phases can be expressed as:
Zs Zm Zm
Zeq Zm Zs Zm (2.17)
Zm Zm Zs
(2.18)
(2.19)
The self and mutual capacitance are given by:

(2.20)
(2.21)
Symmetrical component impedance - If the self (Zs) and mutual impedances

(Zm) of the phases are known, then the symmetrical components of the
impedances can be evaluated using the symmetrical component transformation:
1 1 1
s =• ' a2 (2.22)
where a = e1 * and a2 = e"j27t 3. Using the above transformation, equation 2.1 can
be transformed to provide the symmetrical component relation given by:
dV
~ (2.23)
Zpositive ~ Znegative (2.24)
Zzero ~ (Zs (2.25)
The symmetrical component capacitance is:

_1
Cpositive ~ Cnegative (Cs" Cm) (2.26)
Czero ~ (Cs+ 2 Cm) (2.27)
Typical line parameters - The calculated line parameters can be verified with
the typical parameters available from the literature. Such parameters are available
from system analysts working on the line design and calculations. Some typical
parameters are listed in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Typical Line Parameters
Parameter 66 kV 115 kV 138 kV 230 KV 345 kV 500 kV 750 kV
Ri, Ohm/mile 0.340 0.224 0.194 0.107 0.064 0.020 0.020
xi, Ohm/mile 0.783 0.759 0.771 0.785 0.509 0.338 0.528
RO, Ohm/mile 1.220 0.755 0.586 0.576 0.416 0.275 0.500
xo, Ohm/mile 2.370 2.300 2.480 2.235 1.624 1.050 1.584
Xo/Ro 1.950 3.050 4.230 4.080 3.490 3.800 3.170
C1, MFD/mile 0.014 0.015 0.014 0.014 0.019 0.013 0.020
CO, MFD/mile 0.009 0.008 0.009 0.009 0.012 0.009 0.013
Data for parameter calculations - The required data for the calculation of the
line parameters include the conductor details and tower configuration as listed
below.
• Resistance for phase and neutral conductors.

• Diameter for the phase and neutral conductors.
• Horizontal position of the conductor in the tower.
• Vertical position of the conductor in the tower.
• Sag of the conductor in the mid span.
The necessary conductor data is usually available from the manufacturers and
typical values for the following types are presented in Tables A-l through A-8.
Table; Description
A-l High Strength (HS) steel conductor.
A-2 Extra High Strength (EHS) steel conductor.
A-3 Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced (ACAR).
A-4 Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR).
A-5 Aluminum Weld Conductor (ALUMOWE).
A-6 All Aluminum Conductor (AAC).
A-7 All Aluminum Alloy Conductor (AAAC).
A-8 Copper Conductors.
The required tower configuration data has to be from the specific installation.
Typical tower configurations are available from various books and
manufacturer's catalog.

Example parameter calculations — There are several programs available to
perform the line parameter calculations and the Electromagnetic Transients
Program (EMTP)-based overhead line parameters program is used [3] in the
example calculations. The typical input data and the calculated parameters are
discussed for the two-pole high voltage dc circuit, two phase traction circuit,
three-phase 230 kV ac circuit and three-phase 230 kV double circuit. The above
examples are chosen to demonstrate the different levels of complexities involved
in various line parameter calculations.
Example 2.1 - A typical two-pole high voltage dc circuit is shown in Figure 2.3.
The conductor and tower configurations are:
Description Phase Conductor Neutral Conductor

Type of conductor ACSR 500 kcmil 3/8 EHS
Resistance, Ohm/km 0.0249 1.9375
Diameter, cm 4.5771 1.2573
Conductor sag, m 10 9
The horizontal and vertical position of the conductor is shown in Figure 2.3. The
calculated line parameters are:
Self and Munial Components Symmetrical Components

Cs = 8.0017 nF/km C0 - 7.0238 nF/km
Cm =0.9778 nF/km C, - 8.9795 nF/km
Rs -0.1139 Ohm/km R0 = 0.1995 Ohm/km
Xs = 0.7875 Ohm/km X0 = 1.0836 Ohm/km
Rm = 0.0856 Ohm/km R, = 0.0282 Ohm/km
Xm =0.2961 Ohm/km Xj = 0.4914 Ohm/km
Surge Impedances
ZZero -645 Ohm Zpositive =381 Ohm
Example 2.2 - Consider a 230 kV, three-phase, four-conductor ac circuit is

shown in Figure 2.1. The conductor and tower configurations are:

Type of conductor 741 kcmil, AAAC 5/16 EHS
Diameter, cm 2.5146 0.7925
The input parameters for the calculation of the line constants using the
electromagnetic program are presented in List 2.1.

Neutral Conductor
6.1 M
I
B
41 M
21 M
Figure 2.3 Two Pole DC Tower Configuration for Example 2.1
List 2.1 Input Data for Line Constants Program (Edited Version)
(Courtesy of H. W. Dommel, Output from Overhead Line Parameters Program)
(A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H)

1 0.5 0.01 4 2.515 0 15.9 11.8
2 0.5 0.01 4 2.515 5.6 18.4 14.3
3 0.5 0.01 4 2.515 5.6 13.4 9.25
0 0.32 4 0.7925 2.82 23.4 19.4
(A) - Phase numbers for A, B, C

(B) - Skin effect factor
(C) - Resistance, Ohms/km
(D) - Reactance factor
(E) - Diameter, Cm
(F) - Conductor X coordinate, m
(G) - Conductor Y coordinate, m
(H) - Conductor Y coordinate with sag, m
The program output listing contains the data for various types of line parameters
such as conductor impedance, conductor equivalent impedance, symmetrical
component parameters and surge impedance parameters. Also, the capacitance
components include the line capacitance, conductor equivalent capacitance and
symmetrical component parameters. An edited version of the program output is
presented in List 2.2.

List 2.2 Output of Line Constants Program (Edited Version)
(Courtesy of H. W. Dommel, Output from Overhead Line Parameters Program)
Capacitance, F/km: Equivalent Phase Conductors

1 7.87E-09=Cs
2 1.14E-09 7.92E-09
3 1.078744E-0 1.37E-09 8.07E-09
Capacitance, F/km; Symmetrical Components

0 5.56E-09=CO
O.OOE+00
1 4.281430E-1 2.13E-10
5.98E-11 3.78E-12
=C1
2 4.28E-11 9.15E-09 -2.13E-10
5.98E-11 1.31E-25 -3.78E-12
Impedance, Ohm/km; Equivalent Phase Conductors

1 8.12E-02=Rs
7.28E-01 = X s
2 6.67E-02 8.51E-02
2.40E-01 7.11E-01
3 6.34E-02 6.51E-02 7.85E-02

2.55E-01 2.62E-01 7.41E-01
Impedance, Ohm/km; Symmetrical Components

0 2.12E-01 = R O
1.23E+00 = X O
1 1.287834E-0 3.53E-04
1.21E-03 1.04E-02
=R1
2 1.33E-02 1.65E-02 -2.69E-05
6.85E-03 4.75E-01 1.05E-02
The horizontal and vertical position of the conductor is shown in Figure 2.1. The
calculated line parameters are:

Self and Mutual Components Symmetrical Components
Cs = 7.8671 nF/km Co = 5.5593 nF/km
Cm = 1.1434 nF/km C, =9.1483 nF/km
Rs =0.0812 Ohm/km Ro =0.2117 Ohm/km
Xs = 0.7282 Ohm/km X0 =1.2907 Ohm/km
Rm = 0.0667 Ohm/km R, =0.0165 Ohm/km
Xm = 0.2395 Ohm/km X, = 0.4745 Ohm/km
Surge Impedances
ZZero = 882 Ohm Znositive =377 Ohm
Example 2.3 - Consider a three-phase 230 kV double circuit with four

conductors (three phase conductors and one ground conductor) per circuit as
shown in Figure 2.4. The conductor and tower configurations are:

Type of conductor 741kcmil, AAAC 5/16 EHS
Diameter, mm 25.146 7.925
The horizontal and vertical position of the conductor is shown in Figure 2.4.
3.85M
>k *
6
4.1M
_ A
| I
OO A k
5.3M
O'o B o'o-r-
4.4M A
o'o c 31 3M
36
-Jk°'°C I
26. 3M
I I
22 M
>f w w >f ^
Figure 2.4 Three-Phase Double Circuit, Tower Configuration for Example 2.3

The calculated line parameters are:
Self and Mutual Components Symmetrical Components

Cs = 7.9537 nF/km Co =5.9760 nF/km
Cm =1.1986 nF/km C, = 9.6687 nF/km
Coo -2.1204 nF/km
Rs =0.1721 Ohm/km Ro = 0.3447 Ohm/km
Xs = 0.8539 Ohm/km X0 = 1.4113 Ohm/km
Rm = 0.0699 Ohm/km Ri = 0.0767 Ohm/km
Xm = 0.3734 Ohm/km X, = 0.4592 Ohm/km
Roo =0.2717 Ohm/km
Xoo = 0.8649 Ohm/km
Surge Impedances
Z2ero = 803 Ohm 7
^positiv = 357 Ohm
2.2 IMPEDANCE OF UNDERGROUND CABLES
An increasing number of urban distribution networks use underground cables for

transmission and distribution systems. Performance evaluations and fault
calculations for such circuits require the data of sequence parameters. Typically,
these cables are shielded type and are laid in triangular configuration (Figure 2.5) or
in a horizontal configuration (Figure 2.6). The triplexed three cables are similar to
the one shown in Figure 2.5. In order to derive the parameters of the cable circuits,
consider the three-phase cable circuit shown in Figure 2.6.
A2
Figure 2.5 Cables in Triangular Configuration

(Al, A2 and A3 are distances between cables A, B and C)

A3
A1 A2
Figure 2.6 Cables in Horizontal Configuration

(Al, A2 and A3 are distances between cables A, B and C)
There are other configurations for laying the cables in the conduit or pipes. Each
configuration has advantages and disadvantages. However, the impedance
calculation procedure is the same. For discussions on the cable applications, see
Reference [4]. For a three-phase circuit with shielded cables, the symmetrical
component parameters can be calculated as follows.
Self impedance of the phase conductor (Zaa) in Ohms/ 1000 feet:
Zaa = Ra + 0.0181 + j0.037?[4.681 +0.6101ogee( -—^- (228)

GMRa
Mutual impedance of the phase conductor (Zab) in Ohms/1000 feet:

1.55 Jp~ x -I
Zab = 0.0181 + j0.0377[ 4.681 +0.6101oge(l (2.29)
* GMD J J
Self impedance of the neutral conductor (Znn) in Ohms/ 1000 feet:

Rn
Rnn - [ - + 0.0181] (2.30)
5.24
Xnn = 0.0377 [4.681 + 0.610J loge (0.1 29<Jp~) + 0.6 10 log
1
GMRn Kn GMRC
Znn = (Rnn + j Xnn) Ohms/1000 feet (2.32)

Mutual impedance of the ground conductor (Zan) in Ohms/1000 feet:
1.55VP
V
= 0.0181 + j0.037?[ 4.68+ 0.6101oge{ } ] (2.33)
3 2
'GMR C GMD
Positive sequence (Zl) and zero sequence (ZO):
Z2
Zj = [Zaa -Z ab -- — JOhms/lOOOfeet (2.34)
->£-> an
ZQ =[Z a a +2Z a b -- ] Ohms/1 000 feet (2.35)
Where
GMR — Geometric mean radius of the phase conductor, inches

GMRs = Radius from the center of phase conductor to shield, inches
N = Number of shield neutral wires
Ra = Resistance of the phase conductor, Ohms/1000 feet
Rn = Resistance of the neutral conductor, Ohms/ 1000 feet
Al, A2, A3 - Distance between three phase cables, inches
GMD = ^/Al x A2 x A3 = Geometric mean distance, inches
Kn = Spacing factor of concentric neutral wires
p = Resistivity of earth, Ohm-m
Example 2.4 - Calculate the positive and zero sequence impedance of three 115
kV cables laid horizontally with a spacing of 8 inches. The sheaths are solidly
grounded at both ends of the cable. The cable is a 750 kcmil compact round
aluminum conductor with a 0.10 inch thick lead sheath. The resistance of the
conductor is 23 (a-Ohm/feet and the resistance of the sheath is 142 u-Ohm/feet.
The resistivity of earth is 100 Ohm-m. The thickness of the insulation is 0.85
inch. The geometric mean radius of the conductor is 0.445 inch. Also, calculate
the positive and zero sequence impedances using the EMTP program. Compare
the results. Calculate the charging capacitance values.
The geometric mean distance between the conductors GMD is:

GMD = ^8 x 8 x 10 = 10.079 inch
Self impedance of the phase conductor (Zaa) per equation (2.28) is:
Zaa = (0.0483 + j 0.2615) Ohms/1000 feet
Mutual impedance of the phase conductor (Zab) per equation (2.29) is:
Zab = (0.0181 + j 0.1863) Ohms/1000 feet
Self impedance of the neutral conductor (Znn) per equation (2.32) is:
Znn = (0.0181 + j 0.2323) Ohms/1000 feet
Mutual impedance of the ground conductor (Zmg) per equation (2.33) is:
Zan = (0.1681 + j 0.2323) Ohms/1000 feet
The positive sequence (Zl) impedance per equation (2.34) is:
Zl = (0.0431 + j 0.0712) Ohms/1000 feet
The zero sequence impedance per equation (2.35) is:
ZO - (0.1689 + j 0.0625) Ohms/1000 feet
PROBLEMS (In each case, the resistivity of earth is 100 Ohm-meter).
1. Consider the double circuit line shown in Example 2.3 (also see Figure 2.4).
The line is to be operated at 138 kV with the same conductor positions.
Calculate the line parameters of the 138 kV in Ohms and in P.U. The phase
conductor is 550 kcmil from Table A-6. The neutral conductor is 3/8 HS
from Table A-l. Compare the calculated values with the typical values.
2. The configurations of the tower and the conductors of a 66 kV three-phase

single circuit line is similar to the one shown in Figure 2.1. The length of the
conductor arm is 8 feet. The vertical height of the phase conductors A, B and
C are 40 feet, 54 feet and 38 feet respectively. The height of the neutral
conductor is 62 feet. The phase conductor is 600 kcmil, ACSR. The neutral
conductor is 7.6 EHS. The span length between the towers is 200 feet.
Estimate the line parameters in the phase quantities and symmetrical
components both in Ohms and in P.U. Compare the values with the typical
values.

3. Why are EHS conductors used for the neutral circuit? Why are the ACSR,
AAAR, ACAR and copper conductors used for the neutral circuit? What are
the primary conductor materials for the overhead system? Which conductor
is used and what are the factors involved in the selection?
4. Compare the properties of the neutral conductor of the overhead system and
the sheath used in the underground cable system.
5. Calculate the positive and zero sequence impedance of a 115 kV XLPE

cable installed in a triangular configuration with a spacing of 10 inches
between the centers of the cables. The sheaths are solidly grounded at both
ends of the cable. The cable is a 1000 kcmil, compact round aluminum
conductor and the thickness of the sheath is 0.100 inch. The conductor
resistance is 0.225 micro-ohm/feet. The resistance of the sheath is 141
micro-ohm/feet. The thickness of the insulation is 0.84 inch. The diameter of
the conductor is 1.06 inch. Also, represent the cable conductors like
overhead conductors and calculate the symmetrical component parameters
using the electromagnetic transients program. Compare the values.
6. The symmetrical component impedances of a 138 kV circuits are:
Zl = (0.0928 + j 0.431) P.U.

ZO = (0.699 +j 0.843) P.U.
Charging MVAR =0.2113 P.U. on 100 MVA base.
Calculate the self and mutual impedances in Ohms. Also, calculate the self
and mutual charging capacitance in microfarad.
REFERENCES
1. H. W. Dommel, EMTP Theory Book, Prepared for Bonneville Power

Administration, Portland, Oregon, 1986.
2. J. Grainger, W. Stevenson, Jr., Power System Analysis, McGraw-Hill

Book Companies, New York, 1994.
3. H. W. Dommel, Overhead Line Parameters Program, University of

British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, 1980.
4. ANSI/IEEE Standard 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric

Power Distribution for Industrial Plants, IEEE Press, 1993 (Red Book).

3
POWER FLOW ANALYSIS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The bulk electrical power is generated by three main methods: hydro sources, coal
fired stations and nuclear generating stations. Isolated power supplies are obtained
from diesel engine driven generators, wind electric generators, solar panels and
batteries. The bulk power is generated at 4.16 kV, 13.8 kV, 18 kV or 22 kV and is
stepped up to high voltages for transmission. The load centers are usually located
away from generating stations. Therefore, the power is transmitted to the load
centers and is stepped down to distribution level. The load is supplied at various
voltage levels. The load may be residential, industrial or commercial. Depending on
the requirement the loads are switched on and off. Therefore, there are peak load
hours and off peak load hours. When there is a need, power is transmitted from one
area to the other area through the tie lines. The control of generation, transmission,
distribution and area exchange are performed from a centralized location. In order
to perform the control functions satisfactorily, the steady state power flow must be
known. Therefore, the entire system is modeled as electric networks and a solution
is simulated using a digital program. Such a problem solution practice is called
power flow analysis.
The power flow solution is used to evaluate the bus voltage, branch current, real
power flow, reactive power flow for the specified generation and load conditions.
The results are used to evaluate the line or transformer loading and the acceptability
of bus voltages. In general the power flow solutions are needed for the system under
the following conditions:

• Various systems loading conditions (peak and off peak).
• With certain equipment outaged.
• Addition of new generators.
• Addition of new transmission lines or cables.
• Interconnection with other systems.
• Load growth studies.
• Loss of line evaluation.
In order to solve for the power flow solutions, it is necessary to model all the
networks, generators, transformers and shunt capacitors. The approach to the
modeling and the analysis of large-scale power flow solutions are presented in this
Chapter. Some related definitions are given below.
Area - A section of a large power system or the power system of one power
company.
Bulk power system - An interconnected power system with many generators,

transmission lines and substations on which a disturbance or fault can have
influence outside of the local area.
Contingency - An event involving the loss of one or more elements (such as a line,
transformer, circuit breaker or generator), which affects the power system.
Normal fault-clearing - A fault-clearing consistent with the correct operation of

the protective relay scheme and with the correct operation of all the circuit breakers
followed by a fault.
Delayed or backup fault-clearing - A fault-clearing consistent with the correct

operation circuit breaker failure scheme and its associated breakers, or of a backup
relay scheme with an intentional time delay.
3.2 THE POWER FLOW PROBLEM
The formulation of the power flow problem can be shown using a three-bus
example shown in Figure 3.1. Let the bus voltages be VI, V2 and V3. The currents
injected at the three nodes are II, 12 and 13. The line admittance values are Ya, Yb
and Yc respectively. The shunt admittance at the bus locations are Yl, Y2 and Y3
respectively. The power flow problem is to solve for the bus voltages, branch
currents, and real and reactive power flows through various branches. The relation
between the bus voltages [V] and the branch currents [I] are given by [1]:
[V] =[Z][I] (3.1)

Where [Z] is the bus impedance matrix of the network. Since the bus voltages are
known, the branch currents can be calculated using the relation:
[I] =[Y][V] (3.2)
VI V3
Ya
II 13
12 ^
V2
Yb Yc
—1 1
Yl [
Figure 3.1 One Line Diagram of the Three Bus System
Where [ Y] is the bus admittance matrix of the system, which can be set up from the
power system network. The matrix equations are to be solved for the variables. In
order to simplify the solution approach, the solution variables are described by the
following four quantities.
P = Real power
Q = Reactive power
V = Magnitude of the bus voltage
u = Angle of the bus voltage
Then, the current is expressed as:
(P-JQ) +J5
-e J (3.3)
V
To solve the power flow equations, two of the four variables must be known at each
bus. The following three type of buses are defined.
Load bus (Type 1) - In a load bus, the real power (P) and the reactive power (Q)
are known. The variables V and o are not specified.
Generator bus (Type 2) - In a generator bus, the voltage (V) is kept constant and
the output power (P) is fixed. These two items are controlled by the excitation
system and the governor. The unknown variables are Q and O .

Swing bus (Type 3) - At the reference generator or swing bus, the voltage (V) and
the load angle ( § ) are known. The unknown variables are P and Q.
The known and the variables to be solved at various buses are:
Type Bus P Q Y_ 5_
1 Load bus Known Known Solve Solve
2 Generator bus Known Solve Known Solve
3 Swing bus Solve Solve Known Known
The objective of the power flow study is to evaluate the two quantities at each bus
that is not specified. The equation 3.2 is a set of linear equations. Introduction of P
and Q produces a set of nonlinear complex equations. Therefore, the solution
approach is by the iteration method.
Formulation of the [Y] Matrix - The admittance matrix [Y] is required to solve
the equation 3.2. The formulation of the admittance matrix is shown by using an
example in Figure 3.1. The Y's are admittance of various branches or shunts, V's are
the voltages and Fs are currents. The equations are written as:
11 = (Ya + Yb + Yl) VI - Yb V2 - Ya V3 (3.4)
12 = -Yb VI + (Yb + Yc + Y2) V2 - Yc V3 (3.5)
13 = -Ya VI - Yc V2 + (Yc + Ya + Y3) V3 (3.6)
Where Vi's are the node voltages (i = 1,2, 3). The above three equations can be
written in matrix form as:
Ya + Y b + Y l -Yb - Ya VI
-Yb Yb+Yc + Y2 - Yc V2 (3.7)
-Ya -Yc Yc + Ya + Y3 V3
The [Y] matrix is symmetrical and the diagonal elements contain the admittance of
all the branches connected to the node. The off diagonal admittance element is due
to the outgoing branch to the k-th node. This procedure is easy to implement
through a computer program to form the [Y] matrix for the given network. By
solving the equation 3.7, the branch currents can be evaluated.

3.3 THE SOLUTION APPROACH
The load flow problem is complex, since all the quantities (V, I, kVA, and Z) are
complex numbers. Further, the known and the unknown variables are not the same
in all the equations. Therefore, there is a need to adjust these equations accordingly.
The introduction of (P + jQ) in these equations introduce nonlinearity, making the
solution approach difficult. The basic solution approaches are illustrated using a
three-bus problem. In order to make the solution approach simplified, the resistance
and the shunt capacitance are neglected. Consider a three-bus problem as shown in
Figure 3.2. Bus 1 is the swing bus with voltage magnitude and the angle specified.
Bus 2 is a generator bus with P specified. Bus 3 is a load bus with P and Q
specified. Voltages V2 and V3 are to be obtained by the solution. The system
equations are written for bus 2 and bus 3 as:
12 = Y21 VI + Y22 V2 + Y23 V3 (3.8)
12 = P2/V2 (3.9)
Combining equations (3.8) and (3.9):
V 2 = — V 2 - (Y21V1-Y23V3) (3.10)
Y22V
The equation contains V2 on both sides and hence can be solved only by iteration
techniques. Substituting the known parameters, equation (3.10) can be rewritten as:
V2 =
— — + 5 + 10V3 (3.11)
In a similar manner the equation for V3 can be written as:
V3 = — — + 10 + 10V2 (3.12)
201V3 )
V1 = 1.0PU V2
= 5PU
PI P2= 1.1 PU
V3
Y = 1 0 PU 4_ Y=10PU
P3 = -1.3PU
Figure 3.2 Three Bus Example
There are several approaches to solve these equations. The solution approaches are
shown using the three-bus example.

Gauss Iteration Method - By this method, the unknowns V2 and V3 are assigned
with estimated values. Note that the bus voltages are always around 1.0 P.U.
Compute the value of V2 and V3 using the initial estimates of V2 and V3. Repeat
the procedure until a solution is reached. Each complete computation of V2 and V3
is called on iteration. The first iteration for the equations (3.11) and (3.12) using
V2 = V3 = 1.0P.U. gives:
V2 = — l + 5 + 10(1.0) = 1.0733P.U. (3.13)
V3 = — ( — + 10 + 10(1.0) | = 0.9350P.U. (314)

20V 1.0 '
The equation for the nth iteration is given by:
V2 (n) = - -
15^V2(n-l)
(n) _ i f -1.3
V3
The calculated voltages are said to converge, if the voltage values get closer and
closer to the actual solution. The criterion satisfying the desirable accuracy is called
the convergence criterion. Comparing the calculated voltage and the previous bus
voltage can perform a voltage check. If the difference is within the specified limits,
then the power flow solution can be accepted.
V' = (V n -'-V n ) < Vtolerance (3.17)
An example voltage tolerance can be 0.0001 P.U. The voltage V2 and V3 during
the iteration procedure using the Gauss approach is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Voltages V2 and V3 During the Gauss Iteration
Iteration V2 V3
1 1.0733 0.9350
2 1.0312 0.9618
3 1.0521 0.9428
4 1.0379 0.9518
5 1.0450 0.9454
7 1.0402 0.9484
8 1.0425 0.9463
9 1.0409 0.9473
10 1.0417 0.9466
11 1.0412 0.9469
The Gauss solution converges slowly. Other acceptance criteria for large-scale
power flow problems are the calculation and comparison of real power for all the
buses. The difference in the power between iteration n and (n-1) is called the
mismatch power and if this quantity is within specified limits (generally in the range
of 0.01 to 0.001 P.U.), then the solution is acceptable.
Pmismatch = ^P'"' - ZP<""" (3.18)
Gauss-Seidel Iteration Method - In this method, the unknowns V2 and V3 are

assigned with estimated values. Then compute the value of V2 using the initial
estimates of V2 and V3. Compute the value of V3 using the initial estimate of V3
and just calculated value of V2. Repeat the procedure until a solution is reached.
The first iteration for the equations (3.19) and (3.20) yields:
1/1.1 x
V2 = — ( + 5 + 10(1.0) ) =1.0733P.U (3 19)
15 1.0
1 / -1.3 v
V3 = —( + 10 + 10(1.0733) ) =0.9717P.U (320)
20 i.o
Table 3.2 shows the calculated bus voltages using the Gauss-Seidel iteration
method.

Table 3.2 Voltages V2 and V3 During the Gauss-Seidel Iteration
Iteration V2 V3
1 1.0733 0.9717
2 1.0556 0.9558
3 1.0463 0.9499
4 1.0431 0.9478
5 1.0419 0.9471
7 1.0415 0.9469
8 1.0414 0.9468
9 1.0413 0.9467
It can be seen that this solution approach converges faster than the Gauss method,
since the updated values are used in each iteration.
The Newton-Raphson method - A faster solution is obtained using the Newton-

Raphson method and is suitable for large-scale problems. In this approach, the
partial derivatives are used to construct the Jacobian matrix. For the three-bus
problem, the bus power relations are given by:
P 1 = V 1 ( Y 1 1 V 1 + Y 1 2 V 2 + Y13 V3)
P2 = V2 (Y21 VI + Y22 V2 + Y23 V3) (3.21)
P3 = V3 (Y31 VI + Y32 V2 + Y33 V3)
The elements of the Jacobian matrix based on equation (3.21) are:
API ~3P1 3P1 3P1 AVI

3V 1 3V2 3V3
3P2 3P2 3P2
AP2 = AV2 (3.22)
3V 1 3V2
3P3 3P3
AP3 3V 1 3V2 AV3
The equation (3.22) can be written as:
[AP] = [j] [AV] (3.23)
where [J] is the Jacobian matrix. For the three bus power flow problem, the voltage
of the swing generator is specified as VI = 1.0 P.U. and is constant. Therefore,
AV 1 = 0 and therefore, the equation (3.22) reduces to:

AP2~ ~dP2 dP2 AV2~
5V 1 aV2
= (3.24)
dP3 5P3
AP3 AV3
_5V1 aV2
The changes in V2 and V3 can be calculated by iterative method, by assuming

suitable starting values for V2 and V3 as 1.0 P.U. The equation to the computation
can be presented as:
AV2 V2 -1 AP2
-[J] (3.25)
AV3 V3 AP3
This is the basic equation for the calculation of the Newton-Raphson method. For
the three-bus system, the derivatives for the Jacobian matrix are calculated as:
= Y21V1 + 2Y22V2 + Y23V3 (3.26)

SV2
8P2
- Y23V2 (3.27)
dV3
8P3
= Y32V3 (3.28)
dV2
dP3
= Y31V1 + Y32V2 + 2Y33V3 (3.29)
dV3
Using the V2 = V3 = 1.0 and the admittance values for the branches, the Jacobian
matrix and the inverse are obtained as:
10 10 0.2 0.2
W= 10 15
and
0.2 0.3
AP2 = 1.0(-5 -15 + 10) -1.1 = -1.1
AP3 = 1.0(-10- 10 + 20) +1.3 =1.3

V2 1.0 0.2 0 . 2 - 1 . 1 0.96
(3.30)
V3 1.0 0.2 0.3 1.3 0.87
Proceeding in the same way as outlined above the iteration procedure will give a
solution. The Newton-Raphson solution approach is much faster than the other
approaches.
The fast decoupled load flow - One of the main issues with the Newton-Raphson
method is the need for evaluating and inverting the Jacobian matrix. For an n bus
system, the size of the matrix is (2n-ng-2) , where ng is the number of generator
buses. Further, the Jacobian matrix must be recalculated and inverted for each
iteration. Therefore, there is a need for simplified approaches to solve the power
flow problem. A closer examination of the power flow problem will reveal the
following:
• P is sensitive to the load angle and relatively insensitive to the voltage.

• Q is sensitive to the voltage and relatively insensitive to the load angle.
Therefore, the full derivative equation can be decoupled into two equations as:
ap
AP = [—] M (3.31)
dS
dQ
AQ = -[—] AV (3.32)
av
Solving for A5 and AV:
ap .1
A£ = [—] AP (3.33)
d§
dQ 4
AV - -[—] 'AQ (3.34)
av
The sub matrix involved in equation (3.33) and (3.34) is only half the size of the
Jacobian matrix. Further approximations and rearrangements will create the
following equations:
A P - [Bp] A6 (3.35)
A Q = [Bq] AV (3.36)

The solution for the above equations are given by:
Ap (3.37)
AQ (3.38)
The array [Bp] and [Bq] has to be formulated and evaluated only once unless phase
shifting transformers are present in the system.
3.4 CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION
The power flow cases are generally classified as design cases, contingency cases
and extreme contingency cases. The definition of the individual case and the
acceptable performance under the given operating case has to be considered.
Base case - A base case is a design requirement case with all the equipment
operating within the normal ratings. This is applicable for peak and off peak load
conditions. The system voltage at all the buses will be within ± 5% [2]. But in
many cases a much lower margin may be specified by the utility. The base case
criteria are applicable for all the planning studies of the bulk power system.
Contingency case - A contingency case is a power flow case with one component
outage, followed by fault clearing. The fault may be any one of the following:
• Loss of one component without a fault.

• A permanent three-phase fault on any bus section, any one generator,
transmission line or transformer cleared in normal fault clearing time.
• A permanent three-phase fault on a circuit breaker, cleared in normal fault
clearing time.
• Simultaneous phase to ground faults on different phases of each of two double
circuits installed on a double circuit tower, cleared in normal fault clearing
time. Some utilities consider this a multiple contingency case.
• A permanent three-phase to ground fault on any bus section, any generator,
transmission line or transformer with delayed fault clearing.
Contingency cases must have all lines loaded within short-term emergency ratings
and all other equipment loaded with long term emergency ratings. Allowable system
voltages are within a range of 0.95 P.U. to 1.05 P.U. It is expected that within 15
minutes all line and cable loading can be reduced to within the long term emergency
ratings by adjustment of phase shifting transformers and/or re-dispatch of
generation. Sometimes, a contingency analysis is performed using the entire system.
Then, the following types of cases are found in the results.

Acceptable cases - These are power flow cases, without any overloaded branches
or undervoltage or overvoltage buses.
Cases with overloaded lines - If there are overloaded lines or transformers, then
the line overloading can be brought to the normal ratings using transformer tap
changing or other control actions. The normal rating has to be achieved in 15
minutes (if the overload exceeds the STE rating) or in 30 minutes if the overload is
within LTE rating.
Cases with overvoltage or undervoltage - If there are overvoltage or undervoltage

buses, then the bus voltages can be brought to the normal values using transformer
tap changing or other control actions.
Cases with overloads lines and voltage deviated buses - Actions required as
above.
Not converged cases - The power flow solution is not converged for the given
contingency case.
Islanded cases -During islanded operation, the system parts into two or more
sections and each section may tend to have overvoltage or undervoltage problems
depending on the amount of generation available in each section.
The not converged and the islanding cases are not acceptable. All the cases require
careful analysis in order to avoid any loss in the system performance.
Multiple contingency cases - Sometimes more than one fault occurs in a power
system due to a common cause (for example a lightning strike) or for other reasons.
Though the power systems are not designed for multiple contingencies, the power
system planners need to know the effect and remedial approaches for such events.
Some of the multiple contingencies are:
• Loss of an entire generating plant.

• Sudden dropping of a very large load.
• Loss of all lines from a generating station or substation.
• Loss of transmission lines on a common right of way.
• Three-phase fault on a bus section, generator or transmission line with delayed
clearing.
The effect of multiple contingencies may be line overloads, unacceptable bus

voltages, islanding or any other emergency condition. Therefore, planning studies
are always needed in this direction to understand the system behavior.

Steady state voltage requirements - The steady state voltage requirements are
defined by the ANSI standard C84.1 [2] and the summary is presented in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Steady State Voltage Limits
Nominal Voltage Maximum Voltage Minimum Voltage

kV kV kV
12.5 13.1 11.9

13.8 14.5 13.1
24.9 26.1 23.7
34.5 36.2 32.8
46.0 48.3 43.7
69.0 72.5 65.6
115 121 109
138 145 131
161 169 153
230 242 218
345 362 327
500 550 475
In case the voltage limit is not specified, it is a good practice to use a maximum and
minimum voltage of +5% and -5% of the nominal voltage respectively. In extra
high voltage systems, an upper voltage tolerance of+10% is often used.
Loading levels - The loading levels of transmission lines, cable circuits and
transformers are usually given as nominal ratings. In the case of emergency
conditions, the short term emergency rating (STE) and long-term emergency ratings
are used, which are defined below.
Nominal rating - The nominal rating is the continuous loading that causes rated
temperature at the specified ambient conditions. The nominal rating of a
transmission line is given by:
Line rating =>/3 (kV)(kA), MVA (3.39)
Short-term emergency rating (STE) - This is a 15 minute emergency rating. This

rating is higher than the nominal rating by a factor of 1.1 to 2.0 and is determined
by the operating utility.
Long-term emergency rating (LTE) - This is a 30 minute emergency rating. This

rating is higher than the nominal rating by a factor of 1.05 to 1.8 and is determined

by the operating utility. Some example ratings are shown in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4 Example of Nominal, LTE and STE Ratings
Voltage Nominal Rating LTE Rating STE Rating

Equipment kV MVA MVA MVA
Overhead line 500 1,000 1,100 1,200

Cable 345 550 650 900
Transformer 345/138 300 400 460
3.5 THE SYSTEM DATA
The system voltages encountered in the power flow problems vary from high
voltage to extra high voltage levels. In such complex problems, it is advantageous to
use per unit system to represent and solve the power flow problem. System studies
are usually performed using 100 MVA base. The voltage at each level is used as the
base voltage at that circuit. The required data are bus data, load data, generator data,
branch data, transformer data and area exchange data. The required data in each
category is outlined below [5].
Bus data - The bus data describes the bus location and the voltage in kV and per
unit.
• Bus number.
• Bus name.
• Bus type (swing bus or generator bus or load bus).
• Real part of the shunt admittance.
• Reactive part of the shunt admittance (reactive or capactive).
• Per unit voltage and angle.
• Bus voltage in kV.
The bus number and the bus name are used to keep track of the power flows and
current flow in various branches to the given bus.
Load data - The load data are used to represent the load at various bus locations.
Usually, the constant MVA load representation is used. Sometimes, the constant
current or constant impedance type of load model can be used. The load data
include:
• Bus number.
• Load identification number.
• Area number.

• Real power in MW.
• Reactive power in MVAR.
The load data are used in the programs in any one of the following load types.
• Constant impedance type where P = C V and Q = FV .

• Constant current load, where P = BV and Q = EV.
• Constant MVA load, where P = A and Q = D.
where the constants A through F are defined based on the nature of the load (such as
residential, industrial or agricultural).
Generator data - Through the generator data, the machine power capabilities are
expressed along with the MVA base. The arrangement of data is as follows:
• Bus number.
• Generator number.
• Generator power in MW.
• Maximum power of the generator in MW.
• Generator reactive power in MVAR.
• Maximum reactive power in MVAR.
• Minimum reactive power in MVAR.
• Generator resistance in P.U.
• Generator reactance in P.U.
• Base MVA of the generator.
Branch data - The branch data provide the line impedance and the line charging
data. The data consist of the following:
• From bus number.

• To bus number.
• Branch identification number.
• Line resistance in P.U. on 100 MVA base.
• Line reactance in P.U. on 100 MVA base.
• Line charging susceptance in P.U. on 100 MVA base.
• Line rating in MW.
• Line in or out identification code.
Transformer data - The transformer impedance is expressed along with the branch
data. However, the transformer tap changing data are expressed in this part as:

• From bus number.
• To bus number.
• Circuit number.
• Tap setting in P.U.
• Tap angle in degrees.
• Maximum tap position.
• Minimum tap position.
• Scheduled voltage range with tap size.
Area data - If the power flow data have several areas, then the required
identifications are provided as:
• Bus number.
• Number of the swing bus.
• Net exchange leaving the area in MW.
• Exchange tolerance in MW.
The presence of the dc lines and the switched shunt data require special
considerations. Once the raw data are entered in the required format, the program
using suitable commands can read the data. Then the power flow is solved and
the data are saved as a digital file. There are several formats for transporting or
presenting the load flow data file. The required data consist of solved load flow
cases for peak load conditions and off-peak conditions. Usually the data are
supplied in IEEE common data format specified in reference [5]. Also, the
various programs have the capability to convert from one format to the other.
3.6 EXAMPLE IEEE SIX BUS SYSTEM
Consider the IEEE six bus power flow case given in Reference [4]. A one-line
diagram of the system is shown in Figure 3.3. The system contains six buses, four
generators seven branches and five loads. The bus data, branch data and the
generator data are given below. The system data are prepared and the power flow
are solved using the PTI's PSS/E program [6].

Bus3 Bus2
Bus4
Bus5
Gen4
- Load
Figure 3.3 One-Line Diagram of the IEEE Six Bus System

Bus Data
Bus Type G, P.U B.P.U. kV Voltage, PU
1 3 0 0 13.8 1.050
2 1 0 0 230 1.000
3 2 0 0 230 1.020
4 2 0 0 230 1.010
5 2 0 0 18 1.050
6 1 0 0 230 1.000
Branch Data
Bus I Bus J R, P.U X, P.U. B, P.U. Rating,MW
1 2 0.025 0.1682 0.259 175
2 3 0.0238 0.2108 0.3017 75
3 4 0.0328 0.1325 0.0325 75
4 5 0.1021 0.8957 0.2406 100
5 6 0.213 0.8957 0.2406 75
6 2 0.1494 0.3692 0.0412 75
6 3 0.1191 0.2704 0.0328 75
Generator Data
Bus Pg,min, MW Pgmax,MW Qgmin,MVAR Qgmax,MVAR MVAb

1 150 200 -138 138 150
3 30 63 0 98 30
4 50 70 -81 81 50
5 380 400 -110 226 380

The calculated power flow solution using a program is presented in Table 3.5. The
solution report can be obtained from all the power flow programs. In the output of
the computed results, at each node the following results are presented:
• Generation, MW, MVAR, MVA, % loading, bus voltage in P.U.

• Load, MW, MVAR, MVA, % loading.
The calculated power flow results can be compared with the results of the six-bus
system provided in the reference [4].
Table 3.5 Output of the Power Flow Program (Edited Version)

(Courtesy of Power Technologies, Inc. Output from PSS/E Program)
IEEE 6 BUS SYSTEM
BASE CASE
BUS 1 BUS1 13.8 AREA CKT MW MVAR MVA %I 1.0400PU 0.00

GENERATION 1 196.8 10.6R 197.0 99 14.352KV
TO 2 BUS2 13 .8 1 1 196 .8 10.6 197.0 108
BUS 2 BUS2 13.8 AREA CKT MW MVAR MVA %I 1.0028PU -18.15

13.839KV
TO LOAD-PQ 56 . 3 56 .4
TO 1 BUS1 13.8 1 1 -187.7 189.1 108
TO 3 BUS3 13.8 1 1 84 . 9 88.6 50
TO 6 BUS6 13.8 1 1 46 .4 46.4 62
BUS 3 BUS 3 13 .8 AREA CKT MW MVAR MVA 1.0200PU -28.36

GENERATION 1 53.0 43.. 1R 68.3 108 14.076KV
TO LOAD-PQ 170.0 9..0 170.2
TO 2 BUS 2 13 .8 1 1 -83 .2 9 .7 83.8 47
TO 4 BUS 4 13 .8 1 1 -44 .7 3 ..0 44.8 59
TO 6 BUS6 13 .8 1 1 10 . 9 21 ..4 24.1 31
BUS 4 BUS4 13 .8 AREA CKT MW MVAR MVA %I 1.0300PU -25.05

GENERATION 1 60. 0 27.6R 66.0 94 14.214KV
TO LOAD-PQ 91.6 15.0 92 . 8
TO 3 BUS3 13 . 8 1 1 45.3 -3.8 45.5 59
TO 5 BUSS 13 .8 1 1 -76.9 16.4 78.7 76
BUS 5 BUSS 13 . 8 AREA CKT MW MVAR MVA %I 0.9900PU .30

GENERATION 1 382 . 0 15.OR 382.3 96 13.662KV
TO LOAD-PQ 247.0 52.4 252.5
TO 4 BUS4 13 .8 1 1 84 .4 -30.9 89.9 91
TO 6 BUS 6 13 . 8 1 1 50 .6 -6.6 51.0 69
BUS 6 BUS6 AREA CKT MW MVAR MVA %I 0.9459PU -28.48

1 13.054KV
TO LOAD-PQ 98 .4 10..0 98 .9
TO 2 BUS2 1 1 -43 .2 5..2 43 .5 61
TO 3 BUS3 1 1 -10 .2 -22 ..9 25 .. 1 35
TO 5 BUSS 1 1 -45 .0 7.7 45..6 64

Table 3.6 Output of the Contingency Analysis (Edited Version)
(Courtesy of Power Technologies, Inc. Output from PSS/E Program)
C O N T I N G E N C Y E V E N T S X-- O V E R L O A D E D L I N E S
X MULTI-SECTION LINE GROUPINGS BASE CASE
FROM NAME TO NAME CRT PRE-CNT POST-CNT RATING PERCENT
1*BUS1 13.8 2 BUS2 13.8 1 197.0 197.0 175.0 108.3
X BUS X V-CONT V-INIT X BUS X V-CONT V-INIT
1
BUSES WITH VOLTAGE LESS THAN 0.9500: 6 BUS4 13.8 0.9459 0.9459
C O N T I N G E N C Y E V E N T S X-- O V E R L O A D E D L I N E S 1
X MULTI-SECTION LINE GROUPINGS X
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 2 [BUS2 13.800] TO BUS 3 [BUS3 13.800] CIRCUIT 1
*** NOT CONVERGED ***
X MULTI-SECTION LINE GROUPINGS X FROM
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 5 [BUS5 13.800] TO BUS 6 [BUS6
13.800] CIRCUIT 1 CONTINGENCY OVRLOD 2

FROM NAME TO NAME CKT PRE-CNT POST-CNT RATING PERCENT
1*BUS1 13.8 2 BUS2 13.8 1 197.0 211.6 175.0 116.3
3 BUS3 13.8 4*BUS3 13.8 1 45.5 84.9 75.0 109.8
4 BUS4 13.8 5*BUS3 13.8 1 89.9 135.5 100.0 136.9
1
X MULTI - SECTION LINE GROUPINGS X FROM NAME
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 4 [BUS4 13.800] TO BUS 5 [BUS5 13.800] CIRCUIT
OPEN LINE FROM BUS 3 [BUSS 13.800] TO BUS 4 [BUS4 13.800]
1*BUS1 13.8 2 BUS2 13.8 1 197.0 200.6 175.0 110.2

1
C O N T I N G E N C Y E V E N T S X - - O V E R L O A D E D L I N E S 6
X MULTI-SECTION LINE GROUPINGS X FROM

1 BUS1 13.8 2*BUS2 13.8 1 197.0 191.0 175.0 111.8

' BUSES WITH VOLTAGE LESS THAN 0.9500: 6 BUS6 13.8 0.8143 0.9459
Contingency Analysis - An outage of one component in a power system is known

as a contingency and the system performance is expected to be normal. The
component can be a transmission line, transformer, a circuit breaker or a bus

section. There is a need to perform a power flow in every system to identify the
power flows under such condition. A contingency analysis is performed for the six-
bus system and the results are presented in Table 3.6. The following types of cases
are present in the results.
Acceptable cases - None.

Cases with overloaded lines - Base case.
Cases with overvoltage or undervoltage - None.
Cases with overloaded lines and voltage deviated buses - 2,5,6.
Not converged cases -1,3 and 4.
Islanded cases - None.
A multiple contingency analysis was not performed in this case, since the test
system itself is very small. In large-scale problems, it is necessary to perform such
an analysis.
3.7 CONCLUSIONS
The basis of the power flow problem suitable for the large-scale analysis is
presented in this Chapter. The approach to formulate the power flow problem, the
various solutions approaches, the acceptance criteria for the solutions and the
required data for the analysis are discussed. The IEEE six-bus power flow problem
is taken and the solution is presented along with discussions. For further analysis
and theory reference [7] is recommended.
PROBLEMS
1. What are the three type of buses used to define the power flow problem? Is it
possible to solve the power flow problem without such definitions?
2. What are the different approaches available for solving the power flow
problem? Compare the different techniques and select the most efficient
approach.
3. If there is only one source and the loads are connected to the power system
in a radial manner, is it still necessary to define the three types of buses and
the usual power flow solution approach? If not, how can you handle the
power system problem with only one source?
4. The IEEE 24 bus system data for the reliability test are available in
Reference [3]. Study the data and simulate the power flow and validate the
results.

5. The IEEE nine bus system consists of nine buses, three generators, nine
branches and six loads. The data for the nine bus system are given below.
Draw the one-line diagram of the system for the given system.
Bus Data
Bus Type G, P.U B,P.U. kV Voltage, PU
1 2 0 0 16.5 .040
2 1 0 0 230 .000
3 1 0 0 230 .000
4 1 0 0 230 .000
5 2 0 0 18 .020
6 1 0 0 230 .000
7 1 0 0 230 .000
8 2 0 0 13.8 .020
9 1 0 0 230 .000
Branch data
Bus I Bus J R, P.U X, P.U. B, P.U.

1 2 0 0.0576 0
2 3 0.01 0.085 0.088
3 4 0.032 0.161 0.153
5 4 0 0.0625 0
4 6 0.0085 0.072 0.0745
6 7 0.0119 0.1008 0.1045
7 8 0 0.0586 0
7 9 0.039 0.17 0.179
9 2 0.017 0.092 0.079
Generator Data
Pg.min Pgmax Qg,min Qg.max
Bus MW MW MVAR MVAR MVAb Xd1
1 2 0 0 16.5 1.040 0.06
5 163 0 0 230 1.000 0.12
8 85 0 0 230 1.000 0.18
The power flow through various branches is given in the table below. Prepare the
power flow data and solve the power flow problem and compare the calculated
and the benchmark results.

Power flow results
Bus I BusJ P, MW Q , MVAR
1 2 72.90 49.90
2 3 41.40 33.70
3 4 86.30 10.00
5 4 163.00 37.80
4 6 76.50 9.50
6 7 24.00 22.90
7 8 85.80 15.70
7 9 60.90 1.90
9 2 30.90 17.90
REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 399, IEEE Re<

2. ANSI Standard C84.1, American National Standard Voltage Ratings for

Electric Power Systems and Equipment (60 Hz), 1982.
3. IEEE Subcommittee Report, "IEEE Reliability Test System," IEEE

Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-98, No.6,
November/December 1979, pp. 2047-2054 (for 24 bus data).
4. R. Billington and S. S. Sachdeva, "Real and Reactive Power Optimization

by Sub Optimal Techniques," IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Oregon, July
1971, Paper 71 Tp596-PWR (6 bus data).
5. Common Format for Exchange of Solved Load Flow Cases, IEEE

Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-92, No.6,
November/December 1973, pp. 1916-1925.
6. PSS/E Program, Power Technologies, Inc., Schenectady, New York.
7. J. Grainger and W. D. Stevenson, Jr., Power System Analysis, McGraw-

Hill Book Company, 1994.

4
SHORT CIRCUIT STUDIES
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In a power system short circuits occur once in a while due to lightning, flash over
due to polluted insulation, falling of tree branches on the overhead system,
animal intrusion and erroneous operations. When the fault current magnitudes are
significant, it can cause damage to equipment and explosion if the fault is not
cleared for prolonged time. Also, electrical fires and shock hazards to people are
possible in a faulted power system. Therefore, it is important to design the power
system such that the fault is isolated quickly to minimize the equipment damage
and improve personnel safety.
Short circuit studies are performed to determine the magnitude of the current
flowing throughout the power system at various time intervals after a fault. The
magnitude of the current through the power system after a fault varies with time
until it reaches a steady state condition. During the fault, the power system is
called on to detect, interrupt and isolate these faults, The duty impressed on the
equipment is dependent on the magnitude of the current, which is a function of
the time of fault initiation. Such calculations are performed for various types of
fault such as three-phase, single line to ground fault, double line to ground fault
and at different location of the system. The calculated short circuit results are
used to select fuses, circuit breakers and protective relays. The symmetrical
component model is used in the analysis of the unsymmetrical faults with mutual
coupling.

The power system components such as utility sources, generators, motors,
transformers and cables are represented by impedance value. The short circuit study
is performed by representing the electric network in a matrix form. The program
places a fault at a required location and performs the short circuit calculations. The
short circuit study results are performed according to the applicable industry
standards.
4.2 SOURCES OF SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS
The short circuit current contributions are from the utility sources, generators,
synchronous condensers and induction motors. Typical current waveforms during a
short circuit are shown in Figure 4.1 for various types of contributing sources.
Utility sources - A utility represents the large interconnection of generators,

transmission lines and load circuits. The transmission lines, distribution lines and
transformers introduce impedance between the generator source and the fault point
during a short circuit. Therefore, the source voltage remains unaffected during fault
conditions.
Generator sources - An in-plant generator contributes to a short circuit and the

current decreases exponentially. The generator is driven by a prime mover and an
exciter supplies the field; the steady state current will persist unless the circuit is
open by a circuit breaker. The generator fault current is determined by three
reactance values during various time frames:
• Xd" - Direct axis sub-transient reactance, during the first cycle

• Xd' - Direct axis transient reactance, during 1 to 2 seconds
• Xd - Direct axis reactance, during steady state
The total short circuit current (It) of a generator consists of an ac component

(lac) and a dc component (Idc). These components are given by equations 4.1
through 4.3. The ac component of the generator fault current is:
1 1 .--1-
Iac = e Td" + (4.1)
X
.X d X d xd d
The dc component of the generator currents is:
r( 1 1 JL
Idc = (V2) — e'Td (4.2)

The total generator fault current (It) is:
c + Idc (4.3)
The reactance values are expressed in per unit in the above equations and the
calculated currents will be in per unit. An example is presented at the end of this
Chapter to show the generator short circuit currents.
Synchronous motor and synchronous condenser - The synchronous machines

supply fault current like a synchronous generator. The fault current decays rapidly
since the inertia of the motor and load acts as the prime mover with the field
excitation maintained. The fault current diminishes as the motor/condenser slows
down and the motor excitation decays.
Induction motor load - The fault current contribution from an induction motor is
due to the generator action produced by the load after the fault. The field flux of the
induction motor is produced due to the stator voltage and hence the current
contribution decays very rapidly upon fault clearing as the terminal voltage is
removed.
Total fault current as a function of time - When a short circuit occurs in a

system, the circuit impedance decreases appreciably. Therefore, the circuit current
increases significantly as shown in Figure 4.2. During an asymmetrical fault, the
total current can be treated as the sum of a dc current and a symmetrical ac
component. The direct component eventually decays to zero as the stored energy in
the system is expended in the form of I R loss. The direct current decay is inversely
proportional to the X/R ratio of the system between the source and the fault.
Therefore, it is important to analyze the short circuit current during the first cycle,
the next several cycles and in the steady state.

UTILITY
CONTRIBUTION
GENERATOR
CONTRIBUTION
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
CONTRIBUTION
INDUCTION
MOTOR
CONTRIBUTION
TOTAL
SHORT-CIRCUIT
CURRENT
WAVEFORM
Figure 4.1 Decaying Short Circuit Current Waveforms

TOTAL
DC SHORT-CIRCUIT
COMPONENT a CURRENT
Figure 4.2 Total Fault Current Waveform
4.3 SYSTEM IMPEDANCE DATA
Each component in an electrical system is represented by a suitable impedance

value. Then the impedance values are converted to a common base. The system
impedance data related issues are presented below.
Source data - The utility source is represented by a per unit impedance which is
equivalent to the maximum short circuit MVA level available from the utility at the
point of common coupling. The minimum source impedance is used in the short
circuit current calculations for relay settings. The source impedance data is usually
provided by the system/utility.
Example 4.1 - The three-phase and one line to ground fault short circuit duties of a
230 kV, 3-phase power system is 671 MVA and 738 MVA respectively. Find the
symmetrical component impedance values on a 100 MVA base.
Solution - Use an X/R ratio of 20.
kV
_~ = 78.8 Ohm
MVA,3ph 671
X (base) on 100 MVA base = (230 x 230)/100 - 529 Ohm

X, on 100 MVA base = 78. 8 Ohm/529 Ohm - 0.1489 P.U.
Ri on 100 MVA base = 0.1489 P.U./20 = 0.0073 P.U.
X = - =57.5 Ohm
0 MVA, slg MVA,3ph
X0 on 100 MVA base = 57.5 Ohm/529 Ohm =0.1086 P.U.
Ro on 1 00 MVA base = 0. 1 086 P.U./20 - 0.0054 P.U.
Transmission lines - The transmission lines are represented by positive and zero
sequence impedance values. The approach to calculate the transmission line
constants and typical values are presented in Chapter 2. In transmission lines it is
assumed that the positive and negative sequence impedance values are equal.
Cable data - The cable impedance values are presented by the positive and zero
sequence impedance values. The calculation procedures are discussed in Chapter 2.
Transformer impedance - The transformer impedance values are given in

percentage on the self-cooled transformer kVA rating and are converted to per unit
on the study base. Typical impedance data of two winding transformers up to 2.4
kV are presented in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Typical Transformer Impedance up to 2.4 kV
3-Phase % Impedance
kVA X/R Ratio Range
112.5 3.0 1.6-6.2
150.0 3.5 1.5-6.4
225.0 4.0 2.0-6.6
300.0 4.5 2.0-6.0
500.0 5.0 2.1 -6.1
750.0 6.0 3.2-6.6
1000.0 7.0 3.2-6.6
1500.0 7.0 3.5-6.8
2000.0 8.0 3.5-6.8
2500.0 9.0 3.5-6.8
The impedance values for the transformers above 2.4 kV are listed in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Typical Transformer Impedance Above 2.4 kV Ratings
Primary Primary % Impedance

kV kVBIL Range
2.4 - 22.9 60-150 5.5-6.5
34.4 200.0 6.0-7.0
43.8 250.0 6.5-7.5
67.0 350.0 7.0-8.0
115.0 450.0 7.5-8.5
138.0 550.0 8.0-9.0
For the calculation of the line to ground fault short circuit currents, the zero
sequence connection diagram for certain transformers are required.
Synchronous machines - A synchronous machine is represented by the sub-

transient direct axis reactance. Typical reactance values for various synchronous
machines are presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Typical Reactance of Synchronous Machines in Percentage
Type of Generator Xd Xq Xd' Xd" X2 xo

Turbo generator, 2 -pole 95 - 145 92 - 142 12-21 7-14 9-16 1 -8
Turbo generator, 4-pole 95 - 145 97 - 142 20-28 12-17 14-19 1.5-14
Waterwheel generator, no damper 60 - 145 40-95 20-45 17-40 30-65 4-25
Waterwheel generator, with damper 60 - 145 40-95 20-45 13-25 13-35 4-25
Synchronous condenser 150-220 95 -140 30-50 20-35 20-35 2-15
Salient pole motor, high speed 65-90 40- 100 15-35 10-25 10-25 2-15
Salient pole motor, low speed 80-150 40-100 40-70 25-45 25-45 4-27
Note: Use average value as typical data and on machine MVA base.
Induction motors - The kVA rating of induction motors is approximately equal to

the hp rating. The sub-transient reactance is given by the locked rotor reactance.
Typical locked rotor reactance values of various induction motors are given by:
Over 600 V = 0.17 P.U. on machine kVA base

600 V and less = 0.25 P.U. on machine kVA base
The motor resistance can be calculated using the X/R ratio curve given in ANSI
Standard 242. Sometimes, the motors in each substation are lumped by type and
size and a single per unit impedance is determined based on the lumped kVA.

4.4 SHORT CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
The following short circuit calculations are generally performed.
Three-phase fault - The three-phase conductors are shorted together. The

magnitude of the fault current is given by:
If = — (4.4)
L
\
Where E is the phase voltage and Zl is the positive sequence impedance.
Phase to ground fault - Where one phase conductor is shorted to ground. The fault
current magnitude is given by:
If =
(Z + zE z )
\ 2 + 0}
(L +L
(4 5)
'
Where Zi, Zi and Zo are the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances
respectively.
Double line to ground fault - Where two phase conductors are shorted to ground.
The positive sequence current magnitude is given by:
(4 6)
zZ 0/rz
(
2
+z '
The three-phase fault currents are the highest and least for phase to ground fault.
However, the phase to ground fault current can be the highest under certain
circumstances such as:
Near solidly grounded synchronous machines.

Near the solidly connected wye of a delta/wye transformer of the three
phase core/three leg design.
• A grounded wye/delta tertiary auto-transformer.
A grounded wye grounded wye/delta, three winding transformer.
Therefore, in systems with the above type of connections, it is necessary to conduct

a phase to ground fault calculation. For resistance grounded systems, the phase to
ground fault currents will be limited. The following assumptions are made in the
short circuit calculations:

An unloaded power system is considered.
• The impedance at the fault location is assumed to be zero.
Load characteristics are ignored.
• Motors are assumed to run at rated speed with rated terminal voltage.
• Nominal transformer taps will be considered.
• A symmetrical three-phase power system is considered.
The momentary or first cycle, the interrupting and the symmetrical short circuit
currents are calculated to meet the circuit breaker selection and relay applications.
Momentary or first cycle short circuit current calculations - The momentary or

first cycle current is used to evaluate the closing or latching of the medium or high
voltage circuit breaker. The circuit impedance of the utility sources, generators,
transmission lines and transformers are used for the momentary current calculations.
The sub-transient reactance of utility source and the generator are used. The
reactance of the synchronous motors and induction motors are modified according
to Table 4.4 from IEEE Standard 141.
Table 4.4 Multipliers for Short Circuit Current Calculations
Type of Rotating Machine LV Studies First Cycle Interrupting

Generator, hydro generators with 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd"
amortisseur windings & condensers
Synchronous motors 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" l.SXd"
Induction motors
Above 1000 hp at 1800 rpm or less 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" 1.5Xd"
Above 250 hp at 3600 rpm 1.0 Xd" 1.0 Xd" l.SXd"
All others, 50 hp and above 1.0 Xd" 1.2Xd" 3.0Xd"
Less than 50 hp Neglect Neglect Neglect
The impedance of the equivalent network is established and is converted into per
unit at each fault point. The first cycle fault current is calculated using the pre fault
voltage and the impedance at the faulted node. The approximate calculated first
cycle fault current for comparison with the circuit breaker capability is obtained by
using a 1.6 multiplier specified in ANSI C37.010-1989. The total three phase
symmetrical fault current (Isc tot) is:
Epu L6
Isc tot Ibase (4.7)
Xpu
This current magnitude is compared with the latching current rating of a circuit
breaker and the instantaneous rating of the relay settings.

Interrupting current calculations - The interrupting fault currents are calculated
in accordance with ANSI C37.010-1989 for symmetrical current rated circuit
breaker applications. The reactance of the rotating machines is chosen and applied
as per the multiplying factors listed in Table 4.4. For the calculation of the
interrupting currents, both the resistance and reactance of the equivalent circuit is
needed. Therefore, the equivalent R and X are calculated at the fault point and the
X/R ratio is determined. The interrupting current is calculated using the E/Z
method. A multiplying factor is calculated using the X/R ratio and the contact
parting time of the circuit breaker. The minimum contact parting times are
presented in Table 4.5 obtained from ANSI C37.010-1989.
Table 4.5 Contact Parting Time for Circuit Breakers
Rated Interrupting Time Minimum Contact Parting

Cycles at 60 Hz Time, Cycles at 60 Hz
6 4
5 3
3 2
2 1.5
The multiplying factors are plotted in ANSI C37.5-1979 for two specific
conditions.
• Fault fed predominantly from generators for three-phase faults (8, 5, 3 and 2
cycles).
• Fault fed predominantly from networks with two or more transformations for
three phase and line to ground faults (8, 5, 3 and 2 cycles).
The calculated interrupting fault current (lin) is given by:

=
Epu
lin (Multiplying Factor) ibase (4.10)
Xpu
This interrupting current is to be compared with circuit breaker interrupting

capability. It can be seen that the short circuit calculation procedures for the
momentary duty and the interrupting duty are different.
Short circuit calculations for low voltage circuit breaker applications - The
impedance diagram for evaluating the short circuit current at the faulted point
developed. The rotating machine impedance values used without multiplying
factors are shown in Table 4.4. The resistance values are also calculated using the

procedure used in the interrupting current calculations. The fault current is given by
E/Z. The low voltage short circuit values are used for the selection of the circuit
breakers including the molded case types.
Short circuit current calculation for relay applications - For the instantaneous
relay setting, the fault current magnitude from the momentary duty is used. For
other applications with a time delay, the steady state symmetrical fault currents are
calculated and used. The impedance for the transformer, overhead line and the
cables are obtained for the steady state conditions. The motor contributions are
neglected. For synchronous machines the steady state reactance can be used. In this
case it can be seen that the dc component has almost decayed to zero and it is not
considered. The required symmetrical fault current is obtained by using the E/Z
method. In many power system and industrial set ups, the source impedance is
different for peak and off-peak conditions. Therefore, the maximum and minimum
fault currents are to be calculated and the relay settings should be verified for both
conditions.
Impedance diagram - The impedance diagram is derived from the one line
diagram by modeling the circuit elements by the respective impedance. The
impedance magnitude used for the fault calculation depends on many factors which
are discussed in the circuit breaker current rating calculations. This is important for
the reactance of the rotating machines (see Table 4.4). Once the fault location and
type of short circuit is identified, then the corresponding impedance diagram is
developed. This concept is demonstrated with the help of an example.
Per unit quantities - For a balanced three-phase system, the relation of three-phase
kVA, line to line voltage, base current and base impedance are defined as:
Base kVA
Base current = —T= (411)
V3(BasekV)
(BasekVA) 2
Base impedance = (4 12)
BaseMVA
For changing the P.U. impedance from the given base kV to new base kV:
'kV.
given
Xnew (Xgiven) (4.13)
~kV
new
When both the kVA and kV are new, then the new P.U. impedance can be
calculated using the following equation:

f .,,.
kVA
\ f -kV .
new given
Xnew (Xgiven) (4.14)
kVA kV
^ given new
Example 4.2 - The nameplate specifications of a two winding transformer are 40

MVA, 69 kV/13.8 kV, delta/wye-grounded, 7% impedance. This transformer is to
be connected in a 13.2 kV distribution system. The system studies are performed on
a 100 MVA base. Calculate the transformer impedance on 13.2 kV and 100 MVA
base.
Solution - The new P.U. impedance can be calculated as:

f r\r\\ f i o \^
Xnew = (7.0% |—J[—J =2.7324%
4.5 COMPUTER-AIDED ANALYSIS
There are several programs available to perform the short circuit studies. These
programs can be used to perform the following data-related operations.
Convert the raw system data to a common base.

