Mathematics

counts
Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Teaching of
Mathematics in Schools under the Chairmanship of
Dr W H Cockcroft

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London: Her Majesty's Statione ry Office

 iii

Foreword

BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

AND THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR WALES
Few subjects in the school curriculum are as important to the future of the
nation as mathematics; and few have been the subject of more comment and
criticism in recent years. This report tackles that criticism head on . It offers
constructive and original proposals for change. It should be read by those
responsible for school mathematics at all levels.

The main message is for the education service . The report identifies six
agencies whose active response is required. The contribution of all will be
.necessary if we are to make headway. To the extent that the report calls for
extra resources, progress is bound to be conditioned by the continuing need to
restrain public expenditure; but many recommendations involve no such call.
We hope that there wiU be widespread discussion of the report's conclusions
and that action will foUow.

The Conunittee's terms of reference invited it to consider the teaching of

mathematics with particular regard to the mathematics required in further
and higher education, employment and adult life generally. The early
chapters of the report are concerned with these aspects. They will be of in-
terest to many both within and au tside the ed ucation service. They reveal the
hesitant grasp many adults have of even quite simple mathematical skills.
They are particularly valuable in examining closely the mathematics which is
in fact needed in different kinds of employment and in everyday life, and
relating it to what is taught in the schools. The Committee's rmdings point to
the need for teachers to devote more time to the use of mathematics in applica-
tions taken from real life.

This is a first-class report. We are greatly indebted to Dr Cockcroft and the

members of his Committee, and commend their work to all those concerned
about the quality of mathematics taught in our schools.

• •

January 1982
 v

The Committee of Inquiry into the teaching of Mathematics in primary and

secondary schoots in England and Wales

MEMBERSHIP OF THE COMMITTEE

Dr W H Cockcroft
(Chairman) Vice Chancellor , New University of Ulster, Coleraine.
Mr AG Ahmed Head of Mathematics Department, Fairchildes High School, Croydon.
Professor M F Atiyah FRS Royal Society Research Professor.
Miss K Cross Assistant Principal and Head of the Faculty of Mathematics and Science,
Accrington and Rossendale College, Accrington.
MrC David Head teacher, Dyffryn Comprehensive School, Port Talbot.
Mr G Davies Policy Unit, Prime Minister's Office (resigned April 1980).
Mr K T Dennis Teacher , Dunmore County Junior School, Abingdon .
Mr T Easingwood Reader in Mathematical Education, Derby Lonsdale College of Higher Edu·
cation , Derby.
Mr H R Galleymore Former Director, Procter and Gamble Limited (appointed August 1979).
Mr R P Harding CBE Chief Education Officer , Buckinghamshire County Council.
Mr J W Hersee Executive Director, School Mathematics Project; Chairman, Schools
Council Mathematics Committee.
Mrs M Hughes Head teacher, Yardley Junior School , Birmingham.
Mr A J McIntosh Principal Adviser in Mathematics , leicestershire County Council (resigned
March 1980).
Mr H Neill Lecturer in Mathematics, University of Durham.
Mr P Reynolds Mathematics Adviser, Suffolk County Council (appointed March 1980).
Mr 0 G Saunders MBE Welsh Area Secretary, Association of Professional, Executive, Clerical and
Computer Staff (appointed March 1979).
Mr H P Scanlon President, Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers (resigned January
1979).
Miss H B Shuard Deputy Principal, Homerton College, Cambridge.
Dr PG Wakely Chairman and Managing Director, Associated Engineering Developments
limited.
Councillor D Webster Chairman, Education Committee, Newcastle upon Tyne Borough Council.
Mr LD Wigham Postgraduate Certificate in Education Student, University of Leeds
(appointed November 1978).
Mr P H Halsey (Assessor) Department of Education and Science.
Mr W J A Mann HMI
(Secretary) Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Schools .
Mr E L Basire (Assistant
Sccretary) Department of Education and Sciencc.
The styles, decorations and appointments shown are those held by members at the time oftheir appointment
to the Committee.
vi

10 November 1981

Dear Secretaries of State

On behalf of the Committee of Inquiry into the teaching of mathematics in primary and secondary schools in
England and Wales, I have the honour to submit our repon to you.

Yours sincerely

W H COCKCROFT
-
The Rt Hon Sir Keith Joseph Bt MP
Secretary of State for Education and Science

The Rt Hon Nicholas Edwards MP

Secretary of State for Wales
 vjj

Contents

Introduction poge ix

Explaoatory note xv

Part ooe I Why teach ma thematics? I

2 The mathematical needs of adult life 5
3 The mathematical needs of employment 12
4 The mathematical needs of further and higher education 42

Part two 5 Mathematics in schools 56

6 Mathematics in th e primary years 83
7 Calculators and computers 109
8 Assessmenl a nd continuity 12 1
9 Mathematics in the secondary years 128
10 Examinations at 16 + 158
II Mathemalics in the sixth form 169

Part three 12 Facilities for teaching mathematics 183

13 The supply of mathematics teachers 188
14 Initial training courses 203
15 In-service support for teachers of mathematics 217
16 Some other matters 232
17 The way ahead 2A2

Appendices I Statis tical info rmatio n 246

2 Differences in mathema tical performance between girls and boys
by Miss H B Shuard 273
3 List of organisations and individuals who have made submissions
to the Committee 288
4 Visits to schools . industry and commerce; meetings with teachers 301
5 Abbreviations used within the text of the report 303

Index 305
 ix

Introduction

In its report published in July 1977, the Education, Arts and Home Office
SUb-Committee of the Parliamentary Expenditure Cpmmittee stated that' 'it
is clear from the points which were made over and over again by witnesses that
there is a large number of questions about the mathematical attainments of
children which need much more careful analysis than we have been able to
give during our enquiry . These concern the apparent lack of basic compu-
tation skills in many children, the increasing mathematical demands made on
adults, the lack of qualified maths teachers, the multiplicity of syllabuses for
old, new and mixed maths, the lack of communication between further and
higher education, employers and schools about each group's needs and
viewpoints, the inadequacy of information on job content or test results over
a period of time, and the responsibility of teachers of mathematics and other
subjects to equip children with the sk ills of numeracy". The Committee re-
commended as "possibly the most important of ou r recommendations" that
the Secretary of State for Education and Science should set up an enquiry into
the teaching of mathematics. In their reply presented to Parliament in March
1978, the Government ag reed " that issues of the kind listed in the
Committee's report need thorough examination" and announced their
decision to "establish an Inquiry to consider the teaching of mathematics in
primary and secondary schools in England and Wales, with particu lar regard
to its effectiveness and intelligibility and to the match between the mathema-
tical curriculum and the skills required in further education, employment and
adult life generally" . They further unde rtook that the Inquiry would examine
the suggestion that there should be a full analysis of the mathematical skills
required in employment and the problem of the prolifera tion of mathematics
syllabuses at A-level and at 16 + .

Terms of reference Our Committee met for tbe first time on 25 September 1978 wi th the foUow-
ing terms of reference :
To consider the teaching of mathematics in primary and secondary schools in
England and Wales, with particular regard to the mathemalics required in further
and higher education, employment and adult li fe generall y, and ( 0 make recom~
mendations.

Meetings and visits The full Committee has met on 64 days, which have included three residential
meetings. Its Working Groups have met on 143 days in all, and there have
been less formal discussions on many occasions. 54 schools and 26 companies
of various kinds in England and Wales have been visited by members of the
Commiuee and there have been six meetings with groups of leachers in dif·
x I mroduction

ferent parts of the country. Small groups of members have visited the Scottish
Education Department in Edinburgh, the Institute for the Development of
Mathematics Education (IOWO) at Utrecht, Holland, the Institute for the
Teaching of Mathematics at the University of Bielefeld, West Germany and
the Royal Danish School of Educational Studies in Copenhagen; two
members have visited industrial companies in Nuremberg, West Germany.
Several members of the Commiuee were present at the Fourth International
Congress on Mathematical Educat ion held at the University of California at
Berkeley in August 1980. Individual members of the Committee have been
invited to auend the conferences and meetings of a number of professionaJ
bodies.

Submissions of evidence Throughout our work we have been greatly encouraged by the welcome which
many people have given to the setting up of the Jnquiry and by the helpful
response which we have received to our requests for information and written
evidence. We have recei ved written submissions. many of them of consider-
able length, from 930 individuals and bodies of many kinds. 73 individuals
and groups have met members of the Committee for discussion. A list of those
who have submitted evidence and who have met members of the Committee
for discussion is given in Appendix 3.

Research studies When we started to consider how best we might respond to our terms of
reference, we became aware that we needed more detaHed information about
the mathematical needs of employment and of adult life generally than we
were likely either to receive in written evidence or to be able to obtain by our
own efforls . We therefore requested the Department of Education and Sci-
ence (DES) to commission two complementary studies into the mathematical
needs of employment and also a small study into the mathematical needs of
adult life . One of the studies into the mathematical needs of employment was
based at the University of Bath under the di rection of Professor D E Bailey,
assisted by Mr A Fitzgerald of the University of Birmingham. and the other at
the Shell Centre for Mathematical Education , University of Nottingham,
under the direction of Mr R L Lindsay. Thestudy into the mathematical needs
of adult life was carried out by Mrs B Sewell on behalf both of the Committee
and of the Advisory Council for Aduli and Continuing Education. The DES
aJso agreed to commission a review of existing research on [he teaching and
learning of mathematics which was carried out by Dr A BeU of the University
of Nottingham and Dr A Bishop of the University of Cambridge. The Steer-
ing Groups for all these studies have included members of the Committee, and
relevant evidence which has been received has been made available on a con-
fidential basis to those engaged in the studies. The reports which have been
produced have proved to be of very considerable help to us; we refer to them
and draw on their conclusions in a number of the chapters which follow. At a
later stage the DES commissioned a small survey of mathematics teachers in
secondary schools who were in their first three years of teaching; this was
carried out for us by the National Foundation for Educational Research .
 Introduction xi

Publications and Since we started our work a considerable number of official reports and other
announcements publicatio ns have been issued which relate wholly or in part to the teaching o f
mathematics in schools . These incl ude from the DES,
Mathemalicaldevelopmenl. Primary survey reporls Nos I and 2 (The APU
Primary Surveys)
Mathematical developmelil. Secondary survey report No I (The APU
Secondary Survey)
Local authority arrangemellls Jar the school curriculum
A basis for choice
Proposals for a Certi/icate of Extended Education (The Keoha ne Report)
Secondary school exam ina/ions: a single sysI,em al 16 plus
A framework for Ihe school curriculum
The school curriculum
Examinations J6-18: a consullative paper
Educalion for J6- 19 year aids;

from HM Inspectorate,
Primary educalion in England (Report of the National Primary Survey)
Aspecls of secondary education in England (Report of the National
Secondary Survey)
Aspecls of secondary educatI on in England: supplementary information
all mathematics
Malhematics 5-J I: a handbook of suggestions
Developments in the BEd degree course
PGCE in the public sector
Teacher training and the secondary school
A view oj the curriculum;

from the Schools Council,

Mathematics and Ihe IO-year old (Schools Council Working Paper 61)
Mathematics in school and employment: a study of liaison activities (Schools
Council Working Paper 68)
Statistics in schools 11-16: a review (Schools Council Working Paper 69)
The practical curriculum (Schools Council Working Paper 70);

from other sources,

Engineering our fUlure (Report of the Finniston Committee)

Thefunding and organisation of courses in higher educalion (Report of the
Education , Science and Arts Committee of the House of Com mons)
The PGCE course and Ihe Iraining Of specialist teachers for secondary
schools (Universities Council for the Education of Teachers)
A minimal care syllabus for A -level mathemalics (Standing Conference on
University Entrance and Council for National Academic Awards)
Children 's underslanding of malhemalics: 1/-16 (Repon of the Concepts in
Secondary Mathematics and Science P roject).
We have studied a1l lhese documents and make reference to several of them in
the course of this report.
xii tnlroducri on

Since we s t.arted work , Ihe Government have announ ced th at (h e present

O-Ievel and CSE examinations are [0 be replaced by a single sys tem of exam-
ining at 16 +. that GCE A-levels are [0 be retai ned, that the Certificate of
Extended Education will not be introdu ced but that there will be a pre-
vocational examinati on at 17 + , and that consideratio n is being given to th e
introduction of Inte rmed iate levels (I-levels), We ha ve considered the impli-
cations of th ese announcements so far as mathematics is concerned ,

Statistical information As a res ult of th e work which has been carri ed out for us by the Statistics
Branch of the DES and by the Universities Statistical Record we have been
able [0 obtain a considerable amount of information which has not hitherto
been ava ilable . We refer to this, and to other existing information, from tjme
io time throughout [he report . ]n ge neral we qUOle this informali on in
rounded terms or present it in diagram matic form . The detailed tables from
which the information is taken are set out in Appendix 1, which also gives in
each case the source from which the info rmatio n has been obtained. This
Appendix also contains so me tables to which no direct reference is made in the
text but which we believe to be of interest. The Appendi x discusses, where
appropriate. any assumptions which it has been necessary to make in order to
prepare the tables and includes brief co mments on some of them.

Views from (he past In the light of present day cri tic ism of standards, it is interesting to assemblea
co llection of quotations from documents of various kinds. so me of wh.ich
date back to the last century. which draw attention to the allegedly poor
mathematical standards o f the day. We cont ent ou rsel ves with examples from
app roxi mately a century. a half-ce ntury and a quarter-century ago.
(n arithmetic, I reg ret to say wortic results th an eve r before have been
obtai ned -this is partly attr ibutable, no doubt, [0 my having so f ramed my su ms as
to require rathe r more intelligence than before: the failures are almost in\'ariably
tracea ble to radically imperfect teac hing.

The fai lures in ari th met ic are mainly due to the scarcity o f good teachers of it.

Those comments are laken from reports by HM Inspecrors written in 1876.

Man y who are in a position to criticise the capaci ty of you ng people who have
passed th rough the public element ary schools have experienced some uneasiness
a bout the co ndition of arithmetical kno wledge and teachin g al lhe present time. It
has been said, for in stance , that accu racy in the manipulation of figures does not
reach the same standard which was reached tw en ty years ago. So me employers
express surprise and concern at the inability of you ng persons [0 perform simple
nu merical operation s invo lved in business. Someevening school tea chers complain
thal the kno wledge of arithmetic shown by their pupils docs not reach their expec-
tations. It is sometimes alteged in consequence, t hough nor as a rule wi th the
s upport of definite evidence , ('h at' the teacher no lo nger prosecut es his attack on this
subject with the energy or purposefu lness for which his prede-cesso rs are given
credit.

That exlract comes from a Board of Education Report of 1925 .

The stand ard o f mathematical ability of ent rants to trade cour ses is of[en very
[ow . . . . . Experience shows th at alargeproportion of entran ts have forgolten how
to deal wi th simple vulgar and deci mal fraction s, have very hazy ideas on some easy
 100roduction xiii

arithmerical processes, and retain no trace of knowledge of algebra, graphs or

geomerry, if, in fact, they ever did possess any. Some improvementsin this position
may be expecled as a result o f the raising of the school Jeavi ngage, but th ere is asyer
no evidence of any mar ked change.

Our final quotation comes from a Mathematical Association Report of 1954;

the school leaving age was raised to 15 in 1947.

It is therefore clear that criticism of mathematical education is not new.

Indeed, throughout the tim e for which we have been working we ha ve been
conscious that for many years a great dea l of advice to teachers about good
prac tice in mathematics teaching has been available in published fo rm from a
variet y of sources. These include th e publications of the DES, of HM
Inspecto rate, of th e Schools Council and of the professional mathematical
associati o nsi there have also been references to mathematics teaching in the
reports of Committees of In quiry, fo r example that of the Newsom Commit-
tee. Much of this advice is stiJl relevant today and serves as a background to
our own wo rk .

Genera l approach In writing our report we ha ve tried so far as is possible to avoid th e use of
techn ical language and to put forward our views in a way which we hope will
be intelligible to mathematician and non-mathema ticta n alike. For this
reason we have at limes omitted detail which, had we been writing only for
those engaged in mathematical edu cation, we would have included . We hope
that th ose who would have wished us to discuss certain matters in greater
detail will understand the reason wh y we have in certain places used a
somewhat 'broad brush'. We hope that our attempt to d raw attention to those
as pects of the teaching of mathematics which we believe 10 be of fundamental
importance will be of use both inside and outside the classroom.

We wish to stress that many of th e chapters in our report, and es pecially those
in Pa rt 2, are inter-related . For example, in C hapters 5 and 6 we discuss lhe
elements of mathematics teaching at some length; the fact that we do not
repea l this discuss ion in Chapter 9 (Mathematics in lhe secondary years) , but
deal mainly with matters of syllabus content and organisation, does not mean
that the teaching approaches we have recommended in earlier chapters are not
equaJJ y applicable at the secondary stage. We therefore hope that those who
read our report will view it as a whole .

In our report we have not considered the needs of pupils with severe learning
difficulties. We hope, however, that those who teach pupils of this kind will
find that our discussion of math emat ics leaching in general, and of the needs
of low-attaining pupils in particular, as well as our discussion of the math-
ematical needs of adult life, will be of assistance.

Acknowledgements We would like to express ou r thanks to all th ose who have written to us and
with whom we have talked both formally and informall y. We are grateful for
{he help we have received from the heads, staff and pupils of the schools we
have vis iled, from the teachers wh om we have met al meetings in different
parts of the country and from those at all levels whom we have met during our
XJ v l mrod uClioJ1

visi ts to co mmerce a nd industry. We are grateful, too, to those who were kind
enough to arrange these visits and meetings . We wish to thank th e Scottish
Education Department for arranging our visit to Edinburgh and those whom
we visited in Denmark, Holland and West Germany for the help they gave us
and the arrangements t hey made on our behalf.

Our thanks are due to all those who have carried out the various resea rch stu-
di es and also to t hose in DES Statistics Branch and the Unive rsiti es Statistical
Record who ha ve undertaken a great deal of work fo r us and found ways of
answering our questions. We a re grateful for the help we have re ceived from
many officers in the DES, in pa rticular ou r Assesso r , Mr P H Halsey; and
from members of HM Inspectorate, especiall y Mr T J Fletche r who has, at
our invitation, att ended many of OUf meetings.

We wish also to ex press our th anks fo r the help and support which we ha ve
received fro m the members of the Com mittee's secretariat. Mr W M White
has taken major responsibility fo r obtaining, putting in order and inter-
preting a very great deal of statistical informatio n. Mr E L Basire, our Assis -
tant Secretary, Miss E Kirszberg and Mr R W Le Cheminant, in addition to
their other duties, have given mu ch persona l help to mem bers of the
Committ ee.

Among those to who m we are indebted , our Secretary, Mr W J AMann HMI,

stands oul. We are conscious of th e burden we have placed upon his shoulders
and of the conscientio us way in which he has accepted tbe load . Most of all,
we are grateful to him for the able and efficie nt way in wh ich he has taken the
outcome of our many diffuse and varied deliberations and moulded it into a
coherent whole.
 xv

Explanatory note

Throughout t.he repon (here are certain passages which are printed in heavier
type. In selecting these passages, we have chosen those which either relate to
matlers we consider to be of significance for all our readers or which call for
action by those who are outside the classroom. This means that, especially in
Chapters 5 to II whieh are concerned in particular with the teaching of math-
emalics, we have nO! picked OUI many of the passages in which we make sug-
gestions relating to classroom practice. As we bave pointed oul in the Intro-
duction, Chapters 5 to II are inter-related and we bave not wished to draw
attention only to certain passages in them, except in so far as these passages
fulm the purposes we have already SCI out.

We do not regard the pass.ages printed in heavier type as in any way const i-
tuling a summary of Ihe report.
Part 1 1 Why teach mathematics?

I There can be no doubt that there is general agreement that every child
s hould study mathematics at school; indeed, the st udy of mathematics,
together with that of English , is regarded by most people as being essential. It
might therefore be argued that there is no need to answer the question which
we have used as our chapter heading. It wou ld be very difficult-perhaps
impossi ble-to live a normal li fe in ve ry many parts of the world in the
twentieth cent ur y wit hout mak ing use of mathematics of so me kind. This fact
in itself could be thought to provide a sufficient rea so n for teaching math-
ematics) and in one sense [his is undoubtedly true . However, we believe that it
is of value to try to provide a more detailed a nswer.

2 Mathematics is on ly o ne of many subjects which are included in the sc hool

curr iculum, yet there is grea ter pressure for children to succeed at mathematics
than, for exam pl e, at history or geogra phy , even though it is generally
accepted Iha t th ese subj ects should also form part of the curriculum. This
suggests that math emati cs is in so me way thougbt to be of especial
importance. If we as k wby this should be so, o ne of the reasons which is fre-
qu ently give n is th at mathematics is 'useful'; it is dear, toO, that this useful-
ness is in some way seen to be of a different kind from th at of many other
subjects in the curricu lum. The usefu lness of mathematics is perceived in dif-
fe rent ways. For many it is secn in terms of the arithmetic skills wh ich are
needed for use at home or in the office or workshop; some see mathematics as
the basis of scie nti fic developme nt a nd modern technology; some emp hasise
the increasing use of m athematical techniques as a management LOol in
commerce and i nduslf Y.

3 We believe that alilhese perceptions of the usefulness of mathematics arise

from the fact 1hat mathematics provides a means of communicaOon which is
powerful , concise and unambiguous. Even though many of th ose who con-
sider mat hematics to be useful wou ld probably not express the reason in these
terms , we believe that it is the fact that mathematics can be used as a powerful
means of communication which prov ides the principal reason for teaching
mathematics (0 aJi child ren.

4 Ma th ematicsca n be used to present information in many ways, not only by

mea ns of fig ures and letters bUl also through the use of tables, charts and
diagra ms as well as of grap hs and geomet ri cal or tech nical drawings. Fur-
thermore, the figu res and other symbols which are used in mathematics can be
manipulated and comq ined in systematic ways so that it is often possible to
2 J Why (each mathetna[ics'~

deduce further information about the situation to which the mathematics

relales. For example, if we are told that a car has travelled for 3 hours at an
average speed of 20 miles per hour, we can deduce that it has covered a
distance of 60 miles . In order to obtain this result we made use of the fact that:
20 x 3 = 60.
However, this mathematical statement also represents (h e calculation
required to find the cost of 20 articles each costing 3p, the area of carpet
required to cover a corridor 20 metres long and 3 metres wide and many other
things as well. This pl ovides an illustration of the fact that the same math-
ematical statement can arise from and represent many different situations.
This fact has important consequences. Because the same mathematical
statement can relate to more than one simation, results which have been
obtained in solving a problem arising from one siLUation can often be seen to
apply to a different situation . In this way mathematics can be used not only to
explain the outcome of an event which has already occurred but also, and
perhaps more importanlly, to predict the outcome of an event which has yet to
take place. Such a prediction may be simple, for example theamount of petrol
which will be needed for ajourney, its cost and the time which the journey will
take; or it may be complex , such as the path which will be taken by a rocket
launched into space or the load which can be supported by a bridge of given
design. Indeed, it is the ability of mathematics to predict which has made
possible many of the technological advances of recent years .

.5 A second important reason for teaching mathematics must be its

importance and usefulness in many other fields . It is fundamental to the study
of the physical sciences and of engineering of all kinds . It is increasingly being
used in medicine and the biological sciences, in geography and economics, in
business and management studies. It is essential to the operations of industry
and commerce in both office and workshop.

6 It is often suggested that mathematics should be studied in order to develop

powers of logical thinking, accuracy and spatial awareness. The study of
mathematics can certainly contribute to these ends but the extent to which it
does so depend s on the way in which mathematics is taught. Nor is its contri-
bution unique; many other activities and the study of a number of other
subjects can develop these powers as well . We therefore believe that the need
to develop these powers does not in itself constitute a sufficient reason for
studying mathematics rather than other things . However, teachers should be
a\vare of the contribution which mathematics can make.

7 The inherent interest of mathematics and the appeal which it can have for
many children and adults provide yet another reason for teaching mathema-
tics in schools. The fact that ' puzzle corners' of various kinds appear in so
many papers and periodicals testifies to the fact that the appeal of relatively
elementary problems and puzzles is widespread; attempts to solve them can
both provide enjoyment and also, in many cases, lead to increased mathema·
tical understanding. For some people, too , the appeal of mathematics can be
even greater and mOre intense . For in stance:
 Why leach maLhemalics? 3

Anna and I had bOlh set::n lhat math s was more than just working out problems.
It was a doorway to magic. mysterious , brain-cracking world s, world s where you
had to uead carefully, worlds wher e you made up you r own rules, worlds where
you had to accept complece responsibi lity for your acrjons. SUl i( was exciting and
-F,:nn. Mis/er God, Ihis is Alina. vast beyond undersGlnding."
Collins Fount Paperback ~ 1974 .

Even though it may be given to relatively few to achieve the insight and sense
of wonder of 7 year old Anna and of the young man who in later years wrote
the book, we believe it to be important that opportunities to do so should not
be denied to anyone. Indeed, we hope that all those who learn mathematics
will be enabled to become aware of the 'view through rhe doorway' which
man y pieces of mathema.tics can provide and be encouraged to Ve nture
through this doorway . However, we have to recognise that there are some
who, even though they may glimpse the view from time to Lime as they become
interested in particular aClivities, see in it no lasting att ract.ion and remain
indifferent or in some cases actively hostile to mathematics.

8 There are other reasons for teaching mathematics besides those which we
have put forward in this chapter. However, we believe that the reasons which
we have giv en make a more than sufficient case for teaching mathematks to
all boys and girls and that foremost among them is the fact that mathematics
ca n be used as a powerful means of communication-to represent, t.o explain
and to predict.

9 It is interesting to nOte two very different uses which have been made of
mathematics in the current Voyager s pace programme. Not only has the pre-
dict ive power of mathematics been used to plan the details of the journeys of
the two Voyager spacecraft but examples of mathematics have been included
in the information about life on Earth which was affixed to each of the
spacecraft before they were la unched in 1977 to explore the outer Solar
"'Carl Sagan. /vlurmurs a/Earth. System and then to beco m.e "emissaries of Earlh to the realm of the stars" .*
Hodder and Stough Ion 1979 The reason for including examples of mathematics is explained in these
words:
So far as we ca n tell, rna:thematical relationships should be valid for all planets,
biologies. cultures , philosophies. We can imagine a planet with uranium hexa-
n uo ride in the atmos phere or a life fo rm that lives mosll y off interstellar dust, even
jf these are exrremely unlj~,ely contingencies. But we cannol. imagine a civili zalion
for which one and one does not equal two or for which there is an integer interposed
between eight and nine. For this reas on. simple mathematical re!alionship~ may be
even better means of communicati on between diverse species than references (Q
physic.o;; and astronomy. The early pan of the pictorial information on the Voyager
recor d is rich in arithmetic, which also provides a kind of diclionary for simpl e
mathematical infonnation contai ned in later pictures, such as the ~ize of a human
being.

10 Mathematics provides .a means of communicating information con_cisely

and unambiguously because it makes extensive use of symbolic notation.
However, it is the necessity of using and interpreting thjs notation and of
grasping the abstract ideas and concepts which underlie it which proves a
stumbling block to man y people. Indeed, the symbolic notation which ena·
4 I Why leach malhemalics.1

bies mathematics [0 be used as a means of communication and so helps to

make it 'usefu l1 can also make mathematics difficult to und erstand and to
use.

II The problems of learning to use mathemat ics as a means of commu-

nication are n01 th e same as those of learning to use one's native language.
Native language provides a means of communication which is in use all the
time a nd which , for the great majority of people, 'comes naturally' , even
though command of language needs to be developed and extended in the
classroom . Furthermore, mistakes of gra mmar or of spelling do not, in gene-
ral , render unintelligible the message which is being conveyed. On the other
hand, mathematics does not 'come naturally' 10 most people in the way which
is true of nat ive language. It is not constantly being used; it has to be learned
and practised ; mistakes are of greater consequence. Mathematics also con-
veys information in a much more precise and concentrated way than is usual1 y
the case wit h the spoke n or written word. For these reasons many people take
a lo ng time not only to become familiar with mathematical skills and ideas but
to de velop confidence in making use of them . Those who have been able to
develop such confidence with relative ease should not underestimate the dif-
fic ulties which many others experience, nor the extent of the help which can be
requ ired in order to be ab le to understand and to use mathematics.

lmplications for teachers 12 We conclude this chapter by drawing the attention of those who teach
mathematics in schools to what we believe to the implicat ions of the reasons
for teaching mathematics which we have discussed. In our view the rnalhe·
maries teacher has the task

• of enabling each pupil to develop, within his capabilities, the math-

ematical skiHs and understa nding required for ad ult life, for
employment and for further study and training, while remaining aware
of the difficu lties which some pupils will experience in t rying 10 gain
such an appropriate u nderstanding~
• of providing each pupil with such mathematics as may be needed for his
study of other subjects;
• of helping each pupil to develop so far as is possible his app reciation and
enjoyment of mathematics itself and his realisation of the role which it
has played and will cont inue to play both in the developmen t of science
and technology and of o ur civilisation;
• above all, of mak ing each pupil aware that mathem atics provides him
with a powerful means of commu nica ti on.
 5

2 The mathematical needs of adult life

13 There are indeed many adults in Britain who have the greatest difficulty with
even such apparently simple matters as adding up money, checking their change
in shops or working OUI the cost o f five gallons of petrol. Yet these aduhs are not
juSt the unintelligent or the uneducated . They come from many walk.s of life and
some are very highly educated indeed, but they are hopeless at arithmetic and
they want to do something about it.

'"Ma ke it coum . A SLlldy by The above quotat ion comes from the preface to the research study' on the
Da\<jd Siri nger. lnd e pendem Yorkshire Televisjon series Make if count-a series of thirteen programmes
Broadcasting Authorit y 1979. for adulls broadcast nationally for the first time in 1978. In the conclusion
[Q the study we read

During this in vestigation the firm imp ression has built up- in the
investigator' s mind, at least-that functional innumeracy is far more widespread
than an yone has cared to believe .

14 A copy of this study was made available to us soon after we started work
and at about the same time the Advisory Council for Adult and Continuing
Education (ACACE) drew our attention to the fact that one of the
outcomes of the very successful adult literacy campaign of recent years had
been an increasing demand for adult numeracy classes. The Council passed
o n to us some of the experience which had been gained in the course of its
work o n adult literacy and we are grateful for its willingness to share this
with us. In particular the Council urged that, tempting though the approach
might seem, we should not set out to try to define the mathematical needs of
adult li fe solely in terms of some kind of 'shopping list' of necessary or
desirable skills but should also investigate attitudes towards mathematics
and the strategies used by those whose mathematical abilities are limited in
their efforts to cope with the mathematics needed in everyday life .

15 Since there appeared to have been very little research carried out to
identi fy the mathematical needs of adults, we decided , as a result o f the
Make it count study and our discussions with ACACE , that we would ask
the DES to commission a small stud y to be carried out on behalf both of
ACACE and of our Committee . We suggested that those involved should
investigate the mathematical needs of adults in daily life, and, in particular,
try to identify the strategies which were used by those whose mathematical
skills and understanding were limited . We felt that such an investigation
would be of use to both bodies because, although the problems and
methods of teaching adu.!ts are different from those of teaching children, an
understanding of the goals to be achieved shou.!d be of value both to those
6 2 The mathematical needs of aduh life

who teach adult s an d to teachers in schools. The out come of this investigation
has drawn atte ntio n LO a number of matters which we believe to be worth y of
note, not only by teachers but by many others as well.

The research study 16 The st udy' was carried out in two stages. Th e first stage consisted of
"The rc ~ ult :, of the study are interviews design ed to cover four areas :
repo rted in detail in Use of math-
emOl;cs by adults in daily life:
Bri dg id Sewell, whi ch may be • a disc ussio n of selected situa tions, related to shopping and household
purchased rrom the Ad~'isory
matters gene rally, in which mathe ma tics might be involved;
Co uncil for Adul t a nd Cont inuing
Educalion . T he Adviso ry Coun cil • brief questions on o ther matters such as the readi ng of timetables and
has aJ 50 published a summary of
the use of calculators;
(he repor l , l ogeLher with a
summary or (he r(SuiI S of a G allup • attitudes to math emati cs;
P oll naliona l survey, in Adults '
marhpllla/;caJ ability and per- • background information.
jO I"!I/(lnce .

These interviews were designed to give some indication of levels of mathema-

tical competence but did not require specific mathematical calculations to be
carried out. During th e firs t stage 107 people were interviewed~ chosen so far
as was possible to reflect the fi veocc upationaJ grou ps into which th e Registrar
General divid es the population. However, in one sense, very many more
people were in volved because there proved to be a widespr ead reluctance to be
interviewed abo ut mathematics. In the words of the repon :
Both direct and ind irect a pproacbes were tried. [he word 'mathemat ics ' waS
replaced by 'ari thmetic' or 'eve ryday use of numbers' but it was clear that the
reason for people' s refusal to be interviewed was simply (h at the subject was math-
ematics . .. Several personal contacts pursued by the enqui ry officer were also
adamant in th ei r refusals. Evidently there were so me painful associati ons wh ich
they feared might be uncovered. This apparently widesprea d percepti on amongst
adults of ma thematics as a daunt ing subject pervaded a great. deal of [he sam ple
selecrion; halF of the peop le approached as being appropriate for inclusion in the
sa mpl e refused lO rake part.

17 In 'he second stage, about half of 'hose who had a lready been interviewed
were inte rviewed again a( greater length . They were invited to answer a series
of mathematical questi ons abou t a range of everyday situa tions, some of
which were related to topics explored during the first interview; they were not
pressed to respond, unless they wished to do so, to Ques tions rela'ing to
situa ti ons of which th ey did not have direct experience. Some queslions
requir ed speci fie calculations to be car ri ed ou t. some required a n explanation
of m e thod but 11 0 calculation, some required lhe interpretation of
information presc med in mathematical terms . Original documents such as
bills , pay-slips and timetabJes were used when eve r approp riate; there were no
qu estio ns which (ested com putation by itself unrelat ed to a real situation .
Those being interviewed were free to work out the an swe rs in their head, to
us e pencil and paper or (0 use a calcu lat or, as they wished.

18 Because 'he sample of adults had been small, ACACE decided tha, it
would be desi ra ble to tr y to valida,e 'he findings of th e study in so me way . The
 2 The mathemat ical needs of adult UJe 7

Advisory Council therefore made arrangemenls for a selection of questions,

of the kind which had been used in the study, to be included as part of a
national enquiry undertaken by the Gallup Poll . This enquiry covered a rep-
resentative sample of the population of Great Britain aged 16 or over; almost
3000 people were interviewed. The results of this enquiry, which are included
in the ACACE booklet Adults' mathematical ability and performance, sug-
gest that the findings of the original small study a re in no way untypical.

Findin gs of the research 19 There are, of course, many people who are able to cope confidently and
study competently with any si tuation which they may meet in the course of their
everyday life which requires them to make use of mathematics. However, the
results of the study suggest that there are many others of whom quite the
reverse is true.

20 The extent to which the need to undertake even an apparently simple and
straightforward piece of mathematics could induce feelings of anxiety, help-
lessness, fear and even guilt in some of those interviewed was, perhaps , the
most striking feature of the study. No connection was found between the
extent to which those interviewed used mathematics and the level of their
educational qualifications; there were science graduates who claimed to use
no a rithmetic and others with no qualifications who displayed a high level of
arithmetical competence. Nor did there appear lO be any connection between
mathemat ical competence and occupational group; people of widely varied
mathematical competence were found in each of tbe five occupational
groups. The estimates which those who were interviewed gave of their own
mathematical competence did not relate closely lO the extent to which they
made use of mathematics. There were some who said that they managed very
well but who appeared to avoid numbers and others who , although apparen-
tly highly competent in the conduct of their everyday affairs, were very hesi-
tant about claiming mathematical skill. There were also some who, while
apparently able to perform adequately in the situations which they normally
encountered, admitted that they were working at the limit of their mathema-
tical competence and were anxious lest anything more complicated should be
required of them .

21 The feelings of guilt to which we referred earlier appeared to be especially

marked among those whose academic Qualifications were high and who. in
consequence of this, felt that they 'ought' lO have a confident understanding
of mathematics. even though this was not the case . Furthermore, they were
aware that others. to whom it was evident that they were well-gualified in
general terms, lOok it for granted that they would be mathematically
competent. "People assume you're good at maths if you 're good at other
things. " Those who were not academically well-qualified did not appear to
feel guilty in the same way. Some arts graduates who had gained O-Ievel
passes in mathematics were nevertheless so aware of a lack of confident
understanding of the subject that their career choices were seriously reduced
as a result of their determination to avoid mathematics.

22 There was another group consisting of those who, although able to per-
8 2 The mathernalicaJ needs of ad ult life

fo rm the ca lculalion s whi ch they normally required. felt a sense of

inadequacy because the y were aware [hal they did n Ol use what they co n-
sidered 10 be (he 'proper' meth od; in other word s, they did not ma ke use oft he
stand ard methods fo r setting out written calculations whi ch are normally
ta ughl in 1he classroom . In fact, the stu dy, whilsl revealing a very wide variety
of approac hes to the quesrions which were asked, also found that many indi-
viduals appeared to ra ve onlyone method of tackling a given problem . If Ihis
failed, or if rhe ca lculation involved became too cumberso me, 1hey lacked rhe
ability and confidence to attempt a different approach. Nor, in so me cases,
were Ihey even awaro Ihat there might be alternative and possibly more
straightfo rward methods which cou ld be used .

23 Agai n, just asso me fe ll Ih al there was alwaysa ' proper ' mel hod , some fell
[hat ther e should always be an exac t answer to question s invol vin g mathema -
tics and so found them selves in difficulties when it became necessary to
approxima te or to ro und off a result. " I get lost on long sum s and never kn ow
whal to do wilh Ihe ' leftovers' ." " M y mind boggles at t he arithmelic in eSli-
mation . "

24 Failure and consequenl dislike of mathemat;cs was often ascribed to a

specific cause when yo ung. Such causes included change of tea cher or of
school, absen ce thro ugh illness, being promoted to a higher class and becom-
ing lefl behind , having an irasc ible or unsympathetic leacher who failed 10
resolve difficulties, or even over-expectation on the part of parent s, usually
fathers. Criticism by hu sbands or wi ves or by other members o f the family .
especially comment about slowne ss or th e need to use pencil and paper instead
of performing a cal c ulati o n mentally , also eroded co nfidence and contributed
to decreasing use of mathematics . "I'm afraid I have to write it down . My
brot her can do it in his head ." " M y husband says I' m stupid."

25 The report also refe rs to " those who dreaded what Ihey saw as Ihe inn a te
c haraClcristics of learning mathematics such as acc uracy and speed, as well as
lhe traditional requirement to show all working neatly . This recalled the long
buried anxieties ca used by th e pupil's arriving at an answer by a mental
method and being required to produce a written solution demon strating a
me thod which had not been used" . This perception of mathematics, and
especially arithmetic, as something which is supposed to lead to exact answers
by Ihe use of proper methods seemed 10 be quite common despite the fact that
the numbers which arise in everyday life very often need to be rounded or
approximated in some way.

26 Another feature revealed by Ihe stud y was a widespread inability to

understand percentages. Man y of those interviewed said that Ihey did not
understand them or never used them . l' l 'm hopeless at percemages reall y. "
Olhers who said that lhey were able 10 calc ulale IO per cem a nd perhaps, but
with grea ter diffic ult y, 15 per cem indicaled Iha. they wou ld not be able to
co pe with 8 per cem or 12 per cent_ Nor did they seem 10 have realised Ihat the
introduction of a decimalised currency had made it easier to evaluate per-
centages or sums of money than had previou sly been the case . it is clear that
 2 The malhematicai needs of adult life 9

politicians, administrators, businessmen, journalists and advertisers all

assume that the public at large will understand the many statements which are
made which express comparisons in percentage terms. The study suggests that
this is very far from being the case and the results of the Gallup Poll enquiry
confirm this. Even though those who say that they do not understand per-
centages probably realise that, for example, a 12 per cent increase is greater
than one of 10 per cent, it seems that they would certainly not be able to work
out the actual size of the difference in relation to their own salary or wage.

27 A further question revealed that one statistic which is normally expressed

in percentage terms, that of rate of inflation, is even more widely misunder-
stood, with many thinking that a fall in the rate of inflation ought to be
associated with an overall drop in the level of prices (even though they often
did not think that this was likely to happen) ratherthan a lessening of the rate
at which prices were increasing.

28 The reading of charts and timetables was another area which presented
difficulty to many of those interviewed but there was a much higher rate of
success on a question which tested ability to read a map and to estimate the
distance between two points on it. Understanding of the relative sizes of
imperial and metric measures in common use was not widespread .

29 About 70 per cent of those interviewed in the first sample had access to a
calculator if they required it but one-third of them said that they never used
one. Some of the latter admitted that they did not know how to use a calcu-
lator and others expressed doubt and distrust. "I never use it because of the
risk of major mistakes ." There were also those who maintained that "brains
are better" or that "they make you lazy". Some who had tried to use a calcu-
lator had been discouraged by the large number of figures which had
appeared after the decimal point, for instance when dividing by 3, and had
lacked confidence to persevere and to discover how to interpret the answers
they had obtained. On the other hand there were some, whose computational
skill~ were weak, for whom the use of a calculator made all the difference. "I
know the theory but without the calculator I couldn't do it."

30 Many strategies were encountered for coping with the mathematical

demands of everyday life. These included always buying £10 worth of petrol,
always paying by cheque, always taking far more money than was likely to be
needed when going shopping so as to be certain of being able to pay bills
without embarrassment. There was frequent reliance on husbands, wives or
children to check and pay bills, to measure or to read timetables; and also
reliance on past experience. Sadly, it was also clear that lack of mathematical
ability had prevented some people from applying for jobs or from following
courses of training which they would otherwise have wished to undertake. In
this sense, they had been unable to cope.

The mathematical 31 What, then, are the mathematical needs of adult life? In the first pJaee, it is
needs of adult life clear that there is hardly any piece of mathematics which everyone uses. For
10 2 The ma[hcrnalical n~eds of adult life

example, those who do nOt travel by bus or train probably have no need to
consult timetables; those who do not drive a car have no need to buy petrol;
those who do not have meals in hotels or restaurants have no need to be able to
calculate a service charge. The study shows that SOme people appear to use
practically no mathematics because they have organised their lives so as to
avoid its use or so as to make use of the mathematical skills of others. There
are, however, very few people who do not at some time need to be able to read
numbers, to count, to tell the time or to undertake a minimal amount of
shopping. This, perhaps, represents a minimum list but it is apparent that
many of those who possess only this minimum o f mathematical skill, as well
as some whose attainment is a good deal greater, frequently experience feel-
ings of stress, inadequacy or helplessness, even though t hey may have found
methods of coping with their everyday needs.

32 Therefore, whilst realising that there are some who will not achieve all of
them, we would include among the mathematical needs of adult life tbe ability
to read numbers and to count, to tell the time, to pay for purchases and to give
change, to weigh and measure, 10 understand straighlforward timelables and
sImple graphs and charts, and to carry out any necessary calculations associ-
ated wilh tbese. There are many who, because of the requirements of their
employment, their hobbies Or their own interest in mathematics. are able to
achieve a great deal more than this. Some develop very specialised skills; for
example, of the kind which are frequently exhibited by those who play darts
or make use of belting shops. However, we believe that tbose wbo teacb
matbematics in schools sbould do all tbat is possible to enable their pupils to
include as part of tbeir mathematical knowledge those abilities whicb we have
listed .

33 We believe too that, as a necessary accompaniment 10 the list wbicb we

_h ave given , it is important to have the feeling for number whicb permits
sensible estimation and approximation-of the kind, for instance, which
Illakesi! possible to realise tbat the cost of3items at 9Sp each wiD bea lillie less
than £3- and whicb enables straightforward mental calculation to be
accomplisbed .

34 Most important of all is the need to have sufficient confidence to make

effective use of Whatever mathematical skill and understanding is possessed,
whether tbis be little or mucb.

Numeracy 35 The words ·numeracy' and 'numerate' OCcur in many of the written
submissions which we have received. In the light of our discussio n in the
preceding paragrap hs we believe that it is appropriate to ask whether or not an
ability to cope confidently with the mathematical needs of adult life, as we
have described them , should be thought to be sufficient to constitute
'numeracy ' .
.. J5 10 / 8. A report of (he Cen tral
Ad visory Counci l ror Education 36 The concept of numeracy and the word itself were introduced in the
(England). HMSO 1959. Crowther Repo rt' published in 1959. In a section devoted to the curricu lum
2 The mathematical needs of adult life II

of the sixth form, 'numerate' is defined as"a word to represent the mirror im-
age of literacy". Later paragraphs in the report make clear that this definition
is intended to imply a quite sophisticated level of mathematical understan-
ding. "On the one hand _.. an understanding of the scientific approach to
the study of phenomena-observation, hypothesis, experiment, verification.
On the other hand . . . the need in the modern world to think quantitatively,
to realise how far our problems are problems of degree even when they appear
as problems of kind. Statistical ignorance and statistical fallacies are quite as
widespread and quite as dangerous as the logical fallacies which come under
the heading of illiteracy ." "However able a boy may be ... if his numeracy
has stopped short at the usual fifth form level, he is in danger of relapsing into
innumeracy. "

37 In none of the submissions which we have received are the words

'numerac y' or (numerate' used in the sense in which the Crowther Report
defines them. Indeed, we are in no doubt that the words, as commonly used ,
have changed their meaning considerably in the last twenty years . The asso-
ciation with science is no Jonger present and the level of mathematical
understanding to which the words refer is much lower. This change is reflec-
ted in the various dictionary definitions of these words. Whereas the Oxford
English Dictionary defines 'numerate' to mean "acquainted with the basic
principles of mathematics and science", Collins Concise Dictionary gives
"able to perform basic arithmetic operations".

38 The second of these definitions reflects the meaning which seems to be

intended by most of those who have used the word in submissions to us.
However, if we are to equate numeracy with an ability to cope confidently
with the mathematical demands of adult life, this definition is too restricted
because it refers only to ability to perform basic arithmetic operations and nOt
to ability to make use of them with confidence in practical everyday
situations.

39 We would wish the word 'numerate' to imply tbe possession of two

attributes . The first of these is an 'at-homeness' with numbers and an ability
to make use of mathematical skills which enables an individual to cope with
the practical mathematical demands of his everyday life. The second is an
ability to have some appreciation and understanding of information which is
presented in mathematical terms, for instance in graphs, charts or tables or by
reference to percentage increase or decrease . Taken together, these imply that
a numerate person should be expected to be able to appreciate and understand
some of the ways in which mathematics can be used as a means of commu -
nication , as we have described in the previous chapter. We are, in fact , asking
for more than is included in the definition in Collins but not as much as is
implied by that in the Oxford dictionary-though it will, of course, betheca50
that anyone who fulfils the latter criteria will be numerate. Our concern is tbat
those who set out to make tbeir pupils 'oumerate' should pay attention to the
wider aspects of numeracy and Dot be conteol merely to deyelop the skiDs of
computation .
12

3 The mathematical needs of

employment

Views expressed 40 It is clear from the report of the Parliamentary Expenditure Committee·
before the Committee to which we referred in the introduction tha t the volume of compla in ts
was set up wruch see med to be coming from employe rs about lack of mathematical
·House of Commons. Tenth competence on the part of some school leavers was one of the principal
Report from (he Expenditure reasons for its recommendation that our Inquiry shou ld be set up.
Commillee. Th e arfainmenrs 0/
the schoolleover. HMSO 1977.
41 We believe that th ese complaints started to come to the fore in 1973 and
1974 when a number of anicles and letters which were highly critical of
mathematics teaching in schools, and of ' modern mat hematics' in particu-
lar . appeared in Skill. a news-sheet published by the Engineering Industry
Training Board for group training schemes in the engineering industry ,
These complaints were followed in 1975 and 1976 by art icles and letters in
Blueprint. the newspaper of the Engineeri ng Industry Training Board.
which also expressed dissatisfaction with the mathematical allainmem of
some ent rants to the industry. More widespread criticism appea red in
newspaper articles and correspo?dence columns durin g these years.

42 In his speech made at Ruskin College. Oxford in October 1976. Mr

James Callaghan. at that time Prime Minister. said:
I am concerned on my journeys to find complaints from industry [hat new
recruits from the schools sometimes do not have the basi c (Ools 1O do (he job thal
is required ..... . There is concern about the srandards of numeracy of school
leavers. Is there nor a case for a professional review of rhe mathematics needed
by industry at different levels? To what extent are these deficiencies the result of
insuffici ent co-ordinatio n between schools and indus try? Indeed how much of
th e criticism abou t basic skills and altitudes is due to indust ry 's own short co m-
ings rather [han to the educalional sys tem?

43 In written evidence (0 the Parliamentary Expenditure Committee, the

Confederati on of British Industry (CBI) stated :
Emp loyers are becoming increasingly concerned {hat many school leavers,
particu la rly those leaving at l he statutory age have not acquired a minimum
acceptable standard in the fundamental skills involved in reading, wri tin g,
arithmetic and communicarion. Thi s shows up in the results of nearly every
educational en qUiry made amongst (he CBJ membershi p, and is backed up by
con linuing evidence from training officers in ind ustry and funhe r education
lecturers rhat yo ung people at 16 + cannot pass simple teslS in mathemat ics and
require remed ial tuition before training and further education courses ca n be
start ed .
 J The mathematical needs of employmetH 13

In oral evidence to the Expenditure Committee a CBI representative stated,

Mathematics, I think -or arithmetic, which is really the primary concern rather
[han mathematics themsel ves- is the one area which is really brought up every time
as a problem. It seems that industry~s needs are greater in this respect lhan almost
any other . This is the way, certainly, in which shortfall in the education of children
makes itself most manifest immediately to an employer.

Written evidence to the Expenditure Committee from the Engineering

Industry Training Board (EITB) stated :
The Engineering Industry Training Board, over the last two years, received from
its industry increasing criticism, with supporting evidence, of the level of
attainment , particularly in arithmetical ski(ls, of school Jeavers offering themselves
for craft and technician training . ..... In the view of the Engineering Industry
Training Board the industry needs a higher level of attainment i n basic mathematics
among recruits than it is now getting and believes that, with closer co-operation
between school and industry, children can while still at school be motivated to
achieve this . . . ... Mathematics is, however, not simply a question of basic
manipulative skills. An understanding of the concepts is also needed and these are
better taught by 'innovative methods', which also appear to enhance the ability to
acquire planning and diagnostic skills, of great importance to craft and technician
employees.

44. With the above quotations in mind - and we could have quoted many
more - it has naturally been our concern throughout the time we have been
working to investigate complaints about low levels of numeracy among young
entrants to employmenLand the need for improved liaison between schools
and industry.

Employers' views 45 We have received written evidence, amounting to some 200 submissions in
expressed to the all, from major companies, industry training boards, the Confederation of
Committee British Industry, the Trades Union Congress. the Association of British
Chambers of Commerce and, with the help of Rotary International in Great
Britain and Ireland, from many smaller employers. We have studied the
reports of the research studies into the mathematical needs of various types of
employment carried out at the Universities of Bath and Nottingham and have
also had access to the detailed notes of visits to more than 100 companies on
which these reports have been based. Members of the Committee have them-
selves visited 26 firms chosen to span a wide range of types of employment.
During these visits it was possible to talk with young employees as well as with
management and training staff, and so to receive their views directly. We have
also taken oral evidence from the CBI, from two major training boards and
from groups of small employers.

46. The overall picture which has emerged is much more encouraging than
the earlier complaints bad led us to expect. We have found little real dissatis-
faction amongst employers with the mathematical capabilities of those whom
they recruit from schools except in respect of entrants to the retail trade and to
engineering apprenticeships, both of which involve significant numbers of
young people; we discuss !hese two groups in paragraphs 53 and 54 . We have
14 3 The mathematical need5. of employment

also found little evidence that employers find difficulty in recruiting young
people whose mathematical capabilities are adequate.

47 Because we were concerned that there might nevertheless be a substantial

amount of criticism which had not reached us, we made special efforts to
invite further evidence. However, amongst other initiatives, an article
published in the Autumn 1979 issue of Skill, which drew attention to the
existence of OUT Committee and invited its readers to write to us, resulted in
only one letter. A further article published in the Financial Times in July
1980 produced three I, tters, only one of which contained major criticisms .

48 Employers have, in general, expressed no more than mild reservation

about the fiuency in arithmetical skills possessed by the young people whom
they recruit; lack of fiuency in mental arithmetic has attracted the most
comment. However, employers have also told us that, under the motivation
which employment can provide, these problems can soon disappear. This
situation is consistent with the preliminary findings, published in the Spring
of 1980, of the study Young people and employment, at present being carried
out at Lancaster University under the direction of Professor Gareth Williams .
These show that, of a sample of 300 "employing establishments" in England
and Wales, only 14 per cent criticised the educational standards of their
recruits. More common criticisms found in the Lancaster study were of ina-
bility to take work seriously, lack of interest, unWillingness to work, bad time
keeping and poor attendance .

49 There appear to be several reasons for this apparent change in the views
expressed by employers . In part it may refiect the efforts which we believe
have been made by many schools to meet criticisms of the kind which were
voiced during the 'Great Debate'. lL may also reflect the increasing number of
local initiatives which have led to the setting-up of school/industry liaison
groups of various kinds. We discuss these groups in paragraph 103 .

50 We believe that there is increased understanding on the part of employers

of the changes which have occurred in the education system in the post-war
years and, in particular. of the fact that, because more young people are going
from school to further and higher education, the recruitment of 16-18 year
olds to jobs at a given level is taking place from further down the ability
spectrum than was the case in earlier years. We may add here that we were
much encouraged to hear one of the CBI representatives draw attention in
oral evidence to his own company's experience. Although some of the craft
apprentices who were currently being recruited were less well qualified aca-
demically than some of their predecessors, they were nevertheless being
trained successfully to carry out more complex work than their predecessors
had been required to undertake. The other eBI representatives agreed with
this view.

51 It is possible that a further reason for the present absence of criticism is the
current high level of unemployment among young people which allows
employers to pick and choose to an extent which was not possible in, for
J The mathematical needs of employment 15

instance , the mid-sixties and early seventies. It is, of course, noi possible to
quantify the extent to which those you ng people who are at present unem-
ployed would. in a time of full employment, exhibit mathematical shortcom-
ings in their work. However, it may be of relevance to consider the pattern of
unemployment and notified vacancies among school leavers over the last
twenty years which is shown in Figure I(overleaf).

52 The raising of the school leaving age to 16 in 1973 undoubtedly had

some effect on recruitment patterns in 1973-74, but this was also the time at
which complaints about lack of numeracy among school leavers came
sharply into the public notice, typified by letters and articles in Skill. It does
seem possible that high levels of employment, and so a smaller pool of
applicants from which to choose, may result in greater criticism from
employers about the mathematical abilities of their young recruits. We are
not aware of the same expression of concern in the mid-sixties, so the
connection between high employment and complaint must be treated with
caution. Furthermore, industry training boards were only just coming into
existence at that time and so there were perhaps not as many vehicles for
complaint by employers. However, since it may perhaps be the case that
reduction in criticism is in part a result of high levels of unemployment
among young people, we are very conscious that this fact must not be
allowed to result in complacency about the state of mathematical education
at the present time.

53 We have already referred to the fact that most of the criticism of young
employees wh ich we have received refers to entrants to the retail trade and
to engineering apprenticeships . The former attract the more serious
criticism . Those who enter the retail trade on leaving school at 16
commonly have very modest or no mathematical qualifications but are
often required from the outset to give change, count stock, fill in stock
sheets and calculate discounts . One large employer has complained to us
that it is necessary to spend a substantial amount of time teaching newly
recruited shop assistants to carry out tasks of this kind .

54 The complaints which we have received relating to engineering appren-

tices seem to stem largely from the performance of applicants in company
selection tests, which are very often tests of computational ability only.
However, most of the criticism relates to those applicants who are rejected.
Employers have expressed comparatively little dissatisfaction with the
mathematical performance of those whom they have taken on as appren-
tices. Moreover, where difficulties , mainly in arithmetic, do arise, we have
been told that they can almost always be overcome relatively quickly during
the initial apprenticeship year as apprentices gain practical experience in the
workshop and so realise why it is necessary to be able to carry out certain
specific calculations.

55 It is important at this stage to note that. while agreeing with the

importance of arithmetical attainment, the EITB has stressed to us its view
that tests of arithmetical skill play too dominant a role in selection for
engineering apprenticeships and that conceptual skills, such as spatial
16 3 The mathematical necd~ or employment

Figure ) Vacancies/or young people and numbers registered as unemployed

17.0000 e
Vacancies at Careen Office, Great Britain
(before Ap(il 1974, vacancies Annual Ave rage
110000
for young people )

100000

90000

80000

70000

60000

50000

40000

30000

20000
SChOOl leavers aged under 18 .........."
registered as unemployed /- •
10000 e-e_e_e-e_e_e e/

196' 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 197. 1975 1976 1977 1970 1979 1980

Notes: 1 The lines joining the points have been drawn to "assist the eye "; intermediate points on
(hese lin~ ha\l e no significance .
2 Followin@theimplemcm3tionortheEmploymcni and Training Act 1973, the division
or responsibilities, aline age or J8. between employment orricc:s and careers orflces was
abolished . As a resu lt vacancies at careers ortices include some which arc suilable (or
aduil!i and vacancies at employment oHices include some suitable ror young people .
 ) The rnmhematicat needs of employment 17

awareness. the understanding of orders of magnitude. approximation and

optimisation, are of equal or greater importance. In the course of oral evi-
dence, one of the EITB representatives expressed concern that some schools,
in over-reacting to the perceived criticisms of industry and concentratin g
excessively on computational work , were failing LO give to their pupils the
wlder ma th ematical experience which was of value for the in tending
craftsman.

56 A number of submissions have drawn attention to the need which is

experienced by many employers to provide so-caUed (remedial' training for
young employees; we have referred to these in earlier paragraphs. It is
important at the outset to distinguish between three kinds of training for
which this term may be used. The first is the need to revise skills which may
have become rusty through lack of practice - and all those who work within
classrooms know not only how much can apparently be 'forgotten' during the
summer holida y, but also how quickly memory can be refreshed. The second
is the need to provide opportunity to become fami1iar with applications.
possibly of q uite elementary mathematics, which may not have been encoun-
tered in the classroom even though th ey areof frequent use in a particular job,
or to teach certain specialised techniques. The third is the need to spend time
on training which is remedial in the true sense of the word; in other words, to
spend time teaching mathematics which, although it has been included in the
school course, has not been understood Or is being used incorrectly.

57 We believe that the need to undertake a certain amount of training of the

first two kinds, which should only take a short time, is to be expected; though
we appreciate that for the small employer or the business which has a rapid
staff turnover it will represent some drain on resources . On the other hand, we
accept that employers may with reason expect not to have to undertake
training of the third kind, since this may properly be considered to come
within the responsibility of schools. Inevitably, the line between the two
categories is not always easy to draw. Tn the course of our work we have
become aware that a degree of over-expectation exists in many quarters as to
the level of attainment in mathematics which some school leavers are able to
reach; we discuss this in paragraph 189. This is one of many reasons why good
liaison between employers and schools, which we discuss later in this chapter ,
is of such great importance.

58 There js a rurther point to which we wish to draw attention . Becauseof the

high level of unemployment which exists among young peopte at the present
time, lack of use of mathematics on their pan may well lead to a degree of
'ru stiness' which will require sympat hetic cons.ideration On (he pan of
employers to whom these young people apply for jobs, and perhaps also the.
provision of special assista nce.

The research s tudies 59 We turn now to the findings of the two research studies into the mathema-
tical needs of various types of employment which were carried out at the Uni-
versit y of Bath and the Shell Centre for Mathematical Education at the Uni-
18 3 The m ~H h e.ml:lli cal needs o f em ployment

ve rsity of Notting ham . Fo r the sake of b revity we shall he nceforward refer to

them as [h e Bath study and the NOl[ingham study.

60 The re ports which these studies ha ve produced are extensive and \",'ide·
ranging. Vtle hav e space in our own repo rt to draw altenli o n only to th e points
which we believe to be most significant. V\'e hope thal means \·,:ill be found [Q
*Copies o f the Oalh Siud y Mafh- make [he detailed findings of [he studies ava ilable widely"; we belie_e Iha l
emmics in emploYI1l(;'1// / 6-18 may they will be or assislance to those who leach in sc hools and cOlleges and to
be purc hased from the Sc hoo l of
th ose who employ and (rain yo ung peo ple. ,,"'e believe. 100. thnt they rna)' well
Mathemalics. U niver~ iL) of Balb .
be of considerable inreres( 10 a much wider section o r the public .

A series o f reporTS ba~ed eon Ihe 61 BOlh sludies paid particular alle ntion to the Iypes of e mploym en l ope n [Q
Notling.ham S[nd ~' wi ll be
avai lab le fo r p urc h a ~t' rro m the
at
[hose leavi ng school ages fro m J 6 to 18. Howeve r, both al so included some
jobs which. because o f legal or o th e r reslrictions , were open o nl y to
Shell Centre for Malh e- mai ita l
Educalio u, Universil Y o r NO I- employe es ove r the age of 18 if il was the case {hat these job s required no
lingham. greater expe rience or qualifica tions than had bee n ob tained at. school.

62 The Bath stud y was desi gned to cover as wide a nd as represe ntative a
sa mple o f the various ca teg ories of emp]oymenc as possible . More Ih a n 90
co mpani es and other es tablishm en ts were vi sited and a con siderable amou nt
of t ime v,:as spent both in o bservation o f wo rk whic h was go in g on and in
disc uss ion wilh em ployees themselv es and with managerial and train in g staff .

63 T he NOllin gha m study was designed 10 comple menl the wo rk undenaken

at Balh by looking in grealer deplh at the mOre specific a reas of clerical and
retai l work, agricu lture , and the medical a nd par a- medical occupatio ns
wi thin th e Health Service which recruit from th ose w ho leave scho ol at ages
f ro m 16 to 18. It was a lso abl e 10 draw o n similar wo rk whi ch had already been
un dertake n in so me mher a reas. notabl y the tra ining of engineer ing appre n-
rices. In both studies sness was laid on ob taining first-hand information . A
repon was wriu e n o n each visit a nd agreed wit h th e company or olher estab-
lishm ent concerned.

64 The r epon of th e Ba lh study dr aws a([emion to Ihe fa ct thaI it is possible

when o bser ving wo rk in prog ress to describe certain as pec ts of it in math ema-
tical terms. For instance, th e mathematical con cept o f geometri cal symme tr y
is pres en! within many manufacturing processes ; il is possible to desc ribe dif-
fere nt meth ods o f stacking and pac kj ng in geometrical ter ms or in te rms of
soning and classifyin g. However , even if th e mat. hem at ical conc epts involved
have at some time been enc ounte red in th e class room. the employee will
probably oat consc iollsly analyse in suc h ter ms the o pe rat ions which are being
performed ; nor, if he were to do so , wouJd he neCessar ily be able (0 do hi s job
any bett e r.

65 On th e ot he r hand, many jobs require the employee 10 make explici t use of

math ema tics - for instance. lO measure, to calculate dimensio ns rr a m a
drawing , to work out costs and di sco unts. In th ese cases the job cannOl be
car ri ed o ut without reco urse to the necessary mathematics an d it is thi s la tte r
use of malh emalics to which we refer in Ihe paragraph s w hi ch fo llow.
Howe ve r, even when mathe matics is being used l frequent repetition and
 3 The mathematical needs of employmenz 19

increasing familiarity with a task may mean that it may cease to be thought of
as mathematics and become an almost automatic part of the job. A remar k
which was overheard - "that's not mathematics, it' s common sense" - is an
illustration of this and, indeed, indica tes an 'at-homeness' with that particu-
lar piece of mathematics which we would wish to commend.

66 Both studies draw attention to the di versity of types of em ployment which

exists, to the varie ty of mathematical demands within each and to the con-
siderable differences which were found to exist even within occupations
which might be assumed from their titles to be similar. It is therefore not
possible to produce definiti ve lists of the mathematical topics of which a
knowledge will be needed in order to carry out jobs with a particular title. It is,
however, possible to describe in general terms the types and levels of math-
ematics which are like ly to be encountered by certain broad ca tegories of
employees. These descriptions may be found in paragraphs 120 to 148 at the
end of th is chapter; those of our readers who have a detailed interest in the
mathematical needs of employment may wish to stud y them before proceed -
ing further.

Some common findings 67 A number of fi ndings emerged from the studies with sufficient regularity
to suggest that the y are lik ely to have general validity; it is these which we
discuss in the paragraph s which follow .

Range of mathematics required

68 Both studies found that almost all of the mathematics which young people
need to use, whatever their job , is included within all the existing O-level and
·Modes or examining "ary CSE Mode \* syllabuses. Even the restricted content of the limited grade CSE
at'co rdi ng to Ihe degree o f in vo l* syllabuses which are offered by some boards includes the mathematics
\'emenl on Ih.;: parl o r Ibe ca ndi -
required in most of th e jobs which those who take these examinations are
da le's school. Th.;: principal form s
are:
likely to have the opportunity to enter. Since most pupils do not know in
advance the type of employment which they will follow in later life, it is
Mode J - I!.xam inali ons con- imponantthat this should be the case.
dUCleeJ b.'( Ihe exarnining board on
sy llabu ses set and published by th e
69 Neve rtheless, the studi es also identified certain important diffe rences
board;
between the ways in which ma thematics is used in employmen t and the ways in
M ode 2 - c~arni na!ion s con- which the same mathemat ics is often encountered in the classroom . 'We
due lcd by (he exa mining board on believe that these differences may be among the faClo [s which have contri-
~jllabuse~ de\'i~ed by individual buted to the crit icisms which ha ve been voiced in recent years,
schoo ls or groups of schools a nd
approved b:- the boa rd ;
Calculal ion
M ode J - examination'> SC I and 70 The need to be able to ca rry out anithmetical calculations of various kinds
marked inl ernally by I he indi- appears among the mathematical requirements of almost all the types of
"idual sc hool or groups of schoob
employment which we discuss in paragraphs 120 to 148. These calculations
bUI lOodera zcd by Ihe board.
are sometimes carried out mentally, so metimes with pencil and paper and
sometimes with a calculator. Some jobs speci fically require an ability to carry
out men tal calculations of various kinds . In almostaiJ job, the ability to carry
out some calculations mentall y is of value and lack of ability to do this is a
frequent cause of complaint by employers. It was also found to be a cause fo r
complai nt by some young employees who maintained that an ability to carry
20 3 The malhemalical need s of employment

out mental calculations which they had possessed in their primary and early
seconda ry years had been allowed to atrophy as a result of lack of practice in
(he classroom .

71 Both the Bath and t he Nottingham studies found that the methods which
are used when at work to carry out calculations with pencil and paper are
frequently not those which are traditionally taug ht in the classroom.
Employees use a variety of idiosyncratic and 'back of an envelope' methods.
especially for long multiplication and division. Sometimes these methods
have been devised by the employees themselves but frequentl y they have been
passed on by their fellow workers. The methods which are used depend very
much on the user's confiden ce in his own mathematical ability. Ho wever, at
all levels there appears to be a preference for carrying out a calculation in a
succession of relatively shon stages rather than for making use of a single
calculation which is mathematically more sophisticated . and perhaps
quicker . but which ma y be more di fficult to use with confidence . Por exam-
ple, we read in the report of the Bath study:
We met a number of siluations whe re people by-passed the more traditional
school methods , eg a boy who had left school before examinations and at work per-
formed quite a complex check (which he was handling with confidence) on whelher
he was up to quota. He required 7 X 96, which we mighl classify as use of the seven
times table. However, he proceeded as fo llows:

First 3 X 96 :::: 288

then 288
288
576
96
672

Although this employee did nOt know his seven times table, his method shows that
he knew '."hat ,jseven times" something meant. This is one of the many examp les
we found where people resorted to longer methods with which they evidently fe l!
con fidem , ralher than using what a malhemalics teacher might have thought to be
the obvious direct method .

72 The use of percentages is widespread in offices and laboratories, but is

much Jess frequent in workshops. Percentages occur most often in calcu·
lations involving money. for example discount, value-added tax, profit or
loss; they are also used in a wide rangeof other calculations in both offices and
laboratories. \Ve are aware of a number of complaints from employers abo ut
lack of understanding of percentages. These refer not only to clerical staff,
whose difficulties can usually be overcome by making use of a formula or a
standard calculator procedure. but also to management trainees and even
manag~rs.
 :3 The malhemal.icaJ needs of' emplo}'menl 21

Use of calculators
73 Our own enquiries. and the evidence which we have received, lead us to
believe that there is an ambivalent attitude to the useof calculators in industry
and commerce at the present time. The Bath and Nottingham studies found
their use to be widespread in many types of employment. These include a wide
range of clerical and administrative jobs such as accounts departments.
banks, insurance offices and related areaS of employment. Calculators are
also used widely by tbose who work in laboratories and engineering design
offices and by those concerned with quality and production co ntrol; these are
all jobs which require a considerable amount of calculation and analys is of
data. In all of these situations calculators are regarded as desirable aids to
speed and accuracy.

74 Calculators are also used increasingly by many who work on the shop
floor but their use is still viewed with suspicion by some managers and sup·
ervisors who were themselves trained to use slide rules or logarithm tables.
This seems to be especiall y tru e of those who supervise engineering and o ther
tech nical apprentices and craftsmen of various kinds. We are aware of
situations in which new apprentices. who had been issued with logarithm
tables by their training supervisor, preferred instead to make use of the per-
sonal calculators which they were encouraged to use on the coJlege courses
that they attended. There are, of cOllrse, many straigh lforward calculations
which a craftsman needs to be able to carry out mentally but this does nol
seem to be a reason for denying the use of a calculato r when it is sensib le and
time-saving to use one. However, the majority of young empl oyees who were
seen to be using c.alcu lators at work had not been trained in their use either at
school or on the job . In consequence, calculators were frequently not being
used in the most effective way .