• Prepare one-line diagrams.
• Determine system impedance for the calculation of momentary,
interrupting, symmetrical and relay short circuit currents.
The input data to these programs can be entered interactively or presented in ASCII
data files or through graphic interface. The output of the short circuit study includes
the following.
• Short circuit input data used in the network analysis.

• Calculations of three-phase, single line to ground fault, line to line and
double line to ground fault currents. For the three-phase, 4 wire system
with a neutral conductor, the short circuit currents are required for the line
to neutral short circuit.
• Calculation of appropriate circuit breaker current ratings based on ANSI
or IEC standards.
• Some programs present the short circuit outputs in a one line diagram with
the calculated values.
• Summary of currents at all the buses.
The user selects the necessary short circuit results at appropriate buses and

compares the results with the circuit breaker ratings. Also, the short circuit
currents are compared with the equipment short circuit ratings to ensure safe
performance.
Example 4.3 - An industrial power plant is shown in Figure 4.3. The 230 kV
source has a three-phase circuit current rating of 28,000 A. The step down
transformer (Tl) is 100 MVA, 230/24 kV, 0.10 P.U. reactance, delta/wye-
grounded with an X/R ratio of 20. There is a 500 MVA standby generator
connected to the 24 kV bus. The reactance of the generator is 0.2 P.U with X/R
ratio of 20. Transformer T2 is 75 MVA, 24/4.16 kV, delta/wye, 0.11 P.U.
reactance with X/R ratio of 30. There are two 2,000 hp, 0.9 power factor, Xd" =
0.2 P.U, Xd1 = 0.26 P.U. with X/R ratio of 20. The low voltage system contains a
transformer T3, 4.16 kV/600 V, 0.08 P.U reactance and X/R - 30. There is a low
voltage motor at the 600 V bus with a rating of 400 hp, Xd" = 0.3 and X/R = 30.
Perform a short circuit study using computer-aided software and determine the
short circuit currents at Fl and F2. Also, show the step-by-step calculations.
Compare the results.
Solution - The reactance of all the passive elements are listed below. A 100 MVA
base is used in the calculations.
Transformer, Tl, X = (0.10)( 100/100) = 0.1 P.U.

Transformer, T2, X = (0.11)( 100/75) =0.15 P.U.
Transformer, T3, X = (0.08)(100/0.75) = 10.67 P.U.
Sub-transient reactance of rotating machines

230 kV system short circuit MVA = (>/3 ) (230 kV) (28 kA) =11154
230 kV source impedance, X = 1.0 (100/11154) = 0.00896 P.U.
Generator Gl, X = (0.25) (100/500) = 0.05 P.U.
Induction motor Ml, X = (0.20) (100/2) = 10 P.U.
Induction motor M2, X = (0.20) (100/2) = 10 P.U.
Induction motor M3, X = (0.30) (100/0.4) = 75 P.U.
Momentary fault current calculations - For the momentary or first cycle short
circuit calculation, induction motors less than 50 hp are omitted. For the 400 hp
motor, X = 1.2 Xd" = (1.2) (75 P.U.) = 90 P.U. The reactance of the source,
generator and the induction motors are identified in the impedance diagram for the
first cycle or momentary short circuit calculations, in Figure 4.4.

SOURCE, 23O kV
Gl
24 kV
4.16 kV
M2 Ml
M3
Figure 4.3 One-Line Diagram for Example 4.3
0.00896 P.U
Figure 4.4 Impedance Diagram for the Momentary Duty Calculation
The symmetrical first cycle or momentary short circuit current at the faulted point
Fl is calculated as:
Ibase at the 4.16 kV bus = 100 MVA/( >/3 )(4.16 kV) - 13.879 kA
1
Isym = (13.879kA) =78.3 kA
0.1772
The peak value of the momentary short circuit current is (1.6 x 78.3 kA) 125.3 kA.

Calculation of the interrupting short circuit current - The impedance diagram is
shown in Figure 4.5. The reactance, X/R ratios and the resistances for the circuit
breaker interrupting current calculations are listed below.
Transformer Tl, X/R = 30, R = (0.10/30) = 0.003 P.U.

Transformer T2, X/R = 30, R = (0.15/30) = 0.005 P.U.
Transformer T3, X/R = 30, R = (10.67/30) -3.560 P.U.
230 kV system, X/R = 20, R - (0.00896/20) = 0.00045 P.U.

Generator Gl, X/R = 20, R = (0.05/20) = 0.0025 P.U.
Motor Ml, X = (1.5 Xd") = (1.5 x 10) = 15 P.U.
Motor Ml, X/R = 20, R = (15/20) = 0.75 P.U.
Motor M2, X/R = 20, R = (15/20) = 0.75 P.U.
Motor M3, X = (3 Xd") = 3 x 75 = 225 P.U.
Motor M3, X/R = 30, R = (225/30) = 7.5 P.U.
E/X = | (13.879kA) = 77.32kA
0.1795J
0.00896 P.U
1795 P.U
Figure 4.5 Impedance Diagram for the Interrupting Duty Calculation

0.00045 P.U
Figure 4.6 Resistance Diagram for the Interrupting Duty Calculation
The resistance circuit for the interrupting duty calculation is presented in Figure 4.6.
Using the reduced R, the X/R ratio is calculated at the faulted point Fl.
The X/R ratio at the faulted point Fl = 0.1795/0.0054 = 33.24
The corresponding NCAD ratio is determined from C37.010. The NCAD ratio for
X/R ratio of 33.24 is 0.96.
The interrupting current = (77.32 kA) (0.96) = 74.2 kA
Short circuit calculation for low voltage circuit breaker applications - The
impedance diagram for evaluating the short circuit current at the faulted point F2
is shown in Figure 4.7. The impedance at F2 = (1.4698 + j 9.4817) P.U. =
9.5949 P.U. The base current at 600 V is 96.2278 kA. The short circuit current at
F2is 10.41 kA.
0.184 P.IM 0.0065 P.U 1.4698 P.U

9.4817 P.U
3.56 P.U
2.5 P.U
Figure 4.7 Impedance Diagram for the Low Voltage Short Circuit Current Study

Computer-aided analysis - The data is entered interactively to the program and the
input data listings and the output summary are presented below. The software used
in the calculations was the AFAULT program from the SKM System Analysis. The
present version of the program is called Power tools for Windows with the
particular option [9]. The program performs the calculations by placing various
faults at each node for different fault duties. The equipment voltage rating,
reactance and the reactance to the 100 MVA base are displayed. The input data is
classified into various sections as discussed below.
Source data as per List 4.1. - From Bus, to Bus, Voltage, Base MVA, Xd", X/R,
X on 100 MVA Base.
List 4.1 Source Data
Xd" Zon 100 MVA Base
From Bus To Bus kV Base MVA P.U X/R P.U
Source Bus 1 230 11154 28 20 (0.00045 +J0.00895)
Generator 1 Bus 5 24 500 0.25 20 (0.0025 +j 0.05)
Motor M 1 Bus 9 4.16 2 0.2 20 (0.5 + j 10)
Motor M2 Bus 10 4.16 2 0.2 20 (0.5 + j 10)
Motor M3 Bus 11 0.6 0.4 0.3 30 (2.5+J75)
Feeder data as per List 4.2. The assumed impedance values are low and are not
used in the step-by-step calculations. From Bus, to Bus, Voltage, Length in Feet, Zl
or Z2 in P.U, ZO in P.U.
List 4.2 Feeder Data
Line Length
From Bus To Bus kV Feet Z l o r Z 2 , P.U. ZO, P.U.
Bus 1 Bus 2 230 125 (0.0 + j 0.01) (0.0 + j 0.03)
Bus 3 Bus 4 24 125 (0.0 + j 0.01) (0.0 + j 0.03)
Bus 4 Bus 5 24 125 (0.0 + j 0.00022) (0.0 + j 0.00065)
Bus 4 Bus 6 24 250 (0.0 + j 0.00043) (0.0 + j 0.001 30)
Bus? Bus 8 4.16 250 (0.0 + j 0.01445) (0.0 + j 0.04334)
Bus 8 Bus 9 4.16 130 (0.0 + j 0.00751) (0.0 + j 0.02254)
Bus 9 Bus 10 4.16 150 (0.0 + j 0.00867) (0.0 + j 0.026)
Transformer data as per List 4.3 - Primary Bus, Connection, Voltage, Secondary
Bus, Connection, Voltage, MVA Base, Z1/Z2 on 100 MVA Base, ZO on 100 MVA
Base.

List 4.3 Transformer Data
Primary Primary Sec Sec
From Bus To Bus Conn kV Conn kV Zl orZ2, P.U. ZO, P.U.
Bus 2 Bus 3 Del 230 Wye 24 (0.03 + j 0.10) (0.0003 + j 0.10)
Bus 6 Bus? Del 24 Wye 4.16 (0.048 + j 0.1 467) (0.005+ J O . 1467)
Bus 8 Bus 11 Del 4.16 Wye 0.6 (0.36 +j 10.6667) (0.36 + j 10.6667)
The program calculates the short circuit components at each bus location for the
various fault duties along with the summary for each type of calculations. The
summary of the typical output listing is presented below.
Fault current for the low voltage circuit breaker applications as per List 4.4.
The list includes the Bus Number, Bus Name, Voltage, Fault Current for Three-
Phase, X/R Ratio, Fault Current for SLG, X/R Ratio.
List 4.4 Fault Current for the Low Voltage Circuit Breaker Applications
Voltage 3 Phase 3 Phase SLG SLG

Bus# Bus Name Volts Fit, kA X/R kA X/R
1 BUS 1 230000 29.478 20.55
2 BUS 2 230000 14.811 40.94
3 BUS 3 24000 60.47 27.6 40.181 30.53
4 BUS 4 24000 66.981 24.91 35.753 34.31
5 BUSS 24000 67.155 24.85 35.671 34.39
6 BUS 6 24000 66.194 25.21 35.375 34.68
7 BUS 7 4160 78.611 29 83.298 29.44
8 BUSS 4160 73.095 31.19 73.07 33.57
9 BUS 9 4160 70.521 32.33 68.684 35.71
10 BUS 10 4160 67.662 33.7 64.172 38.22
11 BUS 11 600 10.14 29.7 9.736 29.67
Fault current for momentary or first cycle as per List 4.5. The list includes the
Bus Number, Bus Name, Voltage, Fault Current for 3-Phase, X/R Ratio, Fault
Current for SLG, X/R Ratio. The fault current magnitude is 1.6 times the short
circuit at the fault location.
Fault current for interrupting as per List 4.6. The output contains the Bus
Number, Bus Name, Voltage, decrement ratio, Fault Current for three-Phase, X/R
Ratio, Fault Current for SLG, X/R Ratio.

List 4.5 Fault Current for the Momentary Duty
Bus# Bus Name Volts E/Z* 1.6 X/R E/Z* 1.6 X/R
1 BUS1 230000 47.165 20.55
2 BUS 2 230000 23.697 40.94
3 BUS 3 24000 96.751 27.6 64.29 30.53
4 BUS 4 24000 107.17 24.91 57.204 34.31
5 BUSS 24000 107.448 24.85 57.073 34.39
6 BUS 6 24000 105.91 25.21 56.6 34.68
7 BUS 7 4160 125.778 29 133.277 29.44
8 BUSS 4160 116.952 31.19 116.913 33.57
9 BUS 9 4160 112.834 32.33 109.895 35.71
10 BUS 10 4160 108.259 33.7 102.675 38.22
List 4.6 Fault Current for the Interrupting Duty

Bus# Bus Name Volts Ratio E/ZKA X/R E/ZKA X/R
1 BUS 1 230000 0.999 29.478 20.55
2 BUS 2 230000 0.999 14.811 40.94
3 BUSS 24000 0.334 60.47 27.6 40.181 30.53
4 BUS 4 24000 0.278 66.981 24.91 35.753 34.31
5 BUSS 24000 0.277 67.155 24.85 35.671 34.39
6 BUS 6 24000 0.278 66.194 25.21 35.375 34.68
7 BUS 7 4160 0.963 78.611 29 83.298 29.44
8 BUS 8 4160 0.96 73.095 31.19 73.07 33.57
9 BUS 9 4160 0.959 70.521 32.33 68.684 35.71
10 BUS 10 4160 0.958 67.662 33.7 64. 1 72 38.22
The results from the step-by-step calculations and the computer-aided analysis are
compared at the faulted points Fl (node 8) and F2 (node 11).
Description Calculated Computer-Aided

Momentary at Fl (node 8) 125.3 kA 116.952 kA
Interrupting at F1 (node 8) 74.2 kA 73.095 kA
Low voltage short circuit at F2 (node 11) 10.41 kA 10.140 kA
In the step-by-step calculations, the cable lengths are ignored. Therefore, the
calculated short circuit currents are higher than the values from the computer-aided
analysis.

4.6 LIMITING THE SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENTS
Using series reactors, high impedance transformers and high resistance grounding
can control the short circuit current in the power system. The series reactor can be
used in the generator circuits, bus bars, feeders and in the shunt capacitance circuits.
There are advantages and limitations to these approaches. With the application of
shunt capacitor banks for power factor correction, there is always the inrush current
issue during energization. Also, the outrush current from the capacitor banks is a
concern when a line circuit breaker closes in to a nearby fault. In order to limit both
the inrush and outrush currents series reactors are used. Three schemes of series
reactors for shunt capacitor application are discussed.
Scheme 1: Series reactor with each capacitor bank - Such a scheme is shown in
Figure 4.8. In order to satisfy the criteria (Iph . f) to less than 2.0E+7, there will be
two reactors with two capacitor banks.
Scheme 2: Series capacitors for inrush and outrush requirements - The required
scheme is shown in Figure 4.8. The reactor size for each capacitor bank will be
small to limit the inrush current. A third reactor will be used to limit the outrush
current.
Scheme 3: Reactor to limit outrush current and breaker to limit the inrush current -
The inrush current can be controlled by using circuit breaker with controlled
switching or by using closing resistor/inductor. The outrush current can be
controlled by using a series reactor. Such a scheme is shown in Figure 4.8.
Example 4.4 - In order to demonstrate the circuit breaker selection and the
application of series reactor for the current limiting a shunt capacitor bank, a case
is presented. The circuit breaker is chosen to meet this application and the short
circuit current magnitudes are calculated if the required current specifications are
met. Then a reactor is chosen in series with the circuit breaker and the procedure
is repeated. The system is a 230 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase with a short circuit rating
of 40 kA. The circuit breaker has to be selected for capacitor switching
application. The capacitor is available in two banks each of which is 60 MVAR.

Scheme 1
L1, L2 - Series Reactors
C1, C2 - Capacitance
L3
Scheme 2
L2 L1, L2 , L3- Series Reactors
L1
-C1
L3
Scheme 3
L2, L3 - Series Reactors
L2
C2
Figure 4.8 Series Reactor Schemes for Current Limiting
Solution - The circuit breaker is intended to switch 120 MVAR shunt capacitor
banks and should meet the performance criteria described in ANSI C37.06 [7].
The desired performance specifications of the circuit breaker to meet the
capacitor switching application (definite purpose) of the 230 kV systems are:
Nominal voltage rating = 230 kV

Maximum voltage rating = 242 kV
Rated current = 2000 A
Three-phase short circuit rating = 40kA

Rated capacitive current (breaking duty) = 400 A
TRY 188 kV peak - peak voltage base = 443 kV (2.4 PU)
Inrush current = 20 kA peak
Transient frequency = 4,250 Hz
Without current limiting reactor - When a system fault occurs near the
capacitor bank location, the electrical energy stored in the capacitor bank
discharges through the low fault impedance with considerable magnitude and at
high frequency. Such a system is shown in Figure 4.9. The size of the 230 kV
capacitor bank is 60 MVAR, three-phase.
Fault
System
'pk
Capacitor
Bank
Figure 4.9 Fault Outside the Circuit Breaker Without Series Reactor
The expected outrush current magnitude and frequency, for a single 60 MVAR,
230 kV capacitor bank is given by:
/-< _ MVAR 60
= 3 MFD
2 >r(60) x k V 2 2 ;r(60) x 2302
V 230 k V x • / r
Pk
TI pk --_--^=__--54.1kA
_ V/V3, 5111.A
.T _
= 15.3kHz
2 ^L f x C 2 > /36.1//Hx3//F
An inductance of 10^ H for the bank and 0.261 JU H/ft with a 100 feet cable
length is used (IEEE C37.012-1998).

The calculated outrush current magnitude of 54.1 kA is much higher than the
allowable IEEE Standard C37.06 (Table 3A) value of 20 kA. Also, the
frequency of the outrush current is higher than the allowed value of 4,250 Hz.
The outrush current from the capacitor bank needs to be controlled using current
limiting series reactors. The minimum series reactor needed to limit the (Ipk x f)
product to less than 2.0 x 10 is given by:
Vpk
'min 7
2n x2 xlO
With current limiting reactor - The equivalent circuit with a series reactor in
the shunt capacitor circuit is shown in Figure 4.10. For the proposed 230 kV, 60
MVAR bank the minimum reactor needed is:
230 kVx
T
min ~
_
= 1.5 mH
2 ;r(2x!0 7 )
For the high outrush current to occur, a breaker must close into a fault very close
to the 230 kV substation. A series inductor of 3 mH is selected for the 230 kV
circuit and the corresponding Ipk and the frequency of oscillation are given by:
= 6kA
f = = 1.68 kHz
2 Af x C 2 ^3000 y u H x 3
This peak current and the frequency of oscillation are below the ANSI C37.06
values. Therefore, the circuit breaker is acceptable for the energization of the
230 kV, 60 MVAR shunt capacitor bank.

Reactor
Circuit
Breaker
C1 = 60 MVAR
Figure 4. 10 Capacitor Circuit with Series Reactor
From this example, it is clear that series reactors can be useful in shunt capacitor
circuits to limit the fault current magnitudes and in the protection of circuit
breakers.
Example 4.5 - Consider a 800 MVA, 13.8 kV generator with the following
parameters:
Xd" = 0.210 P.U. TdO" =0.0348

Xd? -0.330 P.U. TdO1 =7.6280
Xd =1.820 P.U. TdO =0.330
Calculate the total fault currents at 1.5 cycles.
Solution -
(IT)
Xd" = (0.210)1 -^- | = 0.02625 P.U.
v j
X'd = (0.330) = 0.04125 P.U.
800
f 100^1
Xd = ( 1 . 8 2 0 ) =0.2275 P.U.
\800j
The ac components of the generator short circuit currents are:
Id" = = 38.10 P.U.

vx
^day

Id' - = 24.242 P.U.
Id = = 4.3956 P.U.
V y
The time constants of the ac currents are given by:
" ^
— (TdO") = 0.02215 s = 1.3287 cycles
T'd = Xd. (TdO') = 1.3830 s = 82.98 cycles

X,
The ac component of the generator fault current is:

t t
Iac = (Id"-Id')e"Td" +(I'd-Id) e ~Td' + W
At 1.5 cycles, the ac current components are:
lac = (13.858 x 0.3233) + (19.8464 x 0.982) + 4.3956

= 28.3667 on 100 MVA base
100MVA
Ibase = 4.18kA
V3(13.8kV)
lac = (28.3667 P.U.) (4.18 kA) = 118.6814 kA
The dc component of the generator currents is:
Idc = (A/2) (38.10) e ~Td Where Td in cycles is (0.33 x 60) 19.8 cycles.
Idc at a time oft =1.5 cycles is:
Idc = 49.9428 P.U. on a 100 MVA base

= (49.9428 P.U. x 4.18 kA) = 208.95 kA

The total generator fault current (It) is:
It = Vlac 2 + Idc2 = V118.68 2 + 208.952 = 240.3 kA
Therefore, in the generator circuit there are both ac and dc current components
present as shown.
PROBLEMS
1. The three-phase short circuit rating of a 230 kV, 60 Hz system is 670 MVA.
The single line to ground fault rating is 600 MVA. Calculate the source
impedance values on a 100 MVA base. State the assumptions made, if any.
2. The three phase short circuit rating of a 345 kV source is 20,000 MVA and
the single line to ground short circuit MVA is 15,200 MVA. Calculate the
sequence impedance of the source in P.U. on a 100 MAV base.
3. A 75 kVA, 14 kV/4.16 kV, delta/wye-grounded, 6% impedance transformer is

to be used in a 13.8 kV distribution system. The system studies are performed
on a 100 MVA base. Calculate the transformer impedance for the new bases.
4. Calculate the total fault currents due to a 3-phase fault at the open terminals of
a generator at 1.6 cycles. The name plate specifications of the generator are
500 MVA, 13.8 kV with the following parameters:
Xd" =0.200 P.U. TdO" =0.030

Xd' =0.350 P.U. TdO' =8.000
Xd =1.800 P.U. TdO =0.350
5. What are the different types of faults in a power system? What is the role of a
neutral conductor in the power system?
6. Why is it necessary to select a circuit breaker based on the short circuit current
ratings?
7. Consider an industrial power system with a 115 kV source from a substation

(Bus 1) to the next substation (Bus 2) connected through an overhead line. Bus
2 is connected to Bus 3 through an underground cable of 2,000 feet length. A
step down transformer at Bus 3 supplies an electrical motor at 13.8 kV. The
necessary system data are as follow:

Source impedance on 100 MVA base is:
Z, =Z 2 = (0.0026 + j 0.0218) P.U.
Zo = (0.0071 +j 0.02441) P.U.
Overhead line impedance between Bus 1 and Bus 2 on 100 MVA base:
Z = (0.0120 +j 0.0820) P.U.
Cable impedance between Bus 2 and Bus 3:

Zi = (0.0118 + j 0.0980) Ohm/1000 feet
ZO = (0.0656 + j 0.5889) Ohm/1000 feet
Transformer impedance at Bus 3:

MVA = 120
Voltage ratio =115 kV/4.16 kV
Connection = Wye/Delta
Reactance = 12%
Induction motor drive:

Rating =100MW
Voltage = 13.8kV
Power factor =0.8
Draw the one-line diagram of the system and state the assumptions. Calculate
the short circuit currents at each node and select the circuit breaker ratings at
appropriate locations. Also calculate the voltage drop at various locations. If
the voltage profile is not acceptable, suggest suitable remedial actions.
Compare the calculated results with a computer program output.
8. Refer to Example 4 regarding the energization of a 60 MVAR capacitor bank.

Using the same circuit breaker, an additional 60 MVAR shunt capacitor bank
is to be connected for power factor correction purposes. This capacitor bank
is to be energized through a circuit switcher as shown in Figure 4.11. The
value of the series reactor is 20 mH. Calculate the Ipk and frequency of
oscillation without series reactor and with series reactor. Discuss the circuit
breaker suitability for the given application.

Circuit Switcher
with Series Reactor
Reactor
Circuit
Breaker
C1 = 60 MVAR C2 = 60 MVAR
Figure 4.11 Back-to-Back Capacitor Switching with a Circuit Switcher
REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical

2. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 399, IEEE Recommended Practice for Power

3. ANSI Standard: C37.10, American National Standard Requirements for

Transformers 230,000 Volts and Below.
4. ANSI Standard 242, IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and

Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, 1986.
5. ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.010, IEEE Application Guide for AC High

Voltage Circuit Breakers Based on a Symmetrical Current Basis, 1989.
6. ANSI/IEEE Standard C37.13, IEEE Standard for Low Voltage AC Power

Circuit Breakers Used in Enclosures, 1981.
7. ANSI Standard C37.06, AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a

Symmetrical Current Basis, 2000.
8. ANSI Standard C37.012, Application Guide for Capacitance Current

Switching for AC High Voltage Circuit Breaker Rated on a Symmetrical
Current Basis, 1998.
9. Power Tools for Windows, SKM System Analysis, Inc., Manhattan

Beach, California.

5
TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Transient stability studies are related to the effects of transmission line faults on
generator synchronism. During the fault the electrical power from the nearby
generators is reduced and the power from remote generators remains relatively
unchanged. The resultant differences in acceleration produce speed differences
over the time interval of the fault and it is important to clear the fault as quickly as
possible. The fault clearing removes one or more transmission elements and
weakens the system. The change in the transmission system produces change in the
generator rotor angles. If the changes are such that the accelerated machines pick up
additional load, they slow down and a new equilibrium position is reached. The
loss of synchronism will be evident within one second of the initial disturbance.
Faults on heavily loaded lines are more likely to cause instability than the faults on
lightly loaded lines because they tend to produce more acceleration during the fault.
Three phase faults produce greater accelerations than those involving one or two
phase conductors. Faults not cleared by primary faults produce more angle
deviations in the nearby generators. Also, the backup fault clearing is performed
after a time delay and hence produces severe oscillations. The loss of a major load
or a major generating station produces significant disturbance in the system. In the
power system, the various electrical phenomena occur in different time frames as
shown in Figure 5.1. These include:

Power Swings
Frequency Operations,
Switching Sure es Changes I Planning
1
i i
Q^ 1C 0.1 10 100 1000 10" 106 10?
1 Da 1
1cy cle 1 Mn 1 Hour V Week
Figure 5.1 Power System Transients
• Switching surges, below one cycle duration.

• Power swings, a few cycles.
• Frequency changes, a few minutes to one hour.
• Operation and planning issues, several days to years.
The switching surges are studied using the electromagnetic transients program. The
power system swings are studied using the transient stability program. The transient
stability studies are performed as a part of the planning to the addition of new
generators, transmission lines and power factor correction equipment. The system
response is usually nonlinear and hence the transient stability simulations performed
for one condition can not apply to a similar condition in another part of the network.
Therefore, various operating conditions are studied during the transient analysis.
Problems caused by instability - The transient instability on a generator produces

high transient shaft torques. In order to protect the generator from such transient
torques they are tripped using suitable protection. Such protection is provided on
large generators, synchronous condensers and large synchronous motors in the form
of loss of field relaying. The tripping of many generators may lead to voltage
depression in a system. A system with oscillatory generators may also lead to the
tripping of the generators and lines. In order to avoid cascaded tripping and prevent
a total blackout, many utilities try to perform a systematic load shedding.
5.2 STEADY STATE STABILITY
Consider a generator connected to a remote source through a line impedance Z as

shown in Figure 5.2. The phasor diagram of the one machine system is shown in
Figure 5.2.

E1
Figure 5.2 One Machine System
The current I is given by:

E1-E2
I = (5.1)
The expression for power (P) is:
* (E1-E2)
P - Real (Ell ) = Real[El- -
El (El E2)
P = Sina + -—j—— Sin(S-a) (5.2)
Z Z
Where Z = (R + jX). For a pure reactance, Z = jX and a = 0,
E1E2
= (5.3)
X
This is the generator electrical power, where 5 is the rotor angle. This is a sine
function as shown in Figure 5.3. The operating point occurs where the electrical
power output of the generator Pe is balanced with the mechanical power (Pm). A
change in the angle away from the operating point will result in a power imbalance,
which acts to accelerate or decelerate the rotor. The Pmax point is the maximum
power possible from the generator. The (0 through 90) degree is the steady state
operating range in a stable mode. The (90 through 180) degree is the unstable
operating region of the generator. The steady state operating limit is obtained from
equation (5.3) given by the relation:

1 90 -
Stable Region ^
^ Unstable Region
1 no -.
^ / ^ ^X^ Unstable
. n RO
Stable X^ N. Operating
£L
Rn Operating >/
. - un bu X Point ,
oj - "
S. o 4n
Point • X
\7~
O on
/ \_
n on -
/ \
(D 30 60 S)0 120 150 180
Angle, Degree
Figure 5.3 Power Angle Curve
dP (El E2)
— =0= ^ iCos£ = 0 (5.4)
d^ X
This occurs when o = 90 degree. The maximum power Pmax is:
Ell |E2
(5.5)
max X
Pmax is the steady state stability limit.
5.3 TRANSIENT STABILITY
The transient stability analysis refers to the immediate effects of transmission line
disturbances on generator synchronism [1]. The three types of transient
disturbances of importance are load changes, switching operation and faults in
subsequent circuit isolation. In order to demonstrate the concept of transient
stability using equal area criteria, a disturbance due to load change is considered. A
sudden load increase can result in transient disturbance. In Figure 5.4, point 1
(angle o \) shows the operating point of a generator on the power angle curve with
load 1 and point 2 (angle 8 2) shows the operating point at load 2. Because of the
inertia of the rotating parts of the machine and the internal voltage of the generator,
the rotor angle does not change momentarily to operating point 2. Instead, the
differences in the power input and output are used in accelerating the generator
rotor. In this process, the rotor angle overshoots to point 3 and comes back to

operating point 2. For a stable operation, the area Al is equal to area A2. This is
given by:
El E2 El E2
P = Sin S\ = Sin 82 (5.6)
X X
This condition is shown in Figure 5.4, where 8 3 is greater than 90 degrees but is
stable because o 3 is less than o 4 the critical angle for the load 2. With load 2, the
angle settles to S 2 with a stable operating point. If the angle at point 3 exceeds the
angle at point 4, then there may not a stable operating point.
P
o
w
e
r
Al
Load 1
Angle
Figure 5.4 Power Angle Curve, Equal Angle Criteria During Load Change
Oscillatory stability - A machine being transiently stable on the first swing does
not guarantee that it will return to the steady state operating point. System effects
such as sudden changes in load, short circuits and transmission line switching not
only introduce transient disturbances on machines but also give rise to less stable
operating conditions. For example, if a transmission line is tripped due to a fault,
the resulting system may be much weaker than the pre-fault condition and
oscillatory instability may result. The oscillation may decrease and the machine may
become stable. Sometimes the oscillations may increase, leading to loss of
synchronism. In either case, the oscillatory mode is undesirable.
5.3.1 Swing Equation
Following a system disturbance or load change on a power system, a generating unit

tends to oscillate around its operating point until it reaches a steady state. For a
synchronous machine with constant field excitation, an equation for the dynamic

motion is obtained by relating the angular acceleration of the rotor to the rotor
torque. This relation is:
(Inertia) (Angular acceleration) + Damping torque + (Te - Tm) = 0
For small deviations the characteristic equation can be written as:

2Hd2 8 Dd 8 , 0
1A£ = 0 (5.7)
2 dt
dt
This is called the swing equation [1], where:
Ac) = Rotor angle deviation from the steady state, radians

H = Inertia constant of the generator unit, kW-sec/kVA
D = Damping coefficient representing friction
0.23 1(J) (RPM 2 ) ( 1 0 ~ 9 )
H = -^— ^--- v (5 8)
Base MVA '
0) = Synchronous frequency, 377 radians/s for 60 HZ system

Kl = Synchronizing coefficient, P.U. power/Radian
Rpm = Synchronous machine speed in revolutions/minute
J = Moment of inertia, Ib-fT
The term Kl is called the synchronizing power that acts to accelerate or decelerate
the inertia towards the synchronous operating point. The synchronizing coefficient
Kl is the slope of the transient power angle curve.
dP El E2
Kl = Cos 5 (5.9)
d5 X
Where
El = Internal voltage behind transient reactance, P.U.
E2 - Bus voltage, P.U.
X = (Xd' + Xe) = Series reactance between the terminal voltage and the
infinite bus, P.U.
Xd' = Generator transient reactance, P.U.
8 = Angle between El and E2
The swing equation governs the power system dynamic response with a frequency
given by:

iKlto
This is called the natural frequency of the local mode. This frequency of oscillation
is usually 0.5 Hz to 2.5 Hz.
Example 5.1 - A generator connected to an infinite bus has the following

parameters:
H = 3.2 8 = 25 degrees Xd' - 0.25 P.U Xe = 0.3 P.U

E1 = 1.05P.U E2=1.0P.U
Find the local frequency of oscillation.
Solution:
Kl.* 1 - 0 5 *'- 0 ) Cos(25) = 1.73
(0.25 + 0.30)
con = = io.69Rad/s (1.61 Hz)

(2)(3.2)
Inter area oscillations - If two areas in a power system are interconnected by a

weak power line, then there may be a low frequency oscillation between these
systems. An example system is shown in Figure 5.5. Then the inter area oscillation
can be evaluated using the effective value of H is given by:
TT (H1)(H2)
Where HI and H2 are the inertia constants of system 1 and 2. If there are many such
areas present in a power system, then a computer-aided solution can be obtained.
Tie Line
Figure 5.5 Two Areas Interconnected by a Tie Line
If the systems MVAs to be combined are different, equation (5.11) is not

applicable.

5.4 CRITERIA FOR STABILITY
The purpose of the transient stability analysis is to study the stability issues of the
generating units for disturbances on the interconnections with the main grid. The
stability of the generating units will depend on the dynamic characteristics of the
entire grid as well as those of the generating units connected to the system.
Consequently it is necessary to model the dynamics of the entire power system
along with load flow for the maximum load conditions. Sometimes it may be
necessary to analyze the stability issues of a lightly loaded system as well. The
transient stability performance will be assessed in accordance with the utility's
standards for planning and operating criteria. The stability cases are classified as
either design requirement cases or extreme contingency assessment cases.
Design requirement cases - These are cases for which the stability of the bulk
power system shall be maintained. These cases include the following contingencies:
• A permanent three-phase fault on any generator, transmission circuit,

transformer or bus section with normal fault clearing.
• A permanent phase to ground fault on any transmission circuit, transformer or

any bus section with delayed clearing.
All generating units shall remain stable following a permanent three-phase fault
on any transmission element with normal fault clearing and with due regard to
reclosing facilities.
Extreme contingency assessment cases - These are cases for which the extent of a
widespread system disturbance is to be determined, even though extreme
contingencies have low probabilities of occurrence. These cases include a
permanent three-phase fault on any generator, transmission circuit, transformer or
bus section, with delayed fault clearing. The critical clearing times to maintain
stability should be determined for these cases.
Critical fault clearing times - The critical clearing time is the maximum allowable
time that a fault can be sustained without the synchronous generator becoming
unstable. Typical fault clearing times are:
• For a three-phase fault, the typical maximum fault clearing time (including the
relay operating time plus circuit breaker opening time) is 8 cycles.
• For a double line to ground fault, the typical maximum fault clearing time,
including the breaker failure is 17 cycles.

• For a line-to-ground fault, the typical maximum fault clearing time (including
the backup relay operating time plus circuit breaker opening time) is 30 cycles.
Assessment of the rotor angles for stability - As per classical stability theory, the
generator will be stable for steady state rotor angles below 90 degrees and unstable
for above 90 degrees. However, the rotor angles can swing into the unstable region
during transient conditions and will be back in the stable-operating region. In the
transient stability studies, the relative rotor angles are monitored with respect to the
swing generator. Depending on the rotor angle oscillation, the generators can be
stable, unstable or oscillatory. Typical rotor angle plots for the above three
conditions are shown in Figure 5.6. If the rotor angle swings around 90 degrees and
decays very rapidly, then the generator is stable. If the rotor angle goes beyond 180
degrees in the first cycle, then the generator is unstable. If the rotor angle continues
to oscillate without damping, then the generator is oscillatory. The unstable and
oscillatory cases are unacceptable.
i i i i i i n
T1HE (SECONDS)
Figure 5.6 The Stable, Unstable, and Oscillatory Rotor Angles

(Courtesy of Power Technologies, Inc, Output from PSS/E Program)

Voltage swing during the disturbances - It is customary to monitor the bus
voltages at critical locations during transient stability studies. During the fault, the
bus voltage drops and upon fault clearing the voltage recovers. As per industrial
standards, the allowable voltage dips during the fault is identified in Chapter 6.
From the stability point of view, the voltage has to recover to the rated voltage
immediately after fault clearing. Such a voltage condition is acceptable and is
shown in Figure 5.7. If the voltage fails to recover and is oscillatory, then such a
condition is marginal and is unacceptable. If the voltage falls below 60% of the
rated voltage and fails to recover (voltage collapse), such a condition is
unacceptable.
Figure 5.7 Voltage Recovery Followed by Fault Clearing

(Courtesy of Power Technologies, Inc, Output fromPSS/E Program)
5.5 POWER SYSTEM COMPONENT MODELS
In order to perform transient stability analysis, the models of the generators,

excitation systems, governors and other critical component are required. The
transmission lines are usually represented by positive sequence impedance. The
other important models are discussed below.
Type of generator units - Several type of generating units are used for power
production depending on the type of fuel used. The fossil, nuclear, combustion
turbines, hydro unit, combined cycle units and the diesel generators are used in
power production. Typical characteristics of these units are discussed below.

Fossil units - The bulk of the power for utility applications are generated using the
fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) units. The size of the units varies from a few
MW to 1000 MW. The smaller units were common in plants installed in 1950s.
Nuclear steam units - Nuclear units are either light water reactor (LWR) or
pressure water reactor (PWR) units.
Combustion turbine units - The combustion turbines are designed to burn liquid,
gas fuel or natural gas. These units can be either industrial or jet engines. Therefore,
generally high speed engines are used.
Hydro units - These generator units are used for conventional or pumped storage
applications. The conventional hydro units may be low head, medium head or high
head. The pumped storage units are used as peaking units. Water is pumped from
the lower reservoir to the upper reservoir during off peak hours. During peak hours,
the water in the upper reservoir is used to produce electricity. Hydro power is the
cheapest and cleanest form of electrical energy.
Combined cycle units - In the combined cycle units, the gas turbine is used to
operate as the main power generating unit. The exhaust heat of the gas turbine is
used in a steam boiler to operate a steam turbine generator. Therefore, the overall
efficiency of the combined cycle generation is higher than the other forms of
generation.
Diesel engines - For emergency and standby production of electricity, small diesel
engine driven generators are used.
Generator models - Usually block diagram representation of the synchronous

machine is used in the small signal analysis [1,6]. The needed variables are
electrical torque, speed, rotor angle, terminal voltage and the field voltage. This
model represents a generator as it behaves when connected to an infinite bus
through an external reactance. The linearized model can be used in both the time
and frequency domain analysis. The model is based on the d-q axis theory and the
state variable approach is used. The parameters used in the generator modeling are:
Symbol Description
MVA Generator MVA Rating
T'do Direct axis transient time constant, second
T"do Direct axis sub-transient time constant, second
T'qo Quadrature axis transient time constant, second
T"qo Quadrature axis sub-transient time constant (second)
H Inertia constant (machine MVA base) MW/s-MVA

D Damping factor
Xd Synchronous reactance, direct axis
Xq Synchronous reactance, quadrature axis
X'd Transient reactance, direct axis
X'q Transient reactance, quadrature axis
X"d Sub-transient reactance, direct axis
XI Leakage reactance
S(l .0) Saturation factor at 1.0 P.U.
S(l .2) Saturation factor at 1.2 P.U.
Some of the models available for the generator are:
Classical H D Xd'
Laminated rotor
without damper H D Xd Xd' Xq Tdo1
Generator with
damper windings H D Xd Xd1 Xd" Xq Xq' Xq" Tdo'Tdo" XI
Solid rotor H D Xd Xd' Xd" Xq Xq' Xq" Tdo' Tdo" Tqo' Tqo" XI
Solid rotor with
mutual reactance H D Xd Xd' Xd" Xrm Xq Xq' Xq" Tdo' Tdo" Tqo' Tqo" XI
The classical model is used whenever the machine data is not available in detail.
The solid rotor model is used when the machine data is available. Further the
saturation model is used in the detailed studies. Solid rotor generators are suitable
for high speed applications, where the forces on the rotor are significant. The round
rotor motors are constructed in all MVA ranges. Typical machine data for various
round rotor machines are presented in Table 5.1.
The salient pole generators are used in low speed hydro generators, synchronous
condensers and synchronous motor applications. Typical machine data for various
salient pole machines are presented in Table 5.2.
Excitation system models - A general functional block diagram in Figure 5.8

indicates the generator excitation subsystems used in the electric power system
studies. These include a terminal voltage sensor, voltage regulator, an exciter,
excitation system stabilizer and in some cases a power system stabilizer. The three
common excitation systems used are dc exciters, ac exciters and static exciters. The
excitation models used in the transient stability studies were developed by IEEE
working groups [2-4].

Table 5.1 Typical Machine Data for Solid Rotor Machine
Parameter 50 MVA 30 MVA 300 MVA 600 MVA

ST GT Fossil Nuclear
MVA 50 120 300 600
KV 13.8 13.8 13.8 18.0
H 6 3.3 4 3.5
D 1 1 1 1
Xd 2.13 1.65 1.3 1.9
Xd' 0.26 0.26 0.25 0.29
Xd" 0.18 0.18 0.23 0.22
Xq 1.98 1.58 1.75 1.75
Xq' 0.37 0.41 0.47 0.44
Xq" 0.18 0.18 0.23 0.22
Tdo' 5.44 5.32 4.8 6.8
Tdo" 0.02 0.03 0.35 0.035
Tqo1 0.57 0.38 1.50 0.41
Tqo" 0.04 0.07 0.07 0.07
XI 0.16 0.08 0.15 0.15
Table 5.2 Typical Machine Data for Salient Pole Machines
Hydro Condenser Motors

MVA 80 130 100
KV 13.8 13.8 13.8
H 4 2.0 2.0
D 1 1 1
Xd 1.25 2.00 1.50
Xd' 0.30 0.44 0.20
Xd" 0.25 0.30 0.14
Xq 0.70 1.25 0.90
Tdo' 4.00 9.00 2.00
Tdo" 0.04 0.04 0.03
Tqo1 0.57 0.38 1.50
Tqo" 0.06 0.06 0.04
XI 0.15 0.20 0.09

Vref
Figure 5.8 Block Diagram for the Generator Excitation System
Type 1, continuously acting regulator and exciter - The dc exciters are

associated with the older generators, may be direct acting rheostatic, rotating
amplifier and magnetic amplifier types. A block diagram of the type DC1, dc
commutator type exciter with internally acting voltage regulator is shown in Figure
5.9. This exciter utilizes a direct current generator with a commutator as the source
of excitation power. The reference voltage and the generator output voltage signal
are compared and an error voltage is produced. The error voltage is amplified using
an amplifier with a gain constant of KA and the output voltage is used to drive the
exciter field. When the exciter saturation limiter is included in the loop, the exciter
voltage is limited accordingly. The other types of dc exciters are:
Type DC 2 - DC commutator type of exciter

Type DC 3 - Non continuously acting regulator
The voltage regulator output is used to control the exciter which may be a
separately or self excited dc machine. The exciter saturation function is defined as
SE. In Figure 5.10, A and B are defined as the excitation output voltage on constant
resistance load saturation curve and the air-gap line respectively. Then the
saturation factor SE is defined as:
A-B
SE =• (5.12)
B
The exciter saturation SE using the no load curve is given by:

EFD
Damping
Figure 5.9 Block Diagram of an IEEE Type 1 Exciter
Airgap Line No Load Saturation

__^———
*—^•«—
V Load Saturation
Figure 5.10 Exciter Saturation Curves

C-B
SE - (5.13)
B
This constant is used for the alternator rectifier exciters, because exciter regulation
effects are accounted by inclusion of synchronous reactance and commutating
reactance voltage drops in the model.
Type 2, alternator supplied rectifier exciters - This type of excitation system

uses an ac alternator and either a stationary or rotating rectifier to produce the direct
current needed for the generator field. A block diagram of the excitation system is
shown in Figure 5.11. The transfer function includes one additional time constant to
compensate for the exciter, which is not included within the damping loop. Other
characteristics of the type 2 systems are similar to type 1. Some of the other
excitation systems using the same principles are, Type AC1 with field controlled
alternator with diode rectifier excitation system. Type AC2 with high initial
response field controlled alternator rectifier excitation system. Type AC3 with field
controlled alternator rectifier excitation system with a self-excited machine. Type
AC4 with an exciter using a controlled rectifier.

Vr
Damping
Figure 5.11 Block Diagram of the Type 2 Excitation System
Type 3, static exciters with terminal potentials and current supplies - In this
type of exciter, the required dc power is supplied though transformer and rectifiers.
The ceiling voltage of this type of exciter will be very high. Otherwise, the
functions of this type of exciter are similar to type 1. Figure 5.12 shows the transfer
functions of the type 3 excitation system. The other exciters performing the same
type of functions are Type ST1, Type ST2 (a compound source rectifier exciter)
and Type ST 3 (with a controlled rectifier).
vref vs Regulator
+
l
k.
KA
r r 1 sT
+ A
Lafd Ifd
Figure 5.12 Block Diagram of the Type 3 Exciter
In addition to the above excitation models, some old systems still use the old IEEE
exciter models published in the IEEE Committee report on "Computer
Representation of Excitation Systems". These models should be converted to the
revised models if possible. Whenever the parameters of an exciter are not available,
a simplified exciter model may be used. Typical parameters for an exciter are:

TA -10 Second TB = 1 Second K =200
TE = 0.05 Second Emin =0 Emax = 2.5 to 6
The symbols used in the excitation system modeling are:

Efd = Exciter output voltage
Ifd = Generator field current
KA = Gain of the voltage regulator
KB = Gain of the voltage regulator, second stage
KD = Demagnetizing factor
KE = Exciter constant related to self excited field
KF, KN = Excitation system control system stabilizer gains
KG = Inner loop feedback constant
KH = Exciter field current feedback gain
KL = Gain of exciter field current limit
KJ = First stage regulator gain
KP = Potential circuit gain coefficient
KR = Constant associated with regulator
KS = Power system stabilizer gain
SE = Exciter saturation function
TA, TB, TC = Voltage regulator time constants
TE = Exciter constant
TF = Excitation system stabilizer time constant
TR — Regulator input filter time constant
Tl, T3 = PSS lead compensating time constants
T2, T4 = PSS lag compensating time constants
T5 = PSS washout time constant
VA — Regulator internal voltage
VB = Available exciter voltage
VC = Compensator output voltage
VERR = Error voltage signal
VF = Excitation system stabilizer output
VN = Rate feedback input variable
Power system stabilizer - Even with the presence of automatic voltage regulators
there will be local and inter area oscillations. In order to control such oscillations,
the power system stabilizer is used. A block diagram of a power system stabilizer is
shown in Figure 5.13 which is used to provide supplementary signal to the voltage
regulator for the improvement of the oscillatory behavior. The commonly used PSS
input signals are frequency, rotor speed and accelerating power. The lead-lag
network provides the lead over the dynamic frequency range of interest for phase
compensation. Depending on the need, two or three stages of lead-lag networks are
used. The typical parameters used in a PSS stabilizer are given by:

VS1
High Frequency Filters
Lead Lag Network •*• Lead-Lag Network
Figure 5.13 Block Diagram of a Power System Stabilizer
Kq =3 T2 T4 = 0.025 s
Tq = 1 . 0 s Tl T3 - 0.25 s Limits = ± 0.5
Typical parameters of the various IEEE excitation system models are presented
in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Typical Parameters of Various Excitation Systems

Const Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 DC1 DC2 DC3 AC1 AC2 AC3 ST1 ST2 ST3
TA 005 0.02 0.15 002 0.2 002 0.02 0.016 0 0.15 04
TB 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 3
TC 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
TE 0.95 0.8 0.05 095 025 ] 0.8 1.66 1.33 0.5
TF 1 0.6 1 1 1.03 1 0.5
TF1 1 1 1
TF2 0
TR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TRH
KA 400 400 120 400 10 400 250 1200 250 120 7.2
KB 100
KC 0.2 0.17 0 0 0 7 1.1
KD 0.38 0.47 0
KE -017 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
KF 003 004 0.03 0.03 0.105 003 003 0.147 0 002
KG 1
KH 0.5
Kl 0 0 4.8
KJ 200
KL 1
KLV 1
KN 0051
KP 0 1.19 4.36
KR 60
KV 0.05
El 3.1 3.1 3.38 3.75 3.8 5 3.5 2.49
SE(E1) 0112 0.112 0.22 0.083 0.068 0.03 0.04 0.046
E2 4 13 4.13 4.5 5 45 6.64 4.4 3.322
SE(E2) 0.225 0225 0.95 0.233 0.267 0.1 0.2 0 3 7 1
VRMIN -3.5 -7.5 -12 -3.5 -1 0 -6.6 -13.1 -7.48 -1.2 0
VRMAX 35 73 1.2 35 1 5.7 7.3 145 9.35 12 1
VAMIN -5.82 -1.05
VAMAX 5.82 1.05
VIM IN -9999 -0.2
V1MAX -9999 0.2
VLR 7.08
VLV 0.5
VGMAX 6.37
EFDMAX 1.715 4.5 8.23

Turbine governor data - The turbine governor models are used to give
representations of the effects of the power plants on power system stability. The
speed governing mechanisms provide damping during the disturbances and helps to
improve the stability. A block diagram is presented in Figure 5.14 to show the
relation between the turbine governor to the generator. The following basic turbine
governor models are available [4]:
• Non-reheat steam turbine.

• Tandem compound single reheat.
• Tandem-compound double reheat.
• Cross-compound single reheat (HP, LP shaft and LP shaft).
• Cross-compound single reheat (HP, IP shaft and LP shaft).
• Hydro turbines.
• Gas turbines.
• Diesel engines.
All single shaft governor and prime mover characteristics can be modeled using the
block diagram shown in Figure 5.15. In this general case, any of the poles or zeros
of the gate or valve servo or the steam or water supply may be zero. Because of the
limiter between the servo and the energy system transfer functions, each of them
must be realizable. Typical governing system models and data are presented in
References [4,5]. The most common type of speed-governing system for steam and
hydro turbines is mechanical-hydraulic control and electro-hydraulic control. If the
governor parameters are not readily available, then typical data can be used. Some
of the typical models used for steam turbine units and the parameters are available
in Reference [4].
Speed
Turbine Governor Inertia
Speed Control
Speed Governor • —
Mechanism
Mechanical
Power
Speed Governing System
Figure 5.14 Speed Governor and Turbine Relation to Generator

Gatecr V\feteror3eem
Shaft Rwer
System Dynarrics
Shaft Fbwer
AJX
Figure 5.15 Single Shaft Governor and Energy Systems
Hydro units - The typical turbine governor models suitable for the hydro
generators are discussed in Reference [4]. Depending on the level of detail needed
several models are available for the hydro units. Typical parameters of the hydraulic
turbine units are listed in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Typical Parameters of the Hydraulic Turbine Governors
Parameter Typical Value Range
TR (second) 5 2.5-25.0
TG (second) 0.3 0.2 - 0.40
TP (second) 0.04 0.03 - 0.05
DELTA 0.3 0.2- 1.0
SIGMA 0.05 0.03 - 0.06
Typically, TR - 5 TW and delta = 2.5 TW/2H; where H is the inertia constant of

the turbine generator on machine MVA base.
Induction motor model - The electrical and mechanical characteristics of the

induction machines are modeled and used in the system dynamic performance study
[7]. The model parameters are derived from the manufacturer's data. The induction
motor models are used for large machines in the motor starting study, voltage
recovery study and stability analysis. Typical data for the motors are presented in
Table 5.5.

Table 5.5 Typical Model Parameters of Double Cage Induction Motors
(Machine parameters on the machine kVA base)
Parameter 20 kVA 99.1 kVA 402 kVA
H, Second 0.5 0.44 0.696

RA, P.U. 0.02 0.02 0.008
LA, P.U. 0.015 0.025 0.080
LM, P.U. 2.7 2.7 3.6
Rl.P.U. 0.02 0.015 0.03
LI, P.U. 0.15 0.04 0.07
R2, P.U. 0.015 0.015 0.015
L2, P.U. 0.05 0.13 0.08
Load models - The bus voltage and the frequency are not constant during system
disturbances. Therefore, the load models can have significant effects on the time or
frequency domain results. Then the real and reactive power components of the load
can be represented by the following equations:
P - (A + B V + C V2)
Q = (D + EV + F V 2 )
Where the constants A through F are selected based on the type of load such as
residential, industrial, or agricultural. The parameter V is the per unit voltage. In the
stability analysis the change in the load due to frequency change is very small
compared to the effects due to the voltage. Therefore, after neglecting the frequency
effects, the load can be expressed as [7]:
Constant impedance type, P = C V2, Q - F V2

Constant current type, P = BV, Q = EV
Constant MVA type, P = A, Q = D
The relation between the load MVA and the various types of load are shown in
Figure 5.16. In the power flow analysis, the constant MVA load model is used. In
the power system stability analysis, the constant current model is usually used.

140
130
« 120
110 MVA .
= 100
90
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115

Voltage, Percentage
Figure 5.16 Relation Between the Load MVA and the Bus Voltage
The generator, exciter and the governor models discussed are based on the IEEE
models. Every software has specific models based on the requirement and the
user has to follow the program instructions accordingly.
5.6 SIMULATION CONSIDERATIONS
The transient stability analysis using a personal computer-based program requires

all the necessary data. Some of the data-related issues are discussed below.
Numerical methods for the solution of time domain solutions - The following
analytical approaches are used in the dynamic analysis. The specific approach and
the usefulness are discussed below.
Direct solution through differential equations - The behavior of the dynamic

systems can be expressed by differential equations using the system variables. The
differential equations can be solved using the classical techniques in closed form
equations. Sometimes analog computers can be used to solve these equations. The
digital computer approach can be used to obtain both time and frequency domain
solutions. Such approaches are suitable for small systems and are difficult to use for
large-scale problems.
Laplace transforms - By this approach, the differential equations can be

transformed to s-domain, partial fractions, inverse Laplace transform and then to
time domain solution. This approach is suitable for linear differential equations and

is not suitable for large-scale problems.
Transfer functions - The system can be expressed into differential equations and
the transfer functions can be identified. Again such an approach is suitable for small
networks.
Block diagrams - The system can be identified into small block diagrams and can
be analyzed. For large-scale networks such a procedure is time-consuming and
difficult to follow.
Feedback control system - Using the state variable approach, the components can
be identified with suitable transfer functions. Then the data for the components can
be identified for each of the system components.
Eigenvalue analysis - The differential equations can be used to solve for the
eigenvalues and the eigenvectors. Depending on the location of the roots, the
stability of the system can be assessed. For large-scale problems this requires
careful consideration. For small networks, this approach is suitable and amount of
graphical support requirement is less.
Digital computer solution approach - The differential equations can be solved by

making use of the numerical techniques. The solution technique can be based on
Runge-Kutta method or similar approach. Since the microcomputers are equipped
with significant amount of fixed and virtual memory, such an approach is very
commonly used in the transient stability analysis. The power flow and the stability
programs are capable of handling various bus numbers specified by the user.
Fault type and locations - The various types of faults and the location of the
faults are needed in identifying the dynamic stability case list. Some of the faults
to be used in the selection of the case list are:
• Three-phase line faults leading to single circuit outage.

• Three-phase bus faults leading to the loss of a bus.
• Three-phase bus faults leading to loss of a generator.
• Faults leading to the major line overloading.
• Faults leading to voltage contingencies.
• Faults leading to islanded operation of the system.
• Faults leading to the outage of a major transmission line with a large generator
connected to the system through a weak transmission line.
When a large system is given, these cases are not easy to identify when hundreds of
buses and lines are present. Also, a large number of cases will arise if the above

procedure is used to prepare a case list. Further, when a systematic approach is used
there will be several cases repeating under various selection criteria. Therefore,
there is a need to limit the number of cases within reasonable bounds and perform
an assessment on the selected stability cases.
Fault clearing times - The following typical fault clearing times are used.
Primary fault clearing time — 6 cycles
Backup fault clearing time =16 cycles
The customer specifications for fault clearing are always valuable data.
Simulation of a three-phase fault -The three-phase bolted fault is the most

severe type of fault used for the assessment of the transient stability. The
sequence of events used in the simulation as shown in Figure 5.17 are:
• Before fault up to 0.1 second.

• Place a three-phase fault at the desired bus at 0.1 second.
• The fault is placed for 6 cycles (duration of 0.1 second).
• Fault is cleared at 0.2 second.
• The after fault effects are calculated until 5 seconds.
Before Fault During Fault After Fault Clearing
0 01 0.2 5
Time, second *•
Figure 5.17 Events in a Three-Phase Fault in the Transient Stability Analysis
Simulation of the loss of a generator - The loss of a generator unit in a power

system is a very severe type of fault and hence the stability assessment is necessary.
The loss of generation can be due to the loss of field, over voltage tripping, under
voltage tripping or due to some other fault. The transient stability analysis involves
running the simulation before and after the fault. In this case, there is no simulation
during the fault, since the loss of the unit is momentary. In the case of a bus fault,
the generator is outaged after the normal or backup fault clearing operation.
Backup fault clearing - If the primary relaying fails to clear a fault, then the
backup fault clearing is performed by the appropriate backup relay. In such a
condition, the fault is present in the power system for longer time duration and
possibility to go into the unstable operation is higher. In such cases, sometimes the
critical fault clearing times are studied. Critical fault clearing time is the time at
power system will become unstable, if the fault is not cleared.

Data for stability analysis - As outlined above, the stability data have to be
defined using suitable models for the generator, exciter, turbine-governor, induction
motors, loads and other important components. The transmission line, cables and
the source data are generally represented by positive sequence impedance.
Parameters to be monitored - In order to assess the transient stability of the

system, several parameters can be monitored. Some of the important parameters to
be monitored are:
• Rotor angle.
• Bus voltage.
• Bus frequency deviation.
• Generator field voltage.
• Generator field current.
• Generator power.
• Generator reactive power.
• Generator rotor speed.
• Branch flow (P, Q and MVA).
The rotor angles and the voltages are very important parameters for assessing the
stability of the generator and the system.
Example 5.2 - Consider the IEEE six bus power flow case given in Reference
[8]. A one-line diagram of the system is shown in Figure 5.18. The system
contains six buses, four generators, seven branches and five loads. The bus data,
branch data and the generator data are given in Chapter 3. The load flow analysis
is performed for this system in Chapter 3. Now consider the generator and exciter
dynamics data for the power system components. The generator dynamics data
are assumed to be of the same type, except for the H constants. An example
printout of the generator data and the exciter are given in List 5.1. The load is
modeled using constant MVA in the power flow analysis. The load is converted
into constant current load for the stability analysis.
Solution - The following two case studies are presented to demonstate the time
domain analysis of the stability. The study was performed using the PTI's PSS/E
program [10].
• Loss of generator at bus 4, no automatic voltage regulator.

• Loss of generator at bus 4, with automatic voltage regulator.

GENERATOR 1 AT BUS 1 13.8 KV
MBASE ZSOURCE
200.0 0.00000+J 0.12000
T'DO T''DO T'QO T''QO H DAMP XD XQ

6.00 0.060 0.20 0.050 4.00 2.00 1.8000 1.7500
X'D X'Q X''D XL S(l.O) S(1.2)

0.6000 0.8000 0.2050 0.150 0.0900 0.3800
EXCITER AT BUS 1 13.8 KV
TA/TB TB K TE EMIN EMAX

0.100 10.000 100.0 0.100 0.00 4.00
List 5.1 Example Generator and Exciter Data at Bus 1

Since this is a very small system, severe fault such as a three-phase bus fault may
lead to the entire system becoming unstable. Therefore, a fault condition is chosen
with a loss of 60 MW generation out of the total of 690 MW. The following steps
are involved in the simulation:
• Read the dynamic data.

• Read the required channel data for the time domain plots.
• Link the required library of data.
• Run the dynamics from 0.0 seconds to 0.1 second, under pre-fault condition.
• Introduce the fault (loss of generator 4).
• Run the simulation up to 5 seconds.
• Plot the time domain results using a graphics program.
Loss of generator at bus 4, no automatic voltage regulator - This case was

simulated in order to show how the system will perform without an automatic
voltage regulator. The generator rotor angle of the generator at bus 5 and the
voltage at bus 2 are plotted in Figure 5.19. It can be seen that the rotor angle is
changing very rapidly and is unstable. In a similar manner, the bus voltage falls
below the nominal value and is oscillatory.

Bus3 Bus2
Bus4 Bus6
Bus5
Gen4
= Load
Figure 5.18 IEEE Six Bus System used in the Example
SPT. PUG OS
Figure 5.19 Rotor Angle (the falling curve) and the Voltage Plots (the oscillatory
curve) without Automatic Voltage Regulator

Loss of generator at bus 4, with automatic voltage regulator - In order to
show the effect of the automatic voltage regulator, a regulator with a gain of 400
is introduced. The time domain simulation is performed as above. The generator
rotor angle at bus 5 and the voltage of bus 2 are plotted as before and is shown in
Figure 5.20. It can be seen that the generator rotor angle oscillations decay fast
and settle. Also, the bus voltage is low during the fault and recovers to the
nominal value after removing the fault.
Figure 5.20 Rotor Angle and the Voltage Plots with Automatic Voltage Regulator
As indicated above, several types of faults can be simulated and the system stability
can be assessed. Also, the effect of any parameter can be studied using the time
domain analysis.
5.7 CONCLUSIONS
The theory of steady state stability and transient stability is presented in the Chapter.
The importance of the swing equation in assessing the system stability is discussed.
The generator models, exciter models, governor models, induction motor models
and load models suitable for power system stability analysis are discussed. Typical
data for various models are indicated. The IEEE six-bus system is used to
demonstrate the unstable and stable conditions using a practical stability program.

PROBLEMS
1. What are the two types of stability encountered in power systems? If the
system is oscillatory, then under what category can this be analyzed?
2. There are two small power systems with HI and H2 values of 4.0 and 5.0
respectively. The reactance of the tie line interconnecting the areas is 0.6 P.U.
The voltage El and E2 are 1.03 P.U and 1.02 P.U respectively. The load angle
is 15 degrees. Calculate the frequency of inter area oscillation.
3. A small power system X is connected through a tie line with a reactance of 0.5
P.U. to another power system Y. If there is a sudden loss of load of 0.1 P.U. on
100 MVA base, calculate the power variation through the tie line. Calculate the
frequency of oscillation in the tie line during the disturbance. The voltages in
the X and Y systems are 1.0 P.U. and 1.01 P.U. respectively. Use a 100 MVA
base.
4. There are two generators operating under identical conditions delivering the
same P at Vt =1.02 P.U. One machine is operating at 0.85 lagging power factor
and the other machine is operating at 0.85 leading power factor. If there is
three-phase fault at the terminal of the machine, then discuss the stability
margin.
5. Consider a generator with specifications 300 MVA, 13.8 kV, 0.85 power
factor and 3,600 rpm. The moment of inertia of the turbine generator is
600,000 Ib-ft . Calculate the inertia constant H on the generator MVA base and
at 100 MVA base. When the unit is delivering 120 MW, a three-phase fault
occurs. Calculate the speed of the generator unit at 10 seconds, if the over
speed relay did not trip the unit out of service.
6. Discuss the following terms from the power system stability point of view.
Unstable operating point in Figure 5.3 Accelerating power

Critical fault clearing time H constant
Voltage collapse Synchronizing power
Extreme contingency cases Design requirement cases
Infinite bus Exciter
7. What are the different approaches available for solving the stability
problems? Compare the different techniques and recommend the most
efficient approach.

REFERENCES
1. R. T. Byerly and E. W. Kimbark, Stability of Large Electric Power

Systems, IEEE Press, 1974.
2. "Computer Representation of Excitation Systems," IEEE Committee

Report, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-
87, June 1968, pp. 1460-1464.
3. "Excitation System Models for Power System Stability Studies," IEEE

Committee Report, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-100, No. 2, February 1981, pp. 494-509.
4. "Dynamic Models for Steam and Hydro Turbines in Power System

Studies," IEEE Committee Paper, IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, November/December 1973.
5. D. G. Ramesy and J. W. Skooglund, "Detailed Hydro Governor

Representation for System Stability Studies," IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-80, No. 1, January 1970, pp.
106-111.
6. D. G. Ramesy and R. T. Byerly, "Dynamic Simulation of Interconnected

Systems," IEEE Pica Conference Paper, 1967.
7. M. H. Kent, W. R. Schmus, F. A. McGrackin and L.M.Wheelr, "Dynamic

Modeling of Loads in Stability Studies," IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-88, May 1969.
8. R. Billington and S. S. Sachdeva, "Real and Reactive Power Optimization

by Sub Optimal Techniques," IEEE PES Summer Meeting, Oregon, July
1971,Paper71TP596-PWR(6busdata).
9. "Procedures for the Exchange of Power Plant and Load Data for
Synchronous Stability Studies," IEEE Committee Paper, IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No. 7,
July 1981, pp. 3229-3242.
10. Power System Simulator/Engineering (PSS/E) Program, Power

Technologies, Inc., Schenectady, New York,

6
MOTOR STARTING STUDIES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
A large number of induction motors are used in industrial facilities to perform

various drive applications. Starting large induction motors on line can cause
severe disturbance to the motor, to the load and to the other power system loads
connected close to the motor. All the polyphase induction motors can be
classified into squirrel cage and wound rotor type. The wound rotor induction
motors are suitable for loads requiring high starting torque with reduced starting
currents. The squirrel cage induction motors are robust and require very little
maintenance during normal operating conditions. Therefore, many of the
industrial drives are equipped with squirrel cage induction motors. The squirrel
cage induction motors are classified by the National Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) based on the torque speed characteristics as design A, B, C or D.
Recently, the high efficiency motors are being classified as Design E motors.
The speed torque characteristics of all the four designs are presented in Figure
6.1. Some of the approaches in the application of these motors are presented
below.
Design A motors usually have low rotor resistance, single cage type with
excellent running characteristics. The starting current is high with moderate
starting torque. Typical loads are fans, blowers and pumps.

• • • • Design B
- - —Design A
Design C
Design D
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Speed, P.U.
Figure 6.1 Torque Speed Characteristics of Design A, B, C and D Motors
Design B motors are of the double cage type with high rotor resistance and are used
for full voltage starting. These motors have about the same starting torque as design
A, but somewhat lower performance at the operating point, and the same
applications as design A. This is the most commonly used squirrel cage motor.
Design C motors are also double cage design with higher rotor resistance than
design B, with better starting torque, drawing relatively low starting current. The
applications are constant speed loads such as conveyors and crushers.
Design D motors have higher starting torque than all the squirrel cage motors using
a high rotor resistance. They have low efficiency and are used for high inertia loads
such as die-stamping machines, punch presses and shears.
Design E motors are energy efficient and are not available widely. These motors
are intended to provide better efficiency than Design B motors. A 200-hp design E
motor has an efficiency of 95.8% as opposed to 95% efficiency for a standard
motor. The difference is greater for smaller motors. Also, the locked rotor current
of Design E motors are much higher than standard designs. Such a design will result
in a larger voltage drop during motor starting.
The online starting of any of these motors draws significant starting current
producing voltage drop. Therefore, some of the motors are provided with starters
and online starting requires careful consideration.
Full voltage starting is most commonly used because of its simplicity and low cost.
In this case the motor is connected to the power system through a circuit breaker.
With this method, the inrush current drawn from the line, the sudden application of

torque to the load and the mechanical stresses produced on the motor windings will
be significant. However, most power systems can supply the inrush current without
producing appreciable voltage drop for starting small and medium size motors.
Also, in drive applications, sudden load torque may not produce any mechanical
damage in most cases. Maximum torque is available to the load, although the
reduction in motor torque produced by the voltage drop at the motor terminals must
be considered in specifying the torque required. Presently, the motor end windings
are braced and can withstand stresses produced by the inrush current when started
on full voltage.
A frequent problem has been failure to start when the motor coupled to its load is
energized for the first time. Typically the motor appears to start smoothly, then is
tripped off line by relay action before it reaches full speed. When the starting time is
prolonged enough to exceed the permissible locked rotor time, the relay can operate
even though its time current curve is at all points above the motor starting curve.
Some of the effects of starting a large motor are presented below.
Motor terminal voltage - During the starting, the motor terminal voltage should
be maintained at approximately 80% of the rated voltage for type B motors having a
standard 150% starting torque at full voltage with a constant torque load applied. A
81.6% rated voltage will develop a torque T = 0.8162 x 150% = 100%. Also, in
every case the starting time has to be evaluated for the 11 damage limit of the motor.
Effect of motor starting on other running motors - Motors that are running
normally on the system will slow down in response to the voltage drop occurring
when a large motor is started. The running machines must be able to reaccelerate
once the machine being started reaches the operating speed. If the voltage drop is
very severe, the loading on the running machines may exceed the breakdown torque
at the reduced voltage. The decelerating machines may impose heavy current
demand to produce excessive voltage drop.
Heavy starting currents - In the case of design B motors, the pullout torque is
200% of the rated torque. If the motor terminal voltage falls below 71% of the
rated voltage the motor may stall. This is based on the assumption that the
developed torque is proportional to V . If other than design B motors are used on
the system, a similar criterion can be established to evaluate re-acceleration
following a motor starting.
Flicker - Power system loads such as computer equipment, power electronic

equipment and sensitive control devices may be affected during motor starting.
There is a wide variation in the magnitude of the voltage drop by electronic
equipment. Voltage fluctuations may also cause objectionable light flicker in

domestic applications. The flicker curves and the allowed flicker levels are
discussed in detail in Chapter 8. For various new electronic equipment, the
allowable voltage drop data has to be obtained from the manufacturer.
Effect on control devices - The control devices are not required to pick up at
voltages below 5% of the rated name plate value. The dc control devices can
operate at 80% of the rated voltage. Critical control operations can therefore
encounter difficulty during the motor starting period if the voltage drop is excessive.
The actual drop out voltage of industrial contactors is 60% - 70% of the rated
system voltage.
6.2 EVALUATION CRITERIA
The online switching device can be a molded case circuit breaker, or oil-immersed
circuit breaker, or air break circuit breaker, either held closed magnetically or
latched in. For a given rating, the oil-immersed circuit breaker has a lower initial
cost but requires greater maintenance. For some applications the choice of the
circuit breaker is determined by the interrupting rating of the system.
According to the IEEE Standard 399 a motor starting study should be performed if
the motor horse-power exceeds approximately 30% of the supply transformer base
kVA rating if no generators are present. For smaller horse power motors, a study is
needed depending on the daily fluctuation of nominal voltage, size and length of the
cable, load rating, regulation of the supply voltage, transformer impedance and tap
ratio, load torque and motor torque.
If generation is present and no other sources are involved, a study is required if the
motor horse-power exceeds 10% to 15% of the generator kVA rating. The
acceptable minimum voltages under various operating conditions are listed in Table
6.1.
Table 6.1 The Acceptable Voltage Levels During Motor Starting
Description Allowable Voltage, % Rated

Acceptable system voltage (95% - 105%)
Acceptable voltage for motor starting 85% [2]
At the starting motor terminal 80% [ 1 ]
At the terminals of other motors 71 %
AC contactor pick up voltage 85%
DC contactor pick up voltage 80%
Contactor drop out voltage (60 - 70)%
Solid state control devices 90%
Noticeable flicker 3% change

The above criteria can be used to evaluate the voltage drop due to motor starting in
a power system.
6.3 STARTING METHODS
If a normal supply voltage is applied to an induction motor at standstill, the starting

current will be on the order of 6 times the rated current. The starting torque is also
limited and can be improved by inserting a resistance in the rotor circuit in the case
of slip ring motors. However, there is need to limit the inrush current during the
starting. There are several starting methods used for large motors.
Series impedance starting - A resistance or reactance can be used in series with

the motor winding during starting. Then by using a contactor, the series impedance
can be short circuited. If a series reactance is used in the starting, the power factor
will be poor and produce significant disturbance in the line. If a series resistance is
used, then the power factor will be better, but the losses in the resistance will be
high. Standard reactors are available to limit the starting voltages at the motor
terminal to 50%, 75% and 90% of the terminal voltage at the instant of starting.
When starting with a series reactance the kVA drawn from the supply is reduced
directly proportional to the applied voltage and the motor torque is reduced
proportional to the square of the voltage. If x is the fraction of the voltage reduced
by the series impedance, then the starting current and the torque are given by:
1st = x Isc (6.1)
2 „,
Tst = x Tsc (6.2)
fxl ^ ^1
Tst (1st}2 , sc 2 sc
-X sf (6.3)
Tf v I f yJ
V v
If y V
If
J
Using the above relations, the starting current and the starting torque can be
evaluated if the full load current, short circuit current, slip at the rated load, the full
load torque and the fraction of the voltage applied are known.
Auto-transformer starting - In this method, a reduced voltage is applied to the

motor using an auto-transformer and the voltage is increased to the nominal value
after the starting. With auto-transformer starting, the acceleration time of the motor
is longer, if a constant torque is produced during the starting. Further, the reactance
of the auto-transformer is in parallel with the motor. In the case of an auto-
transformer starting, if a tapping of transformation x is used then the phase voltage
across the motor is (x VA/3). With the auto-transformer starter the equations (6.1)
through (6.3) can be used.

Wye/delta starter - For small and medium size motors, the wye/delta starter can be
used. The stator winding is connected in wye during the starting and in delta for the
running. This starter is the simplest form of mechanical equipment and is suitable
for small and medium size motors.
Shunt capacitors to reduce the starting current - The shunt capacitors can be
used across the motor terminals to reduce the reactive component of the current
during the starting. Experimental results on a 2-hp, 220 V, 7 A, 3,600 rpm, wye
connected, three-phase induction motor show significant reduction in the line
currents. The starting currents without and with shunt capacitors are listed in Table
6.2.
Table 6.2 Starting Currents Without and With Shunt Capacitors
Case Description Current, A

Motor without shunt capacitors 50.0 A
Motor with 240 MFD shunt capacitors 34.5 A
Motor with 480 MFD shunt capacitors 31.0 A
The shunt capacitors can cause ferroresonance when interacting with the magnetic
circuit of the induction motors. Therefore, the shunt capacitors has to be switched
off as soon as the starting is completed. However, switching off the shunt capacitors
requires further consideration from the transient recovery voltage point of view.
Example 6.1 - Find the percentage of tapping required on an auto-transformer to

start an induction motor against 1/3 of the full load torque. The short circuit current
with a normal voltage is 6 times the full load current and the full load slip is 3%.
T J
st 1 st
Solution- — =~ — = 6 sf =0.03
3 f
Tf If
T ( ^2
st 2 I Isc
= X Sj
T
f
1
2 2
- = x (6) (0.03)
3
Solving for x, the required transformer tapping, x = 0.56 or 56%
Example 6.2 - A three-phase, 6-pole, 60 Hz induction motor takes 60 A at the full

load and runs at 1160 rpm to develop the rated torque. The starting current at rated
voltage is 300 A. Calculate the starting torque for online and wye/delta starting.

Solution- Isc = 300A, If =60 A
f
Xst Isc
Sf for online starting
Tf fi
v /
1200 -1160 \
- 0.033
1 ^ 1200 )
T f \^
-§L = -?_ 0.033 = 0.825
T,-
^ Vv 60 yJ
If a wye/delta starter is used,
sf = I - II ^^ I 0.033 = 0.275
6.4 SYSTEM DATA
The electrical system is represented by suitable impedance values. Then the

impedance values are converted to a common base. The data-related issues for the
motor starting in a power system are presented below.
Source data - The utility source is represented by a per unit impedance which is
equivalent to the short circuit MVA level available from the utility at the point of
common coupling. The minimum capacity of the source is used in the short circuit
impedance calculations. The source impedance data is usually provided by the
utility. Whenever the exact data is not available, typical generator data can be used.
Transmission lines - The transmission lines are represented by positive and zero
sequence impedances. The approach to calculate the transmission line constants and
typical values are presented in Chapter 2.
Cable data - The cable impedances are presented by the positive and zero sequence
impedance values. The calculation procedure is discussed in Chapter 2.
Transformer impedance - The impedances given in percentage on the self-cooled

transformer kVA rating are converted to per unit on the study bases. Typical
impedances of two winding transformers are presented in Chapter 4. Typical X/R
ratio of transformers are available in IEEE standard C37.010. For the calculation of
the one line to ground fault short circuit currents, the zero sequence connection
diagrams for certain transformers are required. The equivalent zero sequence
circuits for three-legged, core type transformers need special considerations.

R2(1-s)/s
Figure 6.2 Equivalent Circuit of Single Cage Induction Motor
Induction motors -The rotor design of the induction motor is such that there is
significant dependence of the rotor resistance on the motor speed. The effect must
be included in any motor model intended for the starting analysis. A typical
equivalent circuit used to represent the single cage induction motor is shown in
Figure 6.2. Rl and R2 are stator and rotor resistances per phase. XI and X2 are the
stator and rotor leakage reactance per phase respectively. Xm is the magnetizing
reactance/phase.
The motor data required for the simulation of starting characteristics are the horse
power rating, rated voltage, synchronous speed, moment of inertia of the rotating
parts, type of the motor (single cage or double cage) and locked rotor code. The
squirrel cage rotor windings are designed to provide proper running performance as
well as the starting duties. In order to limit the starting kVA to meet the design
specifications, NEMA has established starting kVA standards, each identified by a
code letter which is stamped on the motor name plate. The value is expressed in
kVA/hp. The recommended kVA/hp values are listed in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Locked Rotor Code of Induction Motors
Code KVA/hD Code KVA/ho

A 0.0-3.14 L 9.0-9.99
B 3.15-3.54 M 10.0- 11.19
C 3.55-3.99 N 11.2- 12.49
D 4.0-4.49 P 12.5-13.99
E 4.5-4.99 R 14.0- 15.99
F 5.0-5.59 S 16.0- 17.99
G 5.6-6.29 T 18.0- 19.99
H 6.3-7.09 U 20.0-22.39
J 7.1 -7.99 V 22.4 - and up
K 8.0-8.99

The commonly used design B motors belong to code F and the nominal kVA/hp is
5.5. The inertia constant of the rotating parts (H in kW-sec/kVA) can be calculated
using the equation (6.4) for the FPS system:
0.231xlO~ 6 (wk) 2 RPM 2
H = (6.4)
kVA
Where wk = Moment of inertia of the machine and load, Ib-ft
RPM = Synchronous speed
Usually the motor ratings are expressed in horsepower and there is a need to
convert the same into kVA rating. The kVA and the horse-power relation is given
by:
(hp) (0.746)
KVA = (6.5)
(PF) (Efficiency)
The power factor of the motor during starting is required and the following typical
values can be used if the data is not readily available.
• Under 1,000-hp, 0.20.

• Above 1,000-hp, 0.15.
The motor models are available in graphical form either in metric or FPS units.
Example motor data are shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4 Example Motor Model Suitable for Motor Starting Analysis
Hp = 1000 Voltage = 4.160 kV Current = 117 A Speed = 1800 RPM
Power factor = 0.90 Efficiency = 0.98 Wk 2 = 7500 Ib-ft
Speed, P.U. Torque, P.U. Current, P.U. Power Factor
0.0 1.5 6.2 0.22
0.1 1.45 6.1 0.22
0.2 1.38 6.1 0.23
0.3 1.34 6.0 0.24
0.4 1.39 5.9 0.25
0.5 1.47 5.8 0.26
0.6 1.63 5.5 0.27
0.7 1.86 5.2 0.29
0.8 2.20 4.8 0.36
0.9 2.25 4.2 0.40
0.95 1.65 3.2 0.72
0.975 1.25 2.0 0.93
1.0 0.0 0.2 0.10

Load model - Usually the load model is presented in graphical form or in equation
form. The data includes a model name, model type (graphical or equation), moment
of inertia of the load and the torque speed characteristics of the load. The models
are generally available for loads such as fans, pumps, compressors, blowers and
motor generator set. An example graphical model for a load is given in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Example Load Model

Load Model Load = Fan KW = 800 Speed =1.800 RPM
Speed, P.U. Torque, P.U.
0.0 0.0
0.1 0.01
0.2 0.05
0.3 0.10
0.4 0.15
0.5 0.25
0.6 0.36
0.7 0.48
0.8 0.65
0.9 0.78
0.95 0.92
Motor switching data - During the simulation, the motor has be switched on at a
suitable time. This can be performed using a time-dependent switch or voltage-
dependent switch. For the time domain simulations, a time-dependent switch is
used.
Controller data - The motor starting involves the direct switching or switching
through a suitable control device such as:
Auto-transformer switching Part-winding starting

Wye-delta starter Shunt capacitor starting
Series reactance or resistance Solid state starters
The control function may be voltage, speed or time. Depending upon the program
capability these functions are implemented.
Synchronous machines - A synchronous machine is represented by the sub-

transient direct axis reactance. Typical reactance values for various synchronous
machines are presented in Chapter 4.

6.5 VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATIONS
There are several approaches available to calculate the voltage drops in the feeder
circuits. The impedance method, the short circuit kVA method, the (R + j X)
method and the load flow solution using computer-aided analysis are some of the
commonly used methods. The technique involved in various approaches is
discussed below. The computer-aided approach is discussed in a later section.
The impedance method - In this approach, the impedance of various lines and the
transformers are calculated using the equation:
X
kVr2
Z(Ohms) = (6.6)
MVA
J
The impedance of a line in one kV (kVl) to another kV (kV2) is converted using
the equation:
s\
ZV2(Ohms) = ( — ZV1 (6.7)
The impedance of the load is calculated using the equation:

/ o
kV2
Zload(Ohms) = (6.8)
MVA
V J
Then the total impedance and the voltage drop are calculated using the equation:
I Motor Impedance ]
% Voltage drop = \\ \ xlOO (69)
[ Total Impedance J
It can be seen that the phase angles are neglected in these calculations and hence the
solution is approximate.
Short circuit kVA method - The short circuit kVA of the system at the motor
terminals is calculated using the formula:
100 (kV Abase)
KVAsc = (6JO)
— z%—
Usually the motor short circuit rating can be calculated from the name plate data.
Then the voltage drop at the terminal during the motor starting is given by:
100 (Motor Short Circuit kVA)

% Voltage Drop = v(611)
Motor Short Circuit kVA +KVAsc ' '

The (R + j X) method - In this method, all the impedance values are calculated and
added using the vectors. The phase angles are not neglected. Finally the absolute
impedance values and the voltage drop are calculated using the equation (6.9). This
approach is more accurate since the phase angles are taken into account.
6.5.1 Effect of Initial Conditions
The initial conditions of power system operation have influence on the voltage
drops calculated. The initial conditions may be due to the nature of the existing load
in adjacent buses, running motors and initial bus voltages.
Type of load - The presence of constant impedance loads such as lights, resistors,
reactors and lightly loaded motors does not have significant influence on the
calculated voltage drop. Also, the constant current loads have a combination of the
above loads plus loaded motors do not affect the voltage drop calculations.
However, fully loaded motors will have certain influence on the calculated voltage
drops.
Loaded motors at unity power factor - If there are large number of fully loaded
induction motors or synchronous motors at unity power factor, then the operation of
these motors will have significant effect on the calculated voltage drop. An
approximate mathematical relation can be presented for the modified voltage drop
(Vm) as:
0.65 x Initial kVA I
Vm = x Voltage Drop with no Initial Load (6.12)
Generator kVA J
The application of this must be done carefully, if the calculated voltage drop is over
30%. Under such conditions, the running motors will stall drawing significant
current and additional voltage drop. Also, the contactor may drop isolating the
motors from service.
Leading power factor motor loads - In some cases synchronous motors may be
running with leading power factor. In such cases, the reactive power supplied from
the source produces a smaller voltage drop. The mathematical relation representing
such a condition is given by:
100 (Motor Short Circuit kV A - Leading PF kV A)

% Voltage Drop - —(613)
Motor Short Circuit kVA + KVAsc - Leading PF kVA v ' '
Effect of initial bus voltage - In some cases it is possible that the actual bus
voltage is less than the expected 1.0 P.U voltage. If the source voltage is always on
the higher side of the nominal voltage, then the available terminal voltage at the
motor will be higher.

6.6 CALCULATION OF ACCELERATION TIME
The acceleration time of the motor shaft during starting can be calculated by solving
the equation of motion given by:
1 T dco
The time required to accelerate from the speed fo\ to &>2 is:
tm-) J d(D
t =ft- (6.15)
(T-T1)
In order to find the value of this integral, it is necessary to know the motor torque
(T) and the load torque (Tl) as a function of speed. In the simplest case, when the
motor torque and the load torque are constant, then:
( 0)2 ~col)
A? = JT —--— (6.16)
(T-T1)
w 2?rN
=-- <6-17>
The total inertia J is represented by Wk . Simplifying the equation (6.16) using
these terms,
At = - (6.18)
308(T-T1)
During the starting of a motor, the terminal voltage will drop and the corresponding
torque will be less. Therefore, suitable correction factor has to be applied to account
for the torque reduction. The motor terminal voltage and the accelerating torque are
given by :
Input kVA
Motor terminal voltage = V 1- (6.19)
Input kVA + KVAsc
Where KVAsc is the short circuit rating of the source. The net motor torque (Tr)
can be calculated by:

Tr = T [V in per unit]" (6.20)
The net accelerating torque is the difference between the resultant motor toque and
the load torque. In order to improve the accuracy of the calculated acceleration
time, a reduced time step is required. The calculation procedure is explained using
an example.
Example 6.3 - Consider a 500-hp, 460 V, 1170 rpm, 3 phase induction motor for
an application with torque speed characteristics as shown in Table 6.6. The
combined inertia of the motor shaft and the load is 3,500 Ibs-ft . The short circuit
kVA of the system is 35,000 kVA. The input to the motor at rated load is 450 kVA.
Calculate the acceleration time in seconds using a step-by-step approach.
Table 6.6 The Speed Torque Characteristics of the Motor and Load in P.U.
Speed Motor Load
Increment Torque,% Torque, % %kVA
0 to 20% 84 5 550
20 to 40% 93 8 540
40 to 60% 120 20 525
60 to 80% 175 30 480
80 to 100% 167 45 350
Solution - One iteration of calculation is shown below and the table of results is
calculated using a spread sheet.
Voltage at the motor terminal before stating = 105%

Speed increment = 20%
Motor input kVA (5.5 x 450 kVA) = 2475 kVA
2475
Motor terminal voltage = 105 1 = 98.07%
2475 + 35000
Motor full load torque (5250 x 500 hp/1170 rpm) = 2239.3 Ib-ft
Net torque (84% - 5%) = 79%
Net torque (0.79 x 2239.3 Ib-ft) - 1769.1 Ib-ft
Tr - Tt [V in per unit]" = 1769.1 [0.9807] = 1701.5 Ib-ft

3500 x l l 7 0 *0.20
AAt = = = 1.5 second
308(T-T1) 308x1759.1
This calculation can be repeated and the step-by-step results are presented in a
table. The total delta t's are added to get the total starting time of the motor.

Speed %oflvttcr FV Torque IVbtor Load Net Net Tor. Delta t
Increment %kVA kVA Vdtege Lb-tt Torque,% Torque,% Torque,% Lb-ft Seconds
Oto20% 550 2475 98.07 100 84 5 79 1,769.06 1.50
20 to 40% 540 2430 98.18 110 93 8 85 1,903.42 1.40
40 to 60% 525 23625 98.36 140 120 20 100 2239.32 1.19
60 to 80% 480 2160 98.90 200 175 30 145 3,247.01 0.82
80to100°/! 350 1575 100.478469 180 167 45 122 2,731.97 0.97
Total starting time in seconds 5.88
6.7 MOTOR STARTING WITH LIMITED-CAPACITY GENERATORS
In smaller power systems with one or two generators, the source impedance is
significant and a motor starting will result in the drop in the speed of the generator.
Usually, the generators are equipped with automatic voltage regulators and
governors. The motor starting performance depends on the type of voltage
regulator. With normal regulators there will be some voltage drop during the motor
starting. With high-speed regulators, the performance will be better and with extra
high speed regulation will be still better. It is necessary to perform motor starting
studies modeling both the generator and motor to be started.
In large-scale power systems with multiple generators and feedback network

connections with various voltage levels, it is difficult to calculate the voltage drops
using the above-mentioned approaches. Therefore, computer-aided approaches are
used to calculate the required voltage drops. The motor to be started is represented
using the locked rotor impedance values and the power factor. The motor starting
solution is performed and the voltage drops at various bus locations are identified.
Also, the voltage, current, speed and power factor of the motor to be started is
available from the outputs.
There are several programs available to perform the motor starting analysis. In
order to perform the analysis the dynamic torque speed relation needs to be
resolved. Figure 6.3 illustrates the torque speed characteristics of a typical induction
motor. One is the torque characteristic of a motor and the other is the load
characteristic. The difference between the two torque curves represents the net
torque available to accelerate the motor. The point of intersection of these two
curves represents the steady state operating point. The dynamic equation of the
motor starting function is given by:
Tn
(6.21)
a, 2H

3.5 -
3 -
2.5 -•
Z>
Q. J
2
=J
1.5 -
O
1 -
0.5
0 -
C) 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Speed, P.U
Figure 6.3 Speed Torque Characteristics of the Motor and the Load
Where H = Stored energy, kW-second/KVA

Tn = Accelerating torque
= Speed deviation with respect to time

dt
3 = Machine angle with reference to a fixed reference
The accelerating torque of the motor varies as a function of the motor terminal
voltage, motor rotor current and the motor speed. As the motor accelerates, both the
current and the power factor change, affecting the terminal voltage. Therefore, in
the motor starting simulation the following steps are used to solve equation (6.21).
• Solve the power flow equations to get the terminal voltage at time t = 0.
• Assume an initial motor speed.
• Calculate the motor current, torque and terminal voltage using the power flow
and the equivalent circuit.
• Integrate the shaft dynamic equation to a new rotor speed.
• Calculate the slip and R2/s terms.
• Increment the time step and repeat the entire calculations till the steady state
speed is reached.
Usually the motor starting analysis programs have a motor model library and a load
model library. The user can select the available data or can edit the existing data to
meet the data requirement. The load models are available for typical loads such as
fans, pumps, compressors, blowers and motor generator set. During the simulation
the necessary parameters are monitored in order to assess the effectiveness of the
motor starting. Some of the parameters useful for the motor starting evaluation are:

Bus voltage Motor speed
Motor terminal voltage Motor input current
Motor torque Load torque
Accelerating torque Real power and reactive power
Power factor
The plots can be examined to evaluate the acceptance of the starting condition. The
program output report contains the following:
Branch loading data Pre-starting voltages Final voltage report
Using both the graphical and report results the performance of the motor starting
can be evaluated.
Example 6.4 - A one-line diagram of a power system with a 1000-hp motor is

shown in Figure 6.4. The motor is to be started on line. The source impedance of
the system at the 69 kV level is (0.3172 + j 9.5617) Ohm/phase. The step down
transformer is 40 MVA, 69/13.8 kV, 10% impedance on nameplate MVA. The
medium voltage transformer is 2.5 MVA, 13.8/4.16 kV, 12% impedance. The
motor and the load torque characteristics are given in the reproduced output of the
input data. Perform a motor starting study using a computer-aided program and
discuss the results. Assume the cable and other necessary data.
Solution - The data is prepared interactively and the motor starting study is
performed. The Power Tools for Windows Program is used for the motor starting
study [3]. The input data listing is presented as a part of the output. This enables
verification of the accuracy of the data. The input data include the source,
transformer, cables, motor and the load models. The output includes the motor
starting characteristics in time domain and the performance at the operating point.
The time domain plot is presented for the motor speed in Figure 6.5. The motor
speed slowly increases to rated speed in 7.33 seconds. The motor terminal
voltage drops to 4 kV and then starts increasing, see Figure 6.6. The drop is
around 4% and is acceptable. The current during the starting is 6 P.U. and drops
to nominal value at the end of the start time and is shown in Figure 6.7. The
motor power factor is shown in Figure 6.8. The power factor increases from 0.2
to 0.8 during the starting process. Finally, the accelerating torque is shown in
Figure 6.9.

69/1 3.8 kV 13.8/4.16 kV
—) c—
10 20^^30 ) C 60n
69 kV
_JL jr I
Motor
I
T1 T2
1000hp
10, 20, 30, 50 and 60 = Node numbers used in the study,

Tl and T2 = Transformers
Figure 6.4 One Line Diagram of the System used in Example 6.4
List 6.1 Edited Program Output

(Courtesy of SKM Analysis, Inc.)
FEEDER DATA
FEEDER FROM FEEDER TO QTY KV L-L LENGTH
10 UTILITY 20 TX A PRI 1 69000. 40. MI

IMPEDANCE: .0100000 + J .1000000 PER UNIT
B/2: .003824 PER UNIT
30 HBUS 50 TXD PRI 1 13800. 100. FT

IMPEDANCE: .1020 + J .0504 OHMS/M FEET
SOURCE BUS THEVENIN EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE: .31722 + J 9.5167 OHMS
TRANSFORMER DATA
PRIMARY RECORD VOLTS PRI * SECONDARY VOLTS SEC

L-L FLA L-L FLA KVA
20 TX A PRI 69000. 335. 30 HBUS 13800, 1673. 40000,

IMPEDANCE: 0100 + J 10.00 PERCENT
50 TXD PRI 13800. 105. 60 4160 4160. 347. 2500.

IMPEDANCE: .1000 + J 12.00 PERCENT
BRANCH LOAD DATA
F R O M /TO BR. CONSTANT KVA CONSTANT Z

B U S / B U S TYPE KVA %PF KVA %PF
10 UTILITY
20 TX A PRI FEEDER 15601 -94.1 307 -99.9
30 TX A PRI
50 HBUS TRANS. 15601 -94.1 307 -99.9

List 6.1 Edited Version of the Output - Continued
(Courtesy of SKM Analysis, Inc.)
MOTOR DATA
MOTOR NAME B U S MODEL DISCRIPTION

NO . /NAME / INITIAL STATUS KVA KV RPM
MTR 60 60 GRAPHICAL MODEL 1036.1 4.16 1800.

4160 OFFLINE Wk**2(LB-FT2): 1081.708 2H: 1.563
GRAPHICAL MODEL DATA
SPEED(RPM) CUF '(AMPS) TORQUE(FT-LBS) PF
.00 785..14 2128 .47 .300
180.00 776,.51 2128 .47 .300
360.00 767..88 2128 .47 .310
540.00 762..13 2217..16 .320
720 .00 754..94 2276..28 .330
900.00 742 ,.00 2424..09 .360
1080.00 724 ..74 2512 .78 .400
1260.00 700 ..30 2660 .59 .460
1440 .00 668..66 2778 .84 .540
1530.00 648 ,.53 3074 .46 .620
1620.00 625..52 3517 .89 .760
1710.00 582..38 4995 .99 .860
1755.00 330..74 6474 . 10 .840
1776 .60 143 .80 2956 .21 .800
1800.00 28..76 .00 .100
MOTOR SWITCHING DATA
PUT ON LINE AT TIME: 2.00
CONTROLLER TYPE: FULL VOLTAGE CONTROL FUNCTION: TIME
LOAD DATA
LOAD BREAK-A-WAY TORQUE (FT-LBS): 1182.
LOAD(FT-LBS) = 118. + .8991E-03 * (RPM 2.00)
°000
1800 -
1600 ^^
5
1400 ^^
Q. 1200 - ^^
QL
1000 -
/
•a
0)
« 800 - /
o.
co 600 - /
400 /
200 ^^
Q
^^
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time, Second
Figure 6.5 Motor Speed During Starting

of 3
O
0 5 10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.11 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 kV Bus; Damping R = 9 Ohm
There is very small voltage amplification. This behavior is attributed to the

damping resistor in the 5th harmonic filter. Therefore, a frequency response study
was conducted without the 5th harmonic damping resistor and is shown in Figure
7.12. Without damping resistors, the voltage magnification at the fifth harmonic
frequency is significant.
r 3
0 5 10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.12 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 Bus with no Damping R

\
z>
\
a \
Qj"
4 08 - \
O)
a \
o \
\ /
4 -
^~—^
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time, Second
Figure 6.6 Bus Voltage During Starting
°nn
finn
-—- ^
\
Current A
Ann - \
^nn
9nn
\
mn -
n
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time, Second
Figure 6.7 Motor Current During Starting
3 4 5
Time, Second
Figure 6.8 Power Factor at the Motor Terminal During Starting

3 4 5
Time, Second
Figure 6.9 Accelerating Torque of the Motor During Starting
6.9 CONCLUSIONS
The concepts involved with motor starting are discussed with respect to various
motor designs. The criteria for motor starting are stated very briefly. The starting
methods used are outlined. The system data required for motor starting analysis are
presented with example data. The various voltage drop calculation approaches are
discussed for motor starting analysis along with computer-aided analysis. An
example analysis is presented along with the output report and some important
plots.
PROBLEMS
1. The rating of a motor used in an industrial application is 2,500-hp and is

supplied through a 24.9 kV, three phase feeder. The system impedance at the
source is (3.318 + J5.982) Ohm at 24.9 kV. Calculate the voltage at the point of
common coupling during the motor stating. Identify if there is a flicker problem
and suggest suitable remedial approach. See Reference [2].
2. Consider a motor supplied from a source with a short circuit capacity of 40,000
kVA. The rating of the motor is 1500 hp, 4.16 kV, 0.9 power factor, 1800 rpm
with a WK2 of 10,200 lb-ft2. Assume a torque speed and kVA characteristics as
given in the example calculations. Calculate the acceleration time of the motor
using the step-by-step approach.
3. What is the effect of inertia on the motor starting? Explain this in terms of a
very large inertia constant versus a smaller inertia constant.

4. What will happen if the speed torque characteristics of a motor load is
nonlinear. Give an example practical load and mention its effect on the starting
and operation of the motor. Hint - Air conditioner application.
5. A 2 MW, 4.16 kV, 1,800 rpm induction motor is running at the operating
point. Another motor is to be started in a nearby location with the torque speed
characteristics and load characteristics as given in the typical data. The motor
to be started is a 1.5 MW, 4.16 kV, 1200 rpm, three-phase induction motor.
The short circuit rating of the source is 750 MVA. Simulate the system using a
motor starting or dynamics program. Assess the starting condition and
recommend which remedial measures are needed, if any. State the assumptions
made.
6. What is the difference between the simulation of a running motor and starting
motor using a dynamics program?
REFERENCES
1. ANSI/IEEE Standard 399, IEEE Recommended Practice for Power System

Analysis, 1990 (Brown Book).
2. M. K. Walker, "Electric Utility Flicker Limitations", IEEE Transactions on

Industry Applications, Vol.IA-15, No.6, November/December 1979, pp. 644-
655.
3. Power Tools for Windows Program, SKM Analysis, Inc., Manhattan Beach,
California.

7
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION STUDIES
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of the industrial loads such as induction motors are operating at moderately
low power factor. Around 60% of the utility load consists of motors and hence
the overall power factor of the power system is low. The system power factor is
given by (see Figure 7.1):
Power factor = P/kVA (7.1)
where P and kVA are the real and apparent power respectively.
KVA
Q
\ Power Factor Angle
Figure 7.1 Relationship Between Real, Reactive and Apparent Power (KVA)
The relation between the power factor and the Q/P ratio is shown in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Power Factor and Q/P Ratio
Power Angle, Q/P
Factor, % Degree Ratio
100 0 0.00
95 11.4 0.20
90 26.8 0.48
85 31.8 0.62
80 36.8 0.75
70.7 45.0 1.00
60 53.1 1.33
50 60 1.73
From Table 7.1, it can be seen that even at 90% power factor the reactive power
requirement is 48% of the real power. At low power factors, the reactive power
demand is much higher. Therefore, some form of power factor correction is
required in all the industrial facilities. The power factor of any operating system
can be lagging or leading. The direction of active and reactive power can be used to
determine the nature of the power factor. If both the real and reactive power flow in
the same direction, then the power factor is lagging. If the reactive power flows in
the opposite direction to that of the real power, then the power factor is leading. A
typical lagging power factor load is an induction motor. A typical leading power
factor load is a capacitor. Some typical plant power factors of industrial plants are
presented in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Typical Power Factor of Some Industrial Plants
Industry % of Power Factor Industry % of Power factor

Chemical 80 -85 Arc welding 35 -60
Coal mine 65 -80 Machine shop 45 -60
Electroplating 65 -70 Arc furnace 75 -90
Hospital 75 -80 Spraying 60 -65
Office building 80 -90 Weaving 60 -75
Example 7.1 - The power factor of a 100 kVA load is 0.8. It is necessary to
improve the power factor to 0.95. What is the rating of the shunt capacitor bank?
Solution. KVA = 100

P =(100x0.8) =80kW
61 = Cos-'(0.8) =36.8 degree
Ql - 100 x sin 36.8° =60kVAR
Improved power factor condition:

kVA = 100
02 = Cos "'(0.95) = 18.2 degree
Q2 = 100 x sin 18.2° = 31kVAR
Required shunt capacitors - (60 -31) = 29 kVAR
Capacitor locations - The power factor correction capacitors can be installed

at high voltage bus, distribution or at the load [1-3]. The following power factor
correction approaches are commonly used.
Group capacitor bank - A group capacitor bank installation is shown in Figure

7.2. In this approach, the power factor correction is applied to a group of loads at
one location. Such an approach is suitable for a utility or industrial customer
with distributed load.
Local capacitor bank - An example of local capacitor bank application for the
power factor correction is shown in Figure 7.3. In this scheme, individual loads
are provided with separate capacitor banks, mainly suitable for industrial loads.
The localized power factor correction can be expensive.
ne- c
Loads o
Motor
Loads
Figure 7.2 Group Capacitor Bank

Loads
o
Motor
Loads
Figure 7.3 Local Capacitor Bank
The benefits due to the power factor correction for the utility are: release in
system generation capacity, savings in transformer capacity, reduction in line loss
and improved voltage profile. The benefits due to power factor correction to the
customer are: reduced rate associated with power factor improvement, reduced
loss causing lower peak demand, reduced loss, reduced energy consumption and
increased system short circuit rating. A case study is presented demonstrating
the study approach [9].
7.2 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND MODELING
Consider the power factor correction capacitor project discussed in Reference

[9], The equivalent sources at Grand Coulee (230 kV), Midway (230 kV), Sand
Dunes (115 kV) and Larson (115 kV) are derived from the full system. A one-
line diagram of the system is shown in Figure 7.4. The capacitor banks will
provide both voltage support to the system and reactive power to improve the
phase angle at the interchange points on the system. There is one 1 5 M VAR and
three banks of 30 MVAR capacitor banks. The total rating of the capacitor bank
is 105 MVAR.
Low voltage filter banks - There are low voltage filters located at 13.8 kV level,
very close to the 230 kV bus. The 13.8 kV plant consists of two 6-pulse rectifiers
with a total load of 42 MVA. A 17.5 MVAR of harmonic filter tuned to 5th (4.65
MVAR, 63.95 MFD, 4.53 mH & 9 Ohm), a 7th (4.55 MVAR, 63.95 MFD, 2.31
mH) and a 11th (8.9 MVAR, 115.6 MFD, 0.507 mH) harmonics are present as
shown in Figure 7.5. The utility supplies the load through a 25 MVA, 230
kV/13.8 kV, three-phase transformer. The operating power factor of the plant is
0.95. In order to achieve this objective and reduce the harmonics the tuned filters
are used.

Figure 7.4 One Line Diagram of the Study System
22
Rectifier A
MVAR MVAR
Figure 7.5 One Line Diagram of the Plant at 13.8 kV Bus
The single tuned filters at 7' and 111 harmonic frequencies reduce the harmonic
components at those dominant frequencies. Initially the 5 harmonic filter was
also a single tuned filter. In such a configuration, the damping available in the
filter circuit was minimal and there were current magnification problems. In order
to increase damping and control current magnification problems, the fifth

harmonic filter was converted into a C-type filter using a 9 Ohm/phase resistance.
The power system shown in Figure 7.4 is modeled in Electro Magnetic
Transients Program (EMTP) [4]. The equivalent sources at Grand Coulee,
Midway, Sand Dunes and Larson are represented using the positive and zero
sequence impedances. The transformers at Larson, Midway and Sieler are
represented as two winding transformers. The transmission are represented by
positive and zero sequence impedances. The circuit breaker at the 230 kV
substation is represented as a time-dependent switch. The following capacitor
combinations are possible:
Case 1: No capacitors Case 2: 15 MVAR Case 3: 30 MVAR

Case4:45MVAR Case 5: 60 MVAR Case 6: 75 MVAR
Case 7: 90 MVAR Case 8: 105 MVAR
The capacitor bank at the 230 kV substation is represented as a lumped

capacitance. Depending on the circuit breaker position, the capacitor bank rating
can be chosen from 15 MVAR through 105 MVAR. The harmonic filters at the
13.8 kV bus are modeled using R, L and C parameters. The following
assumptions are made in this analysis:
• An unloaded system is used.

• Ideal power sources are considered.
• The mutual coupling between multi circuit lines are not represented.
• Reclosing is not considered.
7.3 ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
The acceptable power factor is 0.95 for many utility applications. Sometimes a
higher power factor may be specified. In order to have the power factor
correction capacitors operate satisfactorily, the following additional factors
should be met:
• Acceptable resonance characteristics.

• Acceptable voltage magnification.
• Sustained overvoltages within ± 5%.
• Acceptable insulation co-ordination characteristics.
7.4 FREQUENCY SCAN ANALYSIS
Frequency scans are used to analyze the harmonic impedances and the resonant
or natural frequencies of the system to determine the voltage amplification
effects. The resonant frequencies will be excited during an event, such as
switching and could cause voltage amplification at these frequencies. In a

frequency scan, a current or voltage of a specific frequency is injected at one bus
and the currents and voltages are measured at buses of concern. The frequency of
the source is increased in small increments, for instance, 10 Hz and a scan of the
system is made at each of these frequencies. Frequencies scans are performed up
to the 24th harmonic.
To determine the harmonic impedance of a system as seen from a node, one

Ampere of current is injected into the node and the voltage is measured at that
node. Since the current is one Ampere, the voltage equals the impedance in
magnitude. The current injection across the frequency range studied provides a
measure of how the particular system will respond to transient voltages and
currents of given frequency content.
Frequency scan in EMTP disregards all non-linear elements such as transformer

saturation. Voltage and current sources used for injection are ideal sources in
frequency scans and all other sources are modeled by the short circuit
impedances. During the frequency scan, disconnect the current sources. Replace
voltage sources with a short to ground. The resonant frequency number (hi) due
to the switched capacitor banks can be calculated using equation (7.2):
(7.2)
Where MVARsc is the short circuit rating of the source at the 230 kV bus and
MVARc is the rating of the capacitor bank. The frequency scan analysis was
performed by injecting a 1.0 A current at the 230 kV bus. The frequency domain
results are monitored at the 230 kV bus and 13.8 kV bus. The summary of the
results are presented in Table 7.3, along with the expected resonant frequency
calculated using equation (7.2).
Table 7.3 Summary of Frequency Scan Analysis
Case Calculated Frequency Numbers from EMTP

No. MVAR hi Wheeler 230 kV 13.8kVEKANobel
2 15 26 9.2, 14.5 3.8,8.2
3 30 19 7.8, 12.5 3.8,8.2
4 45 15 8.1, 12.5 3.8, 7.5
5 60 13 7.5, 12.1 3.8,7.5
6 75 12 6.3, 11.8 3.8,7.5
7 90 11 .2,5.8 3.8,6.1,7.5
8 105 10 3.2,5.8 3.8,5.2

In the absence of shunt capacitor banks at the 230 kV bus, the frequency scan
plot is shown in Figure 7.6. The dominant harmonic frequency numbers are 16.2
and 23.3. The corresponding frequency scan plot at the 13.8 kV bus is shown in
Figure 7.7, the dominant harmonic frequency numbers at 13.8 kV bus are 4.9,
6.9 and 10.9 (tuned filter frequencies).
Example 7.2 - The short circuit current at a 230 kV bus is 40 kA. The power factor
at this location has to be improved by installing 60 MVAR shunt capacitors. What
is the new resonant frequency at this bus location?
Solution.
The short circuit rating of the source = (1.732) (230 kV) (40 kA) = 15,934 MVA
MVAc = 60
Using equation (7.2), the resonant frequency number is given by:
I
6000 I
oOOO I
I
o
uu 4000
O I
I
< 3000
I
tu I
Q- 2000-
j!
1000 -i
/ x
/ \
10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.6 Frequency Domain Results at the 230 kV Bus (no Capacitors)
(Courtesy of EMTP Users Support and Maintenance Center)

60
50
2 40
I
O
UJ 30
on
O
10
10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.7 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 kV Bus (no Capacitors)
With shunt capacitor banks at the 230 kV bus, the frequency scan plot is shown
in Figure 7.8, the dominant harmonic frequency numbers are 3.2 and 5.8. The
corresponding frequency plot is shown in Figure 7.9 at the 13.8 kV bus with
dominant frequencies at 3.8 and 5.2. It can be seen from Table 7.3, that in all the
cases fi and f? are close to each other, but are not equal to each other. Therefore,
there is no danger of any harmonic resonance at the 13.8 kV bus.
I
1000i i
/
2 BOO'
/
0 |
UJ 1
0 600
1
< /'
Q
CL 400 1
2 i
\ j\
/ v.v i \
200
_..,/^// s~~-
0 10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.8 Frequency Domain Analysis at the 230 kV Bus with 105 MVAR

40
30
I
O
< 20
Q
LU
10
10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.9 Frequency Domain Result at 13.8kV Bus; 105 MVAR at 230 kV Bus
7.5 VOLTAGE MAGNIFICATION ANALYSIS
Consider the presence of capacitor banks at the high voltage and low voltage
power systems as shown in Figure 7.10.
u
L2
C1 C2
f -
2;iJL2C2
Figure 7.10 Circuit for the Analysis of Voltage Magnification
Voltage magnification will occur at the low voltage capacitor banks when the
natural frequencies fi and f 2 are equal, the switched capacitive MVAR is
significantly higher than the MVAR of the remote capacitor and the equivalent
source of the remote source is weak. In order to evaluate the voltage
magnification phenomena a 10 Volt source was applied at the 230 kV bus. The
frequency response at the 13.8 kV bus was recorded with various capacitor bank
values at the 230 kV bus. The voltage magnification plot at the 13.8 kV bus with
105 MVAR shunt capacitors at the 230 kV bus is presented in Figure 7.11.

>
ul 3
CD
2
§
1
0 5 10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.11 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 kV Bus; Damping R = 9 Ohm
There is very small voltage amplification. This behavior is attributed to the

damping resistor in the 5th harmonic filter. Therefore, a frequency response study
was conducted without the 5th harmonic damping resistor and is shown in Figure
7.12. Without damping resistors, the voltage magnification at the fifth harmonic
frequency is significant.
LU
CD
0 5 10 15 20 25
FREQUENCY NUMBER
Figure 7.12 Frequency Domain Results at the 13.8 Bus with no Damping R

7.6 SUSTAINED OVERVOLTAGES
The possibility of high steady state and resonant overvoltages caused by the
capacitor energization is a matter of practical importance. The steady state
voltage following the capacitor energization can be calculated using the
following equation (7.3):
Xs ^
Vbus = Vpl1 1 + (7.3)
Xc-XsJ
where Xs is the reactance of the source, Xc is the reactance of the capacitor bank
and Vp is the bus voltage before energization of the capacitors. Using the source
impedance and capacitive reactance values at the 230 kV bus, the sustained
overvoltage magnitudes are evaluated. This disregards any adjustment in
generator excitation.
The three-phase short circuit rating at the 230 kV substation without shunt
capacitors is 4,092 MVA. The corresponding source reactance is 12.92 Ohm. For
all available combination of shunt capacitor ratings at the 230 kV substation, the
steady state voltages are calculated and presented in Table 7.4, column 2. Also,
the calculated voltages at Wheeler, Sieler, Larson and at the 13.8 kV bus using
the EMTP are presented in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Sustained Overvoltages at Various Buses

At Wheeler 230 kV Bus
MVAR Calculated EMTP Sieler Larson 13.8 kV Bus
15 1.0037 1.0148 1.0148 1.0176 1.0719
30 1 .0074 1.0212 1.0212 1.0250 1.0755
45 1.0111 1.0250 1.0250 1.0260 1.0799
60 1.0149 1.0289 1.0289 1.0264 1.0835
75 1.0187 1.0328 1.0328 1.0294 1.0879
90 1.0225 1.0367 1.0367 1.0294 1.0915
105 1.0263 1.0407 1.0407 1.0324 1.0959
The calculated steady state voltages using equation (7.3) are lower than the
EMTP results. This is because the EMTP model takes the distributed capacitance
in the system into account. If the bus voltage exceeds 1.10 P.U. the transformers
at Sieler, Larson, McDonald, Upper Coulee and Wheeler 13.8 kV may saturate.
The expected no-load voltages with 105 MVAR shunt capacitors at Wheeler is
less than 1.05 P.U. The voltage at the 13.8 kV bus increases significantly with the
introduction of capacitor banks at the 230 kV substation. For example, with 105
MVAR capacitor banks at Wheeler, the bus voltage at the 13.8 kV bus is 1.0959

P.U. Such increased voltages may exceed the voltage rating of the capacitors and
fuses in the filter bank. However, the distribution voltage at the 13.8 kV bus can
be adjusted at the Sieler substation, by using the transformer tap changers.
The surge arrester rating at the 230 kV is 180 kV. The MCOV rating of the
arrester is 144 kV. This rating is very close to the steady state voltage of the
system with switched capacitors at no-load. Suitable overvoltage relaying is
recommended to avoid this operating condition.
7.7 SWITCHING SURGE ANALYSIS
A three-phase model is used to analyze the energization, de-energization and

fault clearing cases. The voltage and branch currents at appropriate locations are
monitored. The maximum overvoltages observed during various switching
operations are presented in Table 7.5.
Table 7.5 Summary of Switching Surge Results

Description Max. Vph. P.U. Max. Vph. P.U.
Energize 1.67
De-energize 1.12 239
Fault clear 1.48 2.39
Insulation coordination - The equipment overvoltage withstand capability is

related to the magnitude and duration of the overvoltages. These overvoltages are
caused by the switching operations and last for a few milliseconds up to a few
cycles. The switching surge withstand capability can be assessed on the switching
surge withstand voltages specified by the applicable industry standards. The
resulting surge voltage limitations are listed in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6 Switching Surge Voltage Limitations

Impulse Switching Related
Withstand Surge IEEE or
Equipment BIL, kV Level, kV Limit, P.U. ANSI Std
Transformer 900 745 3.9 C57.12
Capacitor 1050 750 3.9 IEEE 824
Circuit Br. 900 675 3.6 C37.06
CBTRV 2.5 C37.09

The surge arrester transient overvoltage capability and protective levels -
A 180 kV surge arrester is marginal with regard to its maximum continuous
operating voltage (MCOV) capability. The arrester protective margins are well
within those recommended in ANSI/IEEE standard C62.2. The maximum
switching surge protective level of the 180 kV surge arrester is 351 kV (1.87 P.U.
on 230 kV base).
Transient recovery voltage (TRV) - The TRVs are the voltages measured
across the circuit breaker poles after opening. The severity of the TRV depends
on both the magnitude and the rate of rise of the voltage across the opening
circuit breaker poles. Based on the ANSI standard C37.09, the circuit breaker
switching capability is tested at the maximum TRV of 2.5 P.U. The TRV
voltages experienced in the fault clearing is less than 2.5 P.U.
7.8 BACK-TO-BACK SWITCHING

Without series reactor in the capacitor bank circuit — Energizing a capacitor
bank with an adjacent capacitor bank already in service is known as back-to-back
switching. High magnitude and frequency currents can be associated with back-
to-back switching. The current must be limited to acceptable levels for switching
devices and current transformer burdens. Usually, series reactors are used with
individual capacitor banks to limit the current magnitude and frequency. Figure
7.13 illustrates the simplified circuit that can be used to analyze the inrush
currents during back-to-back switching without current limiting series reactors.
Example 7.4 - Show the concept of back-to-back switching with two 60 MVAR
capacitor banks without series reactor and with series reactor in the switching
circuit. Assume the necessary parameters and explain.
Reactor Circuit Switcher
Circuit
Breaker
Figure 7.13 Back-to-Back Capacitor Switching Without Series Reactor

where Vpk = Peak system voltage (line-to-ground)
Leq - Equivalent circuit inductance, H
Ceq = Equivalent circuit capacitance, F
Zsurge = Circuit surge impedance, Ohm
Solution - The inrush current magnitude and frequency at the 230 kV bus back-
to-back configuration is calculated as shown below.
MVAR 60
2" = 2~ = 3.0 //F
/ 2;r(60)230 Z
( C l xC 2 ) (3x3)
\
(10 + 10 + 25.6+85) fM
\ / I f\ O /~\1
where, Lreactor = 0.0 (one bank only)

Uus =25.6 JU H
Lbank =10.0 /J. H per bank
Lbank to Bank =85.0 JU H per bank
230kVx r
7
/=20.lkA
^
f = -, =11.4 kHz
2 ^131.6 //Hx 1.
This frequency is high for the capacitor switching applications, the acceptable
value being 4,250 Hz.
With series reactor in the capacitor bank circuit: In order to control the
inrush current during the energization of the second bank, when the first bank is
already in service, a current limiting reactor is required. A circuit switcher can
be used for this application with 20 mH in the series circuit during the
energization. The inductor is short circuited immediately after the energization.

The circuit diagram for such an arrangement is shown in Figure 7.14. Then the
total series inductor for the back-to-back switching circuit is given by:
L = 130.6 + 20,000 = 20,131 / / H
The peak current and the frequency of oscillation are given by:
20131 //H
surge = 1 15. 8 Ohm
1.5//F
Vpk 230kV x
Ipk = 1.63kA
zsurge 115
= 0.916 kHz
2 V 20132 /" H x 1-5
This peak current magnitude and the frequency of oscillation are acceptable.
Circuit Switcher
with Series Reactor
Reactor
Circuit
Breaker
Figure 7.14 Back-to-Back Capacitor Switching with Series Reactor
This example shows the concerns during the energization of shunt capacitors in
the back-to-back configuration and the approach to control the transients.

7.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this Chapter, the power factor correction aspects are studied using shunt
capacitor banks. The installation needs to investigate the following additional
factors as discussed above:
• Harmonic resonance.
Voltage magnification.
Sustained overvoltages.
• Switching surge and insulation co-ordination.
Back-to-back switching.
A systematic study of the above aspects will be helpful in avoiding any unexpected
problems after installation of the capacitor banks.
PROBLEMS
1. The power factor of a 200 kW induction motor load is 0.87. It is desired to

improve the power factor to 0.95. What is the required kVAR of the shunt
capacitor bank? What type of technical issues are expected in applying
power factor correction to an induction motor?
2. Explain what happens if capacitor banks are added to improve the power
factor above unity.
3. In a 230 kV, three-phase power system, the short circuit current is 30 kA.
120 MVAR shunt capacitors are added to improve the power factor. In the
distribution system very close to this high voltage system, there is a filter
bank at 4.16 kV tuned to 4.9th harmonic. Is there any technical problems due
to the installation of the high voltage capacitor bank?
4. The short circuit current at a 115 kV bus is 25 kA. There is a shunt capacitor
bank of 50 MVAR for power factor correction. Due to a field testing operation
25 MVAR additional capacitor banks are available at the 115 kV bus. What are
the harmonic frequencies under both operating conditions? Is there any danger
to operate the system with the 25 MVAR configuration?

REFERENCES
1. P. W. Hammond, "A Harmonic Filter Installation to Reduce Voltage

Distortion from Solid State Converters," IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, Vol.24, No. 1, January/February 1988, pp. 53-58.
2. K. J. Phillips, Jr., "Conducting a Power Factor Study," Consulting -

Specifying Engineer, July 1994, pp. 54-58.
3. R. F. Wolff, "Save Dollars with Power Factor Correction," Electrical

World, March 1983, pp. 109-111.
4. EMTP DCG/EPRI Version, EMTP User's Support Maintenance Center,

Hydro One Networks Inc., Canada.
5. ANSI Standard C37.09, IEEE Standard Test Procedures for AC High

Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis, 1998.
6. S. S. Mikhail, and M. F. McGranaghan, "Evaluation of Switching Concerns

Associated with 345 kV Shunt Capacitor Applications," 1985 IEEE Summer
Meeting, Paper No: 85-SM401-1.
7. ANSI C57.12.00, Standard for Oil Immersed Distribution, Power and

Regulating Transformers, 1998.
8. IEEE Standard 824, IEEE Standard on Series Capacitors in Power Systems,

1994.
9. R. Natarajan, E. Hale, S. Ashmore, and K. Larsson, "A 230 kV Power Factor

Correction Installation Taking into Account the Low Voltage Filters,"
Proceedings of the 1999 American Power Conference, Vol. 61, April 6-8,
1999, pp. 686-691.

8
HARMONIC ANALYSIS
Until the 1960s the main harmonic sources in the power system were arc furnace
and a very few converter loads. With the thyristors and static power supplies many
variable speed drives were introduced in all industries in the 1970s. With the
increase in the converter load in the power system, several new problems became
noticeable such as:
• Flow of harmonic currents from the converter to the ac system.

• Poor power factor on the ac side.
• Poor voltage regulation on the ac side due to low power factor.
• Excessive interference induced into the telecommunication equipment due to
mutual coupling.
• Distortion of ac supply voltages that affects the performance of computer
equipment and numerical control devices.
• Error in the metering.
• Continuous neutral currents in the neutral conductors of the four wire systems.
Therefore, there is a need to understand the behavior of the industrial power

systems with the converter/inverter equipment. With the introduction of the new
filtering devices, the need to improve the power factor and control the harmonics
together in the utilities can encounter new system problems. In this Chapter, the
sources of harmonics, the system response, modeling of the system for harmonic
analysis, acceptable harmonic limits and the approach for the harmonic analysis are
presented.

8.1 HARMONIC SOURCES
There are several harmonic sources in the distribution systems. These are loads
with nonlinear characteristics. The converters, pulse width modulated converters,
cycloconverters, arc furnaces, static var compensators and switched mode power
supplies are typical nonlinear loads producing harmonics. The typical harmonic
frequencies and the corresponding magnitudes produced by various harmonic
producing equipment are listed below.
Converters - A typical six pulse converter is shown in Figure 8.1. This type of
ac to dc converter is used in variable speed drives, battery charging applications
and HVDC circuits. In the converter circuit each pair of thyristors is triggered
and conduct until they are reverse biased. If a thyristor is triggered at zero firing
angle, it acts exactly as a diode.
Va
L
O
A
D
Figure 8.1 Six Pulse Converter (1 through 6 - Thyristors)
An analysis will yield the following harmonic contents:
h=kq±l (8.1)
Ih = Ii/h (8.2)
Where h - Harmonic order

k - Any integer (0, 1, 2 ...)
q - Pulse number of the circuit
Ih - Magnitude of the harmonic component
Ii - Magnitude of the fundamental component
The harmonic contents of a six pulse converter are listed in Table 8.1 [1].

Table 8.1 Harmonic Contents of a Six Pulse Converter
h order Mag. Angle

1 100 -75
5 33.6 -156
7 1.6 -151
11 8.7 -131
13 1.2 54
17 4.5 -57
18 1.3 -226
23 2.7 17
25 1.2 149
Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) converters - PWM converters use power

electronic devices that can be turned on and turned off. The input power is usually
obtained from a converter source and the output voltage is shaped as per the
requirement using thyristor switching. The output pulse widths are varied to obtain
a three-phase voltage wave at the load. The load is usually ac motors used as
variable speed drives. The harmonic contents due to a typical PWM drive at
various load conditions are listed in Table 8.2 [1].
Table 8.2 Harmonic Contents of a PWM Drive
100% Load 75% Load 50% Load

h order Mag. Angle Mag. Angle Mag. Angle
1 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0
3 0.35 -159 0.59 -44 0.54 -96
5 60.82 -175 69.75 -174 75.09 -174
7 33.42 -172 47.03 -171 54.61 -171
9 0.5 158 0.32 -96 0.24 -102
11 3.84 166 6.86 17 14.65 16
13 7.74 -177 4.52 -178 1.95 71
15 0.41 135 0.37 -124 0.32 28
17 1.27 32 7.56 9 9.61 10
19 1.54 179 3.81 9 7.66 16
21 0.32 110 0.43 -163 0.43 95
23 1.08 38 2.59 11 0.94 -8
25 0.16 49 3.70 10 3.78 7

Cycloconverters - These are devices that convert ac power at one frequency to ac
power at a lower frequency. These converters are used to drive large ac motors at
lower speeds. These types of converters produce a significant amount of
harmonics. The harmonic components due to the operation of a cycloconverter are
given by:
fh=fi(kq ± l ) ± 6 n f 0 (8.3)
Where fh = Harmonic frequency imposed on ac system

k, n = Integers
fo = Output frequency of the cycloconverter
fi = Fundamental frequency of the ac system
Arc furnace - The harmonic produced by an electric arc furnace is very difficult to
predict due to the variation of the arc impedance on a cycle by cycle basis.
Therefore, the arc current is non-periodic and the analysis show both integer and
non-integer harmonic. The harmonic content is different both for melting and
refining periods. Table 8.3 presents the harmonic contents of the arc furnace
operation [1].
Table 8.3 Harmonic Contents of the Arc Furnace Current
Harmonic Order in %
Furnace Condition 1 2 3 4 5 7
Initial Melting 100 7.7 5.8 2.5 4.2 3.1
Refining 100 - 2.0 - 2.1 -
Static Var Compensator (SVC) - The thyristor controlled reactor with fixed
capacitors has been used to control the power factor of the electric arc furnaces and
similar distribution loads to reduce the voltage flicker. Since the thyristor controlled
reactor current is adjusted to correct the power factor, the harmonics are produced.
Typical harmonic components produced due to the operation of a static var
compensator are listed in Table 8.4 [1].
Switched mode power supplies - In all personal computers, the switched mode
power supplies are used. These are very economical designs in which energy is
stored in a capacitor and discharged in order to get a dc voltage through an
electronic circuit. Since the load seen by the ac side is capacitive, the current flow
is not continuous. The typical harmonic components due to a switched mode power
supply are shown in Table 8.5 [1].