Fractions
75 Although fractions are still widely used wilhin engineering and some other
craft work these are almost always fractions whose denomjnaLOrs are
included in the sequence 2,4,8, . . . ,64 . This sequence is visibly present on
"for exa mpl e. Ihat ... and t ha\-e rules and ot her measuring instruments and equivalences· are apparent.
lhe same ... alue Addition or subt raction of lengths which involve fraclions of this kind can be
done directly by making use of the gradations on the rule. When the calcu-
lation is carried out with pencil and paper it is never necessary to work out tbe
common denominator which will be required because it is always present
a lread y; for example 2t + 3,.. has the necessary denominator, 16, already
visible. Even so, the methods used are not always those which might be
expected. The report of the Bath stu dy comments that
Frequency of use promotes assim ilati on of equivalents. This is evident from
the following method that a craftsman used to add fractions:

tt+n = H
Thi s is an other instance of someone rewriting numbers in a more convenient
22 The malhe.malical needs o f employment

form . It co uld be descri bed as very mathematical but it is not necessarily [h e

met hod whic h would be reinforced in schools.

+
The need to per for m operations suc h as t + does not no rm ally arise, and
manipulati on of fractio ns of the kind which is commonly practised in th e
classroo m is hard ly eve r carried out. In the ra re insta nces in which ir is
n ecessary to mUltiply or divide fraction s. it is usua l to con vert each to a dec i-
m al befo re performing th e operation . if necessa ry with the he lp of a calcu-
lator .

76 The oOla[ion of fractions appears in som e clerical and retail jobs. for
instance 4+ LO rep resent 4 weeks and 3 days or 2~ (0 rep rese nt 2 do zens and 5
s ingles. However, sc hool-t ype mani pulat io n is rarely found and th en only in
very simple cases; for instan ce, the calc ulation required to find me charge for
3 day s based on a weekl y rate is divi sion by 7 follo wed by multiplication by 3.

Algebra
77 One of the more surpri sing res ults of the st udies is the litt le ex plicit use
which is mad e of algeb ra . Formulae, somet imes usi ng single letter s for
va ri a bles but more o fte n ex pressed in words or abb reviations , are wid ely used
by tec hnic ians, craftsmen, clerical workers and some operatives but all that is
usuall y required is th e subst itution o f nu mbers in these formul ae a nd perhaps
the use of a calcul ato r. The repo rt of the Bat h study quotes an exa mple of one
such formula whic h was no t even writ ten down , but was rem embe red by the
employee co nce rn ed:
A wages clerk expla ined: 'To get the rate o f pay per hour , we add toger her the
gross pay, the employe r's Narionall nsu ra nce. a nd holid ay sta mp mon ey, subtrac i
an y bonus, and then divide by the hours wo rked'.

Fo rmulae are also used regularl y in nu rsi ng. An exa mp.l e quoted in the report
of the Not tin gham study is :

Child's d ose = -,-A",g",e___x-=A:..:c:.d_U-,It-=d-,o:..:s"e

Age + 12

It is not norm ally necessary to transform a formula; any form which is likely
to be req uired will be available or can be looked up . Nor is it necessary to
remove brackets , simplify exp ressions or solve simult.aneous or quadratic
equ a tions, altho ugh a lgebra of this kind is sometimes enco untered on courses
at furth er education co ll eges. Solution of linear equations is required very
occasionally .

Estimation
78 Industry and commerce rely exte nsively on the ability to estimale. Two
aspects of this are important. The fi rst is the abi lit y to judge wheth er the res ulL
of a ca lculation whic h has been ca rried out or a m easu rem ent which has been
taken seems w be reaso nable . This ena bles mistakes to be detected or
avoided; examples are th e monthly account which is markedly different fro m
it s predecessors or the measured dose of medicine which appea rs unexpec-
., The malhemallcal needs of employmenl 23

tedly large or small. The second is the ability to make subjective judgements
about a variety of measures. This is of use in situations in which measurement
is difficult or aW,kward, in \"hich [rial and error is possible or in which toler-
ances are large . Skills of estimation develop on the job but employers often
complain that young entrants to industry and commerce lack a 'feel' for both
number and measurement, even in terms of the units, whether metric or
imperial, which they can be expected to have encountered at school or in
everyday life.

Measurement
79 Although estimarion is important, counting and measurement are
paramount. A very great deal of the mathematics which is used in
emplo)"ment is concerned with measurement in one or other of a wide variety
of forms, b)' no means aU of which are directly concerned with the use of
measuring instrnments. Measurements are specified in a variety of ways, for
instance in terms of number of items or total of money; of length, weight or
volume; of ratio, percentage or rate. Use is made of metric and imperial units
as well as of units which are peculiar r.o a particular industry .

80 There are two different aspects of measurement - the first in which an

existing measurement such as length, weight or number in stock has to be
determined, the second in which it is necessary to create a desired meas-
urement. In every case it is necessary to be aware of how accurate the meas-
urement needs to be; in some cases it is necessary to be able to choose and use
an appropriate measuring instrument. The labourer may well measure in
terms of buckets or shovels full. The skilled engineering craftsman may work
to different tolerances for different parts of a job and will need in each case to
choose the appropriate tool or instrument for creating or checking the meas-
urement he requires. The cashier will need to count the money in the till
exactly.

81 There are also those who have to be keenly aware of the meaning of
measurements, even though they seldom measure anything for themselves.
These include staff who are involved in ordering and costing, in calculating
turnover and profit margins. Here again, measurement is seldom exact but
needs to operate within specified degrees of accuracy. This concept of meas-
urement as something which is sometimes exact but more often needs to lie
\\'ithin stated limits is OIle which is very different from that which is commonly
encountered in the classroom; it is also one which requires a conceptual
understanding which takes time to develop. We discuss this important point
in more detail in paragraphs 269 to 272 .

Metric and imperial units of measurement

82 We have received a number of submissions which draw attention to the
fact that imperial units are still used in many parts of industry. Although there
are many companies which use only metric units, others still operate mainly
with imperial units and many companies use a mixture of both metric and
imperial. There are also certain companies which make use of units which are
24 J The mathematical need s of employmenl

peculiar to a particular indu stry . There are a number of reason s for the co n-
tinuing use of imperial units. Amo ng the most significant are th e expen se of
re-equipping work shops with new machinery and instrum entation , the need
to maintain a supp ly of spare parts whi ch conform to standard imperial sizes
and the needs of c us[Qrners overseas who still make use of imperial measures.
H owever. where imperial uni ts are st ill in use, only a limited ran ge is normall y
encountered on any panicular job. for example yards or feet and in cbes,
pounds and ounces . The use or fract ions of an inch and or the 'thou'
(thousandth of an inch) is also common. Where conversion rrom imperial to
metric unit s, or vice versa, is necessary it is usual [0 make use of a convers ion
tabl e.

Implications for the 83 It is of fundamental importance - and , we believe , not as self·evidenl as

classroom some might suppose -to appreciate tbe fact that all the mathematics whicb is
used at work is related directl).' to specific and often limited tasks which soon
become familiar. The different as pects of mathematics wh ich are used are
related to each other by their context so that their applica tion is immediately
evident. lncreasing experience o f carrying out calculati ons o r measurements
helps LO develop skills of estimation and approximation and an awareness of
wheth er o r no l a result is sens ib le.

84 H owever great the effort which is made, illust rat ions of (be practical
appl ica tions of mathematics wi thin emp loyment which are given to a group of
pupils, whose membe rs will enter man y different types of j ob, cannot provide
the immediacy of the actual job itself. Nevertheless, it is important that the
mathematical foundation which has been provided in the classroom should be
such as to enable competence in particular applications to develop within a
reasonably short time Once the necessary employment situation is encoun-
tered .

85 The preced ing paragraphs give some indicati on o f the kinds or mathema-
tical skill and unders tanding wbich are needed. We believe that it is possible to
summarise a vcr)' large part of the mathematical needs of employment as's
feeling for measurement'. This implies very much more than an ab ility to
calculate. to estimate and to use measuring instrume_nts, although all of these
are part of it . It implies an understanding of the nature and purposes of
measurement , of the many differem methods of meas urement which are used
and of the situations in whic h each is found; it also im plies an ability to inter-
pre[ measurements expressed in a va riety of ways.

86 I f boys and girls are to leave schoo l eq uipped in this wa y, they will need, in
[he mathematics classroom and elsewhere, to have taken part in a wide variety
of appropriate mathematical activities and to have discussed these at length
with their teac hers and with each other. We consider ways in which this may
be ac hie ved in the second part of our report .

Emplo yers' selection tests 87 Some firms, especially those in the engin eering industry and some bran-
c hes o f the reta il trade, require applicants for jobs to undergo written
J The mat hematical needs o f employment 25

selection tests in mathematics. We have recei ved man y co mments abo ut these
tests bo th in submissions from teachers and from employers them selves. We
are grate fu l to the man y employers who have provided us with copies of the
selection tests which they use and also, in some cases, with pho[Qcopies of
script s completed by applicants for employment.

88 Employers who make use of written selection tests appear to do so for one
or mOre of the follow ing reasons:

• because recru itment takes place before the results of O-Ievel and CSE
examinations are available;
• because employers wish to satisfy themselves that those whom they
engage are able to carry out specific types of cakulation ;
• because, even when the results of O-Ievel and CSE examinations are
available, there is a feeli ng that success in the examiI)a lion , especially
if it is at a low grade. does not guarantee com petence in the particular
math ematical skill s which the employer requires;
• because of unwilli ng ness to rely solely on repons provided by schools
since 1 as some employers have explained to us, these re ports are often
written in terms whic h are too general and so metimes include
predictio ns of likely examination results which do not prove to be
accurate;
• because it is necessary to choose from a large number of applicants or
to SO rt (hem in some other way.

89 In respect of the last of the above reasons, it has been pointed out to us
that, in a time of high unemployment, the need to choose from a large
number of app licants does not necessaril y imply that those who Score most
highly will be accepted. It may not be to the adva ntage either of the
applicant or of the firm to employ someone whose ski lls are too high
because of the fru st ration which ma y result from doing a job which is below
the level of which the employee is capable.

90 Allhough a few employe rs are prepared to make offers o f employment

condiLional upon the achievement of specific examination results, thi s
practice does not seem to be widespread and could clearly lead to problems
of eith er under or over recruitment in cases in which the number of
vacancies was small . However , some firms use examination results in
conjunction with the results of selection tests to discdrninate between those
who are offered craft apprenticeships and those who are offered tech nician
apprenticeships.

9t The kinds of tests which are used and the level at which they are set vary
widely . We are concerned that testing procedures are oft en in the hands of
peopJe who have neither train ing nor appropriate experience in testing
procedures. including the setting and marking of papers. We have been
surprised to find that this can be the case even with in major companies.
26 3 The m':l.lhemalicaJ needll o f empl oyment

92 Alt ho ugh some teSls are specifically rela. ed to tasks which the employee
wi ll be required to under take as soon as he starts work . many oth e rs are set at a
level whi ch is hi gher t han thi s. In some cases it is claimed that thi s is because a
high e r standard of mathematics than the job requ ires will be need ed for
success in, a nd perhaps entry to, some form of rraining at a college of further
ed ucatio n either immediately or in t he futur e. It may also be because a hi gher
standard of mathematics will be requi red for jobs to which the employee may
be promoted in d ue course.

93 v..'e have al so been to ld t hat some Lests are set at a hi ghe r level than will be
required o n the job because it is co nsidered that success in a har der tcs t will
indicat e a n ability to perform we ll at more elememary tas ks or will indicate a
more ' flexible' empl oyee whom it will be possible to employ o n a variety of
jobs. Some also take [he view that ability in mathe matics is a good indicator of
a mo re generaJ ability. We are aware. tOO, of some cases in which a test is set at
a hi gher level merely beca use a commercially produced tes t is being used
which does not reflect th e spec ific needs of t he j ob.

94 Even in cases in which th e requirements of a job have been ca refully

identified a nd a test de vi sed which is matched to th ese, (he test may nOl serve
the purpose which is intended and so lead to unju stified criticis m of the per-
fo rm ance of those who are re quired to attempt it . Th ere can be many reasons
for this. One o f the most co mmon is that questions a re very ofte n word ed
ambiguously or se t out on the page in a co nfu sing m an ner. The la u er can
appl y es pecially to question papers which have been typed and stenci lled ;
fractions, for example. ar e dif fi cult t o set out clearly on a typewriter a nd the
fact t hat the same key is used for both a decimal point and a full srop can lead
ro co nfu sion unl ess great care is la ken . Some tests which we have see n use
language which is math ematicall y incorrect ; som e a lso us e the jargon of the
job - ' cast th ese fi gures a cross and down ' - which those taking the test may
nor have met before and so do not understa nd.

95 \V e arc also concerned a t the rigi d way in which test papers are very often
marked and at the numb er of errors in marki ng which we have iden tified o n
sc ripts which have been sent to us. Mark ing sc hemes are usually kep t very
simpl e, often with just one ma rk fo r each answer a nd frequently no credil is
given if, as a res ult of a single mistak e_in one pa Il of the qu estion , several
subseq uent answers are incorrect , even tho ugh th e math ematica l o peration s
invol ved ha ve been car ried out co rrectl y. We have also found instances in
which candidates h ave dealt success full y with one possible imerpretation of
an ambiguously worded question but have been given no credit for it. tn o ur
view. too, th e time allowed for completing so me tests is far too short so that
candid ates do not have the opportunity of showing properly what they can
do. Furthermore. the stress of working is increased when it is necessary 10
work against the cloc k; provided that th e mathematics;s understood, speed of
working w il( deve lop with continuing use on the job.

96 We wish to draw attention to one further aspect of the testing undertaken

b)' em ployers. There seems to be a very general unwillingness to provide
3 The mathe ma tical needs Qr employment 27

applicants with. specimen of the lest paper wbich will be set. Indeed, we have
to reco rd with regret th at a few em plo ye rs have not even been willing to make
ava ilable to th e Co mmittee a co py of th e test which they use and have devised,
despite an assura nce that its co nfi de ntiality would be preserv ed. We find it
di ffic ult to a ppreciate t he reaso n for this unwillingness to provide a specimen
test pape r. Candidates for public exam inatio ns of all kinds, whether they a re
pupils at sc hool, st udents in further o r h ig her education establishments, o r
applica nt s for th e membership of professional bodies , a re provided bot h with
an examination syllabus and also access to papers set in earlie r years . If, as we
believe should be the case , o ne of the purposes of tes ts set by employers is to
disc over wh eth er the applicant is ab le to ca rry out cen ain mathematical tasks
sa ti sfacto ril y, it must surel y be of va lue to make clear wh a t these tasks are.
This ca n apply partic ularly to certa in cle rical and accounting opeIations
whi ch , altho ugh making use onl y of relatively ele mentary mathe matics which
will certain ly have been st udi ed at school, often require itto be applied in ways
whi ch ma y not have beco me familia r in the classroom. If. as a res ult of bei ng
provided with a specimen test pa per, the candidate wishes to practise these
tas ks a nd improve his a bility a t them , this can only be o f advant age to all
conce rned . Nor need the p rovision o f a specimen test paper in any way inva-
lid ate the co nfidentiality of t he actual test whi ch is used o r inhibit its use ove r a
period of years if this is felt to be desirable. We believe the same to be true of
the comme.rcially produced tests used by some employers; in our view spe-
cimens o f these tests shou ld also be made avai lable.

97 tn some areas local gro ups o f teache rs a nd employe rs have discussed the
rec ruitm ent tests used by the employers, often as pan of the wo rk of liaison
group s to which we refer in paragraph 103 , As a res ult of such di sc ussion s,
tests have often been modified so as to e nab le them to fulfil their purpose
better. In a few cases, a fu nh er developmem has been that several emplo ye rs
in the same locality have agfl::!ed 10 u se the-same test . T his avoids th e necessi ty
for boys a nd gir ls who have ap pl ied to several firm s to take a succession of
tests. On th e other hand, a sys tem o f th is kind may act to an appticant's
disadvan tage unless it prov ides opportunit y for a second attempt (0 redeem a
poor, and perhaps uncharacteristic, performan ce at the fi rst attempt.

98 We are aware of a n increasi ng number of sc he mes which setout to provid e

evidence of achievement for pupils whose ability is below that for which th e
CSE exa mina tion is in tended. Some of these sc hem es have been developed by
a single sc hoo l or a group of sc hools, and some by localeducation authorities.
There is al so the nation al S LAPONS test (Sch ool Leaver's Attainment P ro-
file of Nu merical Skills) wh ich was developed by the Schools an d Industr y
Commiuee of the M athem atical Associatio n and inirially adm in istered by the
Sh ell Ce ntre for Mat hematical Education ; it is now admi nistered by th e Royal
Societ y of Arts . Although these schem es are n ot, in th e str ic t sense,
emp loye rs' tests, th e imenti on of a ll of t hem is to provide information for
e m ployers about the math ematical aua inme nt of schoolleavers a nd so render
separate recruitment tests unnecessar y. We disc uss scheme-s of [his kind in
C ha pter 10.
28 3 The malhemalical peeds of employment

Liaison 99 Many of those who have submiLtcd ev idence to us have drawn attention to
the need for better liaison between schools and employers . There is very
general agreement that liaison activities are crucial and that greater efforts
need to be made to encourage, develop and extend them. We have recei ved
encouraging evidence of the wa y in which liaison o f [his kind is developing in
many areas.

100 It must be a primary aim of li.ison to enable schools and employers to

obtain a better understanding of each other's needs and problems and of the
way in which each operates. Such an improved unders tandi ng will both assist
pupils to make a mO re informed choice of employment and also ease their
transition to working life, whether this takes place immediately on leaving
school or after a period of further or higher eduatio n . H eads and other
teachers in schools, local careers officers, staff in colleges of further and
higher education and local emplo yers all have a contribution to make. Man y
organisations participate in careers activities in individual school s and in
careers conventio ns organised by LEA Careers Services. Man y companies
hold careers evenings on the ir own premises for pupils and parents. In some
cases pupils visit firms to see at first hand the kind of work which is going on
and to learn about t.he career opportunities which are available. In other
cases, some pupils may have the opportunity of gaining work experience by
spend ing a period of time with a firm . Joint activi ties of th is kind can provide
valuable and we believe necessary oppo rtuni ties for employers to keep abreast
of current educational develo pments and for schools to be aware of changes
in patterns of employment and of opportunities which are available.

101 In the following paragraphs we consider only liaison which contains a

mathematical dimension, although it is likely to be the case that such liaison
will also contribute to a more general understanding o f the school/
employment interface for both teachers and pupils, including the de velop-
ment of a better understanding of the place of industry in the economy.

102 Moves to develop sc hool/employment liaison relating to the mathema-

tics curriculum are by no means new. TheSchools and Industry Committee o f
the Mathematical Association has existed fo r some twenty years and consists
of representatives of ind ustry, commerce and mathematical education.
Through its meetings and other related activities it has provided opportunity
fo r much valuable discussion . This discussion has also revealed some of the
ptoblems which have to be overcome if liaiso n is to be effective. These include
the difficulties of making both teac hers and employers aware of the work
which is being done and of persuading teacbers who lack direct knowledge of
industry that the y should nevertheless look fo r oppo rtunities of introducing
examples of the industrial and commercial uses of mathemati cs into their
wor k in the classroom.

103 A few local groups were in existence before the Schools and Industry
Committee was set up. Since that time other groups and projects have come
into being, a few of them with national coverage and , especiaUy since the mid-
1970s, many others at local level. The lalter have usually co nsisted of
 ] nle malhemalical needs of employment 29

teachers, local employers and the local careers officer. The LEA mathematics
adviser and staff from a nearby further education college or college of educa-
tion have often been involved as well . In 1978 Professor D E Bailey of the
-A survey of mathematics projects UniverSity of Bath published a list of some seventy such local groups' and
irlvolving education arid subsequent work has identified some twenty more. In the main, each of these
employment. UniversiLY of Bath:
has been concerned with one or more of three broad areas:
also supplement . May 1980.
• the identification of the mathematical needs of various types of
employment;
• the preparation of materials for use in the classroom which provide
examples of ways in whi ch marhematics is used in indu stry ;
• the discussion of recruitment tests used by employers .
We have referred to the last of these in the previous section; we consider the
other two in greater detail in the paragraphs which follow.
Identification of math- 104 Many local groups and a number of research projects have set out to
ema tical needs identify the mathematical needs of various types of employment . The scope
of these inves tigations has varied considerably and, because most of the
groups and projects have worked in isolation from each other, it has perhaps
been inevitable that certain investigations have been repeated many times. In
drawing attention to this fact , we in no way wish to undervalue the work
which has been done, the ve ry considerable expenditure of time and effon
which it has involved , the valuable experience which has been gained by those
who have carried out the work and the increased understanding between
employers and school s which has resulted . However we hope that the results
of the wo rk which has been carried OUl at our request at Bath and Notting-
"'D Bird and M Hisco:l(. Marh emo-
tics in schools alld employment.' a
ham, together with the results of the Schools Council Project Mathematics
study of !foison activities. Sch ools and the young entranl to employment-, \vill provide a firm base from which
Council Working Paper 68 . more detailed, and perhaps local , studies can develop without the necessity of
Methu en Edu calional 198 1. going yet again over the preliminary ground.
105 A not infrequent outcome of the studies which have been made has been
some modification of the mathematics courses in local schools . In some cases,
- See lime to paragraph 68 too, CSE Mode 3' examination syllabu ses have been adopted which have
reflected these rev ised courses. Another outcome has been that the per-
formance of pupils in certain areas of mathemati cs has been certificated
separately by the school or sometimes by the local education authority in cases
where several schools have been involved . We are also aware of some local
schemes in which experiments are being made with profile reporting, which
gives more detailed information about a pupil's mathematical strengths and
weaknesses. We suspect, howeverJ that there are relati vel y few employers for
whom such detailed information is of real value .

106 Where modifications to mathematics courses have resulted from local

initiatives, these seem to have been directed mainly towards pupiJs of average
or below average attainmen t. However. an exception to this has been the
Mathematics in Education and Industry Project (MEl) which was set up in
1963 specifically to develop new school sy llabuses, initiall y at A-level, which
were more in line with the mathematics {Q be found in industry and in higher
education than were those which existed at that time. These syllabuses were
30 3 The malhematica l needs of empJoymeni

based on the experience of teachers who had spent time on second menl to
va rious large firm s. One difficulty which ar ose was lhal, while t.h ere were
plenty of suggestions for new topic s which cou ld be included in the curricu-
lum. it was not easy to dedde what should be omitted to make room for them .
The MEl work has been influ ential, both through its own A-level (although
the size of the entry has been small) and through its influence on othe t A-level
syllabuses. However, its work has not yet had very much influence on rhe
11-16 cu rriculum . We ha ve been told that attempts by local MEl groups to
work with local employe rs on ideas suitable for those in the 11-16 age ,".nge
have nOl hitherto met with very much success, although there have been recent
indications of improvement,

Classroom mat er ia ls ] 07 A number of loc-aJg roups have set out (0 produce mat erial s for use in th e
cJassroom based on the mathematics used in vari ous types of emp!oymenl.
S uch materials have most usually been produced as a result of a leache r or
teachers visi ting local firm s to observe the different kinds of work which were
going on. Following (h e visi ts, worksheets have been produced whi ch are
based on examples of the uses of mathematics wh ich have been observed and
which explain t he situations in which th ese occur. The preparation of mater i-
als of this kind seems 10 have been most effec tiv e whenit ha s been ca rried out
in consultation \\:ith a member of staff of the fi rm concerned. who has
so metimes also been able to visit th e sc hool to talk with pupils Or dem on strate
eq uipment. However, th e ev iden ce which is available 1O us sugges ts that,
although the benefits of such materials can be considerable both to theteacher
who has prepared them and to his pupils, it should not be assumed Ihalthese
benefifs are necessarily easil:y transferable to other teachers. whether in the
same school or in other schools , who have not had the same direct invol·
"emenl with the firm concerned. It is therefore necessary to pro\·jde appro-
priate i0 service training for teachers in the laller category so (hat they rna)' be
4

able 10 use Ihe materials effectively,

108 Preparation of male rial s for the classroom has als o been carried out on a
nationa l scale. The School Mathematics Project (SMP), which has from the
outset stressed the use of mathematics in app lica tion, supported an Industrial
Fellow fo r two years in 1964-66. His task was to gather examples oft he uses of
mat hematics in various kinds of employment so thallhese cou ld be incor-
porated into the SMP texts wherever possible. The fact that this iniliative
achieved only limit ed success again draws attemion to the fact th at the prepa-
ratton of classroom materials related (Q the world of wor k is more difficult
than mighl be expected.

109 A more recent initiative on a natio nal scale has been the setting-up io
1975 of th e Working M a th emat ics Group, which developed from the Co n-
linuing Mathematics Project a nd receives non-financial sponsorship from the
Cou ncil for Educational Technology. The Group is a working liaison of
industrialists and teachers which produces inst ruct ional materials in modular
form designed to show mathematics in action in the world of work. The
members of the Group work in pairs. one from indu stry and one from educa-
tion, and give time voluntarily (0 the preparation of materials, Th e Group
 3 The ll1alhem(l(ica! needs of employment 31

published iLS first ten instructional units in the autumn of 1980, so it is as yet
{Oo early to assess the cont r!bution whic h these materials will be able to make
in th e classroom. In its written evidence to us, the Group drew at tention to the
long time which is required to produce classroom materials - a fact which
once again underlines the problem s attendant on work of thi s kind and the
time scale whi ch is involved .

Visits 110 Although visits by groups of pupils to companies and other employers
can be o f considerable va lue , we have to accept that the number of suc h visils
which can be made by anyone school, and by anyone gro up of pupils within
the school, wi ll inevirably he small. When it is possible to arrange visits of this
kind. it is essential thallbene js both adequate preparation of pupils before the
visit and also follow-up wht~ n the visil has taken place, otherwise much of the
value is likely to be lost. Nor should the opportunity for visits be restricted, as
sometimes happens, to the academically less able; pupils of high ability CaD
also benefit from visits of this kind and should have the opportunity!O take
part.

Attachments for leachers III A number of the submissions which we have received urge (he provision
of greater opportunities fo r mathematics teachers and mathematics staff jn
training institutions to undertake a period of attachment to industry. W'e
believe that such attach.ments can be of considerable value 10 those concerned
and we commend schemes such as those offered by the Understanding British
Industry project despite the fact that it has been pointed out to us, somewhat
ruefully, by the mathematics adviser of one LEA that an unforeseen outcome
of three such attachments to industry was the loss to teaching of three good
mathematics teachers. We have been told that at least one LEA has appointed
full-time mathematics tcae.hers to its supply staff in order to permit math-
ematics teachers in schools to be released for attachment to industry.
Whatever the method adopted, suitable arrangements need to be made to
make replacement staffing available so that industria1 attachments can take
place. However , we han! to accept that the number for whom it will be poss-
ible to arrange attachment to industry will remain small in compariso n with
the total number of mathematics teachers. It is therefore of the utmost
importance that every effort is made to use to the full the experience which
teachers gain during such attachment; and that efforts are made to share with
other members of staff the experience which has been gained and to prepare
teaching materials based o:n this experience for use in the classroom, not-
withstanding the difficu lties to which we referred in paragraph 107.

1] 2 It is essential thal, in any scheme for liaison between scbools a_nd

e_mployers, the two-way nallure of Ihe relationship is accepted by both sides.
Not only is it necessary for teachers to have a better understanding of the
needs of industry, but also for those in industry to maintain an up·to·date
knowledge of present day practice in schools . We beUeve th at representatives
of industry and comme rce should visit classrooms to observe teaching in
progress and be encouraged to give a talk or series of talks to pupils.

Liaison wit h furthe r edu- 113 We end this section by drawing attention 10 the need for liaison between
cation schools and local further education (FE) establishments . Liaison between
32 3 The mathematical needs o r em ployment

further educatio n and industry has traditionally been relatively strong. A

major reason for this is that the part-time and block release courses which
FE establishments provide for young employees provide opportunity to
establish links between company training officers and college staff;
furthermore , many lect urers in FE coll eges, especially at craft level, have
traditionally been recruited. from industry. Training officers and managers
are also often members of college governing bodies and advisory commit-
tees; and the Business Education Council (BEC) and Technician Ed ucatio n
Council (TEC), as part of tbeir course approval and monitoring procedures,
require evidence tbat di scussions have taken place between colleges and
employers to identify the needs o f the yo ung employees concerned .

114 Direct and regular contact between schoo ls and further education
establishments seems often to be less e ffective . 'Link cou rses' . in which
staff of both school and college are involved, can provide valuable
opportunity for co-operation and also considerable motivation for pupils.
However, these courses are_ almost invariably mo re expensive than th ose
provided solely in schools . At a time of pressure on reSO UIces and cash
limits we can understand that LEAs may wish to limit the provision of
co urses of this kind. We believe, however, Ihat such limitation is
short~sighted and we would wish to see a development of link courses
wherever practicable. In any case. whether link courses are arranged or no t,
general liaison between schools and colleges needs to be developed.

lIS Links between the school a nd the further education sectors at regional
and national levels are also tenuous. For example. further education is
generally only weakly represented on OCE and CSE subject panels. Similarly
schools are poorly represe nted on City and Guilds of London lnstitute
(COLI), BEC and TE C committees and similar bodies. We believe tbat
much more three~way co~opera(ion . between the school. furtber education
and industry sectors should lake place in a ,'ariety of ways.

116 It is clear that over the last few years a good deal of effort has been put
inlo li aiso n acti vi ties o f various kinds. However , if the improvements
achieved by the work of local groups and by other local initiatives are to be
maintained , continuing discuss ion is needed; resources, too , must be
maintained and where at all possible improved. ft is not the case that
discussion follo wed by the publication of a report, syUabus or test paper
will set things right once and fo r all . All parties must continue to learn from
each other. To maintain a continuing discussion is perhaps more demanding
than the initia l effort required to produce a document of some kind. ft also
makes a continuing demand o n the time of the teachers, industrialists and
others who are involved. Local education authorities, careers advisers.
leachers and employers win aU need to take responsibility and initiative for
the various aspects of liaison.

The future 117 At a time of rapid techn ological and soci al change such as the present ,
it is particularly difficult to assess the extent to which the mathematical
3 The mathemalica! needs o f employment 33

needs of those entering employment are likely to change. The dramatic

reduction in the cOSt and size of computing and automation equipment made
possible by the advent of the silicon chip is already beginning to have a pro-
found effect on our working and social lives and it is evident that this effect
will increase in the coming years . Automation has already been introduced
into many industries engaged in mass production; leaders in this field have
been the process and electronic industries . More recently there have been
substantial advances in the automotive and some other industries . However
the introduClion of automation has not been limited to production only;
computer-aided techniques are increasingly being used in design and in
various aspects of management information processing. Within manufac-
turing industry a growing number of examples can be quoted of the inte-
gration within one system of many different but inter-related facets of the
same business - for instance, design, manufacture, sales and management
control. [n the wider fields of commerce and of the retail and distribution
industries, a similar move towards automation and integration is apparent
and it seems tikely thaI few, if any, fields of employment will be unaffected by
the time that those children now entering primary school are ready to take up
employm ent.

118 In this situation, and with th e possibility of the introduction of factors at

present unknown , it is impossible to anticipate future needs in detail.
However, we believe that it is possible to put forward some general con-
clusions. The principal effect of increasing automation will be to reduce
the amount of human effort involved in producing a product or providing a
service. Thus. for the vast majority of those in employment , it would appear
that there could be some reduction in the use of mathematics, at least at the
level of arithmetical calculation . This may be considered as an extension of
the effect of the introduction of the electronic calculator which , as we have
already pointed out, is being used more and more in employment. However, for
a limited number of peopl e we expect that there will be an increased need to
use mathematics; these will be those who are invol ved in the maintenance of
automated equipment and in the development of computer·aided engineering
systems. At stm more sophisticated levels we also expect that there will be an
increased use of mathematics in conjunction with computers for modelling
purposes. At all levels of employment we believe that an understanding of
simple mathematical concepts will en able those in employment to take an
inteHigent interest in their work as it changes under the impact of automation .
The need for understanding will apply not only to those operations with which
the employee is directly concerned in his work ; it will also be important if the
employee is to understand the financial performance of his company and
participate intelligently in those aspects of its managemeOl which he is in a
position to inlluence . The )a)·iog of adequate mathemalica. foundations at
school \\ill, moreover, remain of central imporlance so as to provide a basis
for any further trainjng whkh career development or change ot' employment
may require.

119 Bearing in mind the pace of technological development and the

unexpected directions which history shows such development may take, we
see no reason for supposing that the levels of mathematical need of those who
34 3 The malhematical needs or employmenl

will enter emp!oy menl in ten or nvemy years time wilt be less than (hey are
loday. Although Ihe specific needs may well be different, a secure grasp of
simple mathemalical ideas and the ability to apply them will remain as
impo rtant as ever . For a limited number of peo ple there will be a call for more
mathematics than is needed by their counterparts currently in employment;
there will also be a need for a certain number of people who are very highly
qualified mathematically to be responsible for the development work which
ve ry rapidly changing technology will require. In any event it will be of the
utmost importance to maintain and develop liaison between schools and
industry .

The matbenlatical 110 In th e remai nd er of this chapter we discuss in very general terms the types
needs of some areas of and level s or mathematics which are likely to be encountered by certain broad
employment categories of employees. Although thes e categories do not cover aU types of
employment available to those who leave schoo l al 16, we believe th at they
include a wide cross-section. (n some cases we indicate the recruitme nt
procedures which a re most commonly used a nd the qual ifica tio ns required.
We wish to emphasise that even th e gene ral descriptions which we give mu st
not be tak en to apply to all Ihose who may seem to be in the categories which
we have chosen; it is likely that only some of the mathem atics which we men-
Lion will be needed by any particular person. The requirements are also likely
to va ry with [he size of company in which an employee works. Those who
work in small companies may well undertake a wider range of work, and so
make LI se of a wid er range of mathematics, th a n those who work in a spe-
ciaJised section of a la rge com pan y.

Manufacturing indu stry 121 Within ma nufacturing industry. three levels are commonly ide ntified -
operatives . craftsmen and technicians - though the boundaries of each
catego ry are by no means clearly defined and the caLegory to which an
employee may be assigned vari es from industry to industry, a nd also from
firm to fi r m within the same industry .

Operatives
122 Among those identified as operati ves [here are very many whose jobs do
not appear to require any formal application of maLhematics. Th eir jobs
include feeding and removing articles from machines, a ssembling s mall
components , trimmjng off surplus material and operating pre-set production
machinery , It seems to be extremely rare for selection fo r these jo bs to be
based on school qualifications; perso naJ quaJities and (he way in which
applicants present themselv es at interview are usually considered to be of
greater import ance. Selection tests are rarel y used, though the re may in so me
cases be tests for specific requ ireme nts such as manual dexterity or freedom
from colour blindness ; training is us ually und ertaken on the job. Howev er I in
cases where operatives in this group obtain promotion, for instance to senior
operat.or or chargehand, arithmetical wo rk may be requ ired and so they will
move into a seco nd category, also large in number, consisting of operatives
who use a limi1.ed range of mathematical skills.
3 The mathematical needs of employment 35

123 Operati ves in this second catego ry may need to count articles which are
being stacked and (0 record the result ; (0 recognise, copy and interpret num-
erals, for instan ce code numbers; to add, subtract, multiply and sometimes
divide whole numbers, perhaps with the help of a calculator; to ca rry out
straightfo rwa rd mental calculations; to read dials and gauges, though this
ma y merely involve ma king sure that a needle or other indicator stays within
specified limits; to weigh and measure in both metric and imperial units,
including measurement involving fractions of an inch; to be familiar with the
idea of gross and net weights. Recruitment procedures are usually similar to
those fo r the previous group.

124 A third category is that of operatives who make use either of a wider
range of elementary skills or of certain more advanced mathematical techni-
ques; some of the tasks which these operatives carry out are also underta ken
by th ose designated as craftsmen . These task s include checking dimensions
using a micrometer, vern ier or other ty pe of gauge; calculating or estimating
area; understanding to lerances expressed as ± or in other ways; reading
engineering drawings, often in the form of freehand sketches with some
dimensions marked but sometimes also of a more compl ica ted kind. Dimen-
sio ns may be given in millimet res o r inches; the latter may involve both frac-
n
tions of an inch in the sequence t. t, . . . . and multiples of these. and abo
decimals which are freq uentl y exp ressed in 'thou ' (thousandth of an inch) .
Work of this kind requires the operative to possess the necessary geometrical
awareness to interpret a two-dime nsional drawing in three-dimensional
terms . Associated with the reading of gauges and dial s ma y be a need to
understand rates of many kinds. for instance rotational speed, fluid flow o r
pressure. Some operators will be.required to use a calculator-t ype keyboard,
to read pen-trace graphs and to use a variety of reference tables. Others ma y
need (Q mix substances in a given ratio, perhaps expressed in percentage
terms. It ma y occasionally be necessary to substitute numbers int o a simple
formula, which will usually be expressed in words. However it is imp ortant to
J

remember that any o ne operative will hard ly ever need to undertake more
than a sma ll number of these tasks.

Craftsmen
125 l\Ilany industries invo lve craft-type work and in consequence the math-
ematica l needs vary widely. In many cases the needs will be simi la r to th ose
listed in th e previous paragraph, though within agiven industry the craftsman
will usua lly make use of a wider range of mathematical skills than will the
o perati ve. He may also need to understand a broader range o f geo metrical
concepts so as to be able , for instance, to estimate o r calculate areas and vo l-
umes of non-rect ilinear shapes in two and three dimensions, measure angles
and carry out simple geomet rical constructions.

126 Engineering craft apprentices frequently need a still broader mathema-

tical base . Most still need in their work to be fluent with frac tio ns in the
sequen ce t, to .... n- and their multiples and to be familiar with the decimal
equivalents of these; to be able to select the nearest fractional equi valent in
36 3 Th~ mathematical need s of employmenl

lhis sequence to a given decimal; to be able to make conversions between

millimetres and inches, probably with the help of a reference table. They
need to be able to work within given tolerances and to understand the signific-
ance of figures in digital read-out meters. The reading of meters may also re-
quire understanding of prefIxes such as micro-, milli·, kilo·, mega- and their
assoc iated symbols, The need to be able to use a wide range of drawings. for
example in plan view, first angle proj ection and cross-section, requires
familiarity with the conventions of technical drawing and a good grasp of
geometrical conce pts; ability to make use of geometrica l instruments may
also be necessary. Funher geometrical requirements ca n include the
underSianding of similar ([iangles and Pythagoras' theorem and lhe use of
sine and tangem of a n angle in righl·angled lriangles. Craft appremices
have lillIe need of formal algebra bUI may be required 10 subSlilute numbers
into a simple formu la, very often given in words, to solve simple linear
equal ions and to draw graphs of experimemal resuhs wilh suilable choice of
scale and axes. The need to transpose algebraic equations and formulae is
usually avoided .

127 Allhough few you ng employees are likely 10 need lhe breadth of
mathemalieal know ledge implied by Ihe tOlal liS! in Ihe preceding
paragraphs . many will meet mO St of the topics we have listed during their
first year of training . In some cases) one reason for thi s is that, within the
engineering industry, off-the-job training in the first year is very often the
same for bolh crafl and lechnician apprenlices (see paragraph 129). Firms
adopl widely differing mategies for recruiling craftsmen. A primary
requirement is that the applicant should show the mmivarion and other
interests whi ch indicate likely success as a craftsman . (n the event, many SO
recruited come from the CSE grade 4 level (lhe grade awarded to Ihe
average candidate) in appropriate subjects. However, school leavers with
qualifications at thjs level will rarely have confidence in the whole range of
mathematical skill s and concep ts which we ha ve outlined; we believe that it
is with thi s group of young e ntrants to employment that most concern has
been expressed by manufacturing industry.

Technicians
128 Almost all of those who are recruited as engineering technician
apprentices also undertake an associated course of further education,
commonly a TEe co urse at certificate or diploma level. These courses are
designed for those with at leasl CSE grade} in appropriate subjects,
including mathematics . For this reason engineering technician apprentices
are normally required to have at leasl this level of qualification; many have
O·level grade C or higher. Many will also have been required to lake a
company selection test in mathemat ics .

129 The relationship between craft and technician apprentices is by no

means precise and we have already drawn altention to the fact that both
may foilow the same off-the-job training in the first year. Thereafler,
technician appre ntices are likely LO encounter a wider variety of tasks.
 3 The mathematical needs of e mployment 37

However, some fir ms make little or no distinction in the first two or three
years in so far as in -company work is concerned.

130 The mathematical requirements wiJl be those which we have already

liste d fo r craft apprentices . Although by no means all this mathematics will be
needed at work during the first year, all is likely to be covered in the associated
TEC course. Indeed , the demands of the further education course are likely to
be conside rab ly more than the demands of the job itself, a point to which we
return when we discuss these courses ill the next chapter . \Ve may however
note at this point that , because the initial training of craft and technician
apprent ices is frequently the same, some craft appre ntices in particular can be
confront ed by an unnecessaril y taxing programme eit her in the t raining centre
o r at college, or both .

131 M'any training centres for craft and technician engineering apprentices
include a period of training in 'basic mathematical skills' in the early weeks of
tr2ining. This train ing may take from a few ho urs up to two or three weeks.
We have been given evidence of the improvement whieh is achieved during
thi s period of intensive concentration on number skills and simple mathema-
tical topics. H owever. we believe that the two main factors at work here are
that revision refreshes topics which may not have been used for several
months immediately before the start of the traini ng period a nd that appren -
tices have a strong moti vation ( 0 succeed, since it is at this stage that they can
begin to see the uses which wiJI be made of mathematics within their own job.
Thete is little evidence either from industrial training centres or from the per-
formance of techn ic ians on TEe programmes to suggest thal weakness in
mathematics is a general source of pro blems during the fITS[ year of training.

132 The specific mathematical requirements of other groups of technician

apprentices vary with the nature of the employme nt. In general the needs are
Jess broad than for engineering, though a deeper understanding of certain
topics may be required . For example, a science laboratory technician may
have to plot and inte rpret graphs of various kinds aris ing from the results of
experiments, lhe calibration of instr uments or the o utput of computerised
testing mach ines; he may need to determine points of inl1exion, to recogn ise
li near and non-linea r relationships and 10 use graphs with logarithmic scales.
Some technicians need a sound understanding of numerical processes and
o rders of magnitude so that they can, for example , weigh and measu re very
small Quantities on digital read-out machines in a va riety o f units . They may
also need to make use of both direct and inverse proportion to scale results
obtained from tests which ha ve been carried out on substances diluted for tes t
purposes . Such work also needs a good understanding of th e degrees of accu-
racy which are required in th e approp riate practical situat io n. For work of
this kind the use of calcula tors is widespread.

Clerical work 133 Clerical work covers a wide range o f jobs such as accounts, sales, wages
and records; the work of many typists. receptionjsls and secretaries also
includes a clerical element. The mathematics required by this large bod y of
38 3 Th e mathemalical needs o r employmen l

employees, most of whom are fema le, is predominant.ly arirhmetic. altho ugh
some tasks may include substitution of numbers into a formula. usuall y
expressed in words, and drawing graphs of sales or production. Th e rotalli st
or possible arithm eti cal ski lls wh ic h may be needed is large, thou gh a nyo ne
job is likel y [Q require th e use or only a limited range or them. Th e skill s
include cQunring, recording num bers and arranging them in order or in tabu-
lated form; addition, 5ublr3ction , multiplication and division with whole
numbers, decimals and money; a limited use of fractions. usuall y in sir-uations
involving division by a whole number; perce mages applied in a variety of
ways; ratio and propo rti on; rates, for exam ple in the form of wages per hour
or cost per tonne. it may be necessary to make use of reference tab les and to
round up or down , for instance to the nea rest penuy. The use of calculators
ror almost all or thi s wo rk is now widely accepted . Appl"Opriate c hec king
procedures, alth o ugh per haps or a dirrerent kind rrom thos e used rorme rl y,
cominue to be of cru cial importance.

The re tail trade 134 Young employees in the retail trade, usually empl oyed as sa les ass istants
or trainee managers, normally need only a Jjm.it ed range of arithmetical skills
fo r their work . Man y of their tasks are simi lar to those listed for clerical
work e rs in (he precedin g paragraph . T he work may ent a il usi ng a till. ready-
recko ner or table of goods and prices. h ma y be necessary to count goods in
dozens and singles and to record the resull on stock sheets; to prepare bi ll s.
per haps a llowi ng ror discount or value added tax; [Q work with averages a nd
perce ntages. Ta bles or numerical data ma y require add ing bo th by rows a nd
columns. Althou gh ca lculators may be used ror the mor e co mplica ted tasks,
sales assistants wil l often be required to carr y au[ simple calculations men-
tall y.

Agricuit u re 13 5 The mathematical requirements of those who work in ag riculture may

appear to be m odest , th e main skills needed being lhe a bilit y to co unt a nd
measure. However , the present high cost of basic mat erials and advancing
technol ogy mean that Quantities of such thin gs as a nim al reed, rertiliser and
weed-k ille r must be cal culated and measured with conside rab le accuracy.
Precisio n drilling requires the farm worker to carry out accurate calibration
and provide precise quantities o r seed. The reeding or dairy cattle is now rinely
balanced in respect of such things as slarch and protein requ irements and
these need 10 be calculated with reference to {he characteristics o f a range of
reedi ng sturfs. Milk yields have to be reco rded .

136 Farm machinery, too, is complex. It is necessa ry fo r the farm worker to

be able to read a ra nge or dials and gauges a nd, for instance, to be able to
insert the appropriate discs to comrolthe sp ray rate of a crop spra yer or make
th e app ropri ate se ttings ror dirrerent types or seed. Although metric quanti-
ties are increasingly being used, a kn ow ledge of imperial units is also still
req ui red, not least because much of the machinery at present in use has been
built to no n ~ metric standards.

137 In addit ion to being ramiliar wit h the aspects whi ch we have alr ead y
listed, the rarm manager needs to be able to dea l with rarm accounts and to
 1 T he m;]\hernalical needs of employmelll 39

have planning sk ills so as [Q make efficien t use of bo th manpower and

machinery . An ability to es tim a te, especially in res pect of irregularl y shaped
areas , is a lso desirable.

The conStruc t ion indu stry 13 8 As wit h other sec[Ors o f industry , it is difficult to identify precise math-
emat ical needs for all employees. The size of firms within the indu st ry varies
greatly. It is estimated th a t there are ove r40 000 firms emplo yi ng less than ten
people; but 50 large firm s accou nt fo r a lmost 10 per ce nt of the construction
work wh ich is carried our each year . Within a lar ge organisation, (he wo rk of
an ind ividual ma y become very sre reotyped and in vo lve much the sa me
ro ut ines for most of the time. On the other hand , the self-employed cra ft sm an
is likely to ha ve to deal with a wide range of different tasks. For him, as for the
small fir m in gene ral , es timation of materials iscr ucial . An over-estimate may
resull in a residu e of mate rials whi ch ca nnot be used up elsewhere; an
underestimar.e ca n lead to delays and loss of time and profit.

139 Many of those who work in (he constr uction industry will need to inter-
pret plans and drawings and to be capable of accurate measurement. The
bricklayer, the plaste re r, t he painter and decorator mu st become ade pt at
estim at ing the amount of materiaJ th ey will require for a variety of tasks.
Employers in the constr uction industry often co mplain that young entrants
have initial difficulties in th is field a nd lack an y 'feel' for orders of magn i-
tude, especially in respect of length, area and vo lume.

140 Some tradesmen require specific math ematical tec hn iques. For exampl e.
th e electri cia n may need to use ..the approp riat e fo rmul a for co mbining
resistan ces or calculating the current in a circui t. The plumber requ ires a
sound appreciation of th e quanti ti es and shapes involved when working in
three dimensions. for insta nce in order to shape the flashings around
chimneys o r to erect pi pewo rk . The joiner may have to carry o ut qui te detailed
calc ul atio ns when co nstru cting stai rways or erecting roofing timbers. The
foreman who is responsible for layin g out a building si te will need good plan-
ning and measurement skills.

H orels a nd catering 141 T he main mathe mat ical requ iremenr for wor k in the hotel and catering
industry is an abil ity to carry out arithmetical cal culat ions accurately . Ma ny
workers are concerned with calculations invol ving mon ey, with weig hing and
measuri ng an d with co unting stock.

142 Those concerned w ith reception and accoun[s have to keep reco rds and
accOU nt books an d to calcu late service charges and valu e a dded tax. They
may also be call ed upon to help vi sitors with bus o r train timet ables. Those
who prepare food are concerned with weighing and measur ing and with
calcu lating the ti me re quired to prepare dishes. They require a knowledge of
proportion in order 10 be able to adapt recipes for larger or smaller quantities
a nd may also need to work Qut th e cost per ponion. Some of those employed
in institutional catering mu st also be able to calc ulate speci fi c nutritional
requi reme nt s a nd take account of factors s uch as the provisio n of a balanced
djet; accurate costi ng is li ke.ly to be essential.
40 J The mathematical needs o f employmeru

143 Waiters and bar staff have to add up bills , hand le money and memorise
prices . Bar staff often ha ve to deal with orders for a large number of i(ems,
each with its associated price . and by custom (hey are expected to add up the
cost mentally.

Work with computers J 44 Relati vely few schoolleavers are lik ely to wo rk directly with a co mputer.
Their work will usuatly be at cleri cal or opetator level dealing with the input
and output of data, though some leavers with A-level quali fi cations obtain
posts as junior programmers . The pr eparation of data for input 10 a compUler
en rails the strict discipline of presenting data accurately in the required
format; the handling of computer output often in volves extracting data from
tables which co nta in more information or more figures than are needed at
thal momenl. These tasks demand little in the way of marhematical expertise
apart from the need to feel 'at horne' with the handling of numerical
information . In some cases it is a lso necessary to be able to carry out
straightforwar d artithmet ical calculations which may involve the use of
decimals and percentages.

Nursing 145 Except in a very few specialised cases, it is nor possible lOS[art training as
a nurse until the age of 18 but many of those who start their training at this age
will have left school atl6. The minimum entry qualifications for training as a
State Registered Nurse (SRN) are stated in terms of passes at O-Ieve l or CSE
grade t, mathematics not being a compulsory subject. An a lrer native method
of entry is bypassing the educational test of the General Nursing Council; this
examination contains a section on mathematics . To become a State Enrolled
NUrse (SEN) the min imum requirement is a good general education. Selection
is on the basis of interview and sometimes also of an educational test.
However, individual hospitals are free to set qualifications for entry to
training as SRN or SEN which are higher than these minima and in some cases
a qualification in mathemat ics is specified. The fact that there can be a two·
year gap between \ea ving school and starting to train as a nurse can mean that,
in some instances, computational skills have deteriorated through lack ofuse .

146 Almost aU the mathematics which is required in nursing is concerned

with measurement and recording, often in graphical form, This can include
[he measurement and recording of temperature , pu lse rate, respiration, fluid
input and o utput, gain or loss of weight. Measurement s which have been
recorded need to be interpreted. Measurement is now almost entirely in metric
(51) units and nurses need to be familiar with prefixes such as mega- , kilo·,
milli- and micro- and to understand that in the SI system gradation of uni ts is
in multiples of a thousand . An understanding of ratio, proportion and per-
centage is essential .

J 47 Various formulae exist which have to be used and manipulated with ease
and accuracy . These include, for example, the formula which a nurse uses to
work out the amount of food to be given to a baby and the formula which is
used to work Out the dos e to be given if a drug which has been prescribed is not
avai lable in the specified Strength . Because nurses frequenLl y work under
3 The malhemaltcai needs of employ men l 41

pressure, an ability to carry out calcu lations of this kind with speed, accuracy
and confidence is essential.

148 However, although accuracy is important. so too is theabiLity to es timate

and approximate which helps to ensure accuracy, especially if a calculator has
been used . Errors of the order of a muhiple of 10 can occur easily when
working constantly with metric units and it is vi tal to detect them before harm
res ulls . SkiJls of visual eSl imation are also required of the kind which will lead
to a realisation t.hat a drip-feed bOll Ie is emptying 100 quickly Or lhat a syr inge
of unusual size appears to be required .
42

4 The mathematical needs of further and

higher education

Further education 149 A v.'ide range of both full -time and part-[ime courses is available wirhin
fur ther edu cation establishmen ts for th ose who leave school at ages from 16
to J8. Many o f the vocational courses which have a mathematical component
operate under the regulations of the Bu si ness Educa tion Council (BEC), the
Technicia n Educat ion Council (T EC), the Cit y and Guilds of London Insti-
tute (CGLI) and the Ro yal Society of Arts (RSA). CGLI and RSA have been
in existence for many yea rs; BEC was set up in 1974 and TEC in 1973. The role
of BEC and TEC is to plan. administer and keep under review the estab-
li shme nt of a national system o f non-degree courses. BEC is concern ed with
those whose occupations fall, or will fall , within the broad areas of business
and public administration . TEe caters for those in . or about (Q enl er, all
levels of technician occupation in indus try and elsewhere . BEC and TEC
COurses have been designed to subsume the Na tional Certificate and Diploma
Courses (ONC , OND, HNC, H ND).

T ypes of course TECcourses

150 Courses for technicians at all levels in industr y and elsewhere are pro-
vided by means o f the TEe progra mmes. These are arranged within three
secwTs-engineering, construction and science-based occnpat io ns. The 16
yea r old school leaver will follo w the course for the TEe Certificate or Dip-
lom a. The Diploma is an extension of the Certificate; in general il provides
broader coverage at the same le vel and not study in greater depth . Bot h pro·
grammes may be tak e n by either full-time or part-time study . The cenificaie
and di ploma cou rses are made up of units o f study offered at different levels.
The Level I mathematics unit is common lO programmes in all three sectors
and is designed to be appropriate for those who have a min imum of CSE
grade 3 or O- Ievel grade E in relevan t subjects. Level II units follow on from
Level I but in some cases, including mathematics, may be entered directly by
those who have CSE grade I or O·level grade C or above.

151 The mathematical content of the TEe Level I unit and the associated
technological units usually extends beyond the mathematics which techni cian
apprentices wiJI require during their first year at work . Some companies in sist
that technician apprentices who are qualified 10 eruer the Level If course in
mathematics must nevertheless take the Le vel r unit in order to co nsolidat e
their understanding of topics which are specificall y relevant to their work . In
some cases this insistence stem s from complaints by company training offi-
cers about lack of competence amon g some O-Jevel ent rants in certain areas
of mathematics which are conside red to be of partic ular importance . As we
" The ma l hema l ica! needs o f fllrlher and hi gher education 43

explained in paragraph 127. some firm s ma ke no distinction between craft

and tech nician apprentices in the fi rst year o f tra ining and CSE or O-level
qualifications will usually determine whe the r an apprentice follows a TEe or
CG LI course. However , it does not follow that all who start a TEC pro-
gramme will eventually be classified as techn icia ns; similarly, some of th ose
''''ho stan a CGLl co urse may advance to becom e rechn icians.

152 TEC has publi shed a mathematical 'Bank of Objectives' as a resource to

be used in the preparation o f mathematics units; it has also issued a set of
';randard unilS' based on the materia ls in the Bank . Colleges can make use o f
tbese standard un irs if they wish to do so, but are at liberty, subject to vali-
dation, to modify tbese uni ts or to dev ise the ir own units to meet local needs.
In the lau e r case they are able, in cons ultation wjth local firm s, to make use of
the Bank of Objectives. How ever, in practice man y co ll eges in clude th e
standa rd un its within the certificate and dip lo ma courses which they offer.

153 The TEC units and Ba.nk of Obj ectives are kept under review in order to
atte mpt to march school syllabuses and to meet indu strial requirements, Both
units and Bank were re vised in 1980 after extensive discussio n with co lle ges
a nd indust ry and in the light of comments from mathematics panels of GCE
and CSE boa rds and fro m the mathematics comm it tee of Schools Council.
Recent changes in the standard units for Level I and Level II indude the
remova l of slide rule and logarit hm tab les for purposes of calculation and
grea ter emphasis on th e co rrect use of calculators .

BEe CQur.5es
154 BEe courses are designed to p rovide a foundation of vocational educa-
tion for a range of re lated careers and to meet the needs of one o r more of four
Boards- Business Studies, Fjnancial SeClo r Studies, Di stribu tio n Studies ,
Public Admini stration and Public Sector Studies.

155 In wrirt en evidenc,e to us, BEe slated:

Th e Co uncil has been saddened and concerned [0 receive consistent reports o f the
inability of seco ndary schoolleave rs to cope with basic arithme tical tasks requiring
manipulative ~ kilt s or to show that they have a 'feel for the order of magnitude of a
quan tity '. o r to ap ply ba.,i c quantitati ve concepts and techniques to business pro-
blems. Acco rdingl y th e Council has inclu ded compliiso ry quanlilat ive srudies in
all o f Ihe cou rses lead ing to its award s.

All BEC courses incorporate fo ur 'central themes' of which one is ' a logical
and numerate approac h to busin ess problems'. T he courses are designed on a
mo dular basis and 'cross-modular as signments' form parr of each co urse.

J 56 BEC General Level a nd National Level cou rses are open to 16 year aids.
The lower of these is the Ge neral Level co urse which is designed on a 'fresh
start' policy and req uires no form al examination qual ifica don on entry.
Howeve r, many ent raOls to this course possess examination qualifications at
a level which is below the minimum of fou r a-level grade C or equivalent
required for entry (0 the National Level co urse.
44 4 Tbe mathenultical needs of runner and higher educalion

157 The General Level course contains a compulsory module entit led Busi-
ness calculations which is e,~amined separately. The emphasis in this module
is on accurale and efficien't performance of routine business calculations,
ability to interpret numerical data and information, and ability to make use of
numerical skills in the solution of business problems. The syllabus attempts to
reflect the requirements of junior employees in clerical-type jobs and includes
the operations of addition, subtraction, multipli cation and division applied
to whole numbers. decimals and fractions; metric and imperial units used in
bu siness; the purpose and use of app roximations; the nature and [unction of
percentages; the use of the average in business; the use of appropriate visual
presentation of data. Th e learning objectives include 'appropriate and effec-
tive use of calculators' .

158 The entry requiremelll of four O-levels or equivalent for the BEC
National level course is :not subject specific and so the mathematical
attainment of those who enter this course from school varies widely . Those
who proceed to the course as a result of having achieved credit standard at
General level will already have taken the Businesscalcu/ariorls module. The
Narional le vel course includes a compulsory module entitled Numeracy arid
accounting. The 'numeracy' pan of this module includes some, but not all , of
the Business calculations module at General level; notable omissions are
metric and imperial units an.d the purpose and usc of approximation . It also
includes simple algebraic operations; construction and interpretation of
graphs. rep resentation of da t.a in tabular and d.iagrammatic form; calculation
and interpretation of averages; calculation of weighted averages; method
used to construct selected in.dex numbers, for example retail price index.

CGL f and RSA COJ/rses

159 Cou rses at craft level for those employed in technical jobs are offered by
CGll. The mathematics wit.hin these courses is not usually treated as a sepa-
rate topic, nor is it usually examined separately. Instead . it is regarded
essentially as a tool for vocational studies and is commonly taught as pan of
these studies as and when necessary .

1.60 In order to provide for the needs of less-academic students, CGU has
recently introduced a number of Foundation Courses. each focussed in a
broad vocational area. The main aims of these courses are "to improve basic
educational skills such as literacy and numeracy; to ease the transition from
full -time education into the world of work; and to provide students with the
basis on which they can make a more informed choice of career" . These
courses are full-time and may be taken at school, at FE college or as 'link-
courses ' , in which the course is partly at school and partly at college. Each
course comains a numeracy component which is developed in a context rel-
evant to the vocational focus of the course. During the lime we have been
working, CGU has introduced a course entitled Numeracy, which may be
taken at school o r at college.

161 In 1980 RSA introduced a Vocational Preparation (Clerical) course

which is aimed at those initially seeking employment at operative or
 4 Th~ ma(h emalical needs of ru rther and higher educa tion 45

equiyalent levels. Successful completion of the course secures a profile-certi-

ficate which 3UCStS. as part of Communication, competence in vario us areas
of arithmetic. Among the single-subject examinations offered by RSA are
arithmetic. mathematics and machine calculating. These latter examinations
may be tak en from school or college .

The match between school, 162 Ideally a schoolleaver should experience continuity of learning in math-
employment and further ematics after moving from school to further educat ion and employment.
education However, this is by no means a simple process. Further education courses are
designed for broad categories of employees and entI)' requirements are
framed in such a way as to allow admission to young people of as wide a range
of educational attainment as possible . Furthermore, the variety which exists
in the content of O-Ievel and CSE syllabuses and the fact that attainment of a
given grade does not indicate competence in any specific parl of the syllabus
make it difficult to identify with any degree of certainty topi cs with which
most of the entrants to a particular course will be familiar. It is probably for
this reason that we have been told that many courses, especially those w.hich
do not ftquire an O-Ievel or equivalent qualification in mathematics) often
start at a very elementary level but then move so quickly that weaker students
find great difficulty in keeping up .

163 We have already drawn attention in parag raph 130 to the fact that th e
mathematical demands of FE courses are likely to be considerably more than
the demands of the job itself. One reason can be that in some cases it is
necessary to go beyond immediate requirements in order to develop co n-
fiden ce and familiarity with essential topics. It is also th e case that many
courses are intended to provide not only the specific skills which are needed in
the early years of employment but also a base for forty or more years of
working life. Nevertheless. mathematical skills which are not used regularly
ca n very easily atrophy, especially if they have proved difficult to
comprehend, and so may not prove to be available when they are needed.lt
seems also to be the case that promotion can often lead to the use of less
mathematics rather than more, because time is spent on supervisory and other
duties.

164 We noted in paragraph 130 that cra ft and technician apprentices are
sometimes required to follow the same initial training course. In some cases,
apprentices who will eventually be designated as craftsmen are required in FE
colleges to undertake the technician COllrses which are academically more
demanding and for which they may not be adequately prepared. We believe
that it is witb this type of eotrant that the mismatch between the mathematics
content of FE courses and the future demands of the job gives most cause for
concern. A comparable problem can arise in the case of enuants to BEC
National Level courses whose four or more O-Ievels do not include math-
ematics; however. we have no evidence to indi cate that thi s is so great a prob-
lem. The diversity of schoo l syLlabuses can also lead to problems of misma tch
between college courses and courses which have been followed at school.
46 4 The rnalhemaljcat needs of furth er and hlgher educa li on

165 Although the range of mathematical ability ca n be pa rt icularly wide

among tho se o n c raft co urses, the fa ct th at mathemat ics is no t us ually exam·
ined separately on CGLI co urses makes it possible for studems to avoid the
more mathema tical question s in examination s and still obtain good grades.
This would seem to underline the fact that ma ny craftsmen need to use only a
very limit ed range of mathematical skills.

166 The Bath a nd Nottingha m studies found th at at titudes IOwards math-

ematics among students at FE co lleges were ver y often more favourable than
had been the case when they \,,'ere at school . In some in stances this seemed to
arise from th e fact that the applications of mathematics were more
immediately apparent. Even when chis was nOllhe case there were some who
persevered because they felt that the mathematics they were having to learn
was certain to be needed at some stage o r it would not have been includ ed in
Ihe co llege cou rse .

The mathematical 167 W ithin the non-university sector of higher education in England and
requirement s of higher Wales th ere are thirty Polytech nics and more than sixt y Colleges of H igher
education Education , which offer a v..-ide range of courses at degree le ve l. Many of th ese
Non-uni versit y secto r co urses are va li dated by t he Cou ncil for Nat io nal Academic Awards but so me
uni versities validate Bac helo r of Education and other degrees offered at
colleges within their locality. Pol ylec hnics an d coll eges also offer a consider-
able range o f full -time and sandwich co urses a l sub-d egree leve!. The majority
of these have a specific voca tiona l slant, which is further reinforced by work
experience when th e course includes 'sandwich' placem ent in an appropriate
firm . Some cou rses are aimed directl y at the membership g rades of var io us
professional bodies (see also paragraphs 184 to 187).

168 Entry requirements fo r both degr ee and sub-degree cou rses a re usually
stared in terms of success at 0 - and A-level in appropriate subjects, which may
include mathematics, or the successful completion of other relevant courses
such as the BEC Nalional Certificate or Diploma or an app ropriate TEC
Certifica te or Diplom a.

169 There.is at present no single bod y whic h is concerned wi th the admjn-

istrati on of. o r entry to, th e complete range of courses in the non-uni versity
sector of hig her education, We have sought information about st udents in
this sector but the info rmation which we have been able to ob tain is not
classified and analysed in a way whi c h makes it possible to iden tify the mat h-
ematical qual i fication s of slu denLs on either degree or sub-degree co urses.

University sector 170 However, within the unive rsity sector of higher education, detailed
inform arion about the A-leve l qualifications of underg raduates entering
degree courses at uni versities in th e United Kingdom is collec(ed by the Uni-
ve rsities Stalistical Record (USR) . It has ther efo re been possible to establish
th e number of undergraduates wit.h an A-level qua lification in mathematics
who haye entered universities in England and Wal es in recen t years and also
the degree cou rses which they ha ve chosen. In th e foll ow ing paragrap hs we
4 Th e mathem atical needs or fUriher and higher edu ealion 47

di scuss th e general information which th ese figures provide before consider·

in g cert ain degree courses fo r which a specific mathematical enlf Y qua li fi-
cation is normall y required . The figures which we qu ote refer to undergra·
duares at uni versities in England and Wales with home fee -paying status;
studenls fr o m overseas are not in cluded . 'Ve estimate [hat th e statistics we
give for 1979 refer to about three-quarters of all those with home fee-paying
statu s who staned degree courses at institution s in England and 'Vales.

17 1 In 1979 almost 92 per cem o f all new entrants with home fee-paying
SlalU Sto first degree or first degree and diploma courses at unh·ersities in
En gland and Wales had entry qualifications based on A-levels. About 2t per
cent. of who m just over half were entrants to courses in engineering and
technology, had qualification s based on National Certi fi cates or Diplomas;
th e remainder had a variety of other qual ification s, including qualifications
gained at other universities or in other countries. For mathematical studies
and most science subjects some 95 per cent of enttants had an A-level qualifi-
cation; for engineering and technology the figure was about 85 per cent,
renecring the greater numbers who emer these co urses on the basis of
National Certificates or Diplomas .

172 These proportions have remained substantially the same since 1973, th e
first year for which we quote figures. Between 1973 and 1979 the total number
of undergraduates increased by JU St over 28 per cent , th ough there were con-
siderable variations from subject to subject. The number reading mathema-
tical studies increased by about 19 per cent, physical sciences by about 17 per
cent (but physics itself by about 28 per cent) and engineering and technology
by about 34 per cent.

Undergraduates with A -level mathernalics

173 Mathematics is the o nly subject other than music which it is possible 10
offer as e ither one or two subjec ts at A-level. This is commonly referred 10 as
taking 'singJe-subjec t' o r 'double-subjec t' mathematics and we shall use these
terms. For the present it is sufficient to be aware that both single·subject and
double-subject mathematics are available at A-level; we disc uss the differen-
ces which ex ist in th e struer ure of th e double-subjec t examinations and in th e
syUabuses for both singJe- and double-subject examinations in Chapter 11.
Those who take the double subject cover a more extended syllabus than those
who take th e single subject. It does not follo w that th ey are necessaril y more
able mathematically than those who take the single subject ; howeve r, th e fact
thai they witl almost cenainly spend more time on math ematics during the
A-level years enab les them not only to cover more ground but also to develop
increased confidence and competence in the conten! or the single-subject
syllabus. For many years almost all o f those who took double-subject math-
ematics combined it with A-level physics; some also too k A-levelchemistry to
give a total of four subj ects in all. Man y still tak e these traditional combi-
nations but in recen! years it has become increasingly common to combine
both single- and double-subject math ematics with a wide variety of other sub-
jects.
48 4 T he mathematica l needs o f further and higher ed ucation

174 The numbers of men and women entering unive rsities in England and
"'A -level Stalistics and A·1cvel Wales from 1973 to 1979 who had an A-level qualification in mathematics·
Com puter Science are nOl are shown approximately in Figure 2 (see also Appendix I, Table 27). We may
included as mat hematical qualifi-
note that throughout these years the percentage of men with an A-level qua-
cations for the purposes oj' the
figu res and tables in [his chapt er . Ufication in mathematics has been about twice tha t of women.
175 We now examine the degree subjects studied by entrants to degree
courses who had one or more A -leve ls in mathematics. The information for
1973 and 1979 is given in Table A (see also Appendix I , Tables 28 and 29) .
Table A Distribution between subject groups oj entrants to degree courses at
universities in England and Wales who had one or more A-levels in
mathematics

No of entrants \\lith A-level 1)/0 or aJl entrants with

mathemar ies A·level mathematics

1973 1979 1973 1979

SubjeCt g roup : '

Engineering and
rechno logy 5 t22 7045 27. t 28.0
Phys ica l sciences 3717 4) 85 19.6 16.6
Mathematical studies 2643 )107 14.0 12.4
Medi cal aod denial t285 2095 6.8 8.3
Biological sdenees 1097 1656 5.8 6.6
Other scie nces 1506 1646 8.0 6.5
Business sludies 863 1621 4.6 6.5
Geography 372 454 2.0 1.8
Olher subjects 23 15 3338 12.2 IJ.J

All subjeel groups 18920 2514 7 100 I(){)

Souree : Universities Statistieal Record

. Degree cou rses .included in each subject group are given in Appendix I, paragraph A2l.

176 We present this information in a different way in Figure 3 on page 50

which draws attention to the proportion of entrants to each group o f courses
who had an A·level qualification in mathemalics. The most significant
changes between 1973 and 1979 have been in respect of those starting medical
and dental studies, in which the pro portion has increased from 33 per cent in
1973 to 44 per cent in 1979, and those starting courses in business and manage-
ment studies, economics and accountancy, in which there has been an increase
fro m 42 per cent to 54 per cent.