Table 8.4 Maximum Harmonic Amplitudes due to a SVC
Harmonic Order Amplitude, % Harmonic Order Amplitude, %
1 100 3 13.78
5 5.05 7 2.59
9 1.57 11 1.05
13 0.75 15 0.57
17 0.44 19 0.35
21 0.29 23 0.24
25 0.20
Table 8.5 Harmonic Contents of a Switched Mode Power Supply
Harmonic Order Amplitude, % Harmonic Order Amplitude, %

1 100 3 81.0
5 60.6 7 37.0
9 15.7 11 2.40
13 6.30 15 7.90
8.2 SYSTEM RESPONSE TO HARMONICS
The effect of harmonics on the power system depends on the frequency response
characteristics of the system. Some of the important contributing factors are
discussed below.
System short circuit rating - A system with a large short circuit capacity will
produce a low voltage distortion. A system with a lower short circuit rating will
produce a large voltage distortion. The system short circuit rating depends on the
amount of generation, transmission voltage level, number of parallel lines and
other system characteristics.

Load characteristics - The resistive component of the load produces damping in
the circuit and hence reduces voltage magnification. The reactive component of the
load can shift the point at which the resonance occurs. Hence a reactive load can
amplify the voltage magnification. A lightly loaded system is likely to have less
damping and hence a higher voltage distortion. A heavily loaded system is likely to
offer a better damping.
Parallel resonance - A parallel resonance occurs when the system inductive

reactance and the capacitive reactance are equal at some frequency. If the resonant
frequency happens to coincide with a harmonic frequency of a nonlinear load, then
an oscillatory current flow will occur between the inductive source and the
capacitance. Such high oscillating current can cause voltage. A typical parallel
resonant circuit is shown in Figure 8.2. The resonant frequency is fo.
fo
Frequency
Figure 8.2 Parallel Resonant Circuit and Frequency Response
Series resonance - The series resonance is the result of the series combination of
the capacitor banks and the transformer inductance as shown in Figure 8.3. A series
resonant circuit offers a low impedance path for the harmonic currents and traps any
harmonic current at the tuned frequency. The series resonant circuit will cause
voltage distortion.
fo
Frequency
Figure 8.3 Series Resonant Circuit and the Frequency Response
The resonant frequency (fo) for both parallel and series resonance is given by
Equation 8.4.

f =
O , ^7 (8-4)
2 TiyL C
Where L is the circuit inductance and C is the capacitance. Both the parallel and
series resonance can cause oscillatory currents in the power system.
8.3 SYSTEM MODEL FOR COMPUTER-AIDED ANALYSIS
The power system can be modeled for analysis with the aid of harmonic analysis
programs. The available libraries include harmonic source data, cable data, line
data, transformer models and load data. The general data requirements can be
identified.
Source data - The required source data include node number, bus name, voltage
amplitude, angle. (Repeat the data for three phases).
Source impedance - The source impedance data are branch name, voltage, MVA
base, from node, to node for three phases, Rl, XI, RO, XO.
Transformer data - The transformer data include: transformer name, MVA,

voltage on high side, connection on high side, voltage on low side, connection on
low side, transformer impedance, %, node on high side for phase A, node on low
side for phase A. (Repeat the node names for three phases).
Line data - The required line data are line name, bus name, line length in miles.
Capacitor data - Capacitor name, bus name, 3-phase KVAR, voltage in kV.
Linear load data - Node name, voltage in kV, KVA, power factor.
Nonlinear load data - Node name, bus name, kV, KVA, % of peak load.
The data are prepared in order as per the program requirement and then executed to
get the output.
Power factor - When installing a filter bank for controlling the harmonic currents,
the capacitor banks improve the power factor of the system. Most utilities like the
customer to operate the load at a power factor of 95%. Sometimes, a better power
factor is prescribed.

Voltage distortion limits - The intent of IEEE Standard 519 is to show that the
power supplier is responsible for maintaining the quality of the voltage on the
power system. The acceptable voltage distortion limits for different system
voltage levels are presented in Table 8.6.
Table 8.6 Maximum Voltage Distortion Per IEEE Std. 519

Maximum Distortion System Voltage
(in %)
Below 69 kV 69-161kV > 161 kV
Individual Harmonic 3.0 1.5 1.0
Total Harmonic 5.0 2.5 1.5
For periods less than one hour/day increase limit by 50%
Current distortion limits - The IEEE Standard 519 intents that the customer be
responsible for keeping the current harmonic components within acceptable limits.
The current harmonic is defined in terms of the total demand distortion based on the
customer load demand. Faced with a proliferation of harmonic-producing loads,
utilities attempt to use IEEE 519 to limit harmonics from individual customers or
even individual loads. However, this approach has limitations because the voltage
distortion on the utility system is also a function of the system frequency response
characteristic, and harmonic sources from all customers. Total Demand
Distortion (TDD) is defined as:
H I.
TDD = (8.5)
h = 2 V L, demand
where IH is the harmonic current for a specific harmonic. Large customers face
stricter limits because they have more impact on voltage distortion. The
acceptable TDD is listed for system voltages less than 69 kV in Table 8.7. The
harmonic filters are designed using R-L-C components. The allowable overload
limits of the capacitors based on IEEE Standard 18, 1992 [5] are:
KVAR - 135%
RMS voltage = 110%.
Peak voltage = 120%
RMS current - 180%.

Table 8.7 Harmonic Current Limits in % From IEEE Std. 519
ISC/ILOAD Harmonic Order TDD

<11 11-16 17-22 23-24 >35
<20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20-50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50-100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100-1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
>1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
Where Isc = Maximum short circuit current at point of common coupling.

=
Itoad Maximum demand load current at fundamental frequency
TDD = Total demand distortion in % of maximum demand
For conditions lasting more than one hour/day. For shorter periods
increase the limit by 50%
8.5 HARMONIC FILTERS
Filtering the dominant harmonics can reduce the effect of harmonics. There are
several filters available to perform this function. The single tuned notch filter and
the high pass filter are two commonly used devices [1-3].
Single tuned filters - A single tuned or a notch filter can be used to filter
harmonics at a particular frequency. Figure 8.4 illustrates a common single tuned
notch filter to control a single harmonic. The impedance characteristics of the
filter are also shown in Figure 8.4. The following variables are used to describe
the filter.
2
MVARC = (8.6)
f
i
o - (8.7)
Xc
Q = (8.8)
R
Where MVARc = Rating of the filter bank
Xc = Reactance of the inductor
fo = Resonant frequency of the filter
Q = Q factor (typical value of 20 to 150)

R
fo
FREQUENCY
Figure 8.4 Single Tuned Filter With Frequency Response Characteristics
The tuned frequency and the operating point may change due to temperature,
tolerances and change in the supply frequency. But the single tuned filter is the
simplest device for harmonic control.
High pass filter - The frequency of the high pass filter, the optimal factor m, and
the MVAR of the capacitor bank are required. The MVARc is given by equation
(8.6). The other parameters are given by:
1
f
o - 2 7i CR
(8.9)
m = (8.10)
R2 C
fo is the resonant frequency and m is the optimal factor (1 to 3). A typical high
pass filter and the frequency response are shown in Figure 8.5. As can be seen
from the frequency response, the high pass filter reduces the impedance at high
harmonic orders to lower values. This filter is more efficient in reducing the
harmonics across the entire frequency spectrum.
Frequency —>
Figure 8.5 High Pass Filter and Frequency Response Characteristics

The high pass filter is not sensitive to the tuned frequency. This type of filter can
control harmonic frequencies over a wide range. The resistor produces
significant power loss at the fundamental frequency.
Multiple filter banks - Sometimes, there will be several dominant harmonic

frequencies in the system. In order to control harmonic frequencies such as 5
and 7th, single tuned filters will be used. In order to control 11th and higher
harmonic frequencies, a high pass filter will be used. Such an arrangement is
shown in Figure 8.6.
C1 C2 | C
Frequency
Figure 8.6 Multiple Filters and Frequency Response Characteristics
In this example, LI and Cl are responsible for controlling harmonics at a

specific frequency. Similarly L2 and C2 provide harmonic control at another
frequency. The L3, R and C3 combination is a high pass filter and provides
harmonic control over a wide range of frequencies.
The use of an inductor in series with a capacitor results in a voltage rise at the
capacitor terminals given by:
2
V,sys (8.11)
n2-!
Where n = Tuned impedance harmonic number of the frequency
Vsys = System line to line voltage, kV
Vc = Capacitor line to line voltage, kV
When a capacitor bank is used in a system at a voltage (kV), the available

MVARc is given by:
,2
kV'
MVAR C = (8.12)

Where Xc is the reactance of the capacitance bank. The presence of the filter
reactor changes the effective MVAR delivered. The output MVARfii ter of the
filter is:
kV 2
MVAR,.,
111 Id
= /"V "V \
(8.13)
(A c - A j )
Where Xi is the inductive reactance of the filter reactor.
8.6 HARMONIC EVALUATION
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) of the Voltage - This is a commonly used

index in measuring the harmonic distortion in the voltage waveform and is
defined as:
2 2
K + v/ +v 4 + ..
THD = -^ vV, (8.14)
l
where ¥3, V^, V 4 ... Vn are individual rms harmonic voltage components and VI
is the fundamental frequency rms voltage. This is the ratio of the total rms value
of the harmonic voltages to the rms value of the fundamental component. The
voltage THD is important in industrial power systems since the voltage distortion
affects the other loads in parallel with harmonic producing load.
Total Demand Distortion (TDD) - The total demand distortion is the total
harmonic current distortion and is defined as:
2 2 2 2
f I 9 + K +I 4 +....In
TDD = — (8.15)
!
Load
where I?, 1$, U... In are the individual rms harmonic current components and Itoad is
the maximum load current at the point of common coupling.
Frequency domain analysis - The filters are added to the power system to
improve the power factor as well the harmonic performance. The addition of
shunt capacitors introduce resonance peaks in the system. The resonant harmonic
number (h) can be calculated using the equation:

(8.16)
V MVARc
where MVARs is the short circuit rating of the system and MVARc is the rating of
the shunt capacitor.
In a system with many components, the resonant peaks can be predicted using the
frequency scanning approach. By this method, one Ampere of current is injected at
the bus where the harmonic source is connected. The frequency domain
characteristics of the system are typically plotted up to 3,000 Hz. If the impedance
value at some harmonic h is less than 1.0, then the filters are attenuating currents at
that harmonic. If the impedance value is greater than 1.0, then the filters are
amplifying the harmonic. A near zero value on an amplification curve indicates a
series resonance (see Figure 8.3). This is the value where a filter branch is tuned to
provide maximum attenuation. A sharp maximum amplification curve indicates a
parallel resonance (see Figure 8.2). This occurs at a harmonic where the net
resonance of a filter branch is capacitive and equal in magnitude to the system or
transformer reactance. The network model is given by:
[Ysys] =[Q][Yprimitive][Q]T (8.17)
Where [Q] is the incidence matrix used to represent the network connectivity.
The frequency scan analysis is performed through repeated solutions of equation
(8.17) for each of the selected frequencies. Equation (8.16) provides a clear
frequency dependent version of the equation (8.15) where h is used to denote the
harmonic frequency in P.U.
[I h ] =[Y (h)][V(h)] (8.18)
An example showing the calculations are given below.
8.7 CASE STUDY
In order to demonstrate the harmonic analysis, a case study is presented based on a

practical system. Many details of the system are not presented, in order to make the
study easy to understand [4]. The harmonic analysis was performed using the
SuperHarm program from Electrotek Concepts [6].
A chemical plant is installing shunt capacitor banks in order to improve the
power factor and control the harmonics. This plant is supplied from a 69 kV

system from two different substations. A one-line diagram of the electrical system
of the plant is shown in Figure 8.7. The plant is supplied through two 20 MVA
step down transformers from the 69 kV system. These transformers supply
power to the plant through the 4.16 kV bus.
The plant load consists of several induction motors and variable speed motor
driven loads at 4.16 kV, 660 V and 480 V levels. Due to the operation of an
induction motor and variable speed drives, the system power factor is low.
Further, the measurements show that there are harmonic current flows at various
buses. The existing plant load is 12 MW and the operating power factor is 79%.
The required capacitor bank size is 6.6 MVAR.
'Source B
69 kV
20 MVA 20 MVA
4.16kV m
6.6 MVAR
Other Loads -±-
O
2x200hp 2x1250hp
ac
dc Motors Motors
Figure 8.7 Power System for the Case Study
The short circuit ratio corresponding to the maximum load current at the point of
common coupling is identified in Table 8.8.
Table 8.8 The Ratio of Isc/IL for the Plant
System Isc, A IL, A Isc/IL

Both sources are in service 15,031 100 150
Source A is out of service 12,347 100 123
Source B is out of service 8,416 100 84
The acceptable harmonic limits can be read from Tables 8.6 and 8.7.
Power factor correction - The average load of the plant is 12 MW. The
corresponding power factor is 79%. In order to correct the power factor to 97%

the required reactive power is 6.6 MVAR. The demand profile before and after
the power factor correction for a one-year duration is shown in Table 8.9. Also,
the effect of the shunt capacitors is to increase the power factor at maximum
demand conditions. At an average load of 12 MW, the power factor will be 97%
lagging. This meets the objective. The savings in maximum demand is of the
order of 3 MVA.
Table 8.9 Power Factor Values for Selected 6 Months
Existing With 6600 WAR WA

Month kW KVAR KVA PF KVAR KVA PF Savings
2 18594 13662 23074 0.81 7062 19890 0.93 3184
4 18918 13842 23441 0.81 7242 20257 0.93 3184
6 18655 13482 23017 0.81 6882 19884 0.94 3133
8 18414 13878 23058 0.80 7278 19800 0.93 3258
10 18522 13860 23134 0.80 7260 19894 0.93 3240
12 19206 14076 23812 0.81 7476 20610 0.93 3202
Filter design - The 5 harmonic is the dominant in the distribution system of the
plant. Therefore, in order to reduce the harmonic contents, the capacitor bank can
be tuned with suitable reactor as a fifth harmonic notch filter. The filter consists
of 490 MFD/phase capacitor banks with 0.3275 mH/phase inductor tuned to
4.7 harmonic frequency. The connection diagram of the filter circuit is shown in
Figure 8.8. The connection is wye, ungrounded in order to use the unbalance
detection scheme.
c
C
^
Va L
Vb
C
c\-
Unbalance ^~
Detector ^-
C
VC L r\.
c
C C
C
Figure 8.8 Fifth Harmonic Filter
Total harmonic distortion (THD) of the voltage - The calculated value of THD
of voltage and the acceptable values are presented in Table 8.10.

Table 8.10 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) at PCC
Acceptable
Case Description THD, % THD, %
1 Both sources are present 0.84 5
2 Source A is out of service 0.86 5
3 Source B is out of service 1.22 5
4 Both sources are present + C 0.5 5
5 Source A is out of service + C 1.53 5
6 Source B is out of service + C 2.18 5
7 Both sources are present + filter 1.32 5
8 Source A is out of service + filter 1.32 5
9 Source B is out of service + filter 1.39 5
The THD of the voltage is acceptable in all the cases.
Total demand distortion - From the calculated harmonic currents, the TDD is
calculated for all 9 cases at the point of common coupling. The 5 and ?' harmonic
components are dominant and are compared with the allowed values in Table 8.11.
Table 8.11 Calculated TDD Components

TDD per IEEE 519 Compliance to
Case Fund 15 17 IEEE 519 TDD, % Value, % IEEE 5 19
1 6.52 3.04 12 7.25 15 Yes
2 6.38 2.99 10 7.09 12 Yes
3 6.30 2.93 10 6.99 12 Yes
4 11.71 8.36 12 14.40 15 Yes
5 11.44 8.13 10 14.05 12 No
6 11.86 7.74 10 14.17 12 No
7 1.75 2.08 12 2.81 15 Yes
8 1.70 2.04 10 2.75 12 Yes
9 1.57 1.94 10 2.58 12 Yes
From Table 8.11 it can be seen that without shunt capacitors, the individual
harmonic components and the TDD is within acceptable limits. With shunt
capacitors, the 5th harmonic level and the TDD is not acceptable. With the 4.71
harmonic filter, the TDD levels are acceptable.
Frequency scan analysis - There is no resonant frequency in the system without

power factor correction capacitors. With shunt capacitors for power factor
correction, the resonant frequency of the system is approximately 8f. This value
is in agreement with the calculated resonant frequency using equation (8.16).

With a 4.7th harmonic filter, the resonant frequency is 4.1 f. A frequency scan
result in which both the sources are present is shown in Figure 8.9. The system
should be able to operate satisfactorily with the notch filter.
0.25
0.20
I
O
o"
z
<
0.05
10 20 30 40 50 60
FREQUENCY, P.U.
Figure 8.9 Frequency Scan Result With Both the Sources Present
(Courtesy of Electrotek Concepts, Output from TOPS Program)
8.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this Chapter, the harmonic sources and the harmonic amplitudes are identified
from the system's operational point of view. The acceptable voltage distortion
and total demand distortion are presented from IEEE Standard 519. The
approach to correct both the power factor and limit the harmonics simultaneously
using filtering devices is discussed. The design of harmonic filters and approach
to assess the effectiveness of the system is also discussed. A practical example is
presented and the harmonics analysis using the frequency scan, voltage
magnification, voltage distortion and current demand distortion are illustrated.
Example 8.1 - A plant is supplied from a 69 kV system through a step down

transformer rated to 10 MVA, 69 kV/13.8 kV, delta/wye connected, 8.0%
impedance. The step down transformer of the customer is rated to 1 MVA, 13.8
kV/480 V, delta/wye connected and 6% impedance. The measured load current at
the 480 V level is 900 A. The measured 5th and 7th harmonic currents at the 480 V
level (due to converter load) is 100 A and 40 A respectively. Calculate the
following:

a) Short circuit current Isc at the point of common coupling at 13.8 kV level.
b) Short circuit current Isc at the point of common coupling at 480 V level.
c) Irms at the 480 V level.
d) TDD at 480 V level.
e) Distortion of 5 harmonic component.
f) Distortion of 7l harmonic component.
g) Isc/Iload at the PCC at 13.8 kV level. What is acceptable harmonic level?
h) Isc/Iload at the PCC at 480 V level. Is this harmonic level acceptable?
"+OU V
13.8RV hp
69 kV Nonlinear
r\ Circuit B reaker Load
^ £ \ *
* £ t
.A. \ -A.
I oad
TR1 1 TR2 |
•1 /~\ l\ ^\ / A I r—«^xx-v/-> k.
PCC1
Figure 8.10 Power System for Example 8.1
Solution -
Full load current of 10 MVA transformer

a) Isc =
Zof 10MVA transformer
10,000 kVA
I(fullload) = —7^ = 418 A
)(13.8kV)
418A
Isc (at 13.8 kV level) - = 5,225A
0.080
b) Isc at 480 V level
l,OOOkVA
I(fullloadat 480V) =-^ = 1,203 A
(^3~)(0.480kV)
1,203 A
Isc (at 480 V level) - = 20,050 A
0.060
c) Irms at 480V level

Irms (at 480 V level) = + I52 + I72 = 906.4 A

d) TDD at 480 V level
1002+402
TDD (at 480 V level) - 100 - 11.97%
900
e) Distortion of 5l harmonic component.
Distortion of 5th harmonic = 1 — 1 0 0 = 100 = 11.1%

I\ If xJ Ix900 xJ
f) Distortion of 7 harmonic component
Distortion of 7th harmonic = — 100 = 100 = 4.4%

(if) (900)
g) Isc/Iload at the PCC at 13.8 kV level. What is acceptable harmonic level?
I(loadat480V = 900A)(480V)
I (load at 13.8kV) = - = 31.3A
13,800
Isc 5,225 A
= 167
Iload 31.3
The acceptable TDD is 15% and for 5th and 7th harmonic it is 12% .
h) Isc/Iload at the PCC at 480 V level. Is this harmonic level acceptable?
Isc 20,050A
-(480 V level) = — = 22.3
Iload 900
The acceptable TDD is 8% and for 5th and 7th harmonic it is 7% at the 480 V level.
Harmonic Calculated Allowable Remarks
5 11.1% 7/)% Not acceptable

7th 4.4% 7.0% Acceptable
TDD 11.9% 8.0% Not acceptable

PROBLEMS
1. What is the difference between series resonance and parallel resonance?
2. The simple notch filter is effective at only one frequency. What dictates the
filtering frequency? Are there any mechanisms to alter the filtering frequency?
3. A harmonic load of 12 MW is connected to transformer A(20 MVA, 12.47

kV/480 V, three-phase). The source is 12.47 kV with a short circuit rating of
300 MVA. There is transformer B is 1 MVA, 12.47 kV/480 V, three-phase is
connected to the same 12.47 kV source. A small inductive load is connected to
the 480 V bus. Also, there is a capacitor bank (600 kVA, three phase)
connected to the same 480 V bus. Draw the one-line diagram of the system.
Do you expect harmonic resonance in this system and at what frequency?
4. Consider a power supply circuit shown in Figure 8.11. Draw an impedance

diagram of this circuit. It is suspected that a series resonance is possible in this
circuit. Explain the condition and calculate the resonant frequency. Is there a
way to avoid resonance in this circuit?
5. A fifth harmonic filter is to be designed with a 3 MVAR rating for a 4.16 kV

system. Select a suitable capacitor from the list 8.1 and calculate the reactor
size. What will be the voltage across the capacitor bank? What will be the
MVAR of the filter bank, capacitor bank and reactor?
I 138 KV
10 MVA 10 MVA
Load
5 MVAR 5 MVAR Load
Figure 8.11 Figure for Problem 3

Filter Capacitor Specifications
System line to line voltage kV rms

System phase voltage kV, rms
Supply frequency Hz
Capacitor nominal voltage kV rms
Capacitor peak voltage kV peak
Filter tuned frequency Hz
Nominal capacitance \i F
Nominal reactive power MVAR
Filter capacitor current A
Harmonic current A
Energization transient kV peak
Filter Reactor
Rated reactance mH
Tolerance %
Fundamental current A
Harmonic current A
Lightning impulse withstand kV
Energization transient kV peak
REFERENCES
1. IEEE Standard 519, Recommended Practices and Requirements for

Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems, 1996.
2. D.A. Gonzalez and J.C.Mccall, "Design of Filters to Reduce Harmonic

Distortion in Industrial Power Systems," IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, Vol. IA-23, No. 3, May/June 1987, pp. 504-511.
3. P. W. Hammond, "A Harmonic Filter Installation to Reduce Voltage

Distortion from Solid State Converters," IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, Vol. 24, No. 1, January 1988, pp. 53-58.
4. R. Natarajan, A. Nail and D. Ingram, "A Harmonic Filter Installation to

Improve Power Factor and Reduce Harmonic Distortion from Multiple
Converters," Proceedings of the 1999 American Power Conference,
Chicago, April 6-8, 1999, pp. 680-685.
5. IEEE Standard 18, IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors, 1992.

6. SuperHarm - The Harmonic Analysis Program, Electrotek Concepts,
Knoxville, TN 37923.
7. TOP - The Output Processor, Electrotek Concepts, Knoxville, TN 37923.
List 8.1 Voltage and KVAR Ratings of Capacitors (from IEEE Std 1036)
Ter to Ter Voltage KVAR No. of Phases BIL, kV

216 5,7.5, 13.3, 20 and 25 1 and 3 30
240 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 50 1 and 3 30

480 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 35, 50, 60 and 100 1 and 3 30
600 5, 1 0, 1 5, 20, 25, 35, 50, 60 and 1 00 1 and 3 30
2,400 50, 100, 150 and 200 1 75

2,770 50, 100, 150 and 200 1 75
4,160 50, 100, 150 and 200 1 75
4,800 50, 100, 150 and 200 1 75
6,640 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95

7,200 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
7,620 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
7,960 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
8,320 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
9,540 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
9,960 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
1 1 ,400 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
12,470 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95
13,280 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95 and 125
13,800 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95 and 125
14,400 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 95 and 125
15,125 50, 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 125
19,920 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 125
19,920 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 125 and 150
20,800 100, 150,200, 300 and 400 1 150 and 200

21,600 100, 150,200, 300 and 400 1 150 and 200
22,800 100, 150,200, 300 and 400 1 150 and 200
23,800 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 150 and 200
23,940 100, 150, 200, 300 and 400 1 150 and 200
4160GrdY/2400 300 and 400 3 75

4800 GrdY/2770 300 and 400 3 75
7200 GrdY/4 160 300 and 400 3 75
8320 GrdY/4800 300 and 400 3 75
1 2,470 GrdY/7200 300 and 400 3 95

1 3,200 GrdY/7620 300 and 400 3 95
13,800GrdY/7960 300 and 400 3 95
14,400GrdY/8320 300 and 400 3 95

9
FLICKER ANALYSIS
In recent years there has been a great amount of interest in power quality. Limiting
the lighting flicker to acceptable levels is an important aspect of power quality.
Typical causes of flicker are fluctuating load, sudden increase or decrease in load,
switching power supplies and energization or de-energization of inductive or
capacitive loads [1]. Examples of fluctuating loads are electric arc furnaces, arc
welders, accelerator type of pulsating loads, elevator, hoist, crane, X-ray equipment,
reciprocating pumps and compressors. Frequent starting of large motors can also
cause flicker in the loads connected to the same distribution system. There were
several attempts to study flicker effects due to the operation of fluctuating loads.
Usually, the flicker effects are studied for a load in the time or frequency domain
utilizing the measured voltage signals. Such an approach is suitable only for existing
loads. The flicker calculations are presented here from the performance data of the
load. Some of the loads that cause flicker are discussed below.
9.1 SOURCES OF FLICKER
Arc furnace - Steel production with electric arc furnaces is vital to the
infrastructure of industrialized countries. As is well known there are three types of
electric furnaces: resistance, induction, and arc. The resistance furnace produces
limited flicker due to the resistive nature of the load. Most induction furnaces
operate at high frequency and therefore are connected to the power system through
frequency converters and present a constant load. Three-phase electric arc furnaces
are extensively used to make high quality steel with significant melting capacities.

In these furnaces, during the melting period, pieces of steel in between the
electrodes produce short circuits on the secondary of the transformer to which the
electrodes are connected. Therefore, the melting period is characterized by severe
fluctuations of current at low power factor values. When the steel is melted to a
pool, the arc length can be maintained uniformly by regulating the electrodes. This
is known as the refining period and the electrical load is constant with fairly high
power factor. The melting process can last from 2 to 8 hours depending on the size
of the furnace. During the refining period, the power is supplied to the furnace
every two hours for a period of 10 to 20 minutes [2,3]. The severe power
fluctuations during the melting process are responsible for a significant voltage drop
in the power system and flicker. The load fluctuation pattern for a two furnace
operation is shown in Figure 9.11 [4].
Traction load - The electric traction systems are supplied from three-phase system
through single-phase transformer. The static converters on board electric trains are
supplied through single phase ac. Power demand at the traction power stations
fluctuate considerably according to the train schedule. Typical power demand of an
electric train is shown in Figure 9.1.
10 15
Time, Hours
Figure 9.1 Power Fluctuation of an Electric Train
A particle accelerator - This is a typical pulsating load supplied through a

converter-inverter. A typical waveform of the power and reactive power of such a
pulsed load is shown in Figure 9.2. It can be seen that the power fluctuation during
this cycle is between -12 MW to 8 MW and the corresponding reactive power
variation is from 0 MVAR to 8 MVAR. The nature of this load, type of voltage
variations and the attempt to control the flicker is discussed in Reference [5].

15.0-1
I ' I
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
TIME, SECONDS
Figure 9.2 Power and Reactive Power of an Accelerator
Motor starting - There are several industrial facilities and commercial loads (such
as elevators) with large motors. When these induction motors are started they cause
significant voltage drop in the distribution system. When these motors are started
very often or in sequence the voltage drop occurs at a frequency. Such voltage
drops cause flicker to residential customers and are discussed in Chapter 6.
9.2 FLICKER ANALYSIS
If the process of applying and releasing a load on a power system is carried out at a
frequency at which the human eye is susceptible and if the resulting voltage drop is
great enough, a modulation of the light level of incandescent or fluorescent lamps
will be detected. This phenomenon is known as flicker and is a matter of great
concern when operating fluctuating electric loads. The degree of susceptibility is
not readily determinable in the case of flicker. Therefore, the voltage drop in the
power system due to the operation of a fluctuating load is calculated along with the
frequency of fluctuations in order to estimate the flicker levels using the industry
standards. The following assumptions are made in flicker analysis:

The source voltage is assumed to be constant.
The charging capacitance of the line is ignored.
• The effect of steady state voltage drop due to the constant load is at the
supply frequency and hence does not contribute to the flicker.
• The effect of harmonics is ignored.
Let the source voltage per phase at the transformer be E and the voltage at the low
voltage bus be V per phase. The corresponding phasors are shown in Figure 9.3.
Figure 9.3 Phaser Diagram Without Reactive Power Compensation
Let the per phase real and reactive power drawn by the load be P and Q
respectively. From the phasor diagram the following relations can be written:
E2 = (V + AV)2 + (5V)2 (9.1)
E = (V + RI Cos 6 + XI Sin 6) + (XI Cos 9 - RI Sin 6)2 (9.2)
Let P = VI Cos 0 and Q = VI Sin 6
(9.3)
Where AV = Real component Vdrop, kV

5V = Reactive component Vdr0p, kV
E = System voltage per phase, kV
V = Terminal voltage per phase, kV
R = Resistance per phase, H
X = Reactance per phase, Q
I = Current per phase, kA
6 — Phase angle between E and I, Radians

Comparing equations (9.1) and (9.3):
_ R P + XQ
(9.4)
V
XP-RQ
5V = (9.5)
V
AV is the flicker voltage drop and 6V is the phase angle flicker. Since R is usually
small, AV is proportional to Q. Therefore, by increasing the reactive power Q by
providing shunt capacitors the voltage profile can be improved. The shunt capacitor
bank located at the low voltage bus can be tuned to any frequency to reduce the
effect of that particular harmonic. The phasor relations in the presence of capacitor
currents for a random load value are shown in Figure 9.4.
IS1N0
Figure 9.4 Phasor Diagram with Reactive Power Compensation
9.3 FLICKER CRITERIA
The permissible flicker voltage is difficult to state accurately because of the

involvement of several factors. One factor is the human element; one individual
may think objectionable a flicker not perceptible to another. The second factor of
considerable importance is the design of the filament lamp; various filaments
produce different amounts of flicker. The third factor is the percentage of voltage
change, and the frequency of change. The data for flicker must include all of these
factors [1-7]. The range of acceptable and objectionable flicker levels are shown in
Figure 9.5, from IEEE Standard 141 [6].

FREQUENCY OF FLUCTUATIONS^
Upper Curve = Threshold of objection, Lower Curve = Threshold of perception
Figure 9.5 Flicker Curve from IEEE Standard 141 [6]
The frequency of flicker levels due to various fluctuating loads is shown in Figure
9.6 which is from IEEE Standard 519 [7]. Depending on the load, the frequency
and magnitude of acceptable and objectionable flicker levels can be chosen. Some
definitions related to flicker are given below.
Flicker: The impression of fluctuating brightness of incandescent lamp due to the

variation on the magnitude of the supply voltage with frequency. The flicker level
is measured in terms of the percentage change in the supply voltage variation at 120
V level.
Phase flicker: The flicker effects caused due to the variation of the phase angle
between the supply voltage and load current.
Borderline of visibility: The luminance of the incandescent lamp at which the

flicker effect is just perceptible at a given repetition rate.
Borderline of irritation: The luminance of the incandescent lamp at which the

flicker effect causes irritation to the observer.
9.4 DATA FOR FLICKER ANALYSIS
Data from the existing arc furnace - In order to perform the flicker analysis of an
existing arc furnace the following data or measurements are required.
The arc furnace transformer taps position.

• Time domain waveforms of the voltage, current, power factor, real power and
reactive power at the given transformer tap position.
• System impedance data for the source, line or cable and the transformer.
Using the above data for the voltage fluctuations, the corresponding frequency can
be calculated and compared with the values from the industry standards to evaluate
if the flicker is acceptable or not.
Data for the planning studies - In the case of planning studies, the stimulated or
measured performance characteristic of the load or equipment is needed. Such data
are available from the manufacturer of the arc furnace equipment. The data include
the following:
• The arc furnace transformer tap position.

• Real power, reactive power, MVA, and the power factor of the arc furnace at
various operating load levels (example data are shown in Table 9.1).
• System impedance data.
9.5 CASE STUDY - ARC FURNACE LOAD
Two 20 MW electric arc furnaces, total of 40 MW are supplied from the substation
through a 230 kV overhead transmission line. The length of the transmission line
from substation to the arc furnace installation is 4 km. A one-line diagram of the
power system for the arc furnace is shown in Figure 9.7.
1
; ) i «j I i * I I 4 I4 | ji* >*
FLUCTUATIONS/HOOT; j FLUCTUTiTIOHS /MINUTE ' FLUCTUATIONS/S

j .i i .,1 i i
Figure 9.6 Flicker Curve from IEEE Standard 519 [7]

ESCUINTLA 230 KV
230 KV/22.8 KV
STEP DOWN
TRANSFOMER
22.8 KV BUS
STATION LOADS
FURNACE 1 FURNACE 2
Figure 9.7 Example Arc Furnace Installation
A 75 MVA, 230 kV/22.8 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase, wye/delta transformer is used to

supply the electric furnaces at the end of the 230 kV line. Each of the two electric
furnaces are supplied through a 27.10 MVA, 22.8 kV/440 V, 60 Hz, three-phase
furnace transformer. Each of these transformers are provided with seven tap-
changer positions as given below:
Tap Changer
V(Secondary) 433.5 430.5 389.1 359.0 309.8 257.8 215.1
By varying the position of the transformer tap changer, the output voltage can be
varied to the required values. There are two 2 MVA, 22.8 kV/0.44 kV, 60 Hz,
three-phase transformers (T4 and T5) supplying the station loads. Transformer T6,
with a rating of 1.5 MVA, 22.8 kV/2 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase, supplies power to an
oxygen plant. In order to reduce the harmonics caused by the arc furnace, a tuned
filter is installed as shown in Figure 9.7. The capacitors of the filter provide
significant reactive compensation to reduce the flicker effects. The impedance data
of the various power system components shown in Figure 9.7 are:

Z of source = (2.2096 + j 30.4436) Ohm/phase
Z of 220 kV line = (0.4088 +j 1.9216) Ohm/phase
Z of transformer Tl -9%
R of the filter = 0.0108 Ohm/phase
L of the filter = 10.9mH/phase
C of the filter = 72.6 MFD/phase
Z of transformer T2, T3 = 6.1%
The performance data of the arc furnace transformer tap-changer position 1 are
shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Performance Characteristics of an Arc Furnace
Item MW MVAR MVA PF

1 1.54 0.04 1.54 1
2 3.08 0.16 3.08 0.999
3 4.6 0.35 4.62 0.997
4 6.12 0.62 6.15 0.995
5 7.62 0.97 7.68 0.992
6 9.1 1.4 9.21 0.988
7 10.56 1.91 10.73 0.984
8 11.99 2.49 12.24 0.979
9 13.39 3.15 13.75 0.973
10 14.75 3.89 15.26 0.967
11 16.08 4.71 16.76 0.96
12 17.36 5.61 18.25 0.952
13 18.6 6.58 19.73 0.943
14 19.78 7.63 21.2 0.933
15 20.91 8.76 22.67 0.922
16 21.97 9.96 24.12 0.911
17 22.96 11.3 25.57 0.898
18 23.88 12.6 27 0.884
19 24.71 14 28.43 0.869
20 25.46 15.6 29.84 0.853

Similar data were used for other transformer tap-changer positions. Using the
furnace data, the voltage at the source is evaluated by solving equation (9.3). An
example is shown with the impedance values referring to a 230 kV system:
Z of source - (2.0296 + j 30.4436) Ohm/phase

Z of 230 kV line - (0.4088+j 1.9216 ) Ohm/phase
Z of transformer = (3.8770+j 58.0800) Ohm/phase
Z total - (6.3104+j 90.4453) Ohm/phase
The voltage drop at operating point 15 (see Table 9.1) of the transformer tap-
changer position 1 is calculated from equation 9.4 for P = 20.91 MW (6.97
MW/phase) and Q = 8.76 MVAR (2.92 MVAR/phase). The calculated voltage
drop is 2.3 kV and the corresponding percentage voltage drop is 1.7 %. The
calculated phase angle flicker 5V is 4.6 kV and the corresponding phase angle
change A5 is 1.9 degrees. The voltage drop at the 22.8 kV bus and the 230 kV bus
are calculated for the furnace operation without a compensator and with a 15
MVAR compensator. The frequency range of the voltage fluctuations for an arc
furnace load is (0.167 - 1.67) fluctuations/s (see Figure 9.6). From Figure 9.5, the
threshold of perception in percentage voltage change is (0.4% - 0.5%) and the
threshold of objection is 1.1%. The calculated percentage voltage changes at the
22.8 kV bus are plotted and the following ranges are identified:
• No flicker region.
• Border line of visibility.
• Flicker region.
The acceptable ranges of operation are the no flicker range and border line of
visibility. The calculated ranges are shown in Figures 9.8 through 9.10 for
various voltage tap positions of the arc furnace transformer.
Flicker due to one furnace without compensator - The flicker voltage drop at
the 22.8 kV bus at various load conditions and tap positions is shown in Figure
9.8. The flicker voltage drop due to the operation of the furnace alone without
capacitive compensation falls within the flicker region for all the tap positions
and load levels. The corresponding phase angle deviation is shown in Figure 9.9.
The phase angle deviation will not produce significant flicker.
The calculated flicker voltage drop at the 230 kV bus due to the operation of the
furnace alone is shown in Reference [4]. It can be seen that the furnace can handle
a maximum of 14 MW with tap-changer position 1 without exceeding the flicker
limits. Evidently, the arc furnace operating range is severely restricted if the flicker
limits are observed.

TAP:
TAP!
Figure 9.8 Flicker Voltage Drop at the 22.8 kV Bus; No Filters
TAP1
TAPZ
TAP 3
10 15 20 25
POWER, MW
Figure 9.9 Phase Angle Change at the 22.8 kV Bus; No Filters

Flicker due to one furnace with compensator - In order to operate the arc
furnace at the specified rating, a 15 MVAR capacitor compensator is installed at
the 22.8 kV bus as shown in Figure 9.7. The corresponding calculated flicker
voltage drop at the 22.8 kV bus is shown in Figure 9.10. Since appreciable
reactive power is supplied locally, the flicker voltage drop decreases at the 22.8
kV bus. The respective flicker voltage drop at the 230 kV bus is shown in
Reference [4]. The furnace can operate with a maximum power of 26 MW and
maintain acceptable flicker limits at the 230 kV bus.
Effect of two simultaneous furnace loads - A typical load cycle when two
furnaces operate simultaneously is shown in Figure 9.11. Arc furnace 1 operates
in the melting mode for about 100 minutes at three control settings. Then furnace
1 goes into the refining mode for a duration of 14 minutes. Simultaneously,
furnace 2 is switched into the melting mode. The real power, reactive power and
the demand MVA of both furnaces, the filter MVAR and the resulting total flow
at the 22.8 kV bus when both the furnaces are in operation are:
Figure 9.10 Flicker Voltage Drop at the 22.8 kV Bus With Filters
Equipment MW MVAR MVA

Furnace 1 8.0 4.0 8.9
Furnace 2 22.0 11.0 24.6
Filter 0.0 -15.0 15.0
Total 30.0 0.0 30.0

P-POWER.MW
Q-REACTIVE POWER, MVAR
30 S-MVA
S1
S1
P1
20
FURNACE 1 FURNACE 1 FURNACE FURNACE

LOAD 1 LOAD 2 LOAD 3 1 AND 2
10
20 40 60 80 100 120 140

TIME, MINUTES
PI, Ql = Power and reactive power of furnace 1

P2, Q2 = Power and reactive power of furnace 2
Figure 9.11 Load Pattern With Two Furnaces
The calculated flicker voltage change at the 22.8 kV bus is 0.49% per phase. This
flicker voltage change is within the flicker limits. The corresponding flicker voltage
drop at the 230 kV bus is 0.13% and this value is also within the allowed flicker
limits. Therefore, when both furnaces are in operation simultaneously, for the load
conditions shown in Figure 9.11, the flicker can be controlled within the allowed
limits.
Furnace operation limits - In order to limit the flicker to an acceptable value of

1.1% voltage drop at the 22.8 kV bus without capacitive compensators, the
following operational restrictions would apply. When only one furnace is in
operation, the maximum permissible operating power (P) and reactive power (Q)
levels that can be attained without causing flicker at the 22.8 kV bus are listed in
Table 9.2.

Table 9.2 P and Q Values at 22.8 kV Bus Without Causing Flicker
Tap Changer P,MW Q, MVAR
1 16.08 4.71
2 15.14 4.70
3 14.30 4.68
4 12.82 4.67
5 11.83 5.52
6 9.40 5.43
7 7.35 5.36
The above values correspond to the borderline of visibility. Any attempt to draw
more power by the furnace will produce flicker.
In order to limit the flicker to an acceptable value of 1.1% voltage drop at the 230
kV bus with capacitive compensators, the following operational limits apply. When
only one furnace is in operation, the maximum permissible operating power (P) and
reactive power (Q) levels that can be attained without causing flicker at the 230 kV
bus are listed in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3 P and Q Values at 230 kV Bus Without Causing Flicker
Tap Changer P, MW Q, MVAR
1 26.10 17.17
2 24.10 17.12
3 22.27 17.07
4 18.95 17.03
5 14.57 17.69
6 10.64 9.66
7 7.66 7.30
The above values correspond to the borderline of visibility at the 230 kV bus. Any
attempt to draw more power by the furnace will produce flicker. From this study it
can be seen that one furnace can be operated at over its intended range of load
levels without causing flicker at the 230 kV bus.

9.6 MINIMIZING THE FLICKER EFFECTS
The power and reactive power fluctuations cause flicker and can be compensated to
reduce the voltage fluctuations. In order to absorb the undesirable real power
swings, the use of a motor generator set, switching resistance or Superconducting
Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) system can be used. To control the reactive
power variations static var controllers are used.
Harmonic filter - In applications such as arc furnace, significant harmonics are

produced at various frequencies. If the dominant harmonic frequencies and
magnitudes are known, then tuned harmonic filters can be installed. With the tuned
harmonic filters both the power factor and harmonics are controlled together.
Motor-generator set - Any pulsed load real power requirements can be supplied
from a motor generator set operating as a buffer device between the power supply
and the pulsed load. These machines are equipped with large flywheels on the shafts
in order to store and discharge transient energy pulses. The generator can pick up
speed and store energy in the flywheel during the invert cycle of the pulsed load.
During the convert or rectify part of the cycle, the stored energy is released from the
flywheel and the generator speed falls. Thus, the storage and discharge of energy
through the flywheel generator on a regular basis ensures power fluctuations are not
transmitted to the utility side of the power system. The initial cost of the motor-
generator set including the installation is significant. Also, rotating machines need
considerable maintenance. Further, the running cost of the motor-generator set will
be appreciable and may include a full time operator attendance. Furthermore, the
reactive power requirements of the M-G set and the load must be supplied from the
utility or through shunt capacitors.
Switched resistance - The reverse power flow to the utility (from the load such as
an accelerator) can be absorbed by suitable switching resistances connected
between the phases and ground. The maximum power rating of the resistance bank
will be equal to the peak power during the negative cycle and the amount of energy
wasted will be significant. Further, the dissipation of the heat developed in the
resistance will need careful consideration.
Super conducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) - The major components of

a SMES unit are its super conducting coil, the non-conducting vessel, the cryogenic
system with its liquid helium refrigerator, the ac/dc converter and the control
system. The super conducting coil stores the energy Wm in its magnetic field
according to:

1 9
w m = -LI (9.6)
2
with L being the inductance of the coil and I the current through the coil. Energy
exchange between the coil and the ac system can be achieved through solid-state
converters. It may be possible to control both real power and reactive power
through the use of four quadrant converters.
A Static Var Controller (SVC) - Since the power factor and the voltage profile
change dynamically, thyristor switched capacitors are suitable for dynamic reactive
power compensation and power factor correction. These devices need minimum
maintenance and produce minimum harmonics. A typical SVC scheme is shown in
Figure 9.12. The filters can be tuned to mitigate the dominant harmonic frequencies.
The location of the SVC which can supply the required reactive power and perform
harmonic filtering should be close to the pulsed load which is the source of the
disturbances.
13.8KV/800V
C1...C4 - CAPACITORS
L1...L4 - INDUCTORS
-*-
1
Figure 9.12 SVC For a Fluctuating Load
9.7 SUMMARY
In this Chapter, the nature of fluctuating loads as the source of flicker is identified.
A mathematical model for flicker analysis is presented. Based on the industry
standards, the acceptable flicker levels are presented. A case study is presented for
an ac arc furnace load and the flicker calculations are shown. This approach can be
used for any type of flicker calculations. However, suitable judgement needs to be
used in using the flicker curve and the conclusions on specific installations.

PROBLEMS
1. Is it possible to control the flicker effects using static capacitors? Discuss the
limitations, if any.
2. The source impedance of a 230 kV system is (1.5 + J20.0) Ohm. The

impedance of the 230 kV line from the substation to the transmission line is
(0.2 + j 2.5) Ohm. The impedance of the arc furnace is (1.2 + j 120) Ohm. If
the P and Q flow to the arc furnace is 25 MW and 15 MVAR respectively,
calculate the flicker at 230 kV level at the point of common coupling. Is the
flicker level acceptable as per IEEE Standard 519?
3. If a second furnace is switched on in the refining mode with a load of 6 MW, in

addition to the arc furnace load in Problem 2, what is the resultant flicker
situation?
4. What is the difference between the ac arc furnace and the dc arc furnace?
Which one is more efficient? What are the other factors used in the selection of
the arc furnace?
5. Why are two flicker curves used in this book?
REFERENCES
1. F. D. Martzlaff, and T. M. Gruzs, "Power Quality Site Survey: Facts

Fiction, and Fallacies," IEEE Transactions on Industry and Applications,
Vol. 24, No. 6, December 1988, pp. 1005-1018.
2. B. Bhargava, "Arc Furnace Flicker Measurements and Control," IEEE

Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 8, No. 1, January 1993, pp. 400-
410.
3. S. Etminan, and R. M. Kitchin, "Flicker Meter Results of Simulated New

and Conventional TSC Compensators for Electric Arc Furnaces," IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 8, No. 3, August 1993, pp. 914-
919.
4. R. Natarajan, R. M. Bucci, M.A. Juarez, and U. Contreas, "Determination

of Flicker Effects due to an Electric Arc Furnace," Proceedings of the
American Power Conference, Vol. 56, April 1994, pp. 1830-1835.

5. R. Natarajan, R. M. Bucci, O. Ahmed, S. Mukherji and A. Soukas,
"Approach for Stabilization of a Large Non-Linear Load," Proceedings of
the American Power Conference, Vol. 56, April 1994, pp. 1214-1218.
6. IEEE Standard 519, IEEE Recommended Procedures and Requirements

for Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems, 1996.
7. ANSI/IEEE Standard 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for Electrical


10
INSULATION COORDINATION
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Power system transients are disturbances produced due to switching (energization,

de-energization, fault clearing, back up fault clearing and reclosing), induced
voltages, inrush currents, ferroresonance, loss of load, neutral instability and
lightning. The transients produce overvoltages, overcurrents and oscillatory
behavior. The overvoltages may damage the power system equipment due to
flashover through insulation breakdown. Usually a flashover will cause a temporary
tripping and reclosing operation. A permanent insulation damage will cause a
sustained power outage. Overcurrents can cause excessive healing and hence
possible equipment damage/tripping. The oscillatory type of transient may produce
power quality problems such as nuisance tripping, voltage notching, swings and
sags. Therefore, there is need to understand the switching transients in order to
provide reliable power delivery. Electrical transients can be studied using the
following approaches.
Direct solution - Using electrical equivalent circuits of the network, the integro-
differential equations are written. The equations are solved for closed form solution
in time domain. In the complex cases, Laplace transformation, Fourier
transformation and Z-transformation can be used to derive a time domain solution.
Once the transfer function is represented in an equation, then the time domain
solution can be calculated and plotted. This procedure is suitable for small
networks.

Analog models - Electrical circuit problems can be solved for both steady state and
transient state using an analog computer or Transient Network Analyzer (TNA).
This approach can be used for large-scale networks. Analog computers and TNAs
are expensive and require significant maintenance efforts.
Experimental measurements - The transients in certain electrical circuits can be

measured in the laboratory in the time domain or frequency domain using storage
oscilloscope, transient recorders, photographs or data acquisition systems. This
approach is suitable when the number of transients to be measured is few and the
nodes are close to each other.
Digital computer models - Several transient programs are available to perform

analysis of large-scale networks. The Electro Magnetic Transients Program
(EMTP) from the BPA is popular software and is used for both steady state and
transient analysis [1,15]. All the power system components such as resistance,
reactance, capacitance, transmission lines, cables, generator, transformer, circuit
breakers and lightning arresters can be represented by suitable parameters. Both
linear and nonlinear characteristics of various devices can be modeled. The
switching surge analysis is performed in order to evaluate the capabilities of various
power system components. In the switching surge studies, the voltages and currents
at various nodes/branches are studied in time domain. The input and the output data
can be stored for future references from a digital program. In this chapter, the
modeling and analysis of the switching transients are discussed. Some of the
important definitions used in the switching surge analysis are given below.
Overvoltage - Any time-dependent voltage between line and ground having a

peak value exceeding the corresponding peak value of the nominal system
voltage.
Overcurrent - Any time-dependent phase current having a peak value exceeding

the corresponding peak value of the nominal system current.
Switching surge - A phase to ground overvoltage at a given location on a system

due to any of the switching events such as energization, de-energization, fault
clearing or line reclosing.
Temporary overvoltage - A weakly damped phase to ground voltage of

relatively long duration. Usually, a temporary overvoltage originates from
switching operations, faults or load rejection.
Energization transient - A transient overvoltage resulting from connecting a

portion of the power system that has no stored energy to a potential source.

De-energization transient - A transient overvoltage resulting from
disconnecting a portion of the power system when there is no fault in the system.
Pre-insertion resistor - The resistor inserted in the closing cycle of a circuit

breaker to limit the switching surge overvoltages.
Fault clearing - When a fault (such as three-phase fault or a single line to ground
fault) occurs in a power system, the current or voltage in some parts of the system
exceeds the nominal values. The relaying identifies such condition and opens the
appropriate circuit breaker to clear the fault.
Back up fault clearing - When a fault occurs in a power system and the relay
close to the fault fails to act, then the relay in the next section acts and clears the
fault after a time delay. This is called back up fault clearing.
Reclosing - Usually a circuit breaker is open due to a relay action in response to

a fault. After a time delay the circuit breaker is allowed to close and provide
electric supply to the line. This is called reclosing. If the fault is temporary, the
circuit breaker will not open immediately again. If the fault is permanent, then the
breaker will open again.
10.2 MODELING OF THE SYSTEM
A one-line diagram of the given system is prepared for the switching surge study.
The components of the system are identified and the data are verified. The
following assumptions are made in the switching surge modeling and analysis:
• The power sources are ideal.
• The switched lines are considered to be unloaded, since such conditions exist
in the power system during initial energization and in the event of line outages
and subsequent restoration.
• The lines are not transposed.
Source - The model consists of the appropriate source impedances and an ideal ac
voltage source. The remote sources are represented by a Thevenin equivalent,
which is calculated from the three-phase short circuit current and single line to
ground fault current values as shown below:
X, =V ph /I scc . 3 (10.1)

la, = I s l g / 3 (10.2)
X, + X2 +Xo-V p h /I a l (10.3)
Where Xi = Positive sequence impedance

X2 = Negative sequence impedance
Xo = Zero sequence impedance
=
Iscc-3 Three-phase short circuit current
Isig = Single line to ground fault current
Vph = Phase voltage
It is assumed that X] = X2. Using a X/R ratio for the source, the equivalent source
resistance is calculated.
Example 10.1 - The three phase and SLG short circuit currents at a 138 kV
substation are 18,000 A and 15,000 A respectively. Calculate the source impedance
at the substation and represent the source by a suitable transient model.
Solution - The positive and zero sequence impedances are calculated below.
Phase voltage (138 kV/1.732) = 79.6766 kV

Vph 79.6766 kV
Xi = —— = = 4.4265 Ohm
18kA
Iscc-3
Vph 79.6766 kV
— = = 15.93530hm
(lslg/3) (15kA/3)
=
XO 15.9353 -(2x4.4265) = 7.0823Ohm
It is assumed that X] = Xi. Using a X/R ratio of 10, the positive and zero sequence
resistance values are calculated.
Rl - 0.4427 Ohm and RO = 0.7082 Ohm
The symmetrical component values of the source impedance at the substation is

represented as:
C <-BUS><-BUS> <-R->< L—>

51 GENA A1A 0.7082 7.0823
52 GENB A1B 0.4427 4.4265
53 GENC A1C
The source voltages of the equivalent generator are represented as a cosine wave

with a peak voltage. The phase angle used in the study provides a cosine wave and
the 120-degree phase shift between the phases. The starting time is given as a
negative value; the source is on at the start of the simulation. An example input data
for the model of a 138 kV, 60 Hz, three-phase source with a peak voltage of
fl
112.676 kV (rms line to line voltage x J~~ ) at the substation is given below:
C SOURCE VOLTAGES
C <BUS-xKAmplitude<Frequency<-TO:PhiO<—0=PhiO<-Ignore-><—Tstart<—Tstop
14 GENA 112.676 60. 180. 0. -1. 9999.
14 GENB 112.676 60. 60. 0. -1. 9999.
14 GENC 112.676 60. -60. 0. -1. 9999.
Transformer model - A saturable three-phase transformer is shown in Figure 10.1.

The primary is delta connected and the secondary is wye connected. The following
parameters are required:
Primary winding resistance = RI

Primary leakage reactance = Xi
Secondary winding resistance = Ra
Secondary leakage reactance = Xa
Primary phase voltage = Vi
Secondary phase voltage = Vi
In the case of the delta connection, the program requires that a path to ground be
provided. A floating delta is not allowed since the voltages are defined with respect
to ground. If a transmission line is connected to the delta side, the line charging
capacitance provides a connection to the ground; otherwise, a value of 0.003 micro-
Farads is used.
Example 10.2 - Consider a 50 MVA, 138 kV/25 kV, delta/wye transformer with a
reactance of 10%. The resistance is calculated based on a typical X/R ratio of 20.
Calculate a model for a transient analysis.
Solution - The required parameters are calculated on a 100 MVA base.
Base Z on 100 MVA base =(0.10)( 100/50) = 0.20 P.U.

X, = X2 -(0.20/2) =0.10 P.U.
Base Z of the 138 kV (1382 7100) = 190.44 Ohm
Base Z of the 25 kV (25 2 /100) = 6.25 Ohm
X of 138 kV winding( 190.44 x 0.10) = 19.04 Ohm
X of 15 kV winding (6.25x0.10) =0.625 Ohm
R of the 138 kV winding (19.04/20) = 0.952 Ohm

R of 25 kV winding (0.625/20) = 0.031 Ohm
X of the delta winding (primary) =57.12 Ohm
R of the 138 kV winding (primary) = 2.856 Ohm
RMS Voltage/phase on 138 kV side = 138 kV
RMS Voltage/phase on 25 kV side = 14.43 kV
To model saturation effects, the no-load characteristics of the three-phase, 50 MVA,

138 kV/25 kV transformer are based on typical data. The program needs the
saturation characteristics in terms of no-load current in kilo-Amperes versus flux in
kilo-Volt-second. In order to derive the required data, the "Saturation" program of
the software is used. The typical no-load characteristics of a transformer are given
below:
Current in P.T I Voltage i n P T I

0.0017 1.00
0.0020 1.04
0.0031 1.10
The saturation characteristics from the output of the transients program are:
Current^ kA Flux, kiln-Volt-second

0.00050295 0.2988675
0.00078349 0.3108222
0.00143710 0.3287541
The input data for the example transformer is shown below:
C POWER TRANSFORMER BETWEEN NODE PY AND NODE SY

C<--REQ—>REF.BUS<-—><ISS><-SI-><-BUS><-Rm>
TRANSFORMER .00050 .2988XFMRA 1.0E4
0.00050295 0.2988675
0.00078349 0.3108222
0.00143710 0.3287541
9999.
C<BUS-><-BUS> <~Rk-x-Lk-x»V->
1 PYA PYB 2.856 57.12 138.0
2 SYA 0.031 .625 14.43
C TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE B
TRANSFORMER XFMRA XFMRB
1 PYB PYC
2 SYB

VC
Figure 10.1 Delta/Wye Transformer for Transient Analysis
C TRANSFORMER FOR PHASE C

TRANSFORMER XFMRA XFMRC
1 PYC PYA
2 SYC
Model for transmission lines/cables - The transmission lines are represented by pi

models. Also, the lines can be represented by symmetrical components. A
numerical example for the symmetrical component model is presented below
between node Al and node A2:
C IMPEDANCE BETWEEN Al AND A2; LENGTH = 203 KM

C<-BUS><-BUS> <-R_-><-L~x-C--x-DIS>
-1 A1A A2A 0.26 1.015 .0077 203.
-2 A1B A2B 0.040 .318 .0119 203.
-3 A1C A2C
The pi circuit model - A transmission line can be modeled as pi circuits for

transient analysis. Depending on the length of the circuit and the desired accuracy
the number of pi circuits can be selected. If the line constants are available as
positive and zero sequence parameters, then the self and mutual impedance can be
obtained using equations (10.4) through (10.7):
1
X s = - ( X 0 + 2xi) (10.4)
1
Xm=-(Xo-Xl) (10.5)
1
Cs = -(C 0 + 2 Cl) (10.6)
1
Cm=-(C0-Cl) (10.7)

This model is useful for representing the transmission lines where the
energization transients affect the most. An example of a pi circuit impedance
between two nodes (Bl and B2) is shown below using the pi circuit model data:
C IMPEDANCE BETWEEN Bl AND B2 IN PI MODEL

C <-BUS><-BUS> <.R.-><-L-><-C-><-R-><-L--><-C-><-R-><-L--><-C-->
1 B1A B2A 23.01 114.12.124
2 BIB B2B 14.88 49.532.284 23.01 114.10 2.124
3 B1C B2C 14.88 49.532.284 14.88 49.532.284023.01 114.12.124
Similar models can be used for the cable sections.
Circuit breaker model - The circuit breaker is modeled as a time-controlled

switch, with specified circuit breaker closing timings. The following data are
required.
Bus m = Bus on one end of the circuit breaker

Bus n = Bus on the other side of the circuit breaker
Tclose = Closing time for each phase
Topen = Opening time for each phase
I margin = The current at which the breaker opens
I = Control parameter for monitor V or I
For the energization study, the circuit breaker closing and the opening times are
specified. For de-energization studies, the circuit breaker is closed to begin with and
the opening times are specified. An example circuit breaker model for energization
is shown below between nodes Cl and C2:
C CIRCUIT BREAKER
C BUS->BUS-><—Tclose<—Topen< le 1
CIA C2A 13.031E-3 9999999 0 3
C1B C2B 13.711E-3 9999999 0 3
C1C C2C 12.308E-3 9999999 0 3
Statistical switching - A statistical overvoltage study consists of up to 500 separate

internally generated simulations of a circuit breaker closing [2]. The peak voltages
for each closing operation are recorded and then processed statistically. The data for
a study contains three switches with closing times, which are random variables.
Such randomly closed switches are called statistical switches. These switches are
always initially open and close at appropriate random times as determined by the
switch parameters and never open again in a selected simulation. Time-dependent
switches, along with two dependent switches, are used to simulate a three-phase
circuit breaker. The closing time for each statistical switch is randomly varied
according to Gaussian or uniform distribution. Alternatively, a systematic switch
can be used with closing time varied between a given beginning and ending time in

steps, which are uniformly spaced. For power system circuit breaker, a time-
dependent statistical switch is more appropriate than a systematic switch. For a
time-dependent statistical switch, the closing time of three switches is:
Ta (close) = Tmean + Ta (random)

Tb (close) = Ta (close) + Tb (delay) + Tb (random)
Tc (close) = Ta (close) + Tc (delay) + Tc (random)
The data required for the statistical switching are mean closing time, standard
deviation, delay time for the dependent switches and the number of times the
closing operations are to be performed. A typical standard deviation value of 1.0 ms
for each of the three switches is used. The delay time between phase A to B and
phase A to C are taken as 0.0 ms and 0.5 ms respectively. A mean closing time of
13.0ms is used.
Shunt reactors - The extra high voltage overhead lines produce significant reactive
power due to the phase to ground charging shunt capacitance. Also, due to the
Ferranti effect, the open end of the overhead line experiences a higher voltage than
the sending end voltage and this may exceed the allowable voltage tolerances.
Therefore, shunt reactors are used to compensate the reactive power requirements
and to retain the open-end voltages within specified limits. A fixed or switched
reactor can be used from the operation point of view. Typical values of shunt
compensation range from 40% to 80%. However, in all the circuits the harmonic
resonance has to be assessed in all operating conditions. Further, the fixed reactors
can cause resistive and reactive power loss at all loading conditions. Based on these
considerations the required switchable and fixed reactors are chosen. The
calculation and modeling of a shunt reactor are illustrated through an example. An
example shunt reactor is shown in Figure 10.2 (a).
Example 10.3 - Consider a 100-mile-long three-phase overhead line for a 500 kV,
60 Hz, and three-phase transmission system. The line charging is 2.1 MVAR per
mile. What is the value of the fixed shunt reactor to compensate 20% of the line
charging? Present a model for the transient analysis.
Solution - The reactance and the resistance of the shunt reactor are calculated in
Ohms/phase.
The total line charging (2.1 x 100) =210 MVAR

Reactor MVAR (0.20x210 MVAR) = 42 MVAR

A1 A1
A2
L2
L1
Figure 10.2 Single Phase Representation of Shunt Reactor and Filter Bank
Reactor size on each end (42 MVAR/2) = 21 MVAR, 3 phase

2
XI = = 11, 904 Ohm
21
Using a X/R ratio of 500, the resistance of the reactor can be calculated as:
R = 11, 904/500 = 23. 808 Ohm
The model for transient analysis is given by:

C REACTOR IMPEDANCE BETWEEN LINE NODE Al TO GROUND
C<-BUS><-BUS>------------<-R-X-L — >
A1A 23.808 11904.
A1B 23.808 11904.
A1C 23.808 11904.
Capacitor or filter bank - Shunt capacitors are used in the power system for
power factor correction applications. The filter banks are tuned reactor and
capacitor combination used to correct the power factor and control the harmonics
simultaneously. Knowing the component ratings, such filter banks can be
modeled for the transient analysis. An example 4.9th harmonic filter bank with a
rating of 4.65 MVAR, 13.8 kV, 4.53 mH (1.708 Ohm) and 63.95 micro-Farad is
represented for transient analysis as follows between node Al and ground. A 5
harmonic filter bank circuit is shown in Figure 10.2 (b).
C SHUNT CAPACITOR BETWEEN LINE NODE Al TO GROUND

C<-BUSx-BUS>------------<-R~x_L»x-C»>
A1A 0.100 1.708 63.95
A1B 0.100 1.708 63.95
A1C 0.100 1.708 63.95
The capacitance value is expressed in micro-Farad and reactance is presented in

Ohms at 60 Hz.