Undergraduates with double-subject mathematics

177 There has been a marked change in the proportion of entrants to uni-
versities in England and Wales with a double-subject qualification in math-
·This category is res trkted to ematics·. In 1973 almost 32. per cent of those entering with a n A-level qualifi-
lhose whose A-le-vels include cation in mathematics had a double-subject qualification; in 1979 the pro-
Applied Mathematic s or F urther port io n had fallen to little more than 21 per cent. In absolute ter ms, although
Malhem3tic!> .
there were over 6000 more entrants with A-level mathematics in 1979 than in
1973, the number of entrants wit h a double- subject qualification had drop-
ped by about 650. The number a nd percentage change over this period is
shown in Table B on page 51 (see also Appendix I, Table 28).
 4 Till! mathemalical needs of further and higher educalion 49

Figure 2 Numbers 0/ men and women entering universities in England and Wales/rom 1973 to 1979 who had
an A-level qualification in mathematics '

~
Numbers with no A-Ievel in Mathematics
40,000 Numbers with one or more A· levels in Mathematics

100% t(){)%
100%
100%
100%

100%
30000 100%

100%
100%
100% 54%
20000 IQQ%
100%
100% 48% 48%

10 000

M W M W M w M w M w M W M w
73 74 75 76 77 78 79

Source: Universities SlIItislical Record

50 4 The mathematical n~ds or fUrlher and hightr educalion

Figure 3 Proportion of entrants to each group of cOurses who had one or more A-levels in mathematics:
Universities in England and Wales 1973 and 1979

,,..
24 000
Q
' 9000

8000
D
Num wi with '10 A-Iewl
11'1 M'l hemalk~

'''''' Numb,f\ ..... 111'1 on. ()I mon

A -lIv,l' In MI1MI'nIltc;1

6000

4000
,3<

"''''' ,:..:""'
=, ''''''

2000

73 79 73 19 73 7' 73 7' 73 7. 73 73 7. 73 79

..' .. ..1'
..,jl cI'"'~
~"I ,#' # -tit>"
O~ ,#' 4"<
; ~..~~'"
",v>'

",II <f"~
~
.if
/ . ;:.Q'
.,
8-<'+
.I
",#
<{'..
0"' .' .. ,j.'~ .'" <1""
;,' Sov,e-. U,.I"" ..IIIH S"lIU'~\ fI.aQ'"
 4 The malhematical need~ of further and higher education 51

Table B Levels oj mathematical qualification oj en traniS to degree courses at

universities in England and Wales

No of en trants with No of entrants with No with doubJe·subject

one or more A· levels double-subjecl A· levei as 0;6 of all with any
in mathematics in mathematics A-levels in mathematics

1973 18920 6()[)6 31,7

1974 18783 5263 28,0
1975 20089 5446 27,1
19i6 20920 5501 26. 3
1977 2206() 4892 22.2
1978 23222 5056 2/.S
1979 25147 5341 2/.2

Source: Uni",ersilies Statistical Record

178 There have also been changes in the way in which those with double-sub-
ject mathematics have been distributed among the various degree courses.
This is shown in Table C (also Appendix I, Tables 28 and 29).

Table C Distribution between subject groups oj entrants to degree courses at

universities in Engl{Jnd and Wales who had double-subject A-levels in
mathematics_

No of entrants with 070 of all entrants wilh

doublc-subject double·subject
A-Ie",el mathematics A-levcl malhematics

1973 1979 197) 1979

Subjc\:1 group : I
Engineering and
technology 1617 1714 16.9 32. /
Physi cal .\ciences 1048 968 /7,5 /8./
Mathematical sludic:!> 2103 1728 35.0 32.4
Medical and denlaJ 139 161 2.3 3 .0
Biological sciences 61 47 /.0 0.9
Other sciences 422 281 7.0 5.3
Business stUdies Ia5 177 3./ 3.3
Geography 34 19 0.6 0.4
Othcr subjects 397 246 6.6 4,6

All subject groups 6006 5341 100 /00

Source: Univer~ties Statistical Record

! Degr~e courses included in each subject group are given in Appendix I. paragraph A21 .
52 4 Tbe mathema!ical needs of rurther and higher education

179 About 80 per cent of entrants wi !.h a double-subject qualification in

mathemat ics at A-level read engineering and technology, physical sciences or
mathematical studies. Figure 4 illustrates the way jn which entrants with a
double-subject qualificalion were distributed between these three areas of
study in 1973 and 1979. (See also Appendix I, Table 30).

Figure 4 Numbers oj university entrants in England and Wales admitted 011

the basis oj A-levels. Subject choices and numbers with double-
subject A-level qualijicatio1ls in mathematics: 1973 and 1979

8000

Numbers taking subject

Numbers with dOUble mathematics

6,000

4000

2.000

73 79 73 79 73 79

Source: Universit ies Statistical Record

 4 Th e mathematical needs of funher and higher education 53

Degree courses in mathematical studies

180 We wish to draw attention to the drop in the proportion of those reading
"Mathematical studies includ es mathematical studies' at universities in England and Wales who have a dou-
degree courses in mathematics, ble-subject qualification and to its implications. In 1973 the proportion was
statistics. comp ut er science, almost 80 per Cent ; in 1979 this had dropped to 55 per cent. Although there are
combinations of t hese and also a
variety of cOurses which co mbin e
some universities at which it is still the case that a very high proportion of
mSlhcmati cs with su bjects other those reading degrees in mathematics have taken the double subject at
than these . Analysis of A-level, our own enquiries have established that there are others at which
informati on provided by USR substantially less than half of those reading mathematics have a double-
a bout fir st degrees. awarded in
subject qualification. We believe that this information may come as a surprise
1979 wilhin the field of mathema-
tical studies shows that about 65
to many people in both universities and schools. It is not within our terms of
peT cent were in mathem atics only, reference to comment on its implications for those who teach mathematical
about 25 per cent in computer studies in universities; the implications for those who teach in schools are very
science, either wholl y or in pari, great.
a nd about 8 per eent in s talisric s.

181 It is very commonly supposed that it is almost essenlial to have taken

double-subject mathematics at A-level in order to read mathematics success-
fully at university. However, it is very i.mportantthat those wbo teach math-
ematics in sixth forms and those who advise pupils about tbeir choice of
degree course should realise that there are now universities in which more
than half of those reading malhematics are doing so from a basis of single-
subject A-level. It follows that they sbould not dissuade pupils who bave
taken only Ibe single subjectal A-level from applying to read degree courses in
mathematics. We see no likelihood Ihat the demand for mathematics gradu-
ales will decrease-indeed, we believe thaI the demand will continue to
grow-and those whose interesls and abilities lie in this field need every
encouragement 10 study mathematics at degree level. As we pointed out in
paragraph 173, it does not follow that those who have taken only the single
subject are necessarily less able at malhematics than those who have taken the
double subject and so less fitted 10 embark on a mathematics degree course .
There seems no doubt that at most universities they will be increasingly likely
to find themselves in the company of others who are similarly qualified .

Degree COurses in engineering and technology

182 A knowledge of mathematics is essential for the study of engineering and
of most other technological subjects. We drew attention in paragraph 172 to
Ihe fact that the number of entrants to courses in engineering and technology
increased by 34 per cent between 1973 and 1979 whereas the overall university
entry increased by 28 per cent. This increase has been much greater than the
increase in total entry to all other mathematics and science courses, which has
risen by only 20 per cent. Furthermore, despite an overall drop during this
period in the total number of entrants to universities in England and Wales
with a double-subject qualification in mathematics, there has been an
increase in the proportion of these entrants who have chosen to read engi-
neering and technology , and also a smal l absolute increase in their numbers.
Tables A and C show (hat degree courses in engineering and technology are
attracting an increasing proportion of university entrants with an A-level
54 4 The mal hematical needs of further and higher education

qualification in mathematics and, in particular, of those with double-subject

mathematics . The proportion of entrants with double-subject mathematics
is, however. decreasing both within engineering and tech nology courses and
overall.

The mathematical J 83 Although not directly within our terms of reference, we have given SOme
requirements of attention to the mathematical requirements of professional bodies . Many of
professional bodies those engaged in professional activities seek membership of the appropriate
professional institution or association . In some cases membership of such a
body is a necessary Qualification for professional advancement ; in other cases
membership, although not essential fOT career purposes. provides oppor-
tu nity to keep abreast of current developments by reading publications,
attending meetings and ta.king part in the work of committees. Most insti-
tutions conduct their own examinations, commonly in two or th ree parts, for
ad mission 10 membership., which is usually offered at more than one grade.
The possession of an appropriate academ ic qualification often secure s
exemption from some o r all of these exami nat ions bUl admi ssion to higher
grades of membership norm ally requires evidence of relevant professional
experience.

184 A number of the professional bodies who have written to us have stated
the mathematical requirements for direct entry to their various grades and
have also supplied details of their own examinations. When entry is at gradu-
ate level ~ it is u sually assumed th at any necessary mathematics will have been
covered either at scho ol or during the degree course and no further mathema-
tical requirement is stipulated. However, one exception to this is the Institute
of Actu aries whose final -examinations require a considerable extension of
mathematical and statistical knowledge and its application. When entry to a
professional body is at lower levels. any mathematical requi rem ent is nor-
mally stated in terms of success at A- or O-level; any further mathematics
which is required is then included within subsequent professional study.

185 Almost all the professio nal bodjes who submitted evidence st ressed the
importance of being a ble to apply computational skills conFidently in a var-
iety of ways . These include acc uracy a nd speed in mental calculation and
ability to check the reasonableness of answers; in some cases extended a nd
complex calculations are necessary. Specific calculations identified by bodies
whose members are co ncelrned with commerce include interest. discount and
value-added tax , cash flow, costing and pricing, and budgetary control ; it is
frequently necessa ry to be· able to deal with both metric and imperial units .
There were also many references to the need to be able to interpret data with
understanding.

186 Most institutions take for granted the mathematical foundation pro-
vided by an entrant's pr'evious study . Any mathematics included within
professional examinations is usually limited either to topics of a speciaJist
nature which are unlikely to have been studied before entry to the professio n
or to applications of mathematics in unfamiliar contexts. This is especially
4 The mathematical needs of funher and higher educatio n 55

true of professional bodies whose members are concerned with business and
commerce. The examinations of these bodies frequently include applications
of statistics , and to a lesser extent techniques of operational research, which
are used within the particular profession. The collection , classification,
presentation and analysis of data, use of probability distributions, hypothesis
testing, correlation and regression analysis, survey methods and sampling
techniques all occur frequently within the syllabuses of professional exami-
nations . This emphasis on statistics no doubt reflects the fact that at the pre-
sent time few schoolleavers will have studied the subject to any depth.
56

Part 2 5 Mathematics in schools

187 In the second part of our report we discuss the teaching and learning of
mathematics in schools as well as methods which are used to assess
attainment. Before turning to particular aspects such as mathematics in the
primary and secondary years we consider some matlers which are fundamen-
tal to the teaching of mathematics to pupils of all ages, and also certain mat-
ters which arise as a consequence of the discussion in earlier chapters, of the
submissions which we have received and of our own experience. In order to
provide a background we start by drawing attention to the levels of
• attainment in mathematics which are to be expected of school leavers, so that
readers may bear in mind the proportions of the school population to which
the different parts of our discussion relate; we also consider the attitudes
towards mathematics which pupils develop during their schooldays and the
mathematical attainment of girls.

188 In this part of our report we draw on A review o/research in mathema-

"'A brief summary of the Review tical education which summarises the results of the study carried out for our
may be purchased from (he Shell
Committee under the direction of Dr A Bell of the University of Nottingham
C ~ ntre for Mathematical Educa -
[jon, University of Nottingham;
and Dr A Bishop of the University of Cambridge. For the sake of brevity, we
see also paragraph 756. shall henceforward refer to it as the Review 0/ research . >I<

Attainment jn 189 We believe tbat tbere is widespread misunderstanding among the public
mathematics at large as to tbe levels of attainment in matbematics which are to be expected
among schoolleavers, At the present time about a quarter of the pupilsin each
year group achieve O-Ievel grade A, B or C or CSE grade 1; about a further
two-fifths achieve CSE grade 2,3,4 or 5: the remainder, amounting to almost
one-third of the year group, leave school without any mathematical qualifi-
cation in O-Ievel or CSE. These figures are not surprising; they reflect the
proportions of the school population for whom O-Ievel and CSE exami-
nations are intended and have been designed. At a higher level, between 5 and
6 per cent of the pupils in each year group achieve an A-level qualification in
mathematics; about I pupil in 200 reads a degree course in mathematkal stu-
dies .

190 Figure 5 illustrates in approximate diagrammatic fonn the ' mathema-

tical attainment profile' of those in England and Wales who left school in
1979, and of those of school age who completed A-level courses in FE or
tertiary colleges in that year. It is based on figures collected in the annual 10
per cent survey of school leavers (see Appendix I, paragraph A3) and on an
 5 Mathematics in schooh 57

Figure S 'Mathematical attainment profile' f or Jeavers in 1979

Started degree CO l.l,.u in

mathematical S\udi,,~

A-level
lany grade )

O· leve l grade A.
8. C or CSE 1 26%

O-Ievel or CSE
(allY grade) 68%

100%

estimate o f the num bers' com pleting A-level cou rses in mathematics in FE and
tertiar y colleges, since information available about the examination per-
formance of students in these colleges does not identify separately those who
are of school age.

191 The number of pupils who have been studying mathematics at A-level in
schools and sixth form colleges in England has increased steadily in recent
years both in absolute terms, as a pe.rce ntage of all pupils, ~nd as a percentage
of a ll pupils taking A-level courses. In the school year 1973 -74, some 43 per
cent of boys and 17 pe r cent of girls taking A- level courses in the first year of
the sixth form were stud yinS A-level mat hematics. In th e sc hool year
1979-80, these figures had rise n to almost 51 per cent of boys (approximately
41 ()()() and to 23 per cen t of girls (approximately 17 (00) .

192 It is not possible to o btain comparable statistics fo r those of sixth-form

age who are taking A-level courses in FE and tertiary colleges, but we have no
reaso n to believe thai the picture would be significantly different.

Co mparison of exami- 193 In order to provide more detailed information about mathematical per-
nation resulls in English formance in e SE, O-level and A-level, th e DES has at our request analysed in
and malhemalics a variety o f way s the information about resul ts obtained in these exami-
na tions which was supplied in 1977 . 1978 and 1979 by schools in England and
Wales as part of th e annual to per cent survey of schoolleavers in both main-
tained and independ ent sectors. Th is has provided more detailed information
abo ut exam ina tion performa nce in mathematics tban has hitherto been
a .... ailable. Because the survey relates to school leavers in a given year who may
be aged 16, 17, 18 or, very occasionall y, 19, tbe information does not relate to
a complete yea r grou p. Nevertheless , beca use the patterns for 1977, 1978 and
1979 are very similar, we believe that the picture th ey provide is unlikely to
dif fer signifi ca ntl y from that which would emerge if it were possib le to obtain
information relating to a complete year group .
58 .5 Mathematics in schools

194 Some of those who have written to us have drawn attention to figures
published eac h year in DES Slatisticsojeducation Vol2 which show that the
proportion of pupils who achieve 0-level grade A, B or C or CSE grade 1 in
English at some stage during th eir school ca reer is much higber than that of
those who achieve these grades in mathematics. In SOme submissions it has
been suggested that the standard req uired in mathematics examinations is
therefore too high. In consequence we have also obta ined information
relating to CSE and O-level results in English for these three yea rs.

195 Figure 6 illustrates approximately the O-level and CSE performances in

English and mathematics or arithmetic of those leaving school in these three
years. The figures on which it is based are set out in detail in Appendix 1,
Tables 11 and 12; paragraphs A 7 and A9 of this Appendix describe the
procedu re which has been used to ensure that those who have taken both
O-level and CSE in the same subject or, for insta nce, both mathematics and
arithmetic are only included once. The letters in the columns of Figure 6 refer
to 0-level grades A to E, the numbers to CSE grades I to 5. It is reasonable to

Figure 6 Proportions oj pupils awarded O-Level grades A to E and CSE

grades Ito 5 in English and Mathematics/Arithmetic

English Mathematics/A rithmetic

%
%

ABC AB C ABC 10
TO orl or t or t
BC ABC ABC
or 1 or I 20
20 orl

30

1978 1979 1977 1978 1979

1977

Entered examination Did not ent er

but was ungraded. examination .
 5 Mathematic~ in schools 59

assume that these figures provide a va lid comparison between English and
Mathematics for the school population as a whole because, as the report of
.. Aspe,'ls of !Jr!('ondary educl.1i1011 the National Secondary Survey" shows in resp ect of the maintained sector,
11/ £flKland. A !>ur\'e y by HM virtually all pupils study English and mathematics up to the age of ,16 and
In ' rH·t lor ~ of Sc hool~ . H:VlS0 enter for O-Ievel or CSE in these subjects if they have the ability to do so.
19--:9.
Among those who leave school at Easter in any year there will presumably bea
small number who could have acbieved a graded result at O-Ievel o r CSE if
they had made the attempt. but we believe this number to be so small that it
does not affect the overall picture significa ntly.

196 These figures show that from 1977 to 1979 there was a small increase in
the proportion of schoolleavers obtaining a graded result in mathematics of
some kind . CSE regulations state that in any subject "a 16 year old pupil of
average ability who has applied himself to a course of study regarded by
teachers of the subject as appropriate to his age, ability and aptitude may rea-
sonably expect to secure grade 4". II is clear that the position of grade 4 in
mathematics is as nearly in accordance with this definition as could rea-
sonably be expected. The proportion of O-Ievel and CSE grade I passes has
remained co nstant at about a Quarter. and also reflects the proportion of the
sc hool population which is expected to obtain these grades. In this sense it
cannOl be maintained that the standard required in mathematics exami·
nations at this level is too high .

197 It is, however, the case that the positions of the grade boundaries in Eng-
lish are very different from those in mathematics and it is therefore to be
expected that there will be many pupils who will achieve significantly belter
grades in E nglish than they will ocbieve in mathematics.

Altitudes towards 198 As westated in Chapter 2, the research study into the mathematical needs
nlalhemalics of adult life revealed the extent to which the need to make use of mathematics
could induce feeli ngs of anxiety and helpless ness in some people. It also
revealed that many people had far from happy recollections of their study of
mathematics at school.

199 In the course of their work, those involved in th e Bath and Nottingham
· See paragraph 59 studies· gathered reactions from a large number of young employees, and
from some who were older, to the mathematics teaching which th ey had
received at school. The views exp ressed are, of cou rse, likely to have been
influenced by subsequent experience in employment , particularly in respect
of what was seen as the usefuln ess or otherwise of pa rti cular topics. Nev·
ertheless, the remarks do record the attitudes towards mathematics of these
young people and their expe ri ence at school as it has been remembered at a
later date.

200 The report of the Bath study states that "we met many young people who
had liked mathematics at school. Most of these, but not all. seemed to be
among th e mathematically more able as measured by school results . We did
come across some who got low grades, or were ungraded or not entered at
CSE level, who said they enjoyed mathematics; and one or two of these who
60 5 M3th~matics in schools

thought they were quite good at it, which we found encouraging. There were
many who were non-committal . "Okay" was a frequent response. Math-
ematics was there, you had to do it and thaI was that". However I the studies
found that there were also many, mainly but not exclusively among the less
able, who had disliked mathematics and who had seen no point in it. Their
criticism was mainly of two kinds, one concerning the content of the math-
ematics course and the other the way in which mathematics had been taught.

201 Formal algebra seems to have been the topic within mathematics which
attracted most comment. Those engaged in the Bath study were "left with a
very strong impression that algebra is a source of considerable confusion and
negative attitudes among pupils" , In some cases thi s was because the work
had been found difficult to understand; in other cases it was felt that exercises
in algebraic manipulation and topics such as sets and matrices had had little
point. It is, however, of interest to note that Some of those who found algebra
difficult at school were finding it easier at college; "formulae make sense
now". Many other topics including fractions, percentages, graphs.
trigonometry, Pythagoras' theorem (Hthe name being remembered but not
much else aoout it' ') were referred to un favourably by some, but comments of
this kind seemed often to be related to the usefulness or otherwise of these
topics in the job with which the employee was concerned. _For example, SOme
clerical workers who had not understood trigonometry, and did not make use
of it in their work, felt in retrospect that they should have done more about
percentages.

202 Adverse comments on the teaching of mathematics often concentrated

on an alleged inability on the part of some teachers to explain clearly, on a
tendency to ignore some of those in the class, on an unwillingness to answer
questions and on moving through the course too quickly. There was criticism
also of teachers who had not required their pupils to do sufficient work and of
teachers who bad been unable to state the purpose of the work which was
being done-"do it to pass your exams". Many of those interviewed said that
they had been given little or no practice in mental calculation at secondary
school, especially after t.he second year. The report of the Bath study
comments that j'on a number of occasions the feeling carne through to us very
strongly that the sort of teacher appreciated by many pupils is one who can
control the class, expects pupils to work hard, explains things briefly and
clearly, gives plenty of practice and is prepared to help pupils individually".
Although this description does not, as we explain in paragraph 243 of this
chapter, include all the elements which should be present in good mathema·
tics teaching, we nevertheless believe that the- qualities to which it draws
attention are essential in chose who leach mathematics. if pupils are to
develop good attitudes. We believe that a somewhat different criterion, stated
by one young employee-"any teacher who can make maths interesting must
be good"-also provides food for thought.

203 The comments of young employees showed that very often, but not
always, inability to do mathematics and not liking it seemed to go toge ther.
Equally, success more often than not. seemed to lead to a favourable attitude;
5 Malhematics in schools 61

"you enjoy it when you can do it" . Nevertheless, the belief that mathematics
was useful was shared by many of those who disliked mathematics as well as
by those who liked it. Most of those interviewed, whether young or old, saw
mathematics in. vocational utilitarian terms. Very few saw it as serving any
wider purpose, especially of what might be termed a cultural or general educa-
tional kind .

204 Very few who had taken mathematics to A-level or beyond were included
among those who were interviewed, nor were there very many who had taken
any subjects at A-level. The attitudes of such people might well be very dif-
ferent, but those who take A-level form only a small minority of the school
population.

205 It is to be expected that most teachers will attach considerable

importance to the development of good attitudes among the pupils whom
they teach and so it is interesting to compare the comments made by young
employees with the findings of research studies. The Review oj research
djscusses the considerable amount of research on pupils' attitudes which has
been carried out in recent years, including that whi ch is being undertaken in
England and Wales as part of the work of the Assessment of Performance
Unlt. It states that "it is not easy to pick out points which summarise all th e
research on attitudes to mathematics. Strongly polarised attitudes can be
established, even amongst primary school children, and about II seems to be
a critical age for this establishment. Attitudes are derived from teachers' atti-
tudes (though this affects more intelligent pupils rather than the less able) and
to an extent from parents' at titudes (though the correlation is fairly low).
Attitude to mathematks is correlated with attitude to school as a whole
(which is fairly consistent across subjects) and with the peer-group's attitude
(a group-attitude tends to become established). These things do not seem to
be related to type or size of school OrlO subject content. Throughoutschool, a
decline in attitudes to mathematics appears to go on, but this is part of a
decline in attitudes to all school subjects and may be U1erely part of an
increasingly critical approach to many aspects of life".

206 The Review oj research points out that research studies a lso show that
there is a strong tendency among pupils of all ages to believe mathematics to
be useful but not necessarily in teresting or enjoyable. llThere appears to be an
identifiable (although small) correlation between attitude and achievement: it
is not clear. however, in what way ani tude and achjevement affect one
another. This does not necessarily comradict the teacher' s perception that
more interesting and enjoyable work will lead to greater attainment. For one
thing, the research does nOl deal with changes in achievement which might
result within particular individuaJs or classes from improvements directed
towards attitude; it ralher shows that, broadly speaking, the set of people who
like mathematics has only a relatively small overlap with the sel of those who
are good at it. However, research certain ly suggests caution against over-
optimism in assuming a very direct relation berween attitude and achieve-
ment." We ha.... e already noted the interest displayed by the Assessment of
Performance Unit in respect of attitudes toward mathematics. It is clear that
(bere is need for continuing iuYes'tigatioD in this field.
62 5 Mathematics in schools

Parents and schools 207 Parents can exercise, even if unknowingly, a considerable influence On
(heir children's alliludes lowards mathematics. Encouragement to make use
of mathematics during normal fami ly activities, for example to weigh an d
measure, to use money for shopping and to play games which involve the use
of dice or the keeping of scores, can assist children to develop familiarity with
numbers and confidence in making use of them. However, in some cases
parents can expect too little; <Idon ' t worry. dear, I could never understand
mathematics at school either". In other cases parents can expeclloo much of
their children and so, as we have noted in paragraph 24. exert pressure which
can lead to failure and consequeot dislike of mathematics. It can happen , 100,
that parems fail 10 understand the purpose of the mathematics which their
children arc doing and so make criti cal remarks whjch can also encourage the
development of poor attitudes towards mathematics in their children. We
believe that il is Iherefore imporlant Ihat schools should make aclive efforts
to eniisl Ihe help of parenls by explaining Ihe approaches 10 mathemalics
which they are using and Ihe purposes of mathematical activities wl\ich
parents themselves may not have underlaken while al school. Schools should
also encourage parents to di sc uss with teachers their children's progress in
mathematics, so that both parents and schools ma y work together to assist the
mathematical development of pupils.

The mathemalical 208 In recent years increasing attention has been paid 10 the fact that, as
performance of girls measured by the resuils of public examioations, the overall level of perfor-
mance of girls in mathematics is significantl y lower than that of boys. In this
section we discuss this matter in general terms; a more detailed discussion is
contained in Appendix 2, which includes relevant statistics and also reference
to some of the research studies into the mathematical performance of girls
which have been carried out in recent years bot h in this cou nt.ry and in other
pans of the world .

209 Concern about differences in the performance of boys and girls is nol
confined to the United Kingdom. This was demonstrated clearly at the Fourth
Imeroational Congress On Mathematical Education, held at the University of
California at Berkeley in August 1980, at which papers about the mathema-
lieal performance of girls were prese nted by participants from many
countries. We include in this section some of the ideas which were put forward
in th ese papers and in the discussions which followed them .

210. It is not easy to establish why girls should perform less well than boys at
math ematics and many possible reasons have been suggested. Some of these
relate to biological facto rs, some to child-rearing and social factors, some to
factors within schools and some to career ex pectation. ir has been suggested
that among the child-rearing practices which may influence mathematical
allainment is the fact that, whereas girls are usuall y given dolls and 'domestic'
toys. boys are given significantly more scienti fie and constructional toys,
which encou rage the development of spatial concepts and problem solving
activities. It has also been suggested thaf boys are encouraged to be more
independent than girls , which may again encourage experiment and problem
solving; and that adults respond to boys as if they find them more interest in g
5 Mathem!1!ics in schools 63

and mOre attention-provoking than girls. Among the social faClors are the
perception of mathematics as a 'male' activity (though more recent st udies
suggest that the sex-typing of mathematics is decreasing), and peer-group
pressures which cause girls to fear that high attainment in mathematics will
inhibit the development of their relationships with boys . The Committee for
Girl s and Mathematics has told us that "schools, the careers service and
industry appear to have shown little initiative in encouraging or attracting
girls with ability in mathematics into some of the fields where there are
shortfalls of good applicants; .. ... whereas a boy is usually counselled to
work towards a qualification in mathematics as a career essential, this is not
always the case with girls".

21 I Factors related to school may also help to reinforce the impression that
mathematics is a male domain. Men teachers in primary schools often take the
older classes; at seco ndary level more men than women teach mathematics .
The applications of mathematics which are found in many textbooks and
examination questions reflect activities associated with men more often than
they reOeet activities associated with women. In primary schools it can be the
case that bOys engage in craft activities of a three-dimensional kind whilegirls
do needlework, though we believe that differences of this kind exist in fewer
schools now than was the case a few years ago. [t also seems likely that there is,
even if unconsciously, an expectation among teachers that girls will perform
less well at mathematics than boys . Research studies, to which we refer in
Appendix 2, suggest that during mathematics lessons teachers in secondary
schools interact more with boys than they do with girls, give more serious
consideration to boys' ideas than to those of girls and give boys more oppor-
tunity than girls to respond to higher cognitive level questions. It has also been
found that high achieving girls may receive considerably less attention in
mathematics lessons than do high achieving boys. [n such circumstances , girls
are likely to receive the message that they are not expected to perform as well
as boys and to react accordingly.

212 We believe that the question of classroom interaction and expectation is

of considerable importance. It was suggested at the Fourth International
Congress that girls may ha ve a greater need than boys to develop understand-
ing through discussion and tha t many girls consider that mathematics
teachers do not listen sufficiently to what girls say in response to questions.
We shall argue later in this chapter that discussion should be an essential part
of all mathematics leaching; it seems likely that in classrooms where it is not
practised sufficiently girls are liable to be especially disadvantaged. Even in
classrooms in which there is plenty of discussion teachers may need to take
steps to ensure that boys do not dominate the discussion and that girls are
given opportunity to play their full parI. We may note at this point that,
whereas girls perform less well than boys at mathematics, they perform belter
overall than boys at English. We believe that this gives further support to the
suggestion that girls need to undertake extended discu ssio n in order to clarify
their ideas and understanding and that plenty of verbal interaction is essential
if they are to learn mathematics satisfactorily.
64 5 Mathematics in schools

213 Research studies suggest that, whereas boys more often attribute their
successes in mathematics to ability and their failures to iack of effort or bad
luck, girls more often attribute their success to hard work or good luck and
their fail ures to lack of ability. If [his is the case, it underlines the need to do all
that is possible to encourage girls to develop confidenee in their mathematical
powers. It is sometimes suggested that girls succeed better at mathematics
when they are taught in single-sex groups but we are not aware of any studies
which establish this fact. Although it is possible to identify some girls' schools
in which levels of mathematical attainment are high, it is often the case that
the"e are other factors, such as the fact that the school is selective, which may
provide the explanation. We are aware of a small number of instances in
which a secondary school has arranged to teach mathematics to girls and boys
in separate classes but the scale on which grouping of this kind has been
carried out is as yet too small for it to be possible to draw conclusions.

'l< HMI Series: MalleTS for discuss- 214 The HMT booklet Girls and science' discusses the attitudes of girls to
ion 13. Girls and science . H/'I.1SO science and various matters relating to the approaches to t~aching which are
1980.
helpful in encouraging more girls to take an interest in science. We believe that
much of this discussion is also relevant to the teaching of mathematics to girls
and we commend the hooklet, which also contains an appendix on 'girls and
engineering', for study by those who teach mathematics.

215 In Appendix 2 we suggest a number of strategies which we believe may

contribute to improvement in the mathematical performance of girls . We
wish here to draw attention to two of these. The first is the need for appro-
priate careers guidance to be available to girls at an early stage so that their
attention can be drawn to the fact that lack of an appropriate mathematical
qualification can exclude entry to many fields of employment. The second is
the need for teachers to be aware of the differences in mathematical per-
formance which at present exist between boys and girls. If teachers hold this
fact in mind and make a conscious effort to ensure that they do not make use
of teaching methods which are liable to put girls at a disadvantage, we believe
that an improvement in the overall performance of girls could be achieved.

216 Some programmes have recently been set up in the United States of
America which are designed to improve the motivation and attitudes of girls
towards mathematics . One of these, the Math/Science Network, operates
mainly in California and works to encourage greater participation by girls in
"math-based fields of work and sc.udy" by holding conferences for teachers,
providing careers information and developing appropriate activities in
schools. A second, Women and Mathematics, is sponsored by the Mathema-
tical Association of America and operates more widely. It attempts to change
attitudes by arranging for women who are using mathematks in interesting
careers to speak at high-school conferences. The group also organises con-
ferences for careers advisers. We have been told that these initiatives are
meeting with some success. It may be that a similar initiative would be helpful
in the United Kingdom .
 5 Mal.hema[ics in schools 65

The teaching of 217 The number of children who are taught mathematics through the
mathematics Ihrough medium of Welsh has increased considerably in recent years. Some of these
the medium of Welsh children come from homes in which Welsh is the family language but increas·
ing numbers are entering \Vel sh-med.iurn primary schools from homes in
which the family language is Englis h. In our meetings with teachers in Welsh-
medium sc hools it has been made clear to us that the problems of teaching
mathematics through the medium of Welsh to children who are Welsh speak-
ing are fundamentally no different from the problems of teaching mathema-
tics in English to children who are English speaking.

218 There is, howeve r, one major difficulty which exists for those who teach
mathematics through the medium of Welsh. This is the great shonage of
mathematics textbooks which are written in Welsh. There is at present no
complete primary mathematics scheme in Welsh. Such materials as are
available are confined mainly to infant level; other materials are fragmentary
and deal only with parts of the mathematics curriculum. This means that
teachers have to prepare most of their own classroom materials. This not only
takes a great deal of time but also results in a standard of presentation which is
less good than tha t of a published text. For this reason there a re SOme
classrooms in which. although the teaching and discussion are in Welsh.
children work from books which are writien in English .

219 Work is in progress on the production of a secondary mathematics

course written in Welsh . Books covering the first three yea rs of the cou rse
have no w been published and material fo r th e fourth year is to appear shortl y.
However. even when th e whole course has been published, it will be the only
one which is available and will have to serve the needs of all pupils, whatever
their level of attainment. This cannot be considered to be a sati,factory
sit uation .

220 If it is government policy to support the provision of Welsh·medium

schools, it is essential that a suitable supply of teaching materials is made
.'ailable. It has been suggested to us that. because these ma terials are needed
urgently . a first step should be to commission the translat ion into Welsh of at
least two mat hematics courses which have already been published in English.
This is a proposal which we support. We helieve that it will be necessary for
special funding oJ some kind io be made available for this purpose because of
the inevita bly small market for teaching materials written in Welsh and tbe
need for some kind of subsidy if they are to be produced for sale at a price
which is not unreasonably high.

The leaching of 221 In recent years there has been a considerable increase in the number of
mathematics to those children in schools for whom English is not the first language. E ven when. as
for whom English is is increasingly th e case, these children. who are mainly from European, Afri-
not the first language. can and Asian family backgrounds, have been born in Britain, they very often
start their schooling as only partial English speakers; so metimes they are not
able to spea k English at all. In the early stages. therefore. it is necessary to
ensure that the language demands of di scussio n and of written materials sllch
66 5 Mathematics in schoo l,S

as worl ca rds take acco unt of (he vocabulary and language stru ct ures
available to these children . fl is, however , imporlant that they should lake
pan in oral work both to assist lhe development of their general language
sk ills and also to enable them 10 become familiar with the language which is
used in mathematics .

222 Especial care is likely to be needed with young ch ildren in the early stages
of naming numbers and counting. Almost all European languages show
irregularities in the naming of some or all of the numbers between 10 and 20.
In English, for example, num bers from 13 to 19 are spoken 'back to front '
compared with numbers from 20 onwards, so that we say 'twent y-Jour' but
'fourteen'; the words 'eleven' and 'twelve' are even more irregular. 1n the
major Asian languages, each number up to 40 has its own name. Those who
teach children whose fi rst language is not English therefore need to take steps
to find out about the number system which is used in the countries from which
lhe children 's families originate so th ey can be aware of the kind of di fficulties
which may arise .

223 With older pupils it is necessary to ensure that diffic ulty in speaking and
understand ing E nglish does not lead to placement in a mathematics teaching
group whose level is too low . The notation which is used in math ematics, and
also the way in which numerals and other mathematical symbols are printed,
is the sarnein very many cou ntr ies, jncluding some in which not only the lan-
guage but also the written scri pt is diffe rent. For this reason these pupils may
well be able to work at a higher level in mathematics than is, for t he time
being, possible for them in some other subjects in which lack of fluen cy in
English leads to greater difficulties.

224 [( is possible to make positive use of mathematical ideas drawn from

other cultures, es peciall y when disc ussi ng shape and space . For example,
man y of the Rangoli palleens which are used by Hindu and Sikh fami lies to
decorate their homes on importanl occasions have a geometrical basis in
which symmetry plays a major part. Practice in drawing patterns of this kind
can help to develop geometrical concepts. Again, the intricate patterns which
decorate many Islamic buildings are formed by fi tting together various geo-
metrical shapes. Patterns of this kind can be examined and discu ssed and
children can then create patterns of their own. A s children grow older, jt is
possible to discuss the way s in whi ch the numerals which we now use have
developed from those which were originally used in eastern countries, and th e
contrib utions to the development of mathematics which have come from dif-
ferent countries and different cu ltures .

The teaching and 225 In the preceding chapters we have shown that. in broad terms . it is poss-
learning of mathema- ible to sum up much of the mathematical requireme nt fo r adult life as 'a feel-
tics ing fo r number' a nd much of the mathematical need for employment as ' a
feeling fo r measurement '. Underl ying both of these, and essential to their
5 Mathematics io schools 67

development, is the need to establish confidence in the use of mathematics

while at school.

226 However, we do not believe that mathematical activity in schools is to be

judged worthwhile only in so far as it has clear practical usefulness. The
widespread appeal of mathematical puzzles and problems to which we have
already referred shows that the capacity for appreciating mathematics for its
own sake is present in many people. It follows that mathematics should be
presented as a subject both to use and to enjoy.

227 The study of shape and space, of graphical methods of presenting

informatiun and of the properties of number such as those of even, odd,
prime and square numbers, provides opportunity to develop the powers of
'abstraction' and 'generalisation' and their expression in algebraic form on
which higher level mathematics depends. Although many pupils will not
attain to work at this level, nevertheless we believe that all should have
opportunity [0 gain some insight, however slight, into the generalised nature
of mathematics and the logical processes on which it depends. At all ages,
pupils <hould be encouraged to look for 'pattern' in the results t~ey obtain
and to explain this in words even though they may no t be able to express in
algebraic terms what they bave observed. Whatever the level of attainment of
pupils, carefully planned use of mathematical puzzles and 'games' can clarify
the ideas in a syllabus and assist the development of logical thinking; "if I
move this piece to that position, then I shaU be able . .. ". "because those two
numbers are even, this one cannol be odd". The determination to command a
computer to do one's bidding can be a further potent force in encouraging
pupils to think logically and mathematically. Activities of all these kinds
require pupils to think about numbers and the processes of mathematics in
ways which are diffe rent from those encountered within the more usual
applications of mathematics and so enable confidence and understanding to
increase.

228 Mathematics is a diffic ul t subject both to teac h and to learn. One of the
reasons why this is so is that mathematics is a hierarchical subject. This does
not mean that there is an absolute order in which it is necessary to study the
subject but that ability to proceed to new work is very often dependent on a
sufficient understanding of one or more pieces of work which have gone
before, Whether or not it is true, as is sometimes 5uggested~ that each person
has a 'mathematical ceiling' (and 50 far as we are aware no research has been
undertaken to establish whether or 110t this is the case), it is certainly true that
children, and adulls, learn mathematics at greatly differing speeds . A concept
which some may comprehend in a single lesson may require days or even
weeks of work by others, and be inaccessible, at least for the time being, to
those who lack understanding of the concepts on which it depends. This
means that there are very great differences in attainment between children of
the same age. A small number reach a standard which enables them to study
mathematics at degree level but many others have time to advance only a very
short distance along the mathematical road during their years at school.
Because of the hierarchical nature of mathematics these pupils do not reach a
68 5 Mathematics ill sc hoo ls

position from which Ihey are able to lackle the more abslract branches of Ihe
subject with understanding or hope of success, tbough some can and do con-
tinue their advance after they have left school.

229 Mathematics is also a subject which requires hard work and much prac-
tice. whatever one's level of attainment may be. It can be straightforward to
understand {he solution of a problem which someone else has worked out; it is
usually very much more difficult to discover asolUlion by oneself. Indeed , it is
'getting started' which is often the most difficult part of solving a mathema-
tical prohlem and it is easy to underestimate the qualities both of determi-
nation and of imagination which can be required.

230 One of the reasons why it is difficult to teach mathematics is the fact that
attainment and rate of learning vary so greatly from pupil to pupil. lIthe pace
of the teaching is too fast, understanding is not able to develop ; on the other
hand, if the pace is too slow pupils can become bored and disenchanted. The
amount of ground which it is appropriate to cover in anyone period of work
on th e same topic also varies with the attainment of the pupils . Those whose
attainment is high are often able to advance a considerable distance at one
tilDe but those whose auainment is low need to advance by smaller stages and
to return to the topic more frequently. The achievement of a correct balance
in these matters requires skilled professional judgement and presents prob-
lemS to the teacher which should not be underestimated. Whatever their level
of attainment, pupils sbould nol be allowed to elpericDce repealed failure . If
this shows signs of occurring, it is an indication that the advance has con-
tinued too far and that a change of topic is needed.

Understanding 23 1 In recent years there has been considerable discussion of the nature of
mathematical understanding. There is general agreement that understanding
in mathematics implies an ability to recognise and to make use of a mathema-
tical concept in a variety of settings, including some which are not
4'cf R R Skemp . Th e psychology immediately familiar. A distinction'" is sometimes made between 'relational
oj leurn ing marhematics. Penguin understanding' (in brief, both knowing what to do in particu la r cases and the
1971. relating of these procedures to more gene ral mathematical kn owledge) and
'instrumental understanding' (the rote memorising of rules for particular
classes of examples wit hout knowing why they work). However, mathema-
tical understanding is not 'all or nothing' . I( develops as knowledge of math-
ematics develops and needs to exist at a level which is sufficient for the work
which is being done at the time . Thus, the level of understanding which is
required for the study of mathematics in higher education is very different
from that required by pupils at school. Indeed it is a common, and sometimes
somewhat disconcerting, experience to those embarking on degree COurses in
mathematics to find that their underslanding of topics which they have tack-
led with apparent success at school is questioned and shown to be insufficient.
For this reason the distinction between relational and instrumental
understanding can never be clear cut, and in this sense it over-simplifies a
 5 Malhematics in schools 69

complex situation, but the distinction can be a helpful starting point for
discussion of the nature of understanding.

232 Beca use understanding is an internal state of mind which has to be

achieved individually by each pupil, it cannot be observed directly by the
teacher. The fact that a pupil is able to solve a particular problem correctly
does not necessarily indicate that understanding of the relevant concepts is
present. A much better indication of the depth of understanding which exists
can be obtained in the course of discussioo 1 by means of appropriate pract icaJ
work or through more general problem·solving acti vities . As understanding
develops the teacher may need from time to time to challenge more deeply the
understanding which already exists so as to make a pupil aware of a need to
think more deeply and more critically .

233 Because, too, understanding develops gradually over a period of time as

a result of success ful experience, especially of a problem-solving kind, it is
important that teach ers should be aware of the fact that it can be counte r-
productive to continue work on the same mathematical topic for too long a
period. Very often work on some other topic can provide insight from a dif-
ferent dircction which will assist in the process of consolidating understand-
ing and enabling ideas to mature.

Memory 234 The Review ofResearch discusses at length the question of memory and
distinguishes between 'short term' or 'workjng' memory and 'long lerm '
memory . Material held in short term memory fades in a matter of seconds
unless it is deliberately held in consciousness; the amount of material which
can be retained in this way is also limited . Once an item has been stored in
long term memory it tends to be forgotten very slowly Or not at all, though it
may not necessarily be easy to retrie ve.

235 Short term memory plays an important role in all tasks in which several
attributes or items of information have to be considered simultaneously. for
example in mental calculations, problem solving, the understanding of
complex concepts and the construction or following of an explanation or
argument; in other words. in most learning tasks . In order to carry out these
tasks it is necessary to draw on information stored in long term memory .
Research evidence makes it clear that information is stored better in long term
memory if it is assimilated in such a way that it becomes part of a network of
associated and related items which support one another. An everyday exam-
ple of this is provided by the fact that some children whose ability to remem-
ber number facts appears to be weak are often able, because of their interest in
and knowledge of sport, to remember without difficulty the scores in football
Or cricket matches which have been played weeks or even months earlier.

236 It follows that a child's long term memory tends to improve as he grows
older and develops a network of items which contains more inter-connections
into which new information can be fitted. Information which has been
remembered in this way is also easier to retrieve because association between
the purpose for which it is required and the information which is stored in the
70 5 Malhematics in schools

memory provides a cue which triggers recall. Although it is possible to store in

long term memory material which has not been in tegrated in this way. it is
likely to be less well retained a nd, perhaps more importantly, to be more dif-
ficult to retriev e because fewe r associations have been formed to act as
retrie val c ues . Fu rth ermore, if relationship with other material has not been
establis hed, it is more d ifficult to use powers of reaso ning to ma ke complete
material whi ch has been remem bered only in part.

237 For long term memory to be effective, ' rehearsal' is necessa ry; that is ,
recall of the material and the strengthening of its relationship with o ther facts
whi ch a re a lready known . The mo re that such rehearsal can inc rease links
with the ex isting netwo rk , the more effective it is likely to be. Thus ret ention
of nu mbe r facts is likely to be improved if practice in recall is associa ted with
some kind of explanation or c hecking p rocedure; for example, that the sum of
two odd num bers must be e"en or that any number in the '5 times tab le' ends
in either 0 or 5.

Rote lea rni ng 238 W e have received several submissions which have ur ged that more
emphasis should be placed on 'rate learning ' . The Oxford English Dictiona ry
defines Iby rOle ' as Hin a mec han ical manner, by routine; especiaJl y by the
mere exercise of memory without proper understandin g of, or reflection
upon , the matter in q uestion; aJso, with precision, or by heartH. There are
certainly some things in mathematics which need to be learned by heart but we
do not believe that it should eve r be necessary in th e leaching of mathematics
to commit .hings to memory without at the same time seeking to develop a
proper understanding of the math e matics to which they relate . As OUr
discussio n of memory shows, such a n ap proac h is unlikely to meet with lo ng
term success.

239 H owever, the need to teach in a way which will help to develop long term
memory and unde rstanding need in no way be in opposition to, or at the
expe nse of, the development of skill s in computat ion and algebraic manipu-
latio n . It is importa nt that c hildren should practise routine manipulations
until they ca n be done with an appro priate degree of fl uency; thi s applies a ll
the way from routines such as addition and subtraction to those required for
A-l evel mathematics and beyond. Well-mastered routi nes are necessary in
order 10 free conscious aUenlion a s much as possi ble so that it ca n focu s on
aspects of a tas k which are novel or problematic. Here again, we need to
di sti nguish between 'flue nt ' performance and ' mechanical' performa nce.
F luent performance is based on unders tand ing of th e routine w hi ch is being
carried o ut ; mecha nical performance is performance by rote in whic h the
necessary und erstanding is not presen t. A1though mec ha nical perfo rmance
may be successful in the ShO ft term , any ro utine which is carried out jn this
way is much less likely either to be capable o f use in other situatio ns or to be
retained jn long term me mory.

Teaching methods 240 The Review of research points out that in the teaching of mathema tics it
is possi ble to d isti nguis h between t hree elemen ts- facts and skills, conceptual
st ruclU res, and general strategies and appreciation .
 j Malhematics in schoo ls 71

Focts are items of information which are esse ntially unconnected or arbitrary.
They include notational conventions-for example that 34 means three tens
plus fou r and not four ten s plu s three-conversion factors such as that '2.54
centimetres equals I inch' and the names allotted to particular concepts, for
example trigonom etrica l ratios. The so-called 'number facts' . fo r example
4 + 6 = to, do not fit into this category si nce they are not uncon nected Or
arbitra ry but follow logically from an unders tanding of the nu mber system .
Skills include no t only the use of the number facts and the standard co mpu-
tational procedu res of arithmeti c and algebra, but also of any well established
procedures which it is possible to carry out by th e use of a routine. They need
not only to be understood and embedded in the conce ptual Structure but also
to be brought up to th e level of immediate recall Or fluency of performance by
regular practice.
Concept ual structures are ri chl y inter -connected bodies of knowledge.
including the routines required for the exercise of skills. It is these wbich make
up the substance of mathemat ical knowledge stored in the long term memory .
They und erpin t he performance of skills and their presence is shown by th e
abil ity to rem edy a memo ry failure or to adapt a proced ure to a new situation .
General srrategies are procedures which guide the choice of which skills to use
or what knowledge to draw upon at eacb stage in the course of solving a prob-
lem or carrying out an investigation. The y enable a problem to be approached
with confidenceand with th e expectation tbat a solu tion will be possible . With
them is associated appreciation whic h invol ves awareness of the nature of
mathematics and attitudes towards it.
241 Research shows that these three elements-facts and skills, conceptu al
structures , generaJ strategies and apprec iation-invol ve djstinct aspects of
teac hing and require separate attention. It follows that effective mathematics
teach ing must pay attention to all three.
Classroom practice 242 We wish now to discuss the implications of the previo us sections for work
in the classroom. We are aware Chat there are some teach ers who would wish
us to indicate a definitive style for the teaching of mathematics, but we do not
believe lhallhis is eilherdesirable or possible. Approaches to the teaching ofa
particular piece of mathematics need to be related to the topi c itself and to the
abilities and experience of both teachers and pupils. Because of differences of
personality and circumstance, meth ods which may be extremely successful
with one teacher and one group of pupils will not necessarily be suitable for
use by another teacher or with a different group of pupils . Nevertheless, we
believe that there are certajn elements whi ch need to be present in successful
mathematics teaching to p up ils of all ages.
243 Mathemalics leaching al all levels should include opportunities for
• ex posi tion by the teacher;
• discussion between teacher and pupils and between pupils th emselves;
• appropriate practical work;
• consolidation an d practice of fundamental ski lls and routines;
• problem sol ving, including the application of mathematics to everyday
situations;
• invcstigationaJ work.
 //
72 .) / A.b7hematics in sc hools
-'
In setting out this list we are aware that we are not saying anything which has
not already been said many times and over many years . The list which we have
given has appeared, by implication if not explicitly, in official reports, DES
publications, HMI discussion papers and the journals and publications of the
professional mathematical associations. Yet we are aware that although there
are some classrooms in which the leaching includes. as a matter of course , all
the elements which we have listed, there are stili many in which the mathema-
tics leaching does nOl include even a majority of these elements.

244 We believe that one of the reasons for this may be that a brief statement
such as "mathematics teaching should include opportunities for investi-
gational work" does not explain sufficiently what is intended. We wish ,
therefore, to consider more fully each of the elements which we have listed.

Exposition
245 Exposition by the teacher has always been a fundamental ingredient of
work in the classroom and we believe that this continues to be the case. \Ve
wish, though , to stress one aspect of it which seems often to be insufficently
app reciated. Quest.ions and answers should constitute a dialogue. There is a
need to take account oC and to respond to, the answers which pupils give to
questions asked by the teacher as the exposition develops. Even if an answer is
incorreet , or is not th e one which the teacher was expecting or hoping to
receive, it should not be ignored: exploration of a pupil's incorrect or
unexpected response can lead to worthwhile discussio n and increased
awareness for both teacher and pupil of specifie misunderstandings or
misi nterpretations.

Discussion
246 By the term 'discussion' we mean more than the short questions and
a nswers which arise during exposition by the teacher . In the National Primary
• Primary education in England. A Survey report'" we read "In some eases, particularly in the older classes, more
s urvey by HM fnspee(O(s or attention could usefully have been given to more precise and unambiguo us
Schools. HMSO 1978.
use of ordinary language to deseribe the properties of number, size, shape or
tA specls 0/ secondary education position" . The National Secondary Survey report t noted that "the potential
in England. A survey by HM of mathematics for deveLoping precision and sensitivity in the use o f language
in specrors of Sehools. HMSO was underused". The ability to 'say what you mean and mean what you say'
1979.
should be one of the outco mes o f good mathematics teaching. This ability
deyelops as a result of opportunities to talk about mathematics, to explain
a nd discuss results which have been obtained, and to test hypotheses.
Moreover , the many different topics which exist within mathematics at both
primary and seeondary level should be presented and developed in such a way
that they are seen to be inter-rela ted . Pupils need the explicit help, which can
only be given by extended discussion, to establish these relationships; even
pupils whose mathematical attainmenl is high do not easily do this for them-
selyes.

Practical work
247 Practical work is fundamental to the deyelopment of mathematics at the
primary stage; we discuss this in detai l in the following chapter. [t is tOO often
 5 Malhematic!: in schools 73

assumed that the need for practical activity ceases at the secondary stage but
this is not the case. Nor is it the case that practical activity is needed only by
pupils whose artainment is lo w; pupil s of alllevels of attainment can benefit
from the opportun ity for appropri ate practical experience. The type of acti-
vity , {he amOunr of time which is spent on it and the amount of repetition
which is req uired wm, of course, vary according to the needs and attainment
of pupils . The res ults o f th e practicaltesling carried oul by the Assessment of
Performance Unit and described in the reports of both primary and secOn-
"'Assessmenl or Performance da ry tests' illustrate clearl y the need to provide opportunities for practical
U ni t. :V alhemalicul deve{opmenf: experience an d experiment for pupils of all ages.
Primary survey report No . J and
No.2. HMSO J980and 1981 ;
and Set"olldolY SUTVC?)' repOrt No. I Praclice
HMSO 1980. 248 All pupils need opportun ities to practise skills and rou tines which have
been acquired rece ntl y, and to consoli date those which they already possess ,
so that these may be available for use in problem solvi ng and investigational
work . The amount of practice which is required varies from pupiJ to pupil, as
does the level of fluency which is appropriate at any give n stage. Howeve r. as
we have poi nted out already, pract ice of fundamenta l skills is not by itself
sufficient to develop the ability to solve problems or to investigate-these are
matters which need separate a ltention.

Problem solving
249 The abi lit y to solve problems is a t the heart o f mathematics . Mathema-
ti cs is o nly ' useful' to the extent to which it can be applied to a particular
situatio n and it is the ability to apply mathematics to a variety of situations to
which we give the name ' problem solvi ng'. However, the solution of a math-
ematical problem cannot begin until the problem has been translated into the
appropriate mathematical terms. This fi rst and essential step presents very
great difficulties to m any pu pils- a fact which is often too little appreciated.
At each stage o f the mathematics course the teacher needs to help pupils to
unders tand how to apply the co ncepts an d skills which are being learned and
how to make use of them to solve problems. These problems shou ld relate
both to the application of mathematics to everyday situations within the
pupils' experience, and also to situations wh ich are un fa miliar. For many
pupils this will require a great deal o f discussio n and o ral wor k before even
ve ry simple problems can be tack led in written fo rm .

Investigational work
250 The idea of investigation is fundamental both to the study of mathema-
tics itsel f and also to an understanding of the ways in which mat he matics can
be used to extend knowledge and to solve problems in ve ry many fields. We
suspect that there are many teachers who think of ' mathematical investi-
gations' as being in some way similar to th e 'projects' which in recent years
have become common as a way of worki ng in many a reas of the curriculum;
in other words, that a ma thematical investigation is an extensive piece of work
which will take q ui te a long time to complete and will probably be undertaken
individually or as a member of a smal l gro up. But a lthough this is o ne of the
forms which mathematical in vestigation can take, it is by no means the only
for m nor need it be the most common. Investigat io ns need be neither lengthy
74 5 Mathematics in .\chools

nor difficull. At the most fundamental level, and perhaps most frequently,
they should sta rt in response to pupils' questions, perhaps during exposition
by the teacher or as a result of a piece of work which is in progress or has just
been completed . The essential condition for work of this kind is that the
teacher must be willing to pursue the matter when a pupil asks "could we have
done the same thing with three other numbers?" or "what would happen if
... ?" Very often the question can be resolved by a few minutes of discussion
eilher wi'h the pupil or with a group of pupils; sometimes il may be appro-
priate to suggest that the pupil or a group of pupils, or even the whole class,
should try 10 find the answer for themselves; sometimes it will be necessary to
find time on another occasion to discuss the matt er . The essential requirement
is thaI pupils shouLd be encouraged to lhink in this way and thaI lhe teacher
takes the opportunities which are presenled by the members of the class.
There should be willingness on the part of the teacher to follow some false
trails and not to say at the outset thaI the trail leads nowhere. Nor should an
inte resting line of thought be curtailed because' 'there is no time" or because
II it is not in the syllabus".

251 Many investigations lead to a result which will be th e same for all pupils.
On lhe other hand, lhere are many investigations which will produce a variety
of resuLts and pupils need 10 appreciate this. For example, the answer to lhe
question Clln how many different ways can you ca rr y OUt Ihis calculation on
your calculator; which way requires the least number of steps? " depends on
the particular model of calculator which is used, and pupils who undertake an
investigation of this kind will produce a variety of answers, all of which may
be equally valid. Mathematical puzzles of various kinds also offer valuable
opportunities for investigational work. Even practice in routine skills can
sometimes, with benefit, be carried out in investigationa1 form; for example,
'make up three subtraction sums which have 473 as their answerJ . The
successful completion of a task of this kind may well assist understanding of
the fact that subtraction can be checked by means of addition.

252 It is necessary to realise that much o f lhe value of an investigation can be

lost unless the outcome of the investigation is discussed. Such discussion
should include consideration not only of the method which has been used and
the results which have been obtained but also 0\ false trails which have been
followed and mistakes which may have been made in the course of the inves-
tigation .

Some specific aspects 253 We lurn now to certain more detailed aspects of the leaching and learni ng
of mathematics which are relevant to work in both primary and secondary
schools and which we consider to be of sufficient importance to consider fm~
ther at this stage.

Mental calculation
254 We have already referred several times to the need to be able to carry out
straightforward calculations mentally. 'Mental arithmetic' was once a
regular part of the mathematics taughl in both primary and secondary
schools; very often it occurred as a separate heading in school reports . It is
5 M:llhem3ti ~s in s~hoo J s 75

clear that it now occupies a far less prominent position within most math ·
ematics teaching; reports which have come to us confirm the comments of
young employees, to which we referred in paragraph 202, that in some
classrooms it is no longer practised at all. We believe that one reason for this
change is the increasing use of individual learnjng programmes in which a
pupil works for much of (he time on his own using prepared materials, very
often in the form of work cards o r work sheets. This method of working
reduces opportunity for discussion and oral work generally. Again, most
primary classes and many secondary classes, especially in the earlier years,
contain pupils of a very wide range of ability. It is difficult to find mental
questions which are suilable for all the pupils in such classes and so, because
of an increasing awareness of the effects which a sense of fajIure can produce,
teachers have tended to avoid methods of working which are liable to draw
allention to a child's lack of success. Many of our readers will no doubl recall
Ihe 'len quick queSiions' at the beginning of a malhematics lesson . For the
mathemalically able Ihey could be a source of enjoyment and challenge bul
for Ihose whose mathemalical ability was limited they were much mOre likely
to lead to increasing loss of confidence, increasing antipathy to mathematics
and somelimes even to feelings of humiliation which would long be remem-
bered .

255 We believe thai the decline of mental and oral work within mathematics
classrooms represents a failure to recognise the central place which working
'done in the head ' occupies throughout mathematics. Even when using lradi·
tional methods of recording calculations on paper, the written record is usu·
ally based on steps which are done mentall y. For instance, the written calcu-
lation 27 + 65, carried out by the mel hod which is traditionally taught,
requi res the menial calculalions 7 + 5 ; 12 and I + 2 + 6 ; 9; a relatjvely
simple division sum can involve mental experiment with various mUltiples of
the div isor before the correct one is chosen.

256 However, a more important reason for including the practice of mental
calculation is the now well established fact thai those who are mathematically
effective in daily life seldom make use 'in their heads' of the standard written
methods which are taught in the classroom, but either adapt them in a per-
sonal way or make use of methods which are highly idiosyncratic. II is, for
example, common when carrying out calculations mentally to deal with the
hundreds or the tens first and then the units afterwards; for instance, in the
example we quoted in the previous paragraph, to use the sequence '20 + 60 ;
80,5 + 7 ; 12,80 + 12 ; 92'; we would stress however Ihat this is only one
of several possible methods which can be used to carry out this calculation
mentall y. Again, when adding sums of money mentally, il is common to add
the pounds first and then the pence, rather than deal with the pence first and
then the pounds as is usually done when working with pencil and paper.
Although many pupils come to real ise by themselves tha t methods which may
be convenient on paper are often not well su ited to use <jn their heads', we
believe that in the case of many other pupils it is necessary for the teacher to
point this Out explicitly and to discuss atlenglh the variety of methods which it
is possi ble to use_ However, nO allempt should be made to force a single
76 5 Malhematics in schools

'proper method' of performing memal calculations; pupils should be encou-

raged to make use of whatever method suits them best. Teachers should also
encourage pupils to reflect upon the methods which rhey develop for them-
selves so rhat facility in me mal computation can be consolidated and
extended .

Estimation
257 LEA guidelines and schemes of work in both primary and secondary
schools almost always include a reference to the need for pupils to be able to
estimate and sometimes state more specifically that pupils should be encou-
raged or required (0 write down an approximate answer before carrying Out a
calculation. The earlier chapters of this report make it clear that ability to
estimate is important not only in many kinds of employment but in tbe ord-
inary activilies of adult life.

258 However, from OUf own observations and from what we have been told
by others, we believe thar , even though it may be advoca ted in guidelines and
schemes of work, estimation js not practised in very many classrooms. In our
view this is not because of unWillingness on the part of teachers to encourage
and develop this skill in their pupils but because of a failure to rea use how
much is implied by the words 'ability to estimate' and how long it takes to
develop this ability.

259 There are several aspects of estimation . One is that of obtaining, before a
calculation is carried out, a 'rough answer'; in other words, an answer in
rounded terms which will enable a check to be made that the result of the
calculation is of the correct 'order of magnitude'. Estimation of this kind is
probably most commonl y applied to the operatio ns of multiplicarion and
division; it co ncentrates on ensuring that the result of the calcu lation is not,
for example, ten or a hundred times too large or too smaiL The method usu-
ally involves working 'to one significant figure', for example replacing 26 X
52 by 30 X 50 in order to obtain an approximate answer. However, for very
many children this replacement is conceptually far more difficult than might
be expected and rhe ability to work in this way takes a long time to develop. A
much more· elementary application is that the sum of two numbers, each less
than 50, must be less than 100 . We may. perhaps, describe thi s as 'awareness'
rather [han estimat.ion but it is awareness of this kind wroch is needed if a
'feel' for number and the ability to estimate are to develop . In our view they
are most likely todevelop as a result o f a great deal of discussion and 'thinking
aloud' by both teacher and pupils. coupled with appropriate practical work
on measurement.

260 A second aspect of estimation may be described as 'realising whether the

answer is reasonable' . Many pupils find it difficult to develop this ability. In
some instances it is concerned , as.is the previous aspect, merely with com pu-
tation but, as is frequently the case when usi ng a calculator. after the calcu-
lation rather than before . Again, most mathematics teachers will recall
instances in which. for example, a pupil has not only given as the area of a
table tapa measurement which more nearly corresponds t.o the area either of a
5 Ma,thematic5 in 6chools 77

postcard or of a football pitch, but has also failed to realise the incongruity.
This type of mistake shows a lack of appreciation of the size of unitS and of
their relation to everyday objects. There is need for pupils to establish
everyda y equivalences-for instance, to know [hat in most living rooms the
door is about 2 metres high-and for the teacher to discuss and ask questions;
"would it go through the doorway?", "could you lift it ?" . It is to be hoped
that, at a later stage, this kind of estimation will become part o f 'common
sense', but we believe that its development needs conscious 3ltention_

261 . A related aspect, that of estimating measu rements o f various kinds, is

most evidently the aspect in which success is achieved by continuing usage and
practical experience. Very specific skills of esti mation, such as those of the
decorator who is able to gauge by eye the quantity of paint or wallpaper he will
require for a given tas k, have in the end to develop on the job. Nevertheless,
throughout their time at school pupils should be encouraged to practise the
estimation of lengths, areas, ca pacities and weights.

262 As we pointed out at the beginning of this section, work of the kind we
have described in this section does not at present fi gure prominently in most
school mathematics courses . There is therefore little experience available on
which to draw or evidence of approaches which are known to have been
successful. We believe that tbis is an area in which further study is required.

Approaches 10 calculation
263 We ha ve already drawn attention to the fact that in adult life written
calculations are often carried OUt in ways which are different from those tra-
ditionall y taught in the classroom. Alt hough there are occasions on which it
can be both quick and convenient to carry out written calculation in the tradi-
tional way, ' back of an envelope' me thods are often not onl y quicker but also
more straightforward . This raises important questions concerning the
approach to computation which should be adopted in the classroom and the
way in which calculations should be recorded on paper.

264 At the primary stage, computation is commonly introduced through the

use of counting or structural materials and methods of recording develop in
the first instance from the use of such a pparatus; we discuss this further in the
follow ing chapter. By the age of II many children are able to carry out with
co nfidence the operations of addition , subtraction, multiplication and
division on whole numbers and to record thei r working in the traditional way.
However , many other children do not reach this stage by the age of II, espe-
cially in respect of multiplication and division .

265 It is common in secondary schools to insist that aUpupils make useofthe

traditional methods of recording; these are often taugh t as standard routines
to be followed. Nevertheless, even those pupils for whom this does not pres-
ent undue difficulty need to be encouraged to develop al ternative methods as
well . These will frequently be similar to methods which are used to carry out
mental calculations (see pa ragraph 256) o r will make use of 'short cuts' of
78 5 Mathemalks in school s

various kinds. Discussion of such alternative methods with a group or a class

provides valuable opportunity for developing confidence and 'feel' when
doing number work .

266 In the same way, pupils should be encouraged to approach other calcu-
lat io ns, such as those involving percentages, 'on their merits' and not be
expected always to use a single standard routine. For example, in order to
calculate value added tax (VAT) at 15 per cent on a given sum of money,
man y people are likely to find it easier to write down 10 per cent of the sum,
halveit and add the two results together than to multiply by M. This method
takes advantage of the particular relationship between 15 and 10 and also
demonstrates understanding of the operation which is being carried out; if the
rate of VA T were 8 per cent, most would probably find it easier to carry out
the calculation in a single step by mUltiplying by m.
267 Some low-attaining pupils have great difficulty in carrying out and
recording computation using standard rout ines. However , after djscllssion
and practical work with appropriate counting materials, they are often able to
carry out calculations successfully by making USe of methods of their own
devising. They should be encouraged to do this and should not be dissuaded
from using their own ' best method ' provided that they can do this reliabl y. It
can be counter-productive and inappropriate to drill these pupils in standard
routines from the time they enler secondary school.

268 The availability of the electronic calculator is another factor which needs
to be taken into accoum when considering approaches to calculation, espe-
cially in the case of those who have difficulty in using the standard routines .
We discuss this further in Chapter 7.

Measurement
269 Measurement is fundamental to the teaching and learning of math-
ematics because it provides a natural 'way in ' both to the development of
number concepts and also to the application of mathematics over a very wide
field. Practice in ordering lengths, capacities and weights enables a young
child to develop understanding of concepts such as 'more than' , 'less than',
'longer [han', 'shorter than'. Afterthis the child learns first of all to use non-
standard units such as hands pans and cupfuls and then standard units to
measure continuous quantities such as length and capacity .

270 All such forms of measurement are inexact and exist only within limits
which can be specified . These limits ma y be chosen in accordance with the use
which is to be made of [he measurement or may be imposed by the limitations
4HMJ Series: Maners fo r discuss- of the measuring instrument which is being used. Mathematics: 5-11'5[ate;:
ion 9. Matl/ emalics 5- 1/. A
handbook of suggestions . HMSO Children should be led to master lhe concept or 'betweenness'. if th e child's
1979 . answer 1.0 the question 'What is the time?' is 'Between five and (en past two'. then
the answer is absolutely (rue .

We wish to stress (hat in our view this concept is fundamenta l and children
should fro m the earliest stages be encouraged, where appropriate, to record
measurement in this wa y. "The jug holds more than 5 cupfuls but less than
 5 Malhema[ics in sc hoo ls 79

6"; " th is pencil is more than 12 cm long bul less than 13 em long" . This
approach to measuremem lead s to th e necessi ty fo r th e sub-di vision of units.
When this has been understood it is possible to go on to discuss degrees of
accuracy and the idea of measurement within a given to lerance.

27 1 Measurement of area, capacity and angle involve geometrical con cepts

of shape and space; the reco rding of measuremen t gi ves o pportunity for the
int roduction of a wide variely of graphical methods . At later stages study o f
measurement can be used to introduce concepts such as those of scrue, rate,
and ratio. and the use o f co mpound measures of the kind used for speed ,
densit y and pressure.

272 At all stages the teaching of measurement should be based o n extensive

practical work, including the use of a variety of measuring instrumen ts, the
use o f compasses and other drawing instruments. and the construct ion of
geometrical shapes and models . All children at all levels need experience of
this kind. Some children will acquire facility in measurement and in the use of
drawing instruments withom diffic ulty but o thers will require a long time and
much practice to achieve a reasonable competence. This time needs to be
provide d over a period of years .

M etn·cafion
273 The change from im p,erial to metr ic units of measure ment has no t
proceeded as quickly as had at one time been expected and, although con-
siderable progress has been made , it is clear that bolh metric and imperial
units will continue in use in England and Wales for some years to come. We
ha ve discussed some of the reasons fo r this in paragraph 82.

274 The continuing existence of the two systems of units has led to some
confusion in schools in recent years. The guidance iss ued in 1974 by the DES
"Department of Education and and Welsh Office" drew attention to the "growing familia rity with in th e
Seience Administralive Memo· schools, particu larly the primary schools, with the use of metric quantities".
randum 9174. Welsh Office
It acknowledged that "the greatest difficulty for schools is not metrication
Adminisfralive Memorandum
4174 .
itself, but the fact that , fo r some purposes, the im perial system appears likely
to remain in everyday use for some time to come" . It suggested that schools
should teach children to carry out calculations in metric units b ut should also
enable th em to maintain a general familiarity with imperial units. It ruso
encouraged a policy of "thi nking metric".

275 We believe that th is ad vice co nt inues to be sou nd and that the metric
measures of length, weight 2md capacity should be used in both primary and
secondary schools. Pupils should also learn to estimate in metric units.
However , it is clear that it remains necessary for schoolleavers to have some
knowledge of imperial units. We therefore consider that pupils in secondary
schools should beco me familiar with the more common imperial units such as
feet , inches, pounds, ounces, pints and gallons and should be ab le to use them
for purposes of di re ct measurement. This mea ns that they should be able to
80 5 Ma{hema lics in school S

measure length in feet, inches and fractions of an (nch (t,t.tn-) to measure

wei ght in pounds and ounces, a nd to measure capacity in gallons and pints.
Pupils sho uld become aware of the approximate equivalences between these
imperial units and the appropriate metric units, but shoul d not no rmall y be
required to calculate in imperial units .

276 The word ' basic' app ears ill very many of the submission s which we have
received. Various expressions are used: 'basic skills', 'basic computational
s kills', "basic mathematics', 'basic numeracy' . 'the basics'. The co ntexts in
which these expressio ns are used suggest that, whjle not exactly synonymous,
th ey are effec tively different ways of describing what is th o ugh t to be much
[he sa me thing . Where a definition is given, it is almost always in terms of
purely arithmetical skills, with stress on the operations of addition, su btrac-
tion, multiplication and division t reated in isolation from application to real
sit uat ions . Man y sub missio ns assume that the meaning of whichever expres-
sion is used is self-evident and that th ere is no need to go into details.

277 Knowledge or skills which are ' basic ' are presumably needed as a basis
either for the mat hematics required in employment or in adult life or for fu r-
ther study. We have considered these requirements in the preceding chapters.
Although many of the requirement s may be co nsidered to be lelementary' in
terms of their position within the hierarchy o f learning mathematics and the
stage o f schooling at which they are first introdu ced , it does not follow that
they are necessaril y either simple or straightforward for most pupils to learn
and, more importantly, to appl y.

278 There is evidence that the public focussing of attentio n on standards in

schools which has occurred in recent years has created pressure in somequar-
ters for a ' back to basics' movement. This has encouraged some pri mary
teachers and so me teachers of low-attaining pupil s in secondary schools (0
restrict their tcaching largely to the attainment o f computational skills. Some
of the submissions which we have rec eived advocate a 'back to basics'
approach of this kind . H o wever, we hope that the argument of this chapter
makes il clear that the ability to carry o ut a particular numerical operation
a nd the ability to know when to make use of it a re not the same; both are
needed. T he mathematics of emplo yment and of everyday li fe is always
mathemati cs in contex t and is based largely on measurements of man y kinds
made in man y d ifferent si tuati o ns. Arithmetical skills are there fo re a tool fo r
use in situations wh ich req uire an understanding of other areas of mathema-
tics, for example the geometry of shape and space and graphical repre-
sentation o f va rious kinds. An excessive concentration on the purely
mechanical skills of arithmetic for their own sake wHl not assist the devel~
opment of understanding in these other areas. It follows that the resuits of a
'back to basics' approacb (as we understand lbe words) are most unlikely to be
those .which its proponents wish to see. and we can in no way support or
recommend an approach of this kind.
 5 \1alhem3lics in .schools 81

Modern mathemalics 279 In Britain the beginnin g of 'modern mathematics' is usually associated
with three conferen ce. held in Oxfo rd in 1957, in Liverpool in 1959 and in
Southampton in 1961. Thes" were among a number of co nferences. held in
Europe and the United States of America towards the end of the 1950s, which
disc ussed the teaching of mathematics in schools and resulted in the setting up
of a variety of mathema tics c urri culum development projects. It is interesting
to note that th e con ferences held in Bri tain were financed by industr y a nd paid
considerable a nenl.ion to modern industrial applications of mathematics. A
direct ouccome of the co nference held in Southampton was the setting up of
the School Mathematics Proj ect (SMP) whose syllabuses a nd teaching
materials are prepared by groups of practising teachers and which was again
funded by industry in its early stages.

280 The Director ofSMP wro te in his report for 1962-63 that "a major aim
of the syllabus is to make sc hool mathematics mo re exci ting and mo re
enjoya ble, and Lo impart a kn owledge of the nature of mathematics and its
uses in the modern world. In this way, il is hoped to encourage more pupils to
pursue further the stu dy of mathematics, to bridge the gulf which at the
moment se parates un ive rsity fro m school mathematics-both in content an d
in o ut loo k- and also to refl ect the cha nge brought a bo ut in the world by
increased automation and the introduction of electro nic computers".
However. this statement reLated to an O-Ievel co urse desig ned fo r pupils
wh ose mathematica l attai nm em was in the top quarter o f their age group and
was written at a timeat which the provision of ' modern ' courses fo r pupils of
lower attainment had not been planned or expected .

281 The intention of those who set out to develop SMP and ot her modern
courses was to in trodu ce- changes both in th e content of the math emati cs
syllabus fo r these higher attaining pupils and also in th e teaChing methods and
approaches which were used. Teaching approaches were designed to enco u-
rage invest igatio n, CO emphasise th e applicatio ns of mathematics/ and to draw
attention to the un ifi ed nature of mathemat ics rather than to its traditional
division at school level into a rithmetic, algebra an d geometry; and the
classroom mat erials which were prod uced took for gramed that th e teachers
wh o used th em would posses s sufficient mathematical insight and experience
to enable them 1. 0 wo rk in these wa ys . At first most teachers who wished to
introduce a modern syUabus were able 10 attend in-service [raining courses at
which the aims of modern mathematics co urses were explained and teachin g
approaches discussed . H owever. the unexpectedly rapid expansion of
modern mathematics courses. meant that it was not lo ng before man y teachers
we re required to teach these courses without the benefit of introduc{Q ry
tr aining. A further, and also ve ry rapi d, deveJopment was the ext.ension of
modern mathematics co urses to pupils whose attainment was lo wer and [he
introdu ction of modern syllabuses in CSE mathemati cs examinations . Not all
teac hers possessed a suffi cient mathematical background to enable them to
appreciate the intent io ns und erlying the new co urses they were teaching . In
consequence the material which was included in modern co urses was often
not presented as part of a uni fied stru cture but as a collectio n of disconnected
82 5 Mathematics jn 5Chools

topics whose rel evance to the mathematics course as a whole did not beco me
apparent to pupils .

282 However, in our view the introduction of ccnain topics which had nOL
previously been included in most mathematics cou rses has had a beneficial
effect. \V e may cite as examples the increased emphasis on graphkal work ,
the introduction of work based on the geometrical ideas of symmet ry. reflec-
tion and rotation, the uSle of co-ordinates and the stud y of elementary
statistics. Work on these topics has lent it.self LO more practical approaches to
the teaching of mathematics and has proved 10 be within Ihe ca pabilityof very
many pu pils. The same has not, however , been true of certain algebraic
topics, which have proved difficult for many pupils 10 understand and whose
purpose and use have not been evident to them . It is these ropics, notably the
a lgebra of sets and matrices, whi ch have attracted considerable public atten-
tion and criticism and which have come, in the eyes of many people, to
exemplify modern mathem,aties even though they form only a relatively small
part of many courses .

283 During the iast few years, a number of 'modern' O-level and CSE sylla-
buses have bee n modified so as to exclude some of the more abstract algebraic
ropics. At the same time many ' traditional' courses have also been modified
to include such lapies aselememary statistics and a greater emphasis on
graphical work; as a result the differences between ' modem' and 'traditional'
mathematics have become much less marked. In our own discussions we have
not (hought in terms of trsldilional or modern mathematics nor has (he evi-
dence which we bave recch-'cd suggestcd tbat it is any longer profitable to do
so. Our discussion of mathematics teaching in the primary and secondary
years which foUows makes no di stinction between the twO because, in our
view , it is no longer appropriate to make such a distinction; we believe that
very many people now share this view.
 83

6 Mathematics in the primary years

284 In this chapter we di scuss [he mathematical work of children between tbe
a ges of 5 and I J. \..vhelher I hey are in infant, junior. infant and junior) first or
middle sc hools . We do not discuss the mathematical development of children
of pre-school age.

285 We have received much evidence whjch is supportive of the work of

primary schools and believe I.hat the great majorit y of primary teachers are
aware of their responsibility [0 provide a sound ma(hematical foundation for
the children in their c are. Some teachers have to ld us that they would welcome
guidance in this task and we hope that the matters we discuss in this chapter
will provide a basis for study and discussion in staff rooms and elsewhere. \\l e
have also received some comments which are critical of marhematics teaching
in primary schools. Some of these refer to matters which we discuss in this
chapter; others renect a faiture on the part of some of those who have written
to us to appreciale the detail ed and careful approach to the teaching of math-
ematics which is necessary, especially in the ea rl y years, in order that children
may develop confidence and understanding.

The primae}' malh- 286 The use of practical methods in the primary classroom is someti mes
emalics curriculum tb ought to be of relatively recent introduction but Ihis is not the case; work of
thi s kind has been advocated for very many years. For example. in the Hand-
- Board or Education . Nundbuok book o/sliggestions /or teachers.' published in 1937 by the Board of Educa-
of sugg('sJions for reachers. lion, we read :
H\1 S0 1937 Firs!, by way or introduction, ~hould come practical and oral work designed to
give meaning to, and create int erest in, the new arithmericaJ conception-through
deriving it from th e child ·s own experience-and (Q give him confidence in dealing
with it by first es ta blishing in his mind correct notio ns o frhe numerical and quanti-
tative relalio ns invol ved in rhe operation.

t Mathematics in primary schools. [n the 1960s the work of the Nuffield Mathematics Projeci and the publication
Schools Co uncil Curriculum of Schools Council Curriculum Bulletin No I: Mathemarics in primary
Bullet;" No L HM SO 1965.
schoolst gave added impetus to the use of approaches to mathemalics which
were based on practicaJ experience. As a result, th ere has been a general wid-
ening of the mathematics curriculum in most primary schools during the last
(\\'enry years (0 include both a greater understanding of number and also
work on measurement, shape and space, grap hi cal representation and the
development of simple lo gical ideas. We believe lhat thi s broadening of the
curriculum has had a beneficial effect both in improving children' s attiludes
10 mathematics and also in laying the foundations of better understanding,
84 6 Marhemalics in the primary yc:ars

Before we discuss these areas of work i n more detail , we wish to emphasise, as

we shall co ntinue to emphasise, tha t work of this kind needs LO be carefully
structured and followed up by the teacher. Much o f its value will be lost unless
the work whic h has been done, and the results which have been obtained, are
discu ssed with th e children so as to establ ish the necessary concepts and make
links with other pieces of work which have been underta ken.

287 The primary mathematics curriculum should enrich children's aesthetic

and linguistic experience, provide them with the means of exp loring their
environment and develop their powers of logical thought, in addition (0
equipping 'hem with tbe numerical skills which will be B powerful tool for
later work and study . The pract ical and intuitive experience w hich sho uld be
the result of a course of this kind provides a n in valuable base for further work
in the secondary years. However, we do not believe that mathematics in t.he
primary years sho uld be seen solely as a preparation for the next stage of edu·
cation . The primary years. ough t also to be seen as worthwhile in them·
selv es-a time dur ing w hi ch doors are opened onto a wide range of experi-
ence .

288 We believe that the public criticism of recent years, to which we referred
in parag raph 278, ha s caused some teachers in primary schoo ls to wonder
whet her they have been right to adopt the broader approach which we have
d escribed. We hope that our discussion in C hap ter 5 of the fund amenta ls of
ma the matics teac hing and learning will have convinced them, and also the
critics of prjmary mathematics, that emp hasis on arithmetical skills does nO[
of itself lead to ability to make use of these skills in practi cal situations. It is
only wit hin a broadl y based curriculum that the ability to apply mathematics
is enabled to de velop.

Practi cal work 289 Practical work is essential througbout the primary years if the mathema·
ties curriculum is (0 be de'veloped in the way wh.ich we have advocaled in
paragraph 287. It is, t hough, necessa ry to realise at the outset that such work
requir es a co ns iderabl e amoun t of time. Howeve r, provided that the pra ctica l
work is properly structured with a wide var iet y of experience and clear s tages
of progression, and is fo llowed up by the teacbe r by m eans o f qu est ions and
di scussion, this time is well spent. For most children practical work provides
the most effective means by which unders tanding of mathematics can
develop. It ena bles t hem to tbink ou t the mathematical ideas whi ch are co n·
tained withi n the various activities they undertake at the same time as they are
carrying out th ese act ivities; and so to prog re ss within each to pic from the
handling of actual objects to a stage in whic h pictures or diagramS can be used
to represent these objects and then to " final stage at wh ich symbols are used
which can be manipulated in abstract ways. (We give an exa mple of t his in
paragrapb 305.)

290 Children vary greatly in the amou nt of ti m e which they take to move
through th ese stages. It is as harm fu l to insist that one c hild shoul d cont in ueto
use practical materials for a process which he unde rstands and can carry o ut
by using symbols as to insist that another should proceed to diagrammaticor
6 MathemaLics in the primary years 85

sym bo lic representation before he is able to carr y out the process by using
practical materials. It is therefore a mistake to suppose that the re is any par-
ticular age at which children no lon ger need to use prac tica l ma terials or tha t
such materials are needed only by those whose atr ainmem is low. It is not
'babyish' to work with practical materials while the need exists and we believe
that many children would derive benefit from a much greater use of these
materials in the later primary years than occurs i n many classrooms.

Measurement
291 In paragraph 269 we emphasised the importance of praclising meas-
urement of all kinds and explained the approach to measurement which we
believe to be necessary. The measurement of length . capacit y, weight, area
and Lime should be part of every child 's experience; some children will extend
their work to the measurement of angle and of speed, vol ume and densiry.
Practice in measurement ne(!ds to be associated with practice in estimation so
that children gain an appreciation of the size of units and of their relalion to
everyday objects. Measurement should be linked wilh number work and
attemion drawn, for example, to the ract that the mathema tical structure of
metres, decime tres and centimetres is identical to that of hundreds, tens and
units. This e nables a ruler or tape measure to be used as a portabJe jnumber-
line'; this can be helpful where numbers have to be added or subtracted.

Shape and space

292 All chi ldren should have experience of work with a variety of plane
shapes and solids. Here again, progression is essenlial. After the early stages
of drawing round, cutting out, folding and colouring a variety of shapes,
children should form them into patterns and then expe riment 10 discover
which shapes will 'tessellate' (that is, fil together withoulleaving any spaces
between adj oining shapes) an d which will not. They can also explore the ideas
of symmetry , rotation and reflection . Geo met rical knowledge grows Ihrough
inveSligations of this ki nd a nd lhe properties of geomelrical shapes become
apparent as different patterns are const ru cted . From time to time the teacher
should draw on the knowledge and experience which the children have gained
in order to disc uss these properties ex pli citly. For some children the idea of
proof can starl to develop as they seek lO discover, for exam ple, why Iriangles
and quadrilaterals of all kinds will tessellate but many other shapes will not.
The conslru ction o f plane sbapes and solids helps to develop skill and accu-
racy in the use of ins truments for measur ing and drawing and also the ability
to visualise Ihree-dimensional figures. Almost all chi ldren find pleasure in
working with shapes , and work of this kind can enco urage the development of
posit ive atliludes towards mathematics in those who are find ing difficulty
with number work. The rich variety of pract ical work which is possible in th e
primary years provides a foundation o n which the more fo rmal geometry of
the secondar y years can be based.

Graphical work
293 Throughout the primary years attention should be paid to methods of
presenting mathematical information in pictorial and graphical form , and
also to interp reting info rm ation which is presented in this way. It can often be
86 6 MalhemaliC5 in the primary years

the case that graphical work lacks variety and progression, so t hat older child-
ren are limited to drawing grap hs wh ic h differ little from those which are to
be fo und in infant classrooms. Children need experience of a wid e variety of
graphical work; the mere draw ing of graphs should not be over-emphasised .
It is essential to disc uss and interpret the in for mation which is displayed both
in graphs which children have themselves drawn and also in gra phs which they
have not. Children shoul d be encouraged to collect examples of graphs and
charts from newspapers, magazines and books. to discuss in detail what they
depict and to make deductions from them. Work of Ihis kind often ena bles
children to link their work in mathematics with their work in other areas of the
curriculum.

294 As we li as drawing graphs which pro vide factual information, some

children should be able to construct grap hs which display mathematical rela-
tionships such as Ihose of th e multiplication tables or of the growth of squares
and cubes. Games such as ' Battleships' ca n be used to introduce the idea of
co-ordinates to identify spaces and, later. single points; it then becomes
possible to record graphically relationships such as 'pairs of numbers which
add up to 10' . Many of these activ it ies provide a basis from which later work
in algebra can develop . When discussing graphs which have been construcred,
attenlion can be drawn (Q the relationships which they display; for instan ce,
"every time we added another 20 grams th e length of the spring increased by J
cemimetres" .

Logic
295 UTa spea k of logic in connection with young children ma y surprise some
people, bu t no highl y theo reti cal notio ns are in vo lved . It is rather a matter of
describing things accurately. noticing their rese mblances and their differen-
ces, and saying how they arc related to onc another. In games and puzzles
moves often have to be made according to rules, and fi nding the best moves
• HMI Series: ""la(ters for dj sc u ~s· involves logi cal (hought ". * In its most straig htforward forms, the
ion 9. Mathematics 5· 11. A activity of sorting objects and of recording th e results in diagrammatic form is
handbook of suggestio ns. HMSO practised in most in fant classes and forms the basis on whi ch the concept of
1979.
number is built. As children becom e older, it can de velop into the mare
sophisticated acti vity of sorting shapes which vary in colou r, size and
thickness according to their attribmes such as , for example, 'large and blue ' ,
'thin and square'. A wide va riety of work with shapes of this ki nd can be
undertaken in order to encourage precisio n o f language and the deve lopment
of logical thinking. Games such as noughts-and-crosses. do minoes , draughts
etc can also encourage logical thinking; "if I go there . .. , Ihen he will . . . ,
then I shall have to "

General activities
296 In addition to practica l activities related to specific areas of the math-
ematics curriculum , of the kind whic h we ha ve discussed in the preceding
paragraphs, all children need experience of practical work which is di rectly
relaled to the acti vities o f everyda y life, including shopping, Iravel, model
making and the planning of school activities. Children ca nnot be expected to
be able to make use of th ei r mathematics in ever yday situations unless th ey
 6 Mathematics in the primary years 87

ha ve opportunity to experience these sit uati ons fo r themselves. For most

children a very great deal of practical exp loration and experience is needed
before the underlying mathematical ideas beco me assimilated into their
thinking . W e emphasise again that di sc ussion both with the teacher and with
other pupils is a necessary part of this process . A few children pass thro ugh
the various stages of mathematical development in rapid succession and need
to ad vance to mo re challe nging and more abstrac t work before they leave
primary schoo l. For the majority, however, the transition from the use of
concrete materials to abstracl lhinking takes place slo wl y and gradually; and
even those children to whom abstract thinking appears to come easily often
need to undertake practical ex ploration at the beginning of a new topic.

297 There is anolher aspect of practical work which we have no t yet

discussed. Thi s is the use of number apparatus as an aid to the understand in g
of the number syste m and of me lhods of co mpu talio n . We deal with thi s in
lhe fo llowing paragra phs.

Num ber and computation 298 The skills of me ntal and written co mputat io n are founded on basic co n-
cepts which need to be developed through measurement, shopping, the use of
structura l apparatus and many other activities . These concepts include th e
meaning of the operations of addition, subtra c tion , mUltiplication and
divisio n and the ve ry important co ncepl of place value (that is , for example,
lhat the 2 stands for 2 units in lh e number 52, for 2lens in the number 127 and
for 2 hundreds in lhe number 263). Undersranding of place value enables
number facts sto red in lo ng term memory to be used as a means of carr yi ng
out calcu lations invo lving larger numbers; for example, (he knowledge that
14 - 8 = 6 can be used to work oUl 140 - 80 or 54 - 8. It is therefore essenlial
lhat c hildren should be helped 10 allain a secure and rapid recall of addition
faclS up to 10 + 10 and the rela ted su btraclion facts, and of muitiplicalion
facts up 10 10 x 10 and the rela ted division faclS. This kn owled ge , IOgelher
wi th understanding of place value, provides a basis for calculalion involving
small o r large numbers. The lea rning of the number faclS to whi ch we have
referred needs 10 be based on understanding, bu t under sranding does nol
necessarily result in remembering . A time comes, therefore, when most chil-
dren need to make a conscious effort to commit these number facts to
memo ry . We have, though, to be aware that there are some child ren who have
nOl attained secure and rapid recall o f addilion and mull iplication faclS by the
age of 11.

299 Und ersta nding of pl ace value needs to be developed not o nly by means of
slruclural ap pararus and lhe abacus bUl also by using as exam ples lhe SlrUC-
ture o f hundreds, tens and units which underlies bolh measuremenl (melres,
decimelres and cemimetres) and money (pounds, lenpences and pence). II
should nOl be ass umed thaI a c hild who undersrands lhe st ructure o f hun-
dreds, lens and unilS will necessa ril y be able wilh ease 10 ma ke the generali-
sa ri o n 10 lho usa nds and hi gher powers of 10. Many children need fu"her
practical ex perience with struct ural apparatus so (hat they can work out for
themselves the meaning of large nu mbers and be able to carry out operations
wi th them. Olh er Sleps in und erstanding of place value are lhe undersra nding
88 6 Mathemalics in the primary years

of tenths and hundredths, and of multiplication and division of both whole

numbers and decimals by 10 or 100. These lead to more advanced compu-
tational skills such as long multiplication. They also provide a basis for
developing the abilily to approximate and to estimate the size of the answer
which is to be expected as Ihe result of carrying oul a given calculalion.

300 The skills of compulation involving fractions are based on an

understanding of the concepi of equivalent fraclions; that is, for example,
Ihat ~ and t have the same value. For many cbildren understanding of this
concept and of the notation for fractions are only just beginning to develop
during the primary years. Furthermore, it is difficult to find everyday
situalions which require fractions to beadded or multiplied and there seems to
be litlle justification for teaching the routines for adding, subtracting, mul-
liplying or dividing fractions to the majority of children during the primary
years. ChiJdren should, however, become familiar in practical situations with
terms such as 'one half of', 'one quarter of' and it is entirely appropriate, for
example, to work out the number of children in 'half the class'. However,
some children whose attainment is high are fully capable of understanding the
equivalence of fractions and of applying this understanding to the solution of
problems.

301 There is one aspect of computation which needs specific attention with
most children towards the end of the primary years. This is the computation
of time . Unlike other measures with which children become familiar, the
relation between hours and minutes is based on 60 and not on 100r 100. This
means that children have to remember that routines which they normaUy use
for addition and subtraction need to be modified if they are, for example,to
be able to calculate the time taken for a journey which stans at J0.45am and
ends at J .30pm. They have also to be able to understand times expressed in
terms of the 24-hour clock. It is not sufficient for computalion of time to be
practised in the abstract; it should be related to practical sil uations involving
the planning of journeys and the use of timetables.

302 Some of the submissions which we have received have suggested that
many primary schools do not pay sufficient attention to developing compu-
tational skiU in their pupils. We do not believe this to be the case, nor is the
• Primary educorion in view supported by the report of the National Primary Survey' which says that
Englarld. A ~urvey by HM Hsuitable calculali,ons involving the four r:ules with whole numbers were prac-
Inspeclors of Schools.
tised in aU classes at all ages" _ It also states thai "in about a third of the
HM SO 1978.
classes, at aU ages, children were spending too much time undertaking
repetitive practice of processes which they had already mastered ... the efforts
made to teach children to calculate are not rewarded by high scores in ... ex-
amples concerned with the handling of everyday situations. Learning to
operate with numbers may need to be more closely linked with learning to use
them in a variety of situations than is now common".

303 Work on calculation needs also to take account of the increasing

availability of electronic calculators in many homes. We discuss this in the
next chapter .
 6 Malhematics in the prirnary years 89

The beginnings oj calculalion

304 Young children should not be expected to mo ve too quickly to written
recording in mathematics . The fonning of figures co rrectly on paper is a skill
which needs to be learned. Until it has been mastered , attempts to carry out
written calc ulation can inh ibit the development of mathematical knowledge
and understanding. In the early stages, therefore, mental and oral work
should playa major part in learning. It has been pointed out to us that, albeit
with tbe best of intentions, some parents can exert undesirable pressure on
teachers to introduce written recording of mathematics, and especially
'sums', at too early a stage, because tbey believe that the written record is a
necessary sign of a child's progress.

305 We believe that th ere are many who do not appreciate th e number of
stages through wh ich a child must pass before even such an apparently simple
'sum' as 3 + 2can be carried out with understanding . First of all the child must
be able to recognise and form groups of three objects and two objects and to
combine these to form a group of fi ve. At the same time he will talk a bout
what he is doing: " There are three toy cars-fetch two more-now there are
five" . \Vhen he carries out simi.lar actions in different situations he needs to
realise that essentially the same mathematics is contained in "There were
three children in the room; two more came in; now there arc five ." and in I Jj

had three crayons; Mary gave me two; now I have five" . The next stage is to
illustrate these in pictorial form; for instance, the crayons may be drawn as:

uno 00
It is only when these experiences ha ve all been assimilated and it has been
realised that they all lead to the mat hematical symbolisations
3
3+2=5 or ±2
5
that this sum, and similar ones, can be properly understood in the abstract.
Only then is it appropriate for the Slim to be carried out without concrete
materials . Children should then be encouraged to make up their own stories
for some of the sums they are asked to do. So me children are able to pass
through these different stages quite qu ic kly but fo r others it can take a long
time . A premature start on formal written arithmetic is likely to delay progress
rather than hasten it.

Language 306 Language plays an essential part in the formulation and expression of
mathematical ideas. In paragraph 246 we drew attention to the need to ext end
and refine the use of mathematical language in th e classroom. Development
90 6 Mal hemal ics in tbe primary years

of this kind can only take place by means of co nt inuing practice; fr o m their
ea rli es t days at sc hool child ren should be enco urage d to disc uss a nd explain
(he mathematics which they are doing. In the word s of a subm issio n we have
received fro m the head of an infa nt sc hool, "t.here is a need for more talking
time .. .. , ideas and findings a re passed on lhro ugh language and developed
thro ug h discus sion . fo r it is this di sc ussion after the activit y that finally sees
the poim home " .

307 Children vary gr eatl y in th e level of the lan guage s kills which they possess
at the age of 5. Some are a lr ead y famili a r with words and expressio ns suc h as
I-heavy ', ' li ght' . 'l a rger than '. 'shortest ' and w ith the co ncepts [Q whi ch these
re late , but many are nOl. All children need , as a fi rst stage in their learning of
mathematics, to dev elop their unde rstandin g of wo rd s a nd expressio ns of t his
kin d by means of activities an d discus sion in the classroom. and this devel-
opment of mathematical language should co ntinu e throughout the primary
years.

308 It is importan t to be aware of the great va riety of language which is used

in connection v..·ith many of th e mathematical opera t io ns which c hild re n will
meet. For exa mple, the instructions 'add 5 and 3', 'add 3 to 5', 'find the sum
of 5 a nd 3', ' find the number which is 3 mo re th an 5' all req ui re rh e sa me
mathe marical operation LO be carried out. These a re on ly fo ur of many ways
in whi ch it is possible to frame this instruction; th e particular form of words
which is used is most often th e o ne which arises naturall y in the context of t he
moment. C hildren need to be ab le to in terpret these appa ren tly different
instructions , to us e them in their own speech and though t, and eventually to
be a ble to a!lach them all to the symbolic form 5 + 3, Un less c hildren beco me
fa miliar with th e many different way s in which the same mathemaricaJ idea
ca n be ex pressed and are able to recognise the sa me idea withi n differem
forms of wo rd s, they will 110t o nly have difficulty in dealing with comp u-
tational exampl es of Ih e kind which we have quoted bu t a lso in deaJing with
pro blem s exp ressed in word s.

309 C hil dren whose grasp of language is nm sec ure often try 10 overcome
t heir di fficult y by looking o ut for word s such as 'mo re' o r ' less' an d using
t h em as 'verbal cues ' whi ch they believe will ind icate the ope ration they are
requir ed to ca rry o u t. However. thi s does not reso lv e the difriculty . For
exampl e. I he twO problems
Janet ha s 5p and John ha s 3p more than Janet; how much money has
John?
and
J a net has 5p a nd John has 3p; how much m ore money has Janet than
John?
each co nt ai n the word 'more' but the fir st requires addition and the second
s ubtraction . In the problems we h ave quoted . the language ha s to prov ide a
bridge between the rea l si tuation of co mparing poc ket money and th e ar ith-
metical operations which it is necessary to carry out in order to arrive at the
an swer. The somew hat stylised language which is often us ed in Iword prob-
 6 Mathematics in the primary years 91

lems' can make it difficult for children whose language and reading skills are
weak to evoke the necessa ry mental image of the real situation and so choose
the correct arithmetical operation. It is for this reason that they resort to
'verbal cues' and teachers need to be aware that this can happen.

310 Children need also to learn that certain words are used in mathematics in
ways which are not the same as those in which they are used in everyday
speech. We have been told of a visitor to a junior classroom who, in response
to the question "what is the difference between 10 and 77" was surprised to
receive the answer " 10 is even and 7 is odd" jnstead of the answer '~3" which
had been expected. 'Difference' is only one of many words with whose math-
ematical meaning children have to become fa miliar.

3 I I Reading skills in mathematics should be built up alongside other reading

skills so that children can understand the explanations and instructions
which occur in the mathematics books which they use . If the skills of reading
mathemati cs are not deveJoped, many chiLdren will evolve their own strategies
for avoiding such read ing. We have already referred to reliance on verbal
cues. Another strategy is to avoid reading any explanatory passage.s which
come at the begin ning of a work card or textbook exercise and to start on the
questions in the hope that they can be done without first studying the expla-
nation or instruction which precedes them. Vet another is to seek help from a
friend or the teacher. Th e policy of trying to avoid reading difficulties by
preparing work cards in which the use of language is minimised or avoided
altogether should not be adopted. Instead the necessary language skills
should be developed through discussion and explanation and by encouraging
children to talk and write about the invest igations which they have
undertaken. Children should also be encouraged to suggest their own pro-
blems and to express them in written form.

The use of books 312 Eve n although a child may without difficulty be able to read what is
written in a mathematics textbook or on a work card, he may well find great
difficulty in learning an unfamiliar piece of mathematics from the written
word. This is likely to be the case however carefu l has been the choice of the
language which is used. The ability to learn mathematics from the printed
page is one which develops very slowly, so that even at the age of J 6 there are
few pupils who are able to learn satisfactorily from a textbook by themselves.
At the primary stage new topics and concepts should always be introduced by
appropriate oral and practical work and the necessary links with what has
gone before established by disc ussion.

313 Nevertheless, text books provide valuable support for teachors in the day-
by-day work of the classroom . They can provide a st ructure within which
work in mathematics can develop and provide ideas for alternative approa-
ches . They can be a source of exercises which have been carefully graded and
are lik ely to provide revision exercises at suitable intervals. Accompanying
teachers' manuals may suggest other kinds of work which should be
undertaken alongside the exercises in the textbook and indicate ways in which
the topic ca n be developed further for some pupils. However, it is always
necessary to use any textbook with d.iscrimination, and selections should be
92 6 Mathemalics inthe.primary ye:ars

made to suit the varying needs of diffe rent children. It may be bener . too, [0
tackle some parts of the work in an order which is different from that in the
book or to omit certain sections for SOlne or aU chil dren . It should not be
expec ted that any text book. however good, can provide a eomplete course or
meet the needs of all childr{~n; addit ional act ivities of various kinds need to be
provided.

314 By the m iddle ju nior years some children are skill ed readers a nd have
become accustomed to acquiring information from book s. AJthough the
printed word is seldom a satisfactory means of introduci ng new mathematical
concepts, {he same limitat. ion does not apply to the use o f mat hematica l
problems, pu zzle and topic books, and books of this kind shou ld be available
in the classroom or school library . Their use can enable children to realise that
mathematics is a li ving subject which is fu ll of interest and of use outside the
classroom, and can also contribute to the children's overall mathematica l
development. Allhough some books 01 this kind arc ava ilable, more are
needed; suitable topics would be the math ema tics u sed in everyday life , the
exploratio n of shape, communication by means of graphs and diagtams, the
history and development of cou nting, calculat ion and measurement. and
links between mathematics and science or art. More books of puzzles. prob-
lems and suggestions for investigations are also required .

Mental mathematics 315 Vie refer in this sectio n to 'mental mathematics' rather than 'mental
calcu lation' because we wi sh 10 include within our discuss ion both mental
calcu lation and also the ora!l work which should play an im portant pan in the
teaching of primary mathematics. For the reasons to which we drew attention
in paragraph 254 there has been a decrease in the use of mental mathematics jn
schools of a ll kinds in recent yea rs and we believe that this t rend should be
reversed.

316 We ha ve al read y ex plain ed that young children s hould not be allowed to

move too quickly to written work in mathematics. It follows that. in the early
stages , mental and oral wo rk should form a major part of the mathemat ics
whic h is done. As a child grows older, he needs to begin to develop the meth-
ods of mental caJcula tion which he will use throughout his life; as we pointed
out in paragraph 256 the", will not necessarily be th e same as t he meth od s
used on paper. Practice in the handling of money, th e giving of c hang e by
'counting on' in (he way which is commonl y used in shops, calculation of
journey times and mental calculations .involving measurement of various
kinds should all sta rt during the primary years. We may note tha t, although it
is possible to practise wriw::n methods of computation as routines with little
understanding of the underlying method, good ment al methods have to be
based on understanding of place value accompanied b y reca ll o f addition a nd
multipl ica tion facts; it follows that the practice o f men tal methods of
computation wil l also ass ist in (he understanding and development of written
methods. Mental mathematics may aJ so be used in the primary yea rs to build
up speed and confidence in the recall of bas ic number facts and to extend
mathematical insights wit hout [he added complication o f formal recording.
6 j\'lalhemalics in Ihe prima ry ,ears 93

317 While one aspect of mental mathematics is work 'in the head', another is
the promotion of mathematical discussion in the classroom. Exchanges be-
tween child and teacher, and between different children, should be encou-
raged . Even in a class in which an individual learning scheme is used for much
of the time, there are some skills , puzzles and problems which are approp riate
for every child no matter what stage of learning he may have reached and
short class sessions can be arranged for work of this kin d . If answers are
recorded on paper, difficulties and weaknesses can be dealt with on an indi-
vidual basis later so that the limited success of certain children is not drawn 10
the attention of the whole class as might be the case with oral answe rs.
However , tills does not preclude general discussion of cenain problems; on
the contrary some problems should be posed with general discussion in mind .
Both children and their teachers learn from the different strategies and
methods which other members of the class use and explain in answer to ques-
Lions. It is valuable experience for children, and something which many chil-
dren do not find easy at first, to explain the approach which has been used;
even a wrong answer or a false stan, if carefully handled by the teacher, can be
illuminating when discussed. Different points of view offer conside rable
opportunities for exploring and increasing the depth of understanding of all
members of the class. Sometimes, too, children can be asked to pose their own
problems.

318 Mental mathematics can also be used as a means of introducing

informally mathematical ideas which will later be deve loped in greater depth
and perhaps in different ways by different children. Questions such as "if
2 x 0 + 11 = 17, what numbers can we write in the box and the triangle'" can be
used to introduce algebraic ideas. The ability to visualise shapes in two and
three dimensions can also be developed through memal work.

319 Even though an individuallearning system may be in use the teacher wi ll

often assemble a small group to begin a new topic or to draw together
common s[rands in work which is going on . On such occasions mental math-
ematics is easily and naturally introduced, both in the form of mental calcu-
lations and of questions which develop new ideas or bring together the work
of the various children. Since such small groups will often consist of children
of similar attainment, there is less chance of dispiriting failure and the size of
the group makes it easier for the teacher to handle difficulties sensitively .
With a small group of children the teacher can appropriately press them,
according to their ability, to increase their speed of response and calculation .
Repeated failure should be avoided; nevertheless children respond to ques-
tions which extend them and by careful questioning, either of the whole group
or of individual children, confidence can be built up .

320 Whatever te xt books or work cards are used, the level of difficulty can
never be marched exactly to every child>s needs. Queslioning and mental
mathematics have their part to play in improving the match, in helping the
weaker over difficulties and in increasing the challenge to those whose
attainment is high. Mental mathematics also provides a means of developing
the skills of estimation to which we referred in paragraphs 257 to 261.
94 6 Malhemalics in the primary years

Using mathematics to solve 321 All children need experience of applying the mathematics they are learn-
problems ing both to familiar everyda y s ituations and also to the solution of problems
which are not exact repetitions of exercises which have already been practised .
When young children first come to school , much of their mathematics is
'dojng' . They explore the mathematical situations which they enCQUntcf-
perhaps sorting objects into different categories or fitting shapes together-
and come to their own conclusions. At this stage their mathematical thinking
may reach a high level of independence. As the y grow older this independent
thinking needs to continue; it should not gi ve way to a method of learning
which is based whoUy on the assimilation of received mathematical know-
ledge and whose test of truth is Hthis is the way I was told to do it".

322 Mathematical explorations and investigations are of value even when

they are not directed specifically to the learning of new concepts . Children
should therefore be encouraged, for example, to work out the best way of
arranging the seating for the audience a( the school concert or to compare the
cost of various packet sizes and brands of food for the classroom pets. The
extent to which children are enabled to work in this way will depend a great
deal on the teacher's own awareness of the ways in which mathematics can be
used in the classroom and in everyday life.

323 The development of general strategies directed towards problem solving

and investigations can start during the primary years. Children should
therefore be given opportunity to become familiar with the processes which
can be used in work of this kind. One of these is to make a graphical or dia-
grammatic representation of the situation which is being investigated; for
example , if two dice are being thrown , (he scores obtained can be recorded
graphically . There may be a partern in the results which are being obtained
which can lead to the making of a conjecture to forecast later results; for
example, 2 po ints on a circle can be joined by one line, 3 points can be joined
in pairs by 3 lines, 4 points by 6 lines and so on . Efforts can then be made to
discover whether, and explain why, the conjecture is or is not correct. It is
sometimes appropriate to set up an experiment, for example to discover the
length ofa seconds pendulum, or to employ the strategy of looking at a sim-
pler related problem; an example of this laner strategy is that the number of
squares (of any size) on a full -s ized chessboard may be too many tocount, but
a 2 x 2 and a 3 x 3 board are more managea ble, and a pattern begins to
emerge . It is necessary to develop persistence in exploring a problem, for
example the number of different shapes which can be made from a given
number of squares of the same size, and the ability to record the possibilities
which have been tried . Finally , it is important to develop the ability to work
with others in the discussion of possible approaches and to be able to
communicate progress whi~h has been made by means of words, diagrams
and symbols.

324 Not a great deal is yet known about the ways in which these processes
develop nOr are suitable materials for teachers readily available . There is need
for more study of children's spontaneous problem-solving activities and of
(he extent to which strategies and processes for problem solving can be taught.
 6 Mathematics in [he primary years 95

P resent knowl edge suggests that, if children are nOl enabled to tackle prob-
le ms whic h are at the ri ght level for them (Q achieve success as the result of
concentrated effon, their problem-sol ving abilities do not develop satisfac-
torily.

Links with other 325 The experiences of you ng eh i Id ren do not come in separate pac kages with
curricular areas 'subject labe ls' ; as children explore th e world around them, lnathematicaJ
ex perien ces prese nt them selves alongside others . The tea cher needs therefore
to seek oPpo f{unities for dr a wing mathematical experience out of a wide
range of children 's activities. Ver y man y curricular areas give rise to math-
ematics. Measureme nt and symmetr y arise frequently in art and c raft ; many
patterns have a geome tri cal basis and designs may need eniargingo r reducing.
Environmental education ma kes use of measurement of many kind s and the
study of maps introduces ideas of direction , scale and ratio. The patterns of
the days of lhe week, of the calendar and of the recurring annual festivals all
have a math ematical basis ; for older children historical ideas r equire
under sta nding of t he passage of time . wh ich can be illustrat ed on a 'time-1ine'
which is analogous to the 'number-line' with which they will already be
familiar. A great deal of measureme nt can at'ise in the course of simple
coo kery , including the calculation of cost; this may not always be
straig htforward if only part of a pac ket of ingredients has been used. Man y
athleti c activities require measurement of di stance and tim e. At the infant
stage many slories and rhymes rely for their appeal on th e pleas ure of count -
ing.

326 It would be easy to compile a much longer list of a reas of th e primary

c urriculum which provide o pportunities for t he use of mathematical skills;
pressure of work in the classroo m makes it much less easy for th e teacher to
make sure that advantage is taken of these opportunities when they a ri se.
When planning the a cti vities of the classroom, and especially any exte nded
topi c or project work, it is therefore necessary for the teacher to try to identi fy
at the o utset the math ematical possibilities which exist wit hin the work which
is planned. N ot all of these will necessarily be rea lised but by planning in this
way it becomes easier to make t he most of whatever opportunit ies present
themsel ves and perhaps aJ so, by ap propriate discussion , to draw attention to
others,

327 We have not yet referred to one area of t he curricu lum whi ch has clear
a nd direct links with mathematics, that of science. Almost ever y invest igation
which is likely to be und er taken will require the use of one or more of the
mathematica l ski lls of classifyi ng , counting, measuring, calc ulating, esti-
mating, reco rding in tabula r or graphical form, making hypotheses o r gene-
ralising, and will provide opportunity for making lise of mathematics in
prac tical sit uations, Indeed , there is a grea t deal of overlap between practical
mathematics and science in the primary years a nd many actjvities such as
recording the gro wth o f a plant or animal, meas uring temperature and
rainfa ll or investigating the chain-wheels of a bicycle could take place und er
96 6 Mathematics in the primar)' ye:ars

~ Prjmory educ(Jlion in Englond. A eit her headi ng . The repon of the National Primary Su rvey' draws altent ion
survey by HM lnspeclors o f to the fact tbat too few of the schools visited had effecti ve progra mm es for the
schools. HMSO 1978.
teaching of science. The Government paper The school curriculumt SlateS
t Oepartmenl of Education and
Science and Welsh Office. Th~ that it is intended to tak e fll nher action in relation to science in schools. The
schoo/curriculum. HMSO 1981. develo pment of science teaching in prima ry schools will p rovide valuable
opportunities ror developing the use of mathematics in practical ways; we
hope these will be exploited .

328 There is one matterto which atten ti onwiJi need to be paid . If, because of
lac k of suit a ble expert ise amo ng other teachers in a school, th e teac hi ng of
science is undenaken on a specialist basis, it will be essential for those who
teach mal"he matics and those \"'ho teach scie nce (Q work closely together so
that full advantage can be taken of t he overlap between science and math-
ematics and links established bel ween them .

329 The overall aim must bl: 10 develop in childre n a n .ltit udeto ma thematics
and 8n awa re ness of its pow1er fo communicate a nd explain which will result in
mathemalics being used wherever it ca n iUuminale or make more precise a n
argument or enab le the results of a n investigation to be presented in a wa y
which will assist clarity and uoderstanding.

Attainment in 330 In th is section we di scuss the teaching of children who are wit h in about
mathematics the top 10 per ce nt of th ei r age gro up in terms of their a ttainme nt in math-
Ch ildren whose ematics. High attainment in mathematics is very often associated with high
altainment is high attai nm ent in other a reas of the curricu lu m but it is important to be awa re that
it can also exist in children whose pe rforman ce in the res t of t heir work is no
more than average . The capacity for high attainment in mathematics can
sometimes become apparent at a very early age . A fasci nation with num bers
and a self-developed capab ility in the use of large numbers may be signs of
such capacit y. H owever, some children do not display such abi lit y until much
later. During the primar y years a teacher may notice that a c hild learns and
gras ps new ideas with g reat speed, thal he sho ws energy and perseverance in
purs uing ideas, that he unclerstands abst ract co rrcept s easily and is able to
make use of them in a va riety of situations . All of these characteristics ca n be
signs of capacity for high attainment b ut it is poss ible for such capacity
to go unrecognised. This may be because poor li nguistic Or reading skills ca n
conceal ca pacity for mathematical attainment or, es peciall y in the case of
gifted children (t h ose who!:e attainment is within the top 2 to 3 per cem),
beca use of behaviour problems which are the result of boredom and frust-
ration arisirrg from work which is insufficiently demanding. It carr also be t he
case that gifted child ren seek to hide Iheir powers so as rrot to appear different
from their fellows .

33 1 The Russian psyc hologis t Krutet skii has listed some chara cte ri stics
which are often fou nd duri ng the primary years in children who are very
 6 Mathemalics in the primary yea rs 97

"'V A Krutelskii. The p!>'Ych01ogy highly girted ma lhematically .' These include ability to perceive and use
of mOlhemalicaJ abilities in mathematical information and grasp the inner structure of a problem; ability
schoolchildren : sun'ey (Jf recent to think wilh cla rity and economy when solving problems; ability to use
£051 European marhemofical
literalure. Trans J Teller;
symbols easily and flexibly and to reverse a mathemati cal process with ease;
Ed j Kilpatric k and I Wirsl.up . ability to remember generalised mathematical information, methods of
University of Ch icago Pres.s 1976 . problem solving and principles o f approach. Although few children will
display gifts of such a high order, thi s list indicat.es the direclions in which
high attainment in mathematics develops.

332 The problems which primary teache rs can encounter in making suitable
provision for high·anaining children are not always appreciated . It is not
sufficient for such chi ldren to be left to work through a textbook or a set of
work ca rd s; nOr should they be given repetiti ve practice of processes whi ch
th ey have already mastered . "The statement. lhat able children ca n take care
of themselves is misleading; it may be true that mathemat ically such children
ca n take care of themselves better lhan the less able, but this does nOI mean
that they should be entirely responsible for their own programming; they
need guidance, encou ragement and the right kind of opportunities and
"E Ogih·ie. Gifted children in challenges to fulfil t.h eir promise. '" High attaining children should combine
primary schools. The report or lhe more rapid prog ress through lhe mathemalics sylla bus with more demanding
Sc hools Council enquiry iruo thc work related to topics which have already been encountered. 1n particular .
leaching of gifted child ren of they sho uld be given opportunity to undertake activities and investigations
primary age 197017 1. Macmi llan
which encourage the development of powers of generalisation and abstrac-
Educalion, for th e Schoo ls
Cou ncil 1973 . tion; older juniors may. for example, become able to express in terms of
algebraic sy mbols the relationships which ari se fro m gra phical work or the
investigation of number patterns. Geometrical work shou ld also be encou-
raged. "Abler tOP juniors are capable of a considerable amount of
geometry. Through the strengt.h of their own intuition, they can cover the
greater part of the geometry demanded by an O-Ievel syllabus. They do,
however . need suitable resou rce materiaJ including copic books and reference
tHMI Series. Matlers for discus!;· books, but not secondary school texts. Pi"
ion 9. MofhemOfics ~II. A hand·
boo k ofsugge ... tions . HMSO 1979.
333 There is undoubted'), a need to make specific pro'\'ision for primary
children wbose mathematical attainment, is high. However, suitable resource
material is nOI easily accessible for the use of teachers who are not mathema·
tics specialists and more is needed. We believe that in some parts of the conn·
try arrangements have been made for a peripatetic teacher who is a math-
emalics specialist to leach groups of child re n in differe nt schools from time to
time. In some areaS clubs which meet on Saturdays have been organised by
LEAs, colleges o r other agen cies wit. h considerable success; such clubs enable
c hildren to share their enthusiasm for mathematics wi[h others who are like:
minded . 1f these children's teachers are also able to take pari, they are likely
to be able to make use of so me of lhe ideas which arise 10 enrich the curricu-
lum of other children. Within a particular sc hool it may be possible 10 re-
group children for mathematics in order to provide more effectively for the
higher attaineJs. and we believe that careful consideration should be given to
this possibil;{y. W e return 1.0 this poim in paragraph 350.
98 6 \1alhernalics in Ih~ primary years

Children \\'hose attainment 334 Low attainment in mathemadcs can Occur in chi ldren whose general
is low abili ty is not Jow. Among the reasons fo r this can be inapprop ri ate leaching,
lack of confidence, lac k of continuity, especially because of change of school ,
and frequent or prolonged illness; poor reading skills can also hinder progress
in mathematics. In such cases it is essential to try to diagnose the reason for the
'mathematical blockage' and to remedy the lack of understanding which
exists, Beca use the problem is likely to be individual to the child the diagnostic
process , hould be very larg;ely oral a nd practical so that by observation and
discussion th e teacher may establish which concepts are understood a nd
which are not. The us< of suitable diagnostic tests may also be helpful. Failure
can only be compounded if efforts are made to build further upon a foun·
dat io n which does not exist . Such efforts are Ii kel y only to result in confusion
and lack of con fide nce because of continuing lack of success, and so lead (0
dis!ike of mathemat ics and further failure .

335 In th e case of children whose low attain ment in mathematics is associated

with low genera l ability, tbe mathematics course needs to be specifically
des igned to build up a network of simple related ideas and their applications,
so that the children can feel confident in their abili ty to ma ke use in their daily
lives of the mathematics which th ey know. Advance should be by very smali
stages with frequent opportunity fo r repetition and reinforcemem. Use
should be made of extensive and varied practical and oral work related to
everyday sit uatio ns such as measurement . shopping and the use of mone y. In
thi s way efforts can be made to deve lop th e necessary network of associations
which is essential to long term memory.

336 Low-attaining children need extens ive experience of cou nt ing objects of
many kinds by groupi ng them in tens so tbat they become aware of the relative
size of numbers. Work of this kind needs to be accompanied by the use o f
number apparat us to develop the idea of place value and an understanding of
the different number operations. Familiarity with number and counting can
also be de veloped by means of board and other ga mes played with dice . Prac-
tice is also needed in counling money and using it for shopping. However.
stress should not be placed on th e development of number skills to the exclu-
sion of other activities. Low·attaining children need to jOin with their fellows
in experiencing the pleasure of simple work wit h shapes and the discovery of
pattern. They should also undertake straightforward wo rk of a graphical
nature and learn to use a ruler and other simple geometrical instruments.

337 Childrer. whose attainment is very low are often withdrawn from their
normal class for pa rt or all of the time to receive special attent io n from a
remedial teacher. Such teachers usuall y concentrate largely on language work
and are not alwa ys skilled in the teaching of mathematics or in the diagnosis of
associated learning difficulties. Remedial (eachers should nevertheless seck to
de velo p the understanding and use of mathematical language alongside other
language skills . Jt is of the utm ost importance that the mathematical work o f
children in remedial classes should not co nsist of the pract.ice of arithmetical
skills in isolat ion but should! be accompanied by discussion of the concepts o n
which these skills rest and of the ways in which th ey can be used in the chil -
 6 Mathematics in the primary yean 99

dren's everyda y lives . More time should be spent on oral and practical work
t han on written work.

338 The increasing availability of electronic calculators has made it all the
more important that, in the teaching of low-attaining children, attention
should be given to the development of concepts and applications . Once these
are understood , it becomes possible to make use of a calculator to overcome
lack of computational skill, but a calculator can be of no assistance until a
child knows which arithmetical operation it is necessary to carry out.

Attainment at the age of II 339 The mathematical course which a child will follow is normally set out in
the mathematics syllabus of his school, which is often based on guidelines
prepared by the LEA . In some cases syllabuses and guidelines indicate only a
progression of topics while in other cases an attempt is made to suggest levels
of attainment which are thought to be appropriate to a majority of children of
a given age . The amount of guidance which is given as to the way in which
different topics should be approached can also vary considerably. However,'
cven when detailed guidance is given, it may not be heeded by a particular
·Primory education in Eng/and. A teacher. The report of the National Primary Survey' draws allemion to the
survey by HM In specto rs of fact that "individual schools or teachers are making markedl y individual
Schools. HMSO 1978. decisions about what is to be taught based on their own perceptions and
choices". We need therefore to be aware of the differences which are likely to
exist between the mathematics which the syllabus intends should be taught,
the mathematics which has actually been taught by a particular teacher and
that part of what has been taught which a child has learned and understood .
Furthermore. any lest which is given to a child can measure performance only
on that part of what he has learned to which the test questions relate: even
then, he may not always be able to demonstrate his knowledge under test
conditions.

340 During recent years large-scale testing of children's performance in

.. Assessment 01 Performance mathematics has been introduced in many countries. In addition to studying
Unit. Mafhemoricol del.l(?/plnenr. the reports of the Assessment of Performance Unit*, which provide
Primary survey repOrts No I and
information about children in England a nd Wales, and the results of some
Nol. HMSO (980and 1981.
other tests carried out in England , we have been able to examine the resuhs of
large-scale tests carried Out in Scotland and the United States of America. We
have also studied the results of a survey of basic numeracy carried out in
Australia. It is clear that the differences in atlainment which exist between
children of the same age in anyone cououy are very much greater than the
small variations which ex ist bet ween the performance of an Caverage' pupil
from each coumry . It is also apparent that the general pattern of the devel-
opment of number knowledge is very similar in all the countries whose tests
we have studied . We do not therefore believe Ibat Ihere are any grounds for
thinking thaI the overall performance of children in England and Wales is
markedly different from Ihal. of children in these other countries.

341 Because different countries test pupils on a large scale at different ages, it
has been possible to build up a composite picture, as demonstrated by the
100 6 Mathematics in [he primary years

results of written tests, of the performance in some numerical topics of an

English·speak ing child wbose altainment is at about the fiftieth percentile and
also of one whose attainment is much below average (at about the fifteenth
percentile from the boltom). For the child whose attainment is at the fiftieth
percentile, under standing of the topic of place value probably develops along
these lines. At age 9 he can identify the largest or smallest of a set of numbers
which range from units to thousands and he can write down the total number
of postage stamps from a picture showing the stamps in blocks of 100, strips
of 10 and singlesramps. By age J I he is clarifying his concept of place value in
the range from thousands to tenths . He understands that the 2 in 12, 205 and
40.2 represents units, hundreds and tenths respectively btll he cannot yet
arrange the numbers 0 .07,0.02,0.1 in ascending order of size. He can write
down the number which is I less than 2010 and probably also the number
which is I more than 6399. However, test results suggest that not unLiI the age
of 15 a re at least half the children in a year group able to read a scale to two
decimal places Or to state that the I in the number 2.31 represents I hun·
dredth. Although about half of the children in our schoo ls will know more
about place value than tbis 'average' child, the other half will know less and
wi ll be progressing through these stages more slowly. For example, th e Can·
·K M Hall (Ed itor) . Children's cepts in Secondary Mathematics and Science study' found that pupils whose
undersfanding 0/ mathematics; attainment was at tbe fifteenth percentile from the bottom had reached the
/1-16. John \'1urray 1981.
third yea r of secondary school before tbey were able to give the number which
is I more than 6399. On the other hand, there are a few 7 and 8 year aIds who
are able to an swer this question and a few 9 year olds who are able LO use two
decimal places with understanding.

342 " therefore seems that there is a 'seven year difference' in achieving an
understanding of place value which is sufficient to write down the number
which is t more than 6399. By th is we mean that, whereas an 'average' child
can perform thistask at age 11 but nOt at age 10, there are some 14 yea r olds
who cannot do it and some 7 yea r aIds who can. Similar comparisons can be
made in respect of other 10pics. For example, the top 15 per cent of 10 yea r
olds in England are able to answer lhe question' 'There are 40 children in a
class and three-fifths of them are girls. How many boys are there in the
class?". By contrast, the bottom IS per cent of 14-15 year old pupils in Scot-
land find difficulty in working out f of £24; the bottom IS percentof 14year
olds in Australia find difficulty witb the comparable question "Mixed co n-
crete costs $24 per cubic metre. """hat would t of a cubic metre cost?" . There
is little evidence to show the attainment of the mo,! capable II year olds,
because large scale tests do not usua lly include very many items which will
extend these children and so provide the necessary evidence. However. one
American study found that there were a number of 12 and 13 yea r old pupils in
Baltimore who performed at the same level as the top 10 per cenl of 17 year
olds on a mathematics test designed to reveal potential for college study.

343 We believe it is clear from the preceding paragraphs thaI itis not possible
10 make any overall staleme nt aboul the mathematical knowledge and
understanding which children in gene ral should be expected to possess at the
 6 Malhematics in the primary years 101

end of the primary years. However. the test results which we have quoted , and
others which we have studied, indica te that even in the primary years the cur-
riculum provided for pupils needs to take into account the wide gap in
understanding and skill which can exist between children of the same age.

344 The study of test resu lts provides evidence only of the achievement of
children under test conditions as a result of the curricula and the teaching
methods which have been used. They cannot indicate what might be the
results given different curricula or different teaching methods. H owever, the
fact that the overall picture is similar in different English-speaking countries
suggests that any improvements in teaching are likely to produce slow change
rather than rapid results. Even if the average level of attainment can be raised,
the range of attainment is likely to remain as great as jt is at present, or per-
haps become sliB greater, because any measures which enab le all pupils to
learn mathematics more successfully will benefit high attainers as much as ,
and perhaps more than , those whose attainment is lower.

Altitudes 345 During every mathematics lesson a child is nol only learning, or failing to
learn, mathematics asa result of the work he is doing but is also developing his
attitude towards mathematics. In every mathematics lesson his teacher is
conveying, even if unconsciously. a message about mathematics which will
inOuence this attitude. Once attitudes have been formed, they can be very
persistent and difficult to change. Positive attitudes assist the learning of
matbematics; negative attitudes not only inhibillearning but, as we discussed
in Chapter 2, very often persist into adult life and affect choice of job .

346 By the end of the primary years a child 's atti tud e to matbematics is often
becoming fixed and will determine the way in which he will approach math-
ematics at the secondary stage. He may thoroughly enjoy his work in math-
ematics, or be may be counting the days until he can SlOp attending mathema-
tics lessons. He may have learned that mathematics provides a means of
understanding, explaining and controlling his environment, or he may have
failed to realise that it has an y relevance outside the classroom. He may have
learned the importance of exploration and perseverance when tackling a
problem and have experienced the pleasu re which comes from finding its
solution , or he may regard mathematics as a series of arbitrary routines to be
carried out at the teacher'S behest, wi th no opportunity for initiative or
independent thought. He may be well on the way to mastering some of the
mathematician's skills, or he may already see mathematics as an area of work
which he cannot understand and in which he always experiences failure.

347 In the previous paragraph we have set out extrem es of att itude in orderto
s tress the importance of doing all that is possible to develop positive attitudes
towards mathematics from the earliest days at school. AI th e age of 5, chil-
dren usually show an uninhibited enthusiasm and curiosity; school is
enjoyable and they learn rapidly and with interest as they encounter a great
variety of new experience. The challenge for the teacher is to present math-
ematics in a way which continues to be interesting and enjoyable and so aUows
102 6 Ma{hemalics in (he primary years

und erstanding to devel op_ In the course of our vlsits to primary schools we
met a number of teach ers who were succeeding in presenting mathematics in
this way and whose pupils were clearly enjoyin g thei r work . The notes which
we mad e after the visit s contain co mments snch as li the level of work a nd
presentation were mos t impress ive __ pupils went a bo ut their work in a
quiet. business-li ke ye t enthusias tic manner", "a most enjoyable visit . , , a
happy and conscientious staff working together to ac hieve common aims".
H o wever, not aU the classes we visited were achieving these levels of in vol-
vement and the importance of creating positive attitudes to mathema tics did
not a lways seem to have been realised. Even in school s in which the ge neral
atmosphere was lively a nd supportive, the need of child ren to work at math-
ematics in practical ways had not always bee n reali sed, so that all~LUd es to
mathematics in some cla ssrooms con trasted stro ngly with attitudes tow a rd s
other work. In some classrooms c hildren were wo rking at abstract ca lcu -
lati ons with numbers beyo nd their experience; thei r need to measure . weigh
and pour water, to count reaJ things and [0 lear n about hundreds , te ns and
units with apparatus and with money had gone large ly unrecognised.

The organisation of 348 In most primary sc hools children work in mixed ability classes which
leaching groups for usually contain chi ldren of onl y one year group , T he teacher in charge of the
rnat.hematics class is normall y responsible for the greater part of th e work of the class,
including marh e matics. This arrangem ent allows flexibilit y in th e o rgani-
sa tion of work in mathem atics, as in other areas of the curriculum . It is no t,
for example , necessa ry for chi ldren to do mathematics at a fixed time o r for a
given length of time, nor for all children to do mathematics at the same tim e_
It is t herefore poss ible for the teacher to work with part of the class while the
remaining children are engaged in activities which require less immediate
attention f rom [he teacher. Because the same teacher is with th e class fo r most
of the week , rhere is al so maximum opportunit y to relarewo rk in mathematics
to work in other c urric ular areas (see paragraph 325). However, the qualit y of
the mathematics teaching inevitabl y depe nd s largely on the st rength and
interest of the class teacher. If this reac her lacks enthusiasm for mathemarics
and confid ence in teac hing it , the c hildren in the class will be disad vantaged,
Even though th e membership of a class may not change very much from one
year to the nex t it is common for th ere to be a change of class teac her a t the
beginning of each year. It is therefore possible for some children to be taught
mathematics by seven different teachers during the primar y years, with con-
sequ ent problems of ensuring continuity. An arrangement whereby the same
teac her rema ins with a class for more than one year is likely to improve cOn-
ti nuity but may not improve th e teac hing of mathemat ics if th e teac her lacks
the necessary expertise .

349 'Vertical grouping', in whic h ch ildren of two or more yea r gro ups are
placed in the sam e class, is quite often used in the infan t year s and is a neces-
si ty in some sma ll primary sc hools. Although an arrangem ent of this kind
may lessen prob lems of continuity. ther e will almo st certai nly be a greater
spread o f a tt ai nm ent in mathematics among the children in the class and a
co nsequ ent inc rease of djfficuli.y fo r the teacher in ma tchin g leve ls of wo rk to
 6 :\1alhel1lali cs in Ihe primary years 103

• " There i.!. dea r ev ide nce from the the needs of the children .' We do not th erefore consider that this form of
sur\>cy thai the perfor mance of grouping offers an y advantages for lhe teaching of mathematics.
children in classes. of mixed age
can suffer." Prlllwryeduca/lon in
England . A .survey by H ,\1
Inspec to rs of Schools . HMSO 350 Although most primary teachers group the children in their classes
1978. according to atta inm ent for some part at least of their work in mathematics,
there are some junior and middle schools in which this practice is extended
further so that children from several classes are rearranged for mathematics
into groups based on attainment. This enables the rangeof attainment in an y
one group to be reduced and so makes it easier for teachers to match the levels
of the wo rk appropriatel y. However. it is necessary to realise that even when
children are grouped in thi s way, considerable differences will exist within
each group . This is illustrated by a submission which we have received from a
teacher in a middle school : "The middle group itself could have been divided
into three, so great was the disparity of understanding" , Furthermore, even
when grouping of this kind is used, the teaching still has to be shared among
the teachers of th e classes from whi ch the groups have been formed and so
some grou ps may be taug ht mathematics by teachers who lack interest in the
subject 0:- confidence in teac hing it. Nevertheless, rearrangeme nt of this kind
is likel y to make it easier to provide appropriately for higher-attaining pupils.

35J Some of our members who visited Denmark were able to observe math-
ematics teaching in a Fo/kesko/e, a comprehensive school for children aged 7
to t 6 . From the age of 7, children in this school were in classes whose teaching
was shared by th ree teachers, and were usually taught by th e same small team
of teachers for several years . This not only ensured continuity of mathematics
teachiug but also enabled teachers to make use of thei r particular strengths.
We do not suggest that this form of organisation would necessarily be
appropriate in this country but we believe that it suggests the need to examine
the advantages of some form of team teaching , perhaps by means of twO or
three classes working in association with eac h other, so that cont inuity of
mathematics teaching could be maintained for two or lhree years. If a
teaching team contain s a teacher with enthusiasm for mathematics and with
some specialist knowl edge, this teacher is able to lead the work in mathema-
tics of a mu ch larger group of children than would otherwise be the case and
also to assist the other members of the team . A few schools already work in
this way with teams of two to four teachers work.ing together. Each teache r
takes a major responsibilit y for one area o f the curriculum and follows the
lead o f the other teachers in (he remaining areas. An arrangement of this kind
enables children to experience greater continuity of teaching and still to be
well known to their class teacher. It also p rovides forteachers the opportunilY
of observ ing the mathematical development of children over a longer period
than a s ingle yea r.

• Primar), education in England. A 352 The report of the National Primary Survey' draws attention to the need
survey by HM ln Sp CCl Ol'S of for schools to consider how bes t to de ploy staff in order to make the best use
School s. HM SO 1978.
o f the strengths of individual teach ers . We believe that all schools should
examine the extent to which the fo rm of organisation which they are using
104 6 Malhematics in the prima ry year~

e nables the best use to be made of the ma thematical strengths of their staff
and provides con tinuit y of teaching in mathematics for the child ren in t he
school.

Time allocation for 353 On a verage, juni or classes devo te about fi ve hours a week to mathema-
mathemat ics tics, but this figure co nceals wide variations fro m less than three hours to
more than six . If, as we believe should be the case, mathematics plays a part in
many areas of Lhe curriculum , c hildren ma y do Quite a lot of mathematics
outside the time specifically a Hocated to it. We do not therefore believe that
such specific allo cation should exceed five hours per week. On the other ha nd ,
we do not consider that the tim e allocation should fall substantially below
fou r hours. So far as is possible . time for mathematics shou ld be flexib le, so
that an interesti ng discussion can be foHowed to its conclusion o r a piece of
practical work compJeted; mental mathematics is usuall y best done for a
fairly shon period of time . Even older children shou ld not nor mall y work at
mathematics for more than one hour at a stretch .

The malhematics 354 The effectiveness of the math ematics teach ingj n a primary school can be
co-ordinator conside rably enhanced if one teacher is given responsibilit y fo r the planning,
co~ordination and oversight of work in mathematics throughout the school.
\ Ve shall refer Lo suc h a teacher as t he 'mathem atics co ~ ordinator'.

355 In our view it should be part of the dulies of lhe malhematics co-
ordinator to :

• prepare a sc heme of work for the school in consultarion with the head
teacher and staff and. where possible, with sc hools from which the
children come and to which th ey go (we discuss this furth er in paragraph
363);
• provide guidance and support to other members of staff in impl e-
menting the scheme of work, both bymeans of meetings and by working
alongsid e individual teachers;
• organise and be re.spo nsible for procuring. within the fund s made
avai lab le, th e necessary teac hin g resources fo r math ematics, maintain
an up~to~dat e in ve ntory and ensure that memb ers of staff are aware of
how to use t he resou rces whic h are ava ilable;
• monitor wo rk in mathematics th rou ghout the school. including rneth~
ods of assessmem and record keeping ~
• assist wi th the diagnosi s of children's learning difficulties and with their
remediation;
• arrange school based in-se rvice training for members of staff as ap pro -
priat e ~

• maintain liaison with schools from wh ich c hildren come and to which
they go, and a lso with LEA advisory staff.
 6 Mathemati cs in the primary years 105

356 It wo uld not have been difficult to extend this list further by going into
grea ter detail and by making specific mention of a number of other duties
wh ic h are incl uded by implic.atio n. It is. for example. necessary that the
mathematics co -ordinator should keep in touch with currenl development s in
mathem atica l educat ion; and it wjJJ be necessary to pay particular atlention to
the needs of probationary teachers, of teac hers new to th e staff and of
teachers on tempora ry supply as we ll as of teachers who lack confidence in
teaching mathematics. The overriding task mu st be to pro vide suppon for all
who teach mathematics and so improve. the qua.lity and continuity of math-
ematics teaching throughout th e schoo l.

357 Good support from the head teacher is essential if the mathematics co-
ordinator is to be able to work effecti vely, and some modification of the co-
ordinalor's teach ing timetable is likely to be necessary in order to make it
possible to work a longside other teachers. Appropriate in-service training for
th e mathemaucs co-ordinator will also be required ; we discuss this further in
paragraph 723.

358 There is at prese nt a great shortage of teachers who are suitably qualified
to become co-ordinators bUI we believe that every effort should be made to
train and appoint suilably qualified teachers in as many schools as possible .
We consider that, in all but the smallest schools. Ihe responsibility sbould be
recognised by appointmenl 10 a Scale 2 or Scale 3 posl, or by the award of
additional salary increments; we discuss th is further in paragraph 662.

Math e matics 359 About half of lhe LEAs in England and Wales have issued mathematics
g uidelines guidelines. T hese are documents which provide guidance to teachers about
th e content of the mathematics curri culu m and sometim es also about
teaching method . The majorit y of guid elines rela te to mathematics for pupils
up to the age of 11 or 13. though some relate to mathematics for infants or for
middle schools . Ma ny LEAs ha ve se nt us copies of th eir guidelines. We ha ve
noted that those which ha ve been produced most recently reflecL an increasing
concern \-..,ith assessment. Some LEAs have produced record sheets and
assessment materials related to their guidelines which can be used by teachers.

360 Most LEA guidelines have been produ ced by groups of teachers worki ng
under the leadership of an LEA ad viser. In many cases the ad viser and some
of those who have helped to prepare the guidelines have then introduced tbem
to groups of teachers at local meetings. We believe lhat some proced ure of tbis
kind should alwa ys be followed. so that the thinking which under lies the
g uidelines can be explained a nd disc ussed . If the guideHnes a re issued wi th out
ex planatio n and discussion, we consider that they are likely to lose much of
their effecti ve ness. Such inilial introdu ction should be followed by discussio n
of th e guidelines in each school.

361 If is essenlial tbat guidelines are kepi under review and revised regularly .
At present, for example, few which we ha ve seen offer guidance a bout the use
106 6 Malhemalics in the primary years

of calculato rs within primary math emati cs . We believe also [hat many

guidelines may need adju stme nt in the light oflhe inform ation which is now
• A ss es~menl of Perfo rm a nce availabJe in the repo rts of th e Assessment of Performance Unit· so as to place
Unit . M(J fllf'nlati('(J/ del-'e/oplne", . greater emphasis on the differ ences in attain men t which exist between chi l·
Primary :mrvey repu/'l ,'\/0 J and
dre n of the same age.
,Va 2. HM SO 1980 and 198 1.

362 One of the p urposes of issuing guideli nes is to ease transfer to secondary
schools or ot her prima ry schools within th e LEA . Therefo re, wh ere LEA
guidelines exist, they should be take n into account w hen prepari ng a school's
scheme of work; we discuss thi s further in the fo llowi ng paragraph .