Simulation of trapped charges - High capacity transmission lines of very long
distances have significant shunt capacitance. De-energization of such circuits leave
trapped charges in the lines. Also, during a single-line to ground fault clearing,
trapped charges are left in the line capacitances. Generally such charges are drained
through appropriate grounding equipment before performing any maintenance
operations. Automatic reclosing is used for fault clearing to maintain continuity of
service, system stability and to maintain equipment capabilities. Many times the
reclosing will be successful and the voltage interruption is avoided. However, the
trapped charges due to the line capacitance produce significant overvoltages.
In addition to the modeling of the physical elements, it is necessary to specify the

line initial conditions. Modeling of the trapped charges on a transmission line
during the high-speed reclosure is one such phenomenon [1-3]. For energizations, it
is assumed that the line is at zero potential (no trapped charge) and that the initial
current flow in the line is zero. For reclosing operations, it is assumed that typical
trapped charges are present on phases A, B, and C, equal to -0.9, -0.8, and 0.8 per
unit respectively. The trapped charges on a 345 kV line are shown below on P.U.
voltage between nodes SW and END.
C Trapped Voltages (at each end of the lines)

C<BUS-x-VOLT->
2 SWA -0.9
2 SWB -0.8
2 SWC 0.8
2 ENDA -0.9
2 ENDB -0.8
2 ENDC 0.8
C Circulating Current Loops
C<BUS-x-BUS>
3 SWA ENDA
3 SWB ENDB
3 SWC ENDC
Input and output data - The mathematical model/numerical data described above
for the various components are combined into a complete input file for the
switching surge analysis. The data is organized in the following manner:
• Time and frequency data.

• Linear circuit data including transformer and cable.
• Circuit breaker data.
• Voltage sources.
• Request for output node voltages.

The ASCII output file and the binary output files are utilized in preparing the
transient voltage magnitudes and the time-domain plots respectively.
10.3 SIMULATION OF SWITCHING SURGES
System used in the study - A case study is presented with a 345 kV source
represented at 1.0 P.U. A three-phase simulation circuit for the system is shown in
Figure 10.3. The parameters of the 203 km overhead line given at 60 Hz are:
Source & transformer impedance, Zi = ZQ ~ (6.75 + J127) Ohm

Line impedance, Zi - (0.04+J0.318) Ohm/km
Line impedance, ZQ — (0.26+j 1.015) Ohm/km
Charging capacitance, Ci = 11.86 nF/km
Charging capacitance, C0 = 7.66 nF/km
Perform the necessary insulation coordination studies in order to satisfy the

system requirements. To evaluate the effects of switching transients consider the
energize, de-energize, reclosing, fault clearing and back up fault clearing cases.
203 KM
*
Phase A
345 kV Line ENDA
Phase B
ENDS
ENDC
Figure 10.3 Three Phase Simulation Diagram with One Pi Circuit
10.3.1 Energization
First, a statistical switching is performed to identify the magnitude of the

overvoltages and the switching times. A total of 500 energizations are performed
and the probability distribution of the overvoltages is presented in Figure 10.4. It
can be noted that the switching energizations can result in overvoltages up to a
maximum of 2.1 P.U. for the example. The time at which the maximum
overvoltages are produced is identified and the energization case is simulated. In

Figure 10.3, the circuit breaker is closed and the transients at the circuit breaker,
the line junction and at the open end of the line are observed. The voltage
waveforms at the open end of the line are presented in Figure 10.5. It can be seen
that the waves are oscillatory. The voltage magnitudes are much higher than the
nominal.
100 200 300 400 500

Number of Runs
Figure 10.4 Statistical Energization Results
Effect of line models - The overhead line was modeled using various numbers of pi
circuits and the overvoltages were studied. Also, the symmetrical component model
was used in the energization study. The calculated overvoltages at both ends of the
line are listed in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1 Voltages in P.U. at Both Ends of the Line for Different Line Models
Model Vmax, CBEnd Vmax, Open End

One pi circuit 1.881 2.171
Two pi circuits 2.169 2.337
Four pi circuits 2.014 2.603
Eight pi circuits 2.102 2.873
1 6 pi circuits 2.238 2.663

Symmetrical component 1.790 2.083

-ENDA
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06

Time, s
Phase A
-ENDB
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.05 0.06
Time, s
Phase B
0.01 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time, s
Phase C
Figure 10.5 Voltages at the Open End of the Line During Energization
With sixteen pi circuits, the overvoltage magnitudes are the maximum. With two or
four pi circuit models the deviation in the result is not significant. With a
symmetrical component model the calculated overvoltages are much less than the pi
circuit model. These results are presented to show the sensitivity of the model
towards the output results.

Calculated overvoltages using different time steps - The overhead line was
modeled using eight pi sections and the overvoltage magnitudes were studied using
different time steps. The calculated overvoltages at both ends of the line are listed in
Table 10.2.
Table 10.2 Voltages in P.U. at Both Ends of the Line for Different Time Steps
Delta t Vmax. CB End Vmax, Open End
200 |j. second 2.159 2.773

100 |i second 2.119 2.836
50 n second 2.115 2.884
25 p. second 2.107 2.864
2 n second 2.102 2.873
From the calculated overvoltages, for delta t <50 microseconds, the results are
practically identical. With a time step of 100 microseconds the deviation become
noticeable, but the results are still acceptable.
10.3.2 De-energization
The circuit breaker is open in order to de-energize the lines. The breaker is opened
at a specific time and the electrical circuit opens at respective current zeros in
various phases. The voltage wave at the open end of the line is presented in Figure
10.6. It can be seen that the voltages go to the dc mode and line charges stay on the
lines. This is due to the presence of the charging capacitance of the transmission
lines. Another waveform of importance is the transient recovery voltage (TRV)
across the circuit breaker. The TRV waveforms are shown in Figure 10.7. The
maximum overvoltage and the TRV during de-energization are 2.1 P.U. and 2.5
P.U. respectively. If the TRV magnitudes exceed the circuit breaker allowed
ratings, then there may be a restrike at the circuit breaker blades.

0.06
Figure 10.6 Phase Voltages at the Line End
3.00 -r-
-*-A-A'
-*-B-B'
-•—C-C'
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Time, s
Figure 10.7 TRV Across the Circuit Breakers During De-energization
10.3.3 Reclosing
This is the process of reconnecting the three-phase source to the transmission line
with trapped charges in the line by closing the circuit breaker. Such an operation is
performed in order to minimize the time of discontinuity in the service. In this case
the lines are reclosed with -0.9, -0.8 and 0.8 P.U. voltages. The voltages at the open
end of the line are produced in Figure 10.8. The overvoltage magnitudes in the line
at the switch end and at the line end are listed in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3 Overvoltages in the Presence of Trapped Charges
Location Va, P.U. Vb, P.U. Vc, P.U.
At the switch end 1.272 2.164 2.413
Line end 1.442 2.839 2.784
From Table 10.3, it can be seen that the maximum overvoltage magnitudes due to
the presence of trapped charges are 2.839 P.U. The corresponding overvoltage
magnitude in the absence of trapped charges is 2.873 P.U.
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06

Time, s
Figure 10.8 Voltage Waveforms at the Line End During Energization with Trapped
Charges in the Line
10.3.4 Fault Clearing
It is assumed that a single line to ground fault occurs at one phase of the open line,
in phase A. The circuit breaker is open and the voltage waveforms are studied. The
phase voltages at the end of the line are illustrated in Figure 10.9. It can be seen that
the voltage of the faulted line is zero and the unfaulted lines have a maximum of 2.5
P.U. The circuit breaker TRY voltage waveforms are shown in Figure 10.10. The
maximum TRY is 2.4 P.U.

-BIDA
-BMDB
-BSIDC
Figure 10.9 Voltages at the Open Line During Fault Clearing
-A-A'
-B-B'
-C-C'
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time, s
Figure 10.10 TRV Voltages During Fault Clearing
A B
Source Fault
Breaker with Stuck Breaker
Delayed
Clearing
Figure 10.11 Circuit for Back up Fault Clearing
10.3.5 Back up Fault Clearing
Consider two lines connected to the source as shown in Figure 10.11. If there is a
fault at the open end of the line and the circuit breaker B fails to clear, then the
circuit breaker A is operated to clear the fault. Such an operation is called back
up fault clearing. The switching surge results are similar to the fault clearing
cases and are not shown.

10.4 VOLTAGE ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
Equipment overvoltage withstand capability is related to the magnitude and

duration of the overvoltages. The following types of overvoltages are considered.
Transient overvoltage - These are overvoltages caused by the switching operations

and last for a few milliseconds up to a few cycles. The switching surge voltage
withstand capability of the equipment is judged based upon the switching surge
withstand voltages specified in the applicable industry standards as identified
below.
Transformer C57.12.00 [6] BIL and switching surge

Shunt reactor C57.21.00[7] BIL and switching surge
Shunt capacitors IEEE Std 18 [12] BIL and switching surge
GIS C37.122 [8] BIL and switching surge
Circuit breaker C37.06 [11] BIL and switching surge
Circuit breaker TRY C37.09 [4] Circuit breaker TRY
Insulator BIL and switching surge
The allowed peak switching surge voltages are compared with the calculated
switching surge voltages. In all the cases, the peak switching surge voltage has to be
less than the allowed switching surge voltage.
Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV): The TRVs are the voltages measured across
the circuit breaker poles during opening. The severity of a TRV depends on both
the magnitude and the rate of rise of the voltage across the opening circuit breaker
poles. Based on ANSI Standard C37.09 [4], the allowable TRV values for various
circuits are given in Table 10.4.
Table 10.4 Allowable TRV Values as Per ANSI C37.09
Type of Capacitor Circuit Allowed Maximum TRV

Grounded shunt capacitor 2.0 P.U.
Unloaded cable 2.0 P.U.
Unloaded transmission line 2.4 P.U.
Surge arrester transient overvoltage capability and protective levels: The

surge arrester should have adequate protective margins. The maximum switching
surge sparkover voltage has to be higher than the calculated switching surge voltage
in all the cases. The calculated switching surge voltages for all the three-phases in
all critical locations and the TRV are compared with equipment capabilities. The
TRV of circuit breakers, switching surge sparkover voltage of surge arresters,

insulation and switching surge withstand capabilities of critical equipment are
presented in Appendix C.
10.5 INSULATION COORDINATION
Based on the switching surge study, an insulation coordination study can be

conducted for the 345 kV example system. The maximum switching surge voltages
and the corresponding surge voltage limitations for various equipment are listed in
Table 10.5.
Table 10.5 System Switching Surge Voltage Limitations
Switching Switching Related

Equipment BIL, kV Surge Surge Limit, ANSI
Voltage, kV P.U. Std.
Transformer 1175 975 2.4 C57.12.00
345 kV CIS 1050 1050 (*) 2.6 C37.122
Circuit breaker 1300 975 2.4 C37.06

TRY 2.4 C37.09
Insulator 1300 897 2.2
(*) - 3 microsecond test voltage
Base peak voltage of the 345 kV system = (V2/V3) 345 kV = 408 kV.
Switching surge limit, P.U. = switching surge voltage/Base peak voltage
Now comparing the switching surge overvoltage to the equipment withstand

capability, the insulation coordination can be performed.
Energization - The maximum overvoltages produced due to energization is 2.873

P.U. with 8 pi circuits. This voltage is very high compared to the allowed
equipment voltage of 2.2 P.U. Therefore, there is a need to reduce the switching
surge overvoltage and the approaches are discussed in section 10.6.
Reclosing: The overvoltages produced due to reclosing is 2.839 P.U. and exceeds
the switching surge capabilities of most of the 345 kV system equipment. As noted
above the approach to reduce the switching voltages with trapped charges are
discussed in section 10.6.

De-energization - The overvoltage produced due to de-energization is 2.1 P.U.
with a TRY of 2.5 P.U. The TRY values exceed the acceptable level of 2.4 P.U.
Therefore, some mitigation measure has to be applied to correct the situation.
Fault clearing - The overvoltage produced due to fault clearing is 2.5 P.U. with a
TRY of 2.18 P.U. These voltages are not acceptable.
Application of surge arrester to protect the equipment from overvoltages - A

264 kV surge arrester for the 345 kV system is selected based on the calculations in
List 10.1. As shown, this arrester can provide overvoltage protective margins well
within those recommended in ANSI Standard C62.22 [9]. The maximum switching
surge sparkover voltage level for this arrester is shown below:
Switching Surge
Arrester Size Discharge Voltage (on 145 kV Rase)
264 kV 614 kV (2.18 P.U.)
The surge arrester will conduct during energization, reclosing and whenever the
switching surge sparkover voltage exceeds 2.18 P.U. It should be noted that surge
arresters are often used even if the transient overvoltages are moderate, because of
the resulting risk reduction. Also, the surge arrester is very viable equipment in
handling the overvoltages due to lightning surges.
10.6 METHODS OF MINIMIZING THE SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
Many approaches are used to limit the switching transients at the source. Some of
the approaches used are application of synchronous closing, pre-insertion resistors,
pre-insertion inductors, shunt reactors in high voltage circuits and series inductors in
low voltage circuits. Some approaches are discussed below.
100 OHM ^^ 100 OHM
AUXILIARY SWITCH
TO SOURCE MAIN CONTACTS TO TRANSMISSION
Figure 10.12 Pre-insertion Resistance in One Phase with Auxiliary Switch

List 10.1 Lightning Arrester Selection Calculations for the 345 kV System
System voltage 345.00 kV, rms

Phase voltage 199.19 kV, rms
Multiplying factor (k) 1.05
Temporary overvoltage (TOY) 209.15 kV, rms
Select a lightning arrester with a rating of 264 kV, rms
Maximum continuous overvoltage (MCOV) 214.0 kV, rms
Front of wave impulse spark over voltage (FOW) 699.0 kV(l)
Maximum impulse sparkover voltage(LPL) 618.0 kV(l)
Maximum switching surge sparkover voltage (SPL) 530.0 kV
Insulation Capabilities
Dielectric strength of the equipment (BIL) 1300.0 kV
Chopped wave withstand (CCW= 1.15*BIL) 1495.0 kV
Switching surge sparkover voltage (BSL=0.69*BIL) 897.0 kV
Ratio = MCOV/TOV 1.02
The ratio is greater than unity and hence the arrester can handle the duty.
Protective Margin Calculations
PM(1)=CCW/FOW 2.14
PM(2)=BIL/LPL 2.10
PM(3)=SSL/SPL 1.69
The margins are above 1.15 and hence acceptable.
Check the Arrester Current
Flashover voltage 1410.00 kV
Surge impedance (typical value) 400.00 Ohm
IA=(2*1.2*FLV)/ZS 6.92 kA
Note: (1) - Based on standard values for the 264 kV arrester
Pre-insertion resistor in the circuit breaker - In extra high voltage applications

(230 kV and above) the circuit breakers are equipped with closing resistors in order
to control the energization transients. A typical circuit breaker with closing resistor
(per phase) is shown in Figure 10.12. During energization, the auxiliary switch is
closed first and the main circuit breaker contacts are closed with a delayed time.
Typical parameters used in the simulation of the 345 kV circuit breaker with a
closing resistor of 200 Ohms/phase are closing span of 5 ms and insertion time of 9
rns. The overvoltages produced with closing resistors in the circuit breaker are listed
in Table 10.6.

Table 10.6 Voltages Produced with Closing Resistors in the Circuit Breaker
Location
Va, P.U. Vb, P.U. Vc, P.U.
At the switch end 1.519 1.470 1.581
Line end 1.752 1.621 1.610
The maximum overvoltages at the line end without and with closing resistor in the
circuit breaker are 2.873 P.U. and 1.752 P.U. respectively. The transients with pre-
insertion resistor are within acceptable limits.
Pre-insertion inductor - In the capacitor switching applications, pre-insertion

inductors are used to control the energization transients. The inductor is bypassed
by closing the circuit breaker at (7 - 12) cycles after the switching. The inductor
offers a series impedance during the closing to reduce the inrush current of a
capacitor bank. The optimum size of the pre-insertion inductor is twice the value of
the system inductance, which is inversely proportional to the short circuit rating.
Also, the pre-insertion inductors are very effective in reducing the Rate of Rise of
Restriking Voltage (RRRV) in the capacitor circuits. These devices are very
effective in the back- to-back capacitor switching applications [10].
Series inductor - In the capacitor switching and substation short circuit current
reduction applications, series inductors are used. The approach to use a series
inductor in short circuit current reduction is discussed in Chapter 4.
Synchronous closing control - For this type of application, the circuit breakers are
timed on pole-by-pole basis using an electronic control circuit. Using such circuit
breakers, the poles are closed at receptive voltage zeros and this approach reduces
the energization transients significantly. In shunt capacitor banks and transmission
lines, synchronous closing is used effectively to control the high frequency
oscillations. For transformers and shunt reactors, the synchronous closing is used to
switch these devices at the voltage peaks in order to reduce the high magnitude,
heavily distorted inrush current associated with the magnetic circuits. The inrush
current can cause difficulties for the system protection and often require filtering of
harmonic components or time delays in protective relays. Peak voltage closing
would eliminate offset flux conditions and result in a smooth transition to
magnetizing current flow [10].

Shunt reactors - The switched or fixed shunt reactors are provided to absorb the
leading reactive power produced by the charging capacitance of the line. These
devices are placed at critical locations in order to control the var distribution. If the
reactors are placed at the line ends, then the energization transients are reduced
significantly. Also, the trapped charges at the open end of the unfaulted phases leak
through the shunt reactors to ground. The shunt reactors also help to reduce the
TRV across the circuit breaker [2].
10.7 CONCLUSIONS
The overvoltages produced due to line energization, de-energization, reclosing,

fault clearing and back up fault clearing are analyzed using the transient analysis
approach. The modeling methodology and the typical time domain waveforms are
presented. The approaches to reduce the transient overvoltages using various
methods are presented. The recent work on the switching transients [13] and
statistical switching [14] presents clear directions for EMTP simulations.
PROBLEMS
1. A power transformer with a specification of 50 MVA, 345 kV/66 kV, 60 Hz,

delta/wye, 8% impedance is to be modeled for transient analysis. Assume
suitable saturation characteristics and develop a model for a transient analysis.
2. Consider a power system with a 10 MVA transformer, 138 kV/12.5 kV,

delta/wye connected with 10% impedance. The three-phase short circuit rating
of the 138 kV system is 18 kA and the single line to ground fault rating is 16
kA. The power factor correction of the 12.5 kV feeder loads is to be performed
using a 5 MVAR, 12.5 kV, three-phase shunt capacitor bank. Conduct a fault
clearing study assuming a one line to ground fault at the capacitor bank. Find
the TRV and RRRV values. What is the effect of having a series reactor of 30
mH/phase on the TRV and RRRV?
3. The 345 kV power system used in the example study is to be equipped with
shunt reactors with a rating of 25% of the line charging MVAR. Calculate the
rating of the shunt reactors at the two ends of the line. Perform an energization
study and evaluate the effect of shunt reactors on the transient overvoltage.
4. Consider a 70 mile lone 138 kV transmission line terminated through a step

down transformer. The switching energization is performed using a 138 kV
circuit breaker. What are the overvoltage related issues in energizing a
transformer terminated line? What are the possible mitigating measures?
Assume necessary line parameters and transformer data.

REFERENCES
1. H. W. Dommel, Electromagnetic Transients Program Reference Manual

(EMTP Theory Book), Report Prepared for Bonneville Power
Administration, Portland, Oregon, August 1986.
2. C. J. Trusex, J.D.Brown, and W. Neugebauer, "The Study of Reclosing

Transients on a 765 kV Shunt Compensated Transmission Line," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.PAS-97, No.4,
July/August 1978, pp. 1447-1457.
3. IEEE Tutorial Course No. 81 EH0173-5-PWR, Digital Simulation of

Electrical Transient Phenomena, IEEE Service Center, Piscataway, NJ
08854.
4. ANSI/IEEE Standard 37.09, IEEE Standard Test Procedures for AC High

Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a Symmetrical Current Basis, 1998.
5. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.14, IEEE Trial Use Standard for Dielectric

Requirements for Power Transformers for Operation at System Voltages
from 115 kV Through 230 kV, 1982.
6. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.12.00, Standard General Requirements for

Liquid Immersed Distribution Power and Regulating Transformers, 1990.
7. ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.21, IEEE Standard Requirements,

Terminology, and Test Code for Shunt Reactors over 500 kVA, 1990.
8. IEEE Standard C37.122, IEEE Standard for Gas Insulated Sub-Stations,

1993.
9. IEEE Standard C62.22, IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal Oxide
Surge Arresters for Alternating-Current Systems, 1991.
10. D. W. Skeans, "Recent Developments in Capacitor Switching Transient

Reduction," T&D World Exposition, New Orleans, Paper No. TD 750-
504, March 30, 1998.
11. ANSI Standard C37.06, AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers Rated on a

Symmetrical Current Basis - Preferred Ratings and Related Required
Capabilities, 2000.
12. IEEE Standard 18, IEEE Standard for Shunt Capacitors, 1992.

13. D. W. Durbak, A. M. Gole, E. H. Camm, M. Marz, R. C. Degeneff, R.
P. O'Leary, R. Natarajan, J. A. Martinez, K. C. Lee, A. Morched, R.
Shasahan, E. R. Pratico, G. C. Thomann, B. Shperling, A. J. F. Keri, D.
A. Woodford, L. Rugeles, A. Sarshar, "Modeling Guidelines for
Switching Transients," Modeling and Analysis of System Transients
Using Digital Programs, IEEE Publication No. TP-133-0, IEEE
Operations Center, Piscataway, New Jersey, 1999.
14. J. Martinez, R. Natarajan and E. Camm, "Comparison of Statistical

Switching Results Using Gaussian, Uniform and Systematic Switching
Approaches," Power Engineering Society Meeting, Vol.2, pp. 884-889,
2000.
15. H. W. Dommel, Transient Program User's Manual, University of British

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, April 1986.

11
CABLE AMPACITY ANALYSIS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The power transmission capacity of an insulated cable system is proportional to the

product of the operating voltage and the maximum current that can be transmitted.
Power transmission systems operate at fixed voltage levels so that the delivery
capability of a cable system at a given voltage is dictated by the current carrying
capacity of the conductors. The delivery capability is defined as the "ampacity" of
the cable system. The operating voltage determines the dielectric insulation
requirements of a cable, while the conductor size is dictated by the ampacity rating.
These two independent parameters (insulation and conductor size) of the cable
system are inter-related by thermal considerations; a bigger conductor size (less I R
losses) results in higher ampacity, while increases in insulation material (lower heat
dissipation) results in lower ampacity. The parameters of great influence in
determining ampacity are the cable size, thermal resistivity of the soil, depth of
burial and the horizontal spacing between the circuits. The cables are designed to
operate within the prescribed operating characteristics as per the National
Electric Code (NEC). The analysis presented in the NEC [1] is based on the
Neher and McGrath method [2]. There are several computer-aided programs
available to perform the calculation of the cable ampacities. Also, the cable
ampacities are available in various standards, books and catalogs. However, such
data is not applicable to any other installation. Therefore, a site-specific analysis
is performed for each application.

There are several types of cable installations used in the power system applications.
The type of installation depends on the system voltage, MVA to be transmitted and
the distance of transmission. Some of the typical cable installations in use are:
• Cables in duct banks buried at a depth for low voltage applications.

• Concrete encased cable circuits.
• Low-pressure oil filled single conductor cable systems, for short lengths.
• Low-pressure oil filled three conductor cables for 20 kV through 69 kV.
• Medium pressure oil filled cable circuits.
• High-pressure fluid filled pipe type cables for high voltage applications.
• High-pressure gas filled cables for high voltage applications.
All the above-mentioned cable installations need site-specific ampacity calculations

and temperature rise evaluations to ensure safe operation.
11.2 THEORY OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat is dissipated by means of conduction, convection and radiation. The heat

transfer in a cable is mostly by conduction and can be modeled by means of an
equivalent circuit as shown in Figure 11.1.
(T2-T1)
Figure 11.1 Thermal Equivalent Circuit for Temperature Rise Calculations
From the basic heat transfer theory, the temperature drop ( A T) across a heat path
having a thermal resistance (Rth) is given by the Fourier Equation:
= WRth (11.1)
Equation (11.1) is analogous to Ohm's Law, where the voltage drop (Av),
corresponds to temperature drop ( A T), the current flow (I) corresponds to watts
flow (W) and the thermal resistance (Rth) corresponds to electrical resistance (R).
The analogous Ohm's Law is given by:
Therefore, in order to evaluate the cable temperatures, the heat loss components and

the thermal resistance of various layers in the heat conduction path have to be
identified. The thermal resistance (Rth) is:
KA
Where K = Thermal conductivity, Watts/meter-°C

A = Cross-sectional area, square meter
x = Thickness of the material, meter
The inverse of the thermal conductivity is the thermal resistivity (pth= 1/K) with unit
meter-°C/Watt. Then the thermal resistance can be calculated as:
P,hx
Rth = ^~ (11-4)
A
The corresponding electrical resistance (R) is given by:
R = PL
— (H.5)
where p is the electrical resistivity. If the conductor loss (We) can be expressed in
terms of the current (I) and the ac resistance (Rac) as per equation (11.6):
We = I2 Rac (11.6)
If Rth is the thermal resistance of the conductor at ambient temperature, then the
temperature rise associated with the conductor loss can be written as:
(Tc - Ta) = We Rth = (I2 Rac) Rth (11.7)
Then the ampacity of the conductor can be calculated using the equation (11.7) as:
(Tc-Ta)
1= (11.8)
V Rac Rth
The same principle can be applied to any cable conductor to calculate the ampacity
for the given circuit and ambient conditions. For one-dimensional heat flow
analysis, equation (11.1) can be used and the corresponding thermal equivalent
circuit is shown in Figure 11.2.

Tc Ri/2 Ri/2 Rs + Rms Ro Rp + Rpc T
! S A A A A A A A A A 13
Tp
We I Wd Ws Wp Tc-Ta
Figure 11.2 Thermal Equivalent Circuit for a Pipe Type Cable
Example 11.1 - A 230 kV system is used to transmit power from point X to Y

through a three-phase cable. The ac resistance of the system per phase (Rac) is 40
micro-Ohm/foot and the thermal resistance is 4 degree C.foot/Watt. Calculate the
MVA that can be safely delivered when the ambient temperature is 20 degree C and
Tc = 60 degree C.
Solution - Ta = 20 degree C Tc = 60 degree C

Rac = 40 micro-Ohm/foot Rth - 4 degree C.foot/Watt
T
f (60-20)
1 = = 500 A
(40xlO" 6 )(4)
MVA delivered = (1.732) (230 kV) (0.500 kA) = 199 MVA
Heat sources - The losses (heat sources) in the cable system are:
• Conductor I R loss (We).

• Dielectric loss (Wd).
• Shield loss (Ws).
• Pipe loss (Wp).
The procedure for the calculation of these losses is discussed below.
Conductor loss - When current passes through a conductor it produces the I R

losses which are converted into heat. This heat is dissipated through the cable
insulation, shield, dielectric fluid, pipe, pipe coating and the surrounding media (air
or water or backfill material). These losses are a function of load current. The
conductor resistance, which varies with temperature and the skin effect factor, are
taken into account in calculating the losses due to ac current [2].

1.02 Pc 234.5+ rc
=
Rdc —[ —] (11.9)
CI 234.5+ r0
where pc = Electrical resistivity of copper, circular mil-Ohm/ft

CI = Conductor size, circular inches
TC = Operating temperature, degree C
TO = Nominal temperature, degree C
Then the total conductor losses (We) per foot is given by:
Wc = 3I 2 Rd C (l+Y c ) (11.10)
Where Yc is the correction factor for the skin effect and eddy current losses. The
factor Yc is evaluated using the equations given in Reference [2]. Knowing the total
length of the cable circuit, the total copper losses can be calculated.
Dielectric Loss - In high voltage cables, the insulation of the cable is similar to the
dielectric in a capacitor with the ground acting as an electrode. When subjected to
an alternating current, the dielectric is charged and then discharged in every cycle.
Since the insulation is not a perfect dielectric, a small portion of this charging
energy is dissipated in the form of heat. The dielectric loss (Wd) per foot is
calculated as [2]:
0.00276 E 2 ef tan 0
Wd = 7 N— v(11-11)
' 2 T +D A '
log
10 D
c
where E = Phase voltage to ground, kV

8f - Dielectric constant
tan 0 = Dissipation factor of dielectric material
T = Thickness of the insulation, inches
Dc = Diameter of the conductor, inches
The dielectric losses vary as the square of the voltage and are not a function of the
load current. Typical dielectric constants and dissipation factors for various
insulation materials are presented in Table 11.1.

Table 11.1 Typical Dielectric Constant and Dissipation Factors
Insulation Dielectric Constant Dissipation Factor

Impregnated paper 3.3-3.7 0.002 - 0.0025
Laminated paper 2.7-2.9 0.0007 - 0.0008
XLPE 2.1-2.3 0.0001-0.0003
PE 2.5-4.0 0.002-0.08
Example 11.2 - In a 345 kV, 60 Hz, 2500 kcmil shielded cable conductor system,
the insulation thickness is 1.035 inch. The dielectric constant of the material is 3.5
and the dissipation factor is 0.0027. The diameter of the conductor is 1.824 inch.
Estimate the dielectric loss per foot for the cable.
Solution - Diameter of the conductor = 1.824 inch

Outer diameter of the dielectric (1.824" + (2)(1.035")) - 3.894 inch
>-\
0.00276 — (3.5)(0.0027)
Dielectric loss = - 3 . 1 4 Watts/foot
3.894
log,
10 i L824
Shield loss - The shield is used in high voltage cables to prevent excessive voltage
stress on voids between conductor and insulation. In other words, the shield is
provided to confine the dielectric field within the cable. The shield losses are a
function of the load current and are due to eddy current and hysteresis losses. If the
shield is grounded at more than one point, the hazard due to the induced voltage rise
is minimized. However, a circulating current occurs in the shield producing
additional I R losses and heat. For a three-phase system of cables installed in an
equilateral position with spacing S between the cables, the total losses are given by
the following:
P2+Q2+2
W s = 31 R s (11.12)
2(P2+2)(Q2+1)
Where, Rs = Resistance of the shield, micro-Ohms/foot
P
Rs (11.13)
rm
I = Phase current, A
Xm = 52.92 log (S/rm), Micro-Ohms/foot

rm = Mean radius of the shield, inch
P = Rs/Yand Q = Rs/Z
Y =X m +15.93and Z = X m -5.31
There are other methods of calculating the shield losses based on different
assumptions and one such approach is described in Reference [2].
Pipe loss - The pipe or conduit is a cylindrical envelope around the cables, carrying
the dielectric fluid. Since the three-phase cable is installed in a magnetic conduit,
eddy current and hysteresis losses are produced in the pipe. The equation for the
pipe losses (Wp) per inch due to a balanced three-phase system with three
conductors is given by [2]:
Wp =0.055 I2 DiQ (11.14)
Where Di = Internal diameter of the pipe, inches

Q = Factor from Table V of Reference [2]
Therefore, knowing the cable current and mean pipe diameter, the total pipe
losses are calculated.
Total Loss - The sum of the conductor loss, dielectric loss, shield loss and the pipe
loss gives the total loss in a cable installation. The calculated load components are
used to evaluate the temperature rise in the cable circuit.
11.3 THERMAL RESISTANCES
The heat generated by the losses in various components is conducted through the
thermal resistances. In Figure 11.2, the thermal resistance components are shown
for a typical cable installation. The thermal resistances are for the cable insulation,
the jacket, the air space in the conduit, the conduit, the concrete and the surrounding
earth. The thermal resistance is equivalent to the thermal Ohm-feet and has the unit
of degree C-feet/W. The thermal resistance components are described below.
Insulation resistance - The cable insulation is a good thermal insulation as well as

an electrical insulation. Some of the material used as the cable insulation are
polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), cross linked polyethylene (XLPE),
ethylene propylene rubber (EPR) and polypropylene film laminated to paper. It
offers a resistance Ri to the heat generated by the conductor due to the I R losses
and partly to the dielectric losses. The thermal resistance (Rth) of a cylinder (see
Figure 11.3) is given by:

r1 = Inner Radius
r2 = Outer radius
L = Length
Figure 1 1 .3 Cylinder for Thermal Resistance Calculation
in*
<1U5)
Where K is the thermal conductivity of the material expressed in W/cm-degree C,

r2 and rl are the outer and inner radius respectively and L is the length of the
insulation material. The thermal resistivity of various materials used in the cable
construction and installation are presented in Table 1 1.2.
Table 1 1.2 Thermal Resistivity of Various Materials used in Cable Circuits
Material _ Degree C-Cm/Watt

Insulations
Ethylene propylene rubber 400
Solid paper 700
Other papers 500 to 550
Cross linked polyethylene 350
Rubber 500
Varnished cambric 600
Coverings
Jute and braid 500
High density polyethylene 350
Polyvinyl chloride 500
Neoprene 600
Duct Materials
Fibre 460
Plastic 550
PVC 700
Tile 100

Cable jacket resistance - The heat generated by the conductor, dielectric and the
shield flow through the thermal resistance offered by the jacket. The resistance of
the jacket depends on the material used (PVC, polyethylene), the thickness of the
jacket and the cable diameter.
Resistance between cable and conduit - The air space between the cable and the
conduit is usually surrounded by the air medium and offers a resistance to the heat
flow. The resistance value depends on the cable diameter, conduit diameter, the
number of conductors in the conduit and ambient temperature of the medium.
Resistance due to cooling oil - Sometimes, the cables are installed in a pipe
surrounded by a cooling oil circulated under pressure. The thermal resistance value
depends on the cable and pipe diameters and the type of cooling oil.
Thermal resistance of the backfill material - The low voltage cables are buried
in backfill materials. Such arrangement provides a different thermal resistance to the
heat flow.
Thermal resistance between the conduit and the earth - The final thermal
resistance to the heat flow to the earth is between the conduit and the earth. The
thermal resistivity of the soil and the depth of burial have a greater influence on the
numerical value of the thermal resistance.
11.4 TEMPERATURE RISE CALCULATIONS
Using the thermal analysis of the cable (see Figure 11.2), the total losses in the
system due to the conductor I2R, dielectric, shield and pipe losses are calculated for
the desired length of the cable circuit. Also, the thermal resistances of all the
relevant layers involved in the heat dissipation are calculated as explained above.
In the thermal equivalent circuit, the heat sources are We, Wd, Ws and Wp. The
thermal resistance Rx corresponds to the medium surrounding the pipes; air or
water or thermal backfill material. For the temperature rise calculations an
appropriate medium surrounding the cable pipe is selected. Using the basic
principle outlined in equation (11.1), the temperature values at the pipe (Tp), shield
(Ts) and at the conductor (Tc) are calculated from the thermal equivalent circuit
shown in Figure 11.2, using the following equations:
Tp = Ta + (We + Wd + Ws + Wp)(Rp + Rpc + Rx) (11.16)
Ts = Tp + (We + Wd + Ws)(Rs + Rms + Ro) (11.17)

Tc = Ts + Wd(0.5*Ri) + Wc*Ri (11.18)
The temperature calculations in the presence of various media surrounding the cable
pipe are discussed below.
Effect of multiple conductors in the cable circuit - Usually three cable

conductors are used in the circuit in a three-phase system. In order to reflect this,
the values of thermal resistance of the jacket, the air space in the conduit, the
conduit resistance and the earth resistance are tripled. This yields the same
temperature rise as tripling the heat flow through the resistances, since the resistance
to obtain the temperature rise multiplies the heat flow. Depending on the type of the
cable circuit, the thermal resistance calculations are used accordingly.
When several cable circuits are installed adjacent to each other, the temperature
rise of each circuit is affected by the mutual effects. The solution involves the use
of simultaneous equations since the ampacity of the cable circuit installations
depends on the current through each cable circuit. It can be seen that the ampacity
of the cables located in the center of the installation will be less than the ampacity of
the cables located on the top. Therefore, the computer-aided approach is used in
the calculation of the ampacity of large number of cable circuits.
Cable installation - The cables are usually installed under the surface for all the
urban applications involving the distribution systems. In generating stations and
certain other applications, the cables are installed in the aerial trays. In the under-
the-surface burials the following are commonly used:
• Directly buried cables in low voltage applications.

• Buried underground using ducts.
• Buried underground using concrete encasings.
• Underwater submarine cables.
Figure 11.4 shows the directly buried three cables and directly buried using cables
in the duct bank in the concrete. In several applications the number of cables placed
close to each other interact causing temperature rise on other cable circuits.
11.5 DATA REQUIREMENTS
The data required for the cable ampacity calculations and the temperature rise are
discussed below. The data are related to the system, duct bank, cable location,
cable construction and installation.

Earth
Protective Barrier
(A)
Backfill
O 0 0
Concrete
(B)
Duct
with Three
Figure 11.4 Directly Buried Cable (A) and Buried Cable Using a Duct (B)
System data - The basic system data identifies the system voltage, frequency
and the ambient conditions.
• System voltage, kV.

• System frequency, Hz.
• Ambient temperature, degree C.
• Soil thermal resistivity, degree C-cm/W.
Duct bank or backfill data - The duct bank data provides the coordinates of the
cable locations. The required data are (refer to Figure 11.5):
• Left X coordinate (Xi), inch.

• Right X coordinate (Xr), inch.
• Top Y coordinate, (Yt), inch.
• Bottom Y coordinate (Yb), inch.
• Thermal resistivity, degree C-cm/W.
Conduit and cable location data - The number of conduit locations and the
corresponding coordinates are required.
• Number of conduit/pipe location.

• Location number and the X and Y coordinate.

t 1k
^
Yt
Y >f
Yb
1"0 "0 \1 Backfill
"" ^s_*|
* Xr J
Figure 11.5 Cable Locations for the Data Preparation
Conduit and pipe data - The conduit and the pipe dimensions are required in
the loss calculations and the temperature rise calculations.
• Number of conduit/pipe types.

• Material type (steel, PVC, etc).
• Thermal resistivity of the pipe, degree C-cm/W.
• Nominal diameter of the pipe, inch.
• Outer diameter of the pipe, inch.
• Wall thickness of the pipe, inch.
• Coating thickness, inch.
• Thermal resistivity of the coating, degree C-cm/W.
Conductor data - The conductor and the cable-related data are identified as
below.
• Conductor type.
• Conductor size, kcmil.
• Electrical resistivity, cmil.Ohm/ft.
• Temperature for electrical resistance, degree C.
• Zero of temperature coefficient of resistance, degree C.
• Skin effect correction factor.
• Relative transverse conductance factor.
• Diameter of the conductor, inch.
• Diameter over conductor screen, inch.
• Dielectric constant.
• Dissipation factor.
• Thermal resistivity, degree C-cm/W.
• Thickness of insulation, inch.
• Diameter over insulation, inch.
• Diameter over insulation screen, inch.
• Diameter over sheath bedding, inch.

• Electrical resistivity of sheath, cmil. Ohm/ft.
• Temperature at which resistance is given, degree C.
• Zero of temperature coefficient of resistance, degree C.
• Thickness of sheath, inch.
• Diameter over sheath, inch.
• Thickness of jacket or cover, inch.
• Diameter over conductor jacket/cover, inch.
• Thermal resistivity of jacket/cover, degree C-cm/W.
Cable circuit data - The data of the cable circuits are identified next.
• Number of circuits in duct bank.

• Circuit number.
• Operating voltage line to line, kV.
• Current per phase, A.
• Load factor.
• Number of conductors in pipe.
• Constant A (Table VII) for tRsd calculation from Reference [2].
• Constant B (Table VII) for tRsd calculation from Reference [2].
• Constant C (Table VII) for tRsd calculation from Reference [2].
This procedure is repeated for other cable circuits.
11.6 SPECIFICATIONS OF THE SOFTWARE
The cable ampacity program is prepared to assist the evaluation and design of
practical underground systems. The programs are available to support different
cable types ranging from single conductor and pipe type to three-phase cables.
There are different types of installations such as air media, water media, back-fill
conditions and duct banks. The program has to identify each cable with its own
installation and cable types. In certain studies at the beginning of the project, there
may not be enough data and the program has to offer default dimensions and data to
perform preliminary calculations. Also, the cable parameters are very tedious to
input and sometimes, a library data may be helpful in preparing or editing the
needed data for the analysis. Offering a complete library of cable data is a very
extensive effort. The steady state and transient results are always useful. The steady
state results are always in the tables, while the transient results are in the graphic
form.
The ampacity calculations are time-consuming because of the large number of

parameters linked to the systems and are sensitive to certain parameters. Some of
the sensitive parameters are site-specific such as the depth of burial and spacing

between the cables. The cable construction constants such as conductor material,
skin effect parameters, dielectric loss factors, effect of insulation screens, the effect
of sheath, the effect of jacket, pipe coating and skid wire need careful consideration.
In terms of installation, the program has to offer options to select directly buried
cables, earth modeling in terms of resistivity, moisture mitigation, cables in duct
banks and cables in air taking into account the solar radiation. The effect of heat
sources in the nearby locations need to be accounted for.
There are cable ampacity programs available for the transient analysis as well. In
summary, these programs can be used to evaluate the following:
• Time domain analysis of the cable ampacity.

• Solve for the temperature given the ampacity and time.
• Solve for the time given the ampacity and temperature.
• Ampacity as a function of temperature.
• Ampacity as a function of time.
• Temperature as a function of time.
• Temperature of the conductor, insulation, oil and the pipe.
• Temperature calculations for a group of cables.
Some of these programs can display the conduit or pipe location drawings and the
outputs in the graphic format.
11.7 EVALUATION CRITERIA
Steady state analysis - The steady state thermal analysis results include the
maximum possible ampacities with the maximum desired temperature limits that
can be set on unequally loaded cables. The program has to calculate the conductor
temperatures when the cable ampacities are specified. Also, the steady state cable
ampacities are to be calculated while the current through the other cables are
known. Usually, the normal rating, short-term emergency rating and long-term
emergency rating of a cable are used in the utility applications. The later ratings are
developed by the utilities based on their own program or by measurements. For
definitions of these terms, see Chapter 3. The normal and emergency temperatures
of the conductor for various cables are presented in Table 11.3.

Table 11.3 Normal and Emergency Temperatures of the Cable Conductor
Conductor Temp, Degree C
Insulation Construction kV Normal Emergency
Paper Single conductor 5 85 105
13 80 100
Three conductor 15 80 100
Shielded 25 75 95
Paper Belted 5 85 96
13 75 87
15 75 87
25 67 82
Varnished cambric Single conductor 5 72 72
15 77 77
23 62 62
Varnished cambric Belted 5 70 70
15 60 60
23 52 52
Rubber Single conductor <5 60 75
Heat resistant rubber Single conductor <5 75 85
Polyethylene Single conductor <35 75 90
XLPE Single conductor <35 90 130
[1] - Cable manufactured in 1960s
Transient analysis - In order to accommodate the transient analysis, during

contingency planning several options are required in the time domain. These
include the calculation of current in the time domain, overload effects in the
transient time and calculation of maximum sustained current for the given
temperature limit. In some of these calculations, the installation parameters play a
dominant role in determining the optimum performance of a cable system. There is
no analysis presented in this document of this scope.
An example is presented to show the computer-aided analysis of the cable ampacity

calculations. In this example, the input data and the output of the program are
presented and discussed.
Example 113 - Calculate the cable ampacity of a three-phase 132 kV system when

operating very near to another three-phase 132 kV cable. The dimensions of the
cable, pipe and the location details are given. Prepare the input data in a systematic
manner and present the computer program output.
Solution - The input data is prepared in a systematic manner and the data are
presented on an item-by-item basis.
List 11.1 Program Input Parameters for the Cable Ampacity Calculations
******** SYSTEM PARAMETERS

132 kV Cables - Example
System voltage =132 kV
System frequency = 60 Hz
Ambient temperature = 1 2 degree C
Soil thermal resistivity = 300 degree C-cm/W
Left X coordinate =-10.0 inch

Right X coordinate = 24.2 inch
Top Y coordinate = -6.0 inch
Bottom Y coordinate = -45.0 inch
Thermal resistivity = 80 degree C-cm/W
******** CONDUIT/CABLE LOCATIONS

Number of conduit/pipe locations =2
Location Number 1
X Coordinate = 0.0 inch
Y Coordinate = -38.0 inch
Location Number 2
X Coordinate = 17.0 inch
Y Coordinate = -38.0 inch
******** CONDUIT AND PIPE DATA

Number of conduit/pipe types =1
Material type = Steel
Thermal resistivity = 0.0001 degree C-cm/W
Nominal diameter =6.5 inch
Outer diameter =6.501
Wall thickness =0.001 inch
Coating thickness =0.001 inch
Thermal resisivity of coating = 0.001 degree C-cm/W

******** CONDUCTOR DATA
Conductor description = 300 sq.mm copper
Insulation type = XLPE
Conductor size = 592.1 kcmil
Electrical resistivity = 10.60 cmil.Ohm/ft
Temperature for electrical resistance = 20 degree C
Zero of temperature coefficient of resistance = 234.5 degree C
Skin effect correction factor =1
Relative transverse conduct, factor =1
Diameter over conductor = 0.832 inch
Diameter over conductor screen = 0.902
Dielectric constant =2.5
Dissipation factor =0.001
Thermal resistivity =355 degree C-cm/W
Thickness of insulation = 0.906 inch
Diameter over insulation = 2.713 inch
Diameter over insulation screen = 2.719 inch
Diameter over sheath bedding =2.87 inch
Electrical resistivity of sheath = 132.3 cmil.Ohm/ft
Temperature at which resistance is given = 20 degree C
Zero of temperature coefficient of resistance = 236 degree C
Thickness of sheath =0.118 inch
Diameter over sheath =3.106 inch
Thickness of jacket or cover =0.171 inch
Diameter over conductor jacket/cover = 3.449 inch
Thermal resistivity of jacket/cover =555 degree C-cm/W
******** CABLE CIRCUIT DATA

Number of circuits in duct bank =2
Circuit number 1
Operating voltage line to line = 120.0 kV
Current per phase = 500 A
Load factor =1
Number of conductors in pipe =3
Constant A (Table VII) for tRsd calculation = 0.0001
Constant B (Table VII) for tRsd calculation = 2.3
Constant C (TableVII) for tRsd calculation = 0.024
Circuit number 2
Operating voltage line to line = 120.0 kV
Current per phase = 400 A
Load factor =1
Number of conductors in the pipe =3
Constant A (Table VII) for tRsd calculation = 0.0001

Constant B (Table VII) for tRsd calculation =2.3
Constant C (Table VII) for tRsd calculation = 0.024
A cable ampacity program was used in the calculations and the output of the
program is presented below.
List 11.2 Program Output for the Cable Ampacity Calculations
CABLE AMPACITY PROGRAM - EXAMPLE 132 KV SYSTEM

(Edited Version of the Program Output)
Loss Calculation Results
Ckt --—Location— We Wd Ws Wp Wcab Rac(Tc) dTint

# # X(in) Y(in) W/ft W/ft W/ft W/ft W/ft //ohm/ft Deg.C
1 1 0.0 -38.0 5.82 0.07 0.82 0.00 6.71 23.29 15.71
2 2 17.0 -38.0 3.60 0.07 0.53 0.00 4.21 22.52 25.06
Thermal Resistance Calculation Results
Ckt tRi tRj tRsd tRd tRep

# TOP TOP TOP TOP TOP
1 2.2909 0.3011 0.0000 0.0000 5.7741
2 2.2909 0.3011 0.0000 0.0000 5.7741
Calculated Adjustment Factors
Ckt Yc Ys Yp qe qs
1 0.0260 0.1439 0.0000 1.1403 1.1403
2 0.0278 0.1518 0.0000 1.1477 1.1477
System Data
Ambient temperature = 12.0 degree C

Thermal resistivity of soil = 300.0 degree C.cm/W
Thermal resistivity of duct bank/Backfill = 80.0 degree C.cm/W
System voltage, line to line = 132 kV
System frequency = 60 Hz

Cable Coordinate Locations
Duct bank/Backfill Coordinates in inches

LeftX: -10.0 Right X : 24.2
T o p Y : -6.0 Bottom Y: -45.0
Temperature Rise Calculation Results
Ckt Conductor Type Locn. Load Cond. Load Duct

# Description No. Fact. Deg.C A KV MVA Deg C
1 300mm2CuXLPE 1 1.00 81.9 500 120.0 103.9 66.4
2 300mm2CuXLPE 2 1.00 70.9 400 120.0 83.1 61.3
The calculated temperature rise of the conductor and the duct are given in the
summary along with the current and MVA rating of the cable. Based on the analysis
criteria, the applicability of the cable can be assessed. The location of the duct bank
and the respective coordinates are shown in Figure 11.6.
t
38"
#1 #
t \.
6"
^
f
A
45"
^N VN
1 ^"^ Backfill ^^ 1
tf.
^ <----^
1 Q"±
9 ,
< 24.2" ^j
Figure 11.6 Duct and Cable Locations for Example 11.3
PROBLEMS
1. What are the sources of heat in a pipe type cable? If the cable is directly buried
in backfill material, then identify the heat loss components.
2. What are the thermal resistance components responsible for the temperature
rise in a directly buried cable?
3. Is it desirable to leave the cable circuits just on the surface of the earth without
any support or backfill material? Explain.

4. The nominal diameter of a 25 kV, 1000 kcmil cable over the conductor is
1.117 inches. The diameter over the insulation is 1.845 inches. Assume that the
insulation is EPR and the power factor of the material is 0.0029. Calculate the
dielectric loss per foot. State the assumptions made.
5. 600 MW power is to be transmitted between two substations using a 3-phase,

345 kV, 60 Hz, cable circuit. The resistivity of copper conductor is 10.63
circular mil-Ohm/feet. The ambient temperature is 16 degree C. The dielectric
constant of the insulation material is 2.3. The dissipation factor of the dielectric
is 0.0095. The resistivity of stainless steel is 435 circular mil-Ohm/feet. The
spacing between the cables is 3.4 inches. Calculate the loss components and the
total loss per foot. The conductor related data are:
Ttem Inner Diameter Outer Diameter

Conductor - 1.74"
Conductor screen 1.74" 1.81"
Insulation 1.81" 3.10"
Insulation screen 3.01" 3.04"
Shield bedding 3.04" 3.05"
Shield 3.05" 3.06"
Cover 3.06" 3.08"
Skid wire 3.08" 3.28"
Pipe 7.88" 8.63"
Pipe coating 8.63" 8.88"
REFERENCES
1. National Electric Code, 1999.
2. J. H. Neher, and M. H. McGrath, "The Calculation of the Temperature Rise

and Load Capability of Cable Systems," AIEE Transactions, October 1957, pp.
752-772.

12
GROUND GRID ANALYSIS
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In a balanced three-phase power system, there will not be any ground currents
during normal operation. However, in the event of system faults, there will be
significant currents through the neutral conductors and ground paths. Such fault
currents tend to increase the voltage on the surface of the substation and equipment
connected to the substation. In order to limit the voltage rise on the surface and
equipment, loops of ground grids are introduced below the surface of the soil. The
ground grids are designed to limit the voltage on the surface and on the equipment.
The allowable touch and step voltages in a substation area, and the ground grid
design to limit the step and touch voltages are discussed in this Chapter. Since the
ground grid design and evaluation procedure involves significant mathematical
background, computer programs are used to perform such calculations. The
required input data and the output data available from such programs are also
discussed in this Chapter. The acceptable step and touch voltages are calculated
based on the IEEE standard 80 [1]. The objective of a ground grid design is to limit
electric shock related accidents. The circumstances leading to the shock accidents
are:
• Relatively high fault current to ground.
• High soil resistivity.

• Presence of a person connecting two points of high potential difference.
• Absence of sufficient contact resistance or other series resistance to limit

current through the body to a safe value.
• Duration of the fault and body current for a sufficient time to cause harm at
the given current intensity.
12.2. ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
Allowable limits of body current - The safety issues under study depend on the
magnitude and duration of the current flowing through the vital areas of the body.
The threshold of perception is generally agreed to be at current flows of about one
mA. Higher currents of the order of 9 to 25 mA may be quite painful and may
result in lack of muscular control sufficient to make it difficult to release an
energized object held by the hand. For greater current, muscular contractions may
make breathing difficult.
However, at still higher currents, death may occur due to a heart condition known as
ventricular fibrillation. Hence, the threshold of ventricular fibrillation is of major
concern; if shock currents can be kept below this value, deaths or injury will be
avoided. Much higher currents can be tolerated without causing fibrillation if the
duration is very short. Dalziel [1] concludes that 99.5% of all men could withstand,
without ventricular fibrillation, currents determined by the equation:
Ib = KA/ts (12.1)
Where Ib - Rms magnitude of the current through the body

Ts = Duration of the current exposure, s
K = VSb = 0.116 for a 50 kg person and 0.157 for a 70 kg person
Sb = Empirical constant related to the elastic shock energy tolerated by a
certain percentage of a given population
Equation 12.1 is based on tests in the range of 0.03 to 3.0 seconds duration.
Usually, the primary fault clearing time is used. Where fast-operating protective
devices can be relied upon to limit fault duration, the corresponding fault clearing
time can be used.
Allowable step voltage - If a person is walking through an electric field such as a

substation, a part of the ground current is diverted through the body. Figure 12.1
shows the equivalent circuit for the step voltage calculations. The voltage shunted
by the body is limited to the maximum value between two accessible points on the
ground separated by the distance of one pace, which is assumed to be one meter.

The allowable step voltage (Vstep) is calculated based on the body weights 50 kg and
70kg.
0.116
Vstep50 = (1000 +6c s Ps)—/=- (12.2)
Vts
0.157
Vstep70 = (1000 +6 C s p s )—r— (12.3)
Vts
where ps = Soil resistivity at the surface, Ohm-m

Cs = Reduction factor for derating the nominal value of ps
t = Fault clearing time, seconds
The K factor can be calculated using the IEEE standard 80 graph reproduced in
Figure 12.2. The factor K is given by:
P ~ P,
L
K= (12.4)
P + Ps
p = Soil resistivity at a depth hs, Ohm-m
Allowable touch voltage - If a person standing one meter away from the
substation equipment touches the substation equipment, then the voltage
experienced is the touch voltage. This condition is illustrated in Figure 12.3. The
allowed touch voltage (VtoUch 50 and VtoUch 70) for the 50-kg and 70-kg person can
be calculated using the following relations:
0.116
Vtouch50
'ts
0.157
Vts
Transferred potential - The transferred potential may be considered as a special

case of the touch voltage. Consider a person standing at a remote point touching a
conductor connected to the station ground. Here the shock voltage may be equal to
the full voltage rise of the ground grid under fault conditions and not the fraction of
the voltage in the step or touch contacts.

Vs
Figure 12.1 The Concept and Equivalent Circuit of the Step Voltage
K
1.0 *"
I I i i i I i i i I T i
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
h, (METERS) »•-
Figure 12.2 The Graph to Determine the Coefficient Factor Cs
Figure 12.3 The Concept and Equivalent Circuit of the Touch Voltage

Example 12.1 - Consider a substation where the safety assessment is to be
performed. Assume a minimum body weight of 50-kg (1 10 Ib) for the person in
the substation. For a shock duration of 0.2 second (which equals the fault clearing
time, tc), calculate the allowable touch voltage and allowable step voltage for the
one layer soil with a resistivity of 40.80 Ohm-m. What is the effect of a 6 inch
stone layer on the surface of the substation with a resistivity of 2,500 Ohm-m?
Solution - With only one layer of soil, the allowable touch and step voltages are:
ps = 40.80 Ohm-m, tc = 0.2 sec

p - PC 0 -40.8
K = — —-^- = = - =-1.0
p + Ps 0 + 40.8
The reduction factor (Cs) is calculated from Figure 8 of the IEEE Standard 80,
page 41, Cs = 1.0.
0.116
Vtouch 50 = ( 1000 + 1.5 (1 .0)(40.8))
0.2
0.116
6(1.0)(40.8))-7=- = 323v
V0.2
Crushed stone (6-inch layer) - If a 6-inch layer of crushed stone is to be used

on the surface of the substation, then the allowable touch voltage and step
voltages are:
ps = 2,500 Ohm-m, p = 40.80 Ohm-m, tc = 0.2 sec hs = 6 inch

P P
~ s 40.80-2500.0
K = - = - =-0.9685
p + p 40.80+2500.0
Cs = 0.687 from IEEE Standard 80, page 41 .

Vtouch 50 = ( 1000 + 1 .5 (0.687)(2500)) ^H^ =928 V
V0.2
0.116
-7=-= 2933 V
V0.2
It can be seen that a layer of crushed stone on the surface helps to increase the
allowable touch and step voltages.

12.3 GROUND GRID CALCULATIONS
Using the above approach the allowable step and touch voltage limits are
determined. The grounding system can be designed such that the step and touch
voltages are kept within the calculated safe limits. The analysis consists of the
following steps:
• Investigation of soil characteristics.

• Determination of maximum ground current.
• Preliminary design of the ground system.
• Calculation of resistance of the ground system.
• Calculation of step voltages at the periphery.
• Calculation of internal step and touch voltages.
• Refinement of preliminary design.
The following assumptions are made in this analysis.
• The body resistance is assumed to be 1,000 Ohm.

• The effect of supply voltage variations are ignored.
• The maximum current through the ground grid is calculated based on the
approach presented in IEEE standard 80.
Soil resistivity - The first step in the design of a grounding system involves
investigation of soil characteristics at the station, often to a reasonable depth. The
average resistivity of the various soils is given in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Average Resistivity of Various Soils
Type of Ground Resistivity, Ohm-m

Wet organic soil 10
Moist soil 100
Dry soil 1,000
Bedrock 10,000
The potential rise of a grounding system during ground fault conditions is directly
proportional to the resistance of the grounding system. Resistance of the grounding
system is also important for the satisfactory operation of over current devices.
Hence, it is essential to predict the resistance of the grounding system before its
actual installation. Electrical resistivity of the soil can be measured by tests, using

IEEE Standard 81, IEEE Recommended Guide for Measuring Ground Resistance
and Potential Gradients in the Earth. The effect of voltage gradient, moisture and
temperature on soil resistivity is important.
Effect of voltage gradient - The ground resistance is not affected by the voltage
gradient unless it is greater than (2 - 3) 103 Volts/cm. When this value is exceeded,
arcs will start at the electrode surface and progress into ground so as to increase the
effective size of the electrode which the soil can withstand. Since the substation
ground system is normally designed to keep gradients well below these critical
values, the resistance and resistivity can be assumed to be unaffected.
Effect of moisture - The resistivity of the soil rises abruptly when the moisture
content falls below 22% by weight. It is therefore necessary that the electrode
system should be buried deep enough to ensure contact with permanently moist soil.
Where this is not possible, greater dependence will usually be placed on a well-
distributed system of vertical rods bonded to the ground grid and reaching deep
layers. Crushed rock coverings, usually about six inches in depth are helpful in
retarding evaporation of moisture and thus limiting the drying out of the top layer.
Effect of temperature - Resistivity of soil rises abruptly when the temperature falls
below 32°F. The ground grid electrode system should extend below the frost line
wherever feasible to minimize seasonal variation of the grounding system
resistance. Further, the overall resistance of the ground grid varies with season due
to the summer and winter temperature variations.
Determination of maximum ground fault current - The following steps are

involved in determining the maximum grid current Ig for use in substation
grounding calculations:
Assess the type and location of those ground faults that are likely to produce the
greatest flow of current between the grounding grid and surrounding earth
producing the greatest rise in grid potential with respect to remote earth.
Calculate the fault current division factor Sf for each of the faults selected and
establish the corresponding values of symmetrical grid current Ig.
For each fault, based on its duration time, determine the value of decrement factor
to allow for the effects of asymmetry of the fault current wave.
That portion of the symmetrical ground fault current (Ig) that flows between the
grounding grid and surrounding earth. It may be expressed as:

Ig = SfI f (12.7)
Where If — Rms value of symmetrical fault current, A

Sf = Ratio of grid current to fault current
The maximum grid current (Igm ) is given by:
Ign^Dflg (12.8)
Where Df is the decrement factor for the fault duration.
Different types of faults may occur in the system. Possible types of ground faults
include the following:
• Fault within local substation. Local neutral ground only.