Schemes of work 363 A scheme of wo rk is essential as a bas is fOT the (eac hing of mathemat ics
in a schoo l. The responsibility for its preparation lies wit h the head teac her
but is lik ely to be de legated to lhe mathematics co-ordina tor. A carefull y
planned scheme of work ca n assist greatly in maintaining co ntinuity both of
syllabus COnlent and of approach as children move from class to class. In
addition to setting o ut the progression of work in mathematics whic h shou ld
be fo llowed, the scheme of work should provide guida nce about t he resour -
ces, including both pract ical equipment and books or work cards, which are
av ailab le; it should abo make suggest ions a s to the ways in which th ey ca n be
used for th e differe nt topi cs in the syllab us. It should outline the approaches
to be used in th e teaching of particular topics and give guidance ab o ut such
matters as assessmen t and reco rd keeping.

364 The prepara tion of a scheme of wo rk takes a considera ble time .

Wherever possible all members of staff should collaborate in th e task. Th is
not only prov ides an excellent fo rm of in-service trainjng but makes it easier
fo r teachers to imple ment the schem e in their class room s because they will be
awareo fthe intentiol1s which underli e it and of the di scussion which has take n
place duri ng its preparation . As we ha ve a lready pointed OUl, the scheme
should take account of LEA guidelines where they exist; ir is desirable, too,
that there should be consultation with th e mathematics adviser or advisory
teacher and with th e sc hools from which th e children co me and to which they
tra nsfer. It is essenti al that the sc heme of work should be appraised and
revised regul a rl y in th e li ght of th e experience of the teachers who ha ve been
using it in their class rooms.

Small schools 365 The tea ching o f mathematics in small schools can give rise to a number of
pro blems . The small number of teachers makes it less likely that there will be a
memb er of staff with mathematical expertise; the head teacher may therefore
have to act as mathematics co-ordinator. The tas k of preparing a scheme o f
work is as great in a small sc hool a s in a larger school but there are fewer
t.eachers to share in t.he work . Becau se the head teacher is li kely to have
responsibility for a class, the operat ion of the sc heme of work ma y be difficult
to monitor. The age ra nge ofthechildren in each class is likely to be wide and .
because smal l schools are ofte n in somewhat isolated sit ua tions, th e teachers
in th em may lac k the suPpOrt which can corne from professional contact with
other teac hers .
 6 Mat hemat ics jn the primary years 107

366 For th ese reasons, some of the suggestions which we have put forward
are likely to be harder to carry out in a small school tha n in one which is large r
and an increased degree of support from outside the school is therefore likely
to be required. We have been IOld that in some areas an additional teacher has
been assigned to a group of small schools. This teacher is a part-time member
o f the staff of each school and acts as mathematics co-ordinalOr for all of
them, working in each school in tu rn on a regular basis. \Ve commend such
init iatives. Advisory teachers can also give help of a similar kind and enable
those who teach in small schools to become aware, for exa mple, of the dif-
ferent kinds of resources which are available to assist in the teaching of math-
ematics and of the way s in whi ch they are used,

Aims and objeclives 367 It is common for sch emes of work in mathematics to beg in with a
statement of aims, Such a beginning should not be regarded merely as a
necessary formality but should be a statement of intent whi ch has been
discussed, developed and accepted by those who teach mat hematics in a
school, The aims of mat hematics teaching in primary schools sho uld be
closely related to the general aim s of pdmary education . The primary years
are a time when children are nor only acquiring the skills of lan guage and
num ber bu t are also exper iencing a variety of methods of learn ing; they are
learnin g to think, to feel and 10 do, to explore a nd to discover.

368 Aims are conceived at different levels a nd are of necessity expressed in

gen eral terms; they are realised as much through the methods of teaching
which are used as through the topics which are being taught. Amongst the
most general can be aims such as developing a good attitude to mathematics
and 'opening doors' onto a wide varie ty of mathematica l experience . Othe rs
which are rather more specific can relate to the development of spatial
awareness, of ability to solve problems , of a bility 10 use and apply mathema-
tics, of abi lity to think and leason logically, OT ability to use mathematical
language and to the acq uisition of certai n ski ll s. We believe that few would
dissent from these aims, but the em phasis they receive may vary. An excellent
·H !>,.lI Series , '\1:Hl ers ror discuss · set o f aims is set out in Mathematics 5-11* , This is developed from the
ion 9. ,HothemUlh:s 5-11 . A statement '( 'A'e teach mathematics in o rder to help people to understand
handbook or s uggesliom. HM SO
things better-perhaps to understand the jobs on which they might la ter be
1979 ,
employed, or to understand th e creative achievements of the human mind or
the behavio ur of tbe natural world " , It concludes "Finally, there is the over-
riding aim to maintain and increase confidence in mathematics ..

369 For classroom purposes some aims can be translated into more explicit
and precise objectives but o thers, such as th ose co ncerned with the devel-
opment of positive attitudes and ap preciation of the creati ve aspects of
mat hematics are less ta ngible and so not easily expressed in terms of
objectives . For this reason they can sometimes fail to receive their due atten-
tion. The way in which a panicular topic is to be taught and a particula r
o bjec tive achieved needs to be considered in relation to the aims of the course
as a whol e and es pecially of those aims to which it can make a direct contri-
108 6 Mathematics in the prim ary yea rs

bution. Some topics, for example, offe r particular opportunities to develop

apprecialion of space or pattern, others to help in the development oflogicaJ
thinking, others to develop persistence in sustained work , h is rherefore
necessary when working at a particular topic in the class room to have in mind
both the need to reJate it to ot her work which has been covered and also to
consider ".'a ys in whi ch it can co ntribute to broader aims. Unless both of these
needs are held in mind , it is possible for certain topi cs to become ends in
themselves rather than means through which wider mathem atical
und erstandin g can develop .

370 It is necessary. too, to ensure that approaches which are used in the
classroom do nO( conflict with the aims which have been agreed for teaching
mathematics in the school. For example, one of [he aims set out in Mathe-
malics 5 - 11 - "to develop an understanding of mathematics through
a process of enquiry and experiment" -will not be achieved if the methods of
teaching which are used do not allow or encourage children to work in {his
way . Because it is easy for long-term aims to become overloo ked asa result of
the day-by-day pressuresoflhe classroom. all (eachers need [Q rev iew the aims
of their teac hing regularly in order to di scove r wh ethe r these aims are being
fu lfilled within the classroom or whether they are giving way to other more
limited and unintended aims.

371 II must be for each school to develop its own aims and objeclives for
teaching mathematics in the light afits app roach to the curricu lum as a whole;
it must be for each class teacher to seek to achieve these aims and objectives by
the provision of suitable activities for the children in the class. (( is essential
that s upport is available [0 help teache rs in their task; in lhe provision of such
suppo rt the head teacher and Ih e mathematics co-ordinator should playa
major pan.
 109

7 Calculators and computers

372 We devot e a separate chapter to electronic calcul atOrs and computers

because we believe that th eir increasing availability at low cost is of (he
greatest signi fIcance for th e teaching of mathematics. As a result of the fact
that in the mid 1970s the price of electroni c calculators started to fa li very
rapidly, very many adu lts now possess calculat ors of their own. So, too, do
considerable numbers of school pupils; and man y pupils of all ages and abili-
ties who do not have a calculator of their own have access at home to a calcu-
lator belonging to some other member of t he fa mil y.

373 AI the present time a sim il arl y rapid drop is taking place in the price of
small computers, now more usually referred to as micro-computers, and a
Government programme has been announced which is intended to ensure
that at [east one micro-co mputer will be available in every secondary school
by the end of 1982. Most micro·computers display their inp ut and outpu t o n a
television-type scree n; some also ha ve a printer which wi ll provide a per-
ma nent record if one is required . As ye t the number of fa milies who possess a
micro-computer is still relativel y sma ll bUl it seems clear that this number is
likely to increase ver y considerably wi th in the next few year s. '''Ie are
there fore in a situation in which increasing numbers of children will grow up
in homes in which calcul ato rs and micro-computers are readil y available, in
which [here is access to a variety o f information services displayed on
domestic televisionsels a nd in which the pla ying of 'interactive' games, either
on micro- computers or by mea ns of special attachments to television sets , is
commonplace.

374 T hese developmenls have very greal implicalions for lhe teaching of
many subjects in schools. So far as the leaching of mathematics is concerned ,
we believe thaI lhere are lwo fundamenla.1 malters which need 10 be cOn-
sidered. The first concerns the ways in which calculators and micro-
computers can be used to assist and improve the teaching of mathemat ics in
the classroom . Th e second concerns the exteO( to which lhe availability of
calculators a nd microprocessors should change the content of what is tau ght
or the re lative stress which is placed on different topi cs within the mathema-
tics syllabus . We have not listed separa tel y the question of the relationship
between the use of calculators and th e development of fl uency in mental and
written calculation because we believe that, alt hough important, it arises as
one aspect of these fundamental mallers and needs to be considered in that
context.
110 7 Calculators and computer:.

Calculators 375 Amon g the submissions which we have received there are man y which
make reference to the use of electron ic calculators either in school or at work
and the range of views which is expressed is very great indeed. For instance :
Exe rcise of the basic skills s hould not depend upon use of calculators: these
should be lirniled to higher education.

Mathemati cs mu St be a compulso ry s ubjecL, taught {O a reasonable stand al'd .

using one 's loaf and not a calculator.

The members were agreed o n the tremendous part e lectronic calculators and
machines now pla y in employment. A cco rdingly, it would seem sensible for the
teachin g o f mathema lics to introduce pupil s (0 ma chines and to familiarise them
with th eir ca pabiliti es and use.

Ca lculator s have revolut ionised comp utation and barely numer ate swdenls can
o vercome their weaknesses wilh thes e.

376 It is clear that man y ofthose who have written to us assume that the use of
calculators in schools is very much more widespread than is, in fact, the case.
Alt hou gh increasing num bers of pupils in secondary schools. as well as some
in primary se-hools, now possess their own calculators, we believe that in only
a minority of secondary schoo ls are sufficient calculators provided for it to be
possi ble for all the pupils who are being taught mathematics at anyone time to
have one for indi vid ual use; thjs is a matter to which we return in paragraph
393. There still appear to be man y teachers of mathematics in the secondary
years who discourage or fo rbid the use of calculators by their pupils. [n very
many primary classrooms no use is made of calculators at all.

377 It is also clear that there is widesp read public concern abo ut the use of
calculators by ch ildren who have not yet mastered the traditional pencil and
paper methods of com putation . It is feared that children who use calculators
too early will not acquire fluency in com putation nor confident reca ll of basic
number fact s. These fea rs are understandable and should not be igno red.
However, such research evidence as is at present available sugges ts that there
may be advantages which more than compensate for any possible disad-
vantages. In recent years a considerable number or research studies carried
out in the United States of America have compared the computational per-
formance of groups of pupils who have used calculato rs with that of groups of
pupils who have not. Some of these studies have reported improve ments
among those who have used calculators in atlitudes towards mathematics, in
personal computational skills, in understanding of concepts and in problem-
so lving; other studies have found no differences whi.ch are stat is tically signi-
ficant between (he performance of those who have used calculators and those
who ha ve not. From BlIthe sludies Ihe weigh I of evidence is strong thai the use
of calculafors has not produced any adverse effect on basic compufalional
ability. W e believe that this is important and should be belter known both to
teachers and to the public at large. Neve rtheless, it remains incumbent upon
those who teach mathematics to ensure that the development of appropr iale
skill s of mental and written calcu lation is not neglected. Nor should a school
7 Calculators and computeT!, III

o verfook the need to make parents aware of its policy in regard Lo the use of
calculators by pupils.

378 We wish 10 stress thallhe availability of a calculalor in no way reduces

Ihe need for mathematical understanding on (he part of the person t\o'ho is
using iL We have already explained that, for example, knowing how to mul-
lipl y and knowjng when Lo multiply involve distinct aspects of ceaching and
learning. A calculatof can be of no use untH a decision has been madeas to the
mathemarical operation which need s to be carried out and ex perience shows
that children (and also adults) whose mathematical understanding is weak are
very often reluctant to make use of a calculator . We believe that this is a
crucial point which is nOt always appreciated, especially by those who criticise
the use of calculators in schools.

379 There can be little doub t of the motivating effect which calcu lators have
for very many children, even at an early age_ This is illustrated by the follow-
ing extract from one of the submissions we have received from parents.
Following professional advice o f mathematical co lleagues we kept calc ulators
away from our children unti llh eir lale teen s. But the youngest at age 6 got hold of a
calculator to help o ut bis 'tables' and round j[ stlch fun mat he has been much more
mathematical! } in cl ined since. So perhaps it would be wise to introduce ~impje .
ca lculators al an early age.

380 Pupils often learn to operate calculators by making use of them in th e

first inslance [0 check calculations which have been carried out memally Of on
paper . Although this shou ld not be regard ed as a major use of calculators in
the classroom, rheir use in this way nevertheless offers two imponam advan-
tages. The first is that feedback is immediate so that pupils are able to check
their work frequentl y. This enables them to seek help i f they o btain a success-
ion of wrong answe rs or to take steps themselves to locale occasional errOrS.
Pupils who lack co nfidence can also receive encouragement as a result of
being a ble to satisfy themselves that they are obtaining correct answers . Th e
second advantage is that {he calculator is 'neutral' and does nm express dis-
approval or criticism of wrong answers. This can be a very great help lO some
pupils; furthermo re, the use of a calculator in this way can provide a
morivation and, in some cases , a det er mination to succeed in order to 'beat
lhe calculator' \-\' hich would not otherwise exist.

381 rt is, of course, easy to make mistakes when using a calculator. These can
occasionally arise from faulty functioning of the calculator itself but are
much more likely to be the result of fault y operation by th e person who is
using it. For lhi s reason it is essential chat pupils should be enabled {O acquire
goo d ha bits in the use of calculalor s so as t.o guard against mistakes . Pupils
must learn that calculations should be repeated, if possi ble by entering th e
numbers in a different order; that subtraction can be checked by addition and
division by multipli ca tion . It is also necessary to stress the im portance of
check~ng answers by means of suitable estimat ion and approximation.
Discussion of all these matters in the classroom provides opportunity for
increasin g pupils' understanding of mathematical concepts and rourines and
so contributes (0 their progress.
112 7 C alculat ors and compu ters

382 It is also important that pupils s hould reali se that not ali ca/c,ulators
operate in exactly the same way ; and thal lhey should be able to 'explore' a
calculator which is unfamiliar in order to discover whether it has particular
c haracteri stics which need to be taken into account when using it. It follows
that we cannot regard the fa ct that th e pupils in a class may possess different
mod els of calculator as being a reason for avoiding thelT use. Comparison of
the routines needed 10 perform the same task on differem model s of calcu-
lator can be very instructive.

383 Before we dis cuss more specifically some oflhe ways in which calculators
ca n be used in the primary and secondary years we wish to draw attention to
one further matter which we believe to be of importance. This is the use of
calculators for the purpose of encouraging mathematical investigation. This
can stan at the primary sta ge, as we describe in the following paragraph. At
the secondary stage, pupil s sho uld be encouraged to undertake exploration of
the capabilities of the calculator itsel f; for example, of the largest and smallest
numbers wh ich can be entered, of what happens when the result of a calcu-
lation becomes too large or too small for the calculator to accommodate. of
the use which can be made of memories and co nstant facilities and of the most
economical methods of carrying out a va riety of calculations . Investigations
of this kind are appropriate for pupils of all levels of attainmen t and assist in
developing awareness of the range of facilities which calcula tors provide. \Ve
suspect that man y adults who possess calculators and use th em regu larly are
not fu ll y aware of the capabilities of the machines which tbey own; for exam-
ple, they may not be able [Q say what would happen if, in given circumstances,
they pressed the 'equals' key twice in succession. Calculators can also be used
for mo re general investigations of many kinds . W o rk of this kind is expeciaU y
valuable as a means of extending the mathematical insight of pupils whose at-
tainment is high.

The use of calculators in 384 Many primary teachers feel some uncerta inty about jntroducing calcu -
the primary years lators into the ir clas sroom s until more guidance is availab le than is the case at
present. However. the increasing availability of calculators in many homes
mea ns that many children are likely to have access to a calculator at an early
age and, by th e age of 6, wili have sta rted to experiment to see what they can
do. We the refore believe that primary leachers need to be able to use a calcu-
lator lhemselves, and that they should ensure that some calculators are
available in the classroom for children to use. These ca n be used as an aid in
discovery a nd inves(igational work. For example, a number of additions of
theform4 + 6.14 + 6.24 + 6,., .. . . , 4 + 16,14 + 16,24 + 16, . ... .. can
be carried out with a calculator to enable a child to find out the result of
adding numbers ending in 4 and 6. This can be followed up in subsequent
mental work and other similar number palterns explored.

385 There a re other ways in which a calculator can be used as an aid to

teaching . For example, by entering th e number 572 and lhen asking a child to
change the display to 502, to 5720 or to 57.2, in each case by means of a si ngle
arithmetical operation, it is possible to reinforce understanding of place
value. If lhe ch ild cannOl carry out lhe necessary operations the teacher is
enabled to locate the area in which lack of understanding exists and to prov ide
 7 Calcularors and computers 11 3

appropriate additional experience. Again, many children find difficulty in

writing down the nu mber which is, for example, one more than 6399 or o ne
less than 6500. The calculator can assist with problems of this kind and
provide a visua l display whic h ca n be reconciled with an approach to the same
question by mea ns of the use of structural apparat us.

386 Children who make use of calculators are likel y to meet decimals and
negat iv e numbers ea rlier th an is usual at present. This pro vi des the teacher
with new o pportunities of discussing these topics and the context in which
they arise; (h e ract that some calculators record whole numbers as, for exam-
ple, 5. o r, less commonly. 5.000000 may also lead to questions . Because
calcula tors differ in their capabilities an d in the fo rmat in which they display
their res ults, teachers need to be aware tha t some types of calcu lator are more
suita ble than others fo r use at the primary stage . Calculators also enable
children to deal with larger numbers than would otherwise be possible. This
meaus that investigations of such things as number patterns can be extended
furthe r. A calculator also makes it possi ble to deal with 'real life situations';
for example, it is possib le to find the average height or weight of a wholedass
rather than of only a small number of ch ildren.

387 There is as yet little evidence about the extent to which a calculator
should be used instead of penci l and paper for purposes of calculation in the
primary years; nor is there evidence about the eventual balance to be obtained
at the primary stage between ca lculations carried out mentally, o n paper, o r
with a calcu lator. However, it is clear that the arit hmetical aspects of the
primary curriculum cannot but be affected by the increasing availability of
calculators. In ou r view, it is right that primary t.eac hers should allow children
to make use of calc ulators for approp riate purposes, white remembering th at,
for the reasons which we have discussed in Cha pter 6, it will remai n essential
that children acquire a sec ure grasp of the ' num ber facts ' up to lO + lOand lO
x 10 and t he ability to carry out , both mentally and o n paper, straightfor-
ward calculations which ma ke use of these facts.

388 It is likely that the use of calculators ma y bring about some change in the
order in which differen t parts of the prima ry mathe ma tics syllabus are intro-
duced. We have alread y referred to the earlier int roduction o f the concepts o f
decimals and negative numbers. Decima ls will assume g reater importance in
relation to fractions than is the case at present. Some developme nt work on
the use of calculators in the primary yea rs is going on a t the present time. In
our view. 11)0re is needed both 10 consider Ihe nse of calculalors as an aid to
teaching and learning within the primary mathematics curriculum as a whole
and also the extent to which the arithmetical aspect"!l or th e curriculum may
need to be modified. We believe that prio rity should be given to this work and
to providing associated in-sen-ice training for teachers.

The use of calculalors 389 We beneve tbat there is one over-riding reason why all secondary pnpils
in the secondary years should , as part of their mathematics course, be taught and allowed to lise B
calculator. This arises fro m the increasing use which is being made of calcu-
lators both in employment and in adult life. We believe that calculators are
also likely to be used increasingly in other curricular areas. We have already
114 7 Calcu Jalors and co rnpUl f"r.'j

drawn attention to the necessity of establishing good habits when using a

calculat or so that mi stakes can be avoided. The prime responsibility for doing
this must lie with th e mathematics department. If the necessary instruction is
not given as part o f the mathemati cs course, it is unlikely to be given at alL
FUI1..hermo re, the necessary skills cannot be estab lished in a few short lessons;
likea ll oth er skills, th ey need to be pract ised and to have time to develop . As
we poi nled out in paragraph 381, the development of these skills provides
opportunity for develo ping und ers tanding in other ways as well.

390 Alth o ugh tr a ining in th e use of calculato rs must not be allowed to inter-
fer e wilh th e acquis ition o f appropriate ski lls of mental and written compu-
lalion, we believe that their ava ilability sho uld in Ouence th e complexity of tbe
calculations which pupils are expected to carry ou t with pencil and paper and
also lh e time which is spenl in practising such calculations. We bel ieve that it is
reasonable to expect that most secondary pupils should beable , without using
a calculator, to multipl y by whole numbers up to 100, even thought they may
often use a calculator to ca r ry out calcul at.ions of th is kind . Some pupils wili ,
witho ut difficulty, be able to multipl y by larger numbers a nd th ey should not
be dissuaded from acquiring th is skill. Pupils should also be a ble to divide by
numbers up [ 0 10. However , 'long division' has always presen(ed grearer dif-
fic ulty than ' long multiplication' , and we suspect th a t man y adul ts who were
taughl th is process whilst a l school wo uld be unable to explain why th e
meth od works. We believe lhat it is nOl profitable for pupils to spend time
practisi ng th e tradilio nal method of setting o ut long division on paper, but
that th ey should norma)ly use a calcu lator. Once again, pupils who are inter-
est.ed in acq uiring th e abi li t.y to pe rform this calcul a lion ' long-hand' sho uld
not be dissuaded. We believe that lower-attaining secondary pu pils should use
a calculator fo r all excepl lhe most straightforward calculations. For these
pupils emphasis shoul d be placed o n using the calculator correctl y and
employing suitable check ing procedures .

391 The availabilit y of calculators makes it necessary to conside r al, o the

extent to wh ich mathematical tables will continue to be used in the fULUre. The
purpose of using logarithm tables is to avoid having to carry out heavy calcu-
lations wit h penci l and paper by mak ing use of a method which is easier and
quicker; and also. in some cases, to perform calculations, such as those
invo lving fract.ional indices, which it is very difficult to carr y out with pencil
and paper. A calculator provides a means of carrying out such calculations in
a still more straightforward way and we believe Ihere can be no doub1 that.
calculators should replace logarithm tables as the everyday aid 10 calculation.
The mo re sophisticated 'scien tific' calculators enable the valu es o f
[rigonometrica l functions such as si ne, cos in e and tangent t.o be obtained
wi thout recourse to tables. We have been told that ma ny pupil s already poss-
ess cal culators of th is kind. As th e availability of these calcu lalors increases
we believe that the use of trigonomet.rical tables wiU decline and eventu ally
cease; we wou ld encourage this .

392 Calculators can be used to assist in the teachin g of a number of lopics ,

including work with operations, functions, exponents, polynomials. square
 7 Calculators and computers 115

roots and problem solving. However, relatively little published material is yet
avail~ble which illustrates ways in which calculators can be used as a means of
developing mathematical understanding; much of the material which does
exist is contained in the publications of the professional mathematical asso-
ciations. We suspect that very few of those who teach mathematics at secon-
dary level are at present making use of calculators as an aid to teaching; and
that most of those who encourage their pupils to use calculators regard them
solely as a way of avoiding tiresome computation. This can, of course, be very
helpful when teaching a topic such as trigonometry, which usually involves a
considerable amount of computation in its early stages. A reduction in the
time spent on computation means that there is greater opportunity to develop
the underlying concepts. Examples involving the use of Pythagoras' theorem
to calculate lengths are also much easier if a calculator is available. However,
these are not examples of the use of calculators in the way to which we referred
at the beginning of this paragraph. There is an urgent need for an increase in
the limited amount of work which is at present being undertaken 10 develop
classroom materials designed to develop understanding of fundamental prin-
ciples.

The availability of 393 Throughout the preceding paragraphs we have assumed that calculators
calculators \""ill be available for pupils to use. We conclude our discussion of the use of
calculators in the secondary years by considering two matters which are
related and which are likely influence the policy about the use of calculators in
the classroom which is adopted by individual schools. The first is the extent to
which calculators are available for the use of pupils in secondary schools, the
second the question of their use in public examinations. At present there is no
common policy among examination boards concerning the use of calculators
in mathematics examinations . Some boards do not permit calculators to be
used at aU, some allow them in certain examinations or certain papers but not
in others, a few permit calculators to be used freely .

394 One reason which is often given for not allowing calculators to be used in
public examinations is that candidates who do not possess calculators will be
at a disadvantage. This argument assumes that a school is unlikely to be able
to provide a calculator for the use of each pupil who is attempting a math-
ematics examination and who does not have a calculator of his own. We do
not accept that this should be the case. At the present time the cost of pro-
viding some200 calculators of a type suitable for use by pupils in the 11-16 age
range would not exceed £2,000 at a generous estimate. This number of calcu-
lators would enable all the pupils in a 6-form entry 11-16 school (approxi-
mately 180 pupils in each year group) who were likely to be studying math-
ematics at anyone time to have the use of a calculator, even if no pupil poss-
essed his own; it would also provide some spares . This number would also
enable all those likely to be attempting a public examination in mathematics
on anyone day to be provided with a calculator. We have been told by one
LEA that the approximate initial cost of equipping a specialist teaching area
for science is £17,000. for woodwork £14,000, for metalwork £25,000, for
cookery and housecraft £16,000, for needlework £7 ,500. This means that the
116 7 Calculator' and com pUl ers

total cost of eq uippin g speciali st areas for the teaching of science, craft a nd
home economics in a 6-form entry school is unlikely to be less th en £150,000.
We have also been told that th e total cos t o f equ ipping six rooms o f the kind
usuall y provided fo r th e leaching of mathematic.s is abo ut £ I 0,000. We d o not
believe that it is unreasonable to ex pect that on e-seventieth of the diffe rence
between th ese sums should be spent on pro viding calculators and we recom-
mend thai. when equipping new seco ndary schools, sufficienl calculators
should be provided to enable each pupil to have the use of one during math-
ematics lesso ns . v.,Ie recognise I however. that at a time of increasing fin a ncial
press ure some o f those sc hools wbi c h d o no t ye t have suffi cient calculators
may find diffi culty in pro viding mon ey from th ei r capitation a ll owan ces fo r
the pu rchase of additio nal calculators . We Iherefore reco mmend Ihal sleps
should be laken, perhaps by meanS of. scheme similar 10 Ihal for providing
micro-comput ers in secondary schools. to ensure that the necessary calcu-
lators are available in secondary schools as soon as possible and in any case
nollale r Ihan 1985.

395 It fo ll ows from this th a t we believe that exa minalion boards should
design their syllabuses and ex_a minstions on th e assumption that aU candi-
dates will have access 10 a calculator by 1985. Because il will still be necessary
to ensure that ca nd ida tes are a ble to carry o ul stra ightforward calculations
wi thout recourse to a catcula ro r , il ma y well be appro prjate that rhe use of
calculators shou ld not be pe rmined in certain papers. ([ \".. ill , however , be
eq ually imp o rlant t hat candidates shou ld also dem o nstrate their abilit y to use
a calcu lator effective ly.

Co mput e r S ludies 396 Computer Studi es was first introduced inw the curr icu lum of so me
seco nd a ry schoo ls duri ng the 1960s. It was de ve loped largel y by teachers of
mat hematics and in man y schools there wou ld at the present rime be no
co mputer st udi es in the curriculum at all if mathematicians did not und erta ke
t.he teaching. For this reason, many people both within the education system
and o utside it have assumed that computer studies should be regarded as pan
o f the res pon sibility of mathemat ics departments.

397 AI an ear ly slage of our work we sought advice from a number of people
who m we knew to be expert in the field of computer st udies in sc hoo ls, so [hat
we mi ghl decide whether computer studies (a s opposed to the use o f a
computer as an aid to teaching mathematics) should be considered as part of
the ' math ematics in school s' to which our terms of reference require us to give
attention . Their view was unamimous thai compuler studies should nol be
regarded as part of malhematics but should ideally exist within a separate
departmenl. It was pointed out that th e teaching of computer studies wi thin
the math ematics department was liable to give a misleading view of the
subj ect, with toO great a stress on programming and numeri cal operations and
too liUle on the much wide r fields of data processing and social impl icatio ns;
and tha t [raining as a mathematics teacher was not of itself sufficient to teach
computer studies adequa[ely.
 7 Calculal or!. and co rnpuler $ 117

398 Howeve r , at the prese nt time the number of specialist teachers of

compute r studies is very small indeed and, although teachers of subjects other
than mathema tics are gradually becoming involved, the process is a slow one.
It Iherefore see ms inevitable (hal for (,he lime being. and probably for so me
time (0 co me , a significant proporti o n of the teaching o f computer studi es will
be undertake n by mathematics leachers, who will in consequence have less
time availab le 10 leach ma lhematies. It is probably also the case that ma th-
ematics teache rs who have displayed [he ini ti a ti ve to deve lop computer SLU-
dies co urses a re likely lO be among th e more ente rprisi ng and effective
teachers a nd so the loss to mathe matics teac hing is correspondingly greater.

399 II is not easy to Quantify the amoun t of time which mathematics teachers
d evo te to th e teaching of co mpUl er studies. At the present time so me 36 000
pupils each year attempt public examinations of o ne kind or another in
compu ter studies or computer scie nce. but not all of those who fo How CO urses
in compute r st udies necessarily attempt a public examination in this su bject.
H owever, it see ms likely that the time which mathematics teachers devote to
the teaching of co mputer studi es is already eq uivalent to th e normal full-time
leaching com mitment of al leasl 600 mathernalics teachers, and probably of
rather more t han this numb er. We believe that this raises the question of the
extent to which co mput er studi es should be taugbt as a separate subject, if it is
done at the expense of good mathematics teaching.

400 There is an associated demand on the time of mathematics teac hers of

which it is necessary to be aware, because it is a demand which is likely to
increase as micro-computers become increasingly availab le in schools. This is
[he amou nt of time which ca n be taken up in responding to the requests of
colleagues on the staff to wr ite computer programs for use in [he teaching of
other subjects _ (1 ca n tak e man y hours (Q write even a shon program and
e nsure that it run s satisfacto ril y. This means that although the purpose of a
program may be clearly defined, its pre pa ra d o n is li kely t o involve a great deal
of work, perhaps to the detriment of the mathematics teaching of staff who
are already hard pressed.

401 Computing also makes demands on the time of mathematics advisers.

A1lh o ugh a few LEAs now have advisers or advisory teachers who a re
responsib le for comp uting, it is more usual for this respo nsibility to be assig-
ned to mathematics advisers . Some mathematics advisers have told us that
work in this field already occupies a disproportio nate amo unt of their time.
There is clear danger that, unless LEAs mak e suitable additional provision,
not only win the time which mathemalics advisers devote to the leaching of
mathematics be eroded still further as more schools acquire micro-
computers, but also insufficient help will be available for th e de ve lopment of
the effective use of micro-computers th e mselves.

Computers as a n aid to 402 There can be no do ubt that th e inc reasing availability of mic ro-
teaChing mathe ro atics co mput ers in schools offers considerable opportunit y to teachers of math-
ema tics both to e nh a nce their exis ting practice a nd a lso to work in ways which
1I8 7 Calc uJa lOr~ and computers

have nO! hitherto been possible. In particular, the availability of a visual

display offers many possibilities for the imaginative pictorial presentation of
mathematical work of many kinds.

403 Nevertheless. we feel it ri gh t to poim out at the outset that, although

these possibili ties exist and are at the present time being exploited by a very
smal l number of teachers, we are still at a very early stage in the development
of their use as an aid to teaching mathematics . The amount of work which
needs to be done before micro·computers are likely to have any major effect
on mathemaLics (eachjng is very great indeed and . in th e paragraphs which
follow, we can do no more than make suggestions based on the limited
amount of information which is available to us.

404 The fact that a school possesses one. Or several, micro-compurers will not
of itself improve the teaching of mathemalics or of any other subject. It does
no more than make available an aid to teaching which, if it is to be properly
exploited, requires teachers who have the necessary knowledge and sk ill and
who have been supplied wi,h, or ha ve had ,ime to prepare, suitable teaching
program s. It does, however, also provide a valuable resource of which indi -
vidual pupi ls can make use and from whicb some are likely to derive con-
siderable benefit; we discuss this funher in paragraph 412.
-.
405 We have alread y drawn allention to the fact that relatively little ad van-
,age is yet being taken of the possibilities which electronic calculators offer as
an aid to mathematics teaching. Even in schools in which computer studies
courses are well established and are ta ugh, by those who teach mathematics,
the use which is made in the mathematics classroom of the computer facilities
which are available seems often to be very limited. It is, of course, sometimes
the case that programs have to be sent away to be processed and that imerac-
ti ve working with the computer is not possible; nor may primout in graphical
form be availab le . Nevertheless, even in these circumstances opportunities
exist, especially in respect of work at higher levels, for using the computer to
assist math ematics teaching.

406 We mention this matter not because we wish in any way to decr y or
discourage the provision of micro-computers in schools but in order to
underline the extent of the changes in class room practjce which their success-
ful use v~:ill require and the small amount of progress in tbe use of other aids
which has so far been made by many teachers of mathematics . For example,
experience shows that teachers of mathematics do not always use the graphi-
cal and pictorial potentialities of overhead projectors to maximum advan-
tage. We welcome the Micro-Electronics Education Programme which the
Government have set up. If good use is to be made of the materials which will
be produced, a very extensive programme of in-service training and of foUow-
up su ppOrt for teachers in schools and ,eacher training estab lishments will be
required.

407 There is a, present relatively little software (ie prepared programs)

available which can be used to assist mathematics teaching. Furthermore, it
 7 Ca lcutawrs and computers 119

has been pointed out to us that much of the limited amount of software which
is available is of poor quality, with programs which are badly written and
documented, sometimes inaccurate and sometimes merely 'gimmicks' . There
can be no point in producing software to teach a topic which can be taught
more effectively in some other way. The fundamental criterion at aJi stages
must be the extent to which any piece of software offers opportunity to
enhance and improve work in the classroom. Even though the price of micro-
computers may continue to fall. the cost of producing software wiJl not.
Those who purchase software for use in theclassroorn need therefore to make
sure that it is of good qualit y.

Use in the primary years 408 Members of our Co mmit tee visited two primary schoo ls which were
known to possess mic ro-computers. The software which was in use had been
prepared by teachers in these schools and had been designed to suit the needs
of children of different ages, In a reception class of 4 a nd 5 year olds, a pro·
gram in the form of a game was in use which was designed to develop recogni-
tion of figures and letters, With 9 year old juniors an interactive program,
which required a group of children to loca:e a 'hidden' Slar, was being used to
teach the use of co·ordinates. This generated valuable discussion as the group
worked out the best strategy to use and also provided opportunity for the
development of logical thinking. A third program provided practice in
arithmelic skills for 7 and g year a ids. In every case, when using these and
orher programs. the ch ildren were working with greal concentration and the
motivation which use of the micro-computer provided was very evident.

409 We believe thaI it is by means of programs of th is kind thaI micro·

computers are likely to make their greatest contribution to mathematics
teaching in the primary years . The programs can be stored on cassettes and
used by children singly or in groups, as well as by the teacher. There is clearly
an urgent need for pfograms to be written for use by children in the primary
years and we hope that some of the money anolled 10 tbe Micro-Electronics
Educatioo Programme will be used for this purpose . We believe that special
attention should be paid to the development of programs for mathematical
activities which will encourage problem solving and logical th inking in a
mathemat ical context. )

Use in the secondary years 410 Among the secondary schools which we visited were two which were
making regula r use of co mputers in their mathematics courses. In one school
a computer-assisted learning scheme was in use for first and second year
pupils, In the other school the computer was used as a means of introducing
various algebraic concepts to first year pupils of above-ave rage attainment.

411 At the secondary stage we believe that there is a special need 10 develop
the potentiality of the high·resoluti on graphical display which is now
available on man y micro·computers. This enables work to be done on graph.
plouing and , a t a higher level, can be used to provide a visual presentation of
basic ideas in calculus and of the use of iterative methods to solve equations,
Man y geometrical properties can a lso be demonst rated in ways which have
hitherto only been possible by using cine-films. Moreover, the interactive
120 7 Calculators and computers

nalUre of work with a micro-computer offers opportunilY for pupils to

develop greater understanding of many of the mathematical concepts which
they will meet. Once again, however. we wish to empb3sise the need to pro-
duc~ programs which are n01 just 'extras' but which can contribute to the
main-stream mathemalical work of the school.

Individual use by 412 We suggest. that, in very many secondary schools, the most fruitful
pupils results of the availability of micro-computers are likely in the first instance to
arise from their use by individual pupils. The motivation provided by access
to a micro-computer can be even greater than that provided by a calculator.
Experience shows that pupils are happy to 'investigme' computer systems to
which they a re given access and it is important that th eir read y acceptance of
te<hnological innovation should be fully exploited . Many examples already
exist of individual pupils who, often largel y self-taught, have developed
extensive and effective programs of many kinds. We therefore urge that all
seco ndar y schools which possess micro-computers should make them
available for use by individual pupils to the g reatest extent which is possible.
Such access s hould be afforded both during lesson times, if the machine is not
being used for o th er purposes, and by organisi ng computer clubs which
operate outside normal class room hours. Pupils frequentJy learn to write
programs from one anOlher, and we are aware of schools in which older
pupils give time to teaching younger ones. Even teachers who are experienced
in the use of micro-co mputers may find that they are able to learn a consider-
able amount by observing the activities of their pupils .

413 Although children of primary age will not normally reach the stage of
writing their own programs, teachers need to be aware that there are a few
children of high attainment whose interest and understanding are such that
they wish to attempt work oflhis kind. tn the schools which we visited, one 10
year old had started to write program s in BASIC as a resulr of st udying pro-
grams published in magazines and watching his own teacher working on the
micro-computer . An 8 year old, a lthough not yet at this stage, was beginning
to ask questions about programming. Children who show interest of this kind
should be encouraged.
 121

8 Assessment and continuity

A ssessment 414 Assessment is an essential part of the wo rk of all teachers; it needs to be

carried out in a variety of ways and for a variety of purposes. Much assess-
ment is based on the marking of written work and on information which the
teacher gains as a result of comments made and questions asked during
discussion with an individual pupil, a group or aclass. Assessment can also be
rapid and informal-per haps a brief conversation to discover whether a point
has been understood or a glance at a piece of work which is in progress in
order to see whether a difficulty has been overcome. When pupils are engaged
in pract ical activity, iL is necessary for the teacher to wat.ch them at work in
order to discover whether skills such as counti ng , measurement or the use of
drawing instruments are being mastered. Assessment in all of these ways is
necessary in order to enable the leacher to monitor the development and pro-
gress of pupils.

Marking 415 The form of assessment which is mOSl immediately apparent lO a pu pil is
[he marking ofwrirten work; this may be routine class work or a more formal
test. Such marking needs to be both diagnostic and supporti ve . A cross is of
little assistance (0 a pupil unless it is accomparued by an indicat ion of where
the mistake has occurred . together with some explanation of what is wrong or
a request to co nsult the teacher when the work has been retu rned. This style of
marking also enables the teacher to become aware of the kinds of mistakes
which are being made and to prepare later lesson s in the light of this know-
ledge .

416 In the course of our visits to both primary and secondary schools we
found a very wide variation in the amount of time and care given by teachers
to the ma rking of pupils' work . In some cases marking was of the diagnostic
and supportive type which we have already described. On the other hand. we
fo und classrooms in which. although every piece of work had been ma rked.
the result was merely page after page of ticks or crosses wit h little or no indi-
cation of where an error had occurred or what was wrong. There were
classrooms in which ma rking had been so infrequent that pupils had con-
ti nued to repeal the same mistake because a mathematical concept or routine
had not been understood . We were also aware of instances in which, in our
view, too little work was being set for pupils in seconda ry schools todoout of
school because the teacher was not able to find the time to mark it.
122 8 AssessmeOl and comi nuit y

417 Work in mathematics generates a great deal of marking and it is not usu-
ally possible nor, in general, desirable for a teacher to mark every piece or
wo rk which is done. A proper balance need s to be maintained between time
spent on marking and time spent on preparation of lessons; however, work
which has been marked should be returned promptly. Guidance about meth-
ods of marking and ways of resolving this problem should form part of a
school's scheme of work in mathematics . In a well run class it should nOI be
necessary for a teacher to mark every piece of wo rk in detail . Exercises invol-
ving rou tine practice o r applications can well be marked by pupils themselves.
either from a list of answe rs or, in the case of computational exercises, by
checking with a calculator. Pupils can then seek help if they are unable t o
locate and correct th eir mistakes. We believe that there is value in pupils
learning to do this, though it is necessary for the teacher to maintain a general
oversight in order to ensu re that such marking is being carried out accuratel y.
On t he other hand . work involving problem solving or th e application of more
than a single skill will need appraisal by the teacher. As with so man y other
Ih.ings, it is a sensi ble balance which is required .

Record ing of progress 418 Assessment needs to be accompanied by appropriate recording of pro-
gress . All teachers carry in their heads a wealth of information about th e
pupils they teach and it is not always easy to record this concisely on paper.
Neverth eless we believe that in both primary and secondary schools it is
necessary to maintain a written record of a pupil's progress, not on ly as a
reminder to his teacher and for the informatio n of the head or head of
department bul also to enable continuity to be maintained when the pupil
changes teacher or school. We discuss this fun her in paragraph 431.

4J9 It is not easy to decide o n th e most suita ble form in which a record should
be kepr. Man y LEAs provide a standard record card wh ic h schools are
required to complete and which accompanies a pupil on tran sfer to another
school. However, this ma y need to be supplemented by a more extensive
record. In primary schools it can be helpful for this record to be related to
LEA guidelines, though it is necessary to be aware that a checklist of the kind
which records the topi cs which a child has attempted is open to abuse if chil-
dren an d teacher race to reach th e end of the list. However, such a list can help
a teacher to ensure thal aU children receive a balanced coverage of lOpics . [n
secondary sc hools the reco rd can be related to the depart mental scheme of
work . Whatever form of recordin g is used, some effort should be made to
record those qualities which can only be assessed by the professional judge-
ment of the teacher, such as a pupil' s persistence in working at a problem, his
abilit y to use his knowledge and his abi lity to discuss mathematics orally.

Testing 420 Testing, whether written , oral or praclica1 , should never be an end in
itself but should be a means of providjng information "'hicb caD form the
basis of future action. When teSIS are used in class they should be matched 10
the le vel of the pupils who are taking them. In a class which contains pupils
whose attainment varies widely, it may not always be appropriate to gjve the
same test to everyone. Jt is very easy to undermine confidence by using a test
wh ich is to o difficult and a test which is too easy for th ose who are taki ng it
 8 Assessment and continuit y 123

serves little useful purpose, althou gh there can from time to time bea place for
a straightforward test designed to enco urage pupils to develop mastery of a
specific skill. It is important that tests used in the classroom should be
followed by opportunity for pupils to explain the thinking, whether correct or
not, which has led to the answers they have given and for discussion of diffi-
culties and misunderstandings which may be revealed. Teachers need also to
be aware of the difference between 'learning something for the test ' and
learning in such a way fh at what has been learned is assimiJated and retained
for use in the future. Learning of this latter kind is not necessarily revealed by
the result of a single test.

Standardised tests
421 Some testing has a wider purpose than the teacher 's day· to-day assess-
ment. Th e head teacher or the LEA may wish all pupils to be tested using
nationally validated tests. Results of these tests give some guidance about the
ability range and level of attainment of the pupils co mpared with national
norms and sho uld always be made available to the teach er. We are aware of
increasing pressure in recent years from some members of the publi c and from
some local counciJJors for the introduction of 'blanket' testing in mathema-
tics for all pupils. We have been told that at the present time about one-third of
all local authorities administer some form of mathematics test to their pupils,
in some cases at more than one age . However. a remark whiCh has been drawn
to our attention-I'no one has ever grown taller as a result of being meas-
ured" -underlines the fact that testing does not of itself lead to learning or to
the raising of standards.

422 If LEA tes ting of this kind is carried out, the tests wbich are used need to
be selected carefnlly so that they will provide as much information as possi-
ble; they should not concentrate exclusively on particular aspects of the
mathematics curriculum. The results of the tests should be capable of use
within each school to help teachers to diagnose, and if possib le remedy, defi·
ciencies and weaknesses. They should also be capable of use by the LEA as an
aid in the identification both of successful practice and of schools which may
be in need of additional support.

423 It is important to realise that standardised tests measure only some

aspects of mathematical attainment. They do not test such aspects as attitude
and perseverence nor, very often, the ability to apply mathematics in unfa-
miliar sit uations. We therefore recommend that, when the results of stand-
ardised tests are used as part of a transfer procedure between the different
stages of sc hooling, these results should not be used by themselves but in can·
junction with an assessment of these wider aspects provided by the pupil 's
previous school.

Evaluation 424 The results of assessment and testing should be used for the purpose of
evaluation . Theteachershould use the records ofindiyidual pupils to evaluate
the progress of the class and compare this with the aims and objectives set out
in t.he school' s scheme of work. Evaluation of this kind also provides oppor-
tunity ror the teacher to appraise the results of his or her oWJlteaching, and
124 8 A sses.~ ment and ~onl;nui l )'

perh aps, in collaboration with the mathematics co-ordinator or head of

department, to modify the scheme of work in some way. For example, if a
topic has caused difficulty it may be necessary to reconsider the context in
which it was introduced or the teaching approach which wa s used. In some
cases, it may be felt that in a future yea r the lopic should be deferred for
comparable groups of pupils; on the other hand, there may be other topics
which it is decided to in troduce at an earlier stage. Mathematics co-ordina-
tors, heads of department and head teachers need to evaluate the work of
groups of classes and of the school as a whole. W e believe that evaluation of
this kin d is not always ca rried out on a sufficient scale nor on a sufficiently
regular basis . It is on ly as a resu lt of such evaluation that it is possible both to
identify successful practice and also to identify areas in which help is requi red .

Assessment of Performance 425 T he mathematics testing of pupils aged I I a nd 15 which is being carried
Unit out by the Assessment of Performance Unit (APU) has yel another purpose.
Its aim is to develop methods of assessing and moniroring the achievement of
chi ldren a t school and to seek LO identify the inc idence of under-ach ie vement.
h makes use of a sampling technique which does not provide information
about t he performance of individual pupils , classes or sc hools. The
information which is being assembled by APU seems to us to be a potential
sou rce of very va.luab le in formation for those who plan mat hemati cs cou rses
at aHleve1s, produce text books and other classroom materials and draw up
exami nation syllabuses, as well as for all who leach mathematics. We hope
that ways will be found 10 enab le maxi mum use to be made of this
information. We recommend that in the near future an overall appraisal
should be prepared of the educalional implications of the mathematics testing
which has been carried out so far .

426 A novel aspecl of the work of AP U is the practical testing which is being
undertaken . The examples of this which have been released show clearly Ihe
potential of work of this kin d in the classroom and we believe that allleachers
of mathematics should be made aware of this aspect of APU's work.

Continuity 427 We have already referred 10 the need for schemes of work to be prepared
whi ch will give adequate guidance to teachers; we have also drawn attentio n
to the necessity of maintaining a record of each pupil's progress. If the scheme
of work is properly used and the record maintai ned, it should be possible
within a singl e school to ensure consiste ncy of teaching method and con-
tinuity of syUabus as a pupil moves from class to class and from teacher to
teacher. T he pupil's exercise book will also provide a record of recent work
and, unless there have been staff changes, it is possible for a pupil's new
teacher to obtain informat io n from the teacher who ta ught him previously.

428 At the time of transfer to a new school, co ntinuity is more difficult to

achieve bur no less important to maintain. T ransfer is most often to a larger
school and many ch ildren can be apprehensive both of their new surroundings
and also of the prospect of work with new and unfamiliar leachers_ In recent
years all schools have, we believe, become increasingly aware of Ihe need to
8 A~ses s ment and contin uit y 125

ease problems of transfer. It is common for children to pay a prelimin ary visit
to th e school [0 which th ey will transfer and fo r staff 01' the receiving school to
visit the schools from which their pupils will corne . However. liai son activities
of this kind , while making a major contribution to ease of transfer from a
pastoral and social point of view. do not alw ays pay as much attention as we
would wish to ensu ring conti nu ity of math emat ical development. Yet if a
pupil is sudd enl y expected to attempt work which is beyo nd his capacity or
finds himself bo red at the ou tset by having to repeat work which has already
been maste red, not only is his mathematical development interrupted but the
whole process of transfe r is subj ected to unnecessary strain . During the first
yea r after trans fer, some schoo ls send a report to thei r contrib utor y schools
about th e progress of the pupils whom they have received. This is a practice
which we commend; if the reports includ e reference to prog ress in mathema-
tics. they can contribute towards the development of continu ity in mathema-
tics fo r pupils who wi ll tr a ns fer in the future.

429 Problems o f cominuity on transfe r from infant to junior school or from

first to middle sc hool are often less great than those which exist on entry to
seconda ry o r upper school. This is because infant and junior or first and
middle schools are often closer toget her, their methods o f work ing more
similar a nd the range of attai nment which exists among those who transfer
less wide than is the case with o lder pupils. Nevertheless, problems can and do
exist even in the case of tra nsfer from infant to junior schools in adjoining
premises. However, we believe that the greatest problems exist on transfer to
seconda ry or upper school. These schools often recei ve pupils from a large
number of contribu to ry sc hools; in some areas, too, children from a single
primary sc hoo l ca n transfer to two o r more secondary schools. As we have
pointed out in paragraph 342 , the sp read in the mathematical attainment of
these pupils can be very great and in th ese circum stances it is not very easy to
make sure lhat pu pils co ntinue their mathematical educacion at a level and a
speed which is appropriate. For convenience we refer in the paragrap hs which
foll ow to transfer between primary and secondary school; our rem a rks apply
e'lually to transfer to middle school and upper school.

430 It is essential that there should be discussion between those who teach in
primal")· and secondary schools in the same area and (hat such discussion
should take place in an atmosphere of mutual professional respect. Both
primary and secondary (eachers need to take steps to scqUSlnl themselves
with the methods and materials which each uses. We believe that there are
many secondary teachers who are unfamiliar with the approach to mathema-
tics which their pupils have been using at the primary stage and also many
primary teachers who have not taken steps to discover the type a nd range of
wo rk which those who leave them will undertake durin g their fi rst term at
secondary school. The outco me of such discussions should be overa ll
agreement abou t the central topics which will have been tackled at the primary
stage by pupils of different levels of attainment; where LEA guidelines exist it
should be related to th ese guideJines. We stress th at agreement of this kind
should take account o f the differences in attainment which will exist at the
time of t ransfer. It sho uld therefo re be fo rmulated in terms of a 'progression '
126 8 Assessmem a nd continuit y

of work and not of an agreed list of topics with which aU children are expected
to be familiar at the tim e of transfer. Howeve r ' reaso nable' such a list may
seem to be, it ca nno t be suitable for all pupils. Furthermore, the existence of
such a Jist can produce undesirable press ur e on teac hers in primary schools to
cover all that is in the list even th o ugh so me pupils will not be ready for some
of the work whi ch it includes.

431 We referred in paragraph 419 to the fact that many LEAs provide a
record card whi ch acco mpanies each pupil from school to school, and also to
the fact that it is not easy to produce a record card which is sufficiently concise
to be completed easily and sufficie ntly detailed to provide adequate
information. However, provided that both primary and secondary schools
are co mrn itted to the use o f record ca rd s, mu c h valuable information about a
pupil's range of und ers tandi ng and s kill can be passed on in a way which will
help to ensure co ntinuit y. It can also be of hel p to attach tothe record card two
or thr ee examples of recen t work selected to indicate a pupil's general level
and style of working .

432 In some cases pupils a re given a mathematics test at thetimeo ftran sfer to
seco ndary sc hool. Such a test is sometimes drawn up by the secondary school
in co ns ultatio n with its con tributo ry schools and sometimes carried out on an
LEA basis. When tests are used, we recommend tbat they should be con·
ducted before transfer in the primary school in which the pupil feels at home ,
rather than during the first few days at secondary school in an environment in
which the pupil may not yet have seUled , We believe that pupils ent ering
secondary sc hool sho uld not be tested in any formal way unti l they have had
time to settle in th eir new school and preferably also had ti me to co mplete
some work on a new topic. Where a transfer test is used it sho uld be related to
LEA guidelines or to the 'progression' which has been ag reed bet wee n pri·
mary and seco ndary schools. This should enable those sections of the test to
be used whi ch are sui ted to a pupil's attainment and avoid the necessity of
requiring a pupil to attempt questions on work whi ch has not yet been cov·
ered . \,

433 Some teachers in secondary schools have told us lhalthey take little or no
notice of information whi ch they receive from their co nlributory sc hools
about the mathematical attainment of pupils because they prefer to give all
their pupils a ' fresh start' . We cannot accept that it can be justifiable t.o ignor e
information provided by sc hools in which pupils may hav e spent as long as
seven years. It ca n, of co urse, happen that a pupll who has not made good
progress at his previous school is able at a new school to make much better
progress as a result of enco untering a different teacher and perhaps a diffe rent
approach to the subject ; the same rhing ca n happen as a result of change of
teac her wit hin the sa me school. It is im portant that schools sho uld be awa re of
t his possibility and t ha t at all stages the arrangements for teaching mathema-
tics are such as to encou rage and s upport progress of this k.ind, whatever the
age of the pupil. We would also point out that s uch improved progress is in
8 Assessment and conI inuity 127

any case more likely to occur if the reaching rakes account of information
which is available about a pupil 's previous difficulties and sets out to resolve
lhem .

434 Whatever steps may be taken [0 avoid categorising pupils prematurely in

terms of their mathematical attainment, and to allow for the fact that a
change of school may resull in greatly improved progress, we can see no
justification at all in ignoring and failing to act upon a report from a con tri-
butory school which ind icates thal a particular pupil is good at mathematics.
To ignore such information may result in a pupil being given work which is far
below the level of which heis capable. This will not only interrupt lhe pupil's
progress but ma y also lead lO lbe development of undesirable attitudes to
mathematics because the pupil feels that his leachers are failing to recognise
his abili ty .

435 Problems of continuity can also arise when pupils transfer La the sixth
form . In I I -18 schools the change should present few problems provided that
sixth form teachers recognise that some students will need guidance con-
cerning the different pattern ofsludy which is required of them and especiall y
the need La organise private stud y time effeclively. Problems of continuity are
likely to be greater when pupils transfer at 16 + to the sixth form of another
school or to a sixth form, further education or tertiary college . The need for
co-nsultation and transfer of information about attainment in mathematics is
just as great at this stage as at the time of transfer from primary to secondary
school and those who receive students at 16 + will need to take account of the
varielY of different backgrounds from which the students have corne. Close
liaison will bl! needed to ensurethat choices of courses for sixth form study are
realistic; pupils should neither embark upon courses for which they are
insufficiently qualified nor be debarred from courses which they are likely (0
be able to undertake successfully.
128

9 Mathematics in the secondary years

436 As we have continued o ur work we have become increasingly aware of

the implicat.ions for mat hemati cs teaching of the differences in attainment in
mathematics which ex ist among pupils of any given age and of the extent to
which these differences in crease as pupils become older. \Ve drew attention in
paragraph 342 ( 0 the 'seven year difference' which exists among II year olds.
If we relate this to work in the secondary years, it means that t he mathematical
understanding of some pupils who transfer to secondary school at II is likely
already to be greater than that of some pupils who have just left school at 16.
On the other hand, some o f those who arrive at the same time may not, while
at school, attain the understandi ng which some of their fellow II year a ids
already possess. When considering work in the secondary years it is also
necessary to remember th at pupils learn at very different s peeds and that , in
the sense we have explained in paragraph 228 , mathematics is a hierarchi cal
s ubject.

437 Thus there are three factors-level of attainment at the beginning of Ihe
course, speed of learning and the need to o btain a sufficient understanding of
certain topics before being able to proceed to others which depend on them-
which must be fundamental to our consideration of the content of the math-
ematics curriculum at the secondary stage. Unless the great differences which
exist between pupils are recognised in the provision which is made, those
whose potential is high will be denied the opportunity to make the progress of
which they are capable and those whose attainment is limited are liable to
experience continuing and dispiriting failure. It is from this starting point that
we discuss the teaching of ma thema tics in the secondary years .

438 We start by explaining the differing senses in which we use the words
'syllabus' and 'curriculum'. W e use 'syllabus' lod enote a list of mathematica l
topics to be studied but 'curriculum ' to include the whole mathematical
experience of the pupil; in other words, both what is taught and how it is
taught. The curriculum therefore includes the syllabus; it is concerned with
the way in which the syllabus is presented in the classroom as well as with
other matters which are important. For example, problem solving, logical
deduction, abstraction, generalisation, conjecture and testing should playa
part in the work of all pupils. However , the kind of work which is undertaken
and the methods which are used will of necessity vary with different groups of
pupils; nor will the level of sophistication and the depth of understanding
which are achieved be the same for all.
 9 Mathematics in the secondary yea rs 129

439 At the present time the mathematics syl1abuses which are fol1owed by
most pupils during th e secondary years are very Slrongly inOuenced by the
COnlent of the O-Ievel syllabuses intended for only the top 20 to 25 per cent of
pupils in terms of their attainment in mathematics . We believe it is necessary
to explain ho w this has come about. Twen ty years ago there were very great
diffe rences in the mathematics courses which were fol1owed by pupils in dif-
fe rent types of school. There were very few compreh ensive schools and most
pupils attended either grammar, lechnical or secondary modern schools .
Pupil s in gra mmar and the few techn ical sch ools and a small number of pupils
in secondary modern schools followed a ma thematics course leading to
O-Ievel which included arithmetic , algebra, geometry and trigonomel ry;
some of these pupils also studied 'addir io nal mathematics' as a second math-
ematical subject at O-Ievel be fore entering the sixth form. Olher pupils were
usually taught ari thmet ic only, which sometimes included elements o f geom-
etry ari sing from calculations of area and volume, geometrical construct ions,
ral io and scale drawing and also simple graphs of a non-a lgeb raic kind; most
of these pupils lefl school a t 15 and attempted no nation all y recognised
examination . Some of this latte r group attempted regional or local exami-
nalions which varied in scope and status.

440 eSE, which pupils were ab le to attempt for Ihe firsl time in 1965, was
intended to replace these regional and local examinations and, together with
O-Ievel, to provide a public examina tion system for pupils aged 16 whose
attainment in the subject concerned was within that of aboullhe top 60 per
cent of the school population , In consequence, many pupils in secondary
modern schools, who had hitherto been taught only arithmetic, started to
follow th e broader eSE mathematics course, even though not all of these
-By 1968 half or the pupjt ~ ill pupils stayed at school long enough to attem pt the examination' . Since the
maintai ned schools were ca n· rai sing of the sc hool leaving age in 1973, Ihe number of pupils who at lempt
linuing al school afler the age of public examinati ons . especially eSE, in math ematics has inc reased greatly;
15; by 1973 Ihe pro po l'lion was
approaehing 60 pel' ce nt , though
the report of the National Secondary Surveyt shows that, in some of the
these figure s conceal considerable comprehensive school s which were visited, over 80 per cent of the pupils in the
reg ional var iation. fourth and fift h years were following courses leading to O-Ievel or eSE
examinations in mathematics.
t Aspects ofsecondary educatio n
in England. A survey by H.M.
Jn s pec l or~ of Schoo ls . HM SO
1979.
441 Success at grade I in e SE has always been accepted in lieu of a pass (now
grade A , B or C) at O-Ievel fo r purposes of qualification for entry to funher
and higher education as well as to many ki nds of employment. From the
ou tset, lh erefore, thi s has encou raged th e use of similar lists of content for
both e SE and O-Ievel syllabuses. When eSE was first inlroduced , relalively
few schools offered courses fo r bOlh O-Ievel and eSE bUl, as the number of
comprehensive schools has increased, so has the numberof schools in which it
has become necessary at some stage to decide whelher a pupil should attempt
the O-Ievel or eSE examination. Although in the case of some pupils the
choice presents no difficulty, man y schools prefer to postpone the choice for
as long as possible for some of their pupils and for it to be possible for a pupil
to change courses if the first choice proves 10 be wrong. This has led to
understandable pressure that O-Ievel and eSE syllabuses in mathematics
130 9 Mathematics in the secondary years

should be 'compatible' , that is that they should contain substantially the same
mathematical lO pics, and has lessened still further the di ffere nces between the
syllabus content of O-Ievel and CSE examinations. Our own stud y of a
selection of CSE syllabuses in mathematics from the earliest yea rs of the
examination up to the present day shows that the content of most of these
syllabuses has gradually in creased. In panicular, there has been an increase in
the number of mOre <lifficult topics of an alge braic kind which have been in-
cluded and a consequent increase in the conceptual difficulty of the
mathematics included in the examination and hence in the courses wh ich
pupils are req uired to [ollow .

442 We beHeve it is clear from the preceding paragraphs that the changes in
the examination system and in the organisat ion of secondary school s which
have taken place in recent years have influenced the teaching of mathematics
in ways which have been neither intended nor sufficientl y realised. At the
present time up to 80 per cent of pu pils in secondary schools are following
courses leading to examinat io ns who se syllabuses are comparable in extent
and conceptual difficulty with those which twenty years ago were followed ·by
only about. 25 per cent of pupils. We have therefore moved from a situa tion in
whkh, twent y years ago, there was in OUf view too great a difference between
the mathematics syllabuses followed by those who a ttempted O-Ievel and
those who did not to one in whi ch, al lh e present time, th e re is far too li lli e
difference in the mathematics syllabuses which are followed by pupils of di f-
ferent levels of anainmenL. Because, for the reasons which we hav e ex plained,
it is th e content of O-level sylla buses which exerts the greatest influence , it is
the pupils whose attainment is average or below who have been most greatly
disadva ntaged .

443 The difference in the level of mathe matical attainment between a pupil
who ac hieves CSE grade I and One who achieves grade 5 is very considerable
'The different modes or tKa rn - ye t, in CSE Mode I examinations', both have to attempt the same exami-
ining arc described in (he nO le to nation papers. In some subjects other than mathematics it is possible to set
pa ragraph 68
questions which candidates of a wide range of auainrnent are able LO attempt
because the marks or grades which are awarded to the candidates can be
determined according to the quality of their answers. [n mathematics exami-
nations of the kind which are most commonly used, an a pproach of this kind
15 nOt usually possible. This is because increase of attainment in mathema tics
is demonstrated not only by knowledge of additionallopics but also by ability
to tackle more dem anding questions on topics which have been covered ear-
li er in the course. An examination quest ion on an 'elementary· topic which
enables cand idates to exhibit the level of understanding required fo r the
award of a high grade is likel y to be much too demanding for candidates who
are able to attain only a low gr ade; such candidates may not even be able to
start the question . Conversely. a quest ion on the same LOpic which is suitable
for candidates who will attain a low grade provides the examiner with little
evidence of the capability of those candidates who are able to attain a high
grade. It follows that an examination paper in mathemat ics which js
attempted by candidates o f a wide ran ge of auainment is bound LO contain
questions which are too difficult for those who attain low grades. This means
that Jaw grades are awarded as a result of a very poor pe.rforrnance in an
9 Mathematics in the secondary years 131

examination which draws attention not to the extent of a candidate's know-

ledge and understanding, but rather to those things which he does not know.

444 As we explained in paragraph 196, CSE regulations state that, in any

subj ect, "a 16 year old pupi! of average ability who has applied himself to a
course of study regarded by teachers of the subject as appropriate to his age,
ability and aptit ude may reasonably expect to secure grade 4". It may not,
however, be generall y realised that the mark required to achieve grade 4 in
mathematics is very often little more than 30 per cent on the papers which the
candidate is required to attempt and that grade 5-"the performance just
below that to be expected from a pupil of average ability" -is likely to be
awarded to a candidate who scores little mOre than 20 per cent of the marks.
We cannot beUeve that if can in aoy way be educationally desirable tbat a
pupil of average abilify should, for tbe pnrpose of obtaining a school-leaving
certificate, be required toattempt an examination paper on which he is able to
obtain only about one-third of tbe possible marks. Such a requirement , far
from developing confidence, can only lead to feelings of inadequacy and
failure. Although most pupils atte mpt the CSE examination itself on only one
occasion, it must be remembered that during the year leading up to the ex-
amination they will ahnost certainly practise past papers and protably also
take some form of 'mock' examination. Those pupils who will achieve the
lowest grades or will be ungraded cannot therefore fail to become aware of
how little they are Ukely to be able to achieve on the examination questions
which t hey will be req uired to attempt. Reference to Figure 6 (paragraph 195)
will show how large is the proportion of pupils to whom this applies.

445 We wish now to draw attention to a further di ffic ulty which arises for
both examiners and teachers as a result of the fact that CSE examinations are
not suitable for many of the pupils who now attempt them . Examiners have a
duty to set papers which cover as much of the syllabus as possible. Because
they are aware that many low-attaining candidates will attempt the papers,
they feel obliged to include within them a number of trivial questions on those
topics in the syllabus which are conceptually difficult so that low-attaining
candidates may find some questions which they are able to attempt. Teachers
in their turn feel obliged to cover as much of the syllabus as possible so that
their Jow-attaining pupils may be able to answer such questions, even though
some of the topics which are included are conceptually too difficul t for these
pupils. This leads to teaching of a kind which , instead of developing
understanding, concentrates on the drill ing of routines in order to answer
exam in ation questions. We therefore have a Ivicious circle ' which is difficult
to break .

446 Many teachers are aware of this problem but feel unable to do anything
about it. Their dilemma was expressed vividly at oneofthe meetings which we
held with groups of teachers. "I know that I should not be teaching in this way
and {would much prefer not to do so, but I know also that I have a responsi-
bility to do all that I can to make it possible for my pupils to obtain a CSE
grade." However, there can be little doubt that teaching of this kind can lead
to disenchantment with mathematics on the part of many pupils and also
provide the reason for the co mments of young employees, noted during the
132 9 Ma[hemalics in the secondary years

"See paragraph 59. Bath and Nottin gham s tudies', th at so me of the mathematics which they had
done at sc hool had made no sense to them.

447 Some teachers ha ve endeavoured to resolve their problem by devising

limited grade CSE examina tions under the Mode 3 procedure. Suc h exami-
nati ons usually have a redu ced syllabus co ntem and also a maximum g rade
(commonly grade 3) whi c h can be awarded . This enables the con te nt of t he
examination to be matc hed more suitably to the need s of those who are likel y
to achieve the lower grades. More recenlly some CSE boards ha ve the mselv es
introduced Mode 1 examinations in mathematics or arithmetic with a maxi-
mum of grade 3. We suppOrt provision of this kind and regret that there are
some CSE boards which do not permit limited grade examinations in math·
ematics. We hope that . in the Jjght of the di sc ussion in this chapter, they will
reconsider their pOSition and permil examinations of this kind until such lime
asasingle sys tem of examination at 16 + is introduced . However l even the use
of limited grade CS E examinations cannot resolve the problem of providing a
suitable curricu lum for those pupils for w hom CSE is not intended ; we return
to thi s point in paragraph 455.

448 We have discu ssed C SE examinations first of all becau se it is in the

teachin g of those pupils who cnr.er for thi s examinatjon and obtain low grades
or a TC unclas sified that we belie ve th e greates t problems to ex ist. We mu s t,
however, emphasise that pupils who achieve grade E at O-level are al so
unlikely to have been provided with a COurse whic h has been suited to their
need s . We have been told that sc hools sometimes find themselves unde r pres-
sure from parents to prepare pupils whose at.tainment is not ve ry high for
O-level rath e r than CSE and that the change in the method of recording
examination res ults on O-Ievel certificates. which was introduced in 1975. has
"'Umil the beginning o f 197 5 increased thls press ure . · In our view suc h pressure is misguided and can be
results at O-level were expressed in harmful to the mathematical development of the pupils conce rned . However ,
terms of simple pa ~scs o r failures,
we recognise that it is ver y difficult for teache rs and schools {O withstand it in
and no grades of pass were
recorded on the O ·level certificate. view of the higher status whi ch O-Ievel enjoys and the greater acceptabi lity
Since the Summer of 1975 resuh!; whi ch is often attributed to it by parents and employers. As an example of this
have been expr essed in (erms o f allilude we instance one employer who told us thai be preferred to take
five grade5- and an uncla:.sified applicants who had followed an O-Ievel course but had not even achieved
<.:a legory. Ca nd idates award ed
grade E rather than applicants with a good grade in eSE. This is aD altitude
grades A , B or C ha ve reached the
standard of the Fo rmer pass: grade which we believe to be mistaken and which we regrel.
D indica tes a lower level of
allainrnCll1 and grade E is the
lo west level o f anainmenl judged 449 We have considered th e question of mathematics examinations and their
LO be of a suffieienl standard to be effect on the mathematics c urriculum in some detail because we be lieve that it
reco rded . Performances q uali - is essential to appreciate the way in which existing examination syllabuses
fying fo r o ne of the grad es have corne to influe nce work in the ciao;sroom, especialJ y in the later secondary
A,B ,C.D o r E are reco rded on 0- years , and that this influence can have harmful effects on the mathematical
le\'e l certificale ~ but uncla ssified
pe rformances are no t reco rded.
development of pupils . In our view, very many pupils in secondary schools
are at present being required 10 follow mathematics s)'lIabuses whose conlenl
is too great and which are Dot suited to their level of attainment. Efrorts to
introduce pupils La as much of the examination syllabus as possible result in
attempts tocover the ground too fas t for understanding to develop. The result
is that very man y pupils neither develo p a confident app roach to their use of
 9 MathemaLics in the secondary years 133

mathematics nor achieve mastery of those parts of the syllabus which should
be within their capability.

450 This situation has arisen because the syllabuses now being followed by a
majority of pupils in secondary schools have been constructed by using as
sta rting points syllabuses designed for pupils in the top quarter of the range of
aHainmem in mathematics. Syllabuses for pupils of lower attainment have
been developed from these by deleting a few topics and reducing the depth of
treatment of others; in other words, they have been const ru cted 'from the lOp
downwards'. We believe that this is a wrong approach and tbat development
should be 'from tbe bottom upwards' by considering the range of work wbich
is appropriate for lower-attaining pupils and extending this range as the level
of attainment of pupils increases. In this way it should be possible to ensure
both that pupils are not required to tackle work which is inappropriate to their
level of attainment and, equally importantly, that those who ate capable of
going a long way are enabled to do so.

Courses for 11-16 year 451 We cannot set out in detail the content of cou rses for II -Ie year old
old pupils pupils; we can only indicate essentials and point to certain principles which
should govern decisions on the curriculum. We bel ieve that there should be a
core of content which sho uld be included in th e mathematics course for all
pupils; we discuss this further in paragraphs455 to 458 . Beyond that, both the
topics to be included and the teaching approach [0 them must bejudged in the
light of the needs of particular groups of pupils. We believe it should be a
fundamental principle that no topic should be induded unless it can be
developed sufficiently for it to be appHed in ways which the pupils can under-
stand . For example, we see no value in teaching and examining, in isolation
and as a skill, the addition and multiplicatjon of matrices to pupils whose
knowledge of algebra and geometry is not sufficient for them to be able to
appreciate contexts within which matrices are of use. On the other hand, some
pieces of work may claim a place in syllabuses fo r hi gher-a ttaining pupils
because of needs beyond the age of 16. It is , for example, hard to achieve the
degreeof facility in algebraic manipulation which is required for A-level work
in mathematics if pupils have not started to develop it before they enter the
sixth form and so this aspect of algebra must receive due attentjon for such
pupils.

452. We therefore consider th'at there sho ul d be both similarities and dif-
ferences in the mathematics courses which are followed by pupils of different
levels of attainment. The similarities will be in the COmmon core of mathema-
ti cs of which all will have experience and in the approach which underlies the
mathematics teaching. The differences will be in additional coment, in depth
of [reatment, in methods of assessment and in the emphases given to different
aims. For example, while some pupils will achieve a high degree of
competence in simple arithmetic almost jncidentalIy, others will continue to
experience difficulty throughout the secondary years and so will need a course
I"hich takes account of tbis. In th e paragraphs which follow we discuss the
way in which we believe it is necessary to approach tbe formulation of such a
134 9 /'1.·1 a Lhem3t iC's in Ihe 1>econd<lry years

"' differentiated curricul um" ; in other words, the prOVISion of different

courses to meet th e differing needs of pupils in the secondary years.

453 Since we started OUf work, [he repan of [he first Secondary Survey
*Asse5srn ent or Performance carried out by the Assess ment of Performance Unit (APU)' and the report of
Unit. Mafhem{lfical development. the Concepts in Secondary Mathematics and Science (CSMS) Projectt
Secol/dary survey report lVo l .
have been published. These provide valuable inform ation about levels of
HM SO 1980
tK M Hart (Editor). performance in a wide raDge of mathematical topics. The CSMS work con-
Children's understanding of centrates in panicular on the performance of lower-attaining pupils . Both of
Ma/hemOlics: J' ·16. John Murray these reports ill UStrate clearly that lar ge num bers of pu pils ha ve di fficulties in
1981 . understanding and applying many mathematical processes which are
commonly thought to be quite elementary and that these di mculties are much
greater than is generally realised either by the public at large or by some of
those who teach mathematics . The very low marks which are attained by
many pupils who attempt CSE examinations reinforce the evidence which is
provided by the APU and CSMS reports.

454 Failure to understand a mathematical topic can result from the fact tha t
th e mathematical concepts involved are too difficult for the s{age of math-
ematical development which a pupil has reached. It can also resu ll from
teaching which pays too little attention to practical experience or which moves
ah ead too rapidly so that understanding does not have time 10 develop. If
pupils are following a syllabus which is too large and toO demanding. botb
reasons can contribute to their poor performance. We therefore believe thai,
when designing a curriculum which is suitable for lower-atlaining pupils, Ihe
syllabus should not be too largeso (hal there is lime to cover the topics which it
contains in a "'ariety of ways and in 3 range of applications . -We believe thar it
is by app roaching the teaching of mathematics in this way tbal understanding
will best be developed and pupils enabled to achieve a reasonable deg ree of
mastery of the work which they have covered, so that they will develop suffi-
cient confidence to make use of mathematics in adult life. We realise that
there may be some who fear that a reduction in the content of the mathematics
syllabus will lead to an undesirable narrowing of the curriculum but thi s is a
view which wedo not accept. If the approaches to teaching areas varied as we
have recommended in Chapter 5, we believe that such a reduction can enable a
wider mathematics curriculum to be provided . Teachers will have more time
to develop methods which evoke the best response from their pupils. Pupils
will be freed from pressure to cover too much gro und and will be able to
undertake revision and consolidat ion on a regular basis to the extent whi ch is
necessary.

Foundation list 455 We have therefore decided to set out a ' foundation list' of mathematical
topics which , while it should form part of the mathematics syllabus for all
pupils , should in our view constitute by far the greater part of the syllabus of
those pupils for whom CSE is not intended , that is thost' pupils in about the
loweSI 40 per cent of the range of al1ainment in mathematics. This group
includ es those who at present attempt CSE but ach ieve minimal or no success',
We recognise that the conlent of th e list which we propose is considerably less
than the content of the syllabuses which man y low- attaining pupils now
9 Malhernalic~ in lhe seconda ry years 135

follow. We believe, however, that the smaller syllabus content will make it
possible for the teacher to develop the mathematics curriculum for these
pupils in the way which we have set out earlier.

456 Some people have urged us not to attempt to put forward such a list in
view of two possible dangers. One is that members of the public will expect
that all pupils will be ab le to master everything which is in the list. Theother is
that some teachers will regard the list as comprising the total mathematics
syllabus for lower·attaining pupils and will teach only those things which are
specifically mentioned in it. We are aware of both these dangers but feel that
weshould nevertheless suggest a list of topics which we expect to be within the
capability of most pupils and which we believe that all pupils sho uld attem pt
so far as they can . We would not wish that any section of the list should be
omitted completely, even for those whose attainment is very low , though it
must be accepted that such pupils may not be able to tackle all the items in
each section.

457 We have not found it easy to draw up the list nor do we suggest that it
should be regarded as definitive in every detail . However, we beHeve it to be a
sound basis on which to build; as with all lists of content it will, in any case,
need to be reviewed regularly. In preparing it we have started from the prem-
ise that mathematics should be presented and taught in a context in which it
will be applied to solving a variety of problems. Once a skill has been
identified as worthwhile, it is appropriate to practise it. However. such prac-
tice should be carried out in order to enahle the s kill to be used in the solution
of problems and not as an end in itsel f. It is for this reason that in drawing up
ou r list we have added com ments (in italics) which both amplify the list and
also draw attention to ways in which we believe the various topics should be
presented . These comments concentrate especially On the needs of those
pupils for whom the foundati on list will constitu te the grea ter part of the
mathematics syllabus. We do DOt intend that they should in any way be seen as
limiting the range of work which should be attempted by pupils wbose
attainment is higher.

}'ouodaUon list of mathemalical10pics

458 Through oullheir malhemalits course, pupils should

• read. write and talk about mathematics in a wide variety o[ways;
• carry out calculations in a variety oj modes-mentally, on paper and
with a calculator;
• associate calcula/ion With measuremen t in appropriate units and
become [amiliar with th e relati ve size 0/ these units.
AI all slages, p upils should be encouraged 10 discuss and Juslify Ihe m elhods
which they use.

NUMBER
Count, order , read and write positive and negati ve whole numbers and use
them in context; eg what is the rise in temperature froP1 - 3°C to IO Oe?
136 9 f't,'falhernalics in the secondary years

Understand place value in numbers of up 104 digits.

Possess confident reca ll of addilion and multiplication fact s up to 10 + 10

and 10 x 10 and the relat.ed subtraction and division facts.

Unde rstand inter-relationships of the kind 13 X 8 = (10 x 8) + (3 x 8).

Be able to selecllhe appropriate operation (addilion, subtraction, etc) for use

in the sol ution of a variety of praclical prob lems.

PUpils should possess some reliable method (holvever ullcollvelltiOlla/) of

carrying out ca/cuta/ions without the use of a calculator when (he numbers
aresmall, and with a calcu lator when larger numbers are involved. There is
a need to develop and encourage intuitive methods oj both writ/en and
mental calculation.

Understand and use th e decimal system in practical sil ualions and problems.
Add and subtract decirnals involving up to twO deci mal places in the comex t
of measuremenr (incl ud ing money).

Pupils should appreciate the implications of movement ojfigures relative

to the decimal point as a result of multiplication or division by a power of
10.

Use ihe language and notation of simple fractions in appropriate contexts; eg

t mile , two-thirds or [he class.
Pupils should be able to perform calculations involving the word 'oj'such
as t or £4.50.

Be able IO add and subtract fract ions with denominators 2, 4, 8 or 16 in th e

context of measurement.

Know the decimal equivalents of ~t t. ~. -to. m

and also that t is about 0 .33 .
Be able to conven fraclions to decimals with the help of a calculator.

The emphasis should always be on the use of number skilts in everyday

situations. Fluency in computation using methods whose basis is
understood should be developed by short and frequent spelts of practice;
prolonged spells of routine practice are liable to be counler-productive.

MONEY
Recognise coins and notes and know thaI 100p~£1. Handle money with
confidence .

Carry out simple tran sactions, performing necessary calculations eit her men·
rally or on paper .

Add and subtract small sums of money without a calculator.

9 Mat hemal ics in Ihe secondary years 137

M ulei ply or di vide a sum of money by a si ngle digit without a calculator .

Perform mo re complex calcu lations invo lving money using any appropriat e
method, includin g ready reckoner o r calculator.

The emphasis in teaching should be on the use oj money in everyday ac(i-

vilies such as shopping, leisure activities 'do-il-yourself', and on budgeting
J

and househ old accoun(s.

PERCENTAGES
II is clear thai very many pupils Jind greol diJJicullies wilh Ihe concepl oj
percenlage. We reco mmend Ihal leaching oj percemage should be based
on (he idea thor 1 per cent means ~ 'Ip in every pound" or "one in every
hundred" , and no( on (h e use of particular formulae.

Calcu lale a pe rcentage o r a sum or mo ney . l ncrease Or decrease a sum or

money by a giv en percentage .

Appreciate the use made or percentages in everyday life .

The use oj percemages should be linked 10 activities oJlhe kind Iisled under
'mo ney'. The examples used should be realis(ic and relevan( ro (he pupils
concerned. Emphasis should also be given (0 (he way in which percenrages
are used bo(h/or (omporo(ive purposes in many everyday s jluolions and
also os a numerical measure based on a JOO-point scale of referen ce.

USE OF CALCULATOR
Use a calcu lator efficiently (0 add, subtract, multiply and divide , and to
conve rt a fr actio n to a decimal.

App rec iate th e need ror careful ordering of operations whe n using a calcu-
lator .

Be able to select from the calculator display the numb er of figures which is
app ro priate (0 the co nt eXI o f the calculation .

Simp le ca/eulOlions should in general be carried OUI men(al/y or on paper

and nOI wilh a calclliafor. Emphasis should be placed on using appropriole
procedures Jor checking the reasonableness oj Ihe answer which has been
obrained. II is nOI i/llended thai Ihe calcula/or should be lised Jor ca/CII-
IOlions such as 3.52 X 7.04 which ore unrelated /0 a practical context .

Substitute numbers in a simple fo rmula expressed in words and evaluate the

an swer; eg

gross wage = wage per hour X number of hours worked;

total COS t = number of units used x cost per unit + standi ng cha rge.

When (he numbers in vo lved are slraighlJorward. pupils should also be

able 10 carry OUi co/eu/aiioIlS of this kind witholJl using a calcu lator.
138 9 Malhemalic~ in the seeondary years

TIME
Be able to tell the time and understand times expressed in terms of l2-and
24-hour clocks.

Be able to calculate the interval between two given times, and the fin is hing
time given the starting time and duration.

Use a bU3 or train timetable.

Solve simple problems involvi ng t.ime, distance and speed.

Emphasis should be placed Oil menlo! ca/culalion where appropriate and

on the use of both digital and traditional 'clock ' display.

MEASUREMENT
Measure length. weight and capacity using appropriate metric unit s.

Understand [he relationship between mil1imelres , centimetres. meues,

kilometres; grams, kilogram s. lOnnes; millilitres, centilitres, filees; know (hat
1 lirre is equivalent to 1000 cubic centimerres.

Have a "feel' for the size of these units in relation to common objects within
the pupils' experience .

Use the following imperial units : inch, foot, yard, mile; ounce, pound; pint,
gaBon; and know their approximate metric equivalents, ie that 3 feel is about
equal to I metre, 5 miles is about 8 kilometres, 2 Ib is about I kilogram, I
gallon is about 4+ litres.

Understand and use simple rat es; eg £ per hour, miles per gallon .

Read meters and dials of various types.

Emphasis should be given to practical activities involving measuremellt

alld estimation. Opportunity should be laken to relate leaching to meas-
urement of (he kind encoullfered in other curricular areas such as science,
geography. home economics, craft and sport.

GRAPHS AND P ICfORIAL REPRESENTATION

Organise systematically the co llecti o n and tabulation of simple data.

Read and interpret simple grap hs and chans and extract specific in for mation
from them: construct them in simple cases.

Extract information presented in tabular fo rm; eg cost of making a telephone

cal l.

Pupils should be introduced to a wide I'arieiy offorms of graphical repre-

sefllatian and use should be mode ofpublished information. Pupils should
9 [\.'l alhemali c\ in the ~ eco ndary year s 139

be encouraged to discuss critically injormation presented in diagrammatic

form, especially in advertising. The drawing of graphs should wherever
possible be based on information collected asa result o/practical activities.

Be able to interprel a simple flow-chart .

Work with flo w-chorts should inc/ude discussion aimed 01 developing Ihe
logic used in mathematical arguments. sllch as <if. .. thell . ' .

SPA TlAL CONCEPTS

Recognise and name simple plane figures; undersland an d use terms such as
side. diagonal, perimeter. area, angle.

Understand and use (erms relating [Q (he circle; centre. radius, diamet er,
c ircumference . chord .

Appreciate the properties of parallelism and perpendicularity: be abJe [0

measure angles in degrees.

Draw a simple plane figure to given specifications .

A II pupils should learn 10 use drawing instruments such as ruler. com-

passes set square. protractor. For some pupils this may requ ire consider-
J

able practice. Plane and solid shapes should be available which pupils CUll
handle and measure, and use for building.

Recogni se and name common solid shapes; cube, recrangular block, sphere,
cy linder, cone, pyramid.

Altenlion should be paid to th e representation of three-dimensional fig-

ures in two dim ensions. Pupils should be able to recogn ise the two- dim en-
sional drawing corresponding to a given soUd, and be able to recognise and
build solids from such drawings. Use should be made of such things as
plans of models, dress patterns, scale drawings, photographs, maps_

Find the perimeter and area of a recta ngle.

Find the volume of a rectangular solid .

Understand and use the fact that the circumference of a circle n x

diameter; know that 11 is a little more than 3.

Calculalions relating to plane and solid shapes provide opporrunity 10

practise mental calcu/alion. writlen colcu/ation and the use of a calculator
in a variety of ways and 01 different levels. Emphasis should be placed on
the use oj correct unitsJororea and volume and on the use of estimation 10
ensure thaI an answer is reasonable.
140 9 Mal hemal kilo in the :.eco noar)' years

Appreciate the concept of scale in geo me trical drawings and maps, and th e use
of co-ordinates LO locale areas (as o n a street map) and points (as on an ord-
nance Survey m ap) .

There is likely 10 be co nsiderable overlap be(h'eenlhis IOpic and loJork on

graphicol Gild pic/orial representation , especially in respect of rhe illler-
pre/arion and cOllstruction a/simple plans and elevatiolls.

U nderstand the concept of bearings and (h e ways in which they are measured .

Be able LO visualise and und erstand simple mec hanical movcll)e m. includi ng
the working of simple linkages.

Bicycle gears, car jacks of all kinds. up-and-over garage doors are a few
examples.
RATIO AND PROPORTION
Understand [he use of raTi o as applied (0 such things as mixlures, eg 2 pari s
sand to J part ceme nt; and recipes, eg work au[ the quantities required ror 6
people rrom a recipe which se rves 4.

This work provides opportunity (0 discuss ideas such as {bes t buy '. Appli-
cations (0 craJi ~.;ork and model making provide overlap with work on
scale drawing.

Understand informall y simple ideas of direct an d inverse va riati o n.

For example, as speed increases. distance travelled in a given time

increases; as speed increases, time to travel a given distance decreases. For
some pupils it will nOI be appropriate to allempl detailed calcula/ion .

ST A TlSTICAL IDEAS
One aim should be to encourage a critical allitude to stolistics presented by
the media .

Apprecia te basic ideas of randomn ess and va riabi li ty ; know the meaning of
proba bility and odds in sim ple cases.

Emphasis should be placed Oil Ihe relevance o/probabililY 10 occurrences

in everyday I~feos well as to simple games ojchance. For many pupils;f will
not be appropriate to undertake work involving combined probabilily.

Understand the difference bet ween the various measu res of average and th e
purpose for which each is used.

Allenlion should be paid 10 Ihe dil/erenl uses o/Ihe word 'average' in

newspaper repor{s~ bUI il is nOI intended Ihot pupils should necessarily be
expected 10 use {he words mean, m edian and mode.
•••
Pro vision for lower- 459 H avingsel out o ur foundation list we wish 10 consider the way in which,
attaining pupils in ou r view, (he mathematics curriculu m of the secondary years should be
dev eloped 'from th e bottom upwa rd s' and so we consider first the provision
 <) Mathematics in lhe secondary years 141

of courses for pupils for whom O-level and CSE are not intended, that is those
pupil s in about th e lowest 40 per cent of the range of attainment in mathema-
"Aspects of secondary educaliofl tics . It is clear from the report of th e National Secondary Survey>\< and also
in England. A survey by HM from many submi ss ions which we have received that such provision presents
Inspec, or ~ of Schools. HMSO considerable problems in many schools. Many have urged us to stress that
1979.
mathematics co ur ses for these pupils should be ' rele vant to the requirements
of everyday life' . Howeve r , this ai m is easie r to state than to achieve. Fo r
exa mpl e. we read in the report of the Nati onal Secondary Su rvey that ~ 'it was
ve ry common for the sc hem es of wo rk in lhe schools visited lO refer to the
need to rel ate Ihe mathematics laught 10 Ihe problems of everyday life, but Ihe
co nvincing reali salion of Ihis aim was much more rare".

460 We stated in paragraph 455 that in Our view the foundation liSl should
co nSlitute by far Ihe greate r part of the syllabus of lowe r-attaining pupils. In
order to complete the sy li,abus and curriculum for these pupils il will be
necessar y to add a s mall n umber of add ilionallopics and to set OU I in del ail
the leac hing approaches whic h should be used: our commen ts in italics ma y
be regarded as a first step towards carrying out thi s latter task. The topics
which are added may be chosen for a variety of reasons . There are, for exam-
ple, sc hools in \vhich the pu.pils take part. in sailing and orienteering, bOlh as a
school activity and in thei r leisu re lime. Ahhough trigonometry as such is not
included in [he foundation lisl, it would be possible in suc h schools 10 include
work re la ting to bea rings and distances, and to discu ss methods by which it is
possible to fi x one' s position . Problems arising hom nav igatio n might lead
some pupils to th e beginnings of trigonometry _

461 The n ecessity of fulfilling the tasks which we listed at Ihe end of Chapter
I may al so lead ro the inclusion of some topic s, for examp[e topics which a re
required by pupils for their st udies in oth er subjects. f( may be necessary to
in! roduce cenai n pieces of work as a vehicle for achieving the c urricular aims
whic h we set out in paragraph 438 . For example, we believe that effort.s
should be made to discu ss some algebraic ideas with a ll pupils. For some Ihis
will entail little more than Ihe substitution of numbers in a simple form-
ula given in words, discussion of problems of the kind "think of a
number ... __ .. " and the identification of the patterns in a variety of
number seque nces; othe r pupils will be ab le to go further. Some people would
maintain that by considering alternative methods of solvi ng the same arith-
metic problem one has emba rk ed on the beginnings ofalgebra and we would
also encourage work ofr hi s kind . H owever, as has been pointed out in official
publications of various kinds OVer man y yea rs, fo rmal algebra is not appro-
priate for lower-attaining pupils .

462 We also wish to dra w aHenrion to an extract from one of the submissions
which has been made to us.
Mathematics lessons in seconda ry schools are very often not abo ut anything.
You coileci like term s, or lea rn Ihe laws of indices, with no perception of why
anyone needs to do such things. The re is excessi ve preocc upation wi th a sequence of
skills and quite inadequate opport unit y to see the sk ills emerging from {he solution
of prob lems. As a conseque:nce of Ihis approach, school mathema tics contains very
liWe incidental informatioo. A French lesso n mi ght well contain incidental
142 9 Mathematics in the secondary years

information about France -- so on across the curriculum; but in mathematics the

incidental information which one might expect (currem exchange and interest
rates; general knowledge on climate, communications and geography; the rules
and scoring systems of games; social statistics) is rarely there, because most
tcachers in 00 way see this a.s part of their responsibility when leaching mathema-
tics.

We believe that this points out in a very succinct way the need-which is byno
means confined only to COurses for lower-attaining pupils-to relate the con-
tem of the mathematics course to pupils' experience of everyday life .

463 As pupils grow older, tbe practical applications which are used in math-
ematics lessons should take account of this fact. It is here that the word 'rel-
evant' becomes important, because illustrations and applications of math-
ematics which are well suited to 12 and j 3 years aids are not necessarily
appropriate for 15 year oIds; the reverse is , of course. also true. Many of the
topics Whlch occur in our f()undation list relate directly to topics which are
commonly included in courses wit h titles such as Design for living which very
often form part of curricula for Jess able pupils in the later secondary years.
Where courses of this kind exist, every effort should be made to relate work tn
mathematics to tbe content of these courses. It may be possible to arrange that
part of the mathematics teaching lakes place within stich courses.

464 Especially as pupils become older, a great deal more time is often given to
written work than to discussiion and oral work. This situation very often arises
from the fact that pupils who have become disenchanted with mathematics as
a result of lack of success over the years can present problems of control in the
classroom which make it difficult to COnli nue oral work for any length of time .
However , lack of discussion almost certainly leads to further failure and so
the problem is compounded. I f the approach which we are recommending is
followed throughout the secondary cou rse it is to be hoped that, as pupils
grow older 1 lhey will not become disenchanted with mathematics because
they will have been able to experience success and develop confidence. Prob-
lems of control should ther"fo re be lessened_

465 Tn order to present mathematics to pupils in the ways we have described it

wilt be necessary for many t~eachers to make very great changes in the ways in
which they work at present. This may nOt be easy; and unless help and
support is availab le both within schools and by means of in-service training,
little may be achieved. We therefore welcome the decision of the Mathema-
tical Associationto establish a Diploma for teachers of low-attaining pupils in
secondar y schools. We believe that tbere will also be an urgent need for
development work leading to the availability of additional classroom
materials related to Ibe cOOllent of the foundation list and making use of the
approach which we are advocating.

466 At the present time considerable pressure exists for lower·attaining

pupils to be provided with some evidence of their achievement in mathematics
before they leave school. Since existing public examinat ions are not suited to
the needs of these pupils, schools are increasingly devising schemes of their
9 Malhema(ics in lhe secondary year s 143

ow n. If we may judge from examples of such schemes which have been made
available to us, there appears lO have been a considerable increase in lhe
praclice during the lime for which we have been working. We discuss this
matter further in the following chapter.

Provision for pupils whose attainment is very low

467 Before we conclude our discussion of provision fo r lower·attaining
pupils we wish to consider the leachi ng of those whose attainmenl is very low
indeed. Such pupils a re very often withd rawn from normal classes for much
of the week and taught in a separate ' remed ial' department. Much time is
given to developing skills of reading and writing, and the teachers who work
in remedial departments are usually experienced in wo rk of this kind . These
teachers frequently also teach mathematics to the pupils in their charge bul
are often less confident in this area; nor is the mathemat ics syllabus always
planned in consultation with the mathematics department. For these reasons
syllabuses can somet imes be excessively narrow . It is essential that there
should be consultation between the head of mathematics and the head of the
remedial department with regard to the mathematics which is taught and the
teaching app roach which is used . We stress yet again th at a great deal oftime
needs to be given to oral work; mathematics should not be regarded as
something which pupils can get on with by themselves while the teacher is
hearing o lher pupils read . We also repeat our remark in paragraph 456 that
the mathemalicscourse shou ld be broadly based and related to all the sections
of the founda tion list.

468 We consider that those who teach mathematics in other parts of the
school shou ld from time to time join in with the work of the remedial
department, perhaps in a 'non-teaching' period or, preferably, on a time-
tabled basis, in order both to assist with the teac hing and also to become aware
of the problems encountered by pupils whose mathematical attainment is very
low. Such an arrangement can also act as a safeguard to ensure that due
auentio n is paid to the mathematical needs of pupils who, although weak ill
language skills. are not correspondingly weak in mathematics . The needs of
such pupils, for some of whom English may not be the mother tongue, are
sometimes overlooked.

469 It is relatively uncommon for pupils to remain in a separate remedial

department until they leave school. Pupils who have been withdrawn from
normal mathematics teaching, sometimes for three years, often find them-
selves in the lowest mathematics sets in years 4 and 5. Unless there has been
effeclive liaison between the mathematics department and the remedial
department this can lead to serious lack of continuity for these pupils.
Because of the problems of teaching pupils in bottom sets, such sets are often
small and contain some twelve to fourteen pupils. It has been suggested to us
that, instead of having IWO small sets of very low-attaining pupils, it is
sometimes better to combine the pupils into one set which is taken by two
teachers. We believe that an arrangement of this kind can offer considerable
advantages, especially ifit is possible to arrange for oneofthe teachers to bea
144 9 Mmhemalics in the o:;econdary yea(s

mathematics specialist while the other is experienced in dealing with slow

learners. We suggest that some schools may wish to consider the possibilities
of working in thls way .

Provision for pupils for 470 We turn now to the provision of courses for those pupils for whom CSE
whom CSE and O-Ievel are and O-leve l examinations are intended . \Ve have already stated thai th e
intended foundation list. which we have proposed. should be included in syllabuses fat
these pupils as well as in syllabuses for those whose anainmem is lower.
However. man y will be able (0 achieve mastery O[ near master y of the content
of the foundation list well before they are 16 and the syllabuses which they
follow should be enlarged accordingly. Such enlargement will both add fur-
ther topics and also increase the depth of treatment of many of the topics in
the foundation list.

471 The syllabuses of the exami nations which pupils will eventually attempt
should not be allowed to exert too much influence on the curriculum of the
early secondary years. We believe that. at the beginning of the secondary
course, differentiation of coment should nO( proceed too rapid ly; instead, the
differing needs of pupils should be met by differences in approach and in
depth of treatment. In this way it is possible to provide maximum opportunity
fo r any pupils for whom change of school or change of approach to math-
ematics results in markedly improved performance . It is necessary also to
realise that the content of the examination syllabus a nd and the content of the
teaching syllabus should not be the same; the teaching syllabu s should be
wider than the examination syl labus. The extra topics wh ich are included
should be chosen in the light of consideraticns of the kind which we have
alread y discussed in paragraphs 460 to 462 and also in order to make the
examination sy llabu s cohere. It is by 'embedding' the exam ination syllabu s in
a wider context in this way that mastery of the syllabus is enabled to develop as
pupils increase their network of interconnections and so the level of their
understand ing .

472 We do not propose to discuss Ihe contenl of examination syllabuses at

16 + in any detail but instead to indicate two 'reference Ic'\:cls'. We consider
thaI the content of the examination syllabus for those pupils who at present
achieve around CSE grade 4 shou ld not be very much greater than that of the
foundation list; that is. of a size markedly smaller than that of many existing
CSE syllabuses. There shou ld certainl y be some increase in the geomet rical
content beyond that of the foundation list to includ e. for example. ideas
which underlie tdgonometry, suc h as scale drawing and com parison of right-
angled triangles. and the use of Pythagoras' theorem. Experience may show
thar the availability of calculators will enable some elementary trigonometry
to be induded. Some simple algebraic work on formulae and equations which
involves symbolisation is also desirable. At a higher level . we consider that a
syllabus whose extent is comparable to lhat of existing O-level syllab uses
represents a suitable examinalion target for pupils in the top 20 per cem of the
range of attainment in mathematics. We believe Ihatthere is also need for an
examination syllabus whose content lies between that of tbe two reference
levels we have indicated; we discuss these matters furthe r in the following
chapte r.
 9 .\talhem3tics in [he secondary years 145

473 At this poin t, we wish to stress that, in recommending a differentiated

curriculum and an associated difference in examination syllabuses, we are in
no way advocating any lowering of standards. A considerable number of
people have written to us to say that they did not understand much of the
mathematics which they met a t school. This has been supported by th e evi-
dence from the research studi es into the mathematical needs of adu lt life and
of employment. The researchers were to ld many times that too many topics
were cove red in mathematics , that th e pace of teachi ng was too fas t, that to o
little time was give n to important aspects of the subject. We beliew that if
pupils follow a course whose content is better matched to their level of
attainment and rate of learning. they will achieve not only greater confidence
in their approach to mathematics but also greater mastery of the mathematics
which th ey study. This should contribute to improvements in attainment,
attitudes and confidence and so to a rajsing of standards overall .

Provisio n for high- 474 At all stages of the s""ondary course tbose whose attainment is high
attai ning pupi ls should have opportunitl to undertake work whicb will enable them to extend
and dee pen their mathematical knowledge and understanding . Although it is
to be expected that such pu pils will be ab le to move through the syllabus at a
faste r rat e Iha n many of their fellow s, this is not of itself suffi cient. Steps must
also be taken to develop powers of generalisation and abstraction, of logic
and proof, of problem solving and invesligation, as well as the abi li ty to
undertake extended pieces of work . Pupils should also be encouraged to
increase their flu ency in romine manipulation and to work fast. It should no t
be supposed that pupils a utoma ticall y fulfil their potemial or even realise
themselves how much Ihey are capable of achieving. Many pupils need help,
and sometimes judicious pressure, to discover the 'over-dr ive' whkh they
possess but of which they are not fully a ware.

475 It is especially important that attemion should be paid to the needs of

high-attaini ng pupils in the early stages of the secondary course. Th ere is a
danger th at the facl that they are li kely to be co ping s uccessfully with the work
which they are as ked to do ma y mask the fact that the work is not sufficieml y
dema nding a nd that these pupils are not being extended . In these circum-
stances. interest and emh us iasm can be los t a nd , once lost, may not be easy to
regain later .

476 As with the teaching of a ll other pupils, variery of approach is essential.

Alt hough high-attaining pupils may well be able to work profitably on their
own for quite long periods of time, they also need th e stimulus of regular
discussion with each other and wilh their teache r. They shou ld be encou-
raged, too, to read books about mathematics and to learn something of the
work of the great mathema ticians of the past. Pupils of this kind can often
appea r to grasp new ideas very qui ckly but practice of the sk ills associated
wi th these ideas is still required so that the ideas may be assimilated fu ll y.
However, the form in which the practice is und ertaken shouJd be varied and
should no t consist onl y of repetitive examples or the same kind . It is , for
example, very often instructi ve to th e pupi l LO be asked to compose fu rther
examples relating to the topic which is being studied . A stipulati on that the
146 9 Mal hcmalics in the secondary yea rs

examples should lead to particular lypes of answer can require pupils to con-
sider more deepJy the S[fucture which underlies the work which is being done.
High-attaining pupils very often relish oPPoffuniries to work with computers
and work of this kind should be encouraged whenever possible .

477 The provision of suitable work requires careful planning thr oughout the
secondary course. We estimare rhar between 5 and 10 per cent of all pupils,
though nor necessarily of rhe pupils in anyone school, are capable of working
beyond rhe limits of exisring O-level Marhemarics syllabuses by rhe rime rhey
are 16. It is essential that these pupils should be enabled to continue rheir
advance and should not 'marl< time' at any stage of the course. It is therefore
necessary that. throughom the course, additional provision of some kind
should be made for them. There is, however, a fundamental difficulry ro be
overcome in mOSt sc hools. Except in very large comprehensive schools or
large grammar schools ir is likely thar the number of pupils for whom such
additional provision is appropriate wilJ nor be Sil fficient lO form a separate
teac hing group of normal size. This means that, because of the present
shortage of mathematics teachers and the current restraints overall on staf-
fing in schools, tbese pupils cannor usually be taughr as a separare group bur
musr form parr of a larger group. This can pose considerable problems for rhe
reacher of such a group, especially as pupils become older and rhe overall
range of attainment within the group increases.

478 Some large schools provide for rhe needs of high atraining pupils in the
fifth year by arranging for them to follow rhe O·level Additional Mathema-
tics syllabus or prepare for one of rhe optional papers offered by ar least one
examinarion board. An arrangement of thi s k;nd presents no difficulry if
there are sufficiem pupils to form a separate teaching group for the purpose ,
However, if this is not the case, an aucmpt to work in this way with, for
example, the whole of a top set is likely to result in a course which is too
demanding for some of the pupils. This situation is clearly unsatisfactory and
can lead to narrov.' teaching of an 'instrumental' kind with consequent loss of
confidence on the part of some pupils which may dissuade them from con-
tinuing with mathematics in tbe sixth form, The situation can be still worse if,
in preparation for the Addirional Mathematics course, pupils are pushed to
take the O-level examination in Mathematics at the end of the fourth yea r
before they are fully prepared for it. On rheorher hand, ifno attempt is made
to provide additional work for anyone in the set, those whose attainment is
high will be disadvantaged.

479 There are reachers who are able ro make provI sion for pupils ro
undertake more demanding work-not necessarily for examination pur-
poses-while the remainder continue with the ordinary Mathematics course.
However , we believe that there are many schools in which insufficient pro-
vision is made for high-attaining pupils , We have therefore considered ways
in which it might be possible to provide for rhe needs of high-attaining pupils
in a way which would also offer help to their teachers, so that pupils who are
likely to obtain a high grade ar O-level will be enabled to extend and deepen
their knowledge of mathematics in appropriate ways.
 9 \-1alhemalic-'> in the sec.o ndar), years 147

Extra Mathematics
480 \V e believe that consideration should be given to the provision of an extra
paper which could be t.aken by some pupils at the same time as the existing
O~level Mathematics papers (or papers at the corresponding level within the
single system of examination at 16 + when it is introduced). The purposes of
this paper, to which we shall refer as 'Extra Matherna[ics', would be

• to develop a deeper understanding of the topics included in the Math-

ematics syllabus and to take some of them, for example geometry,
trigonometry and manipulative algebra , somewha( furthe r;

• to introduce a small number of additional topics;

• perhaps most important ly, to adopt a rather more structured approach

towards mathematics, so as to help pupils towards "an appreciation of
• rJ.spec(s oj Sl'fOfldary edt/corio" mathematics as a sel f~ con tained logical system"·
ill Ellg/and . A survey by H:v1
In spel'l o r ~ of Schools. HM SO
1979 . page 112. 481 The additional content of Extra Mathematics would be very much less
than that of existing Additional Mathematics syllabuses and the level of the
paper would be such that it would be appropriate for between 5 and 10 per
cent of the pupils in the who le of each year grou p. Extra Mathematics would
not be intended as a cou rse to be followed after the O-Ievel Mathematics
syllabus had been complet ed but as a means of exrending the work of some
pupils, particularly in the fourth and fifth years. It would be studied alongside
and as an extension of O-Ievel mathematics, though without an y extra time
allocat ion: it would not at any stage involve the selection of pupils to follow a
separate cou rse. We suggest that attainment in the Extra Mathematics paper
should be recorded on the O- Ievel certificate by an endorsement at one of two
levels of success in a similar way to that which is used in the'S' paper at
A-level ; and that a performance which did not achieve one of these two levels
shou ld not be recorded. We believe that a paper of this kind could both
provide a suitably challenging target for high-attaining pupils and also, by
means of its syllabus and the type of questions asked in the examination, give
guidance to teachers as to ways in which the work of these pupils could be
extended.

Provision for pupils whose attainment is very high

482 A very small number of pupils whose attainment is very high will need
special provision over and above that which we have already advocated for
high-auaining pupils. These pupils will need to be treated individually and
special arrangemen ts made for them. Schools should be aware that they may
occasionally receive pupils of this calibre. We have been pleased to note a
variety of initiatives for such pupils. Some LEAs, oflen in association with
nearby uni versities, organise end~or-term, weekend or holiday sessions for
these pupils. The Royal Institution has recently completed a pilot series of
Mathematics Master Classes ror young people, held on ten successive Satur-
day mornings; further series are planned. The re are now regional, national
and internatio nal mathematical competitio ns. \Ve belie,'e that injtiatives of
this kind should be encouraged and extended .
148 9 \1alhemari cs in Ihe secondary yea rs

Mathematics across 483 When considering 'mathematics acr oss th e curriculum' it is an over·
the curriculum si mplified view to have regard only to the 'servi ce) aspects o f mathematics,
though these sho uld not be neglected. Those who teach mathemati cs sho ul d
be aware of th e math ematical techniques which ar e required for the study of,
fo r example, science, geography, crafr or hom e economics and make pro-
vision fo r them. Th ey should also try to arrange that the mathematics course
and the cou rses in ot her subjects arc developed in such a way that pu pils will
be famil iar with the necessary mathematical topics by the time they are needed
in other curricular areas. Fu rth erm ore. there should be liaison betweell
teachers so that those who make use of mathematics in the teaching of th ei r
subjects do not use an app roac h or" language which con flicts with that whic h
is used in mathematics lessons.

484 Co nve rsely, those who teach mathematics sho uld be aware of the ways in
whjch mathematics is a pplied within oth er subject areas and should ask their
coll eagues who teach other subj ects to provide examples of the applications
o f mathematics which can be used in mathemati cs lessons. Too little attention
is often paid to this aspect. Similar co nsideration s apply to applications of
mathematics which lie outs ide th e school curriculum . Use sho uld be made in
mat hematics lessons of material gathe red from newspapers and o ther printed
sources as well as of information which pu pils are themse lves able to provide .

485 ' Math ematics across the curriculum ' is not a direct analogue of 'lan-
guage across the curriculum' because mathematics is not fundam en tal to
lear ning and to the development of understand ing in t he way which is tr ue o f
language. Neverthe less. because of the ways in which mathematics ca n be
used as a means of co mmunication, it can pla y an impo rtant role in the learn·
ing p rocess in curricu lar areas which may seem to be far rem oved from math-
emati cs . as well as in areas with whic h the links are more im medi ately
appa rent. The presentation of information by means of grap hs, charts and
tables , [he useof time scales, the use of arrows to denote relationships are only
a few examples. Teachers of other subjeclS, as well as mathemalics teachers ,
need to be aware ot' th e part which mathematics can play in presenting
information with clarity and economy , and to encourage pupils to make use
of mathematics for Ihis purpose.

Organisational malfers 486 fn recent years the proportion of the teaching week give n to mathematics
Time allocation for has d ecreased in most schools as additio nal areas of stud y ha ve been intro-
mathematics duced into th e curricu lum. Records available within the DES sh ow that some
thi rty yea rs ago the usual allocation of tim e for mathematics in grammar
schoo ls was six periods pe r week, each of about 40 minutes . The survey of
fou rth year pupils in 150 modern schools, ca rried out in 1961 and qu oted in
·Hul/ our/muTe. A Repon of [he the Newsom Report*, showed t hat the average time given to mathematics in
CCnlral Advi sory Council ror mixed sc hools was 215 minutes pe r week; the average in boys' schools was 260
Ed uca tion (Eng land), HMSO
minutes and in girls ' schools 180 min ut es . The present time allowa nce for
1963.
mathematics in most seco nd ary sc hools is the equivaJem of five periods of
about 35 min utes in a week of 351040 periods fo r a ll pupils up to the age of
\6-some 175 minu tes in all.
9 "'·lalhematics in (h e secondary years 149

487 There have also been changes in the way in which the lime given to math-
em atics has been distributed through the week . Thecustomary pattern twenty
years ago was ror all pupils to do some mathematics every day-indeed, a 'daily
dose' was thought by many teachers to be essential-but in recent years it has
become increasingly Common in comprehensive schools to timetable math-
ematics (as well as a number or other subjects) in double periods. This means
that, in schools in which five periods are allocated to mathematics, they are
very often timetabled as two double periods and a single period so that pupils
are {aught mathematics on only three occasions in the week; and these can
sometimes occur on consecutive days.

488 We believe that the time allowance which is now usually found-between
one-seventh and one-eighth of the teaching week-supported by appropriate
homework is adequate time to devote to mathematics but that careful con-
sideration shou ld be given to the way in which this tim e is distributed within
the timetable . This latter point can give rise to conflicts of interest which are
not always easy LO resolve. Ir, as we have advocated, pupils are to undertake
practical and investigational work J some lessons which last for longer than
about 35 minutes are likel y to be required. There are some teachers who feel
strongly that as many double periods as possible shou ld be provided for
mathematics in the timetable, but there are also teachers who feel that shorter
and more frequent spells of mathematics teaching are more profitable.
Although certain kinds of practical and investigational work require more
than a single period for their successful completion, there are other kinds of
practical and investigational work which can be completed satisfacto rily
within a shorter time . It must also be remembered that by no means all math-
ematics periods are used for work of this kind and that it is very easy for work
to lose momentum towards the end of a double period. The number of double
and single periods which are provided in the timetable needs therefore to be
suited to the methods of work ing of the mathematics department and to th e
mathematics curriculum which is being used.

489 Although it is probably most common to divide the teaching week into
between 35 and 40 teaching periods, other ways of arranging the teaching
week exjst which mayor may not make it possible to timetable mathematics in
either ;jingle or double periods. In practice. the way in which mathematics
peri ods are arranged within the timetable must be the decision of each school ,
bearing in mind the wishes of the teaching staff and the constraints imposed
both by the way in which time is alloned to other subjects and perhaps also by
the geography of the school . However whatever the pattern, we believe that it
I

is necessary to ensure thal the periods given to mathematics are sui tably
disuibuted through the week and also occur at different times during the day
so that there is not, for example, an undue proportion of periods althe end o r
the afternoon.

490 Although we would not normally wish [0 see the allowance of time for
matbematics reduced sigMi fi camly below the level we have indicated for any
pupils, we wish to draw attention to our suggestion in paragraph 463 [hat part
of the mathematics teaching of some lower-attaining pupils could take place
J50 9 Ma!l1t~'m alics in Ihe seeondary yea rs

as pan of Design lor living courses. In such cases, the number or periods
timetabled as 'mathematics' cou ld appropr iatel y be reduced for these pupils .

The organisa tion of 491 When deciding on 'he way in which .he malhematics leaching groups in a
reachi ng groups school should be organised, we believe that the oyerriding requirement is to
achieve a form of organisation which enables pupils to work at a level and
speed which is suitable for them. and also one. which enables the teacher 10
include within his teaching aU the elements which we have sel. QUlin paragraph
243. In particular, the form of organisa tion sho uld be one which enables suf-
ficient discussion and oTal work to rake place. \Ve also believe it to be essential
that the timetable should not be co nstru cted in such a way as to impose on a
mathematics depart ment a form of organisation which it regards as uns ui -
table.

492 The simplest way of achieving such a form of organisation is by time-

tabling a group of classes from the same year group simultaneously for math-
ematics. This provides fl exibility and makes it possible to a rrange the teaching
groups in whatever way is best suited to the needs of th e pupi ls; it enables the
teacher or method of grouping to be changed durin g the course of the school
year and a llows individual pupils to be transfe rred fro m o ne group to another.
It a lso makes possi ble the rearrangement of the teachi ng groups for s pecial
purposes or to provide cover for reac her s who are temporarily absent. If the
number of mathematics teachers who can be made available is mOre than the
number of classes which are timetabled simultaneously. the degree of flexi-
bility is greatly increased . It becomes possi ble, for example, to provide more
teaching gro ups than th e number of classes; this not only reduces [he average
size of the groups but also makes it easier to mo ve pupj(s between groups other
than on an 'exchange' basis. Sma ll groups ca n also ex ist without requ iring
others to be unduly large. Another possibility is to use the additional teacher
as a 'floating' teacher who ca n assist with the mat hematics gro ups in turn o r
work with pupils withdrawn from their normal teaching group. It should be
noted th a t it is not necessary fo r a floating teacher to be timetabled for all the
periods in which the same group of c(asses is doing mathemat ics. However. if
a school is short of mathematics teachers. it may nOl be desirable to ga in
additional flexibility at the expense of mak ing use of members of staff who
are not well suited to teaching math ematics .

Teachin g ill seCled gro ups

493 The majority of pupils in secondary schools are taught mathematics in
groups fo rmed on the basis of attainment. These are most usuall y 'sets'
formed on the basis of attainment in mathematics. but there are also groups
formed on the basis of ove rall a bility rather th an a tt ainment in mathematics.
In some schools mathematics is taught in set.s made up within twO o r more
'bands' fo rmed on the basis of overall a bilit y. It is ver y importan t to rea li se
that within any mat hematics set (and even more w ithin groups based on
general ability) the re will still be marked differences in the mathematical
attai nment of pupils; this is especially likel y to be the case if only a small
number of sets spans the whole ability range in a small school or in part of a
year group in a large school. It is therefore essential that the teaching takes
 9 Mathematics in rile seco ndary year:. 151

account of these differences and is responsive to the needs of individual

pupil s. It should not be assumed that the same teaching app roach will
necessarily be suited to all in the group , that it will be appropriate for all to do
exactly the same work or that pupils should always work as a single group .
Teachers should also be aware of the danger that, even ifunconscio usly, both
they and their pupils may lack expectation of what can be achieved by those in
low sets and, indeed, also by those in high sets .

494 When mathematics is taught in sets it is important that there should be

opportunity for pupils to be transferred between sets if their progress
warrants this; and that , whe n it becomes apparen t that a change is needed, it
should not be delayed. However, the fact that transfer between sets should be
possible does not imply that all sets should attempt to f6110w the same course .
There needs to be common ground between the work of adjacent sets, but
there should be differences toO so that, so far as is possible, the course in each
set is matched to the attainment and rate of working of the pupils in it.

Teaching in mixed ability groups

495 The mathematics supplement to the National Secondary Survey report-
'" Aspe'('ts OJ seconday education in shows that half of the schools visited taught mathematics in mixed ability
England. Supplementary groups during part at least of the first year, about one-quarter during the
informalio n on murh emalics,
seco nd year and one-eighth during the third year. However, by no means all
HMSD 1980.
of these schools contained pupils covering the fu ll range of ability; for exam-
ple, some were grammar schools and some were secondary modern schools.
Of the comprehensive schools which contained pupils covering the full range
of abili ty, the proportions using mixed ability grouping for mathematics were
lower; just under half in the first year, one in five jn the second year and one in
fourteen in the third year. The use of mixed ability grouping in the fourth and
fifth years was very rare indeed-no truly mixed ability teaching across the
full ability range was fou nd in any of the schools visited, although it is known
that there are a very few schools in whic h mixed ability grouping is used in
these years. lr seems, therefore, tha t it is only a minority of mainJy younger
pupils who are taught mathematics in groups which span the full ability
range.

496 There are undoubtedly some teachers who are able to work in stimulating
and effective ways with pupils in mixed ability groups, especially in the earlier
secondary years . Where there are such suitable teachers and this method of
grouping works well, it clearly provides a form of organisation which is satis-
factory and we see no reason to change it. However we believe that teachers
1

should not be required to work. in this way if they are not able to do so
successfully. We believe that standards are liable to suffer if mixed ability
teaching is imposed upon mathematics departmems against their will.

497 We have received much less comment than we had expected about the
leach ing of mathemaLics to mixed ability groups, as abom classroom organi·
sat ion generally. A few of the submissions which we have received urge the
advantages of this type of organisation-notably that pupils are not ' labelled'
and that lower-attaining pupils are therefore likely to make better progress.
152 9 Mathematics in the secon dary years

T he majority of the submissions which refer to mixed ability teaching draw

attention to the great differences in attainment which exist between pupils and
to the difficulty which some teachers find in coping with these differences
within the same class.

498 A major problem (a be overcome when teaching mixed ability groups is

that of providing sufficient opportunity for oral work and discussion as well
as for the practice of memal computation of various kinds. It is very difficult,
except perhaps when introducing a topic which is new to all the pupils in the
class or an investigation which all can altempt, to work with the whole of a
mixed ability class for any length of time . Work with mixed ability classes in
mathematics is often made more difficult for teach ers becau se some
commercially produced schemes which are commonly used with mixed ability
groups are published in such a wa y that it is almost inevitable that work on
several different topics is going on within the class at (he same time."This is in
marked contrast to mixed ability teaching in other subjects in which pupils
lJ sually work at different levels within the same theme or topic. As a result , it
'"This is because the set or becomes eve n more difficult for the teacher of a mixed ability class in math ·
materials does nOI contain surri- ematics to assemble a group of pupils to discuss and consolidate the work they
~' ie Ol co pies or the material
are doing. Pupils th erefore work on a largely individual basis; we discuss this
relating to anyone ropic rOT it 10
be possible ror more than a small
method of working in subsequent paragraphs. We recommend that teachers
uumber or pupils 10 use them at who work with mixed ability groups in mathematics should limit as much as is
the ~amt' rime. possible the range of topics on which pupHs are working at anyone time in
order to make class or group discussion possible. We are aware that one
schem e which has recently been developed for use with secondary pupils in
mixed ability classes has been designed on the basis that all pupils in the class
will work at different levels within (he same (opic.

Individual learning schemes

499 The use of individual learning schemes for the teaching of mathematics
has become more common in recent years than used to be the case. Although
these schemes are often used with mixed ability classes they can, of course, be
used with pupils grouped in any other way. We have received a small number
of submission s from teachers who tell us that they use schemes of this kind
with success and that the motivation of pupils is increased by working in this
way .

500 [n our view there are some major problems which need to be resolved
when using such schemes. One is that of providing sufficiem opportunity for
oral work and dis cussion . Another is the difficulty of devising materials from
which all pupils can learn satisfactorily and of ensuring that the necessary
interconnections are established between the topic which is being studied and
other pi eces of mathematics. A third is the necessity for the teacher to have a
detailed knowled ge of aU the material which is included in the scheme. Fo r
these reasons the successful operation of an individuallearningscberne makes
great demand s on the teacher, especially in teaching groups of the size most
usually found in secondary schools .
 9 Mathematics in {he secondary yean; 153

501 It is clear that considerable success can attend the use of such schemes in
the hands of skilled teachers who are committed to their use , and a re able to
obtain a similar committnent from their pupils. We would not therefore wish
to disco urage teachers from working in this way if they are able to do so
successfully. However, it shou ld not be supposed that the use of individual
learning schemes in mathematics is suited to all teachers or to all pupils. We
believe that there are many of each who are able to work more effectively if
some form of group teach ing is used .

Deployment of teaching 502 [n most secondary schools the deployment of mathematics teachers
staff presents problems which have no easy so lution. Many of these arise from the
national shortage of adequately qualified mathematics teachers which exists
and which we discuss in Chapter 13 . The situation can be made even more dif-
ficult if there is a lack of suitably qualified mathematics teachers in a school in
which some pupils are studying mathematics at A-le vel. In such schools there
may be on ly one or two teachers who are able to teach the A-level work and
this will deplete still further the availability of adequately qualified staff to
teach the younger pupils_ It must be for ~ach individual school to deploy its
staff in the best way possible in order to minimise the disadvantage to pupils.
We believe that head teachers and heads of department are rightly concerned
to do whatever is possible to ensure that the same pupils are not taught by in-
adequately qualified staff for several years running. We do, however, wish
to draw attention to certain points whkh we believe should be borne in mind
when assigning members of staff to teaching groups.

503 It seems often to be the case that teachers of other subjects who vol-
unteer or who are asked, to teach mathematics and who teach mathematics
J

fo r only a small number of periods in each week are given groups containing
pupils of relatively low attainment. In our view this is often a mistaken policy.
It is not easy to teach mathematics to low-attaining pupils. We consider that,
provided that the member of staff concerned is a competent teacher of his
own subject, he is much mOre likely to be successful with a group of pupils of
average or somewhat above average attainment. A group of this kind will be a
great deal easier to teach than a group of low-attaining pupils , and, provided
that there is suitable support from the head of department and from a well
prepared scheme of work, it should be possi ble for both pupils and teacher to
'learn together'. This should also enable the teacher concerned to develop
more quickly confidence and skill in teaching mathematics.

504 There is a further reason why it is undesirable for non-mathematicians

who teach only a few periods of mathematics in the week to teach pupils
whose attainment is Jow . When teaching such pupils, it is helpful to be able to
provide examples drawn from as wide a variel Yof mathemalics as possible to
illustrate the topics which are being stud ied. It of len happens lhal, wilhin the
mathematics which is being taught lO other groups of pupils, a straighlfor-
ward application arises which can be adapted for use with a group whose
attainment is lo w. Those who teach mathemalics to several groups of pupils
are able to take advanlage of opportunities of this kin d when they occur.
Those whose only mathematics teaching is to a group of low-attaining pupils
154 9 ~athema[ics in [he secondary years

have no comparable opportunities and so their already difficult task becomes

even harder _

505 Problems of timetabling sometimes make it necessary for one class to be

taught by two different teachers. When shared teaching of this kind is un-
avoidable we believe that it should be time tabled with a group of pupils whose
attainment is high . Pupils in a group of this kind can benefit from being able
to 'pick the brains' of two teachers and will quickly question any inconsisten-
cies which may appear to exist in the teaching they receive . If, as is probable.
they study different topics with each teacher they will also be able without
difficulty to keep work in both topics going ahead at the same time. If, on the
other hand, shared teaching is timetabled for a low-attaining group, pupils
will not receive the continuing reinforcement and revision which they need
from period to period and, instead of questioning inconsistencies of approach
between their two teachers, are likely merely to become muddled .

506 Shared teaching also provides a method by which an experienced math-

ematics teacher can provide help and guidance for a teacher who is weak or
not mathematically qualified. It may be much better for an experienced
teacher and a weak or mathematically unqualified teacher to share the
teaching of two sets rather than to assign the whole of the teaching of one of
these sets to a teacher who is unequal to the task and who may, in conse-
quence, instil attitudes to mathematics which may not be easy to change at a
later stage.

The head of 507 We believe that the head of department has a crucial role to play in
department implementing the matters to which we have already drawn attention. Unless
he or she provides positive and sustained leadership and direction for the
mathematics department it will not operate as effectively as it might do and
the pupils will be correspondingly disadvantaged .

508 In our view, the head of department should be responsible for

• the production and up-dating of suitable schemes of work;
• the organisation of the department and of its teaching resources;
• the monitoring of the teaching within the department and of the work
and assessment of pupils;
• playing a full part in the professional development and in-service
tra ining of those who teach mathematics;
• liaison with other departments in the school and with other schools and
colleges in th e area.
In setting out this list we are aware that it does not, of itself, relate specifically
to mathematics and we regard the responsibilities we have identified as being
among those which should be undertaken by heads of all subject depart-
ments . However. we consider that, among heads of department, the head of
mathematics has a task which can be especially diffi cult and demanding .
 9 Malhemalies in th e set:ondary years 155

Some of the di fficulties arise from the central position of mathematics within
the curriculum and from its role as a service subject; others arise from the
shortage of suitably qualified mathematics teachers. We therefore wish to
expand on certain aspects of the responsibilities which we have listed above in
order both that heads of department may be helped to appreciate the extent of
their task as wesee it, and also so that those who hold responsibility at ahigher
level, whether as heads, governors, advisors Or LEA officers, may be aware of
the necessity of providing such support and training as may be required.

509 Before we comment on the speci fic items in our list we wish to draw
attention to the need for heads of department to have time to carry out their
duties . This is a matter which has come through most strongly in the submiss-
ions which we have received from heads of department, as well as in Ollf
meetings with groups of teachers and in the discussions which we have held
with some of the heads of department who wrote to us. Although it is possible
to carry out some of the duties outside normal school hours, certain of them
can only be performed while teaching is in progress and the necessary time
needs to be provided within the timetable.

510 We put first responsibilit y for the production and up-dating of suitable
schemes of work because it is by this means that the mathematics department
makes clear its aims and objectives and provides guidance and help to its
members as to the ways in which these may beachieved . The importance of an
adequate scheme of work is too often underestimated. The report of tbe
* Aspecls of secondory edllcariOfl National Secondary Survey' draws attention to the fact that , although in aU
in Englond. A survey by HM the schools visited there were written schemes of work of some kind , their
Impectors o f sc hoo ls. HM SQ quality and usefulness varied greatly. We believe that a suitable scheme of
1979.
work, in addition to outlining the syllabus to be followed by the different year
groups and by the different ability levels within these year groups, should also
set out the aims and objectives of the department and give guidance on such
matters as teaChing method and policies for marking and assessment. It
should indicate the teaching resources which are available and state the
procedures to be followed for routine matters such as the issuing oftext books
and stationery. The preparation of such a scheme is a major task and it is one
in which other members of the department can and should playa part ; but the
initiative and the final responsibility for both preparation and imple-
mentation must rest with the head of department.

511 We have already discussed the matters which we believe should be borne
in mind when deciding the allocation of staff to teaching groups . In some
schools this is almost entirely the responsibility of the head of department; in
others the head of department wilJ need to make his own views known to the
member of staff who is responsible for preparing the school timetable.

512 We believe that arrangemems need to be made for holding departmental

meetings on a regular and frequent basis. A regular weekly or fOrtnightly
meeting can provide opportunities for discussion of curricular matters and
classroom practice but . if there are only one or two meetings in the term, these
156 9 Mathematics in the secondary years

almost invariably become filled with administrative matters . Some schools

already provide a timetabled period for this purpose and we hope that more
will seek to do so. A record should be kept of matters discussed and decisions
taken at departmental meetings. Regular meetings also assist the development
of a 'team ' approach within the department.

513 We suggest that copies of notes, worksheets and other material prepared
by members of the department should be filed systematically so that they
become available for others to use. Materials of this kind can provide con-
siderable help to less experienced teachers and to those qualified in other
disciplines who are teaching only a few periods of mathematics in the week.

514 We regard it as an essential part of the work of the head of department to

be aware of the quality of teaching which is going on within the department
and of the various styles and approaches which are being used. He should
review the exercise books of pupils in different classes on a regular basis so
that he will be able both to monitorthe progress of each class and also to check
that marking of written work and assessment of pupiJs is being carried out
satisfactorily. In our view it should be normal practice for the head of
department to visit lessons given by other members of the department. He
should also make it possible for members of the department to see him at
work in his own classroom and to see each other at work. Observation of this
kind can be of special help to probationary teachers as well as to non-specialist
teachers of mathematics .

515 The queslion of in-service training is considered in greater detail jn

Chapter 15, but we wish to stress here the very special responsibility of the
head of department for giving guidance and support to teachers in their pro-
bationary year and also the need to encourage the professional development
of the members of the department by delegating specific responsibilities to
them. These may, for example, be concerned with the preparation or revision
of a unit of work or an organisational task within the department. We draw
attention also to the fact that the head of department must not neglect his or
her own professional development; it is necessary to take steps 10 keep up-IO-
date with developments in mathematical education and to be aware. of the
journals of the professional mathematical associations and of the articles
which appear in them.

516 Because mathematics is a service subject for so many other disciplines,

the question of liaison with other departments assumes particular
importance. The head of mathematics should not only liaise with the heads of
other departments, but should also study their syllabuses and schemes of
work. In this way he can become aware not only of the mathematics which will
or could be used in the teaching of other subjects but also of the stage of the
course at which it will be required. Liaison with the remedial department, if
one exists in the school, is also important. As we have already said, it is too
often the case that the two departments operate independently of each other,
with no awareness of each other's syllabus or teaching methods. Liaison also
needs to be established with other schools and colleges in the area, especially
9 I\:ia lhemalics in th e secondary )'ean 157

those from which pupils enter the school and those to which they will transfer
at 16+ or 18+.

5 I 7 We realise that in many schools the head of department may already be

carrying out all the duties we have outlined in the previous paragraphs.
Equally, we believe tha t there are some heads of department who take a more
limited view or their ro le and it is for this reaso n that we have attempted to
delineate carefully the responsibi lity which should in our view be aUached to
this post. More generally we feel it importa nt that responsibility shonld be
properly defin ed at all levels within tbe educational system a nd tha t
responsibility sho uld be linked wi th authority, accountability and
assessmenl. Principles of educational management a(e involved here which
go well beyond the brief of our Committee, but we hope that continuing
thought will be given to these mailers and that, where appropriate, lessons
may be learned from good ma nagement prac tice in other fields.
158

10 Examinations at 16 +

518 Throughout our discussion of the teaching of mathemati cs in schools we

have stressed the necessity of matching the level and pace of work in the
classroom to the level or attainment of the pupils. We have drawn attentio n to
the pressu res which exist for as many pupils as possible to allain some form of
accreditation in mathematics by the time they leave school and also to the ract
that, for good or ill, the syllabus and papers of the examination which many
pupils wi ll att empt at 16+ are dominant fac tors in determining the content
and pace of the wo rk which is don e in most secondary classrooms. It follows
that iI is essenlial that the syllabuses of examinalions al 16 + and the ex-
amination papers which are sca sbould not impose inappropriate constraints
on work in secondary sc bools_ Pupils must nol be required 10 prepare for ex-
aminations which are not suited to their attainment nor must these examina-
lions be or a kind which will undermine Ihe confidence of pupils_

519 We discuss first the examinations intended for pupils whose attainment
in mathematics is within the top 60 to 65 per cent of thai orche school popula-
tion as a whole . At presen t these are O-Ievel and CSE, which are shortly to be
replaced by a single system of examination at 16 + . In the course of our work
we have held discussions with representatives of several examination boards
and have been permitted to observe the awarding procedures used by some
boards which , in preparation for the introduction of a single system of ex-
amination . are offering an examination in mathematics which can be attemp-
ted by candidales for CSE as well as candidates for O-Ievel. During these
meetings we have been impressed by the skill and care with which the officers
and examiners of the boards approach their task_We have also been helped by
th e written submissions whkh we have received from the examination boards.

520 We explained in Chapter 9 the problems which face [hose who set ex-
aminations in mathematics and the reasons why we believe that CSE and
O-level examinations are not well suited to some of those who at present at-
tempt them. We therefore welcome the Government 's decision to introduce a
single system of examination at 16 + because we believe that it provides an op-
portunity to introduce examinations of a kind which will assess pupils more
appropriately than is the case at present. We also welcome the statement in
paragraph 16 of the Government Paper Secondary school examinations: a
· Secondary scllOol examinations: single system at 16+*.
a single sysfem Of 16 +. Cml1d The educational stu dies carried out by the Steering Committee led them to the
7368. BMSO 1978 . conclusion that in at least some subjects it would be necessary to provide a variety of
alternative examination papers and tests, at different levels of difficulty. in ord er lO
 10 Examinations at 16 + 159

provide satisfactorily for candidates from the intended wide ability range. This is
especially the case where, as in mathematics or modem languages, the range of skills
involved is wide or certain concepts are wifhin the grasp of some candidates bm
beyond the reach of Q[hers. The Government accept this view, and consider it essen-
lial [hat the examination sysrem should enable all candidates to demonstrat.e their
capabilities. The assessment procedures must, therefore, provide for the inclusion
of items suitable only for some candidates, or required only for some candidares.
and in such a way that the curriculum is not distorted for others.

521 We believe that Ihere are two fundamental principles wbich should
govern auy examination in mathematics. The first is that the examination
papers and other methods of assessment which are used should be such that
they enable candidates to demonstrate what they do know rather than what
they do not know. The second is that the examinations should not undennine
the confidence of those who attempt them. Because the syllabuses which will
be prescribed and the papers which will be set will be the greatest single factor
in influencing the mathematics teaching in secondary schools in the coming
years~ we believe it to be essenlial thal the examination should provide suitable
targets and reflect suitable curricula for all the candidates for whom the ex-
amination is intended; and that in order to achieve this it will be essential to
provide a number of different papers so that candidates may attempt those
papers which are appropriate to their level of attainment .

The proposed single 522 We do not believe it is the task of this Committee to prescribe in detail the
system of examination way in which those who have the responsibility for developing the new single
at 16+ system of examination at 16 + should carry out their task. We believe,
however, that it may be helpful to outline a possible approach which we
believe would be consistent with the curricular aims for the teaching of
mathematics which we have already set out. We hope tbat those who have
responsibility for devising suitable examinations in mathematics will give tbis
carefu I consideration.

523 We outline the possible approach which we are suggesting in terms of the
grades which will be awarded in the new single system. Seven grades of success
will be certificated. Of these, grades 1, 2 and 3 will correspond to the existing
grades A, Band eat O-level, and will subsume the existing grade I in eSE;
*In particular this means thaL Lhe grades 4, 5,6 and 7 will correspond to the existing grades 2 to 5 in eSE'. We
exisLing CSE grade 4-the grade repeat that the new system is intended to cover the range of pupils for whom
av.arded to the 16 year old of
the O-level and eSE examinations are designed at present, ie about the top 60
average ability-will become
grade 6 in r.he new single system.
to 65 per cent of the ability range in any subject. It is only for this group of
pupils that we make the suggestion which follows.

524 The scheme of examination which we wish to outline would provide a

range of papers which would enable each candidate to attempt a combination
ofthese papers 'focussed' atone of three grades on the scale. For instance, the
combination of papers focussed at grade 6 would be one onwhich a candidate
who was awarded grade 6 would be able to obtain about two-thirds of the
marks which were available. A rather higher mark would achieve grade 5 and
a lower mark (but not, we would hope, below about 50 per cent) would merit
160 10 Examinarions at 16 +

grade 7. It would be possible for a candidate who did exceptionally well and
who achieved a very high mark on these papers to be awarded grade 4.

525 We believe that it would be appropriate to provide combinations of

papers which would focus at grade 2 (appropriate for cand idates expected to
gllin grades 1,2 or 3), at grade 4 (for candidates expected to gain grades 3, 4 or
5, though with the possibility of achieving grade 2) and at grade 6. We would
envisage that the syllabus for the papers foc ussed at grade 4 would be more ex-
tensive than that fo r the papers focussed at grad e 6 and that some of the ques-
tions asked would be of a more demanding type than those included in the
papers focussed at grade 6. There would similarly be a further increase in
syllabus content and difficulty of question in the papers focussed at grade 2.

526 It would also be necessary to make provision for the award of grades
below those suggested as appropriate for the combinations of papers focussed
at grade 2 and grade 4, We would, however, expect teachers to advi se pupils
and their parents as to the combination of papers to be attempted in such a
way that only in the most excep tional circumstances would jt be necessary to
award a grade lower than 4 on the papers foc ussed at grade 2, and lower than 6
on the papers focussed at grade 4.

527 We have been given to understand that there are some teachers who are
expecting that the introduction of a single system of examination at 16+ will
remove the necessity of advising pupils and parents as to the papers within the
examination which pupils should attempt. However, the whole of our argu-
ment for a differentiated curr iculum implies that the same set of examination
papers in mathematics can not be suitable for all pupils. If follows that those
who teach mathematics must accept responsibility for giving such advice. We
believe that the scheme which we are proposing will help teachers to this
respect by giving them ample scope for formulating appropriate advice and
will not require decisions (Q be taken at too early a stage.

528 We believe that it would be possible to implement the suggestion which

we are making in a number of differen t ways. One way would be (Q set a series
of four papers graded in difficulty and content so that, for example, papers I
and 2 could provide an examination focussed at grade 2, papers 2 and 3 an ex-
aminatjon focussed at grade 4 and papers 3 and 4 an examina[ion fo cussed at
grade 6. An alternative arrangement would be to provide three pairs of
papers, one pair focussed at grade 2. one at grade 4 and one at grade 6, with
some questions included in more than one pair of papers if lhis was felt to be
necessary in order to establish comparability between the same grade awarded
on different pairs of papers. If OUT suggestion for the introduction of (Extra
Mathematics' were to be adopted, the relevant paper would be available only
to candidates attempting the papers focussed at grade 2.

529 We wish to point out that the provision of a paper which would be taken
by all candidates would not accord with the fundamental principles which we
have set out in paragraph 52l unless it was suitable for inclusion in a combina-
tion of papers which was focu ssed at grade 6.
 10 Examinalions a[ 16+ 161

530 The two 'refere nce levels' to which we referred in paragraph 472 wou ld
corres pond to the syOabuses for papers focussed at grade 6 and grade 2. We
have noted with approval the recent moves of some boards to cease to offer
both 'traditional' and 'modern' mathematics syllabuses for O-Ievel and CSE
Mode 1 examination s and instead to adopt a single syllabu s in mat hematics .
We hope wat this policy will be fo llowed by all boa rds when devising the
syllabuses for the ne w 16 + examination and that alternative 'tradiLional' an d
' modern ' syllabuses will no t be o ffered. When drawing up th ese sylla buses we
believe (h at it \viIl also be necessary to consider whether cenain topics which
are at present included in many O-Ievel and CSE syllabuses should continue to
be included in the new syllabuses. We cite as an example multi-base
arithmetic. Alt hough this is a topic which offers opportunity for interesting
a nd often challenging work at a variety of le vels in the hands of a skilled
teacher, and which can th erefore appropriately find a place in some
c.iassrooms, we do not believe that a question of lhe kind 'evaluate 27 x 3 in
base 8' is suitab le as an examinatio n question al any level.

Teac her assessment 53 1 We wish now to discuss a furthe r maHer relating 10 methods of assess-
ment in public e)(am in at ions . Throughou t Ou r discussion of mathema rics
teach ing in both the primary and secondary years we have stressed th e impo r-
tance of presenting mathematics in the classroom in such a way that pupils of
all levels of attainment are mad e a ware of the applications of the ma thematics
which th ey a re studying. We have pOinted out that , in order to do this, it is
necessary for pupils to undertak e relevant prac tical work, p roblem solving
and in vestigations.