• Fault within local substation. Neutral grounded at remote station only.
• Fault in substation. System grounded at local station and other points.
• Fault on line outside the substation. System grounded at local station and also
at other points.
In a power system, it may be difficult to determine the type of fault and location that
will result in the maximum flow of current between the ground grid and the
surrounding earth. In this analysis, the single-line-to-ground and the double line-to-
ground faults are considered. The effect of the fault resistance is negligible. The
zero sequence current for a single line-to ground fault is given by:
T =
o :(X1 + X2 + XO): (12-9)
For a double line-to-ground fault:
X?
I =V ^ (12.10)
0 X l ( X O + X2) + X2XO
Where Io = Symmetrical rms zero sequence current, A

V = Phase voltage, V
Xi — Positive-sequence reactance, Q/phase
X2 = Negative-sequence reactance, Q/phase
Xo — Zero-sequence reactance, Q/phase
The values X,, X2, and X0 are computed looking into the system from the point of
fault. Knowing the zero sequence fault current, the total fault current can be
calculated. Computer programs are available to calculate the various fault currents

and the corresponding ground grid currents. Usually, the electric current
distributions through the ground structures inside and outside the substation for
different fault conditions are studied. These include three phase fault, single line
to ground fault and double line to ground fault. The fault condition resulting with
maximum fault current is used for the ground grid analysis or design. The data
required for the analysis include the ground impedance, transformer data,
transmission line or cable data and grounding impedance. The output of the
program includes the current through the ground path, overhead and neutral
conductors.
Conductor size - Each element of the ground system including grid conductors,
joints, connecting ground leads and grounding electrodes should be designed to
resist fusing and mechanical deterioration of electric joints under the most
adverse combination of fault currents and fault duration. The conductor should
have sufficient conductivity so that it will not contribute substantially to dangerous
local voltage differences. The area of the copper conductor and its points against
fusing can be determined from the following equation [2]:
A=lKfJT (12.11)
v ^
where I = Rms fault current, A
A = Area of the conductor, circular mils
tc - current duration, seconds
Kf = Constant from the following Table 12.2
Usually the conductor size is selected based on standard annealed soft copper wire
with brazed joints on ambient temperature (Ta) of 40°C and maximum temperature
(Tm) of 450°C. Knowing the magnitude of the current and time duration the
required conductor area can be evaluated. The material constant various conductors
are presented in Table 12.2.
Example 12.2 - Determine the conductor size for a grounding grid with a
maximum of 20,000 A. The fault duration is 3 seconds.
Solution - Using equation (12.11) and K = 7.01 from Table 12.2, the conductor
size is:
A = (20,000 A) (7.01) V3 =243,000 circular mils
Use a 250 kcmil conductor.

Table 12.2 Material Constants
Material Tm Kf
Copper, Soft Drawn 1083 7.01
Copper, Soft Drawn 250 1 1 .65
Copper, Hard Drawn 1084 7.06
Copper, Clad Steel, 40% 1084 10.46
Copper, Clad Steel, 30%, 1084 12.08
Aluminum, 61% 657 12.13
Aluminum, Alloy, 5005 660 12.38
Aluminum, Alloy, 6201 660 12.45
Aluminum-Clad Steel 20% 660 19.90
Copper-Clad Rod, 20% 1083 15.39
Steel 1300 23.32
Glavanished Steel (Zinc) 409 28.97
Stainless Steel, 304 1400 30.05
Ground grid potentials - The step voltage, the touch voltage and the ground grid
potential rise are evaluated for each substation grid. Equations used to calculate the
step, touch and mesh voltages include geometric factors Km (for touch and mesh
voltage) and Ks (for step voltage). A grid irregularity factor K;, is incorporated into
the step, touch and mesh equations to compensate for assumptions and
simplifications made in development of the equations.
To compensate for the fact that the mathematical model of N parallel conductors
cannot fully account for the effects of grid geometry, the formula K; = /172n +.656
has been introduced. The step voltage can be calculated by using the equation
defined in IEEE Standard 80-1986.
\r . =^V V • —2. / 1 0 1 0\
VstCp JS.S iv] (LZ..LZ.)
L
Where L = Lc+Lr (with ground grid and no ground rod)

L = Lc + 1.15 Lr (with ground grid and rods)
Lc = Total length of the ground conductor, m
Lr = Total length of the ground rods, m
L = Total length of the conductor and ground rod, m
(12.13)
n V2h D+h 2D 3D
To compensate for the fact that the mathematical model of N parallel conductors
can not fully account for the effects of grid geometry, the formula Kj = 0.172 N
+.656 has been introduced. In the design of a ground grid, local gradients should be
kept under control for personnel safety.
Step voltages encountered in practical installations are usually smaller than

touch voltages; ground resistances beneath the two feet are in series rather
than in parallel and are thus more effective in limiting body current. Also, the
body can tolerate higher currents through a foot-to-foot path.
Transfer voltages are more difficult to limit and usually require isolation or
other special treatment.
The touch voltage (Vt) at any distance (x) from the perimeter conductor is
calculated as follows:
l , (h + x ) ( D + x ) 1 (2D + x)
V t = — In--^- - + ~ln 2 D 7n
3D
hdD *•
The mesh voltage tends to be highest in the mesh rectangle nearest to the perimeter.
The mesh voltage at the center of the mesh is:
(12.15)
L
where
l 2
Km = ( —Ini I ° (2.16)
In 16hd JtH
V
Design of ground grid system - The design of a grid will start with an inspection
of the layout plan for equipment and structures. A continuous cable should surround
the grid perimeter to enclose the area as to avoid current concentration. Within the
grid, the conductors are laid in parallel lines at uniform spacing. The conductors
should be located along rows of structures or equipment.

Equating the calculated mesh voltage and the safe touch voltage and solving for
length (L), the approximate length of the buried conductor required to keep the
mesh voltage within safe limits is:
T K m K i iVt
L=- (12.17)
116 + 0.17 ps
The number of ground conductors in the x and y direction can be determined.
Calculation of ground grid resistance - The ground grid resistance can be

calculated by use of the following equation of the ground grid equivalent to a flat
circular plate:
pL
R =— (12.18)
4r
Where p = Average ground resistivity, Ohm-m
r = Radius of circle having the same area as that occupied by ground
grid, m
L — Total length of buried conductor, m
For more complex schemes involving several crossing wires or multiple rods, the
mutual influence of the individual elements enter the picture. The resistance of an
intermeshed horizontal ground grid network can be written as follows:
pp 2L L
Rll = - (loge - + Kl-7=-K2) (12.19)
TUT L al VA
Where ai = Va*2z for conductors buried at depth of z meters or
ai = a for conductors on earth surface
2a = Diameter of the conductor, m
A = Area covered by conductor, square meters
Ki, K 2 = Coefficients from IEEE Standard 80, Figure 18
The combined resistance of several closely spaced ground rods is expressed as:
R22 = -~ [ l o g e - l + (n-l)] (12.20)

2;rnLl b VA
Where LI = Length of each rod, m
2b - Diameter of each rod, m
n = Number of rods
Most grounding arrangements consist of a combination of ground rods and grids.

The mutual resistance between elements is computed using equation (12.21):
p 2L L
[loge - + Ki-7--(K 2 + l)] (12.21)
L LI VA

Knowing the resistances Rn, R22, Ri2 and Rai the combined grounding resistance
can be calculated as follows:
2
R_R11R22-(R12)
R11 + R22-2R12
The coefficients KI and K2 are dependent on the grid geometry, primary the length
to width ratio of the ground grid, and are determined from Figure 18 of IEEE
standard 80. Extending the concept of mutual resistance between elements to
evaluate the resistance of a grounding system comprised of several interconnected
ground grids:
P = RH Ii + RII 12 + R3i Is + •••
By solving this set of equations and summing up Ii + 12 + IB ... = I, the total

resistance of the system is found as R = P/I.
Refinement of ground grid design - Throughout the calculations a reduced value

of the coefficient Kj is used on the premise that the user will reinforce external
comers of the grid with additional conductors. A higher current density occurs in
the perimeter conductors and at corners leading to higher potential gradients. By
using a closer grid spacing at corners, potential gradients are lowered and using a
closer grid spacing at corners can substantiate a reduction in the value of Ki. There
are other approaches to increase the allowable step and touch voltages. Also, the
ground grid area can be increased in order to reduce the step and touch voltages.
Alternatively several grids can be combined to reduce the overall resistance of the
grounding grid.
There are several programs available to perform the grounding grid analysis or
design. These programs analyze the substation grounding grid design, given the
total electric current injected into the grid. The grounding grid can be single or
multiple structures. A multiple grounding structure can be two or more
embedded system of conductors, which are not electrically connected. Some of
the grounded grids are:
• Square or rectangular grounding grid.

• Rectangular grounding grid with unequal spacing.
• Buried ground conductors.
• Ground rods.
• Metallic fences.
• Metallic pipes.
The required data for the program for the analysis include the following:
• The soil resistivity at the substation location.

• Geometry of the grounding system.
• Specification of the body current calculations.
The output of the program contains the following:
• Allowable step voltage.

• Allowable touch voltage.
• Calculated step voltage.
• Calculated touch voltage.
• Ground grid resistance.
• Ground grid or mesh voltage rise.
• Body currents.
• Potential profiles.
Example 12.3 - A one-line diagram consisting of three substations A, B and C with

equipment at 33 kV, 66 kV and 66 kV are shown in Figure 12.4. The major
equipment in the substation consists of five transformers with the following
specifications.
66kV
T1 >,
1 1:K >< K ^
T4
F1
ir i
F2 F5 F6 _
F3' —
F4
s:5 k V
IT
1-^
T5
13.8kV
Fl through F7 - Feeders, Tl through T5 - Transformers
Figure 12.4 One-Line Diagram of the System Used in the Study

Transformer kV MVA X% Connection Grounding
Tl 69/34 80 11.4 Delta/Wye-g Solidly grounded
T2 69/13.8 15 7.4 Delta/Wye-g Solidly grounded
T3 69/13.8 20 10.0 Delta/Wye-g Solidly grounded
T4 69/13.8 60 8.0 Wye-g/Delta Solidly grounded
T5 13.8/34 40 9.8 Wye-Rg/Wye With 4 Ohm R
The dimensions of the substations are given by:
Substation kV Dimensions Area

A 33 1 44 feet x 126 feet 18,144 sq.feet
B 66 1 26 feet x 105 feet 13,230 sq.feet
C 66 105 feet x 203 feet 21,315 sq.feet
The soil resistivity at a depth of 3 feet is 30.1 Ohm-m. The resistivity of crushed
stones used on the surface of the substation is 2,500 Ohm-m. The maximum fault
current through the ground grid is 13,000 A. The fault is cleared in 12 cycles. The
substations will be installed with 6 inches of crushed rock on the surface. The three
substations are interconnected and the dimensions of the interconnection cables are:
From Substation To Substation Cable Length Number of Cables

A B 100 feet 2
B C 100 feet 2
C A 150 feet 2
Show the calculations of the grounding grid design and safety assessment analysis
using a computer-aided approach.
Solution - The output of the program is presented in List 12.1. The output contains
all the input data and the calculated parameters. Based on the results, the three
ground grid designs are shown in Figures 12.5, 12.6 and 12.7 respectively. The
corresponding interconnections are shown in Figure 12.8. The summary of the
results from the program output is:
Allowable step voltage = 2,905 V

Calculated step voltage for ground grid A = 334V
Calculated step voltage for ground grid B = 459V
Calculated step voltage for ground grid C = 318V
Allowable touch voltage = 921V
Calculated touch voltage for ground grid A - 816V
Calculated touch voltage for ground grid B - 903V
Calculated touch voltage for ground grid C = 688V

The step and touch voltages are within the allowable step and touch voltages.
Therefore, the ground grid designs meet the safety requirements.
Resistance of the ground grid A to remote earth =0.3562 Ohm

Resistance of the ground grid B to remote earth = 0.3941 Ohm
Resistance of the ground grid C to remote earth = 0.3298 Ohm
Resistance of the combined ground grid to remote earth - 0.2112 Ohm
18'
7
B1
6
2 ,
B2
1
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 I 18, 9
U t-
144' r
C1 0
Figure 12.5 Grounding Grid for Yard A
9 10
Figure 12.6 Grounding Grid for Yard B

B2 B1
k A k
«-«•» 7
A A k
29'
6
A1
4 ?n
3
o
A2
1
1f
1 ?
/ 5 8
4 3 Î 6 r
105'
Figure 12.7 Grounding Grid for Yard C
100'
Figure 12.8 Interconnection of the Three Grounding Grids

List 12.1 Output of the Program Showing the Summary of Results
GROUND GRID PERFORMANCE OF SUBSTATIONS A, B AND C
SOIL INFORMATION FOR SUBSTATION NO.A

NO. OF RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS AT DEPTH 3.0 FT. = 1
MAXIMUM BURIAL DEPTH OF GRID = 3.0 FT.
FROST LINE = .6 FT.
CS FACTOR = .6800
SURFACE RESISTIVITY = 2500.00
DESIRED MAXIMUM RESISTANCE OF GRID = 1.000 OHMS
RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS (OHM-M) AT DEPTH 3.0 FT. = 3 0 . 1
SOIL INFORMATION FOR SUBSTATION NO.B

FROST LINE = .6 FT.
CS FACTOR = .6800
RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS (OHM-M) AT DEPTH 3.0 FT. = 30.1
SOIL INFORMATION FOR SUBSTATION NO.C

FROST LINE = .6 FT.
CS FACTOR = .6800
RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS (OHM-M) AT DEPTH 3.0 FT. = 30.1
FAULT CURRENT AND CLEARING TIME INFORMATION

RMS SYMMETRICAL FAULT
SUBSTATION LOCATION FAULT CURRENT CLEARING TIME
A 13000.AMPS 12.0 CYCLES
B 13000.AMPS 12.0 CYCLES
C 13000.AMPS 12.0 CYCLES
GEOMETRY COORDINATES OF AREAS (FT)
SUBSTATION POINT # 1 POINT #2 POINT #3 POINT #4

A ( 0. , 0.) 0. , 126.) ( 144., 126. ( 144. , 0. )
( 0. , 0. ) 0. , 105.) ( 140., 105. ( 140. , 0.)
0. , 105. ) ( 203. , 105. ) 203 . , 0. )
GRID INFORMATION
TOTAL CONDUCTOR NUMBER LENGTH ROD NUMBER OF NUMBER OF PRIMARY

CONDUCTOR DIAMETER OF RODS OF RODS DIA PRIMARY SECONDARY SPACING
SPACING
ITEM LENGTH (FT) (IN) (FT) (IN) CONDUCTORS CONDUCTORS (FT) (FT)
A 2349.0 .8110 12 10.0 .6250 9 18.0 18 .0
B 2320.0 .8110 12 10.0 .6250 10 14 . 0 15.0
C 2464.0 .8110 12 10.0 .6250 8 15.0 29.0
DISTANCES BETWEEN AREAS (FEET)

SUBSTATION NO.B SUBSTATION NO.C
SUBSTATION NO.A 100. 150.
SUBSTATION NO.C 100.

TOUCH VOLTAGE PROFILE FOR SUBSTATION NO.A
TOLERABLE BODY CURRENT (MA.) 259.4
TOLERABLE STEP VOLTAGE (V) 2905.1
CALC. STEP VOLTAGE (V) 334.2
TOLERABLE TOUCH VOTAGE (V) 920.8
CALC. MESH VOLTAGE (V) 816.1
GROUND POTENTIAL RISE (GPR) 4630.84 VOLTS
TOUCH VOLTAGE PROFILE FOR SUBSTATION NO.B

TOLERABLE BODY CURRENT (MA) 259.4
TOUCH VOLTAGE PROFILE FOR SUBSTATION NO.C

TOLERABLE BODY CURRENT (MA) 259.4
R TO REMOTE EARTH FOR SUBSTATION NO.A = .3562 OHMS

R TO REMOTE EARTH FOR SUBSTATION NO.B = .3941 OHMS
R TO REMOTE EARTH FOR SUBSTATION NO.C = .3298 OHMS
R TO REMOTE EARTH OF COMBINED AREAS = .2112 OHMS
Example 12.4 - Consider a grounding grid located in a 130 feet by 40 feet area
with grid conductors at 19 feet spacing. A bare 4/0 AWG copper conductor is
used. The soil resistivity of the upper layer soil is 51.14 Ohm-meter and the
lower layer is 920.6 Ohm-meter. The depth of the upper layer is 10.05 feet. The
surface resistivity of the crushed rock layer is 2,500 Ohm-m. Calculate and plot
the potential profile at the substation and discuss the results [4].
Solution - The potential profile and the allowed touch voltage magnitudes are
calculated using a ground grid design program [5]. The potential profile at the
ground grid location is shown in Figure 12.9. The summary of the results is:
Maximum ground potential rise (GPR) = 817 V

Allowable touch voltage (Vt) = 595 V
Calculated touch voltage = 43 V
Ground resistance (Rg) = 2.79 Ohm

AK: Ncv London West G r o u n d i n g at N e u LondoTi Substation
25.8% —50.5* —75.3% Maximum 42.5 Permissible: 594.5 Touch
Voltage
50.5>°, on
Area
Update
Figure 12.9 Potential Profile at the Substation Location

(Output from Integrated Grounding Design Program)
12.5 IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF THE GROUNDING GRIDS
Increase the grounding area - The most effective way to decrease ground
resistance is by increasing the area occupied by the grid. Deep driven rods may or
may not decrease appreciably the local gradients, depending on the method used.
Usually, the substation location determines the available area.
Improvement of gradient control - If the mesh voltage is higher than the allowed
touch voltage, a modified ground grid can be designed by subdividing the meshes.
Koch's measurement results provide a valuable relation between various mesh
voltages and the ground grid potential rise. The result is available for various mesh
sizes as shown in Figure 12.10 [1]. In order to control the mesh voltage rise usually
additional grid conductors are added at the required locations. Then using Koch's
test results, the mesh voltages are calculated and compared with the allowable touch
voltages.
Example 12.5 - A ground grid is shown in Figure 12.11 with 3 conductors on each
X and Y direction. The ground potential rise of the grid is 2,200 Volts. The
allowable touch voltage in this location is 700 Volts. Calculate the mesh voltage
rise and compare it with the allowable touch voltage. If the mesh voltage rise is not
acceptable, use the Koch's results to refine the ground grid design.

30 23 23 30
45 45
23 20 20 23
64
23 20 20 23
45 45
30 23 23 30
Grid A GridB GridC

2017 15 14 14 15 17 20 ?fl17 1b 1b 20 16 15 It
12 12 12 12 13 15 13 13 \4 15 13 12 12
1713 17 35 35
1512 12 11 11 12 VI 14 15 13 12 13 15 12 12
W
1412 11 H 11 11 12 14 16 14 13 14 16 13 ?0 13
41 43 41 43
GridD GridE GridF
Figure 12.10 Koch's Measurement Results for Grounding Grids
Solution - The ground potential rise = 2,200 Volts

Mesh voltage rise A (2,200 Volts *.0.45) = 990 Volts
Allowed touch voltage = 700 Volts
The touch voltages are higher than the allowable touch voltage.
The ground grid is modified with additional conductors as shown in Figure 12.11.
With the refined ground grid, the various mesh voltages are calculated using Koch's
results as:
Mesh voltage rise B (2,200 Volts *.0.30) = 660 Volts
Mesh voltage rise C (2,200 Volts *.0.23) = 506 Volts
Mesh voltage rise D (2,200 Volts *.0.20) = 440 Volts
The voltages in the meshes marked by B, C and D are within allowable touch
voltages.
B C C B
C D D C
C D D C
B C C B
A= 0.45 P.U, B = 0.30 P.U , C = 0.23 P.U. and D = 0.20 P.U.

Figure 12.11 Preliminary Grid and Modified Grid Design Using Koch's Results

Addition of a relatively high resistance surface layer - A layer of crushed rock
can be added on the surface of the substation to increase the resistance in series with
the body. This approach is commonly used in the entire substation grounding grid
design in order to improve the safety performance of the grounding grid. Example
12.1 shows the calculation procedure of the step and touch voltages with a layer of
crushed rock.
Diverting of part of the fault current to other paths - The available fault current
magnitude may be reduced by connecting overhead ground wires of transmission
lines. In connection with the latter, the effect on fault gradients near tower footings
should be weighed.
Limiting of short-circuit current to the ground grid - If possible, the fault

current magnitudes can be reduced using the medium or high impedance grounding
at the transformer or generator neutrals. Once the fault current magnitudes are
limited, the step and touch voltages will be lower. An example is presented below
to show the effectiveness of this approach.
Example 12.6 - The source voltage of the system is 13.2 kV, three-phase. The
maximum short circuit rating of the system is 250 MVA. A one-line diagram of the
system where the ground currents are evaluated is shown in Figure 12.12. The
maximum grid current magnitude is needed to design a new grounding grid at the
480 V level. The required current is calculated using a short circuit program. The
following assumptions are made in this study:
No fault impedance is considered.

The positive and negative sequence impedance values are equal.
• The base impedance of the calculations is 100 MVA.
©•
Cable
13.2 kV Source
Figure 12.12 One-Line Diagram of the System Used in Example 12.6
Solution - The following data is used in this study to evaluate the maximum ground
grid currents in the example system.

Source Data
Phase voltage = (1.05)(13.2 kVA/3) = 8.0 kV
Short circuit MVA = 250 MVA
Base MVA = 100
Z1=Z2 = 100/250 =0.4P.U.
Rg at bus ION =0.5 Ohm
3-Phase Cable Between the Source and the Isolating Transformer

Length = 300 feet
Zl = Z2 = (0.0070 + j 0.0770) Ohm/1000 feet
ZO = (0.0127 + j 0.1215) Ohm/1000 feet
Isolating Transformer
Rating = 2 MVA
Voltage =13.2kV/480V
Connection = Delta/Wye
Impedance = 6.5%
Grounding impedance for remedial case = 0.0 and 0.34 Ohm
A short circuit calculation program is used to evaluate the short circuit currents. The
output data are presented for both of the cases below.
Case 1. Estimate the short circuit current and current contribution to the ground
grid with Rg = 0.0 Ohms in the isolating transformer circuit.
Program Output
Fault Current Magnitudes, A
Bus L-L Voltage 3-Phase Line-Ground
Utility 13200V 10935
Sour 13200V 10579
480VBus 480V 37974 339701
Case 2. Estimate the short circuit current and current contribution to the ground
grid with Rg = 0.34 Ohms in the isolating transformer circuit.
Program Output
Fault Current Magnitudes, A
Bus L-L Voltage 3-Phase Line-Ground
Utility 13200V 10935
Sour 13200V 10579
480VBus 480V 37974 814
The various current components during the short circuit at the 480 V bus are listed

below from the output:
Description Rg = O O O h m Rg=0.34 Ohm

Three phase fault current 37,974 A 37,974 A
Single line to ground fault 39,701 A 814 A
Double line to ground fault 38,938 A 33,090 A
Ground return current 41,593 A 407 A
From the above list it can be seen that the maximum ground current depends on the
value of the transformer grounding impedance. With a solidly grounded neutral, the
ground grid current magnitude is very high and hence a large ground grid will be
required. In order to control the ground grid currents an impedance is recommended
in the transformer neutral circuit. The resistance is chosen such that the current
through the neutral circuit is above 500 A, in order to operate the protection
devices. With 0.34 Ohm resistor in the neutral circuit the ground grid current is 407
A.
12.6 CONCLUSIONS
The fundamentals involved in the design of a grounding grid are analyzed in this
Chapter. The calculations of the allowable step and touch voltages are illustrated
with suitable examples. The use of a computer-aided design is presented with an
example. The effect of multiple grounding grids on the value of ground resistance to
remote earth is shown using an example. The approaches to improve the grounding
grids using various methods are presented. For additional readings on the grounding
and power system transients Reference [6] is an excellent source.
PROBLEMS
1. The average soil resistivity at a substation site is 52 Ohm-meter. Calculate the

allowable step and touch voltages. What is the effect of adding 9 inches of
crushed rock on the surface of the substation?
2. Calculate the conductor size for a ground grid to withstand a maximum current
of 25,000 A. The fault clearing time is 25 cycle.
3. The average soil resistivity of a switchyard is 40 Ohm-meter. A crushed rock

with a resistivity of 3000 Ohm-meter was added to a 6 inch layer. The available
short circuit current at the switchyard is 18,835 A and the expected ground grid
current is 11,301 A. The fault clearing time is 0.5 second. The switchyard is
located in an area 54 feet by 160 feet. Design a ground grid and apply Koch's
test results to refine the design.

4. A crushed rock layer is used in the substation area in order to offer a high
resistivity layer and hence a higher allowed touch voltage. What will be the
touch voltage just outside the fenced substation area without crushed rock? Is
there any need for concern about the voltage profile outside the substation
area?
5. Sometimes several ground grids are joined together to get an overall lower
resistance with respect to the remote earth. In the event of a fault in one
substation, what is expected in the other substations in terms of touch and step
voltages?
6. The computer-aided analysis helps to speed up the calculation of the ground

grid design and the accuracy of the results. Is there any other advantage in
terms of the size of the problem when handled by the computer versus the hand
calculations?
7. Consider a ground grid with 5 conductors in the X direction and 5 conductors

in the Y direction. The ground grid potential rise is 2,769 Volts. The allowed
touch voltage is 670 Volts in this location. Calculate the mesh voltages using
Koch's results and perform a safety assessment. If the ground grid design is not
adequate, use Koch's measurement results to refine the ground grid design.
REFERENCES
1. IEEE Standard 80, Guide for Safety in Substation Grounding, June 1986.
2. IEEE Standard 81, IEEE Recommended Guide for Measuring Ground

Resistance and Potential Gradient in the Earth.
3. Practical Applications of ANSI/IEEE Standard 80-1986, IEEE Guide for

Safety, IEEE Tutorial Course, 86 EH0253-5-PWR.
4. R. Natarajan, A. Imece, J. Popoff, K. Agarwal and S. Meliopoulos,

"Approach to the Analysis of Amtrak's Systemwide Grounding of the
Northend Electrification Project," Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Power
Engineering Society Summer Meeting, Vol.1, pp. 451-456.
5. S. Meliopoulos, Integrated Grounding System Design, Program User's

Manual, Version 3.3, 1997.
6. S. Meliopoulos, Power System Grounding and Transients (Book), Marcel

Dekker, Inc., New York, 1988.

13
LIGHTNING SURGE ANALYSIS
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The power system performance is evaluated for the steady state, temporary
overvoltages, switching overvoltages and fast front transients. Switching, faults and
lightning surges cause the overvoltages in a power system. In this Chapter,
overvoltages due to lightning surges are evaluated in the power system from the line
protection and safety points of view. Specifically, overvoltages due to lightning
strike are important in the insulation coordination and insulator flashover.
Therefore, this type of study is used to specify the surge arrester specifications for
system protection and optimum location of the arrester. Also, based on this study
sometimes the surge capacitors are installed to reduce the rate of rise of the surge
voltages. In this Chapter, the type of lightning surges, the effect of these surges on
the power system, the system modeling and example studies without and with
lightning arrester are presented.
Evaluation criteria - The transmission lines or substations are protected by

lightning arresters against lightning surges. The surge energy discharged through the
arrester must be compared to the impulse energy rating of the lightning arrester.
This can be achieved by selecting an arrester, which can discharge the surge energy
satisfactorily followed by a lightning strike. Also, the bus voltage at the lightning
arrester location has to be within the acceptable levels of the protected equipment.

13.2 TYPES OF LIGHTNING SURGES
The lightning surges interacting with the power system can be identified as direct
lightning stroke or back flashover.
Direct lightning strokes - Lightning strokes of low magnitudes (a few tens of

kA) can bypass the overhead shield wire and can strike directly on the phase
conductor. From the geometry of the tower, the maximum lightning current that
can strike the phase conductors of an overhead transmission line can be
estimated. The magnitude of the current is dependent on the maximum strike
distance in Figure 13.1, Ds which is a function of the tower parameters and can
be calculated as:
y) + 2Cx
Ds (13.1)
2(h-y)
Where C = V* 2 + ( h ~ y ) 2 (13.2)
h = Average height of the ground conductor

y = Average height of critical conductor
x = Horizontal distance between phase conductor and ground wire
G1 G2<? Cloud
Position
R (max)
T y
1
A, B, C = Phase Conductors, Gl, G2 = Ground Conductors
Figure 13.1 Example for the Calculation of Maximum Lightning Current in the
Case of a Direct Stroke on a Phase Conductor

The surge current magnitude in kA can be calculated using the following
empirical equation:
Is - (13.3)
The current source representing the lightning surge is dependent on the geometry
of the tower configuration. The field data shows that the lightning on the phase
conductor is responsible for overvoltages in about 90% of the cases.
Example 13.1 - Calculate the lightning strike current for a 345 kV system, with h
= 49.4 m, y = 42 m and x = 2.05 m. Is this a significant current to do any damage
to the tower, insulator or conductor?
Solution - Using equations 13.1 through 13.3, the equivalent current can be
estimated.
C = V 2 -05 2 + (49.4-42)2 = 7.679m
7.6792 (49.4 + 42) + (2) (7.679) (2.05) J(49.4)(42)

--- = 62.3
2(49.4-42) 2
Is=
l.l
This is a significant current on a 345 kV system. This type of current flow on a 345
kV system can cause considerable damage if the system is not protected
accordingly.
Back flashover - Lightning strokes are of very high potential with the capacity
to discharge hundreds of kilo- Ampere with low-rise time. The surges can strike
overhead neutral wires, towers or phase conductors and may produce
overvoltages sufficient to cause sparkover across the insulators. Since most of the
stroke current flows into the ground during the back flashover, the tower footing
resistance has a major impact on the overvoltages generated. The back flashover
causes a line to ground fault that will be cleared by a circuit breaker. A line
outage will result until the circuit breaker is reclosed. Typical range of lightning
surge characteristics causing the back flashover is:
Peak current = (5 to 10) kA

Rate of rise (5 to 30) kA/microsecond
Rise time (0.5 to 30) microsecond
Tail time (20 to 200) microsecond
The surge current from the tower or the neutral conductor to the phase conductor
is characterized by a sharp rise time and much smaller magnitude of the order of
10 to 20 kA.
As a conservative approach, both the direct strokes and flashover caused by a

stroke to the tower (back flashover) are modeled with a standard 1.2/50
microsecond current wave, with a peak magnitude calculated using equation
(13.3). A lightning current for a direct strike can be modeled as shown in Figure
13.2.
Al = Maximum Amplitude, A2 = 50% of the Maximum Amplitude

Tr = Rise time, TD = Duration of the Wave
Figure 13.2 Current Source Representation of the Lightning Surge
13.3 SYSTEM MODEL
The models are identified for each of the power system components used in the
transient simulation.
Source - The source can be represented as three-phase voltage or current. It is to be

noted in some studies that when the surge voltage magnitudes are significantly
higher than the source voltages, it may not produce any appreciable difference in
the results. However, to illustrate the effect of surge arresters, it is necessary to
represent the source voltages suitably.
Circuit breaker - Depending on the nature of the study, the circuit breakers can be
represented as time-dependent or voltage-dependent switch.
Transformer - The model for multi-phase systems can be the typical two winding
transformer described in Chapter 10. For other transformers a capacitance
representation is adequate. Sometimes a damping resistor is used across the
capacitor.
Transmission lines or cables - If the surge impedance and the travel time is
available for the phase conductor and the ground conductor, such a model is
suitable for lightning surge analysis. Phase conductors and shield wires between
towers are represented individually in order to include the effects of tower
resistance and associated grounding effects. The insulators are represented with the
flashover characteristics. Figure 13.3 shows the model for line conductors, shield
conductor, insulators, the tower and the tower footing resistance [1]. The required
line parameters can be determined by using a line constants program utilizing the
tower configuration and conductor geometry. The surge impedance is defined by:
T
Zs = - (13.4)
where L and C are the inductance and capacitance of the line per unit length. The
corresponding wave speed is given by:
1
(13.5)
'LC
Then the travel time is given by:
line length
Travel time = (13.6)
where the line length is known. Typical surge impedance of the line conductors
varies from (250 to 500) Ohms, while the ground mode surge impedance is around
700 Ohms. The surge impedance of the cables is much lower.

The effect of line termination - In the transmission line design studies, at least
three towers are to be represented in detail along with the remaining line and
cable circuits using:
• Distance between the towers.

• Surge impedance of the line or cable between the nodes.
• Velocity of the travelling wave between the nodes.
• Tower footing resistance.
Neutral
X X
Insulator
— Capacitance
~=
Surge Impedance
of the Tower
Resistance of
the Tower
Figure 13.3 Model for Line, Insulators, Tower and Tower Footing Resistance
A typical transmission line model suitable with the lightning surge propagation is
shown in Figure 13.3 [1].
Towers and tower footing resistance - The steel towers are usually represented by
a surge impedance and the velocity of propagation. The tower footing resistance
varies from 10 Ohms to 100 Ohms. The surge impedance of the tower depends on
the geometry of the structure. The travel time is obtained by dividing the height of
the tower by the speed of light. In the case of wooden towers, a parallel combination
of resistance and capacitor can be used. This leakage impedance can vary
significantly depending on the temperature and moisture content in the air.
Insulators - The insulators are represented by voltage dependent switches in

parallel with capacitors connected between the phase conductor to the tower. The
capacitors simulate the coupling effects of conductors to the tower structure.
Typical capacitance values of suspension insulators are of the order of 80 pF/unit,
while for pin insulators it is around 100 pF/unit.

Effect of corona - When the electric field intensity of the conductor exceeds the
breakdown value of the air, then the corona discharge occurs. The effect of the
corona model in the study is to reduce the overvoltage magnitudes by 5% to 20%.
In certain studies the effect of corona is neglected in order to be on the pessimistic
side. There are several corona models available in the Electro Magnetic Transients
program. However, these models require validation.
Substation buses and cables - Though the buses and the cables in the substation
are of very short length, sometimes they are represented in the transient analysis.
Such modeling plays an important role when comparing the performance of the air
insulated bus versus the gas insulated substation (GIS) arrangement. The other
substation equipment such as circuit breakers, instrument transformers and the step
down transformers are represented by the stray capacitance to ground. Typical
capacitance values of substation equipment [1] are presented in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1 The Capacitance to Ground on Various Substation Equipment
Capacitance to Ground, pF
Equipment 115kV 400 kV 765 kV
Disconnect switch 100 200 160
Circuit breaker (dead tank) 100 150 600
Bus support insulator 50 120 150
Capacitive PT 5,000 5,000 4,000
Magnetic PT 500 550 600
Current transformer 250 680 800
Auto-transformer 3,500 2,700 5,000
Surge arresters - The surge arrester is a device with nonlinear volt-ampere

characteristics used to clamp the bus voltage to the specified limit. An example
nonlinear characteristic of a 230 kV surge arrester is shown in Figure 13.4. This
type of device can be modeled using a point-by-point approach or by using an
equation.
Point by point model - The model for the transient's program is selected by using
a type 92 nonlinear device with the following characteristics:
• A fixed series resistance in the branch.

• A flashover voltage.
• A set of V-I points describing the characteristics.

Vbreakdown
Current, kA 10
Figure 13.4 Example Nonlinear Characteristics of a 230 kV Surge Arrester
The device goes into the conduction mode when V > Vbreakdown and stops
conduction when the current reaches zero. The point-by-point data for the surge
arresters are available from the manufacturer's data sheet. Sample point-by-point
data for a 230 kV metal oxide surge arrester are given below.
Current, kA Voltage, kV
1.5 379
3.0 401
5.0 414
10.0 440
20.0 488
40.0 546
This type of data can be readily used for the simulation in a suitable format.
Model based on equation - The surge arrester characteristics may be represented

by an empirical equation:
Where q = 26 for zinc oxide arrester. For gapped silicon type of arrester q = 6. In
order to use this model the following parameters are required.

1500
1000
Time, Microsecond
Figure 13.5 Nonlinear Characteristics of a 230 kV Insulator
• The nominal reference voltage.

• The exponent q.
• The coefficient p, equal to 2,500.
Example data using the equation parameters are shown below.
92 BUS6A 5555. { 1st card of 1st of 3 ZnO arresters

C VREF VFLASH VZERO COL
360000. -1.0 0.0 4.0
C COEF EXPON VMIN
625. 26. 0.5
9999.
In the above example, the reference voltage is 360,000 V, the coefficient p (4 x

625) is 2,500, the exponent is 26 and the minimum voltage is 0.5 kV. In this
context, the importance of the nonlinear characteristics of the insulator has to be
considered. A typical characteristic of a 230 kV insulator is shown in Figure
13.5. Further, the contamination on the insulator is a variable that is to be
considered in the flashover and failure behavior.
Time step and simulation duration - The accuracy of the digital simulation can
be affected by the time step that is too large or too small. The time step depends
on the type of the surge, the minimum length of the travelling modes and other

related factors. The range of the time step is 1 to 20 microseconds and the
duration of the simulation length is 20 to 50 microseconds.
Calculation of the tower top voltages - Due to lightning strike on the tower,
shield conductor or directly to phase conductors there will be a current flow
through the tower to the ground. The tower is a metallic structure with a definite
resistance and hence there will be a voltage at the tower top with respect to the
ground. It is estimated that 40% of the lightning strokes hit the conductor in the
span and 60% of the strokes hit the tower. If the tower top voltage exceeds a
critical limit then there will be a flashover across the insulator to the phase
conductor. Therefore, the tower top voltage is an important factor in the tower
design and the selection of the insulators. An approximate estimation of the tower
top voltage (Vt) can be performed with reference to Figure 13.6 as described
below:
I A/
(13.7)
Where
Z
SZT
(13.8)
Zg + 2Zy
Zj = Intrinsic impedance at the tower top, Ohm

Zs - Surge impedance of the line, Ohm
ZT — Surge impedance of the tower, Ohm
Zw = Wave impedance of the tower, Ohm
R = Tower footing resistance, Ohm
i = Damping constant for all the travelling waves
Tt = Wave travel time in the tower, microsecond
R
T
z
w (13.9)
Z +2
V S V
¥= (13.10)
2
T z s; Z T +R
2T
(13.11)

Using the equations (13.8) through (13.11), the voltage drop can be calculated for
the given current from equation (13.7).
Example 13.2 - Calculate the tower top voltage of a 230 kV tower using the
following parameters. Zs - 350 Ohm, ZT = 200 Ohm, R - 10 Ohm, Tt = 0.3
microsecond, TO = 2 microsecond. The current through tower is 10 kA.
Solution - Using the given parameters in equations (13.8) through (13.11):
(350) (200)
Z = = 93.3 ohm
1
350 + 2(200)
(3502)(200) 200 -10^

^- - - = 275.90hm
(2) (200)
" _
~ "
Substituting the above values in equation (13.7), Vt = 1,065 V.
Conductor
Vt
Figure 13.6 Tower Top Voltage Calculation

13.4 COMPUTER MODEL AND EXAMPLES
The lightning surge analysis is performed using the Electro Magnetic Transients
program [8]. The following assumptions are made in this analysis in order to
simplify the overall complexity.
• The overhead lines, bus and the cables are modeled using the surge
impedance and the travel time.
• The system resistance is ignored.
• The effect of corona is neglected.
• The effect of mutuals are neglected.
• A single phase model is used.
In order to demonstrate the effect of lightning surge on the transmission system,

an example simulation is presented. The effect of surge arrester in controlling the
overvoltages is also shown through the simulation results.
Example 13.3 - The one-line diagram of the 230 kV system for the surge analysis is
shown in Figure 13.7. The various transmission line sections, bus and cable are
modeled using surge impedance and wave travel time. The appropriate surge
impedance and travel time involved in various sections are listed in Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 Model Parameters for Lightning Surge Analysis
Section Line Length, Zs, Ohm Travel Time, microsecond

mile
1-2 50 476.0 294.0
2-3 0.2 476.0 1.20
3^ 0.2 476.0 1.20
4-5 Bus Section - -
6-7, cable bus 53 feet 66.0 0.60
The bus capacitance is represented at bus 5 with 0.005 microfarads/phase. The

transformer is modeled using a damping resistance, which is an approximately
equivalent surge impedance of 5,000 Ohm/phase and shunt capacitor of 0.002
microfarad/phase. The grounding resistance value is taken to be 10 Ohm. The
lightning surge current is modeled as shown in Figure 13.2 with a peak current
amplitude of 15 kA, 50% current amplitude of 7.5 kA, rise time of 1.2
microsecond and pulse duration of 50 microsecond. The lightning arrester is

located at bus 6 at the terminal of the cable. Using a transient analysis, examine if
the transformer is adequately protected from lightning surges by the surge arrester
located at bus 6.
Solution - The standard lightning wave is switched on to the line at bus 3 location
using a time-dependent switch. The lightning surge is assumed to hit the phase A
conductor directly. The following two cases are considered.
Case 1: No surge arrester present at bus 6 location (Figure 13.7, ignore SA).
Case 2: Lightning arrester is present at bus 6 location. A 192 kV/phase surge
arrester with MCOV of 152 kV is used in this example.
The time domain waveforms are studied at various locations. Figure 13.8 shows the
waveform at bus 6 for case 1. The peak voltage magnitudes due to the lightning
currents are of the order of 2,000 kV (10.7 P.U.). Such overvoltage magnitude can
cause flashover across the insulator and failure. Figures 13.9 and 13.10 respectively
show the voltage waveforms at bus 6 and bus 7 when a surge arrester is present at
bus 6. At bus 6, the voltages are clamped to 400 kV which is higher than the
breakdown voltage of the 230 kV surge arrester. But as can be seen at bus 7
(transformer location) the voltage magnitudes are higher than the surge arrrester
breakdown voltage because of the travelling wave reflections. The summary of
results for the cases 1 and 2 are presented in Table 13.3.
>— f f \ I I I r,,, rent Source

50 0.2
4
mile mile
j f 'i
Transformer
=- - ict ^Rt
SA = Surge Arrester, Rg = Grounding Resistance

Rt = Transformer Damping Resistance, Ct = Transformer Capacitance
Figure 13.7 One-Line Diagram of the System for Example 13.3

Table 13.3 Summary of Results for Cases 1 and 2
Location Magnitude, kV Magnitude, P.U.

Case 1 : No Surge Arrester
At Bus 6 2,000 10.7
At Bus 7, transformer terminal 2,000 10.7
Case 2: With Surge Arrester
At Bus 6 400 2.13
At Bus 7, transformer terminal 800 4.26
System Peak Voltage = 187.8kV

Magnitude, P.U. = Magnitude, kV/System Peak Voltage
It can be seen from the results of case 2, that the overvoltage magnitudes are
controlled by the surge arrester at bus 6 to 2.13 P.U. But the overvoltage
magnitudes at the transformer bus 7 is 4.26 P.U. The allowed fast front transient
for a 230 kV surge arrester is 2.6 P.U. Therefore, in order to protect the
transformer adequately, another set of surge arresters are needed at the
transformer location, namely at bus 7.
o c;nn nnn
9 oon ooo -
>
of
1,500,000
^X^v^x
o> NV/AV
2 f \
>
o 1 000 000
cnn nnn /
n _
0.00000 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.00010
Time, Second
Figure 13.8 Voltage Waveform at Bus 6; Case 1 with No Surge Arrester

,000
0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001

Time, Second
Figure 13.9 Voltage Waveform at Bus 6; Case 2 with Surge Arrester
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
-200,000
^00,000
-600,000
-800,000
-1,000,000
0.00000 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.00010
Time, Second
Figure 13.10 Voltage Waveform at Bus 7; Case 2 with Surge Arrester
Discussions - This is a very simplified approach for the lightning surge analysis.
However, the results are useful in understanding the behavior of the power
system during lightning strike without and with surge arresters. The accuracy of
the results is limited due to the following reasons:

• A lightning strike hitting one phase directly or indirectly through back
flashover produces travelling waves of many modes.
• At fast front transient level (10 kHz to 30 MHz) the line resistance becomes
fairly high, due to the skin effect in the conductors.
• The overvoltages due to lightning can be attenuated by corona discharges.

Therefore, the corona models are important in the lightning surge analysis,
but the validations of the results are difficult.
• When the flashover across the insulator occurs, the travelling waves will take
the path of the tower. This simulation involves the tower and the tower
footing resistance.
• The conduction characteristics of the lightning arrester depends on the

waveshape and the rate of rise of the voltage.
Based on the above discussions, a multi-phase model is presented below.
Example 13.4 - Using the single phase model discussed above, prepare a muti-
phase model for the lightning surge analysis. Include a ground conductor with a
surge impedance of 755 Ohm. The lightning surge hits phase A. Perform the
analysis without and with surge arresters at bus 6.
Solution - A three-phase four wire system model for the lightning surge analysis
is presented in Figure 13.11. A 10 Ohm resistance is used to represent the tower
and the tower footing resistance. The mutuals are neglected. The following two
cases are simulated using the Electromagnetic Transients Program [8].
Case 3: No surge arrester present at bus 6 location (Figure 13.11, ignore SA).
Case 4: Lightning arrester is present at bus 6 location. A 192 kV/phase surge
arrester with MCOV of 152 kV is used in this example.
The time domain waveforms are studied at various locations. Figure 13.12 shows
the waveform at bus 6 for case 3. The peak voltage magnitudes due to the lightning
currents are of the order of 2,000 kV (10.7 P.U.). Figures 13.13 and 13.14
respectively show the voltage waveforms at bus 6 and bus 7 when a surge arrester is
present at bus 6 for case 4. At bus 6, the voltages are clamped to 400 kV, which is
higher than the breakdown voltage of the 230 kV surge arrester. But it can be seen
at bus 7 (transformer location) that the voltage magnitudes are of the order of 3.73
P.U. These results are similar to the results from the single-phase model.

Current Source
1 2 4 5 6 7 R t Rt
Va
-o
Vb SA tq
Vc
Cb bt
ti Ct
Rg
Va, Vb, Vc = System Phase Voltages
Figure 13.11 Multi-Phase Transient Model for Lightning Surge Analysis
o c;nn nnn
o nnn nnn i\
r~S \_~,
1 Rnn nnn /^ ^-Xo .

>
-
0)
1 nnn nnn /s ~^H A
g
flj
** Rnn nnn / /v-,_ _
/ /^r~-^jf ^/v— % C
> f ,S ^^-^r^^.
n Lr^ \ W<nr
V
^ ' ' '/v^VX/
cnn nnn v^^s/V^ -/\J~^J
\/v
1 nnn nnn
0.00000 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.00010
Time, Second
Figure 13.12 Voltage Waveform at Bus 6; Case 3 without Surge Arrester

500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
-100,000
-200,000
-300,000 --
-400,000
-500,000
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001
Time, Second
Figure 13.13 Voltage Waveforms at Bus 6 Location; Case 4, with Surge

Arresters
800,000
600,000
400,000 -
200,000
0
-200,000
-400,000
-600,000
-800,000
0 0.00002 0.00004 0.00006 0.00008 0.0001
Time, Second
Figure 13.14 Voltage Waveforms at Bus 7 Location; Case 4, with Surge

Arresters

13.5 RISK ASSESSMENT AND CONCLUSIONS
The risk assessment due to lightning surges can be estimated based on the
historical data on the number of lightning days per year for a given location and
the critical current due to lightning on the phase or ground conductor. The
insulator withstand voltages are known. Based on the critical current magnitudes
on the system, the probability of exceeding the flashover voltage of the insulator
can be evaluated. Knowing the risk, the loss of load probability can be estimated.
The assessment approach is approximate since many of the variables involved are
not easily measurable.
The direct stroke and the back flashover lightning strokes on the power system
are discussed in this Chapter. An approach to estimate the current magnitudes
due to the lightning stroke on the power system is identified. The power system
model suitable for the lightning surge analysis is discussed and some examples
are presented to show the simulation approaches. The effect of surge arresters to
control the overvoltages within allowed levels is shown through simulation
results.
PROBLEMS
1. Consider a 100-mile long transmission line loaded with equivalent

impedance of 0.2 micro-Farad/phase in parallel with a 400 Ohm/phase. The
system voltage is 500 kV and the surge impedance of the line is 400 Ohm.
Assume a loss less line. A lightning surge with a voltage waveform shown in
Figure 13.15 strikes the line in the middle. Plot the waveform of the voltages
at the load end. Assume that there is no surge protection against lightning
surges. Next consider a line with protection by means of surge arresters and
circuit breakers. The system phase voltage is 408 kV. Use 110% of the phase
voltage as the sparkover voltage of the surge arrester. Assume a tower
resistance value of 10 Ohm. What are the observations from the simulation
results?

2000
kV
E
<
100 microsecond
Time
Figure 13.15 Surge Voltage Waveform
2. What are the sources of lightning surges on a transmission line or substation?

What type of surge is severe on the power system equipment from the failure
point of view?
3. In Example 1 if the surge current is 110 kA, calculate the tower top voltage. Is
this a voltage magnitude that can cause any severe damage to any component
or equipment?
4. In theory and calculations the discussion are on a single lightning strike and
the system protection related issues. Is there a possibility of multiple lightning
strikes at the same location? What are the expected consequences?
REFERENCES
1. A. F. Ali, D. W. Durbak, H. Elahi, S. Kolluri, A. Lux. D. Mader, T. E.

McDermott, A. Morched, A. M. Mousa, R. Natarajan, L. Rugeles and E.
Tarasiewicz, "Modeling Guidelines for Fast Front Transients," IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol.11, No.l, January 1996, pp. 493-506.
2. C. J. Trusex, J. D. Brown, and W. Neugebauer, "The Study of Reclosing

Transients on a 765 kV Shunt Compensated Transmission Line," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-97, No. 4,
July/August 1978, pp. 1447-1457.

3. Q. Bui-Van, G. Beaulieu, H. Huynh, and R. Rosenqvist, "Overvoltage Studies
for the St-Lawrence River 500 kV DC Cable Crossing," IEEE/PES 1991
Winter Meeting, Paper No:. 91 WM 121-4 PWRD, New York, February 3-7,
1991.
4. Brown., "Lightning Performance I; Shielding Failures Simplified," IEEE

Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. 97, January/February
1978, pp. 33-38.
5. R. B. Anderson and A. J. Ericksson, "Lightning Parameters for Engineering

Application," Electra, No.69, pp. 65-102.
6. A. J Ericksson and K. H. Week, "Simplified Procedures for Determining

Representative Substation Impinging Lightning Overvoltages," International
Conference on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, Paris, August 28, 1988,
8 pages.
7. S. Okabe, M. Kan, and T. Kouno., "Analysis of Surges Measured at 550 kV

Substations," IEEE/PES Winter Meeting, Paper No. 91 WM 042-2 PWRD,
New York, February 3-7, 1991.
8. H. W. Dommel, Transient Program User's Manual, University of British

Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, April 1986.

14
EMF STUDIES
14.1 BACKGROUND
This is a subject of great controversy in the field of power engineering. The

discussions, calculations and approaches presented in this Chapter are not
conclusive. It is well known that the magnetic fields from small magnets were used
to heal certain types of illness in the past. With the introduction of large generators
for the production of electric power, extra high voltages for transmission of large
power from the generating station to the load centers and large motors for energy
conversion, and very high electric and magnetic fields are produced. Electric and
magnetic fields exist where there is electric power. Since electric power is an
integral part of our life, many people are exposed to both electric and magnetic
fields most of the time. Electric fields are generated by potential charges; the higher
the voltage, the stronger the electric field. Magnetic fields are generated by electric
current flow; the higher the current flow, the stronger the magnetic field. The fields
are produced in living areas, workplaces and resting areas due to the presence of the
power lines. Some of the symptoms observed in Russia due to field exposure are
fatigue, insomnia and loss of appetite. Prolonged exposure is suspected to cause
serious health problems. Now claims are made that both electric and magnetic fields
may be harmful to one's health. Some of the related effects discussed in the
literature are field effects on humans, childhood cancer and occupational diseases
related to fields and overall exposure issues [1-3]. There were several studies on the
subject in the Eastern Europe and in the U.S. The results are still inconclusive.

14.1.1 Terminology
Electric field - The voltage in an electric circuit produces an electric field with
respect to the earth. The electric field is measured in kV/m. This is shown in Figure
14.1, with the switch open, with no current flow to the load. The electric fields are
invisible.
Magnetic field - The current through a conductor produces a magnetic field. The
magnetic flux density is measured in Wb/m . This is shown in Figure 14.2 with the
current flow to the load and magnetic field production. The magnetic lines are
invisible.
EMF study - Electromagnetic field study includes both the electric and magnetic
field analysis.
Right of way - The corridor through which a transmission line is installed is called
the right of way. This area is considered to be owned by the transmission company,
where the fields may be allowed to be higher than in residential or other working
areas.
I 1 11
Switch Open
Source Voltage Electric Field Load
Figure 14.1 Electric Field due to a Voltage Source
•Magnetic Field
i Switch Closed
I ! I ! I ! I !l ! T Current I
\x
./ \
N
Load
Source Voltage Electric Field
Figure 14.2 Electric & Magnetic Field when a Load is Supplied from a Voltage
Source

Gauss (G) - A unit of measure of the magnetic field, represented by G. 1 Tesla =
10,000 Gauss.
Tesla (T) - A unit of measure of the magnetic field, denoted by T.
14.2 WHAT IS FIELD EXPOSURE?
Cell stimulation - The fundamental quantity in the cell stimulation is the induced
electric field in the tissue. With the external electric fields, the source impedance is
very high and hence a constant current situation arises. Therefore, it is a common
practice to work in terms of current density as the basic parameter in characterizing
the cell stimulation effects. When touching objects in an electric field it is necessary
to distinguish between transient micro-shocks and persistent stimulation that may be
caused by the steady state currents. Sensations due to the steady state current may
occur at the point of contact, usually in the hand or arm. The magnitude of the
current at the point of contact depends on the impedance of the object and the body
resistance of the person. In general, the electric fields are strong enough to cause
noticeable effects only in close proximity to the exposed electric equipment.
Tissue currents - The expected current through the body of a man holding a wire
electrode is about 0.4 mA through 1.8 mA at 60 Hz. Medium levels for women are
two thirds those for men. The current through the body depends on the resistance
and insulation level to the ground. The typical current density and the expected
stimulation on the body are presented in Figure 14.3 [3]. At very low currents, the
effect is to produce stimulating sensations such as tingling, hair raising and
flickering in the eye area. At higher currents the nerve and the muscle stimulation
effects will be noticed. At much higher currents, the heart functions are affected.
Induced in Trunk by 10 micro Telsa
Induced in Trunk by 10 kV/m

Phosphenes
Nerve &Muscle Stimulation
Heart Fibrillation
1 10 100 1000 10000

Current Density, mA/sq.mm
Figure 14.3 Effect of Current Density on the Body

Phosphenes - Phosphenes consist of a flickering sensation in the eye. This is caused
by currents flowing across the retina and is equivalent to the injection of currents
near the eye. The phosphene effect is mainly due to the flow of current through the
body by touching an electric source. The magnetic field required to produce
phosphenes at power frequency is of the order of 100 mT or more. Some scientific
studies show that exposure to magnetic fields produce some form of cancer. Some
laboratory studies have suggested that EMFs may cause irreversible changes in cell
reproduction. However, these changes have not been linked to any harmful effects.
It is suspected that 60 Hz EMFs have some harmful health effects. Therefore, the
need for the EMF study is evident.
14.3 EXISTING GUIDELINES ON FIELD LEVELS
Since the harmful heath effects are suspected, there are attempts to set the standards
limiting the magnitude of the magnetic field at the edge of the right of way [1-3].
The guidelines are presented in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1 Summary of Existing Guidelines for Magnetic Fields
60 Hz Magnetic Field Limit at the

State Edge of the Right of the Way
Florida 150 mG for all lines up to 230 kV

230 mG for 500 kV lines
250 mG for 500 kV double circuits
Delaware 250 mG for all lines
New York 200 mG
These levels are allowable within the right of way of an electric line and do not have
any connection with the exposure to humans. Further, it can be seen that the
guidelines are based on experience/measurements.
Electric fields - The electric field strength is measured in kV/meter between two
points in the air, one meter apart. The limits applied in certain states are presented
in Table 14.2 [1-3].

Table 14.2 Limits on the Electric Fields
(Within the Right of Way)

State/Country Electric Field Limit
Florida 2 kV/m
Montana 1 kV/m at the edge of the right way
Minnesota 8 kV/m maximum in the right of way
New Jersey 3 kV/m at the edge of the right of way
North Dakota 9 kV/m maximum in the right of way
Oregon 9 kV/m maximum in the right of way
Belgium 10 kV/m (rms), general
USSR 20 kV/m, general
It can be noted that these limits are not based on any scientific reasoning. These
guidelines are presented to show the existence of the problems and the approach
towards a solution.
Then there are situations where the exposure to a high dose of field for a short
duration and so on. Table 14.3 presents the limit of exposure under various working
conditions for both the electric and magnetic fields [2].
Table 14.3 Limit of Exposure for the 60 Hz Electric and Magnetic Fields
Exposure Characteristics Electric Field Magnetic Field Density

Occupational
Whole working day lOkV/m 0.5 mT
Short term 30 kV/m(A) 5.0mT(B)
For limbs - 24.0 mT
General Public
Up to 24 hours/day (D) 5kV/m 0.1 mT
Few hours/day (E) lOkV/m 1.0 mT
The following discussions apply to the limits presented in Table 14.3.
(A) - The short-term exposure electric field can be calculated using the formula (t)
(80)/E where t is the exposure duration in hours and E is the electric field
strength in kV/m.
(B) - Maximum exposure is 2 hours per workday.
(D) - Recreation area and meeting grounds.
(E) - These values can be exceeded if necessary precautions are taken.

14.4 FIELDS DUE TO OVERHEAD LINES
The magnetic field at a point P(x,y) due to a current carrying overhead conductor
including the earth return current is given by:
(14.1)
n =1
Bx = Magnetic field in the x-direction, Gauss

By = Magnetic field in the y-direction, Gauss
In = Current in phase quantity for the n-th conductor, A
rn = Distance from point P to conductor n
rni - Distance from point P to the image conductor n
xn, yn - Coordinates of conductor n
x, y = Coordinates of point P
2 2
V(x-xn) +(y-yn) (14.3)
2 2
mi = y ( x - xn ) + ( y - y n + a ) (14.4)
(14.5)
71 UQ Of
These equations are valid for field points above or near the earth's surface. If the
currents through the conductors are known, the coupling current induced in all the
conductors are calculated considering Carson's equations to evaluate the self and
mutual impedance. The matrix is given by:
[V] =[Z][I] (14.6)
[I] 1-1
=[Z]-[V] (14.7)
The coefficients of the impedance matrix [Z] are defined by Carson's equations. I is
the phase current and the currents induced in the conductors.

Electric field strength - In a smooth ground level the electric field strength can be
calculated knowing the potential of the conductor at a height h. The charges (Q) on
a conductor due to a voltage V is given by:
[Q] = [C] [V] Coulombs/m (14.8)
where C is the capacitance of the conductor with respect to the earth. If there are
several conductors, with capacitance Cij and Vj is the voltage of the j-th conductor
to ground, then the sum of the charges (Qi) is given by:
Qi =ZCijVj (14.9)
The contribution from the charge Qi on conductor i and from charge -Qi on the
image of this conductor (see Figure 14.4) to the field strength E at point P is given
by:
Qi Hi
Ei =—- — kV/m (14.10)
where Hi and Xi are the vertical and horizontal distances to the point of
measurement. The magnitude of the total electric field at point P can be obtained by
summing all the electric fields due to various conductors.
Qi (due to conductor i)
Hi I ^x
I
—I >
-Qi (due to image conductor)
Figure 14.4 Calculation of Field Strength at Point P due to Conductor i
Types of overhead Lines - The overhead lines can be classified into single circuit
and double circuit lines. A typical single circuit line is shown in Figure 14.5 with
phase conductors A, B, C and neutral conductor N. A double circuit line is shown
in Figure 14.6. The phase conductors are arranged as ABC, ABC with neutral
conductors on the top. The same phase conductors can be re-arranged as ABC,
CBA with neutral conductors on the top. It can be shown that the field effects can

be reduced to some extent using the second approach. Also, the conductors can be
arranged in horizontal, vertical or triangular formation depending on the
construction of the tower.
Data for field calculations for the overhead lines - The field magnitudes can be
calculated using the programs available for this application. The data requirement
for the field calculations are:
• Total number of conductors, including the neutral.

• Line voltage in kV.
• Vertical height for sensing the magnetic field.
• Vertical height for sensing the electric field.
• Horizontal distance of the conductor from the reference.
• Vertical distance of the conductor from the reference.
• Number of sub conductors in a group.
• Distance between the sub conductors.
• Sub conductor diameter.
• Phase angle of the voltage applied to each conductor.
• The current through in phase conductor.
• Location of the horizontal starting point for the calculation.
• The distance increment for the calculations.
i k
2.8M
«0
2.8M ° i
^
2.8M
23 4M
•T
15. 9M FAc
I 18 4M
13. 4 M 1
>r >r T ™ ^
Figure 14.5 230 kV Tower Configuration for Single Circuit

>
3.85M
r ~1
>k 4.1M
A
OO A o'o A
5.3M
_ B
O'O B
o'o c
4.4M
-x-o'o c
O
V 31. 3M
se
I
.3M 3|
i^ 400mm
|C-
t
22 M
26. 3M
>f I V W <^
Figure 14.6 230 kV Tower Configuration for Double Circuit
14.4.1 Mitigation Approaches for Overhead Lines
Magnetic field - There are several approaches available for the reduction of
magnetic fields near the overhead transmission lines. Each approach has its own
merits and drawbacks. The magnetic field produced is a function of phase current,
geometry of the phase conductors and shield wires. Some of the available methods
for the reduction of the magnetic field are:
• A perfectly balanced three-phase system will reduce the magnetic field.
• The closer the phase conductors, the lesser the magnetic field. But the distance
between the conductors is decided based on the system voltage.
• The conductor height from the ground level is an important factor in the
magnetic field level. The larger the distance of the phase conductor from the
ground, the lesser will be the magnetic field at the ground level. However, the
conductor clearance is related to the system voltage and cost of the tower.
• In double circuit lines, the spacing (ABC, ABC versus ABC, CBA) plays an
important role in reducing the magnetic field. The ABC, CBA scheme
produces lesser reactance and cancellation of some magnetic fields, resulting in
the reduced field at the ground level. Also, the direction of the current in the
double circuit line is another factor in the magnetic field production.

• Counterpoise or guard conductors can be placed very close to the phase
conductors in order to shield the magnetic field. This approach is suitable for
controlling the fields in limited areas, such as a highway crossing.
Electric field - The electric field is produced due to the phase voltage and there are
only limited approaches to minimize the effect of electric fields. Some of them are:
• In the double circuit configuration, the low reactance connection (ABC, CBA)
provides a lower electric field at ground level.
• Increasing the right of way.
• Increasing the conductor height.
Example 14.1 - Consider a three-phase, four wire 230 kV ac circuit as shown in

Figure 14.5. The conductor and tower configurations are:

Type of conductor 741 kcmil, AAAC 5/16EHS
Calculate the electric and magnetic fields due to the three phase circuit at a height
of 1.5 meters from the ground level. The phase currents are 500 A.
Solution - The input parameters for the calculation of the electric fields using a
computer-aided analysis is shown in List 14.1. The problem is solved using the
Corona and Field Effects Program from Bonneville Power Administration [4].
List 14.1 Input Data for the Field Calculations

(Corona and Field Effects Program)
NO. OF COND DIA SUB CON KV RMS PHASE CURRENT
COND DIST X DIST Y SUB.CON IM MM DIS. MM PH.-GND ANGLE KA
TH.A-1 0 15.9 1 25.146 0 132.8 0 0.5
'PH.B-1 5.6 18.4 1 25.146 0 132.8 240 0.5
'PH.C-1 5.6 13.4 1 25.146 0 132.8 120 0.5
'PH.N-1 2.8 23.4 1 7.925 0 0.8 0 0
The data for the three-phase conductors and the corresponding position in the tower
with respect to Figure 14.5 are shown in the input data. Also, the starting point, the
height for monitoring the electric and magnetic fields are chosen. The calculated

electric field magnitudes and the angles are displayed in List 14.2.
List 14.2 Program Output of the Electric Field Calculations

(Output from the Corona and Field Effects Program)
Distance E-Field Theta Ey-Field Theta Ex-Field Theta Sp. Poten

Meters kV/m Deg kV/m Deg kV/m Deg Volt
0 0.755 87.20 0.754 -115.5 0.193 -35.9 1121.9
3 0.889 84.60 0.886 -87.6 0.195 -21.7 1311.2
6 1.022 88.00 1.021 -68.6 0.135 6.3 1503.2
9 1.002 92.70 1.001 -56.0 0.107 60.3 1480.1
12 0.850 96.10 0.845 -45.3 0.118 94.3 1259.4
15 0.661 97.70 0.655 -34.8 0.107 110.5 982.7
18 0.499 98.00 0.494 -24.2 0.083 121.9 744.1
21 0.379 97.60 0.376 -13.9 0.060 132.2 566.6
24 0.294 96.90 0.292 -4.5 0.042 142.2 440.3
27 0.234 96.30 0.232 3.8 0.030 151.8 349.9
The calculated electric field alon g the X direction is shown in Figure 14.7.
1°
-*- —*.
E 1 X" ^s.
>
^ nQ ^S
^
^v
TJ
0> p, p.
\^\*s
iZ
o
c \^
' n4
u] n i ^^
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance, Meters
Figure 14.7 The Calculated Electric Field in kV/m
It can be seen that the electric field decreases very rapidly as the distance increases
from the tower and the conductors. The maximum electric field observed in this 230
kV, single circuit case is 1.022 kV/m. The magnetic field calculations are
performed and the output is shown in List 14.3.