532 Examinations in mathematics whkh consist only of timed written papers

can not, by th eir nature, assess ability to undenake practical and in vestiga-
tio nal work o r ab ility to carry out work of an extended nature. They cannot
assess sk ills o f mental computation or ability to discuss mathematics no r, other
than in very limited ways . quaHEies of perseve rance and inven tiveness. Work
and qualities of this kind can only be assessed in the classroo m and such
assessment needs to be made over an extended period .

533 It is possible to go further. Not o nl y do written examinations fail to assess

work of the kind we have described in the previous paragraph but, in cases in
which the y co mprise the only method of assessment, they lead teachers 10 em-
phasise in the classroo m work of a kind wh ich is di rectly related to the type of
question which is set in the examination . Th is means that, especially as the ex-
amination app roaches but o ften also from a much earlier stage, practical and
investigational work find s no place in day-b y-day work in mathematics.

534 We hav e noted with interest that the first APU report on secondary
testing at 15, when co mparin g the results of its written and practical tests,
draws attention to the fact that different method s o f testing "can bighl ight
diffe rent aspects of pupils' performance, and can assess complementary
162 10 Examinali o ns al 16 +

• Assessmenl of Performance features of their mathematical knowledge".· It therefore seems clear that, if
Unil. MUlhematical developmellt. assessment at 16 + is to reneel as many aspects of mathematical attainment as
Secondary survey rep o,t No. I. possible, it needs 10 take account not only of Ihose aspects wbich it is possible
HM SO 1980.
to examine by means of wriUen papers bllt also of those aspects whkh need to
be assessed in some other way.

535 We believe it is ;lOW widely ack nowledged thaI it is appropriate to com-

bine teacher assessment and written papers in the examination of pupils who
are likely to attain the lower grades in eSE; some eSE boards include an ele-
ment of teacher assessment fo r all candidates who attempt an examination in
mathematics. Teacher assessment is, however, less co mmon in O-Ievel ex-
aminations eve n though. in some cases, provision exists fo r this to be included
Or for pupils to submit project work which can be taken into account during
{he awarding procedure . Because. in our view, assessment procedures in
public examinatio ns should be such as to encourage good classroom practiee,
we believe that provision should be made for an element of teacher assessment
10 be included in Ibe examination of pnpils of .11 levels of altainmeni. The
proportion of Ihe lo tal assessment which this should represent is a matter (or
discussion and might well vary, for example according to th e level of attain-
ment of the pupils concerned . Vie accept. however, that it is also necessary to
provide a method 0 f assessment based entirely On written work in order to
meet the needs of those candidates , in practice often adults, who attempt the
examination in dependently.

536 If teacher assessment is to be included, il wiU be necessary for teachers to

develop the necessary expert ise in carrying oul such assessment and for the
necessary help and guidance to be made available. The aspects of pupil perfor-
mance which are to be assessed will also need to be made clear; it will not, for
instance, be satisfaclory for teacher assessment to be based on testi ng of the
same kind as is used in {be written papers set by the examination board.
Suitable procedure~ for moderation will also need to be established . Although
some mathematics teachers are alread y accustomed to assessing their pupils
for the purposes of public examinat ions, many are not and time will be needed
to develo p the necessary sk ills . For this reason, we believe that it will be
necessary in t he early slages fo r teacher assessmenl to playa smaller part in
overall assessment procedures Ihan will be possi ble and desirable as teachers
develop experience in this work. It has been pointed o ut to us that an increased
amount of teacher assessment within examinations at 16+ will require in-
creased expenditure for training and travel. This, too, may delay the im-
plementation of our suggestio n while financial reso urces are limited .

Evidence of achicve- 537 We tum now to what we believe to be Ihe more difficult problem of
men f in matheJnatics provid ing evidence of achievement in mat hematics for pupils whose attain-
ror lower-attaining ment is below that for which O-Ievel and eSE, and tbe new single system of ex-
pupils amination al 16 +, are intended_ The choice of 60 to 65 per cent a s the propor-
tio n of pupils for whom O-Ievel and eSE examinations are designed at pre-
sent, and for whom the single system of examination at 16 + is intended. is an
arbitrary one: it is based on the recommendation which was made when th e in-
troduction of eSE was proposed nearly twenty years ago _ Figure 6
 10 Examinalion s al 16 + 163

(paragraph 195) shows that rather more than this propo rtion of pupils at pre-
sent obtain a graded resull in malhemalics in O-levelor eSE (and that the pro-
portion increased from 1977 to 1979), and that a very much higher proportion
obtain a graded result in English. If, as a result of following the more suitable
courses which we have suggested, more pupils than formerly were to attain the
standard at present represented by eSE grade 5 (and we wo uld hope that this
might be the case) the proportion of lhe school population who attained a
graded result would increase. It would therefore be necessary either to accept
that the examination was appropriate [o r this higher proportion of the school
population or to raise the sta nd ard required for the attainment of particular
grades in order to keep the proportion of the sc hool population who achieved
a graded re sult to some pre-determined level.

538 It has been suggested to us that, because of the demand on the part of
pupils and (heir parents for some evidence of ma thematical achievement ) the
new single system of examination should cater, in mat hematics if not in other
subjects, [or a larger proportion of the school populalion than is at present in-
tended by making possible the awa rd of a grade or grades lower than 7. We
wish ar this stage to make two comment s about this suggestion .

539 The fLIst is that we believe it to be most important that the papers focuss-
ed at grade 6 should not be distorted and strelched to acco mmodate pupils
whose allainment is below the level at present represented by the award of
eSE grade 5. Any such distortion could result either in papers being set which
were less well suited to their purpose than they should be or to a lowering of
the level at which these papers were focussed . We would not wish either of
these to happen.

540 The second is that very careful consideration needs to be giveo to the
means by which the mathematical achievement of lower-attaining pupils
should be assessed. It should Dot be tbought that the existi.ng pattern of limed
written papers towards the eod of th e fiftb year, even if accompanjed by a
substantiaJ elemeut of teacher assessment? is necessarily appropriate for these
pupils. We discuss this further in the foUowing paragraphs.

Schemes at present in use 541 Schemes which provide evidence of achievement on the part of lower-
attaining pupils are already in existence in different parts of the co untry.
Several schools have sent us details of 'certificates' which they have devised to
p rovide for the needs of such pupils. In some cases a group of schools in th e
same area has adopted a common scheme, so metimes after consultation with
local emp loyers as we described in paragraph 97; in at least one case the tests
which provide evidence or achievement are nor only taken by lower-attaining
pupils but are also taken by pupils who are expected to obtain a graded result
in O-Ievel or eSE . There are also schemes on a somewhat larger scale which
have been introduced by local autho rities, fo r example Hertfordshire, which
any school in the authority may use. A national scheme is provided by
SLAPONS (Sc hool Leaver's Profile of Numerical Skills) to which we referred
in paragraph 98. One of the purposes of this scheme is to provide tests which
can be taken earlier in the year than eSE and O-Ievel examinations. The
164 JO Examjnalion ~ at 16+

results of the tests are then availa ble to the many employers who recruit fro m
the fifth forms of seco ndary sc hoo ls in the months before CSE and O-level
results are known. It is hoped th at in this way the necessity for employers to set
their own tests can be reduced. Cert ificates awarded as a resu lt of other forms
of school-based tests very often serve a sim ilar purpose, in addition lO pro-
viding pupils wirh tangible evidence of their achievement.

542 There is considerable variation in the ways in which these sc hemes

operate. One pattern is of testing at o ne level only, some tim es with a require-
ment that pupils must demonstrate succesS on more than one occasion.
Another pattern provides a selection of tests based on a leore' together with
' options' from wbich pupils may choose. A third pattern is of a range of tests
at different levels which pu pils may attempt in successio n . Schools which
opera te schemes of this third kind have told us that they co nsider such
sc hemes to increase the moti vation of pupils because they provide both incen-
tive and evidence of progress over a period of several terms.

543 There is aJso co nside rab le variation in the conte nt o f {he tests which are
used . A small num ber of those which have bee n sent to us cover a reasonably
wide ran ge of mathematical topics but most, including the SLAPONS tests,
co ncentrate wholly or in great pa rt on the testi ng of computational skills, ve ry
often divorced from any con text. We find this a cause forconcem because we
betieve that lhe use of such tests encourages teaching of the kind which at-
·Aspecis oj secondary education tracted ad ve rse comment in the report of tb e National Secondary Survey' .
;1/ Eng/aM , A survey by HM In· "Lessons seen were often narrowly conceived a nd in 60 per cent of the sc hools
spectors of Sc hool s. HMSO 1979.
visited HMI considered that new courses should be developed for the less able
pupils. . .. There is a tendency to restrict the courses provided for the less
able to routin e calcu lation divorced from context and to fail to provide a suffi-
cient range of a pplications of the mathernaticaJ ideas wit hin the understan-
ding of the pu pils ...... The im provement of these co urses is a matter req uir-
ing urgent attentio n. "

544 We th erefore hope tha t schools whic h are at present using te sts of some
ki nd for their lower-attaini ng p upils will re view the content of their tests so as
to m ake sure that they do not lead to, or result from, a narrow curricuJum but
in stead contr ib ute to its wide ning in th e ways we have suggested. Any sc hool s
which may be co nsidering th e introd ucti on of tests at t hi s level sho uld con·
sider carefully both the form and content of such tests and also the influence
which the y are likely 10 have on the ma thematics c urriculum which is pro-
vi ded.

Our own view 545 \Ve have conside red the principles wh ich should, in our view, govern any
tests which are used for lower-anaining pupils in schools. We believe that the
principles which we have set o u t in paragraph 52 1 in respect of the single
system of examinatio n at 16 + should apply to any other fonn of testing whic h
is used in secondary schools. Any tests should be within t he capacit y of the
pupils who attempt th em and sho uld not und ermine their co nfid ence. Fur-
thennore, those who succeed in t.he tests should do so as the result of a go od
perfo rmance o n the q uest io ns which have been asked. The method of (esting
10 Examin3tionsal16+ 165

sho uld reOect a curriculum which is suited to the needs of the pupils and, if
possible, encourage them to persevere. Forthis reason we believe that it is like-
ly to be more help ful for lower-attaining pupils to be offered a series of short-
term targets, success at each of which provides evidence of achievement,
rather than to have to wait for a 'one-off' test when they are about to leave
school.

546 In paragraph 455 we stated our view that the foundation list which we set
out in paragraph 458 should constitute the greater part of the syUabus for
lower-attaining pupils. It follows that tbe mathematical content of tests
should not be limited to computation only but should be based on the founda-
tion list . Thus any tests should include such things as the reading of graphs,
charts and tahles, mensurat ion , geometrical representation in two and three
dimensions (p lans. elevations, nets. etc), the interpretation of Oow-chans and
of other types of information given in mathematical form, and the use of a
calc ulator. Computation should be tested at appropriate levels bur, in Our
view, this should be done within a series ofapplications to problems in defined
areas such as shopping, travel etc and not by examples testing the four opera-
tions in isolation. Practical and oral testing should also be included and a prin -
cipal aim of any scheme of testing which is used should be to help pupils to ac-
quire the feeling for number and measurement to which we have referred
earlier in the report .

547 It would be possible for a school to satisfy the requirements which we

have set out in the two preceding paragraph s by using not a single test but a
series of tests which pupils could attempt in succession, perhaps from the age
of about 14. An arrangement of this kind would make it possible for the tests
to be criterion referenced, with each level of test related 10 the understanding
of defined concepts and the ability to apply them to appropriate problems. It
would also make possible a requirement that, in order to succeed at any level,
it was necessary to achieve a high mark of the order of, for example, 70 per
cent. The mathematical content of the lowest level, the number of levels and
the size of the steps between them would require discussion . In our view from
four to six levels would probably be the greatest number which would be prac-
ticable; and we feel that it should be possible within this number of levels to
devise a realist ic progression in terms of content and depth of understanding.
Content could increase from level to level both in breadth and depth but the
increase could be gradual; the lowest level might well consist only of oral ques-
tions and practical tests such as the measurement and estimation of length.
weight and capacity, the reading of dials and very simple tables, and the giving
of change.

548 tn paragraph 542 we said that schools which operate tests at different
levels had told us that such testing provides a valuable means of motivation
for man y pupils. We feel that this can be the case, especiaUy during that part
of the secondary school course when this is often mOSI difficult to achieve,
provided that the tests are of an appropriate kind and that the goal of success
in a test is perceived by pupils to be possible of allainment in the nollOO dis-
tant future . For many pupils, too, a series of tests is better than one final test
of mathematical attainment which allows no opportunity to make another at-
166 10 E.xaminalions at 16+

tempt if the result has not been satisfactory. Furthermore. there is no need for
a pupil to start at the lowest level of graduat ed tests nor to attempt every level;
pupils can attempt the appropriate level of test when [hey are ready to do so
and can have mOre than one attempt if this proves to be necessary.

549 The amount of work involved in developing graduated tests which

would fulfil (he requirements which we have set out in previous paragraph s
would be very considerable . It would not be an economic use of resources for
a large number of schools to attempt such a task individually or even by work-
ing in groups. We therefore feel that it would be preferable for any develop-
ment work to be undertaken on a larger scale so as to provide a resource,
perhaps in the fot m of a central bank, which any school could use if it wished
to do so .

550 Development work of this kind could result in the availability to schools
afrests at various levels, together with instructions as to the way in which per-
formance in the test s should be assessed . We believe that, in order to ensure
that the amount of testin g in anyone school sho uld not be excessive, some
limits would need to be imposed on the availability of tests; these would have
to be discussed. In any case, we do not consider that pupils should be allowed
to attempt such tests until they were in the third or perhaps fourth year of the
secondary course, assuming the age of Iran sfer to secondary school to be JI,
or at the corresponding stage within other forms of secondary organisation.
In this way pupils of high attainment, for whom the tests would not be design-
ed, wou ld not be able to enter for them at a very early age.

551 It seems likely that, if graduated test s were to become available, a

nU;:lber of schools might include a record of achievement in the tests as pan of
profiles which they provide for the benefit of employers and those concerned
in further education. It could also be the case that a record of achievement of
this kind, which could be made available to prospective employers, would
mean that pupils did not have to attempt a succession of math ematics tests set
by different employers if they applied for several jobs . Funhermore, if the
results of tests from a central source were used in this way, there would be no
difficulty in making specimen tests available to employers who wished to in-
form themselves of th e type and level of th e Questions which were being asked .
In this way employers would be enabled to have clear idea of the mathematical
achievement of pupils who succeeded at the different levels. Moreover,
schools could arrange the riming of [he tests in such a way that their results
were available by the time at which pupils were staning to apply for jobs.

552 We believe thal th e availability from a central source of graduated tests

based on the principles we have outlined could offer many advantages to
schools. lr could encourage the provision of better c urricula and the motiva-
tion of pupils, and assist in the construction of pupil profiles. In panicular, it
could help to prevent an increase in the use of unsuitable tests; indeed, we
would hope for a diminution in the number and use of such tests. Moreover,
the availability of a more appropriate alternative for lower-attaining pupils
should help schools to persuade these pupils, their parents, and employers
that entr y for CSE examinations in their present form, or for the examina-
10 E:.xamina(ions at 16 + 167

tions which wiU replace th em, might not be desirab le. On the olher hand, we
accept that there co uld also be disad vantages. The availability of tests,
however well co nstru cted, would not of it.self lead (0 the increase in
mathematical understandin g and to the 'at- homeness' with mathematics
wh ich we seek . We are weU aware of the dan gers of subjecting pupils to more,
and more freq uem, testing and we accept that the combination of certain
kinds of testing and teaching could produce results which are the opposite of
those we desi re.

553 Nevertheless, we believe that consideration should be given to undertak-

ing develop ment work which co uld in vestigate the possibilit y of providing
evidence of the achievement of lower-attaining pupils in a way which would
assist and encourage the provision of suitable mathematics courses for these
pupils, which could operate under the co ntrol of an individual school and
which would enable use to be made of material produced outside the school.
We therefore recommend tha' a study should be commissioned 10 consider
whether if is possible to devise a means of providing evidence of achievement
in mathematics for lower-altaining pupils in ways which will support, and not
conflict wilh , the provision of suita ble mathematics courses in schools. It
should ra ke account of the views we have exp ressed in the preceding
paragraphs and also of other schemes which al ready exisr. It would be
necessary to make some assessment of the costs of an y scheme which was sug-
gested and to co nsider whether any procedure would be required to monitor
and regu lare the way in which th e tests were used. If it were to be tbought that
some suitable scheme might be devised in time to make it available to schools
no later than the date at which the single system of examination at 16 + was in-
troduced, and that the necessary finance was like I), '0 be available 10 do so,
then the study should be undertaken as a maUer of urgency. Meanwhile, we
hope that individual schools which are using tests of their own wiU examine
those tests in the light of th e views we have expressed, We believe.., however.
that any more general development of tests or the kind we have in mind, at
either national or regional level, should await the outcome of the study we are
recommending .

554 If it were decided io make use of a ce ntral resource of some kind, we

believe that those wbose task it would be to set this up should take steps to
draw on the experience of teachers thr o ughout th e country. The establish-
ment of local working groups which could assist in developing app ropriate
quest ions would provide very valuable opponunities for the in-service train-
ing of teachers, especially those who were concerned with th e teaching of
lower-attaining pupils. In this way, the money spent on setting up such a cen-
traJ reso urce wo uld also contribute to the in-service training of teachers.

555 Our suggestion that any tests which might be devised should reflect the
con lent o f t he foundation list which we set oU! in paragraph 458 means that
they would cover a large part of the sylla bus which we have recommend ed for
16+ examinations focussed at grade 6. H owever, we do not consider (hat in
devising the tests any att empt sho uld be made to relate their syllabus content
168 10 E;(amioation s at 16 +

to that of the 16 + e.aminations in any specific way. Nor do we believe that in-
itially there should be an attempt to establish any direct correspondence bet -
ween one or more levels in any graduated tests and specific grades in the 16 +
e.ammation . However, we believe it would be appropriate that the levels in
any graduated tests should be such that, in general, candidates awarded grade
6 in the new single system at 16 + would also be able to achieve the highest
level in the tests; we would e.• pect that some ofthose who were awarded grade
7 would also be able to achi"ve this level.

556 If at some stage it were to be decided that it would be desirable, within th e

single system of examination at 16+, to introduce the award of a grade or
grades for mathematics lower than grade 7, we believe that experience gained
in the study we have proposed would assist in the development of suitable
assessment procedures.
 169

11 Mathematics in the sixth form

557 Although A-level courses account for the maj or part of mathematics
teaching in the sixth form, several other kinds of mathematics course are aJso
provided in most sixth forms . These include 'service' courses for students
whose A-level studies require a knowledge of mathematics beyond O-level
standard but who are not studying mathematics at A- level; O-level and CSE
courses for students who wish to improve the result which they have obtained
in the fifth form; and courses designed primariJy for ' new' sixth formers, that
is those who are not studying any subject at A-Jevel.

A-level mathematics 558 We start OUf discussion of A-level mathematics courses by drawing atten-
tion to an .important change which has taken place in recent years. Thirty
years ago , and for many years before that, it was usual to combine the study of
single-subject mathematics with the study of two other science subjects, usual-
ly physics and chemistry; double-subject mathematics was usually combined
eif.her with physics or, less often, with both physics and chemistry. It was rare
to combine mathematics with non-science subjects. Although mathematics is
still very often combined with physics and chemistry, it has become increas-
ingly common in recent years for students to combine the study of
mathematics at A-level with subjects other than these. It is therefore not sur-
prising-indeed, it is to be expected-that additional syllabuses and changes
to existing syllabuses have been introduced which reflect the differing needs
of those who combine mathematics with subjects other than physics or
chemistry. In addition, pressure to avoid undue specialisation at the age of.16
has caused some people to ask whether it is educationally desirable to devote
two-thirds of A-level study time to mathematics, as can be the case if double-
subject mathematics is chosen; we return to this point in paragraph 586 .

"The study ",as carried out by 559 A-level courses in mathematics, as in other su bjects, are designed as two-
analysing a JO per celli sample of year courses for students aged about 16 to 18. We have tried to discover how
applicalions for uni\ersilY places
many of those who study mathematics at A-level go on to further study of
made through the Universities
Cemral Council on Admissions
some kind. A study* carried out recently for the Standing Conference on
(UCCA) in 1977 and 1978 by University Entrance (SCUE), which has been made available to us, suggests
h ome-based candidates who had that in 1977 and 1978 just under 60 per cent of those who passed mathematics
atlempted malhemallcs at A-level. at A-level were accepted by a university in the United Kingdom; this number
represents some 45 per cent of an who attempted A-level mathematics. Some
who failed mathematics at A-level also gained a university place, but the in-
formation provided by the study suggests that their number was small, It
seems , therefore, that between 45 and 50 per cent of those who studied A-level
170 II Mathematics in lhe SiXlh rorm

mathemat ics in these (Wo years gai ned university places. Tables 28 and 29 of
Appendix I show that in 1977 and 1978, as also in 1979, almost 60 per cent of
all entrantS to universities in England and Wales who had an A-level qualifica-
rion in mathematics chose degree cou rses in engineering and (echnology, the
physical scien ces or mathematical studies; about haJf of these chose engineer-
ing and [echnology, which is the largest single 'user' of university entrants
\\.'ith A-level mathematics_
560 Some of [he others who studied marnemmics at A-level wili have been ac-
cepted for degree courses in [h e non-university secto r and for other forms of
fu rther stud y, but it has not been possible to determine their number.
However, though many of those who study mathematics at A-level go on to
degree courses or other forms of higher education. by no means all do so; nor
do all of those who proceed to higher educalion continue Iheir st ud y of
mathematics. JI is therefore essential that an A-Ie\'el course in mathematics
should nol only provide a basis for further study but also provide a course
which is balanced and coherent in its own right and which reaches suitable
'slopping points' for those who will, alleasl for lhe lime being, go no further_
This is nOl always easy . Sixlh form teachers have told us that, in lheir view,
some A-level syllabuses are mrer-extensive so that, although the work involv-
ed is within the capability of more able st uden ts, others find the work over-
demaoding. As a result, pressure to cover the whole syllabus can lead these
srudents to become confused and to perceive mathematics only as a series of
apparently disconnected techniques related to particular examinarion ques-
tions.
The teachin g of A-level 561 We consider fi rst the aims of mathematics teaching at A-level and the
courses teachir:g methods which we believe 10 be appropriate_ It should be one of Ihe
aims of sixth form teaching in mathematics, as in all other subjects. to enable
students to d evelop the study skills which will prepare them for adult styles of
learning; and the need to develop th ese sk ills exists equally for Ihose who will
go on to higher education and for those who will nOt. It is very easy for A-level
leaching in mathematics to depend too much on e xposition by the teacher and
for students to adopt passive styles of learn ing. However. it is as important for
students in the sixth form as for pupils of all other ages to develop problem
solving techn_iques, ( 0 pursue independent investigations and to discuss and
communicate their ideas. It is by working in these-ways that ~tudent s develop
the confidence which the y will require in order to be able to make use of
mathematics in their future studies and careers. A-level malhematics is almost
always taught to groups which are a good deal smaller than those in which
mathematics is lau ght 10 younger pupils and sixth form teachers should ex-
ploit the opportunities which this provides to work with their students in a
variety of ways.

562 Il is also possib le for mathematics al A-level to be presented as a very

techitical and somewhal arid subject with little relation to other school sub-
jects except, perhaps, physics or 10 the activity of the world at large. It is
therefore important that teachers should seek to counteract this impression by
making use of o ppot1 unities which arise to emphasise Ihe broader role of
mathematics. The very varied app lications of mathematics should be sl ressed
and illustrations of these applications drawn from as wide a ran ge as possible.
 J J Mal hema lics in the sixth form 171

The increasing use of . mathematical modelling' in, for example. the social
sciences provides many possibilities for an enterprising teacher and many
more traditional app lications are to be found in the physical sciences.
Reference to the historical background of some of the topics which are being
studied can both help to explain their importance and also add interest and
depth to the A-level course . A micro-computer can provide a stimulus to
adventu rous thinking, very often initiated by the studen ts themselves; the in-
vestigative work which can arise in this way should be encouraged. Occasional
discussion of some of the assumptions underlying mathematics and of the
nature of the knowledge it provides is necessary if students are to be enabled to
talk about mathematics in ways which others will understand. There is at pre-
sent a lack of leaching materials which assisl sh:lh-form teachers to work in
these ways anrl more are required.

563 Most mathematics courses in sixth forms require students to undertake

far less reading than is the case with cou rses in other subjects, including
science. Much less use is made of libraries and individual reading and study is
ve!"y often confined to a single textbook. It is not easy to learn mathematics
from a book and the necessary ability can take a long time to develop. In order
to read a mathematics text it is usuaUy necessary to sit at a table with pencil
and paper in order, for example, to fill in the intermediate working which is
often omitted; students have to realise this. A helpful 'way in' can be to ask
students to make use of the library to look at the way in which a different text-
book deals with a topic which has just been studied; the knowledge of the
topic which the students already possess will help them to follow the text. A
next stage can be to ask students to approach a new topic by studying for
themselves the relevant chaptcr in the textbook which they are using. The
chapter can then be re-read and discussed by studems and teacher working
together so that the students can begin to appreciate the way in wbich it is
necessary to set about reading mathematics. Studen ts should a lso be en-
couraged to ' read around' the subject and to acquire knowledge on their own
initiative,

564 Thro ughout this report we have emphasised the necessity of enabling
pupils of all ages to achieve as much as they are able. It is especially important
that studenrs whose ability is high should be helped and encouraged to extend
their work beyond the confines of lhe single-subject syllabus. Proper use of
the library can contribute significant ly 10 this end; it is by no means unknown
for mathematically able students, with help from their teacher, to be able to
cover the double-subject syUabus in the lime which their fellows require to
slud y the single subject.

The applications of 565 We have referred many times in earlier chaplers to the importance of ap-
mathematics plying mathematics to the solution of problems. We therefore beUe¥e that all
A-level mathematics courses should contain so me substantial clement of ' ap ~
plied mathematics' so that all who are sludying the subject, whether for its
own sake or because of its usefulness as a 'semce subjecl' for lheir other
studies, are able to gain a balanced view of malhematics. It follows that we do
not favo ur single-subject A-level courses which consist of pure mathematics
only.
172 II Mathematics in the sixr.h form

566 11 is at this point that we encounter difficult and intractable problems.

Thiny years ago no problem arose . The applied element of both single- and
double-subject mathematics courses was almost always NCWlonian
mechanics; so me sylJabuses also included a ce rtain amount of applied
calculus, usualJy related to problems in mechani cs. However. the study of
Newtonian mechanics, although related very directly to the study of physics
and engineering , is of little relevance in fields such as economics. geography
and social studies; in these areas topics such as probability and statistics are of
much greater application. The problem, therefore. is to decide how best to
provide, often within the same teach ing group, for the differing needs of
students who may be studying mathematics at A-level for very different
reasons. Some may have chosen mathematics because of its value as a service
su bj ect in the study of physics and engineering; some may wish to make use of
mathematics in their study of, for example, biological or social science; some
may wish to continue with mathematics as a principaJ study in higher educa-
tion ; in many schools there will be some for whom the end of tbe A-level
course marks the end of their full-time education. rt is necessary to remember
also that , at the age of 16, many students will not yet have decided on their
future area of study in higher education.

567 There are st rong arguments that, in an ideal situation, all who study
mathematics at A-level should have the opponunity to gain so me knowledge
of Newtonian mechanics as we\1 as of probability and statistics. "Applica-
tions of mathernatics, such as Newtonian mechan-ics , are part of our cult ural
her:tage and of the human ac tivity of mat hematics. To learn calculus without
underSlanding what led to its development and how it was used by Newton
and others, is like learning to play scales at the piano without being shown any
'H B Grirriths and A G Howson . com position~: ' * Equally, the increasing use which is being made of statistical
;\1olh em(Jfics: socielY and CUI·' techniques in so many fields makes it highly desirable that those who stud y
ricllla. Cambridge UniversiLY mathematics at A-level sho uld have some understanding of probability and
Press 1974.
statistics .

568. It is the experience of many teachers that the early stages of both
mechanics and probability and statistics need to be taught slowly and with
great care, allowing ample time for d iscussion and for the underlying ideas to
sink in and develop. Attempts to go ahead too fast can too easily result in
failure to develop understanding of the fundamental ideas and so lead to dif-
ficultyand failure at later stages of the course. This means that, in practice, the
'ideal situation' which we described in the previous paragraph is very difficult
to realise. Within the time available for the study of a single A-level subject it
is extremely difficult to cover essential pure mathematics and also to go a suf-
ficie nt distance in the study of probability and statistics as welJ as mechanics
to reach suitable 'staging point.s' in each; that is, to go far enough to enable the
work which has been covered to form a reasonabl y cohe rent whole. Some of
the A-level syllabuses which have been introduced in recent years include pro-
bability and statislics as well as mechanics, but these auempts to include a
wider range of applications have resulted in syUabuses which are very full and
hence in courses which can be over-demanding for many students. In conse-
q uence, many fail to obtain a secure grasp of eitheroftbe applied elements of their
cou rse. Th e same arguments do not apply to those who st udy mathematics as a
I L Mathemalics in the siXlh form 173

double subject. We believe that all double-subject A-level courses in mathematics

should include the study of mechanics and also of probability and statistics.

569 Although. fo r the reasons outlined above. we would have liked to recom-
mend that single-subject courses should include both mechanics and also pro-
babilit y and slatistics. we have concluded with regret that. because such
courses make great demands on both teacher and students. it is not at the pre-
sent time possible fo r us to recommend that all single-subject courses should
be of this kind, On the other hand . we in no way wish to discourage those who
are foUowing such co urses successfuU y from conti nuing to do so. It has been
suggested to us that it would be possible to include rather less of both
mechanics and probability and statistics within the single-subject A-level
syllabus and stiU provide a coherent course, It has also been suggested that the
use of computer simulation might enabJe essential ideas in mechanics and in
probability and statist ics to be assimilated more rapidl y and in this way enable
sufficient of each to be included in a single-subject syllabus. We believe there
is a need for curriculum studies into each of these possibilil.ies.

570 We have considered whetber we should recommend the study of one area
of application ralherthan .nother bul have decided Ihal il is not possible to do
Ihis because of Ihe diversity of stu dents' ruture needs and in leresIs. The in-
creasing use of slatistical lechniques, not only in the study o f other subjecls
bUI also in business . commerce and manufacluring industry. provides many
studenls with a slrong reason for wishing to study probability and statislics. In
addition. some who wish to study A-level mathematics may not have studied
physics even 10 O-Ievel standard and may be discouraged from choosing
mathematics if the course includes only mechanics. it has been suggested to us
that girls are more likely to study mathematics at A-level if they do not have to
do mechanics, but we have no direct evidence about this.

571 Some of the greatest pressure fo r the inclusion of mechanics in

mathematics syllabuses co mes from those in higher education who are
responsible for courses in engineering. Ho wever, almost all those who enter
engineering cou rses at this level have also studied physics. Figures supplied to
us by Ihe Universities Slatistical Record show that. o f those who entered
degree courses in engineering and technology at universities in England and
Wales on the basis of A-level qualificat ions. almost 98 per cenl had an A-level
in physics or physica l science in both 1978 and 1979. A great deal of the
mechanics which is commonly included in A-level mathematics syUabuses is
also included within most A-level physics syllabuses. This means that many
stlldents who study physics as weU as mathematics at A-level cover many
topics in mechanics twice. albeit from somewhat different standpoints. rt
could be argued that such duplication should not be necessary, )-Iowever. for
ve ry many years most o f those enlerin g engineering degree courses have
studied mechanics as part both of mathematics and of physics. In conse-
quence. teaching for degree courses in engineering is based on an expectation
of the level of compet ence in mechanics which this double study provides.
Although some engineering departments accept individual students whose
A·level mathematics course has not included mechanics, we have gained the
impression that they do so with reluct ance, believing that such student s are
174 II ~alh e mali cs in the six(h fo rm

likely to ex perience diffi culty in covering the content of their (·ourses satisfac-
-T J Heard. The mofhemaflco/ torily. A recent research st udy* into the mathem a ti caJ education of engineers
edueo/ioll 0/ eng;neers at school at school and university classifies A-level courses as 'traditional'. 'com-
(Jm/ulliversify. Depanment of
promise ' and 'modern'. It points out that in some syllabuses there is only a
Engineering S... ie11\.:e . Un iversity or
DurharYJ 1978. restricted coverage of mechanics and that jn others it is possi ble to avoid
mechanics entirely. However, no evidence was found that students who had
followed onc type of A-level mathematics course performed consisrcmly bet-
ter or worse a t univers ity than students who had followed another type of
course.

572 In passi ng. we wish to draw auention to the fact thal. so far as we are
aware, there is no European coumry outside the British Isles in which
mechanics fonns pa rt of school courses in mathematics: it is considered to be
pan of ph ysics. However, there are also considerable differences in the time
required to complete first degree courses in these countries and in the structure
of the examinadons which are taken by students in preparation for university
entran ce.

573 The study of mechanics is not only of relevance to tho se who proceed to
higher education courses in engineering; it is also of vaJue to tho se who study
mathematics and physics in higher education. \Ve believe, too, that there are
A-level students who, even though the y will not continue thei r stud y or
mathematics after the age of 18! nevertheless enjoy the study of mecha nics
and derive benefit from it.

574 One further factor needs to be considered . Partly as a result of changes in

the structure of some mathematics degree courses in reeent years, there are
some teachers who find difficult y in teaching mechanics . On the other hand.
some teachers, especially those who completed their degree courses some
years ago, do not have su fficient knowledge of probability and statistics to
teach in these areas effectively . A concentration on the teaching of one aspect
of applied mathematics only cou ld, therefore , add to the problems or deploy-
ment of mathematics teaching staff in some sc hools.

575 We realise that our supp ort for either mechanics or probability and
statistics or both to remain availab le in single-subject syllabuses does not
resolve problems of choice of A-level syllabus which now exist in schools. In
sc hools and colleges in which there are sufficient students stud ying
mathematics at A-level for it to be necessary to form more than one teaching
group. it may be possible [0 offer alterna ti ve courses in order to provide for
the differing needs of students. However. it has been pointed out to us by
some who teach in such larger establishments that a solution of this kind ma y
fail La take accoum of the advantages which can accrue from teaching the
same course to all stud ents and gai ning from the mix o f A-level specialisms
within the same teaching group which this makes possible. If there are only
sufficient students to form a single teaching group, it must be for each school
to decide on the co urse it will ~ffer, taking acco unt of the needs of the
students, the capa bilities of the mathematics teaching staff, and the
mathematical balance of the course which is chosen. We believe that the
greatest pressure for a particular type a f co urse to be provided may corne from
 II MaLhematics in tbe sixlh form 175

those who wish (0 study engineering at a later stage . Since these students will
alm ost cenainly be studying physics as well, we do not believe that their needs
should necessarily be considered to be paramount when choosing the course
to be fo llowed.

A-level co re 576 Although we have co me to the conclusion that it is necessary for there to
be variety in the applied mathe matics eleme nt of A-level syllabuses we believe
that diffe rent considerations apply in respect of the range of pure
mathematics which is included , In the submissions which we have received
there has been a great deal of suppon. for the proposal that a 'core' of pure
mathematics should be agreed which would form pan of the syllabuses of all
GCE boards. The few submissions which have argued against suc h a core have
in general done so because of concern that A-level syllabuses are already
becoming overloaded and that syllabus change and development would be in-
hibited; we believe there is substance in this concern .

577 Allhough some submissions have given specific support to the 'eore' pro-
posed by the Standing Conference on Uni versity Entrance (SCUE) and th e
Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA), many have expressed the
view that the content of the SCUE/CNAA careis too large if, as is expected by
those who formulat ed the core, "students should not only have been taught
*Slanding Conference On Univer- the whole of the core content but should be very well ve rsed in it Jl *. We are
~ ilY Enlrance and
Council for Na- aware that, during the time for which we have been working, the GCE boards
ti onal Academic Award s. A have bec-n engaged in consultation among themsel ves as a resuJt of their study
minimal core syllobusjor A ·Iew:!
n,alh emQlic~·. 1978.
of the SCUE/ CNAA proposal. We und erstand that they are moving towards
agreement on a core of pure mathematics which is somewhat smaller than that
originally proposed by SCUE/ CNAA and which will constitute some 40 per
cent of a single-subject syllabus in pure and applied mathematics. We
welcome this move and accept that the 40 per cent suggested forms a
reasonable proportion of tbe total syUabus content. We would not ..tsh 10 see
the core become much larger because of the need to include a substantial pro-
portion of applied mathematics and of the danger that any further increase
""ould prevent the freedom of presentation and development which exists in
the best sixth form teaching.

578 We believe it to be essenHallhal , once a core has been agreed, it should be

subjeci to regular review so Ihal it can be changed as necess3r)' to accom-
modate current developments. A suitable body will need to be set up for this
pu rpose. We suggest that such a body should be responsible to the A-level sub-
co mmittee of the Mathematics Committee of Schools Council or to such co m-
parable commiHee as may be formed as a result of the current review of the
works of Schools Council.

Variety of A-level 579 In the last three or four years, there have been man y adverse comments
syllabuses on the apparently very large number of A- level math emat ics syllabuses which
exist. However. tho se who have quoted a variety of figures between fifty and
sixty have very often failed to point out at the same time that th ere are eight
GCE boards. If each board were to offer only three syllabuses- ' pure
mathe matics' and'applied mathematics' to pro vide th e double subject and
'pure and ap plied mathematics' for the single subject- there would be a total
176 JI Malbemalics in the sixlh form

of twenty-four syUabuses. Since it is now necessary to offer the single subject

in two alternatlve forms (so that the 'applied' component is either mec hanics
Or probability and statistics), this figure rises to thirty-two. It is therefore
always likely to be the case that the number of A-level syllabuses in
mathematics wili appear high.

580 In fact, arithmet'c calculations of this kind are not very helpful, because
there is considerable variation in the way in which the GeE boards draw up
and name their syllabuses. For example, some boards include probability and
statistics and mechanics as alternati ve options within the same single-subject
syllabus while others provide two syllabuses (witb different titles), one of
which contains probability and statistics and the other mechanics. We
therefore wish to discuss the variety of A-level sy llabuses in more general
terms and to draw attention to some ofrhe factors which have contributed to
this variety.

581 One factor, to which we have already referred, has been the increase in
the number of students combining the study of mathematics at A-level with
subjects other than physics and chemistry, and th e consequent need to pro-
vide syllabuses which include probability and statistics rather than
mechanics. Another factor has been the worJd-wide movement towards
modern mathematics which started in the 1960s. This has led to the introduc-
tion of new courses in many schools and, jn consequence, of new A-level ex-
aminations which reflect the different coment and approach of these courses.
In the first place modem A-level syllabuses were associated with the Scbool
Mathematics Project (SMP) and Mathematics in Education and Industry
(MEl). The SMP and MEl examinations were (and still are) available 'across
the boards'; that is, they can be taken by candidates entering through any of
the GCE boards. They did not, Iherefore, in the first instance lead 10 a great
increase in the number of A-level syllabuses since the two sets of examinations
served eight boards. However, in due course seven of the GCE boards in-
troduced their own modern syllabuses for sin gle and doubfe subject and the
IOtal number of A-level syUabuses increased sh arply. We believe that the
number of syllabuses reached its highest point in the mid-1970s.

582 The number of different syllabuses is now decreasing . Syllabus changes

during the last ten years have lessened the differences between the content of
'modern' and 'traditional' syllabuses and many feel that it is no longer ap-
propriate to attempt to distinguish between them. We have noted with interest
that none of the groups which were commissioned some six years ago to pro-
pose specimen syllabuses and examination papers in mathematics as part of
the feasibility studies for the N & F proposals for examination at 18 + dif-
ferentiated between traditional and modern mathematics. We support the
view that the distinction should no longer be maintained. It should th en be
possible for the number of A-level syllabuses to be reduced furt her.

583 However, differences in examinations are not only a question of syllabus

conte nt , but are also concerned with the approach lO the leaching of
mathematics which the syllabus implies and the kind of papers and questions
by means of which it is examined . These factors can be very relevant to a
 II Mathematics in {he sixth form 177

school 's choice of syllabus and we believe it is desirable that such choice
should exist. Indeed, the difference between some ' modern' and ' traditional'
syllabuses is as much in the approach which is used as in the topics which are
covered . If, as we hope will be the case, agreement is reached on a core of
mathematics to be included in all A-level syllabuses, existing syllabuses will
presumably be revised a~ necessary to accommodate it, and any new
syllabuses which may be introduced in the future will include the core. This
should reduce the differences between the content ofsyUabuses and so help to
resolve the problems which, we have been told, are caused for both students
and their teachers at the beginning of higher education COUrses by the varia-
tions in tbe co ntent of syllabuses which exist at present. However, it should
nO[ necessarily be expected that the introduction of a core syllabus will resolve
all problems. Differences in the ways in which A-level courses have been
taught may result in greater differences in the performance of students who
have followed the same course than result from differences of content bet-
ween syllabuses.

584 We do nol therefore consider thai there are strong arguments for an ar~
bitrary reduction tn the number of syllabuses, excepl on the grounds of
duplication . Indeed, the possibility of introducing new syllabuses is essential
if curriculum development is not to be inhibited . There is of necessity a limit to
the change which can be made to existing syllabuses in mathematics, as in
other su bjects, at anyone time and it is often easjer to reflect curriculum
development b y the introduction of a new syllabus.

585 We believe the monitoring of A-level syllabuses wbich is at present car-

ried out by the A-level sub-committee of the Malbematics Committee of
Schools Council is bolh valuable and necessary. This includes the review and
approval of new syllabuses and schemes of examination proposed by GCE
boards or individual projects. and would provide a means of ensuring that any
core which had been agreed wa, included, and assessed appropriately, in any
new syllabus. The monitoring process also includes an annual scrutiny of the
examinations set b y at least two GCE boards; this provides a valuable means
of exchange between boards and also of sharing expertise in examining. This
work should continue at not less than its present level.

Double-subject 586 The fact that mathematics at A-level can be offered as either one or two
mathematics subjects causes a number of problems. Some have argued to us that double-
subject mathematics leads to too great a degree of specialisation and that a
more broadly based course, with mathematics a, one rather than two out of
three A-level subjects, provides a more baJanced diet. We recognise the force
of this argument. the more so since for many students the choice of double-
subject mathematics has to be made at the age of 16 when future plans may be
uncert.ain. Again. except in very large sb( th forms, teaching groups for
double-subject mathematics are almost always small and so, in comparison
with mathematics teaching groups in other pans of the school , not economic
in their lise of staff. This can be a justifiable cause-of concern at a time when,
as we point out in Chapter 13, there is a shortage of suitably qualified teachers
of mathematics. A furrher problem can arise from the fact that some entrants
to degree co urses which require a knowledge of mathematics have taken
178 II Malhematics in the si.xth form

double-subject mathematics while others have taken the single subject, so that
it is difficult to establish a suitable starting point for all al the beginning of a
degree co urse . However, there are very able st udents who profit from the
double-subjecl course and we believe Ihat it should continue to be offered to
these students in schools and coUeges in which the necessary staffing can be
made available to teach the course without disadvantage to those who are stu-
d ying mathematics at lower levels.

587 In our view , too much teaching time is often given to double-subject
courses. We do not consiae r that it is either necessary or desirable to .oocate
to able students who take double-subject mathematics twice as much teaching
time as is allocated to Ihe single-subject course. We accepl that those who are
studying double-subject malhematics may need the time of two A-level sub-
jects for their own work , but it should not be nece .. ary for th eir teacher to be
present throughout the whole of this time. Indeed , it is arguable that students
who require this amount of attention from their teacher have not been well ad-
vised to c hoose Ihe double-subject course.

588 We have alread y drawn attention in paragraph 180 to the fact that there
has been a marked decrease in recent years in the proportion of university en-
trants to degree courses in mathematical studies who have a double-subject
qualification at A-level; in 1979 this figure was 55 per cent. It is most impor-
tant that schools and colleges should be aware of this and should point out to
their students that it is possible in many universities and other institutions of
higber education to follow mathematics degree courSes successfully on the
basis of a good performance in the single subject. It is equally important that
those responsible for tbe earl y stages of these courses should take account of
Ihe facl that many of their studems may not have studied the double subject.
We hope, too, Ihat thoS<'. who select students for admission to higher educa-
tion wiD recognise that there are so und educational as well as economic
reasons for offering only single-subject mathematics at A-Ie.ol aod will not
pul eilher direct or indirect pressure on schools wh.ich ha'Ve only Ijmited
teaching resources in mathematics to provide the double-subject course,
especiaUy for students to wbom it is not well suited.

589 In recent years the pattern of some double-subject examinations has

c hanged from that of 'pure mathematics' and 'applied mathematics' as
separate subjects to that of 'mathematics' and 'further mathematics' . In the
laller pall ern, 'mathematics' is the si ngle-subject A-level, containing both
pure a nd applied mathematics, and 'funher mathematics' consists of more
advanced work which p resupposes a knowledge of the single-subject syllabus.
In our view the pattern of mathematics and further mathematics is preferable
beeause it does not imply a distinction between pure aDd applied
mathematics. wbich, as we have already pointed out, we consider to be
undesirable at schoolle.el.

The use of formula sheets 590 We drew attention in paragraph 562 to the need to avoid a style of
in A ~ level examinations teaching which concentrates on the acquisition of techniques at the expense of
the development of a broader approach to mathematics. However, th is does
not mean that it IS unnecessary for st ud en ts to acq uire fluency in the routin e
 1\ Mathematics in the sixth fo rm 179

processes which form part of A-level work. A number of the submissions

which we have received from those who teach in higher education have drawn
attention to a lack of confidence and accuracy in the routines of algebra,
calculus and trigonometry on the part of many who start degree courses. This
has been stressed. especially by professors of engineering, who have also
drawn attention to an over-reliance on the use of formula sheets on the part of
many students and a consequent inability to recall simple formulae which are
used frequently.

591 In recent years it has become the practice of almost all GeE boards to
supply formula sheets which can be used during the A-level examination .
There seem to be two main arguments for such provision. First1y, formula
sheets serve as a 'safety net' at a time of possible examination stress which can
lead to sudden and damaging lapses of memory, sometimes in respect of quite
elementary formulae. Secondly, they are a means of providing candidates
with a list of formulae which are either difficult to remember or of relatively
infrequent use; these are formulae which, when not working under examina-
tion conditions, students would probably obtain from a reference book .

592 We consider both of these arguments to be valid. However, there seems

no doubt that the provision of formula sheets has led some teachers to
assume, and to allow their pupils to assume, that there is no need to commit to
memory any of the formulae which appear on the sheet. This is a view with
which we cannot agree . While it is important that students should not be ex-
pected to memorise results which have not been adequately derived and
discussed , we consider that many students handicap themselves because they
do not have rapid recall of certain results which are of fundamental and recur-
ring use in the development of the subject. At all levels understanding must
carry with it a degree of remembering and it is our view that, unless students
·We draw allemion (0 our discus- have confident recall' of such results as rhe trigonometrical addition for-
sion of memory in paragraph 234 . mulae and the derivatives and integrals of simple algebraic and
The learning of fonnulae and
trigonometrical functions, they will lack the' building blocks' which they need
standard results should be
associated with [he use of suitable
to develop their study of mathematics satisfactorily. They will also be han-
checking procedures ; for example , dicapped in their study of other curricular areas which make extensive use of
'sine is an odd function', or 'put mathematics both in the sixth form and also in higher education.
x = 0' _

593 It has been suggested to us that because, so long as formula sheets con-
tinue to be provided, they are liable to be misused we should recommend
either that they should no longer be provided by examination boards or that
the more elementary formulae should not appear on them . We do not accept
this solution . Quite apart from the difficulty of securing agreement on which
formulae should be included and which should not-and a formula which one
student may be able to remember with ease may for some reason present dif-
ficulties to another-the formula sheet would not serve its purpose as a 'safety
net' unless it was complete.

594 We believe that fonnula sheets sbould continue to be provided at A-level

and that formulae which relate to any agreed 'common core' should appear
On the formula sbeets of aU boards. However, we reiterate that the reasons for
180 IJ Mathematics in the sixth form

this are those which we have already given in paragraph 591 above. The fact
that formula sheets are provided should not be regarded by either teacher or
student as replacing the necessity for memorising and developing confident
recall of fundamental and frequently used results.

I-level mathematics 595 Since our Committee was set up, the Government have published pro-
posals for the development of free-standing intermediate examinations
ExaminatIOns /6-18. A con- (I-levels)' as a means of broadening the studies undertaken by some of those
sultative paper. DES and Welsh who currently take full A-level courses. An I-level course would last two years
Office [980.
and occupy about half the time normally given to a full A-level course.

596 We support the suggestion that a course of this kind should be available
for students who are not studying mathematics as a full A-level subject. We do
not, however, beliel'e it will necessarily be easy to design a suitable course and
we expect that considerable development work wi]) be required. In our view an
I-level course should not be envisaged merely as a replacement for the 'service'
courses which are at present provided in some sixth forms, though it would
serve some of the purposes of these courses. Nor should it be a course which is
comparable to existing AO-level courses in mathematics which would serve
the needs of those who find a full A-level too demanding; AO-Ievel courses
should continue to exist for this purpose . We believe that the aim of an I-level
course should be to develop mathematical ideas and extend previous
knowledge without setting ambhious targets in terms of manipulative com-
petence. For example, although calculus would be included, students should
not be expected to spend time acquiring facility in the differentiation and in-
tegration of complicated functions. The course should illustrate the many
ways in which mathematics can be applied and also include some study of the
ways in which the subject has developed. We are not aware of any existing
course which would be suitable, though we believe that use could be made of
*Schools Council Project some of the ideas which are contained in the Mathematics App/icab/e* course
MA 1601. and in the N-level study entitled Mathematical A wareness. An I-level course
of the type we would wish to seE' would require skiUed teaching and this would
have staffing implications for sl:hools and for in-seryice education.

597 We believe that there would also be a place for an I-level course in
statistics. Such a course could serve the needs of many students, especially
those who are studying A-level courses such as biology, geography, sociology
or economics, in which there is an increasing emphasis on the critkal examina-
tion and analysis of numerical data. In evidence to us the Royal Statistical
Society and the Institute of Statisticians have stressed that statistics is not
merely a collection of techniques but is a practical subject devoted to obtain-
ing and processing data; and that the study of statistics should not become
separated from the origins of that data. They have also pointed out that
statistics in schools frequently ignores the practical situation and concentrates
on formal manipulation. Within such an I-level course as we propose there
should be time and opportunity to adopt a practical approach and to place
emphasis on the application of statistical techniques to data which the
students themselves have coUected in the course of their own laboratory and
field work. In this way it would be possible to demonstrate clearly the applica-
 tI MSlhemalics in (he sixlh fo rln 181

tion of statistics to the anaJysis of data arising from study in several different
areas of the curriculum and to develop a COurse which did not concentrate
mainly on techniques. We believe that in many sixth forms it might be
preferable to provide an I·level course rather than a full A-level course in
statistics, since such a course would serve the needs of a much greater number
of students.

Sub )·Ievel courses 598 The consultative paper' which contains proposaJs for the introduction
·£'tominulions /6-/8. A COn- of I-level examinations aJso proposes the development of a pre-vocationaJ
sullaTive paper. DES and Welsh course and an associated exami nation to be taken by students in either schools
Office 1980. or colleges at J7 + . This is intended to replace the proposed Cenificate of Ex·
tended Education (CEE) examination for which some pilot examinations in
mathematics have aJready been developed. When planning tbe mathematical
component of the proposed new course we beUeve tbat account should be
taken no t only ofthe pilot CEE courses but also of the findings of the research
studies into the mathematical needs of various types of employment which we
bave discussed in Chapter 3 and of our own proposals for a differentiated cur·
riculum up to the age of16 + .

O·level and CSE co urses in 599 Some have argued to us that the decision not to implement the proposaJ
the sixth form forthe introduction of CEE means that a sixth form examination which, in its
pilot form, has been well suit ed to some students wiU no longer be available.
Some sixth form students who have not achieved O·level grade A, B or C or
CSE grade 1 in mathematics in the fifth form have taken CEE pilot exam ina·
tions in mathematics, on which CSE grades have been awarded, instead of
repeating the a-level Or CSE examination. Because the proposed pre·
vocationaJ course is not a single subject examination but a 'package'. it will
not provide separate cenification in mathematics. Students who wish to im-
prove their a- level or CSE grades will therefore need to take these examina·
tions again.

600 However, pilot CEE courses have not been available in aJl parts of the
country and in practice many students repeat O·level or CSE examinations in
mathematics in the sixth form. These 'retake' courses are often among the
least satisfactory in a school or coUege. The time allowance is sometimes
meagre. the level of aUainment of the student, very varied and their examina-
tion targets diverse. It is nOl unusual for students in the same tcaching group
in a sixth form or tertiary college to be preparing for three or four different
a- level and CSE examinations. Furthermore, problems of timetabling
sometimes mean that students are not able to be present for all the
mathematics periods in the week. tn these circumstances the task of the
teacher is very difficu lt indeed and there can be a temptation merely to prac·
tise past examination papers in the hope that improved performance wjU
result.

601 We consider that one of the reasons why some pilot CEE courses have
been successful is that they have required students to approach the
mathematics course in a different, and often more adult. way. In our view a
course which incJudes the introduction of some new work approached in an
182 II Mathematics in the SiXlh rorm

adu lt way is more likely to succeed than one which is based on the practising of
past examination papers. Furthermore, if 'relake' courses for CSE o r a-level
are to be effective, il is essential to provide sufficient time for them , to ensu re
that students are able 10 attend all the periods and to consider carefu.lly the ap-
proach which is used .
 183

Part 3 12 Facilities for teaching mathematics

602 In the third pan of our report we discuss th e resources wltich are required
to teach mathematics. We begin by considering the facilities which should be
available in primary and secondary schools.

Accommodation 603 In most primary schools each class spends the greater pan of the day in its
own classroom or class base, moving elsewhere only for acti vities such as
physical education and music. Each class needs facilities for practical work in
mathematics but no special accommodation is required . ill schools whose ac-
commodation includes areas for practical work which are shared by several
classes. it can be convenient to assemble certain pieces of mathematics equip-
ment, for example apparatus for measurement of various kinds, in one part of
such practical areas. They are then readily accessible to children from several
classes.

604 We are in no doubt that in secondary scbools mathemBtics sbould be

taugbt in suitably equ.ipped speciatist rooms and that tbeir prO'ision mlllees it
easier for good practice to develop, especially in schools in wbicb there is good
leadership from Ihe head of department. This is underlined in the following
"'A spects ofsei'ondary education extracts from the report of the National Secondary Survey'. "The problems
in England. A survey by HM In - of teaclting mathematics are increased by inappropriate accommodation and
specters of Schools. HJ\·ISO 1979.
some of the best practice seen would have been impossible if the teachers had
not enjoyed su.itably equipped bases in which to work." "Observation show-
ed, and statistical analysis confirmed, that display material, experimental and
practical work, the use of realistic material, and the mathematical use of
puzzles and games were aU more likely to be found in schools in which
mathematics was allocated specialist accommodation ." However, sufficient
suitable accommodation for the teaching of mathematics is not yet available
in many secondary schools. [n their wrilten submissions, many teachers have
drawn attention to the need to provide suitable specialist accommodation for
mathematics teaching. Some of the teachers whom we have met durin g our
visits to secondary schools have also stressed this need and have pointed out
the difficulties of carrying from room to room aU the mathematics equipment
which is required.

605 About ten to fifteen years ago some of those engaged in mathematical
education were advocating [he provision of a 'mathematics laboratory' in
each secondary school. However, we believe it has become clear that the pro-
vision of a single specially equipped room of this kind does not meet the need
184 12 Facili[ies for leaching ma(hematin

satisfactoril y, This is in part because o f the timetabling problem of enabling

mathematics classes to use the facilities which the room provides at the time at
which they are needed . M ore importantly it assumes, in OUf view wronglYI
that only one mathematics class will need facilities for practi cal work at any
one time. \Ve betieve that it is preferable for ceJ1ain rOoms to be designated fOT
mathemalics and for Ihese 10 he grouped logether. 1f it can be a rranged that one
of the rooms is somewhat la rger than the others, with certain extra facilities
such as side benches and a sink, this is an a dvanta ge. All Ihe room s should
have tables or desks with flat tops, good b lackboard facilities which incl ude a
squa re grid for grap hical work , storage facilities for books and equipme nt,
and display boards on the wall. Power points should be available to make
possible the use of equipmem suc h as an overhead projector o r micro-
processor .

606 The provisio n of grouped specialist accommodation provides man y op-

portunities for the malhe matics department in a school. Among these we
would include
• opportunjty for greater cooperatio n and mutual support a mong those
who teach mathematics in a school;
• o ppo rtunity fo r those who teac h mathematics to observe eac h o ther at
work;
• opportunity for the head o f department t o oversee the work of the
department more easily and assist its members-this can be especially
important in a school which is short o f well qualified mathemat ics staff;
• opportunity to share equipment and other reSOu rces more effectively;
• oppo rtunity for better display of pupils' work and olher relevant
material in circulation areas as weU as in classrooms;
• opportunity for flexible use-fo r example. if one roo m has cenain addi-
t io nal facilities it is possible for classes to exchange ro oms at shan
notice ; a set of grouped rooms also enables team teaching techniques to
be u sed if desired, and mak es it easie r to provide co ver for absent staff.

607 We have been told th at in so me schools pressure on accommodatio n in

rece nt years has prevented the re-arra ngement of teachin g accommodation in
order to provide a set of specialist mathematics rooms wh ich are grouped
togelh er. Now Ihal secondary t o lls are beginning 10 fall in some parts of Ihe
counlry, we hope Ihal LEAs and head leacbers will lake advanlage of the
grealer flexibilily in Ihe use of accommodalion which will result from Ihese
falling rolls 10 provide grouped specialisl accommodalion for malhematics
departments in schools in which it does not yet exist.

Equipmenl 608 Th roug hout our repo rt we have stressed t he importance of prac tical ex-
perience at all stages of the mathemalics co urse. [11 order to provide such ex-
perience Ihe necessary equipmenl must be available. Much of what is required
is neither elabora te nor expensive but it needs 10 be availab le in sufficient
quantity and to be readily accessible.
12 Facilities for Leaching malhema1ics 185

609 In infant classes it is essential to have plenty of small objects which can be
used for sorting and counting. There must also be equipment that can be
used for measuring, including sand, a sink with a variety of capacity measures
and simple balances with appropriate weights. Older children need other
measuring devices such as rulers and tape measures, balances and scales of
various kinds, and timing devices.

610 Young children need to use simple Structural apparatus of various types,
such as those in which units can be physicaUy combined into larger pieces or in
which coUeclions of units can be represented by larger pieces. At a later stage a
different type of structural apparatus should be available which provides a
physical representation of unilS, tens, hundreds and th ousands . Apparatus of
this kind can assist children to understand the concept of place value. Real or
plastic coins should also be available; these can be used both to develop
familiarity with handling money and as another form of number apparatus.

611 AU children in primary schools need to use a variety of two- and three-
dimensional shapes. There should be a supply of simple drawing·instruments
including shape templates, rulers, protractors and compasses; children also
need to use plumb-lines and spirit levels. Paper printed with grids of various
shapes and sizes is necessary for some kinds of graphical work as well as for
work with patterns and shapes . Its use can also help to develop the concept of
area. as can work with 'pin-boards~ and ·peg-boards'. Some electronic
calculators should also be available. All of this equipmen t, together with such
things as scissors, coloured paper, card, elastic bands, string and glue, needs
to be easily available when requ ired and careful thought should be given to the
wayin which it is organised and stored . It is desirable that a Slack of the equip-
ment which is in frequent use should be available in each classroom or class
base; it is likely to be more convenient to store equipment which is used less
frequently in a place in which it can be easily accessible to aU classes.

612 Practical equipment of similar kinds should also be available in secon-

dary schools. Cardboard, scissors, gu mmed pape r, glue, plastic counters,
small plastic shapes and three-dimensional models are amongst t he relatively
cheap materials which can assist the mathematical development of pupils.
Supplies of paper marked with grids of various kinds in lines and dots should
be available as well as equipment which will enable simple statistical investiga-
tions to be carried out. In order to undertake the measurement of vario us
kinds, the reading of tables, charts and diagrams, and the geometrical work of
a constructional nature which is implicit in the content of the foundation list
which we ha ve set out in paragraph 458, very much more practical material
will need to be available in secondary classrooms than is commonly found at
present. Much of this material, fo r example a collection of two- and three-
dimensional shapes of vario us kinds and sizes, can be produced by the pupils
themselves as part of their work in mathematics and no great expenditure need
be involved. However , the 'basic' equipmem such as pencils, rulers and com-
passes which is necessary for work of this kind must be kept in good condition
if pupils are to be able to produce work of good qUality.
186 12 Faci li( ies for teaching malhematics

613 We have already ad vocated t hat electronic calculators should be

available for use by pupils. Some pupils may still need to make use of struc-
tural apparatus for number work and a supply of this kind of material should
also be available. It is likely to be convenient to divide the storage of practical
equip ment between classro()ms and a central sto re. Whatever method of
sto rage is used, it is important that aO equipment should be readily accessible
when it is required.

Display of material and 614 It is usual in primary schools to display pupils' work on classroom walls
pupils' work but much less use is made of display in many secondary classrooms. The
-Aspects of secondary education report of the National Secondary Survey' says that "mathematical display
in England, A survey by HM In- material was found in only some 40 per cent of schools. and this on a
speclOrs of Sch ools. HMSO 1979.
charitable interpretation, induding schools with only very limited displays of
waO charts or children's work. The proportion of schools in which t his
material was purposefully used as part of a progressive scheme of work was
smaOer". Well organised and up-to-date displays of material and pupils'
work can provide a valuabk resource for teaching whose use should not be
u nder-est imated .

Libraries 615 An increasing supply of books about mathematics which are of general
interest has become availabJ.e in recent years, often in paperback editions.
However, copies of these books are not always available in schools nor do
some teaching schemes gjve sufficient encouragement to pupils to read them.
In secondary schools, mathematics books of general interest can often remain
unnoticed if the classification system which is used to arrange books o n the
library shelves has the effecr. of interspersing these books among advanced
mathematical texts and similar books which are suitable only for sixth form
pupils and teachers. It is desirable that books about mathematics which are of
gene ral in te rest, especiaOy thoose which are suitable for younger pupils, should
be placed together on the same shelf so that they are easily visible. In seCOQ-
dary schools which have a grouped set of mathematics rooms it may be
preferable to have a smaO mathematics library in the mathematics depart-
ment .

Reference material for 616 10 both primary and ~econdary schools there should be a supply of
teachers reference books for teacbers relating to the teaching of mathematics. These
should include some of the publications of the professional mathematical
associations as well as of th" DES, HM Inspectorate and Schools Council.
T here should be copies of any teachers' guides which relate to text books in use
in the school and also a selection of mathemalics text books, other than those
which are in general use, which can serve as an additional resource for
leachers. In Ou r view it is a proper use of money aUocated for malhematics to
purchase books of this kind.

Financial arrangements 617 We are aware that very considerable differences exist belween schools
not only in the provision for teaching mathematics but also in the amount of
money which is made available to maintain and improve that provision . rt is
essential that sulfieient money should be made available to maintain adequate
stocks of books and equipm"nt. It is also essential that flexibility exists in the
12 Facililies fo r teaching malhc malics 187

way in which money allocated for mathematics can be used. For example,
some of the work which we ha ve recommended, especially in secondary
schools, will require equipment o f a kind which is not readily available fro m
suppliers of educational equipment. ft is therefore necessary that ar-
rangements for obtai ning supplies should nOt be such as to make it difficult
for schools to obtain from other sources some of the equipment which they re-
qu ire.
188

13 The supply of mathematics teachers

618 There can be no doubt that the most important resource for good
mathematics teaching is an adequate supply of competent mathematics
teachers. In this chapter we consider the present situation in schools and
methods by which the existing slOck of mathematics teachers might be in-
creased. In the chapters which follow we consider the initial training and in-
ducrion of tbose who teach mathematics and their subsequent in-service sup-
port.

619 The shortage of good teachers of mathematics has been a matter of co n-

cern for many years. As we hope wiLl be clear from the ear~ier part of this
report, mathematics is especially vulnerable to weak teaching. "There is no
area of knowledge where a teacher has more influence over the attitudes as
well as the understanding of his pupils, than he does in mathematics. During
his professional life, a teacher of mathematics may influence for good or ill
the attitudes to mathematics of several thousand young people, and decisively
affect many of their career choices . It is tberefore necessary that mathematics
'The Royal Societ y. The rraining
and profess;ono! life oj feachers oj should not only be taughtlO all pupils, but well taught. All pupils should have
fNOfhemar1cs. November 1976, the opportunity of studying mathematics in the company of enthusiastic and
well qualified mathematics teachers. "*

The present situation 620 T he problems in primary and secondary schools are not the same. As we
explained in Chapter 6, mathematics in primary schools is almost always
taught by the class teacher and only a minority of primary teachers study
mathematics as a main subject during their initial training. Tbe need therefore
is to increase the mathematical expertise of primary teachers overall; and aJso
10 increase the number of teachers who take matbematics as a main subjecl
during initial trainiug or who, at a later stage, undertake a suhstantial course
of in-service training jn mathematics, so that tbere will be a sufficient supply
of teachers who are able to provide leadership and help for their colleagues. It
is, however. necessary to recognise that the proportion of primary teachers
who have taken mathematics as a main subject during their initial training is
never likely to be large.

621 In second ary schools mathematics is almost always taught on a specialist

basis. The shortage of well-qualified teachers of mathematics in secondary
schools has increa,ed considerably through the 1970s both as a result of the in-
creasing number of pupils in schools and also of increasing demand for
mathematicians in industry and commerce. Many of the submissions which
we have received, especially those from LEAs and schools, refer to difficulties
 13 The supply of malh emati cs leachers 189

which have been experienced in appointing suitably qualifed teachers of

mathematics. Estimates of the extent of the shortage in secondary schools
which have been made from time to time have varied considerably. In 1974
and 1976, the DES Secondary School Teacher Shonage Survey suggested that
the shortage of mathematics teachers in secondary schools was of the order of
1100. A more recent estimate, given in the repon of the National Secondary
• A specfs o/secondary educalion Survey' and based on visi ts to secondary schools during the period
in Ellgland. A Survey by HM In- 1975-1978, suggested that the shortage of suitably qualified mathematics
~ne c lors or Schoo ls. HMSO J979. teachers in secondary schools was of the order of 3000. We give our own
estimate of the shortage of mathematics teachers in paragraph 631.

622 A shortage of teachers of subjects which are at some stage o ptional in

schools can to some extent be overcome by reducing the number of pupils who
study th e subject, and sometimes also the time which is given to it. However,
because it is accepted that all pupils should study mathematics, shortage of
mathematics teachers cannot be overcome by reducing the number of pupils
to whom the subj ect is taught nor, other than exceptionally, the teaching time
provided ; it usually leads instead to the teacrung of mathematics by teachers
who are neither suitably qualified nor trained to do so. It seems sometimes err-
oneously to be thought that any qualified teacher should be able to teach
mathematics adequately, especially to younger or lower-attaining pupils.
Mathematics teaching is therefore especially vulnerable at a time at which
rolls in secondary schools are starting 10 fall. For example, if one or four or
five mathematics teac hers in a school leaves the staff, there can regrettably be
pressure not to replace him but, for the time being at least, to make use instead
of teachers trained to teach other subjects, several of whom are likely to have
a few teaching periods ' to spare' if the number of pupils in the school has
decreased.

1977 Survey of Secondary 623 We have therefore tried to obtain information about the levels of
School Staffing qualification of those who teach mathematics in secondary schools. Some in-
fo rmation is given in the report of the National Secondary Survey but the only
complete source o f information on a national scale is provided by a sample
survey of the staffing of some 500 maintained secondary schools which was
carried out by the DES in November 1977 on the recommendation of the Ad-
visory Committee on the Supply and Training of Teachers. The information
coUected included details of the qualifications of all the teachers in the schools
included in the survey, the subjects which they were teaching, the amount of
time given to each subject and the year group (but not level of attainment) of
the pupils to whom the subject was being taught. Information was also col-
lected about the curriculum of each school. Six! h form coileges were included
in the sample as were middle schools 'deemed secondary' (that is, with
pupils up to the age of at least 13) in respect of the teaching of pupils from the
age of II; tertiary colleges were not included .

624 The survey was planned and carried ou t before our Committee was set
up, though analyses of the information which had been obtained did not start
to become available until after we had started work. Although the survey was
not designed to provide information about mathematics teaching in the detail
which would have been possible had it been known that our Inquiry was to
190 13 I'he suppl y or nUl.lhemalics teachers

take place, the DES has, in addition to undertaking the anal yses which were
intended when the survey was planned, carried out at our request a number of
further analyses of the data which is available . In this way we have been able to
obtain a considerable amount of information. We realise that the figur es
which we quote are based on information which is now nearly four years old.
However, although falling roUs in some areas and enforced economies may
have produced some changes, we believe that the picture whkh emerges is
unlikely to have changed significantly. There is, in any case, nO mOre recent
information available on a national scale.

Levels oj quolijicolion oj malhemolics leachers

625 When considering the information about the teaching of mathematics
which the survey provides, we have classified teachers in terms of th eir
academic qualification. We are aware that the teacher who is well qualified on
paper is not necessarily effective in the classroom as a teacher of mathematics;
equally, a teach er who has little or no recorded qualification in mathematics
may teach mathematics weU . However, in the absence of any other informa-
tion about the effecliveness of the teachers concerned we had no alternative
but to proceed on this basis. All those teaching mathematics were assigned to
onc of four levels of qualification. 'good' , 'acceptable', 'weak', 'nil ', The
criteria used to assign teachers to these categories are set out in Appendix 1
paragraph A 12. They are inevitably arbitrary, but a deliberate decision was
made to err on the side of generosity in respect of qualifications which seemed
to lie near the boundaries between categories. The overall picture which the
analysis suggests may therefore be a little more encouraging than it should be;
we do not believe that it is likely to err in the other direction . In our discussion
of the outcome of the analysis, we have in some cases combined qualifications
in the categories 'good' and 'acceptable' under lhe heading ' suitable' and
qualifications in the categories 'weak· and 'nU' under the heading 'un-
suitable' .