List 14.3 Program Output for the Magnetic Field Calculations
Distance B-Field Theta By-Field ThetaY Bx-Field ThetaX

Meter Gauss Deg Gauss Deg Gauss Deg
0 0.0284 85.7 0.0284 -27.1 0.0160 57.7
3 0.0300 113.1 0.0284 -15.5 0.0198 97.2
6 0.0290 141 0.0228 3.2 0.0251 120
9 0.0257 167.2 0.0173 33.2 0.0253 134
12 0.0213 -170.2 0.0152 63.4 0.0212 146.5
15 0.0171 -152.2 0.0139 83.3 0.0163 159.7
18 0.0136 -138.6 0.0121 96.2 0.0124 173
21 0.0108 -128.9 0.0101 105.7 0.0097 185
24 0.0087 -122.6 0.0084 113.3 0.0078 195.1
27 0.0071 -119 0.0069 119.8 0.0064 203.2
The magnetic field is plotted along the X axis in Figure 14.8. It can be seen that
the magnetic field decreases in the horizontal direction away from the tower. The
maximum magnetic field observed in this 230 kV single circuit case is 30 mG.
10 15 20
Distance, Meters
Figure 14.8 Magnetic Field of the 230 kV Single Circuit

14.5 FIELDS DUE TO UNDERGROUND CABLES
For underground cables the magnetic field computations are complex due to the
presence of solid dielectric and grounded shields [1]. When the shield is grounded,
a path will be provided for the induced currents to circulate. This type of
construction will increase the losses, but decrease the electromagnetic field
produced by the underground cable conductors. The magnetic field equations
without the image terms and with no shield currents are:
3 n
B X = Z (-2x10° )lJ -rH (14.11)
-3 (x"x~)
By = Z (-2x10 ) In (14.12)
rn2
In is the current from each cable in phase quantities.
Type of underground circuits - There are several cable configurations used for the
distribution system, high voltage system and extra high voltage system depending
on the system voltage and the power to be transmitted. Typical systems are
discussed below from the EMF point of view.
Solid dielectric cable - In this system, three single conductor cables are placed in a
conduit or directly buried in a backfill material. Each phase conductor is insulated
with PVC or equivalent material, then covered with a thermo-setting semi
conducting material which is bonded to the insulation. This bundle is then covered
with a shield and wrapped with a jacket.
Paper insulated, extruded dielectric cables - This type of cable system consisting
of either three single cables or one bundle of three conductor cable is used for
distribution applications. The three-phase cables consist of sector shaped
conductors, each insulated with paper and shielded with metallic tapes. All three
phases are then assembled together with shield and jacket arrangement.
Self-contained oil filled cables - The three-phase cables are placed in a pipe and
oil is filled. The oil is circulated in a low-pressure situation and is used up to 230
kV levels. The steel pipe provides a short circuit for the flux lines and hence the
EMF effects are reduced.
High-pressure oil filled pipe type cables - This system consists of a steel pipe,

into which three isolated cables covered with sheath are placed in position. Oil is
filled into the pipe and will be circulated under pressure to effectively cool the
cables. Because the pipe short circuits the field flux lines, the EMF produced due to
this type of cable system will be very small.
High-pressure gas filled cables - In this system each phase conductor consists of
two concentric pipes, the inner being the conductor and the outer containing the gas
insulation. The outer casing depends on the specific installation.
To demonstrate the application of cables with respect to the field problem, two
cable sections arranged in cable trays are shown in Figure 14.9 .and 14.10
respectively. In Figure 14.9, six cables are utilized in horizontal position and two
cables per phase are used in parallel. The conductors are placed in ABC, ABC
configuration. In Figure 14.10, the conductors are placed in ABC, CBA
configuration. In this arrangement there will be a certain amount of field
cancellation.
Example 14.2 - Consider a cable tray carrying six cables arranged in the sequence
ABC, ABC. The line voltage of the cables is 13.8 kV. The phase currents in various
conductors are 1368 A, 1681 A, 1667 A, 1366 A, 1684 A and 1324 A. The sensors
to monitor the electric and magnetic field are installed at a height of 2 meters above
the ground level. Prepare the input data for the calculation of the electric and
magnetic fields. Calculate both the electric and magnetic fields and show the plots
as a function of distance. The sheath and the tray current are ignored.
0.51'
A) fB) (C) (A) (B) (C
Figure 14.9 Cable Conductors with ABC, ABC Arrangement in a Tray

The Input data are prepared and shown in List 14.4 for the field calculations.
0.511
Figure 14.10 Cable Conductors with ABC, CBA Arrangement in a Tray
List 14.4 Input Data for Field Calculations for Example 14.2
NO. OF COND DIA SUB CON KV RMS PHASE CURRENT PHASE
COND. DIST X DIST Y SUB.CON IN MM DIS. MM PH.-GND ANGLE KA ANGLE
PH.A-1 0.17 15 1 1.151 0 7.968 0 1.368 0
PH.B-1 0.5 15 1 1.151 0 7.968 240 1.681 240
PH.C-1 0.83 15 1 1.151 0 7.968 120 1.667 120
PH.A-2 1.17 15 1 1.151 0 7.968 0 1.366 0
PH.B-2 1.5 15 1 1.151 0 7.968 240 1.684 240
PH.C-2 1.83 15 1 1.151 0 7.968 120 1.324 120
The data for the six cables and the corresponding position in the tray with respect to
Figure 14.9 are shown in the input data. The calculated electric field magnitudes
and the angles are displayed in List 14.5.
List 14.5 Calculated Electric Field at a Height of 2 Meters

Ref. E-Field Theta Ey-Field Theta Ex-Field Theta Sp. Poten
Meters kV/m Deg kV/m Deg kV/m Deg Volt
0 0.098 117.2 0.094 -135.2 0.081 -33.1 153.1
3 0.104 67.6 0.099 -93.6 0.072 -22.9 156.1
6 0.109 87.3 0.109 -76.5 0.033 5.4 164.1
9 0.096 101.6 0.094 -73.1 0.023 72.8 153.6
12 0.078 109.7 0.074 -73.8 0.027 98.4 131.3
15 0.062 113.5 0.057 -75.6 0.025 105.2 107.4
18 0.049 114.8 0.045 -77.6 0.021 107.2 86.6
21 0.039 114.6 0.036 -79.5 0.016 107.5 69.8
24 0.031 113.8 0.029 -81.4 0.013 107 56.6
27 0.026 112.6 0.024 -83.1 0.01 106.1 46.3
The electric field is plotted in Figure 14.11 along the X-axis to show the decay of
the field with the distance.
10 15 20 25 30
Distance, Meters
Figure 14.11 Calculated Electric Field of the Six Cables in kV/m
As can be seen, the electric field is relatively smaller, since this is a 13.8 kV cable
system. The field magnitude decreases as the observer moves away from the cable
location. The magnetic field is calculated and the magnitudes and the angles are
displayed in List 14.6.
List 14.6 Calculated Magnetic Field at a Height of 2 Meters

Distance B-Field Theta By-Field ThetaY Bx-Field ThetaX
Meter Gauss Deg Gauss Deg Gauss Deg
0 0.2278 161.9 0.0803 -27.8 0.2169 183.8
3 0.2361 -177.6 0.0356 252.2 0.2359 177.7
6 0.2163 -158.6 0.0818 192.4 0.2016 174.7
9 0.1853 -143.9 0.1099 183.1 0.1499 173.9
12 0.1559 -133.3 0.1137 180.5 0.1070 174
15 0.1320 -125.7 0.1073 179.6 0.0771 174.5
18 0.1132 -120.1 0.0979 179.3 0.0569 175.1
21 0.0985 -116 0.0886 179.4 0.0432 175.7
24 0.0869 -112.8 0.0801 179.5 0.0336 176.2
27 0.0776 -110.2 0.0728 179.6 0.0268 176.7
The magnetic field is plotted in Figure 14.12 along the X-axis to show the decay of
the field with the distance. The maximum magnetic field calculated for the example
14.2 is 236.2 mG. This is a significant magnitude, since the currents through the
cables are over 1 kA per phase.

—~-\
0
0.2000 -
\.
•o
0) 0.1500 -
^x^
iZ
o "\~^
0.1000 -
1
O)
(0 ^~^
0.0500
0.0000 -
(D 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance, Meter
Figure 14.12 Magnetic Field due to the Six Cables
14.5.1 Mitigation Approaches for Underground Cables
Magnetic field - The underground lines that effectively shield the magnetic field is
the oil-filled pipe type cables. The steel pipe surrounding the cable circuit provides
a short circuiting path for the magnetic flux lines. In the case of distribution cables,
sometimes the sheaths are grounded at regular intervals. In such systems, there will
be a current flow in the sheaths in the opposite direction to that of the phase
currents. Such a system has reduced magnetic fields. However, the system losses are
increased. Single point grounded sheaths or ungrounded cable circuits have no
means to reduce the magnetic fields. Some of the other approaches to reduce the
magnetic fields are:
• Provide a deeper duct bank.

• Installing a flat steel plate over the duct bank.
• Using a steel conduit instead of PVC material.
• Use of low reactance connection schemes with parallel cable circuits.
Electric field - The electric field is produced due to the phase voltage and there
are only limited approaches to minimize the effect of electric field. In the double
circuit configuration, the low reactance connection (ABC, CBA) produces a
smaller electric field at the ground level.

14.6 THE RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
Electric field versus magnetic field - An electromagnetic field contains both

electric and magnetic fields. In the near field (distance less than one wavelength) the
electric and magnetic fields are decoupled. In a near field, when a transmission line
is energized without a load, the electric field is formed. When a load is connected at
the end of the lines, a magnetic field comes into existence. At high frequencies
(distances greater than one wavelength) the electric and magnetic fields are related
and assume the characteristics of a plane wave with a wave impedance of E/H -
377 Ohm.
Relation between the electric field and charging current - The electric field
induces a surface charge on an exposed conducting body and results in currents
inside the body. The relation between the surface charge density and the surface
electric field (E) is given by:
0 = eO E (14.13)
Local current density J = d cr/dt In an alternating field, if <$ is the angular

frequency. Then:
J =JC080E (14.14)
For a surface area S, the total current (I) is given by:
1 = j(oe0lEds (14.15)
Relation between the magnetic field and the magnetic flux density - The
relation between the magnetic field (H Ampere/m) to the magnetic flux density (B)
is given by:
B =u0urH (14.16)
where J^Q = Permeability of free space, H/m

fJ-r = Relative permeability, H/m
The earth's direct current magnetic flux density is (20 to 50) mT.
Interaction with living organisms - The main process in the production of

circulating currents in the living organism is the direct action of the magnetic field.
These are eddy currents generated due to the time varying magnetic field. Using

Maxwell's equation, in a circular contour with radius R, the electric field (E) and the
flux density (B) are related by:
2 dB
2;iRE =TIR — (14.17)
dt
For a conductivity of V, the induced current density due to a sinusoidal field is
given by:
yRcoB
J =—— (14.18)
In an electric field, the current density depends neither on the tissue conductivity
nor the size of the body. For the magnetic field, the current density depends on the
conductivity and the size of the body.
14.7 CONCLUSIONS
The fundamentals of the electric and magnetic fields due to the overhead
transmission lines and underground cables are discussed in this Chapter. The
limiting values used as the guiding magnitudes in different states are presented. The
approach to the field calculations is presented and discussed. The subject is an
evolving one and is controversial since health issues are related.
PROBLEMS
1. It is claimed that some household appliances such as hair driers are

responsible for the production of a very large magnetic field. A typical hair
drier is 110 V, 60 Hz, 1400 W, single phase and can draw a maximum
current of 12.7 A. Assuming that there is no mitigation measure provided on
this type of unit, calculate the magnetic and electric field and compare the
results with the guideline values. State your conclusions on this problem in
two sentences.
2. Using the single circuit 230 kV systems shown in Figure 14.5, calculate the
electric and magnetic fields at current levels with 0.25 kA, 0.5 kA, 0.75 kA
and 1.0 kA. Compare the results and discuss the observations. What is the
role of the magnitude of the current in the electric and magnetic fields?
3. A three-phase double circuit with four conductors (three-phase conductors

and one ground conductor) per circuit is shown in Figure 14.6. The
conductor and tower configurations are:

Type of conductor 741 kcmil, AAAC 5116 EHS
Phase current, A 800
The horizontal and vertical position of the conductor is shown in Figure
14.6.
4. Using the double circuit 230 kV systems shown in Figure 14.6, calculate the
electric and magnetic fields at current levels with 0.25 kA, 0.5 kA, 0.75 kA
and 0.1 kA. Compare the results and discuss the observations for the ABC,
ABC scheme. What is the role of the magnitude of the current in the electric
and magnetic fields? Repeat the procedure for the ABC, CBA configuration.
Are there any important observations from this study?
5. Calculate the electric and magnetic fields for the 230 kV system shown in
Figure 14.5 using as the height of the lowest conductor 20 meter instead of
13.4 meter. Change the height of the other conductors according the present
spacing requirements. Calculate the electric and magnetic fields for a current
of 0.5 kA and compare the results.
6. What is the difference between the electric field and the magnetic field?
Discuss the health effects due to the field.
7. How can you represent the field problem from a substation? How is the
substation problem different from the transmission line field problem?
REFERENCES
1. A. Angelos, "EMF Concerns and Mitigation Measures," T&D World

Expo, Indianapolis, November 1992, 27 pages.
2. W. L. Gotten, K. C. Ramsing and C. Cau, "Design Guidelines for

Reducing Electromagnetic Field Effects from 60 Hz Electrical Power
Systems," IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Vol. 30, No. 6,
November/December 1994, pp. 1462-1471.
3. K. Fitzgerald and I. Nair, "Electromagnetic Fields: the Jury's Still Out,"

IEEE Spectrum, August 1990, pp. 22-35.
4. Corona and Field Effects Program, Version 3, Bonneville Power

Administration, Portland, Oregon.

15
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Computer-aided data acquisition systems are very useful in several areas of the
power system such as:
• Steady state instrumentation

• Transient analysis
Steady state data acquisition - In a power system, the steady state power flow
quantities such as voltages, currents, real power, reactive power and power factor
are important at the given bus location. In a generating station, the terminal voltage,
currents, real power, reactive power, power factor, speed, field voltage and field
current must be known. Until a few years back, electromechanical or electronic
instrumentation was used to display the required quantities. In generating stations
and other substations, the instrumentation panels occupy considerable space.
Further, the use of display panel meters is suitable for only steady state readings.
The data has been entered into the logbooks manually for future use. In a computer-
aided data acquisition scheme, the steady state readings can be acquired
simultaneously from various instrument locations and can be saved for future
analysis. The space required for such a system and operator effort will be very
minimal. The computer-aided data acquisition offers good accuracy throughout the
range of measurement.

Transient analysis - The power system transients can be initiated by events such as
circuit breaker switching, lightning, loss of load, faults, trapped energy in
inductance or capacitance elements, discharge of static charges, restriking,
ferroresonance, inrush current, DC current chopping, neutral instability and other
disturbances. These transients may be in the form of voltage or current fluctuations.
In a real power system, the transient may result in the failure of components and it is
sometimes difficult to trace the origin of the disturbance. Using a data acquisition
system, the transients can be recorded and analyzed.
15.2 THE HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
A block diagram of a typical data acquisition system is shown in Figure 15.1. The
sensor or the transducer is a device to convert the power system quantity to be
measured to a voltage signal that can be handled by the computer system. The input
signals are derived from sensors installed in the power system to be monitored.
Typical sensors used in the power system applications are:
Voltage Current Real power flow

Reactive power Power factor Temperature
Speed Torque
Personal Data
Printer Computer Storage
Signal Condr = Signal Conditioner
Figure 15.1 Block Diagram of a Typical Data Acquisition System

The sensor output voltages are measured after passing through the signal
conditioners, multiplexer and the A/D converter.
Signal conditioner - The electrical signals generated by the sensor often need
conditioning before they can be measured by an analog to digital converter. The
signal from the sensor may require amplification, filtering, and/or linearization
before further processing. Some sensors require an excitation source or biasing
before measurement. A typical example is a torque sensor, which requires its own
power supply in order to generate an output proportional to the rotor torque.
Usually, the conditioning of the signal is performed at the data acquisition board or
at the sensor.
Multiplexer - The signal from a sensor can be measured using an analog to digital
converter. In a power system the number of signals to be monitored are too many
and it is not economical to have an analog to digital converter for each channel.
Instead a multiplexer can be used to switch scanning each sensor-input channel and
connecting the input to the selected analog to digital converter channel. Both the
multiplexer and the analog to digital converter are timed using the ac power supply.
Usually, a multiplexer is suitable for switching 16 signals.
Analog to digital converter (A/D) - The analog to digital converter is used to

measure the selected sensor input voltage and produce a corresponding digital
output. In analyzing the A/D converter for the data acquisition applications, the
number of input channels, input voltage levels, nature of the signal grounding
(single ended or differential), sample speed and the resolution are to be considered.
15.2.1 Personal Computer and Associated Hardware
In addition to the sensors, signal conditioners and data acquisition boards

containing the multiplexer, a personal computer with suitable memory is required
for processing the data and computations. Depending on the type of data acquisition
analysis, the computer resources can be selected. If the data is to be transmitted
from a remote site to an office location, then a modem and telephone line access
may be required. One of the common sources of errors in data acquisition is due to
the input wiring conditions. In order to maintain the data accuracy the user must
provide suitable grounding at the input signal. There are two different approaches of
grounding the input signal as described below.
Single-ended input configuration - If the signal source is not grounded, then a

single ended input can be used as shown in Figure 15.2. Since only one input wire is
required from each signal, this type of connection can measure twice the number of
inputs using a differential configuration.

To A/D
t
Input Signal
Computer Ground
nn
Figure 15.2 Single-Ended Input Signal Configuration
To A/D
Common
Signal ^ V V V~| Computer Ground
Lead R
Ground I
Figure 15.3 Differential Input Signal Configuration
Differential input configuration - If the signal sources have individual local

ground, then the differential mode of connection is used as shown in Figure 15.3. In
this type of connection, the voltage differences known as common mode voltage
exist between the source ground and the computer ground. If a signal source with a
local ground is connected to a single-ended input, then the common voltage appears
in series with the input signal, causing errors in the output. With a differential
connection, only the source voltage is amplified and the common mode voltage is
rejected.
15.3 DATA ACQUISITION SOFTWARE
The data acquisition can be performed in a spreadsheet, word processor, text

format, database or interactively on a windows program. Based on this, the data
acquisition software can be classified into turnkey, language interface, add-on tools,
source coded programs and virtual instrumentation [1]. A brief explanation of these
items is given below.
Turnkey software - These programs are designed for specific applications and may
have graphical interface or data display options. Often the display may emulate a
standalone instrument. The user of the software can monitor the performance of a
specific function with the use of the turnkey software. The program is not suitable

for any other application. The user can operate this type of program with limited
training.
Language interface software - This is a collection of subroutines in conventional

program languages such as Basic, Pascal and C for data acquisition applications.
The programmer can compile and link the program using functional calls. Once the
data is acquired and stored in the memory, the developer performs further analysis
and can create graphics. This type of data acquisition program can be developed to
meet various types of applications.
Add-on tool software - The Visual Basic add on modules are available from
various software companies and these modules can be used in spreadsheet programs
to perform data acquisition functions. This type of approach can result in a better
output display as well as data for future analysis. An example display window of an
add-on tool software in a spreadsheet environment is shown in Figure 15.4 [4].
Such software gives the capability of visualizing the data, analysis and the results in
one window. This type of application is user-specific and is developed as a virtual
instrument. Once the add-on programs are installed in order, then the user can
perform the monitoring activities with little effort.
Figure 15.4 Illustration of an Add-on Software to a Spreadsheet

(Courtesy of Fluke, Reproduced With Permission)

Figure 15.5 Example of a Virtual Instrumentation Display
(Courtesy of National Instruments, Reproduced from Reference 3)
Source code software - When the source code is available, then the developer can
perform various functions to meet the specific applications. The electromagnetic
transients program is an example source code supplied with a hardware or software
key. Usually, the executable versions of the software are provided and the user may
not be able to alter the code.
Virtual instrumentation software - The data acquisition programs can be

modified to display specific instrumentation on the PC monitor. The application can
duplicate the performance of an oscilloscope or analyzer with the additional
capability of data storage for future use and real time analysis. An example output
of virtual instrumentation software is displayed in Figure 15.5. This example was
produced to improve the etching performance by monitoring and controlling the
plasma parameters. Using PC-based virtual instrumentation with data acquisition
software from National Instruments [3], this application was developed.

15.4 DATA COMMUNICATION
The output from the data acquisition board has to be transmitted to the personal
commuter for further processing and storage. Both serial and parallel bus
approaches are commonly used for data transmission. The concept of serial bus is
illustrated in Figure 15.6. In this approach, one byte of data is broken into 8 bits and
is transmitted bit by bit and is assembled again in the receiving end. In this process,
the data get corrupted or lost and other problems may arise in the large-scale data
transfer. Therefore, there were several improvements performed over the serial bus
concept and hence several versions of the bus are available. The concept of parallel
bus is shown in Figure 15.7. In this method, there are eight wires connected
between the sending and receiving end and the bits are transferred simultaneously.
Therefore, the data transfer will be fast in this method compared to the serial bus
arrangement and requires more wires and is more expensive. There are several bus
arrangements available for data acquisition applications in both the serial and
parallel configurations as identified below.
Byte Byte
al a2 al a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 al a2
a3 a4 r\
UU nU
r\ U
r\ U c\ n
r\ U n*
UU* a3 a4
a5 a6
a5 a6
a? a8 Sending Receiving a? a8
Rnn ^ ,
Figure 15.6 Serial Bus Communication
:1
' fc
Byte a? ^
Byte
a3 C
al a2 E al a2 Receiving
Sending
End a3 a4 E
w a3 a4 End
a5 a6 fe a5 a6
w
a'7 fe a? a8
al a8
a8 E
w
Figure 15.7 The Concept of Parallel Bus Configuration

16 Bit Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus - This is a parallel bus
developed by IBM in 1981 for PC applications and was improved later. The
characteristics of the ISA bus are presented in Table 15.1.
MicroChannel (MCA) - IBM introduced this concept in 1987 and the

specifications are presented in Table 15.1. Because of the high cost and other
factors, this type of bus is not widely used.
Peripheral Component Interface (PCI) - This bus was released in 1992 and
provides higher processing throughput. The typical characteristics are presented in
Table 15.1.
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) bus -

This bus was developed to add additional memory to portable computers. Now the
same interface bus is used to add input/output peripherals and disk devices. The
specifications of the PCMCIA interface bus are presented in Table 15.1.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) - The USB was developed to run multiple peripherals
without adding additional boards and performing program changes. With a USB
bus up to 127 individual peripheral devices can be added. The USB bus
automatically takes care of the power requirements and eliminates the need for
power supply to each peripheral device. Also, the USB provides a two-way
communication channel between the PC and the peripheral devices. Usually, one or
two USB ports are attached to the motherboard of the PC and then multiple devices
can be connected to the system using USB hubs and repeaters. The USB cable must
be less than 5 meters in length and has a maximum speed of 12 Mb/s. This bus is
used to connect key boards, mouse, bar code readers and printers to a PC. The same
USB can be used for data acquisition applications.
RS-232: This protocol was introduced in 1960 and is widely used for data transfer.
Since the data through a single wire is vulnerable to degradation, RS-232 systems
are recommended over short distances up to 50 feet and at speeds up to 20 kb/s.
This bus can be used for data acquisition applications and there are improved
versions. Then the RS-422 protocol was later developed with expandable protocol
strength of the serial bus. It enables the serial data to be transmitted over great
distances (4,000 feet) at very high speeds (10 Mb/s). Further development in this
area is the serial bus RS-485 which was designed to address the problem of
communication between multiple devices on a single data line. Some of the
specifications of the RS-232 and associated buses are presented in Table 15.2.

Table 15.1 Specifications of Various Buses
Type of Clock Bus Max. Transfer
Bus Signal Width Rate Advantages Disadvantages
ISA 8 MHz (*) 16 bit 8Mb/s Low cost Low speed
Widely used Jumper, switch
MicroChannel 10 MHz 32 bit 40 Mb/s Better speed High cost
PCI 33 MHz 32 bit 132Mb/s High speed Can cost more
PCMCIA 10 MHz 16 bit 20 Mb/s For laptops Slower than PCI
(*) = Clock cycles per data transfer
Table 15.2 Specifications of RS-232 and Associated Bus Types
Specification RS-232 RS-422 RS-485

Drivers per line 1 1 32
Receivers per line 1 10 32
Maximum cable length, feet 500 4000 4000
Maximum data rate 20, kb/s 10, Mb/s 10, Mb/s
Maximum output voltage, Volt +/-25 -0.25 to +6 -7 to +12
Load impedance, kilo-Ohm (3 to 7) 100 54
Slew rate, Volts/microsecond 30 N/A N/A
Receiver input voltage, Volt +/-15 -7 to +7 -7 to +12
Receiver input sensitivity +/-3, Volt +/- 200 mV +/- 200 mV
Receiver input resistance, k-Ohm (3 to 7} 4 12
15.5 DATA ANALYSIS
Depending on the type of data acquisition, the acquired data will be stored
immediately. In the cases of steady state analysis, the additional parameters required
for the analysis can be calculated and displayed. In the case of transient analysis, the
time domain plots can be produced from the raw data. If a frequency domain
analysis is required, it can be performed using the menu options available from the
program. Any other data analysis required by the user can be performed in the same
computer or in a different computer. A typical time and frequency domain analysis
of a voltage signal is shown in Figures 15.10 and 15.11.
15.6 SPECIAL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
Portable mini-data acquisition systems - There are many applications where

the data is to be collected, analyzed for both the time domain and frequency
domain results. An oscilloscope or a spectrum analyzer may serve the purpose,
but this equipment is heavy from a handling point of view and needs

adjustment/calibration. The scope meters such as the one marketed by Fluke [4]
are very useful in such measurements and an example 15.1 is presented (see page
314).
Wireless data acquisition systems - In this type of system, the data are
transferred in real-time through a secured frequency link to a wireless modem
connected to the microcomputer. Its wireless design enables it to transmit through
buildings, walls and floors and makes it convenient for remote locations. The
wireless system is a new class of data acquisition tool that uses a highly noise-
immune radio transmission technique, instead of wire and cables, to transmit real
time data to a host computer. The wireless logger is ideally suited for real time,
PC-based data acquisition applications where quick, convenient setup in difficult
or hostile areas is important. One of the units marketed by Fluke [4] has the
following features:
• Transmit real time data up to 1/4-mile (402 m) away without wires.

• Avoid the high cost of wiring.
• System supports up to 20 wireless logger satellites.
• 20 Analog input channels expandable up to 400 channels.
• Microsoft Windows based application software.
• Extensive optional plotting and trending capabilities.
• 900 MHz and 2.46 GHz models available.
• No site license required.
The base unit consists of a wireless modem and a data logger for windows
application software which supports up to 20 satellite instruments from a single
base station. The software offers increased efficiency by allowing the PC to
gather data in the background, while freeing the user to work with a word
processor, spreadsheet or other program in the foreground.
Portable data acquisition systems - There is a need for portable data

acquisition systems for field measurements. There are several units available
from various manufacturers. These units are supported by portable laptop
computers and required sensing equipment. The units must be rugged and able to
operate in diverse environments. The operating range has to be 0 to 60°C and has
to be tested to stringent shock and vibration standards. Also, the metal chassis
must be effectively shielded against electromagnetic interference, maintaining
high measurement accuracy on low-level signals. The analog circuitry has to be
isolated from the digital circuitry so one can measure high voltages directly up to
300Vacrms[4].
Networked data acquisition systems - There is a need for large-scale data

acquisition systems, where hundreds of channels are available for data collection

and processing. In such cases, the building blocks of one unit can be expanded
into integrated systems of up to 400 channels. The distributed network systems
plug right into the existing networks to send data directly to a PC. This saves the
cost of setting up a new network and allows multiple users to simultaneously
view data in real time. Sometimes a network unit can also be used as a portable
dedicated system connected to a notebook computer for maintenance, product
validation, research and troubleshooting applications. The features of a network
data logger based on Fluke's [4] specifications are:
• Data acquisition, up to 1,000 readings per second.

• 20 Analog input channels expandable up to 400 channels.
• Extensive optional plotting and trending capabilities.
• Optional wall, cabinet or rack mounting.
• May be connected to Ethernet networks.
• Replaces chart recorders.
These large-scale data acquisition systems are suitable for power system
monitoring and control applications.
Internet-based data acquisition systems - The data acquisition is always a

local event with the sensors and the conversion units. Once the data are acquired,
instead of analyzing the data on site, the data can be transmitted to various
locations for processing and analysis. The utilization of space shuttles and
satellites for data collection is a common event for global problems. The Internet
is a viable tool for such a data transfer. A one-line diagram of such a system is
shown in Figure 15.8. The data are collected at the remote location and
transmitted to the control center using radio frequency or other means. After
suitable data verification, the data are loaded to the host computer, which is
connected to the Internet. The various applications or processing scientists access
these data for further analysis from remote locations. The use of the Internet in
data communication makes the entire process very attractive.
Remote
Data
Acquisition Site
Communication
RF Through
Internet
Transmission
Control Host
Center ^ Server
Figure 15.8 The Concept of Data Acquisition and Analysis Using the Internet

NODE NODE NODE NODE NODE NODE
600 800 FOO DOO 500 1600
\ X X X X \
NODE NODE NODE NODE NODE NODE

300 100 200 BOO 2000 400
-V- \
\ GROUND
\ \ \ \
NODE NODE CONDUCTOR #2/0 NODE NODE

1800 1100 700 900
,(\ •x. •v i
X. X *^^^ "^ MAIN^
LOCAL
NODE NODE NODE GROUNC
GROUND
1700 1000 1400
Figure 15.9 One Line Diagram of the Power System
15.7 PRACTICAL DATA ACQUISITION EXAMPLES
Example 15.1 - Show the data acquisition application using a scope meter. This
example is about the power and grounding audit of an industrial facility using a
scope meter for time and frequency domain analysis.
The power and grounding audit consists of checking each and every power and
grounding connection in an industrial facility. This is complicated when the
system is a looped distributed network from the reliability point of view.
Practical measurements were made in a system shown in Figure 15.9 [5]. The
voltage measurements were made using a hand-held digital multi-meter. The
current measurements were made using clamp-on current transducers along with
a digital multi-meter. The neutral current waveforms were measured using Fluke's
scope meter. The data was down loaded to a laptop computer and plotted using a
spreadsheet program. The line to neutral voltage, line to ground voltage, the neutral
to ground voltage in the ground loop, the neutral to ground voltage in the local
circuit, the ground current in the loop ground circuit and the ground current in the
local ground circuit were measured. Also, the waveform analysis of the neutral
currents was performed.
A typical measured ground current using the Fluke's scope meter is shown in Figure
15.10. In this waveform, the time between the peak to peak (one cycle) is
approximately 5.5 ms. This is the typical third harmonics at 180 Hz. The
magnitudes are very small. The corresponding frequency domain analysis is shown
in Figure 15.11. The dominant harmonics are due to the third at 180 Hz (third
harmonic) and at 300 Hz (fifth harmonic).

200
150 -
100 -
050-
000-
3-° 050-
-0 100-
-0 150 -
-0 200
-0.020 -0.010 0.000 0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050
Time, ms
Figure 15.10 Measured Neutral Current Waveform
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
16 24 32
Frequency Number
Figure 15.11 Frequency Domain Analysis of the Neutral Current
This example shows that the scope meter is a useful tool for conducting a few
measurements and analysis. Also, the scope meter can be a valuable device for
troubleshooting and field measurement where on-the-spot measurements are
needed.

Example 15.2 - In this example an oscilloscope is used to measure the transient
waveforms and then the data are transferred to a portable computer for further
analysis and storage. For complete details see Reference [6].
Conventionally time-domain plots of transient signals were obtained using

voltage and current sensors and were observed with the aid of an X-Y plotter for
slow transients, an analog oscilloscope with provision to record images or a
digital storage oscilloscope with provision to store data. In all of these cases, the
data are displayed in the time domain and it is difficult to do any further analysis.
As a result of improved performance and decreasing costs, microcomputer-based
data acquisition systems are used for the transient analysis. In this study, a
high-voltage power supply and pulse-forming networks generate the transients.
With this setup the transient immunity of vanstor protected equipment can be
evaluated. To evaluate the transient immunity of any appliance, three basic circuits
are recommended by IEEE standard 587. One of the waveforms is a 0.5
microsecond, 10 kHz ring wave, suitable for medium impedance loads.
The circuit diagram used to generate the ring wave and the resulting waveform as
recommended by the standard is shown in Reference [6]. The high-voltage power
supply of this setup can deliver a variable dc voltage of up to 10 kV. This supply
can be used to charge any one of the three IEEE Standard 587 circuits. When the
charging is completed, the test voltage can be isolated using the appropriate switch
and the voltage pulse can be delivered to the output terminals upon actuation of the
surge switch. For the studies described here, the load resistance is 122 Ohms.
The voltage across the load or varistor was measured with a high-voltage probe.
The current probe monitored the current through the varistor. Both signals were
displayed on a storage oscilloscope and the waveforms recorded using a Polaroid
camera. Also, the displayed results were transferred to the personal computer
through the GPIB bus for further analysis and data storage.
The digitizing oscilloscope was operated in triggered mode, with the trigger event
coming from the observed transient. In this mode, samples of the input are
continuously acquired until the external trigger event occurs. Upon triggering, the
input data can be viewed both before and after the trigger event. Through menu
selections on the oscilloscope control panel, 64 data points were selected for pre-
trigger events. The remaining 1984 sample points occurred after the trigger event
for each channel. After the oscilloscope captured the transient event, it was
transferred to the personal computer through the GPIB bus. A GPIB interface card
plugged into an expansion slot of the PC provided this capability. The
manufacturer of the adapter card provided necessary routines and illustrative
software programs.

VARISTOR VOLTAGE H120 . VARISTOR CURRENT
2
w
aL 80
D
0
200 J 40 -i
0 0
-200 -40
-400 -80
-600 10 MICROSECOND/DIV -120 10 MICROSECOND/DIV
Figure 15.12 Voltage Across the Varistor and the Current Through the Varistor
In order to show the usefulness of this approach, Figure 15.12 shows the voltage
across the varistor and the corresponding varistor current waveform. The first peak
of the voltage wave is approximately 600 V, with a corresponding varistor current
ofover 100 A.
15.8 CONCLUSIONS
Computer-aided data acquisition systems are critical for the successful monitoring
and operation of the integrated power system. The steady state and transient state
data are acquired depending on the system requirement. The hardware requirements
of typical data acquisition systems are sensors, signal conditioners, multiplexer,
analog to digital converter, communication bus and a microcomputer with suitable
memory. The communication buses are either serial bus or parallel bus. Serial buses
are commonly used in the application of the data acquisition systems. The parallel
buses are somewhat expensive but are faster. Depending on the type of input signal
and grounding, the signal can be connected as a single ended or in differential
mode. There are programs available to perform turnkey software, language interface
software, add-on tool software, source code software and virtual instrumentation
software. The time and frequency domain analysis is commonly performed from the
analysis point of view. Some examples of the data acquisition applications are
presented.
PROBLEMS
1. What are the basic components of a data acquisition system?
2. What are the different types of software available to perform data collection?

3. The conventional analog to digital converter used in a data acquisition board is
16-bit type. The data acquisition system can be used in a 16 input or 8 input
application. What is the accuracy in each of the applications?
4. Consider a wind farm with a 250 kW induction generator supplying the output
at 480 V, three-phase. The step up transformer is 1 MVA, 480 V/13/8 kV,
delta/wye connected. There is a need to monitor the overall performance of this
generator and the generated power supplied to the grid. Design a data
acquisition system identifying the sensors and the channels required.
5. A data acquisition system is described in Reference [7] for collecting vibration

signals from an ac induction motor. A digital oscilloscope was used to display
the data. The data is then transferred to a PC using a RS-232 bus and stored.
Using a Basic program, the data were plotted in time domain and analyzed in
the frequency domain. With unlimited resources, suggest a data acquisition
system for this application based on current technology.
REFERENCES
1. G. Kaplan, "Data Acquisition Software for Engineers and Scientists",

Spectrum, May 1995, pp. 2339.
2. P. Schrieier, "Spreadsheet Add-ins: Not Bleeding Edge, But Still Extremely

Useful," Evaluation Engineering, April 2001.
3. P. I. Klimecky, "Real Time Feedback Control of Plasma Etching Chambers

Using LabView: DAQ Designer 2000," National Instruments, 2000.
4. Fluke Data Acquisitions systems, www.f1uke.com, Internet Reference.
5. R. Natarajan, J. Oravsky and R. W. Gelgard, "Conducting a Power and

Grounding Audit," Power Quality Assurance, September 1999, pp. 16-21.
6. R. Natarajan, and C. L. Croskey, "A Microcomputer Based Data Acquisition

System for Power System Transient Analysis," Laboratory Microcomputer,
Vol. 8, No.2, Pages 53-58, 1989.
7. J. N. Tomlinson, R.Natarajan, C. J. Bise, "Microcomputer Based Data

Analysis of Vibrations from an AC Induction Motor Suitable for Predictive
Maintenance Applications," Laboratory Microcomputer, Vol. 9, No.3, pp.
81-87, 1990.

16
RELAY COORDINATION STUDIES
16.1 INTRODUCTION
In a power system, the protective devices are used to protect the system in the
event of a fault. The function of protective devices in a power system is to detect
system disturbances and isolate the disturbance by activating the appropriate
circuit-interrupting devices. A protection coordination study is required to
properly select the protective devices and specify the necessary settings so that
the intended goals will be achieved. In the classical studies, the time current
coordination was performed using the manual methods. With the introduction of
personal computers in the workplace along with software to perform the
coordination functions, computer-aided approaches are now used. Selectivity,
coordination, speed and reliability are the important features of the protection
devices as explained below [1,2].
Selectivity - For a protective system, a general term describing the interrelated

performance of relays and other protective devices, whereby a minimum amount
of equipment is removed from service for isolation of a fault or other
abnormality. Selectivity is a desirable characteristic in any protection scheme.
However, it is not always possible to obtain the desired degree of system and
equipment protections in a selective fashion. Usually an optimum setting is
achieved for satisfactory performance.

Coordination - This term is sometimes used to describe a reasonable
compromise based on an engineering evaluation, between the mutually desirable
but competing objectives of maximum system protection and maximum circuit
current availability. The protective device ratings and settings recommended
from an exercise must be the best balance between these factors.
Speed - Speed is the ability of the relay to operate in the required time period.
The speed is important in fault clearing since it has direct impact on the damage
done due to the short circuit current. The ultimate aim of protective relaying is to
disconnect the faulted equipment as quickly as possible.
Reliability - It is important that the protective relaying be reliable. The

reliability of the protective relaying refers to the ability to perform accurately
whenever a fault occurs in the system. The protective relaying and associated
power supplies have to be very reliable and should not fail in the event of a
failure in the power system.
The following is a generally accepted approach for selecting and setting

protective devices:
• A first-zone or primary protective device will remove a faulty circuit as

quickly as possible. This is called primary protection.
• If the primary protection fails, a back-up protective device will remove the
fault. An upstream device that acts as the primary device in its zone usually
provides the back-up function. Therefore, the current coordination is
required between the primary and back-up protective devices.
• The protective device settings are individually chosen to accommodate the

circuit parameters. The criteria used in determining the recommended
settings for the protective devices are based on system currents, allowable
margins and applicable industry standards.
16.2 APPROACH TO THE STUDY
The most convenient way of determining the proper ratings and settings of
protective devices such as low voltage power circuit breakers, fuses and relays is
by plotting the time-current curves. These curves are drawn on standard log-log
graph and illustrate the time-current characteristics of each of the protective
devices as well as the protective criterion to be met. Thus, such curves illustrate
the time-current coordination between devices. Time-current curves are generally
drawn up to the maximum available fault current level for the system being

illustrated. In practical power systems, with the change in the configuration, the
maximum available fault will increase. It is important that the results of the study
be reviewed and updated at periodic intervals.
Although the time-current curves may be drawn, this step is not necessary if the
protective devices involved are all overcurrent relays. Instead, it is possible to
determine the selectivity by comparing at most three critical values of fault
current and the associated relay operating times. Sometimes, the relay settings are
determined based on analytical calculations.
Regardless of the approach used to determine the relay settings, it must be

recognized that the operating time of overcurrent protective relays is not
predictable for magnitudes of current only slightly greater than rated pickup
current. For this reason, definite electromechanical relay time-current
characteristics are rarely shown below 1.5 times pickup and it is this magnitude
of current which is considered the maximum sensitivity when using the analytical
technique. In microprocessor relays, practically any setting is possible depending
on the specific relay and application. In the past, the one line drawings were
prepared in the drawing office. The time current coordination curves were also
prepared in the drawing office. All the required explanations and comments are
presented as required in the drawings.
The primary function of a protective device is to protect the circuits and equipment
during abnormal operating conditions. Therefore, it essential to know the equipment
protection boundaries to determine the necessary settings. The maximum load
current and the short circuit current determine the maximum upper boundaries of
the current sensitivity within which the circuit protective devices must operate. The
required operating boundaries are given by:
• Operating conditions.
• Minimum protection level.
• Equipment withstand level.
Operating conditions - The protective devices must be insensitive to the normal

equipment currents including the full load current, allowable overload current and
starting current. Such data is available for every equipment on the nameplate or
applicable industry standard. The data for some of the common equipment are
discussed below.
Induction motors - The full load current of a motor can be determined from the

following equation:
(hp) (0.746)
I (foil load) = -7= ^^ - (16.1)
V3 (Efficiency) (Power Factor) (kV)
Permissible overload for motors - This is a function of the motor service factor
and temperature. For a service factor of 1.1, the overload capability will be 1.1 per
unit.
Starting current of induction motors - The starting current of an induction motor

will be equal to the locked rotor current. Usually, the locked rotor current will be
equal to six times the rated current. For wound rotor induction motors, the locked
rotor current will be four times the rated current.
Minimum protection requirement - For motors 600 V and below the NEC [3]
requires overload and overcurrent protection. The required overload protection for
motors is given by:
Motors with service factor not less than 1.15 =125%

Motors with temperature rise not over 40 degree C - 125%
All other motors = 115%
Sometimes, additional protection limits are given for multi-speed motors and other
special motors. The phase overcurrent devices are set to trip at the following limits:
Inverse time circuit breaker = 250%

Instantaneous trip circuit breaker = 700%
No time delay fuses = 500%
Dual element time delay fuses = 175%
If the overload and short circuit protection is part of a controller, the short circuit
protection can be set to 1300%.
Motor withstand level - This is the maximum allowable stall time, the time up to
which the motor can continue to operate in stalled condition before damage occurs.
This time is expressed in seconds.
Transformers - The full load current of a transformer can be calculated using the
equation:
kVA
I (full load) = -/= (16.2)
V3(kV)

Permissible overload for transformers - The overload capability of a
transformer depends on the type of cooling and the following classes are available:
AA - Self cooled ventilated dry type AFA - Fan cooled ventilated dry type
OA - Self cooled, oil SA - Self cooled, silicone
VA - Self cooled, vapor CFA - Fan cooled, oil
VFA - Fan cooled, vapor CFOA - Fan and oil pump cooled, oil
The transformer capability is the full load amperes multiplied by the cooling factor
and temperature rise factor, if any.
Transformer inrush current - The transformers draw significant inrush current

during energization. For transformers with fuses in the primary circuit for
protection, the limiting condition has to be observed. The primary fuse has to be
chosen such that the fuse will not melt due to inrush current. Table 16.1 summarizes
the allowable transformer inrush current and the duration as per ANSI Standard
C57.12.
Table 16.1 Transformer Inrush Current and Duration
MVA Inrush Duration, second
<3MVA 8 x Rated current 0.1

>3MVA 12 x Rated current 0.1
Article 240-100 of the 1999 National Electrical Code [3] states that, for
overcurrent protection of feeders above a nominal 600 volts, 'In no case shall the
fuse rating in continuous amperes exceed three times, or the long-time trip
element setting of a breaker six times, the ampacity of the conductor'. The code
contains tables of ampacity ratings published by the Insulated Power Cable
Engineers Association (IPCEA). Article 450-3 of the 1999 NEC provides
detailed requirements for transformer protection. These requirements for
protective device ratings or settings in multiples of full load current are presented
in Table 16.2.

Table 16.2 Maximum Current Ratings for Fuse and Circuit Breakers
Transformer Prims rv Side Transformer Secondary Side
Maximum Above 600 V 600V & Above
Transformer Primary Circuit Breaker Maximum Maximum CB Maximum Maximum
Impedance Voltages Ratino Fpse Rating Rating Fuse Rating CB/Fuse Rating
All 3X 2X None None None
<6% >600 V 6X 3X 3X 2.5X 1.25X
>6% and <10% 4X 3X 2 5X 2 5X 1.25X
All 3X 2.5X None None None
<6% <600 V 6X 6X None None 1.25X
>6% and < 1 0% 4X 4X 2.5X 2 25X 2.25X
It should be noted that NEC code permits a primary feeder protective device to
offer the defined transformer primary protection. In some cases a circuit breaker
and the associated relaying can be used to protect several transformers.
The ANSI curve, which can be shown on the time current curves, represents the
amount of mechanical and thermal stresses a distribution power transformer is
required to withstand without any damage as specified by ANSI Standard
C57.12, 1973 [4]. The ANSI standard C57.109 [5] defines the short circuit
through fault withstand current and time limits for four categories of transformers
(see Table 16.3).
Table 16.3 Transformer Withstand Current and Time Limits [5]
Transformer kVA Through Fault Withstand Capability

Category Single Phase Three Phase Base Current, PL) Time, Seconds
5 to 25 15 to 75 40orl/Zt(l) 1250X
I 37.5 to 100 11 2.5 to 300 35 or l / Z t ( l ) 1250X
167 to 500 500 25 or l / Z t ( l ) 1250X
II 501 to 1667 501 to 5000 1/Zt 2#
III 1668 to 10000 5001 to 3 0000 l/(Zt + Zs) 2#
IV Above 10000 Above 30000 l/(Zt + Zs) 2#
Notes:
(1) - Choose the smaller value
Zt - Transformer impedance in per unit based on self cooled rating
Zs - System per unit impedance on transformer base
X - (Chosen per unit base current)"
# - These points define an I2 t curve in the short time region which is
from 70% to 100% of maximum through fault current for category II
and 50% to 100% for category III and category IV.

Transformer withstand levels - In order to express the damage withstand level,
the current distribution during various type of faults are needed. In the transformer
circuits, the current through winding depends on the type of connection. The
currents through various transformer connections are presented in Figure 16.4.
Table 16.4 The Current Through Transformer Windings During Faulted Conditions
Primary Secy. Factor Primary Secondary Factor.
A^ L-L
0.87 ~~*\ """K
L-L
0.87
AT£ L-G
0.58
-< A
L-L
0.87
L-L L-L
AA 0.87
-£ -£ 0.87
-< -< L-L

0.87
7$ A L-L
0.87
Cables - The full load current is determined by the size of the cable conductor and
the derating factors as given by the industry standards. There are several types of
cables available for the low-voltage, medium-voltage and high-voltage applications.
The overload capability of the cable depends on the installation media and the
loading factor. The permissible overcurrent setting is as per NEC article 240-3,
1999 [3].
16.4 COMPUTER-AIDED CORDINATION ANALYSIS
There are several computer programs available for the protection coordination
analysis of power system applications. Such programs include short circuit analysis
and device time current characteristics. The main purpose of the protective
coordination software is to produce one-line diagrams, calculation of relay settings
and time current coordination drawings. Software will contain features to model
various protective devices, equipment damage curves and store the data for future
use. Using the software, the device characteristics can be called from the library
and used for the coordination studies. These programs are used in the utility,
industrial, commercial and other power supply installations.

Personal computer - A personal computer, either stand alone or connected to a
network with sufficient memory is needed for this type of application. Also, a
good graphical monitor and laser quality printer is required. By performing the
study on a personal computer, several alternatives can be examined before
arriving at the final solution. The data can be stored in the computer for future
use or verification of the calculations. The one-line drawings, TCC and the
output can be printed for a report. Alternatively, these files can be copied and
pasted in word processing documents.
Graphical display - The one-line diagram of the electrical circuit and the device
coordination curves can be displayed on the graphical monitor for demonstration.
Such a display helps to identify the necessary corrections to be performed before
getting a printout of the diagrams or graphs. Also, the one-line drawings can be
prepared with the calculated relay settings. Such an approach eliminates the need to
deal with the drawing office. Further, the graphical drawings can be expanded to
view the details using the zoom function.
One-line diagram - A one-line diagram of the electrical circuit for which the
coordination is performed is always needed for report preparation. The software can
be used to prepare the one-line diagram with the necessary devices shown. Such an
approach eliminates the need to deal with the drawing office support for the
protection study.
Project data files - A database is a method of storing digital data. The database
can be structured to store all the necessary device characteristics, short circuit data
and coordination data. These programs can perform calculations of the inrush
current, device settings and project details. The project data can be copied from
one computer to another for analysis.
Device library - These programs are equipped with a large library of data from
various manufacturers. The library includes models for overcurrent relays, ground
relays, static trip breakers, molded case circuit breakers, data for cable damage
curve, data for transformer damage curve, motor overloads and reclosers. The
programs use curve fitting techniques to model the time curve coordination
characteristics. Such data libraries are very useful in performing the coordination
studies since the verified data are readily available.
Interactive data entry - It is not always possible to have the data available from
the device library for the selected study. If the data are not available and if the
equation or graphical data are available, then the data can be entered interactively.
The data points can be entered item by item and can be saved for future use. The
software also provides the opportunity to modify the data by changing the device

settings, multipliers and other parameters without leaving the program. The edited
data can be stored for future use.
Some of the other features of the computer-aided analysis are:
• Display of TCC and edited one-line drawings together.

• Automatic display of labels in the one-line diagrams.
• Device at various voltage levels can display in the same graph.
• Display of common errors such as wrong voltage or current ratings.
• Plots can be printed in log-log graphs or in plain sheets.
16.5 DATA FOR COORDINATION STUDY
The one-line diagram of the power system for which the coordination study is
performed is required and should clearly identify the following:
• Incoming circuits.
• Transformer voltages, MVA, connection (delta/wye etc.), grounding and
ground protection.
• Protection relay designation number.
• Fuses or circuit breakers in the incoming lines.
• Secondary bus voltage, breakers and fuses.
• Circuit breaker specifications.
• Feeder and distribution protection devices.
• Motor control centers and breaker or fuse ratings.
The short circuit results are needed from the protection coordination study. Some
programs can perform the short circuit calculations and can use the results in the
protection coordination studies. Some of the required data and the corresponding
conversion to get the data suitable for protection study are discussed below.
Transformer data - The transformer nameplate data are required for the relay
coordination analysis. Whenever the complete data are not available, then the
library data can be used knowing the MVA rating of the equipment. An example
of data for the transformer is presented in Table 16.5.

Table 16.5 Transformer Data for Protection Analysis
Rated Inrush
Description kVA kV A P.U. Z, % Connection
Transf. 2000 4.16/0.48 278 8.0 5.75 Del/Wye-g
The transformer nameplate data are then converted to get the necessary details
for the relay coordination studies. Such data include the ANSI curve at the
primary and the secondary inrush current. The transformer damage curve can be
constructed based on the ANSI standard C57.109. An example damage curve for
a 2000 kVA transformer is shown in Figure 16.1. The rated current of this
transformer is 278 A as is shown. The rated secondary current of this transformer
is 2,405 A. The inrush current of this transformer is around 20,000 A and is
shown in the graph.
Motor data - The nameplate details of the motor are collected and the rated
current and locked rotor current values are identified. An examples of data is
presented in Table 16.6.
Table 16.6 Motor Data for Protection Analysis
Description kVA Volt I, A Efficiency Type Power Factor
Motor Ml 250 480 241 0.93 Ind. 0.8
Using these data, the locked rotor current, momentary and interrupting current
contributions for a short circuit are calculated for the protection study.
Cable data - There are several types of cables available for all types of power
system application. The manufacturer data are to be followed closely to ensure
the accurate specifications. An example of cable data is presented in Table 16.7.
Table 16.7 Cable Data for Protection Analysis
Qty/ Allowed
Description Volt Phase Size Length Material Temp.
Feeder 4.16W 2 1/0 120' Copper 150deg.C

Using these data, the circuit impedance is evaluated for each section of the cable
in per unit. Also, the cable damage curve is required for the TCC analysis.
Circuit breaker data - For low voltage applications there are circuit breakers
with static trips, ground fault protectors, molded case circuit breakers and power
circuit breakers. The nameplate specifications of the circuit breaker are collected
for the protection study. Sample data are shown in Table 16.8.
CURRENT IN AMPERES
1000
|278 A .
2000.0 kVA
Type: DT
100 Pri Conn Delta
Pri Tap -2.50 %
Sec Conn Wye-Ground
Sec Tap 0.00 %
10
TX Inrush
0.10 X
0.01
0.5 1 10 100 1K 10K
XFMR.tcc Ref. Voltage: 480 Current Scale X 10A2
Figure 16.1 The Transformer Damage Curve and the Related Data
(Courtesy of SKM System Analysis, Inc., Output from Power Tools for Windows
Program)

Table 16.8 Circuit Breaker Data for Protection Analysis
System CB Size Trip

Description V V A A Trip Type
Bl 480 600 150 600 Static
Using these data, the necessary data for the circuit breaker relaying are identified.
The relaying may be phase overcurrent relay, ground fault relay or both. Sample
time current coordination characteristics of the overcurrent relay for a circuit
breaker are shown in Figure 16.2.
CURRENT IN AMPERES
1000
100
B-SWBD1
0.01
0.5 1 10 100 1K 10K
A
B-SWBD1.tcc Ref. Voltage: 480 Current Scale X 10 1
Figure 16.2 Sample Time Current Coordination Curve of a Circuit Breaker

(Courtesy of SKM System Analysis, Inc., Output from Power Tools for Windows
Program)

Relay data - The overcurrent relay is one of the basic devices used in the power
system for the protection from overloads. The relay operates when more than the
set value of current flows through a circuit. The two basic overcurrent relays used
in the power system are instantaneous and the time delay types. The
instantaneous overcurrent relay is designed to operate with no time delay when
the circuit current exceeds the relay setting. The operating time of this type of
relay will be of the order of 0.1 second. The time overcurrent relay has inverse
operating characteristics as shown in Figure 16.3. The specific characteristics
may be moderately inverse, normal inverse, very inverse or extremely inverse as
per ANSI C37.90. The application and relay setting calculations are explained
for various types of relays in Reference [6]. The typical relay data include the
following:
• The circuit where the circuit breaker is located.

• Voltage rating of the circuit.
• ANSI device number of the relay.
• Manufacturer of the relay.
• Type number of the relay.
• The range of relay settings recommended for this device.
• The current transformer ratio.
• The multiplier, M.
• The value of the pick up current in A [pick up current = (CT ratio) (M)].
• The time delay involved in the instantaneous relay.
• The magnitude of the instantaneous current.
Extremely Inverse
Very Inverse
Inverse
Instantaneous
Multiples of Pickup Current
Figure 16.3 Time Current Characteristics of Overcurrent Relays
Sample data for overcurrent relay setting are presented in Table 16.9.

Table 16.9 Sample Overcurrent Relay Settings
Recommended Settings
ANSI Relay Relay CT Pick Up
Circuit kV Device Mfg No. Settings Ratio M Amp
CB1 4.16 50/51 ABC Rell 0.9CT, NI, M=l 1200/5 1 1000
50G ABC Rel2 0.2 CT,0. Is delay 50/5 1 10
Usually the time overcurrent curves are identified for each relay location before
performing the coordination studies.
Fuse data - A fuse is a device with a fixed continuous current rating with a
definite interrupting current rating. There are a variety of fuses available for the
power system applications both in the low-voltage and medium-voltage levels.
There are two types of fuses used in the power system protection, the current
limiting type and the expulsion type. The current limiting fuses are capable of
melting and clearing high fault currents faster than 0.01 second. The expulsion
type fuses in general do not limit current and must wait until the first natural
current zero before the fault clearing. The fuses are used for the protection of
transformers, motors and other loads in individual circuits. Sample time current
coordination curve of a fuse is shown in Figure 16.4.
Example 16.1 - Consider a radial power system supplied from a 13.8 kV source.
The step-down transformer (TX E) is 3,000 kVA, 13.8 kV/4.16 kV, delta/wye-
grounded. The high voltage fuse is (F4) is rated to 4.16 kV, frame 250 A. The
distribution transformer (TX G) is 2,000 kVA, 4.16 kV/480 V, delta/wye-
grounded. The fuse in the transformer circuit (F TX G) is 600 V, frame 150 A.
The circuit breaker (LVP5) is 600 V and frame 400 A. The motor controller
(M28) is rated for 600 V and frame 250 A. The circuit is connected to a 250 kVA
motor load. Perform a study using computer-aided software.
Solution - The protection coordination problem is solved by using the Power

Tools for Widows (PTW) program from SKM System Analysis, Inc. This is a
popular program the distribution system analysis with library data for
transformers, circuit breakers, reclosers and fuses from various manufacturers. A
one-line diagram of the system is prepared using the graphics program. Then
using the component editor program, the data for various components are edited
or called from the library data. An example window showing the circuit breaker
data display is shown in Figures 16.5. Also, the time current coordination curve
for each of the protection device is extracted from the library data. The TCC
curves of the transformer, circuit breaker and the fuse are shown in Figures 16.1,
16.2 and 16.4 respectively.

CURRENT IN AMPERES
1000
S&C
SM-4, 50E
Sensor/Trip 50.0 A
10
0.01
0.5 1 10 100 1K 10K
A
Fuse.tcc Ref. Voltage: 4160 Current Scale X 10 1
Figure 16.4 Time Current Coordination Curve of a Fuse

(Courtesy of SKM System Analysis, Inc. Output from Power Tools for Windows
Program)
Then the program is executed and the output results are obtained. The program
output contains the following:
• One-line diagram of the system, including the relay settings, shown in Figure
16.6.
• The settings of the protective devices, shown in Table 16.10.
• The time current coordination curve (TCC), shown Figure 16.7.
The TCC curve of the transformer (damage curve), the fuse (F TX 3), circuit
breaker (B-SWBD1) and the circuit breaker (LVP1) are presented in the same
graph.

Figure 16.5 Window for Input Data of a Circuit Breaker with Static Trip
(Courtesy of SKM System Analysis, Inc.)
16.6 CONCLUSIONS
The protection coordination study involves the preparation of the one-line

diagram of the system, identifying the protective relay characteristics of various
devices, calculation of the short circuit results and the relay settings. Though
some these calculations are simple, the overall coordination study involves many
calculations, preparing one-line diagrams, and preparing superimposed TCC
curves for various devices. Therefore, a computer-aided analysis with the aid of a
graphics package and database support is a very valuable tool for this study. In
this Chapter, the approach to the protection coordination study, the data
collection and the presentation of the results are analyzed. It can be seen that
using the computer-aided approach, the protection coordination study can be
performed quickly, though there is a need for training on the use of the given
program. A computer-aided analysis of a small distribution system example is
shown. The analysis was performed using commercially available software and
the program output provides the following:
• One-line diagram of the system with relay settings.

• The summary of the calculated results and the settings.
• The combined time current coordination curve (TCC).

The final coordination results are to be judged by the manual methods in order to
ensure the accuracy. The protective device number of various items is presented
below for ready reference.
007-TX E PRI
SIEMENS
Pri CT 400 A
Sec CT 1 A
ISGS
Settings
LTPU 2.6
INVERSE 1.85
INST 20.0
GOULD SHAWMUT
CL-14, 250E
Frame 250.0 A
T Sensor/Trip 250.0 A
VSJÂJ
TXG
GOULD SHAWMUT
F TX G SEC CL-14, 150E
Frame 150.0 A
Sensor/Trip 150.0 A
027-DSB 3
C13B GE
TLB4
Frame 400.0 A
Sensor/Trip 300.0 A
LVP5 Settings
Thermal Curve (Fixed)
028-MTR 28 B INST (4.5-10 x Trip) 9.0
MCP M28 #3 CUTLER-HAMMER

MCP
Frame 250.0 A
Settings
INST(1250-2500A)2185A
M28#3
Figure 16.6 One Line Diagram of the Example


Table 16.10 Output of the Program Run - Edited Version
(Output from the Power Tools for Windows Program)
TCC Name: Mtr28.tec

Reference Voltage: 4160
Current Scale X 10*1
ALL INFORMATION PRESENTED IS FOR REVIEW, APPROVAL, INTERPRETATION,

AND APPLICATION BY A REGISTERED ENGINEER ONLY.
CAPTOR {Computer Aided Plotting for Time Overcurrent Reporting)
COPYRIGHT SKM SYSTEMS ANALYSIS, INC. 1983 - 2000
Device Name: TX 3 Bus Name: 026-TX G PRI TCC Name: Mtr28.tec

Description: 2-Winding Transformer Damage Curve Bus Voltage: 4160V / 480V
Nominal Size: 2000.0kVA
Impedance (%Z) : 5.7499 Delta
Inrush Factor: 8 .Ox Wye-Ground
Device Name: F 4 Bus Name: 026-TX G PRI TCC Name: Mtr28.tec

Manufacture: GOULD SHAWMUT Description: 10E-600E
Sub Type: CL-14, 5 . 5kv E-Rated
Bus Voltage: 4160.0V
AIC Rating: 63kA Fault Duty: 6840. 9A
Cartridge: CL-14, 250E 5500V 250A 63kA Curve Multiplier: 1.00000
Size: 250A
Device Name: CIO Bus Name: BLDG 115 SERV TCC Name: Mtr28.tcc
Description: Cable Damage Curve Bus Voltage: 4160V
Size: 1/0
Material: Copper Cont . Temp; 150 deg C.
Qty/Ph: 2 Damage Temp: 190 deg C.
Device Name: R7 SEC Bus Name: BLDG 115 SERV TCC Name: Mtr28 .tec
Manufacture: SIEMENS Description: SECONDARY
Sub Type: ISGS 1A
Class Description: ISGS Bus Voltage: 4160.0V
AIC Rating: N/A Fault Duty: 7019. 1A
Current Rating: 400A / 1A Curve Multiplier: 1.00000
Setting: 1) LTPU 2.6 Test Points:
2) INVERSE 1.85 82. OX, 11.334s
3) INST 20.0 (S5.0X, 2.398s
Adder: 0.5000 Shifter: 2.0000
Device Name: M28 #3 Bus Name: 028-MTR 28 B TCC Name: Mtr28 .tec
Description: Motor Starting Curve Bus Voltage: 480V
Rated Sized: 250KVA (1 of 1 Plotted)
FLA+Load Adder: 300.7A + O.OA Inrush: 0.0 (O.OA!
Power Factor: 0.830 Starting Time: 5.00s
Efficiency: 0.93 Full Voltage (Square Transient)
Device Name: MCP M28 #3 Bus Name: 028 -MTR 28 B TCC Name: Mtr28 .tec
Manufacture: CUTLER-HAMMER Description: 250A (1250-2500A
Sub Type: MCP
Bus Voltage: 480.0V
AIC Rating: 30 Fault Duty: 21503.0A
Frame: MCP 480V 250A 30kA Curve Multiplier: 1.00000
Current Rating: OA / OA FLA: 0.OA
Setting: 1) INST (1250-2500A) 2185A

Figure 16.7 Time Current Coordination Curve (TCC)
(Output from the Power Tools for Windows Program)
ANSI STANDARD DEVICE FUNCTION NUMBERS

Device # Function
1. Master Element
2. Time-delay Starting or Closing Relay
3. Checking or Interlocking Relay
4. Master Contractor
5. Stopping Device
6. Starting Circuit Breaker
7. Anode Circuit Breaker
8. Control-Power Disconnecting Service
9. Reversing Device
10. Unit Sequence Switch
11. Reserved for future application
12. Over-speed Device
13. Synchronous-Speed Device

14. Under-Speed Device
15. Speed-or Frequency-Matching Device
17. Shunting or Discharge Switch
18. Accelerating or Decelerating Device
19. Starting-to-Running Transition Contractor
20. Electrically Operated Valve
21. Distance Relay
22. Equalizer Circuit Breaker
23. Temperature Control Device
25. Synchronizing or Synchronism-Check Device
26. Apparatus Thermal Device
27. Undervoltage Relay
28. Flame Detector
29. Isolating Contractor
30. Annunciator Relay
31. Separate Excitation Device
32. Directional Power Relay
33. Position Switch
34. Master Sequence Device
35. Brush-Operating or Slip-Ring Short Circuiting Device
36. Polarity or Polarizing Voltage Device
37. Undercurrent or Underpower Relay
38. Bearing Protective Device
39. Mechanical Condition Monitor
40. Field Relay
41. Field Circuit Breaker
42. Running Circuit Breaker
43. Manual Transfer or Selector Device
44. Unit Sequence Starting Relay
45. Atmospheric Condition Monitor
46. Reverse-Phase or Phase-Balance Current Relay
47. Phase-Sequence Voltage Relay
48. Incomplete-Sequence Relay
49. Machine or Transformer Thermal Relay
50. Instantaneous over Current or Rate-of-Rise Relay
51. AC Time Overcurrent Relay
52. AC Circuit Breaker
53. Exciter or DC Generator Relay
55. Power Factor Relay
56. Field-Application Relay

57. Short Circuiting or Grounding Device
58. Rectification Failure Relay
59. Overvoltage Relay
60. Voltage or Current Balance Relay
62. Time-Delay Stopping or Opening Relay
63. Pressure Switch
64. Ground Protective Relay
65. Governor
66. Notching or Jogging Device
67. AC Directional Overcurrent Relay
68. Blocking Relay
69. Permissive Control Device
70. Rheostat
71. Level Switch
72. DC Circuit Breaker
73. Load-Resistor Contractor
74. Alarm Relay
75. Position Changing Mechanism
76. DC Overcurrent Relay
77. Pulse Transmitter
78. Out-of-Step Protective Relay
79. AC Reclosing Relay
80. Flow Switch
81. Frequency Relay
82. DC Reclosing Relay
83. Automatic Selective Control or Transfer Relay
84. Operating Mechanism
85. Carrier or Pilot-Wire Receiver Relay
86. Locking-Out Relay
87. Differential Protective Relay
88. Auxiliary Motor or Motor Generator
89. Line Switch
90. Regulating Device
91. Voltage Directional Relay
92. Voltage and Power Directional Relay
93. Field-Changing Contractor
94. Tripping or Trip-Free Relay
95- 99 Used only for specific applications on individual installations where
none of the assigned numbered functions from 1 to 94 are suitable.

PROBLEMS
1. What are the basic steps required to perform a protective device

coordination study?
2. A one-line diagram of a radial system is shown in Figure 16.8. The system is

supplied through a substation with a short circuit rating of 10,900 A. The
circuit breakers CB1 through CB5 are shown at various locations and
contain both the phase overcurrent relay and ground current relays. The step
down transformer Tl is 100 MVA, 69 kV/13.8 kV, wye-grounded/delta and
has 8% impedance. Transformer T2 is 25 MVA, 13.8 kV/4.16 kV,
delta/wye-grounded with 10% impedance. The synchronous motor at the
13.8 kV bus is 50 MVA, 13.8 kV and 0.95 power factor. There are two
induction motor loads at the 4.16 kV bus each with 1000 hp, 4.16 kV
operating at a power factor of 0.9. The fuses at the induction motor circuits
are selected to provide protection at rated load. Prepare the data and conduct
a computer-aided coordination study. Discuss the assumptions made.
69 kV
Source
13.8W
CB4
Figure 16.8 One-Line Diagram for Problem 2

3. The transformer damage curve can be prepared from the fundamental
equation. Show the step-by-step calculations for a 2000 kVA, 4.16 kV/460
V, delta/wye-grounded transformer with an impedance value of 8.75%.
4. Identify all the leading programs available for the protection coordination of
industrial systems. Can these programs serve the purpose of performing
similar studies for transmission systems? Explain your answer.
5. What are the graphical features required for the protection coordination
program?
6. Compare and discuss the outputs from the protection coordination program
and the output results of manual calculations.
REFERENCES
1. IEEE Standard 141, IEEE Recommended Practices in Electric Power

Distribution for Industrial Plants, 1993 (The Red Book).
2. ANSI/IEEE Standard: 242, IEEE Recommended Practice for Protection and

Coordination of Industrial and Commercial Power Systems, 1986.
3. M. W. Earley, J. V. Sheehanand and J. M. Cloggero, National Electric

Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quency, MA 1999.
4. ANSI Standard C57.12, General Requirements for Liquid Immersed

Distribution Power and Regulating Transformers, 1980.
5. ANSI Standard C57.109, IEEE Guide for Transformer Through Fault

Current Duration, 1985.
6. B. J. Lewis, Protective Relaying Principles and Applications, Marcel

Dekker, Inc., New York, 1987.
7. Power Tools for Windows, SKM Systems Analysis, Inc., Manhattan Beach,
California.

APPENDIX A
CONDUCTOR DATA
Table A-l Electrical Characteristics of High Strength (HS) Conductors
Rdc Rac Xi.Ohm Xc.Mohm Diameter

Size Ohm/mile Ohm/mile /mile -mile inch
5/8 2.19 2.27 1.12 0.1083 0.621
1/2 3.44 3.57 1.24 0.115 0.495
7/16 4.45 4.62 1.33 0.1188 0.435
3/8 6.51 6.75 1.5 0.1244 0.36
5/16 9.7 10 1.8 0.139 0.3125
Table A-2 Electrical Characteristics of Extra High Strength (EHS) Conductors

Size Ohm/mile Ohm/mile /mile -mile inch
5/8 2.26 2.32 1.08 0.1083 0.621
1/2 3.56 3.66 1.2 0.115 0.495
7/16 4.61 4.74 1.28 0.1188 0.435
3/8 6.74 6.93 1.44 0.1244 0.36
Notes for Tables A-l and A-2:
Xi = Inductive reactance at one foot spacing and at 60Hz, Ohms/mile

Xc = Capacitive reactance at one foot spacing and at 60 Hz, Megohm-mile

Table A-3 Electrical Characteristics of Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced
(ACAR) Conductors

Size Ohm/mile Ohm/mile /mile -mile kcmil inch
BLUEBIRD 0.0405 0.0454 0.348 0.0774 2339 1.762
KIWI 0.0417 0.0468 0.35 0.0778 2267 1.735
CHUKAR 0.049 0.0544 0.36 0.0802 1933 1.602
LAPWING 0.0555 0.0608 0.368 0.0821 1703 1.504
BITTERN 0.0698 0.0739 0.381 0.0854 1362 1.345

BLUEJAY 0.0799 0.0834 0.39 0.0873 1197 1.259
CURLEW 0.0806 0.0845 0.391 0.0876 1172 1.246
ORTOLAN 0.0863 0.0897 0.394 0.0885 1109 1.212
CARDINAL 0.0885 0.092 0.396 0.0888 1081 1.196

CARDINAL 0.0906 0.094 0.396 0.0888 1081 1.196
DRAKE 0.1032 0.1058 0.405 0.0911 927 1.108
TERN 0.1098 0.1144 0.41 0.0923 854 1.063
GROSBEAK 0.1278 0.1297 0.419 0.0945 740 0.99

DOVE 0.1469 0.1488 0.429 0.0964 653 0.927
PELICAN 0.1905 0.1925 0.444 0.1003 504 0.814
MERLIN 0.2765 0.278 0.465 0.1054 355 0.683
ACAR900 0.1062 0.109 0.408 0.0911 900 1.092

ACAR2000 0.0487 0.0544 0.355 0.0795 2000 1.63
ACAR1600 0.0608 0.0655 0.372 0.083 1600 1.458
ACAR1000 0.0947 0.0978 0.393 0.0897 1000 1.152
ACAR1200 0.0788 0.0826 0.386 0.0873 1200 1.263
Notes for Table A-3:
Xi — Inductive reactance at one foot spacing and at 60Hz, Ohms/mile


Table A-4 Electrical Characteristics of Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)
Conductors

JOREE 0.0371 0.0425 0.337 0.0755 2515 1.88
KINGFISHER 0.0392 0.0447 0.342 0.0765 2385 1.82
THRASHER 0.0404 0.0454 0.342 0.0767 2312 1.802
KIWI 0.0431 0.0484 0.348 0.0778 2167 1.735
BLUEBIRD 0.0431 0.0477 0.344 0.0774 2156 1.762
CHUKAR 0.0522 0.0561 0.355 0.0802 1781 1.602
LAPWING 0.0583 0.062 0.364 0.0821 1590 1.504
FALCON 0.0581 0.0611 0.358 0.0813 1590 1.545
BITTERN 0.0587 0.0618 0.3776 0.0855 1557.4 1.345
NUTHATCH 0.0614 0.0649 0.367 0.0828 1510.5 1.465
PARROT 0.0612 0.0641 0.362 0.0821 1510.5 1.505
BOBOLINK 0.0648 0.0681 0.371 0.0836 1431 1.427
PLOVER 0.0646 0.0673 0.365 0.0828 1431 1.465
DIPPER 0.0686 0.0717 0.374 0.0845 1351.5 1.386
MARTIN 0.0684 0.071 0.368 0.0837 1351.5 1.424
BITTERN 0.0729 0.0759 0.378 0.0854 1272 1.345
PHEASANT 0.0727 0.0751 0.372 0.0846 1272 1.382
OXBIRD 0.078 0.0806 0.3863 0.0873 1192.5 1.266
BUNTING 0.0777 0.0805 0.382 0.0863 1192.5 1.302
CRACKLE 0.0775 0.0798 0.376 0.0855 1192.5 1.338
BLUE JAY 0.0833 0.0859 0.386 0.0873 1113 1.258
FINCH 0.083 0.0851 0.38 0.0866 1113 1.293


Conductors - Continued

ORTOLAN 0.0898 0.0922 0.39 0.0885 1033.5 1.212
CURLEW 0.089 0.091 0.385 0.0877 1033.5 1.245
NONAME 0.089 0.091 0.386 0.0878 1033.5 1.245
TERN 0.0957 0.0976 0.4068 0.0925 957.2 1.063
CORNCRAKE 0.0972 0.0994 0.396 0.0897 954 1.165
NOCODE 0.0968 0.0989 0.393 0.0894 954 1.18
CARDINAL 0.0964 0.0983 0.389 0.0889 954 1.196
REDBIRD 0.0964 0.0982 0.39 0.089 954 1.196
MERGANSER 0.0952 0.0966 0.382 0.0876 954 1.248
TURNSTONE 0.103 0.1052 0.4 0.0906 900 1.131
RUDDY 0.1031 0.1053 0.399 0.0905 900 1.131
NOWORD 0.1025 0.1045 0.397 0.0902 900 1.146
REDSTART 0.1022 0.104 0.394 0.0898 900 1.162
CANARY 0.1022 0.104 0.393 0.0897 900 1.162
BALDPATE 0.1011 0.1024 0.385 0.0885 900 1.212
WILLET 0.106 0.1082 0.4 0.0909 874.5 1.115
CRANE 0.1051 0.107 0.395 0.0901 874.5 1.146
COOT 0.1167 0.1189 0.411 0.093 795 1.04
TERN 0.1166 0.119 0.406 0.0923 795 1.063
TURBIT 0.1166 0.1185 0.407 0.0924 795 1.063
PUFFIN 0.1162 0.1179 0.404 0.0921 795 1.077
CONDOR 0.1158 0.117 0.401 0.0916 795 1.092
CUCKOO 0.1157 0.1169 0.402 0.0916 795 1.092
DRAKE 0.1152 0.117 0.399 0.0911 795 1.108
MALLARD 0.1145 0.116 0.393 0.0903 795 1.14
SKIMMER 0.1145 0.116 0.393 0.0903 795 1.14
GREBE 0.1296 0.1314 0.413 0.0939 715.5 1.009
CROW 0.1286 0.13 0.407 0.0931 715.5 1.036
STILT 0.1285 0.1296 0.408 0.0931 715.5 1.036
STARLING 0.1279 0.129 0.405 0.0927 715.5 1.051
REDWING 0.1273 0.128 0.399 0.0919 715.5 1.081

Conductors - Continued

BUTEO 0.1273 0.128 0.399 0.0919 715.5 1.081
GULL 0.138 0.139 0.411 0.0942 666.6 1
FLAMINGO 0.1379 0.139 0.412 0.0942 666.6 1
CAN NET 0.1375 0.139 0.409 0.0937 666.6 1.014
SWIFT 0.1459 0.1477 0.425 0.0963 636 0.93
KINGBIRD 0.1453 0.1469 0.424 0.096 636 0.94
ROOK 0.1446 0.146 0.415 0.0949 636 0.977
GOOSE 0.1447 0.146 0.414 0.0949 636 0.977
GROSBEAK 0.144 0.145 0.412 0.0944 636 0.99
EGRET 0.1431 0.144 0.406 0.0936 636 1.019
SCOTER 0.1431 0.144 0.406 0.0936 636 1.019
DUCK 0.1519 0.1533 0.417 0.0956 606 0.953
PEACOCK 0.152 0.153 0.418 0.0956 605 0.953
SQUAB 0.1515 0.153 0.415 0.0952 605 0.966
TEAL 0.1505 0.151 0.41 0.0943 605 0.994
WOODDUCK 0.1505 0.1514 0.41 0.0943 605 0.994
OSPREY 0.1662 0.168 0.432 0.098 556.5 0.879
PARAKEET 0.1653 0.166 0.423 0.0968 556.5 0.914
DOVE 0.1646 0.166 0.42 0.0964 556.5 0.927
EAGLE 0.1634 0.164 0.415 0.0956 556.5 0.953
PELICAN 0.1937 0.195 0.441 0.1003 477 0.814
FLICKER 0.1927 0.194 0.432 0.0991 477 0.846
HAWK 0.1921 0.193 0.43 0.0987 477 0.858
HEN 0.1907 0.191 0.424 0.0979 477 0.883
CHICKADEE 0.2325 0.234 0.452 0.103 397.5 0.743
BRANT 0.2315 0.2327 0.444 0.1018 397.5 0.772
IBIS 0.2306 0.231 0.441 0.1014 397.5 0.783
LARK 0.2288 0.229 0.435 0.1006 397.5 0.806
MERLIN 0.2747 0.276 0.463 0.1054 336.4 0.684
WIDGEON 0.2735 0.2749 0.454 0.1043 336.4 0.71
JUNCO 0.3412 0.342 0.459 0.1065 266.8 0.66
PENGUIN 0.4284 0.434 0.557 0.1112 211.6 0.563
TURKEY 3.458 3.46 0.774 0.1421 26.24 0.198

Table A-5 Electrical Characteristics of Alumoweld Conductors (ALUMOWE)

37 No.5 0.2282 0.2327 0.604 0.87 1224.2 1.273
37 No.6 0.2879 0.2935 0.618 0.0904 971 1.134
37No.7 0.363 0.2327 0.632 0.0939 770.4 1.01
37No.8 0.4577 0.4667 0.646 0.0973 611 0.899
37No.9 0.5773 0.5886 0.66 0.1007 484.2 0.801
37 No. 10 0.7278 0.7409 0.674 0.1042 384.2 0.713
19 No.5 0.442 0.4507 0.645 0.097 628.7 0.91
19 No.6 0.5574 0.5683 0.659 0.1004 498.6 0.81
19No.7 0.703 0.7171 0.673 0.1038 395.6 0.721
19No.8 0.8864 0.9038 0.687 0.1073 313.7 0.642
19No.9 1.118 1.14 0.701 0.1107 248.7 0.572
19N0.10 1.409 1.437 0.715 0.1141 197.3 0.509
7 No.5 1.217 1.24 0.707 0.1121 231.6 0.546
7 No.6 1.507 1.536 0.721 0.1155 183.7 0.486
7No.7 1.9 1.937 0.735 0.119 145.8 0.433
7No.8 2.4 2.44 0.749 0.1224 115.6 0.385
7No.9 3.02 3.08 0.763 0.1258 91.6 0.343
7N0.10 3.81 3.88 0.777 0.1293 72.7 0.306
3 No.5 2.78 2.78 0.707 0.1219 99.3 0.392
3 No.6 3.51 3.51 0.721 0.1253 78.7 0.349
3No.7 4.42 4.42 0.735 0.1288 62.5 0.311
3No.8 5.58 5.58 0.749 0.1322 49.5 0.277
3No,9 7.04 7.04 0.763 0.1356 39.3 0.246
3N0.10 8.87 8.87 0.777 0.1391 31.2 0.22
10No.11 1.247 1.247 0.735 0.119 38.8 0.4449

Xc = Capa.citive reactance at one foot spacing and at 60 Hz, Mejôhm-mile

Table A-6 Electrical Characteristics of All Aluminum Conductors (AAC)
Rdc Rac Xi,Ohm Xc.Mohm Diameter

BLUEBONNET 0.0271 0.0357 0.323 0.0714 3500 2.158
TRILLIUM 0.03134 0.0392 0.332 0.0736 3000 1.998
LUPINE 0.03764 0.0446 0.344 0.0764 2500 1.823
COWSLIP 0.04658 0.0525 0.357 0.0797 2000 1.63
JESSAMINE 0.05319 0.0585 0.366 0.0817 1750 1.525
COREOPSIS 0.0585 0.0634 0.372 0.0831 1590 1.454
GLADIOLUS 0.0616 0.0663 0.375 0.0838 1511 1.417
CARNATION 0.065 0.0695 0.378 0.0846 1431 1.379
COLUMBINE 0.0688 0.0731 0.381 0.0855 1351.5 1.34
NARCISSUS 0.0732 0.0772 0.385 0.0864 1272 1.3
HAWTHORN 0.0781 0.0819 0.389 0.0874 1192.5 1.258
MARIGOLD 0.0836 0.0872 0.393 0.0884 1113 1.216
LARKSPUR 0.09 0.0933 0.398 0.0895 1033.5 1.172
BLUEBELL 0.09 0.0933 0.399 0.0895 1033.5 1.17
HAWKWEED 0.0931 0.0963 0.401 0.09 1000 1.151
CAMELLIA 0.09316 0.0964 0.4 0.09 1000 1.152
GOLDENROD 0.0975 0.101 0.403 0.0906 954 1.126
MAGNOLIA 0.0975 0.101 0.403 0.0907 954 1.124
SNAPDRAGON 0.1034 0.106 0.406 0.0915 900 1.094
COCKSCOMB 0.1034 0.106 0.407 0.0915 900 1.092
CROCUS 0.1064 0.109 0.408 0.0919 874.5 1.078
ANEMONE 0.1064 0.109 0.409 0.092 874.5 1.077
LILAC 0.117 0.12 0.414 0.0933 795 1.028
ARBUTUS 0.117 0.12 0.415 0.0934 795 1.026
Xi = Inductive reactance at one foot spacing; and at 60Hz, Ohms/mile

Xc = Cap acitive reactance at one foot spacing and at 60 Hz, Megiohm-mile

Table A-6 Electrical Characteristics of All Aluminum Conductors (AAC) -
Continued
Rdc Rac Xi Xc Diameter,

Size Ohm/mile Ohm/mile Ohm/mile Mohm/mile kcmil inch
CATTAIL 0.1242 0.127 0.417 0.0942 750 0.998
PETUNIA 0.1242 0.127 0.417 0.0942 750 0.998
NASTURTIUM 0.1301 0.133 0.421 0.0949 715.5 0.975
VIOLET 0.1301 0.133 0.421 0.0949 715.5 0.974
FLAG 0.133 0.135 0.422 0.0953 700 0.962
VERBENA 0.133 0.135 0.422 0.0953 700 0.962
ORCHID 0.1464 0.149 0.428 0.0967 636 0.918
MEADOWSW 0.1553 0.157 0.432 0.0976 600 0.891
MISTLETOE 0.1674 0.169 0.438 0.0988 556.5 0.858
DAHLIA 0.1674 0.169 0.438 0.0988 556.5 0.858
HYACINTH 0.1864 0.188 0.443 0.1003 500 0.813
ZINNIA 0.1864 0.188 0.443 0.1004 500 0.811
SYRINGA 0.1954 0.197 0.446 0.101 477 0.795
COSMOS 0.1954 0.197 0.446 0.101 477 0.795
GOLDENTUFT 0.2069 0.208 0.451 0.1019 450 0.769
CANNA 0.234 0.235 0.459 0.1037 397.5 0.723
DAFFODIL 0.2662 0.267 0.466 0.1056 350 0.679
TULIP 0.2766 0.278 0.469 0.1062 336.4 0.666
PEONY 0.3101 0.311 0.476 0.1079 300 0.629
LAUREL 0.349 0.35 0.483 0.1097 266.8 0.593
DAISY 0.349 0.35 0.489 0.11 266.8 0.586
VALERIAN 0.3724 0.373 0.487 0.1106 250 0.573
SNEEZWORT 0.3724 0.373 0.493 0.111 250 0.567
OXLIP 0.4398 0.441 0.504 0.1134 211.6 0.522
PHLOX 0.5551 0.556 0.518 0.1169 167.8 0.464
ASTER 0.6994 0.7 0.532 0.1203 133.1 0.414
POPPY 0.8821 0.882 0.546 0.1237 105.6 0.368
PANSY 1.1113 1.114 0.56 0.1272 83.69 0.328
IRIS 1.402 1.402 0.574 0.1306 66.36 0.292
ROSE 2.232 2.232 0.602 0.1375 41.74 0.232
PEACHBELL 3.551 3.551 0.63 0.1444 26.24 0.184

Table A-7 Electrical Characteristics of the All Aluminum Alloy Conductors
(AAAC)
Rdc Rac Xi Xc Diameter,

Size Ohm/mile Ohm/mile Ohm/mile Mohm/mile kcmil inch
SOLAR 0.1148 0.117 0.405 0.0911 927 1.108
SPAR 0.1434 0.146 0.419 0.0944 741 99
RUNE 0.1629 0.165 0.429 0.0964 652 0.926
RUBLE 0.1812 0.183 0.435 0.098 587 0.879
REMEX 0.1902 0.192 0.438 0.0987 559 0.858

REX 0.2113 0.212 0.444 0.1003 504 0.814
RAGOUT 0.2284 0.23 0.449 0.1014 465 0.782
REDE 0.2536 0.254 0.455 0.108 420 0.743
RADIAN 0.2694 0.27 0.459 0.1039 395 0.721

RADAR 0.2993 0.3 0.465 0.1054 355 0.683
RAMIE 0.3397 0.341 0.473 0.1073 313 0.642
RATCH 0.3775 0.378 0.48 0.1089 281 0.608
KITTLE 0.431 0.431 0.494 0.1112 247 0.563

KOPECK 0.5438 0.544 0.508 0.1146 196 0.502
KAYAK 0.684 0.684 0.522 0.118 155 0.447
KIBE 0.862 0.862 0.536 0.1214 123 0.398
KENCH 1.37 1.37 0.564 0.1283 77 0.316

KAKI 2.18 2.18 0.593 0.1353 49 0.25
KAZOO 3.47 3.47 0.621 0.1421 31 0.198
Xi Inductive reactance at one foot spacing and at 60Hz, Ohms/mile

Xc Capacitive reactance at one foot spacing and at 60 Hz, ]Megohm-mile

Table A-8 Electrical Characteristics of Copper Conductors

#14 13.8864 13.8864 0.7346 0.1721 4.11 0.0727
#12 8.7648 8.7648 0.7067 0.1653 6.53 0.0915
#10 5.4912 5.4912 0.6778 0.1582 10.38 0.116
#8 3.4426 3.4426 0.6499 0.1514 16.51 0.146
#6 2.1701 2.1701 0.6218 0.1446 26.24 0.184
#4 1.3622 1.3622 0.5937 0.1376 41.74 0.232
#3 1.0824 1.0824 0.5798 0.1343 52.62 0.26
#2 0.8554 0.8554 0.5657 0.1308 66.36 0.292
#1 0.6811 0.6811 0.5502 0.127 83.69 0.332
1/0 0.5386 0.5386 0.5363 0.1237 105.6 0.372
2/0 0.4277 0.4277 0.5222 0.1202 133.1 0.418
3/0 0.3389 0.3389 0.5079 0.1167 167.8 0.47
4/0 0.2693 0.2693 0.4938 0.1132 211.6 0.528
250kcmil 0.2276 0.2276 0.4835 0.1107 250 0.575
SOOkcmil 0.1901 0.1901 0.4724 0.108 300 0.63
350kcmil 0.1626 0.1626 0.4629 0.1057 350 0.681
400kcmil 0.142 0.142 0.4548 0.1037 400 0.728
SOOkcmil 0.114 0.114 0.4414 0.1005 500 0.813
GOOkcmil 0.095 0.095 0.43 0.0977 600 0.893
700kcmil 0.0813 0.0813 0.4207 0.0954 700 0.964
750kcmil 0.076 0.076 0.4165 0.0944 750 0.998
SOOkcmil 0.0713 0.0713 0.4127 0.0934 800 1.03
900kcmil 0.0634 0.0634 0.4054 0.0916 900 1.094
1000kcmil 0.057 0.057 0.3991 0.0901 1000 1.152
1250kcmil 0.0456 0.0456 0.3854 0.0867 1250 1.289
1 SOOkcmil 0.0379 0.0379 0.3744 0.0841 1500 1.412
1750kcmil 0.0325 0.0325 0.3649 0.0818 1750 1.526
2000kcmil 0.0285 0.0285 0.3568 0.0798 2000 1.632
Xi Inductive reactance at one foot spacingI and at 60Hz, Ohms/mile

Xc Capacitive reactance at one foot spaciiig and at 60 Hz, Me£ôhm-mile

APPENDIX B
EQUIPMENT PREFERRED RATINGS
B-l Circuit Breaker Ratings
The circuit breakers used in the power system applications are classified into two
categories in the ANSI Standard C37.06, 1979 as general purpose and definite
purpose.
General purpose circuit breakers - These are used for the switching of lines,
transformers, reactors and buses. The preferred ratings of such circuit breakers are
from ANSI Standard C37.06, Tables 1, 2 and 3 representing the indoor, outdoor
and gas insulated switchgear as follows.
Table 1 Preferred ratings for indoor circuit breakers (4.76 kV through 38 kV).
Table 2 Preferred ratings for outdoor circuit breakers 72.5 kV and below,
including circuit breakers in gas insulated substations (15.5 kV through
72.5 kV).
Table 3 Preferred ratings for outdoor circuit breakers 121 kV and above, including
circuit breakers applied in gas insulated substations (121 kV through 800
kV).
Definite purpose circuit breakers - These are used for the switching of shunt
capacitors. Preferred ratings of such circuit breakers from ANSI standard C37.06,
Tables 1 A, 2A and 3A for indoor, outdoor and gas insulated switchgear are:

Table 1A Preferred capacitance current switching ratings for indoor circuit
breakers (4.76 kV through 38 kV).
Table 2A Preferred capacitance current switching ratings for outdoor

circuit breakers 72.5 kV and below including circuit breakers in
gas insulated substations (15.5 kV through 72.5 kV).
Table 3A Preferred capacitance current switching ratings for outdoor

circuit breakers 121 kV and above including circuit breakers
applied in gas insulated substations (121 kV through 800 kV).
B-2 Surge Arresters
The surge arresters are used to protect the power system equipment from
overvoltages produced due to switching and lightning. Before the 1980s the gaped
silicon carbide arresters were used. Then the Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV) were
introduced in the 1980s for the same applications. Presently MOV arresters are used
in the protection of overhead lines, underground cables, transformers, circuit
breakers, shunt capacitors and other power system equipment. The following MOV
surge arrester ratings are reproduced from IEEE standard 141.
Table B-l Station class MOV arrester characteristics.

Table B-2 Intermediate class MOV arrester characteristics.
Table B-3 Distribution class MOV arrester characteristics, normal duty.
Table B-4 Distribution class MOV arrester characteristics, heavy duty.
Table B-5 Distribution class MOV arrester characteristics, riser pole.
B-3 Shunt Capacitors
Shunt capacitors are used for power factor correction in all levels of power system
voltages. The preferred shunt capacitor ratings are reproduced from IEEE Standard
103 6 in Chapter 10.
REFERENCES
1. C37.06 Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities for AC High

Voltage Breakers, 2000.
2. IEEE Standard 141, Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for
Industrial Plants, 1993.
3. IEEE Standard 1036, IEEE Guide for Application of Shunt Capacitors, 1992.

Table 1
Preferred Ratings for Indoor Oilless Circuit Breakers
Maximum Closing and
Symmetrical Latching
Rated Rated Rated Short- Interrupting Capability 2 7K
Maximum Voltage Rated Continuous Circuit Current (at Rated Rated Maximum Capability and Rated times Rated Short-
Voltage Range Current at 60 HZ Rated Maximum Interrupting Voltage Divided Short-Time Current Circuit Current kA,
kV,rms Factor K Amperes, rms kV) kA, rms Time cycles by K kV, rms KA, rms Crest
4.76 1.36 1200 8.8 5 3.5 12 32
4.76 1.24 1200, 2000 29 5 3.85 36 97
4.76 1.19 1200,2000,3000 41 5 4.0 49 132
8.25 1.25 1200, 2000 33 5 6.6 41 111
15.0 1.30 1200,2000 18 5 11.5 23 62
15.0 1.30 1200, 2000 28 5 11.5 36 97
15.0 1.30 1200,2000, 3000 37 5 11.5 48 130
38.0 1.65 1200, 2000,3000 21 5 23.0 35 95
38.0 1.0 1200, 3000 40 5 38.0 40 108
Table 1A
Preferred Capacitance Current Switching Ratings for Indoor Oilless Circuit Breakers
General-Purpose Definite-Purpose Circuit Breakers Rated Capacitance

Circuit Breakers Switching Current
Rated Capacitance Shunt Capacitor Bank or Cable
Switching Current Back-to-Back
Shunt Capacitor
Bank or Cable Inrush Current
Rated Rated Short-
Maximum Circuit Rated Continuous Isolated
Voltage Current kA, Current Amperes, Isolated Current Current Current Peak Current Frequency
kV,rms rms rms Amperes, rms Amperes, rms Amperes, rms kA Hz
4.76 8.8 1200 400 630 630 15 2000
4.76 29.00 1200 400 630 630 15 2000
4.76 29.00 2000 400 1000 1000 15 1270
4.76 41.00 1200,2000 400 630 630 15 2000
4.76 41.00 3000 400 1000 1000 15 1270
8.25 33.00 1200 250 630 630 15 2000
8.25 33.00 2000 250 1000 1000 15 1270
15.00 18.00 1200 250 630 630 15 2000
15.00 18.00 2000 250 1000 1000 15 1270
15.00 28.00 1200 250 630 630 15 2000
15.00 28.00 2000 250 1000 1000 15 1270
15.00 37.00 1200 250 630 630 15 2000
15.00 37.00 2000 250 1000 1000 18 2400
15.00 37.00 3000 250 1600 1600 25 1330
38.00 21.00 1200,2000,3000 50 250 250 18 6000
38.00 40.00 1200,3000 50 250 250 25 8480

Table 2
Preferred Ratings for Outdoor Circuit Breakers 72.5 kV and Below,
Including Circuit Breakers Applied in Gas Insulated Substations
Rated Maximum Closing and

Rated Rated Rated Short- Maximum Symmetrical Latching Capability
Maximum Voltage Rated Continuous Circuit Current (at Voltage Interrupting Capability 2.7K times Rated
Voltage Range Current at 60 Hz Rated Maximum Divided by K and Rated Short-Time Short-Circuit
kV,rms Factor K. Amperes, rms kV) kA.rms kV, rms Current kA. rms Current kA, Crest
15.5 1.0 600, 1200 12.5 15.5 12.5 34
15.5 1.0 1200,2000 20.0 15.5 20.0 54
15.5 1.0 1200,2000 25.0 15.5 25.0 68
15.5 1.0 1200,2000,3000 40.0 15.5 40.0 108
25.8 1.0 1200,2000 12.5 25.8 12.5 34
25.8 1.0 1200,2000 25.0 25.8 25.0 68
38.0 1.0 1200, 2000 16.0 38.0 16.0 43
38.0 1.0 1200,2000 20.0 38.0 20.0 54
38.0 1.0 1200,2000 25.0 38.0 25.0 68
38.0 1.0 1200, 2000 31.5 38.0 31.5 85
38.0 1.0 1200, 2000, 3000 40.0 38.0 40.0 108
48.3 1.0 1200,2000 20.0 48.3 20.0 54
48.3 1.0 1200,2000 31.5 48.3 31.5 85
48.3 1.0 1200,2000,3000 40.0 48.3 40.0 108
72.5 1.0 1200, 2000 20.0 72.5 20.0 54
72.5 1.0 1200, 2000 31.5 72.5 31.5 85
72.5 1.0 1200,2000,3000 40.0 72.5 40.0 108
Table 2A
Preferred Capacitance Current Switching Ratings for Outdoor Circuit Breakers 72.5 kV and Below,
General-Purpose
Circuit Breakers
Rated Definite-Purpose Circuit Breakers Rated Capacitance
Capacitance Switching Current
Switching Shunt Capacitor Bank or Cable
Current Back-Back
Shunt Capacitor
Bank or Cable Inrush Currei
Rated Rated Short- Overhead Isolated
Maximum Circuit Rated Continuous Line Current Current Current
Voltage Current kA, Current Amperes, Isolated Current Amperes, Amperes, Amperes, Peak Frequency
kV.rms rms rms Amperes, rms mis rms rms Current kA Hz
15.5 12.5 600, 1200 250 100 400 400 20 4240
15.5 20.0 1200, 2000 250 100 400 400 20 4240
15.5 25.0 1200, 2000 250 100 400 400 20 4240
15.5 40.0 1200, 2000, 3000 250 100 400 400 20 4240
25.8 12.5 1200, 2000 160 100 400 400 20 4240
25.8 25.0 1200, 2000 160 100 400 400 20 4240
38.0 16.0 1200,2000 100 100 250 250 20 4240
38.0 20.0 1200, 2000 100 100 250 250 20 4240
38.0 25.0 1200, 2000 100 100 250 250 20 4240
38.0 31.5 1200, 2000 100 100 250 250 20 4240
38.0 40.0 1200,2000, 3000 100 100 250 250 20 4240
48.3 20.0 1200, 2000 10 100 250 250 20 6800
48.3 31.5 1200, 2000 10 100 250 250 20 6800
48.3 40.0 1200, 2000, 3000 10 100 250 250 20 6800
72.5 20.0 1200, 2000 20 100 630 630 25 3360
72.5 31.5 1200,2000 20 100 630 630 25 3360
72.5 40.0 1200, 2000, 3000 20 100 630 630 25 3360

Table 3
Preferred Ratings for Outdoor Circuit Breakers 121 kV and Above,
Closing and
Maximum Latching
Rated Short- Rated Symmetrical Capability 2.7K
Rated Rated Circuit Current Rated Maximum Interrupting times Rated
Maximum Voltage Rated Continuous (at Rated InterruptinjI Voltage Capability and Short-Circuit
Voltage Range Current at 60 Hz Maximum kV) kA, Time Divided by Rated Short- Current kA,
kV,rms Factor K Amperes, rms rms Cycles K kV, rms Time Current Crest
121 1.U 12UU i!U 3 121 2U t>4
121 1.0 1600, 2000, 3000 40 3 121 40 108
121 1.0 2000, 3000 63 3 121 63 170
145 1.0 1200 20 3 145 20 54
145 1.0 1600,2000,3000 40 3 145 40 108
145 1.0 2000, 3000 63 3 145 63 170
145 1.0 2000, 3000 80 3 145 80 216
169 1.0 1200 16 3 169 16 43
169 1.0 1600 31.5 3 169 31.5 85
169 1.0 2000 40 3 169 40 108
169 1.0 2000 50 3 169 50 135
169 1.0 2000 63 3 169 63 170
242 1.0 1600, 2000, 3000 31.5 3 242 31.5 85
242 1.0 2000, 3000 40 3 242 40 108
242 1.0 2000 50 3 242 50 135
242 1.0 2000, 3000 63 3 242 63 170
362 1.0 2000, 3000 40 2 362 40 108
362 1.0 2000 63 2 362 63 170
550 1.0 2000, 3000 40 2 550 40 108
550 1.0 3000 63 2 550 63 170
800 1.0 2000, 3000 40 2 800 40 108
800 1.0 3000 63 2 800 63 170

Table 3A
Preferred Capacitance Current Switching Ratings for Outdoor Circuit Breakers 121 kV and Above,
General-Purpose Circuit
Breakers Rated
Capacitance Switching Definite-Purpose Circuit Breakers Rated Capacitance
Current Switching Current
Shunt Capacitor Bank or Cable
B.ack-to-Bac k
Inrush Current
Rated Rated Short- Overhead
Maximum Circuit Rated Continuous Line Isolated Overhead Isolated Peak
Voltage Current kA, Current Amperes, Current A, Current A, Line Current Current Current A, Current Frequency
kV.rms rms rms rms rms A, rms A, mis rms kA Hz
121 20 1200 50 50 160 315 315 16 4250
121 40 1600, 2000, 3000 50 50 160 315 315 16 4250
121 63 2000, 3000 50 50 160 315 315 16 4250
145 20 1200,2000 63 63 160 315 315 16 4250
145 40 1600, 2000, 3000 80 80 160 315 315 16 4250
145 63 2000, 3000 80 80 160 315 315 16 4250
145 80 2000, 3000 80 80 160 315 315 16 4250
169 16 1200.00 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250
169 31.5 1600.00 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250
169 40 2000.00 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250
169 50 2000 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250
169 63 2000.00 100 100 160 400 400 20 4250
242 31.5 1600,2000,3000 160 160 200 400 400 20 4250
242 40.0 2000, 3000 160 160 200 400 400 20 4250
242 50.0 2000.00 160 160 200 400 400 20 4250
242 63.0 2000, 3000 160 160 200 400 400 20 4250
362 40.0 2000, 3000 250 250 315 500 500 25 4250
362 63 2000 250 250 315 500 500 25 4250
550 40 2000, 3000 400 400 500 500 500
550 63 3000 400 400 500 500 500
800 40 2000, 3000 500 500 500 500 500
800 63 3000 500 500 500 500 500

Table B-l Station Class MOV Surge Arrester Characteristics
MCOV FOW Discharge Peak KV at Indicated Impulse Current for an 8/20 Wave SSP
kV, rms kV, rms kV.peak 1.5KA 3kA 5kA 10 kA 20 kA 40 kA kV, Peak
3 2.55 9.1 6.9 7.2 7.5 8.0 9.0 10.3 6.3
6 5.10 17.9 13.6 14.2 14.8 15.8 17.7 20.3 12.4
9 7.65 26.6 20.2 21.1 22.0 23.5 26.4 30.2 18.4
10 8.40 29.3 22.2 23.3 24.2 25.9 29.1 33.3 20.3

12 10.20 35.5 26.9 28.2 29.4 31.4 35.2 40.4 24.6
15 12.70 44.2 33.5 35.1 36.6 39.1 43.9 50.3 30.6
18 15.30 53.3 40.4 42.3 44.1 47.1 52.8 60.6 36.8
21 17.00 59.1 44.8 46.9 48.9 52.3 58.7 67.2 40.9

24 19.50 67.8 51.4 53.8 56.1 60.0 67.3 77.1 46.9
27 22.00 76.5 58.0 60.8 63.3 67.7 75.9 87.0 52.9
30 24.40 84.9 64.3 67.4 70.3 75.1 84.2 96.5 58.7
36 29.00 101.0 76.4 80.0 83.4 89.2 100.0 115.0 69.7
39 31.50 110.0 83.0 86.9 90.6 96.9 109.0 125.0 75.8
45 36.50 128.0 96.8 102.0 106.0 113.0 127.0 146.0 88.3
48 39.00 136.0 103.0 108.0 113.0 120.0 135.0 155.0 93.8
54 42.00 135.0 105.0 112.0 115.0 122.0 136.0 151.0 98.0

60 48.00 154.0 120.0 127.0 131.0 139.0 155.0 173.0 110.0
72 57.00 183.0 142.0 151.0 156.0 165.0 184.0 205.0 131.0
90 70.00 223.0 174.0 184.0 190.0 202.0 226.0 251.0 161.0
90 70.00 236.0 185.0 195.0 202.0 214.0 237.0 266.0 169.0
96 74.00 242.0 190.0 201.0 208.0 220.0 245.0 274.0 175.0
108 76.00 267.0 209.0 221.0 229.0 243.0 271.0 301.0 193.0
108 84.00 279.0 219.0 232.0 239.0 254.0 284.0 316.0 202.0
120 98.00 311.0 244.0 257.0 266.0 283.0 315.0 351.0 231.0
132 106.00 340.0 264.0 280.0 289.0 306.0 342.0 381.0 249.0
144 115.00 368.0 287.0 303.0 314.0 332.0 369.0 413.0 271.0
168 131.00 418.0 326.0 345.0 357.0 379.0 421.0 470.0 308.0
172 140.00 446.0 348.0 368.0 381.0 404.0 448.0 502.0 330.0
180 144.00 458.0 359.0 380.0 392.0 417.0 463.0 517.0 339.0
192 152.00 483.0 379.0 401.0 414.0 440.0 488.0 546.0 360.0
228 182.00 571.0 447.0 474.0 489.0 520.0 578.0 645.0 424.0
Notes:
MCOV = Maximum continuous over voltage
FOW = Front of wave protective level
SSP = Maximum switching surge protective level

Table B-2 Intermediate Class MOV Surge Arrester Characteristics
MCOV FOW Discharge Peak KV at Indicated Impulse Current for an 8/20 SSP
kV, rms kV, rms kV.peak 1.5kA 3kA 5kA 10 kA 20 kA 40 kA kV, Peak
3 2.55 10.4 6.6 7.2 7.5 8.0 9.3 10.8 5.9
6 5.10 18.9 13.1 14.2 14.8 16.2 18.2 21.2 11.7
9 7.65 30.5 22.0 23.5 25.0 260 31.5 38.0 20.0
10 8.40 33.5 24.5 28.0 27.5 29.0 35.0 42.0 22.5

12 10.20 41.0 30.0 31.5 34.0 35.5 42.5 51.0 27.5
15 12.70 61.0 37.0 39.5 42.0 44.0 52.5 61.5 34.0
18 15.30 61.0 44.5 48.0 50.0 52.0 63.0 77.0 40.5
21 17.00 68.5 49.5 53.5 56.0 59.0 70.5 95.5 45.5

24 19.50 78.0 57.0 60.0 65.0 67.0 81.0 98.0 52.0
27 22.00 88.0 64.0 68.5 72.0 76.0 91.0 110.0 58.5
30 24.40 97.5 71.0 76.0 80.0 84.5 101.0 122.0 66.0
36 29.00 116.0 84.0 91.0 96.5 101.0 121.0 145.0 78.0
39 31.50 126.0 91.5 98.0 104.0 109.0 131.0 158.0 84.0
45 36.50 146.0 1060 114.0 120.0 126.0 152.0 183.0 97.0
48 39.00 156.0 113.0 122.0 129.0 135.0 163.0 195.0 104.0
54 42.00 168.0 122.0 130.0 138.0 145.0 174.0 210.0 112.5

60 48.00 191.0 139.0 149.0 157.0 165.0 198.0 239.0 127.0
72 57.00 227.0 165.0 177.0 187.0 196.0 236.0 284.0 151.0
90 70.00 280.0 203.0 218.0 230.0 242.0 290.0 351.0 186.0
90 70.00 294.0 214.0 230.0 242.0 255.0 306.0 370.0 196.0
96 74.00 303.0 220.0 236.0 249.0 262.0 314.0 379.0 201.0
108 76.00 335.0 244.0 261.0 276.0 290.0 348.0 420.0 223.0
108 84.00 350.0 254.0 273.0 288.0 303.0 364.0 439.0 233.0
120 98.00 390.0 284.0 304.0 321.0 336.0 406.0 490.0 260.0
Notes:

Table B-3 Distribution Class MOV Arrester Characteristics; Normal Duty
kV, rms W, rms kV,peak 1.5 kA 3kA 5kA 10 kA 20 kA 40 kA kV, Peak
3 2.55 12.5 9.8 10.3 11.0 12.3 14.3 18.5 8.5
6 5.10 25.0 19.5 20.5 22.0 24.5 28.5 37.0 17.0
9 7.65 33.5 26.0 28.0 30.0 33.0 39.0 50.5 23.0

10 8.40 36.0 27.0 29.5 31.5 36.0 41.5 53.0 24.0
12 10.20 50.0 39.0 41.0 44.0 49.0 57.0 74.0 34.0
15 12.70 58.5 45.5 48.5 52.0 57.5 67.5 87.5 40.0
18 15.30 67.0 52.0 56.0 60.0 66.0 76.0 101.0 46.0

21 17.00 73.0 55.0 60.0 64.0 73.0 84.0 107.0 49.0
24 19.50 92.0 71.5 76.5 82.0 90.5 106.5 138.0 63.0
27 22.00 100.5 78.0 84.0 90.0 99.0 117.0 151.5 69.0
30 24.40 108.0 81.0 88.5 94.5 108.0 124.5 159.0 72.0
36 29.00 - - - - - - - -
Table B-4 Distribution Class MOV Arrester Characteristics; Heavy Duty
kV, rms kV, rms kV,peak 1.5kA 3kA 5kA 10 kA 20 kA 40 kA kV, Peak
3 2.55 12.5 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 13.0 15.3 8.0
6 5.10 25.0 19.0 20.0 21.0 22.0 26.0 30.5 16.0
9 7.65 34.0 24.5 26.0 27.5 30.0 35.0 41.0 22.5

10 8.40 36.5 26.0 28.0 29.5 32.0 37.5 43.5 23.5
12 10.20 50.0 38.0 40.0 42.0 44.0 52.0 61.0 32.0
15 12.70 59.0 43.5 46.0 48.5 52.0 61.0 71.5 38.5
18 15.30 68.0 49.0 52.0 55.0 60.0 70.0 82.0 45.0

21 17.00 75.0 53.0 57.0 60.0 65.0 76.0 88.5 48.0
24 19.50 93.0 68.0 72.0 76.0 82.0 96.0 112.5 61.0
27 22.00 102.0 73.5 78.0 82.5 90.0 105.0 123.0 67.5
30 24.40 109.5 78.0 84.0 88.5 96.0 112.5 130.5 70.5
36 29.00 136.0 98.0 104.0 110.0 120.0 140.0 164.0 90.0
Notes:

Table B-5 Distribution Class MOV Arrester Characteristics; Riser Pole
kV, rms kV, rms kV,peak 1.5kA 3kA 5kA 10 kA 20 kA 40 kA kV, Peak
3 2.55 . - - -
6 5.10 17.4 13.0 14.0 14.7 16.2 18.1 21.1 11.7
9 7.65 25.7 19.3 21.0 21.9 24.0 27.0 31.6 17.5

10 8.40 28.5 21.2 23.0 24.0 26.5 29.8 34.8 19.2
12 10.20 34.8 25.9 28.0 29.4 32.3 36.2 42.2 23.3
15 12.70 43.1 32.3 36.0 36.6 40.2 46.1 52.7 29.1
18 15.30 51.4 38.6 41.9 43.8 48.0 54.0 63.2 34.9

21 17.00 57.6 42.8 46.4 48.6 53.6 60.2 70.5 38.7
24 19.50 68.8 51.6 55.9 58.5 64.2 72.1 84.3 46.6
27 22.00 77.1 57.9 62.9 65.7 72.0 81.0 94.8 52.4
30 24.40 88.5 63.5 69.0 72.0 79.5 89.4 104.4 57.6
36 29.00 102.8 77.2 83.8 87.6 96.0 108.8 126.4 69.8
Notes:

APPENDIX C
EQUIPMENT TEST VOLTAGES
In insulation coordination studies the maximum switching surge voltages are

compared with the withstand voltages of the equipment. In order to compare the
withstand voltages, the BIL and other related data are required for the transformers,
circuit breakers, overhead line insulators, cables and other power system equipment.
Some of the critical data required for the analysis are reproduced from various
standards.
Circuit breaker test values - The circuit breakers used in the power system
applications are classified into two categories in the ANSI Standard C37.06,
1979 as general purpose and definite purpose [1]. The schedule of dielectric test
values for both categories are presented in the same standard. These values are
reproduced below.
Table C-l Schedule of dielectric test values and external insulation for ac
high voltage circuit breakers (4.76 kV through 800 kV).
Table C-2 Schedule of dielectric test values for circuit breakers applied to
gas insulated substations (72.5 kV through 800 kV).
Power transformer test voltages - The test voltages for the power transformers
are presented in Table C-3, from the ANSI Standard C57.12.00 [2].

Test voltages for shunt reactors - The test voltages for the shunt reactors are
presented in Table C-4, from the ANSI Standard C57.21 [3].
Test voltages for gas Insulated substations - The test voltages for the gas
insulated substations are presented in Table C-5, from the ANSI Standard C37.122
[4].
Test voltages for oil-immersed transformers - The test voltages for the oil-
immersed transformers are presented in Table C-6 from the ANSI Standard 141 [5].
The values in the parentheses are for the distribution transformers, instrument
transformers, constant current transformers, step- and induction voltage regulators
and cable pot heads for distribution cables.
BIL for power circuit breakers, switchgear assemblies and metal enclosed
buses - The test voltages for the power circuit breakers, switchgear assemblies and
metal enclosed buses are presented in Table C-7, from the ANSI Standard 141 [5].
Impulse test levels for dry type transformers - The test voltages for the dry type
transformers are presented in Table C-8, from the ANSI Standard 141 [5].
Surge arrester - The withstand voltages of the surge arrester for various duties are
presented in Tables B-l through B-5.
REFERENCES
1. ANSI Standard C37.06, Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities

for AC High Voltage Breakers, 2000.
2. ANSI Standard C57.12.00, IEEE Standard General Requirements for Liquid

Immersed Distribution Power Transformers, 1993.
3. ANSI Standard C57.21, IEEE Standard for Terminology and Test Code for
Shunt Reactors Rated Over 500 kVA, 1990.
4. ANSI Standard C37.122, IEEE Standard for Gas Insulated Substations, 1993.
5. ANSI Standard 141, Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution

for Industrial Plants, 1993 (Red Book).
6. IEEE Standard 1036, IEEE Guide for Application of Shunt Capacitors, 1992.

Table C-l Test Voltage Values for AC High Voltage Circuit Breakers
Low Frequency Impulse Test 1 .2 x 50 Microsecond Wave
Maximum 1 Minute 10 Second Full Wave Interruptor Chopped Wave, kV Crest
Voltage Dry rms Wet rms Withstand Full wave 2 microsec. 3 microsec.
kV, rms kV kV kV Crest kV, Crest Withstand Withstand
4.76 19 N/A 60 N/A N/A N/A
8.25 36 N/A 95 N/A N/A N/A
15 36 N/A 95 N/A N/A N/A
15.5 50 45 110 N/A N/A N/A
25.8 60 50 125 N/A N/A N/A
38 80 75 150 N/A N/A N/A
48.3 105 95 200 N/A 322 288
72.5 160 140 250 N/A 452 402
121 260 230 350 412 710 632
145 310 310 550 488 838 748
169 365 365 650 552 969 862
242 425 425 750 675 1160 1050
362 555 555 900 975 1680 1500
550 860 860 1300 1350 2320 2070
800 960 960 2050 1540 2640 2360
Table C-2 Test Voltages for Circuit Breakers in Gas Insulated Substations
Low Freq Impulse Test 1.2 x 50 Microsecond Wave

Maximum 1 Minute Full Wave Interruptor Chopped Wave Switching Impulse
Voltage Dry rms Withstand Full wave 3 micro s Withstand Withstand V Withstand V
kV, rms kV kV, Crest kV, Crest kV, Crest kV, Crest (1) kV , Crest (2)
72.5 140 300 - 300 - -
72.5 160 350 - 350 - -
121 215 450 340 450 - -
121 260 550 410 550 - -
145 260 550 410 550 - -
145 310 650 490 650 - -
169 310 650 490 650 - -
169 365 750 560 750 - -
242 365 750 560 750 . .
242 425 900 675 900 - -
362 425 900 675 900 720 800
362 500 1050 790 1050 825 900
550 615 1350 975 1300 1050 1175
550 740 1550 1165 1550 1175 1300
800 860 1800 1350 1800 1425 1550
Notes:
(1) = With circuit breaker
(2) = Withstand voltage from terminal to terminal on one phase with circuit breaker open

Table C-3 Dielectric Insulation Levels for Class II Power Transformers
Induced Voltage Test
(Phase-to-Gro und)
Basic Lightning
Nominal System Impulse Insulation Chopped Ave Svvitching Impulse One Hour Applied Voltage
Voltage Levei(BlL) Level Chopped Wave Level (BSL) Level Test Level
(kV) (kV Crest) (kV Crest) Level (kV Crest) (kV Crest) (kV rms) (kV rms)
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5 Column 6 Column 7
15 and below 110 120 34
25 150 165 50
34.5 200 220 - - 70
46 250 275 - - - 95
_
69 250 275 _ . 95
350 385 - - - 140
115 350 385 280 105 120 140

450 495 375 105 120 185
550 605 460 105 120 230
138 450 495 375 125 145 185

550 605 460 125 145 230
650 715 540 125 145 275
161 550 605 460 145 170 230

650 715 540 145 170 275
750 825 620 145 170 325
230 650 715 540 210 240 275

750 825 620 210 240 325
825 905 685 210 240 360
900 990 745 210 240 395
345 900 990 745 315 360 395

1050 1155 870 315 360 460
1175 1290 975 315 360 520
500 1300 1430 1080 475 550

1425 1570 1180 475 550 -
1550 1705 1290 475 550 -
1675 1845 1390 475 550 -
765 1800 1980 1500 690 800 .

1925 2120 1600 690 800
2050 2255 1700 690 800 -
Notes: Columns 5 and 6 provide phase to ground test voltages for wye-connected
windings.

Table C-4 - Insulation Classes and Dielectric Tests
for Oil-Immersed Shunt Reactors
Insulation Class Low-Frequency Test BIL and Full Wave Chopped Wave
Crest Crest Minimum Time to
(W) (kV) (kV) (kV) Flashover, micro-s
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
15 34 110 130 2
18 40 125 145 2.25

25 50 150 175 3
34.5 70 200 230 3
46 95 250 290 3
60 120 300 345 3
69 140 350 400 3

92 185 450 520 3
115 230 550 630 3
138 275 650 750 3
161 325 750 865 3
180 360 825 950 3

196 395 900 1035 3
215 430 975 1120 3
230 460 1050 1210 3
260 520 1175 1350 3
287 575 1300 1500 3

315 630 1425 1640 3
345 690 1550 1780 3
375 750 1675 1925 3
400 800 1800 2070 3
430 860 1925 2220 .

460 920 2050 2360 -
490 980 2175 2500 -
520 1040 2300 2650 -
545 1090 2425 2800 -
Notes: (1) = Wye connected shunt reactors for operation with solidly grounded
neutral.

Table C-5 Voltage Ratings of Gas Insulated Substations
Substation Test Values Disconnect Switch Open Gap Interrupter Open Gap
Rated Field
Rated Tests Low Sw
Max Rated Low Freq Sw Impulse Freq Impulse Low Freq Impulse Impulse Low Freq Sw Impulse
Voltage B I L k V Withstand kV Withstand Withstand kV Withstand kV Withstand Withstand Withstand Withstand Withstand
kV rms Crest rms kV Crest rms Crest kV rms kV Crest kV Crest kVrms kV Crest
72.5 300 140 * 105 330 154 300 140
72.5 350 160 * 120 385 176 350 160
121 450 215 * 160 495 236 450 215
121 550 260 * 195 605 286 550 260
145 550 260 * 195 605 286 550 260
145 650 310 * 230 715 341 650 310
169 650 310 * 230 715 341 650 310 -
169 750 365 * 270 825 401 750 365 -
242 750 365 * 270 825 401 750 365 -
242 900 425 * 320 990 467 900 425 -
362 900 425 720 320 990 467 800 900 425 800
362 1050 500 825 375 1155 550 900 1050 500 900
550 1300 615 1050 460 1430 676 1175 1300 615 1175
550 1550 740 1175 550 1705 814 1300 1550 740 1300
800 1800 860 1425 645 1980 946 1550 1800 860 1550
Tabel C-6 - Impulse Test Levels for Liquid-Immersed Transformers
Insulation Windings Bushing withstand voltages

class and Chopped wave B1L impulse
nominal Hi-pot Minimum time to B1L full wave Switching 60-cycle 1 60-cycle 10 full wave
bushing rating tests flashover (1.2/50) surge level min dry s wet (1.2/50)
kV kV kV kV kV kV kV kV
(rms) (rms) (rms) Micro-sec (rms) (rms) (rms) (rms) (rms)
1.2 10 54 (36) 1.5(1) 45 (30) 20 15(10) 13(6) 45 (30)
2.5 15 69 (54) 1.5(1.25) 60 (45) 35 21(15) 20(13) 60 (45)
5 19 88 (69) 1.6(1.5) 75 (60) 38 27(21) 24 (20) 75 (60)
8.7 26 110(88) 1.8(1.6) 95 (75) 55 35 (27) 30 (24) 95 (75)
15 34 130(110) 2.0(1.8) 110(95) 75 50 (35) 45 (30) 110(95)
25 50 175 3.0 150 100 70 70 (60) 150
34.5 70 230 3.0 200 140 95 95 200
46 95 290 3.0 250 190 120 120 250
69 140 400 3.0 350 280 175 175 350
92 185 520 3.0 450 375 225 190 450
115 230 630 3.0 550 460 280 230 550
138 275 750 3.0 650 540 335 275 650
161 325 865 3.0 750 620 385 315 750
The values in parentheses are for the distribution transformers, instrument

transformers, constant current transformers, step and induction voltage regulators
and cable pot heads for distribution cables.

Table C-7 Basic Impulse Insulation Levels (BIL) of Power Circuit Breakers,
Switchgear Assemblies and Metal-Enclosed Buses
Voltage Voltage
Voltage rating BIL rating BIL rating BIL
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
2.4 45 23 150 115 550
4.16 60 34.5 200 138 650
7.2 75 46 250 161 750
13.8 95 69 350 230 900
14.4 110 92 450 345 1300
Table C-8 - Impulse Test Levels for Dry-Type Transformers
Nominal winding voltage (volts) High-potential test Standard BIL (1.2/50)

Delta or Grounded
ungrounded wye wye kV (rms) kV (crest)
4 10
120-1200 1200Y/693 4 10
10 20
2520 4360Y/2520 10 20
12 30
4160-7200 8720Y/5040 10 30
8320 10 45
31 60
12000-13800 13 800Y/7970 10 60
34 95
18000 22 860 Y/ 13 200 10 95
38 110
23000 24 940 Y/ 14 400 10 110
40 125
27600 34500Y/19920 10 125
34500 50 150

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13. Lightning Surge Analysis

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15. Data Acquisition Systems

16. Relay Coordination Studies

Appendix A Conductor Data

Copyright © 2002 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

• A stand-alone workstation operated by a single user or a number of users at

• A workstation, which is part of a local area network, is another version of the

• Workstation connected to a central computer. This is similar to the local area

• Large file transfer between various computer resources is achieved by e-mail

In all the microcomputer configurations, the printing or plotting devices is available

1.1 POWER SYSTEM STUDIES

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

Transient Stability Analysis (Chapter 5) - The ability of the power system

Power Factor Correction Studies (Chapter 7) - Usually, the power factor of

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

Harmonic Analysis (Chapter 8) - Nonlinear power system loads such as

Insulation Coordination (Chapter 10) - The power system transients are

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

Cable Ampacity Analysis (Chapter 11) - Cable installation in the underground

Grounding Grid Analysis (Chapter 12) - In the substations and generating

• Grid potential rise.

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

• Steady state analysis.

These analyses include examples of performance analysis, graphical representation

Relay Coordination Studies (Chapter 16) - The main objective of protection

Example 1.1 - A 160 MW cogeneration project is being planned for development

Copyright 2002 by Marcel Dekker. All Rights Reserved.

1. A 520 MW cogeneration plant is to be developed at 13.8 kV level. The plant