626 The results of the survey of secondary staffing show that, in November
1977,38 per cent of all mathematics teaching in maintained secondary schools
was being undertaken by teachers whose qualifications to teach mathematics
were either 'weak' (17 per cent) or 'nil' (21 per cent); in other words, almost
two-fifths of all mathematics teaching was in 'unsuitable' hands. However,
this overall figure conceals very considerable differences between different
kinds of school, and also between different schools of the same kind .

627 On a national basis, the information provided by the survey suggests that
there were in 1977 some 1500 secondary schools (about 35 per cent) in which at
least 70 per cent of the 'mathematics teaching was in 'suitable' hands; and that
these included some 240 schools (mainly sixth form colleges and grammar
schools) in which all the mathematics teaching was by teachers with a suitable
qualification. On the other hand , the results of the survey suggest that there
were nearly 1300 schools (about 30 per cent) in which less than half of the
mathematics teaching was in 'suitable' hands and that these included some
150 schools (mainly modem schools) in which none of the teaching was by
13 The suppl y of malhemalics leachers 191

teachers with a suitable qualification. In the remaining 1500 schools, between

50 per cent and 70 per cent of the mathematics teaching was 'suitably' staffed .

628 A more detailed analysis is shown in Appendix I, Tables 15 -19; wecom-

mend these tables to the attention of our readers. We would repeat that, as
shown in Table 18, there is very considerable variation between schools 0 f the
same type so that , at the time of the survey. there were, for example, at least
one modern school 'in which all the mathematics periods were taught by
'suitably' qualified teachers and at least two comprehensive schools in which
none of the mathematics was so taught. The patterns of staffmg were nOt
directly connected with the age range of the schools concerned nor were less
well qualified teachers only found in particular types of secondary school.
The distribution of teaching staff may result, at least in part, from the way in
which reorganisatjon to comprehensive education was carried out in many
areas. Even though the range of ability of the pupils in a school changed
markedly, there was often relatively little redistribution of teaching staff.
Thus, sixth-form coUeges and comprehensive schools which developed from
grammar schools often found themselves with a high proportion of graduate
teachers, whereas comprehensive scbools which developed from modem
schools sometimes found themselves with many fewer graduates.

Teachers in middle schools

629 It could be argued that, for teachers in middle schools, some of the
qualifications classified as 'weak' on the ground that training had been for a
younger age group should be regarded as 'acceptable' (see Appendix I ,
paragraph AI5). However, even if all teachers in middle schools whose
qualifications were 'weak' were to be regarded as 'acceptable', 62 per cent of
the mathematics teaching of pupils from the age of II in middle schools deem-
ed secondary remained in 'unsuitable' hands. This must give particular cause
for co~cern. In secondary schools with pupils only up to the age of 14, a high
proportion of the mathematics teaching was also in the hands of 'unsuitably'
qualified teachers . However, in these schools, too, it could be argued that
some of the qualifications classified as 'weak' should be regarded as being 'ac-
ceptable' .

Teaching ofyounger pupils in comprehensive schools

630 It was thought likely that less well qualified teachers might be used main-
ly with yo unger pupils. The hypothesis was examined in respect of the
teaching of pupils up to tbe age of 16 in comprehensive schools with an entry
age of liar 12; the full outcome is in Appendix I, Table 19. Some confirma-
tion of the hypothesis was found , but to a lesser extent than might have been
expected . In the first year, 47 per cent of mathematics teaching was in ' un-
suitable' hands; in the fifth year the figure was 37 per cent. This suggests that
there are many schools in which the shortage of mathematics teachers is such
that it is impossible to avoid using non-mathematicians with all age groups.

631 Appendix I, Table 16 shows that , adjusted to a 4O-period week , some

178000 periods of mathematics were taught each week in secondary schools
192 13 The SlJPP[Y or malhe m3t ics leachers

(excluding middle schools) by teachers with a 'nil' qualification. lfwe assume

the high teaching load of 35 periods per week, this number of periods
represents the full-time contribution of more than 5000 teachers. In addition,
the !lumber of periods taught by teachers with a 'weak' qualification
represents the full-time contribution of almost another 4000 teachers. Tbese
figures give a measure of the shortage of mathematics leachers in secondary
schools in 1977, but take no account of tbe shortage in middle or primary
schools.

Deployment of teachers who are qualified to leach mathematics

632 In our discussion so far we have considered the proponion of
mathematics periods taught by teachers with various levels of qualification. It
has been suggested that the present shortage of mathematics teachers has been
aggravated by the fact lhat some teachers who are qualified to teach
mathematics are not doing so but are teaching other subjects instead. We have
therefore investigated this possibility. It is important at the outset to realise
that many teachers are equipped, both by qualification and training, to teach
more than one subject. Teachers of mathematics, for example, are often
equally well, and sometimes beller, qualified to teach physics, of which there
i, also a shortage of teachers. If a teacher of physics were to change to teaching
mathematics instead, the effect would be to increase still further the existing
shortage of physics teachers and such a change might nOt be in the interest of
the education system as a whole. When considering th e question of 'misuse' of
mathematics teachers, it is therefore not sufficient merely to count the total
number of teachers who are qualified to teach mathematics; it is necessary at
the same time to take into account the subjects which they are, in fact,
teaching.

633 It proved possible to develop techniques to examine the extent of

'mismatch' in respect of the teaching of mathematics within the schools in·
c1uded in the sample survey. ' Mismatch' was defined as the teaching of
mathematics by 'unsuitable' teachers when within the same school, teachers
who were ' well' or 'acceptably' qualified to teach mathematics were not
teaching either mathematics or a subject for which they were equally or better
qualified. The analysis of 'mismatch' shows that in nearly a quarter of the
schools in the survey there was no mismatch at all; in the great majority of the
remai nder the degree of mismatch was small and no greater than is to be ex-
pected as a result of the exigencies of timetabling. especially since , as we
ourselves have advocated, there are significant advantages in time tabling a
number of classes within the same year group to do mathematics at the same
lime. There were, however. a very few schools in which there seemed to be
significan t degree of mismatch ; several of these were modern schools. It is
therdore the case that attempts to redeploy teacbers within individual schools
are tikely to contribute only minimaUy to improving the proportion of
mathematics periods taugbt by 'suitably' qualified teachers. The need is un·
doubtedly to increase the number of teacbers who are appropriately equipped
to teach mathematics.
 13 The supply of mathemarics teachers 193

Rates of entering and 634 We have sought information about the rates at which mathematics
leaving teaching specialists enter and leave the tea<:hing profession at the present time. The in·
formation about mathematics specialists in the following paragraphs relates
only to graduate tea<:hers in maintained schools , other than holders of the
BEd degree, with mathematics as the only or first subject of their degree.
These teachers do. however, constitute an important part of the mathematics
"A spects of secondary education teaching force. Figures given in the report of the National Secondary Survey'
in Englund. A survey by HM In- suggest that mathematics graduates undertake about one-third of all
speetors of Schools. HMSO 1979. mathematics teaching in secondary schools.

635 Figures relating to the years 1975- 1979 are given in Appendix I. Tables
20 and 21. Throughout these years there were some 300 mathematics
graduates working in primary schools. The number of mathematics graduates
in secondary schools increased from about 7100 in 1975 to about 8100 in 1979.
an inc rease of about 14 per cent. However. during the same period the total of
all gradu ates working in secondary schools increased by about 30 per cent.
The rate of increase of mathematics graduates was therefore very much
smaller than that of graduate teachers 'as a whole. Indeed, whereas in 1970
mathematics graduates formed over II per cent of the graduate secondary
teaching force. by 1979 the proportion had dropped to about 6 per cent.

636 We have been able to obtain details, by age group. of tbe number of
graduates in mathematics only Or in mathemaiics combined with non-science
subjects who have left teaching each year since 1974- 75, either on retirement
or for some other reason, and the corresponding information for all graduate
teachers (see Appendi< I, Table 22). Comparison of the rates of leaving shows
no significant differences in respect of teachers over the age of 30 nor, until
1978-79. in respect of men aged 25 to 29. However, since 1975-76 rates of
leaving have been markedly higher among men under the age of 25 who are
tnathematics graduates than among all male graduates of the same age. These
comparative rates must be treated with caution because the numbers involved
are small; nevertheless. they tend to confirm the impression that young male
mat.hematics graduates are likely to be especially vulnerable to the attractions
of alternative employment. Opportunities for such employment may well in-
crease when the present recession ends and firms begin to recruit additional
staff.

Methods of increasing 637 We turn now to consideration of methods by which the supply of suitably
the supply of qualified teachers of mathematics might be increased. There would seem to be
mathematics teachers three ways in which this could be accomplished . The first is to increase the
number of entrants to the teaching profession who are suitably qualified to
teach mathematics. The second is to take such Sleps as are possible to ensure
that suitable teachers who are already teaching mathemalics effectively will
remain within the profession . The third is to improve the quality of the
leaching of some of the under·qualified teachers, who are at present teaching
mathematics. by means of appropriate in-service support and training. We
believe that it is necessary to take action in all th ree of these ways.

638 Mathematics graduates form a principal source of supply of

mathematics teachers in secondary schools. We have already referred to the
194 13 The supply o f mathematics teacher!>

fact that the demand for mathematics graduates is increasing from many sec-
tions of industry and commerce and will probably increase further when the
present recession ends. Information provided for us by the Universities
Statistical Record gives details of the occupations chosen by graduates in
mathematical studies who completed their degree courses at universities jn
England and Wales in 1979; this is shown in Appendix I, Table 31. These
figures show that less 1han 10 per cent of the graduates in mathematical
srudies proceeded to teacher training. This figure contrasts with the fact that
in 1938 over 75 per cent of newly qualified graduates in mathematics entered
the teaching profession. In 1964 the proportion had decreased to 30 per cent,
by 1974 to 17 per cent. There are also some mathematics graduates who enter
teaching without undertaking teacher training; we return to this point in
paragraph 692.

639 In their submission to us, the Association of Graduate Careers Advisory

Services (AGCAS) discussed at length the results of an inquiry which they had
carried out a t our request into the reasons why the number of mathematics
graduates emering teaching was small. In their view, (he principal facrofs are
pay and prospects within the teaching profession and also perceived problems
of discipline in schools; these factors are common to teachers of all subjects.
Additional factors relating to mathematics are the fact that mathematics is
thought to be a difficult subject to teach and that, because it is a compulsory
su bject for all pupils up to the age of 16, mathematics classes are likely to be
larger and to contain a higher proportion of less well motivated pupils than is
the case with many other subjects which are often optional after the age of 14.
AGCAS suggest that an improvement in pay and prospects-especially the
latter-needs to be an essential part of any attempt to attract mOfe graduate
mathematics teachers, together with improvements in the arrangements for
induction into the profession in order to allay fears about discipline and allied
problems. They also draw attention to the fact that "low pay is seen as a
reflection of the status of teaching and its importance to the community and
this tends to have an off-putting effect. Students will enter low paid jobs if
they are seen as attractive and confer status-eg working in the media.
Teaching does not, however, have the same glamour and the low morale of the
profession reinforces this view".

640 We be~eve it is essential to do much more than is being done at present to

improve the publie image of teaching, and of mathematics teaching in par-
tieular. Too many polential teachers appear to be put off by widely reported
problems of discipline, of the difficulties of teaching or of unhappy schools.
Vet the results of a small survey carried out on our behalf by the National
Foundation for Educational Research , to which we refer in greater detail in
paragraph 671, showed that the group of mathematics teachers included in
the survey, who were in their first three years of teaching in secondary schools.
were generally happy in their work . A large majority believed that they were
well thought of by their colleagues and that they had gained the respect of
their pupils. We hope that bolh cent",1 and local govemmenl will respond 10
our report by affinning their belief in the importance of good matbemalics
teaching for all pupils, the need to provide good support and facmties for
 13 The supp ly o f rnathemalics teachers 195

mathematics teachers who are already in post and, whatever the overaU
teacher requirement may be, (he need for many more good teachers of
mathematics. Good publicity is necessary in order to improve attitudes
lOwards the teaching of mathematics on the part of the general public and, in
consequence, in the minds of potential teachers.

64 J In our view it is also necessary to make a much greater effort than is being
made at present to recruit mathematics graduates into teaching. It has been
pointed o ut to us rhat very many large employe rs take part in the annual 'milk
round' of universities. during which representatives of companies visit
universities (0 inform, advise and interview undergradu ates, but that no com-
parable effort is made by the DES or by LEAs acting in concert. Some careers
advisers in universities have told us that students therefore gain the impres-
sion that, despite the widely publicised shortage of mathematics teachers,
LEAs are not concerned to make a sustained effort to increase recruit ment. A
furth er suggestion which has been made to us is that the DES should write to
all who are starti ng the fmal year of a mathematics degree course pointing out
the need for well-qualified teachers of mathematics and the attractions of
teaching as a career. Such a letter should include an offer to provide further
information. We believe that tbe possibilities of making a direct approach to
undergraduates reading degree courses in mathematics and of some kind of
participation in the 'milk round' should be inveshgated.

Mathemalics degree 642 Our terms of reference do not extend to higher education and we have not
courses therefore made any extended study of mathematics courses in universities;
nor would it be proper for us to make any reco mmendations relating to this
area. However, because a substantial number of teachers of mathematics are,
·We concen trate on courses in
universities becau se it. is fr om and will con tinue to be, mathematics graduates, we believe thal it is proper for
these thaI most mathemaTi cs us to consider two matt ers, The first is the ex tent to which university
graduates: come. The degree mathematics courses in their presem form provide a suitable prepararion for
cou rses in marhematics offered aT the prospective school teacher. The second is whether significant numbers of
other inSli(lJlio ns are often more potential mathematics teachers in schools are bein~ lost because university
varied and less abiilract [hau [hose
offered 31 universilies: U OI all of
COu rses are too demanding. We put fo rward our views on these (wo questions
o u~ eomrnenlS may therefore app- in the hope that universities' may be prepared to examine and perhap s to ad-
ly La Them . just the provision which they make.

643 In our vjew, the mathematical trainjng pro,"'idcd af university for tbose
who "1U become mathematics specialists in schools should aim
• to develop knowledge and mastery of mathematics substantially beyond
the level at which they will be teaching and also, where app ropriate, pro-
vide oppo rtun.ity to pursue some topic in depth;
• to develop enjoyment of mathematics and confidence in its a.pplication;
• to provide an historical perspective of mathematics:
• to provide an appreciation of the relationship between mathematics and
other fields of study and application;
• to develop the ability to communicate mathematical ideas both orally
and in writing.
196 13 The suppl y of mathematics teachers

It is not clear to us how generally these aims are being fulfilled. We believe that
some university mathematics courses contain too much technical material on
the grounds that an 'educated mathematician' should have knowledge of this
or that particular topic . However, in many cases the pressure of time means
that only the rudiments of a topic are covered; although this may be a useful
first step for those who will proceed to postgraduate work, it may appear
pointless and confusing to others. In fact, the danger of confusing students by
too ambitious a course is very real and, for the prospective teacher, can lead to
a damaging loss of self-confidence and enthusiasm.

644 There are some degree courses in mathematical studies which combine
mathematics and education for those intending to become teachers . While
such courses can cater more specifically for intending teachers, they usually
require an early commitment to teaching which many students are unwilling
to make. The evidence which we have received makes it clear that most
undergraduates prefer to keep their options open for as long as possible. It
follows therefore that a mathematics degree course should provide within its
structure a set of options which are suited to the needs of tbose who feel 'hat
they may wish to teach hut who have not yet made a firm decision to do so.

645 We do not, of course, suggest that mathematics degree courses should be

directed only to the needs of those who will enter the teaching profession .
Nevertheless, the supply of an adequate number of well qualified
mathematics teachers for schools must be of paramount importance to all in-
stitutions of higher education so that the le.vel of mathematical preparation of
the students who come to them may be maintained or improved. Further-
more, we believe that, for the great majority of mathematics graduates, the re-
quirements which a mathematics degree course should fuJfiU are not
dissimilar to those which we have suggested are needed by teachers. It is only a
small minority of those on mathematics degree courses who proceed to more
advanced studies in mathematics after the undergraduate stage. For this small
but important minority it is essential that options should be available which
prepare them for postgraduate study but we do not feel that it should be
necessary for their requirements to dictate the content of mathematics degree
courses for the majority of those who attempt them.

646 There can be no doubt that there is a widespread view in schools that
university mathematics courses are exceptionally demanding and should only
be undertaken by those who are very able. Courses at universities do, of
course, differ greatly in their structure and range and we welcome this diversi-
ty. Nevertheless, there is a strong tradition, stemming from the older univer-
sities, which delineates the level of difficulty of a mathematics degree . It is
possible that this is a serious obstacle to the wider recruitment of students who
enrol for mathematics degree courses and hence to the provision of a larger
pool from which mathematics teachers can come, as well as the mathematics
graduates needed by industry and commerce. We drew attention in Chapter 4
to the large increase in the proportion of entrants to degree courses in
mathematical studies who have only a single-subject A-level qualification in
mathematics. Universities may wish to ask themselves whether broader and
 13 Th e supp ly of mathematic!; teachers 197

more flexible mathematics courses, designed particularly for single-subject

students, might not attract a significantly larger entry. For such a policy to be
effective, it would of course be necessary for schools to be made aware of the
nature and purpose of such courses so that they could advise their students ap-
propriately.

647 We draw attention to the fact that in recent years the number of girls who
have studied mathematics at A-level has been only about one-third that of
boys; the number of women who have graduated in mathematical studies at
universities in England and Wales has been some 40 per cent of the number of
men. On the other hand , among these graduates the proportion of women
who have entered Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses to
train as teachers has been more than twice that of men, so that the numbers of
men and WOmen entering PGCE courses have been about the same. If the
number of girls who studied mathematics at A-level were to increase, the pool
of potential graduates in mathematical studies would increase and hence the
pool of potential teachers of mathematics. The number of potential entrants
to BEd courses who would be capable of studying mathematics as a main sub-
ject would also be increased. We betleve that active steps to encourage more
girls to take mathematics at A-level and tben proceed to study at degree level
could lead to an increase in tbe supply of weU-qualified teacbers of
mathematics.

Entry into teaching from 648 A small number of graduates in mathematics and allied disciplines enter
other employment mathematics teaching after some yeass in other kinds of employment. We
have received conflicting ev idence as to the extent to which such transfer
should be encouraged. Some argue that such entrants to the teaching profes-
sion bring with them experience which can be used in the classroom to il-
lustrate the uses and applications of mathematics , On the other hand, we have
received adverse comment on the narrow approach to mathematics and the
low teaching abilities which have been displayed by some who have transfer-
red to teaching from other occupations. It has also been pointed out that some
may turn to mathematics teaching because they have not succeeded in their
former jobs. It may have been too easy for graduates to enter teaching from
other types of employment, without any suitable training or even any real at-
tempt to assess potential as a teacher. However, at !.he present time of cutback
in many areas of employment, we believe that some who have been very suc-
cessful in other field s and who would make good teachers are likely to be
available and that every effort should be made to recruit them . While we
recognise an understandable unwillingness on the part of potential recruits to
mathematics teaching from industry and commerce to cornmjt themselves to a
yeas's training with a relatively low income and without certainty of qualifica-
tion at the end, we believe that training for such recruits to teaching is just as
important as for those who have just graduated. We therefore believe that
adequate financiaJ support should be available 10 remove any disincentive to
train.

649 Tbere should also be adequate opportunity for those who are considering
teaching, and those who might employ them, to be able to make some
198 13 The supply of malhematics leachers

preliminary judgmenl aboul Iheir suilability for teaching. We therefore

welcome the courses lasting for one term or less which have been arranged by
some training institutions and LEAs, in association with major companies.
for staff who face the possibility of redundancy. We believe thai the
availabilily of one term of 'adj ust ment to leaching', followed by a further two
terms of training for those whose experience of the first term convinces both
them and their future employers of their potential as teachers, could lead to a
desirable increase in rec ruitment to mathematics teaching. We also welcome
the scheme operated by the [nner London Education Authority which enables
mature graduates whose degrees include a substantial mathematical compo-
nent and who have industrial or commerciaJ experience to be appointed to the
authority's temporary staff and paid at the Scale I rate for a qualified teacher
whilst on secondmen t to a PGCE course. Those who are recruited under this
scheme work in sc hools within Ihe aUlhority for those parts of Ihe school year
which are outside college terms. A further scheme at one training institution
allows holders of higher national certificates or diplomas, o r so me equivalent
qualification , to complete a BEd degree in five terms; we have been told of
other institutions which would be willing to adapl their courses in order to
cater for such entrants if they were forthcoming in sufficient numbers. We
believe thut inilialives of all Ihese kinds should be encouraged and Ibal Ihey
should be supported by adeQuale publicity. It would be helpful to eSlablish a
'clearing house ' which could o ffer advice on the availability of courses.

650 Some imp ro vement in the supply of mathematics teachers has been
brought about si nce 1977 by the Government scheme for training and re-
training to teach priority subjects which is operaled by the Manpower Services
Commission on behalf of the DES . Under this sc heme special training awards
a re avai lable fo r suitably qualified men and women over the age of 28 who
wish to take a one-year cou rse of initial training to teach shortage subjects, in-
cluding mathematics. Between 1977 and 1980 more than 400 mature entrants
wit h a su itable qualification in mathematics have been funded under rhe
scheme while laking initial training courses to become teachers. [n addition ,
more than 500 teachers of other subjects have taken re-training cou rses during
Ihis period to enable them to teach malhemalics. We welcome Ihis contribu-
lion 10 the mathematics teaching force and also the fact that the scheme has
now been extended to include one-term or one-year courses of further training
for existing teachers of mathematics.

Employment of primary 651 There is one source of recruitment to secondary mathematics teaching of
trained teachers in which we have become aware which we do not believe to be desirable. nor to b e
secondary schools in the inte rests of the education system as a whole. We have been told of a
number of recent cases in whjch teachers who have taken mathematics as a
main subject in BEd degree courses and who have t rained to teach in primary
schools have been offered. and in some cases urged to lake, POStS teaching
mathe matics in secondary schools. Not only are such teachers nOI suilably
trained for this work bur , jf they enter secondary teaching, do not contribute
to Ihe increase of mathematical expertise which is so badly needed in primary
schools. We believe it is important Ihal LEAs should recognise Ihis need and
ensure Ihal primary trained leachers wilh malheR\llLical expertise are ap-
 13 The supply or malh emati cs teachers 199

pointed to primary schools so that the teaching of mathematics in primary

schools can be strengtheoed. As secondary rolls begin to fall we believe that
every effort should also be made to enable and encourage mathematically
qualified teachers who are teaching in secondary schools, but who have been
trained for primary work, to tra nsfe r to primary schools.

Grants during training 652 We welcome the pilot scheme which is about to be introduced to provide
·The Educalion (Teacher Training national scholarsh ips fo r intending teachers of mathematics·. These scholar-
Scholarships) Regulations 1981. ships will provide a fiat-rate payment to selected entrants to PGCE courses who
StawLOJy [nslfIlmenls 1981 are considered to be lik.ely to become teachers of high qUality. They require a
No 1328.
commitmen t on the part of the recipient to enter teaching o n the saiisfactory
completion of the PGCE course and offer a guarantee of employment as a
teacher. II is, however, possible that some of these scholarships will be gained
by students who wo uld have entered teaching in any case , so lhe net increase in
entrants to mathematics teaching may not be large . Nevertheless, th is scheme
demo nstrates recognition at natio nal level of the urgent need fo r more
mathematics teachers.

653 It has been rep resented to us that the recruitment of mathematics

graduates to PGCS courses might increase if the existing system of means-
tested grants fo r these st udents were to be abolished . We accept , however.
that such a change could lead to anomalies in respect , for example, of students
in the final year of BEd honours courses and that the likely 'knock-on' effect
may, fo r fma ncial reasons, rule out such a change for several years. We
believe that a system of flat-rate payments to graduates training to teach
matbematics (and other shortage subjects) would prove more straight-
forward to operate; such payments should be conditional on the possession of
suitable mathematical qualifications (see also paragraph 683) and an under-
tak.ing to enter the teaching profession and remain as a teacher for a specified
minimum time provided that training has been completed successfully .
Gran ts under similar conditions could be given to fourth year students on BEd
honours courses who were tak ing mathematics as a main subject. A scheme of
this kind could be discontinued if the shortage of mathe)l1atics teachers ceas-
ed, though we believe that a continuing in cen tive for BEd mathematicians to
enter primary schools would be vaJuable . It is, however, our view that im·
provement in training grants of any kind is not likely to result in significant in-
crease in recruitment unless future prospects for pay and promotion are seen
to be attractive.

F inancial incentives 654 We referred in paragraph 639 to the fact that evidence which we have
received from the Association of Graduate Careers AdviSOry Services points
out that "better pay and prospects are probabJy the most important potential
factors for increasing the intake " of teachers. We have therefore
endeavoured to compare the financiaJ rewards of a career in teaching with
those in other occupations which recruit graduates. Such enqu iries as we have
been able to make point not so much to the difference in initial reward as to the
contrasts in perceived prospects at a Jater stage . Th is seems to be the case
despite the advantages which are so metimes put forward of greater security,
200 13 The supp ly or mathematics (cachers

assured and index-linked pensions and longer holidays which teachers enjoy.
The newly qualified teacher, with a good honours degree and a PGCE, start-
ing at a salary of £5,547, can be assured of regular though not large annual in-
crements to a total of £7,869 after 10 years service but advancement to a
higher salary scale is dependent on promotion opportunities which are con-
trolled by the Burnham salary structure . These opportunities are related to the
numbers and ages of the pupils in a school. At the present time school rolls are
declining nationally and we have been told that, under the existing regula-
tions, opportunities for promotion beyond Scale 2, the top of which is cur-
rently £8,208, are likely to become less. As rolls fall, job security may also be
reduced .

655 It is very difficult to quantify the salaries which can be earned by

mathematics graduates who do not enler teaching or to generalise aboullheir
vef)! varied conditions of employment. Some information about salaries is
provided by a survey of its members carried out in 1980 by the Insti tute of
Mathematics and its Applications (IMA) to which some 3600 members
replied ; one-eighth of these were teachers in schools . The results of the survey
show that , for the age range 26-35, the salaries of those members of IMA
wh o were teachers were on average between £1,000 and £2,000 per annum
lower that those of members of IMA employed in central government, private
and nationalised industry, and commerce . It has also been pointed OUI to us
that, in jndustry and comme rce. the size or a salary increase is very often
dependent on the competence and commitment which an employee displays,
as revealed and recorded by regular assessment procedures. On the other
hand, a teacher's salary advances according to a pre-determined scale which,
even in the case of transfer to a higher scale post, limits the total salary in-
crease which can be gained in any year, no matter how committed and efrec-
tive a teacher may be.

Additional payment to 656 This raises the question of the extent to which additional payment should
teachers of mathematics be made to teachers of mathematics. We have noted that the Fifth Report of
"'Hou~e of Commons. Fifth repan the Education, Science and Arts Committee of the House of Commons·
fr om [he Education , Sci ence and issued in September 1980, which deals with the funding and organisation of
Arts Commitlee . The Funding and
courses 1n hi gher education, recommends that' 'a higher rate of maintenance
Organisalion of courses in higher
education. H)..1 S0 1980. grants for "tudents and higher salaries for teachers in certain subjects, such as
mathematics, should now be considered". The report of the Central Policy
tCentral Policy Review Staff Review Staff,t published in May 1980, say that "while recognising the dif-
Report. Educatio n. training and ficulties we believe that without a pay advantage it will be very hard to over-
indlJSfrial performance. HM SO
come these chronic shortages [of teachers of mathematics, science and prac-
t980 .
tical subjects] and we recommend that the nettle be grasped now" .

657 The evidence which we have received on the question of additional pay-
ment to teachers of mathematics is conflicting. The teachers' unions and the
professionru mathematical associations do not support additional payment.
On the other hand we have received support for such payment in submissi.ons
from individual teachers as well as from outside the teaching profession. We
have discussed this matter at lengtb and are agreed that additional funding in
some form is necessary if tbe present siluation of acute shortage is to be
alleviated. We suggest two approaches which we believe would be possible.
 J.3 The ~uppJ)" of mathematics leachers 201

658 The first is to make greater use of the fiexibility which already exists, but
is litt le used, withi n the Burnham framework and also to introduce addit ional
nexibility . LEAs are already able to offer Scale 2, 3 or 4 posts for reaso ns
which they consider fit; merit as a teacher can be one such reason, but we
believe that teachers are not promoted on these grounds as often as we would
wish. We have been told that a recent suggestion to LEAs from the joint
secretaries of the Burnham Co mmittee for a limite d increase in the proponion
of Scale 3 posts in schools as a means of relieving the shortage of teachers of
mathematics and physics appears to have received little support from LEAs;
we· welcome the intention behind this suggestion and regret th at, perhaps
because of current financial pressure, it has n01 been supponed .

"At the prese nt lime about one- 659 We wish to make a somewhat different proposal. We believe that LEAs
eigh th of leaching time in secon- should have disc retionary power to make appointments in secondary schools
dary schools is given LO at, and promotions to, increme ntal points above those which are defined na-
mathematics. The fig ures wh ich
tionally. This power exists in local government outside teaching and in many
we have quo ted rrom the 1977
survey of secondary slarnng sug- other forms of employment. The case for granting such discretion is that il
gest that only about 60 per cem o r cou ld be used La encourage ambitious and compete nt teachers to contin ue as
l his teaching is in 'suitable' hands. specialist teachers of mathematics rather than seek promotion by moving to
We estima te Ihal the cost or pro-
other responsibilities. Such additional payment' would improve the pay of
viding an average of Iwo addi-
lional increments on the Burnham
mathematics teachers relative to outside compe tition. In order to impro ve
salary scale for half of the prospects it may be necessary for extra payment to be possible above the max-
'suitable ' le.achers who were ima of existing scales.
leaching a full timetable of
mathematics would amount to
between 0.2 per cent and 0.3 per
660 A major weak ness of incentives which are related to the Burnham scales
cent of the 100al sala ry bill for is the difficulty of ensuring that a beneficiary does not retain his advantage if
secondary Teachers. (This estima le for any reason he ceases to meet the co nditions for which the award was made,
is based on the payment of sndl for example by ceasing to teach mathematics; it should. though, be possible to
increments to no f assistant
devise methods of dealing with this problem. If, however this problem cannot
leachers in secondary schools. )
be overcome, we would suggest a scheme which would associate the payment
of a specified addi tional aJlowance with the tenure of a particular post in a
particular school. If a teache r in receipt of such an allowance changed his
school o r assumed other responsibilities, the allowance would auto matically
cease.

66 1 Both of these schemes could also be used as a means of attracting good

mathematics teachers to schools whose mathematics departments were inade-
quately staffed . We suggest that the schemes should apply only to
mathematics specialists who were leachi.ng mathemalics for at least a given
proportion of the timetable and whose teaching was competent; we do not
believe that additional payment should be made duri ng the first two years of
teaching.

662 In order to encourage good mathematics teaching in primary scbools we

beHeve that. there would be meril in allOwing LEAs some incremental discre-
tiou for teachers in primary schools, especially those in which numbers of
pupils Hmit the availabitity of posts above Scale 1. An arrangement of this
ki nd could assist in the appointmen t o r retention of mathematics co-
ordinators of good quality.
202 13 The supply or OIalhenlat ic5 teachers

663 It might be argued that our suggestions would have li ttle hope of success
because those who were competing for the services of mathemat ics graduates
wou ld respo nd by increasing the salaries which they offer. We are not co n-
vinced that this would necessarily happe n because the proportion of
mathematics graduates who enter teaching is in any case small.

664 We recognise that the suggestions we make are open to objection,

especial l ~ in respect of the problem of establishing compelence or the lack of
it. We are aware, 100, lhat some may see a threat to relationships between
teachers in proposals which they may see as divisive. We also app reciate the
financial restraints which exist at present. Nevertheless, we are convinced that
OUr suggestions wou ld greatly help the recruitment and retention of good
mathematics teachers withoUl which the improvement in mathematics
teaching which we believe to be necessary will nOl be attained . Any who Con-
demn our suggestions should suggest alternative remedies to the continuing
shortage of well-qualified m.athematics teachers.

The n eed to employ 665 We beueve that a concerted campaign to attract more mat hematics
newl y tra ine d graduates into the teaching profession , backed by the financial incentives
mathematics teachers which we have proposed in the preceding paragraphs, migh t succeed in its ob-
jective. The prospects for Sllccess are conside rably improved at the prese nt
time because the economic recession has reduced competition from other
sources for mathematicians . Indeed, the immediate fu tu re may present an
unrivalled oppo rtun it y to achieve a significant improvement in the size and
quality of the mathematics l<!achi ng force-an improvement which we believe
to be esse ntial. A lthough falung rolls in schools and financial constraints on
LEAs are inevitably leading to a reduction in the recruitment of teachers , we
~;sh to empbasise the vital necessity of maintaining, and where possible in-
creasing, tb e recruiLment oli mathematics teache_rs despite present financial
difficulties_ We believe, too, that the need for mathematics to be taugh t by
well-qualified teachers should take priority over .he need to redeploy staff. It
will be of little use to mount a campaign to encourage more mathematics
graduates to enter tcaching if LEAs are not prepared to employ them. We
therefore feci thai measures should be taken whicb would ensure that, in th e
nexl rew ycars, newly tl'2ined mathematics teachers will be able 10 obtain
teaching poslS_ It may be t h;at local education authorities should be subsidis-
ed, perhaps on a limited and temporary basis, by Ihe DES so that all available
suitable mathematics teachers are employed . We believe that t he annual cost
to central government would be ; mall, that the benefits wo uld be direct and
immediate, and that the autonomy of local authorities to appoint their staff
would be unim pai red. In addition, newly trained mathematics teachers and
those who were considering training as mathematics teachers wo uld feel COn-
vinced that their services w,ere in demand . Measures of this kind co uld be
reviewed annually in the light of changing circumstances and could be ter-
minated without difficulty if and when the math<matics «aching strength in
schools had reached a satisfllctory level.
 203

14 Initial training courses

666 At the present time most of those who teach in schools qualify fo r entry
to teaching in one of two ways. The first is by fotlowing a course leading to the
degree of Bachelor of Education (BEd). This provides both an academic
qualification and also professional training as a teacher. The ordinary degree
course lasts for three years, the honours course for fo ur years. The second way
is by undenaking a one-year course of professional training leading to the
award of the Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) after gaining a
graduate qualification other than BEd. Courses leading to entry by a third
method, the non-graduate Cenificate in Education, which provided
academic and professional training by means of a three-year course, are now
being phased out and it is no longer possible to enrol for courses of this kind .
A few teachers qualify fo r entry to teaching in other ways but in this chapter
we confine our discussion to entry to teaching by means of BEd or PGCE
courses,

667 Initial teacher training in England and Wales takes place in both the
university and non-university sectors. BEd co urses are offered in some eighty
non-university institutions. which include polytechnics and other
establishments of higher education; a few are offered in universities. The
structure of BEd courses varies from institution to lnstitution. However, most
BEd courses include, in addition to professional training and the study of
education theory, opportunity to study one or more subjects in depth; we
discuss these 'main' courses in paragraph 695. PGCE courses are offered in
some thirty universities and in some sixty establishments in the non-university
sector.

Entry qualifications to 668 All entrants to BEd courses are now required to satisfy the normal re-
initial teacher quirement for entry to first degree courses; that is, to have passed in at least
trainjng courses two subjects at A-level or to have obtained an equivalent qualification. This
was not the case with the Certificate in Education courses and so the minimum
academic level for entry to teacher training is now higher than has been the
case hitherto. A further requirement has recently been introduced in respect
of entrants to teacher training who expect to become eligible to join the
teaching profession in or after September 1984. These entrants are required to
have obtained O-Ievel grade A, B or C or its equivalent in both English and
mathematics before starting their training cO urse . This means that aU entrants
to BEd courses are now required to have obtained this qualification; it will ap-
ply to entrants to PGCE cou rses from September 1983. Reference to Figure 6
(paragraph 195) suggests that many intending teachers are likely to fmd it
204 14 Inilial lraining co urses

mOre difficult to gain the necessary qualification In mathematics lhan in

English .

669 The decision to require entrants to initial training to have an O-level

qualification , or its equivalent, in mathematics has been welcomed in many.
though not all , of the submissions we have received which make reference to
it. In our view it has been right to introduce this requirement . However, as is
pointed out in DES Circular 9178, in which the decision to introduce the re-
quirement was announced, " formal qualifications do not necessarily
guarantee possession of competence" . In addition, "possession of a pass in
mathematics at O-level of GCE or the equivalent may, of course, sometimes
-HMI Series. Mauer!. fo r discus- offer little indication of a student's potential ability to teach the subject"'; we
~i o ll 8. Developments in rhe BEd discuss this matter further in paragraph 679. The present reduction in the
degree course. HMSO 1979 .
numbers being accepted for entry to teacher training means that it is not yet
possible to assess the effect of the new requirements on recruitment to the
teaching profession .

Recenl cha nges in 670 The last ten years have been a time of very considerable change in the
leacher non-university sector of teacher training, The reduction in the number of
lraining training places has led to the closure of some colleges of education and the
merger of others with institutions which provide higher education courses of
other kinds. It has also been necessary ( 0 plan and introduce new courses to
take account of the phasing out of the Certificate in Education and also of the
reo~ganisatjon of colleges; in many cases reorganisation has been accom-
panied by the transfer of validation from a university to the Council for Na-
tional Academic Awards, Reductions in staffing resulting from reorganisa-
tion have meant that there have been few appointments to the staff of training
institutions in recent years; this means that the proportion of staff who have
recent experience of full-time leaching in schools is decreasing. Because of the
very great changes which have been taking place , much of the comment which
we have received about training to teach mathematics relates to courses which
either nO longer exist or whjch have been changed very considerably, or to
training which took place at a time of uncertainty or rapid change. Many
comments, 100, are anecdotal and, understandably, many of those who have
written to us appear to have knowledge of only one training institution . We
have not therefore found it easy to decide on the extent to which either
criticisms or compliments which we have received relating to teacher training
remain valid at the present time . We have, though , to record that we have
received a good deal of comment which has been critical .

Views of recently trained 671 We learned that the National Foundation for Educational Research
teachers (NFER) had recently been studying the progress through sLxth form and
higher education of a group of students who subsequently became teachers.
The final stage of the study was the administration of a questionnaire to ascer-
tain the reaction of these teachers to their first year of teaching and [0 their
initial training as seen in retrospect. However, the group contained very few
specialist teachers of mathematics and so, in an endeavour to obtain the views
of mathematics leachers, the DES, at our request , commissioned NFER to
extend their study by administering a slightly amended version of their
 14 lnitia! lraining courses 205

questionnaire to a sample of teachers of mathematics who were in their first

three years of teaching in secondary schools. This survey was carried out in
October 1980 and replies were received from 198 teachers of whom 48 were in
their first year of teaching.

672 The reaclions of these teachers to a number of statements about their pre-
sent leaching post revealed, as we have already stated in paragraph 640, a pic-
lUre of a group of leachers who were happy in their worle. More than 90 per
cem said that the statements '1 enjoy teaching mathematics very much', ' I am
very happy teaching mathematics in my present sc hool', ' I am very salisfied
with the duties of my present job' applied al least moderately to lhem; about
half lhe teachers said thal lhese statements applied strongly.

673 In response to a group of statements about lhe adequacy of their initial

training, lhese teachers felt, in general , that lheir training had prepared them
better for lhe subject cont ent of their mathematics teaching and for classroom
management and organisation than for dealing with discipline problems,
assessing pupils' progress or dealing with the whole range of ability, especially
in mixed-abililY groups. Those who had followed PGCE COurses were more
satisfied with the balance between the differenl elements of their courses than
were lhose who had followed BEd o r Certificate in Educalion courses.
Among lhose teachers who commented on lhe balance of the course, there
was a general wish for a grealer emphasis on lhe more practical elements of the
cou rse, such as methods of teaching and classroom management, practical
teaching and observation in classrooms . Those teachers who had asleed
themselves how time was to be found for a grealer emphasis on these elements
almoSt all suggeSted that the time given to education theory shou ld be reduc-
ed. Many teachers fell that the relevance of educalion theory had not become
apparent by the end of their initial training course .

674 Some leachers commented that lheir initial training courses had failed to
provide adequale preparation for the teaching of mathematics to very slow
Jearners. In ou r view it should not be the task of initial training courses to pro-
,';de preparation for such teaching; oar do we believe it lo be pracricable,
though students should be made awa re of the variety of special needs which
they may meet in their pupils . In order to be able to appreciate the special dif-
ficulties of very slow learners, as also of children Wilh othe rspecial needs. it is
necessary ftfst of all to gain experience of leaching mathematics to pupils who
do not have problems of this Ieind. We therefore co nsider that training
10 leach pupils wilh special needs should be provided by means of in-
service courses undertaken after leachers have bad opportunity to
gain classroom experience . In our view new entrants to teaching should not
be required to leach mathemalics to classes of such pupils.

Proressional training 675 Professional training within BEd and PGCE courses is relaled to the age
of the pupils-primary, middle or secondary-whom Ihe studeor intends to
teach . Two of Ihe elements of professional lraining are courses of instruction
in melhods of teaching particular subjecls. commonly called 'curriculum
206 14 Ini tial trai ning courses

courses' in BEd and 'method courses' in PGCE. and sc hool experience. v+" e
d isc uss both of these .

Curricu lum and me thod 676 W e start our discussio n of curriculum and me thod co urses by draw ing at-
cou rses ten tio n fO 1wo matters which we believe t.o be of importance whatever the age
ran ge to which the course relates. We consider (hat [he need (0 rake account of
these will require cha nges in a number of courses.

677 The first is the need within these courses '0

stress the various elements
which, as we have pointed out in paragraph 243, should be included within
mathematics leaching and in particular the place of oral work. discussion and
practical work.

678 The second is the need to emphasise the relationship between

ml1lhematics and other areas of the curriculum. "The contribution of a
subject to the pupil's education is wea kened jf it is not percei ved by th e teacher
and prese nted to the pupil in terms of its relation to the rest of the cu rriculum.
Th ere are two associated aspec ts o f th is not io n . One is the extent to which the
teac her sees his su bj ect as pan of the curriculum as a whole and as con-
tributing to it. The other is the explicit making of links bet ween su bjects in
such a mann er (har the skills and ways of thinkin g in a panicular subj ect a re
"'Teacher (roming and fhe secon · give n opportunit y for development in others." - The more integrated ap-
dary school. An H MI discu::;s ion proach to th e curriculum which is used in tbe prima ry years may perhaps make
pape r. OES 198 J.
it easier fo r intend ing primary teachers to view mathematics in this way, pro-
vided that they have been able to de ve lop confidence in their own knowledge
and use of math ematics. It is no less important , though it is likely to be more
difficult to a chieve, that those who teach mathematics in seco ndary schools
should also be led to consider the relat ionship of mathematics to the cu r-
riculum as a whole .

Preparation for teaching mathematics in primary and middle schools

679 Because nearl y all primary teachers and many of those who tea ch in mid-
dle schools are requ ired to teach mathematics, all students who are trai ning to
teach a t these Jevels take a curriculum course in mathematics. Most of them
will not be studying mathematics as a main subject and many may well not
have enjoyed mathematics at sc hool. Even th ough the introduction of the
O-level or equi valent requirement for entry to teacher training may lead to
some improvement in overall competence and also in the attitude of some
stud ent s to mat hema tics, it cannot be expected that ail those who intend to
teach in primary a nd middle schools will necessarily be looking forward to
teaching math e mat ics; indeed, some may have given up their studies in
mathematics with a sense of relief after gaining thei r O-level qualification. It
is not th erefore surprising that some students will start their training VIo1th
fears abo ut the teachin g of mathemat ics, and that training institutions shou ld
have difficulty in giv in g to so me of the ir studem s the positive attitude to the
subject and the co nfidence which are necessary if these s tudents are to be able
to teach mathemat ics well. Howe ver, the teaching of mathematics will pro-
bably occupy about 20 per ce nt of the time of tho se who teach in primary
 Jj Ipilia1 tfai ninl1 cO\lr.)es 207

schools. It must therefore be the major lask of tbose who train these students
to establish positive attitudes, to consolidate and deepen the students'
knowledge of mathematics-a process which may involve fiUing some
gaps-and to provide thelll with a firm basis from which to start teaching
mathematics. Our discussion of primary mathematics in Chapter 6 indicates
how much is involved in this task.

680 Only a minority of those who are now teaching in primary and middle
'"I n 1979 rather morc th an 25 000 schools have trained by means of a PGCE cou rse'. Indeed, there are many who
teac h er ~ i" primalY sc hools (ie feel that One year is too shan to provide adequately fo r all the needs of PGCE
abo ul 13 per cent of all primary students trai ning to teach in these schools. Their mathematical needs are those
teac hers) had a graduate Qualifica-
tio n: o f Ih ese only abOl11 300 had
whic h we have already describ ed but the problems of providing within a
malhematics as the IirS! subject o f PGCE cou rse for stude nts who have a sense of inadequacy in mathematics are
their degr",",e. likely to be greater, both because of the short time which is available and also
because many may not have stud ied mathematics for at least five years. In our
view the long-term solution lies in lengthening tbe PGCE tourse for priRUlry
teachers. In an y event, we consider that training institutions shou ld not offer
places on PGCE courses fo r intending teachers in primary or middle schools
to students whom the y know to be mathematically weak .

Preparation for the specialist teaching of malhemarics

68 1 Although a large proportion of those who ta ke mathematics as a main
course in BEd become specialist teachers of mathematics, the majorit y of
mat hematics specialists in secondary schools train as teachers by taking a
PGCE course with mathematics as their first method subject. Figures relati ng
to the enrolment on PGCE courses since 1975 of graduates who are tak ing
mathematics as their fi rst method subject are give n in Appendix I, Table 24 .A
very sharp drop in numbers in 1978 and 1979 has been followed by a con-
siderable upturn in 1980 but it seems that the increase is not necessarily in
st udents who have an honours degree in mathematics. In terim fmdings from a
survey of PGCE courses in university departments of education which is be-
ing conducted by Professor G Bembaum at the University of Leicester show
that in 1979-80 there were abou t 200 men and 200 women who were taking
mathematics as a first method su bject in PGCE courses at universities. About
hal f of these stu dents had an honours degree in mathematics, about 7 per cent
.. As defi ned in Appendix I , an honou rs degree in a related' subject and abou l 13 per cent an honours
paragraph A 12. degree in a subject which was not re lated . The remaining 30 per cent had joint
honours. pass or ordinary degrees but there was no information about the
mathematical content, if any. of these degrees. Informalion relali ng to PGCE
courses in the non-university secto r for the year 198(}'81 , which has been
made available to us by the Mathematical Education Section of the National
Associatio n of Teachers in F urther and Higher Education , suggests that Jess
than 30 per cent of those who were ta king first or second method courses in
mat hematics possessed a mathematics degree; a furthe r 20 per cent had joint
degrees including mathematics. It therefore seems clea r that at the present
time by no means all those who are taking mathematics as a first meth od sub-
jeci in PGCE courses in either the university or non~un iversity sectors are
mathematically well qualified (see also Appendix 1, Table 25).
208 14 lrutiallraining courses

682 Two reasons have been suggested to us which may account for the fact
that an increasing number of graduates in other disciplines are taking
mathematics as a first subject in PGCE courses. The first is that it will be
easier to obtain a post teaching mathematics than teaching some other sub-
jects. The second is that, at a time when job opportunities are not as plentiful
2S used to be the case, it is a useful 'insurance policy' to obtain a teaching
qualification in a shortage subject.

683 We therefore believe that the increase in recruitment to PGCE courses in

mathematics should be viewed with caution . We welcome the increase in
numbers of students training to teach mathematics if their degree courses
have contained a substantial mathematical component. On the other hand,
we view with some concern the fact that students whose degree subject is com-
pletely unrelated to mathematics should be accepted for a PGCE course in
mathematics. We agree that " these students are likely to swell the numbers of
those whose qualifications are inadequate or inappropriate fo r the work that
·Teocher Iraining and (he secon- they are being asked to do" .' We do not think that , within the time allotted to
dary school. An HMI discussion most method courses, they are likely to be able to learn to present
paper. DES 19&1.
mathematics effectively in the classroom . In our view, students should not be
admitted to first method courses in mathematics unless their degree courses
have contained a substantial mathematical component.

684 The number of teachers in secondary schools who are expected to teach
more than one subject is likely to increase during the next few years because of
pressures resulting from falling rolls . In some PGCE courses students prepar-
ing to teach in secondary schools take one main subject but in others they
foUow courses in two subjects . In some cases these courses are equally
weighted but often the second subject is given less, and sometimes very much
less, time. At the present time mathematics is a popular choice as a second
subject. The Leicester survey showed that in 1979-80 there were about 360
students taking mathematics as a second method subject in PGCE courses at
universities. Of these students, about 20 per cent had an honours degree in a
subject related to mathematics and about 50 per cent an honours degree in a
subject which was not related; the remaining 30 per cent had joint honours,
ordinary or pass degrees but there was no information about the
mathematical content, if any, of these degrees. It is highly probable that many
of those who take mathematics as a second subject will be required to teach it .
Indeed, it may be the case that some who choose a second method course in
mathematics will do so in the hope that some training in the teaching of
mathematics will help them to obtain a teaching post. It is therefore essential
that these courses are substantial enough to give adequate grounding and that
"Teacher 'raining and (he secon- "recruitment to them must be governed by exacting standards" ." In our view
dary school. An HMI discussion students should not be admitted to • second method course in mathematics
paper. DES 1981.
unless tbeir degree course has contained. reasonable mathematical compo-
nent or they art." matbematicaUy qualified in some other way.

Time allowance for curriculum and method courses

685 From the su bmissions which we have received it is clear that there is very
considerable variation in the amount of time which is given to curriculum and
 14 l ilili a llrainin g cOllT' ~e ~ 209

method courses in mathematics, and to their positioning within BEd and

PGCE courses as a whole. A frequent complaint has been that insufficient
time is given to curriculum and method work but complaints of this kind are
djrected at time allowances which are widely differen t; nor is there any ap-
parent connection between the amount of time allowed and the intensity of
the complaints . The time allotted to curriculum and method courses appears
to depend on a number of factors; these include the timing of these courses in
relation to teaching practices and other school visits, their relationship to
other elements within professional studies which deal with classroom method
and the amount of private study which is expected of stud~nts.

686 A number of submissions suggest that within primary and middle BEd
courses a minimum of 90 hours spread over three or four years should be given
to a curriculum course in mathematics . This suggestion was supported in oral
evidence to us by the Council for National Academic Awards, which is
responsible for the validation of many BEd courses. We were told that if the
time allocation fell to below 90 hours , it was expected that compensation
would be provided in the form, for example, of a larger ihan usual time alloca-
tion for curriculum science . We have also noted that "in HMI's view a total of
some 90 hours , deployed suitably in relation to school experience and block
practice, would be reasonable provided that students were mathematically
" H\ll Sel'ie\. Mailers ror discus- ready for the work"*. This implies that some students may need to spend ad -
~ io n 8. Dew/opments In the BEd ditional time in reaching the necessary state of preparedness. There are,
d e{<rce course . HrvlSO 1979. however, many courses which provide considerably less time than this; we
have been told of courses which give as little as 40 hours. We wish to express
our concern that it is possible to spend so little time on preparation for
teaching a part of the curriculum which occupies up to one-fifth of a child's
time during the primary years. There is also very considetable variation in the
proportion of time which is given to method work within PGCE courses . We
have been told of courses in which it occupies rather more than one-third of
the total time which is available; on the other hand, there are courses in which
the proportion of time given to method work is one-eighth. We refer later to
the need to review the great variety of provision which exists for both cur-
riculum and method courses.

School experience 687 School experience forms part of all initial training courses. It is likely to
stan with short periods of observation in a school, sometimes in the company
of a tutor, and will certainly include at least one extended period of leaching
practice during which school staff must assume major responsibilit y for the
student. It is therefore necessary for tbe staff of schools which receive
students on teaching practice and the staff of the training institutions from
whieb Ibe stndents come to act together in a well-defined and mutually sup_·
portive partnership ; unless such a partnership exists and operates effectively
students will not benefit as they should from their time in schools. This means
that schools and training institutions need to explore together oyer a continu-
ing period the nature of the partnership and the contribution which each can
make towards it . These discussions should involve not only the senior staff of
the schools concerned but also the teachers in whose classes and departments
the students will be working. So far as mathematics is concerned I it is to be ex-
210

pec ted th at th e mat hema tics co-o rdinator or the head o f departme nt will playa
majo r pa rt in providing suppo n fo r slUde nt s on teaching prac tice. We beljeve
it to be desirab le th a t t hey sho uld have o pportunit y 10 disc uss their role wil h
t he sta rr of th e trai nin g institutio n a nd receive an y necessary gujdan ce. The
membe rs o f sta ff o f bo th sc ho ol and (raining institutio n need also to be clear
abo ut th e ir res pecti ve respo nsibilities in rega rd to the assessment of st ude nts
on leachin g praclice.

688 It has bee n sugges ted to us tha t in some cases the partnership betwee n
schools a nd trai nin g instit utio ns is not sufficie ntl y well defined , with the
result t hat sc hools a re so metimes not sufficient ly aware of th e extent of their
res po osjbllit ies towa rd s th e st udents who come to th e m nor of the aims, objec-
tives a nd prio ri t ies of the instit utions fro m whi ch the y come. Equally, some
t ra ining institut ions may no t be awa re o f [he aims, objectives and priorities of
th e sc hoo ls to wh ic h th ei r studen ts go. At wo rst , th ere can be a conflict of aims
betwee n sc hool an d college in respec t of m ath ematics teac hing_ If this is the
case, it is essent iaJ th at steps sho uld be take n t o disc uss and resolve any such
diffic ulti es.

689 v.,'e have been co nce rn ed Lo be w id th at in so me cases c urrent financial

re'5 traint s are limiting th e choice o f sc hoo ls wh ic h ca n be used fo r teaching
practice, so that instituti o ns are having to se.nd sLUd ent s to sc hools which are
near at hand rather th an \ 0 sc hoo ls wh ic h wo uld o ffer grea ter oppo rtunit ies
but whic h are fulther away . We believe it is essential that such. restriction of
choice shou ld nOllead to the use for teaching praclice of schools in which the
necessary support cannot be given to students. T he sa me res tra in ts are said to
mean tha t student s on teaching prac tice some times receive fe we r visils fro m
their tutors th a n wo uld o the rwise be th e case.

690 We recognise th a t it is no t prac tica ble fo r a ll stud ent s who will teac h
mathematics in prima ry or middl e sc hools to be s upervised durin g the ir
teaching pract ices by sta ff who a re ma th ema tically qu alified . II is therefo re
essential thai (raining institutions and schools working in par1nership should
develop reliable methods of identifying and helping those students whose
work in mathematics during teaching practice is ,,,·cak . Fo r th e reaso ns we
have given in paragraph 680, student s o n paCE co urses may be especiall y a t
ri sk_

691 We draw atte ntio n finall y to th e fac t tha t special allention needs to be
given during practice to siudents preparing to teach in secondary schools who
have laken a second method coursein malhemalics. Not onl y do they need op-
po rtunit y (0 teach mathematics in additio n to th eir maj n subj eci bu t th eir
leac hing o f math ema tics needs to be sup ervised ade qu ately_ Since th e lu to r
w ho visits them may no t be a math ema tics specialist, th e support given by th e
head o f math emati cs in the sc hoo l will be especiall y im po rtant.

Require men t to unde rt ake 692 Mathemati cs graduates are a t prese nt allo wed to teac h in ma intained
initia l train in g seco ndary oc hools without ta king a PGCE course. A grea t m aj o rit y o f th e
 14 Init ial training cOurses 211

subm ission s we have received which refe r to thi s maner have urged thai this
exemption should cease . In o ur vie\\! th e ability to obtain a degree in
mathem atics does not necessarily imply an abilit y to teac h math emalics well
without further trai ning. As we have pointed outeadier in this repon, it is not
easy to teach mathematics well or to co pe with the very differing requirements
of pupils of different levels of attainment. The number of grad uates in
mathematical studies who enter teaching directly after completi ng their
degree COurse has been decreas ing in recent years. Information relat in g to the
period 1974-1979 is given in Appe ndix I, Table 23.

693 In our view the exempUon or newly Qualified mathematics graduates

hom the requirement to undertake initial training as a teacher should cease as
soon as is practicable. A majority of us feel s that, in respect o f those who will
in future qualify as mathematics graduates, action to remove th e exemption
should be taken as soon as is administratively possible; and believes that,
although this might discourage so me from entering mathematics teaching,
the number is likely to be small so that the loss of these untrained teachers
would nor be sufficient to o utweigh the arguments in favour o f profess ional
[raining for all fu ture ma thematics graduates who wish to enter teach ing. \""' e
all hope that the withdrawal of the exemption would be accompanied by th e
ince ntives 10 undertak e training w teac h math ematics which we have ad-
vocat ed in th e previous chapt er.

694 Eve n a rrer rhe \'iithdrawal of the existing exemption, there would remain
a number of men and women who would slill be eligible to en ter teach ing in
maiJ1lained schools with o ut undertaking professional training as a teacher.
We believe that, both for their own good Bnd for the good of the pupils whom
Ihe)' will leach , all Ihose who intend to teach mathemalics should undertake
suitable initial tcacher training and, in the strongest possible terms, we urge
them to do so . We believe also that LEAs should be required to make special
inducHon arrangements for all untrained mathematics graduates which
would ensure good support and thorough asses.liJrnent procedures throughout
(heir probationar)' period .

Main mathematics 695 We have been told that in 1980 SOme 500 stud ents chose math ematics as a
courses in OEd main course in the first yea r of BEd out of a tmal entry to BEd courses of
rath er more than 5000. T he introduction of the two A -level requjrement for
entry to BEd courses means that main co urses in mathematics should now be
able to start from a base of previous A-level study in mathematics. In
paragraph 643 we listed th e elemems wh ic h we believe should be included in
the mathematics degree courses of intendi ng te ac hers. These apply equally
to main math ematics courses in BEd. No matte r what the age of th e pupils
whom they may be teaching. tcache rs of mathemat ics mu st be able to take a
wid e view of the mathematics curriculum and be ab le to make informed
judgemencs about the prio rities within it. We believe that this ajm is more like-
ly to be fulfilled by the provision of a main mat hematics course whic h aims at
achievement over a broad fron t rather than by One which seeks to achieve
depth by restricting its coverage LO only a few areas of mathematics. In our
212 14 Initial tra iningcO ll rses

view this should be a major consideration in the validation of main

mathematics courses .

696 There is con siderable variation in the size o f leac hing groups for main
malhematics COurses. We have been told that in the year 1980-81 there were
nine (raining institutions with first year mathematics groups of less than fi ve
students. twelve with groups of between five and ten students, thirteen with
groups of between ten and fifteen , and ten wi th gro ups of more than fifteen
srudems .

697 The existence of some very small groups raises th e question of whether
main courses which recruit such small numbers should be allowed to con-
tinue . We have received a number of submissions in which it is argued thai
such courses should be maintained even althou gh th ey are not economically
viable. Among [he reasons ad vanced is the fact thal , because mathematics is a
'core' subject o f the curriculum, it should be seen to be available as a main
course in as man y (raining institutions as possible, rather than in only a few
specialist centres . It has also been pointed oul that many students wish to
train at an insti tution which is within reasonable reach of th eir home or, in
some cases, at a panicular in stitution and thaI the absen ce of a main course in
mathematics could result in the loss of potentially good mathematics
leachers. Some have argued further that, because many students take up
teaching posts in schools neaf to the institution in which they have trained , a
geographical spread of institutions which offer main mathematics courses is
necessary. Many of those who are engaged in teacher training have wid us [hat
they value the opportunity (0 teach both main and curriculum courses in
mathematics because the interaction between the twO kind s of course is
beneficial both to them and to their students and allows val uable links to be
made bet ween the main course, the curriculum course and th e experience of
SI udents during their period s of teaching practice.

698 We accept the validity of many of these arguments for maintaining as

many main courses as possible and we do not beUeve tbat the decision as
to whelher or nol to allow a course 10 continue should be made only on
economic grounds; we have been told that on these grounds groups ofabout
twelve are desirable. We believe that in all cases tbe decision should be taken
on educational grounds which take account of the need to make use of the
variety of approaches to teachin g which we have advocated throughout this
report . Groups should DOt be so large as to discourage disc ussio n and co-
o perative working but should be large enough to pennit a sufficient interplay
of ideas. We recognise Ihat there is bound to be some fluctuation in th e annual
intake to most courses; however, we believe that, if a course regularly recruits
less than eight students, its continued existence should be called into question.

699 We recognise that the logic of our argument means tbat some colleges
might lose th eir main mathematics course and that questions o f possible
redundancy among mathemat ics lecturers could arise . We do nOt believe thar
this need happen . In our view, time previously gi ven to the leachjng of maln
mathematics courses could with ad van tage be used to assist with in·service
 14 ini(iai training courses 213

support for teachers in the locality. In this way systematic contact between lec-
turers and schools could be extended, perhaps to include a regular teaching
commitment in a school. We believe that such an arrangement would be
beneficial to the work of the training institution concerned .

Balance within initial 700 Some submissions to us have expressed concern at the apparently low
h·ainin~ ,c ourses status accorded to curriculum courses. Others have suggested that the in-
troduction of the BEd degree has resulted in an increased emphasis on main
subject and education theory courses at the expense of curriculum courses and
other professional preparation, so that students are less well prepared than
formerly for effective work in the classroom. We recognise the importance of
these concerns. In our view proper professional preparation is of the greatest
importance for intending leachers and should be given appropriate status.

70 1 We believe that requests for a greater emphasis on the more practical

elements of bOlh BEd and PGCE courses, such as those of some of lhe recent-
ly trained teachers who responded to the NFER questionnaire, stem from
what is perceived to be a lack of relevance in some parts of the course. It is
clearly import.nt that students should reel that all parts of their
inilial training are relevant to their needs. The relevance of courses on
methods of teaching and classroom organisation is clear, as is the relevance of
school experience, but the relevance of education theory may be less ap-
parenl. Il has been suggested to us that this may be because there are few
education tmors who have a background of mathematics teaching. In conse-
quence, for instance when illustrating education theory with examples from
the classroom, they may seldom make use of examples from mathematics but
instead choose examples from other curricular areas of which they have
greater expe ri ence . There is need for close co-operation between education
tutors and mathematics tutors so that education theory can be seen by
mathematics students to be firmly grounded on practice in schools and in this
way to make a valid contribution to their initial training.

Induction 702 Inilial training prepares a student for entry to rhe profession but much of
that preparation is likely to be less effective than it should be if il is not follow-
ed up and developed during the first year of teaching. "There is no major pro-
fession to which a new entrant, however thorough his initial train ing, can be
expected immediately to make a fuH cont ribution . The Government share the
view of the lames Committee that a teacher on first employment needs, and
should be released part-time to profit from, a systematic programme of pro-
"'/::dU{'(J/lon. A framework for ex- fessional initiation, guided experience and further study .' '* The aim set out in
pansi()ll . HMSO !972. the paper from which these words are taken was for the introduction of a nat-
ional 'induction' scheme in the school year 1975-76_ This was to provide
both enhanced support and a lightened teaching load for teachers during their
first year of service. Sadly, this intention has not yet been realised .

703 Most LEAs make provision of some kind for the induction of proba-
*See DES Statistical Bulle/in 9/80 tionary teachers. A survey carried out in 1979* on the induction of teachers
214 14 Iniliallraining cQU fSeS

serv'ing In maintained schools suggesred thar a high proponion of new en-

trants (0 reaching were involved in some kind of induc[lon programme but
thal relatively few induction programmes included provision for significant
release from normal classroom dUlies and/or a lightened teaching load. It is
possible {hal recen t expenditure reductions may have caused a reduction in
the modest provision which existed during the year 1978-79.

704 The results of tbe NFER survey which we described in paragraph 67 I

showed clearly that the provision made for the teachers included in the sample
had been uneven and often inadequate. Of those teachers who had been
teaching for at least a year, on ly a quarter said that they had atrended mOre
than two meetings arranged by [he LEA during their probationary year; one-
third had attended no meeting at a ll. On the other hand, eighteen teachers who
had attended at least ten meetings had evidently taken part in substantial in-
duct ion programmes. Within schools, eleven teachers seem to have raken pan
in formal induction programmes but almost half of the teachers said that they
had not attended any formal meetings for probationers in their schools. This
does nOt necessarily mean that probarioners lack.ed guidance in their schools;
they may, for example, have been given help and suppOrt by the head of the
mathematics departmenl which they did nOt classify und er the heading
'meetings for probationers'. I ndeed, over 40 per cent of those who had com-
pleted their probation said thai I hey were very sat.isfied with the guidance and
help which they had received from rheir schools during Iheir first year of
leaching and a further 50 pet cenl said th at they were sat isfied or fairly
satisfied; only 8 per ce nt expressed dissatisfaclio n . On the other hand, only 7
per cenC expressed themselves as very satisfied with the support given by th e
LEA and 30 per cent expressed dissalisfaction; 40 per cent said that they were
fairly satisfied-perhaps being unaware of the level of support which can, and
in our view should , be pro vided . Average teaching loads during the proba-
tionary year were very liltle lighter than subsequently and some teachers who
had been given a somewhat ligh tened teaching timetable felt that they had
been imposed upon by having to cover more frequently than their colleagues
for teachers who were absent. We do not have such specific evidence in respect
of primary reachers but the general indications which are availab le to us do
nOi suggest [hat provision for indu ction is significantly better.

705 It has been pointed out to uS that revised pal terns of initial traini ng which
have been adopted in many institutions in recent years have been planned on
the assumption that college courses will be followed by a properly structured
induction year. If this is not provided, the training of all who have taken these
cou rses will be incomplete. In our view a proper programme or inducOon,
which should include some lightening of the teaching load, is necessary in the
first year, as is good support from the O1~l'Ihcmatics co~ordinDlor or head of
department, the head teacher and LEA staff.

706 We appreciate the problems which schools ca n face in providing sup por<
and a lightened teaching load during the first year of teaching. In some cases
probationary teachers are appoinred at short nOlice LO replace experienced
teachers and at a stage at which it is very difficult to change arra ngements
 14 Initial training courses 215

whicb have already bee n mad e for the following school year. Nevertheless , it
is esse ntial that sc hoo ls and LEAs recognise the need ror suitable induction
procedures and mak e eve ry errOrt to provide th em . We have already poimed
out that mathematics is nm an easy subject to teach; it rollows tbat adequate
support is of vital importance during the nrst year of leachin g as wet! as subse-
quently. Ideally, probationers should be appointed only to sc hoo ls in which
su itable support is assured. When an appointme nt of this kind is not possible ,
LEAs should mak e eve ry effort to supplement th e support which the school is
able to give . Teac hers in secondary schools for whom mathematics is the se-
cond teaching subject can be especially in need of suppo rt, particularly in
schools in wbich the standard of mathematics teac hing is not high . In the
abse nce of suc h suppon. these teacbers are liable to find tbemselves falling
bac k on a narrow sryle of teaching almed mainl y a t comaining [he class and
keeping order , rather th an workin g in th e ways wh ich we recom mend in this
report and which, we hope, will also have been advocated during th ei r train-
mg.

}-uture developm e nls 707 In the cou rse of the chapter we have quoted from Developmenrs in the
BEd degree CO llrse, f rom Teacher training and the secondary school, and
from other evid ence we have received_ All th ese sources highlight the co m-
plexiry of existi ng initial training courses, draw attention to problems of the
kind wh ich we hav e disc ussed in tbis chapler and pose questions which we
believe shou ld be answe red.

708 [1 is not our task to prepare a report on th e initial training of teac he rs no r

is our Committee suitably co nstituted to do so. \Ve are, however, concerned
that th ere seems to be so little knowledge in the training institutions about the
relative effectiveness of, for example, the different for ms of curriculum and
method co urses in mat hematics, their length an d their positioning wit hin the
course as a whole. We are also concerned that little syste matic attempt appears
to be being made to evaluate the differen t form s of provision which exist
"' PGCE /f/ Ihe pl/hlic S(!('(OT . An and to distil or discover good practice. PGCE in th e public seclor· refers to
H\oll diswssion paper. DES 1980. the ' bewildering variety of practice thal exists' _ T he submissions which we
have received make it clear thal this is indeed th e case and we find it hard to
believe that sucb variet y can be justified . We believe thai there is an urgent
need 10 rC'Yiew and evaluate the courses provided for Ibe initial '.raining of aU
those who will teach matbematics.

709 We are di sturbed to read that ·'t he problem for teacher training is to
know what th e newly qualified teach er shou ld be equipped with on emerging
from his course and what could be left to induction and in-se rvice training.
.. Teacher (raillill/? and Ihe St>COIf- There is no co nse nsu s on this, and even if there were it would prod uce no ready
dary schoo l . An HMI diSC U5sio n formula whic h would fit (he circ umstances of every institution"" _ We believe
paper. DES !98 1.
that it is essential that efforts should be made to achieve such a consensus_

"House of Commons . Firth 710 We have no ted that the recent re port from the Education , Science and
Rcpo rl from th e Ed ucal ion, Arts Committee o f the House of Commons· recommends tha t HMI shou ld
Science and A rt s Co mmiuee. The
fllndin g and or!;(llIiscrfion of
no longer be co ncerned with co urses in the higher education secto r. It is not
cOl/rses in lI ip,her edlicOlio n. for us to commen t on the general iss ue but we feel it to be essenlial thai HMI
HM SO 198() should continue to be lnvolved wilh teacher training courses. Indeed, we find
216 14 Initial training courses

it anomalous that, as part of their duties, HMI appraise initial training

courses in institutions in the public sector but haVe not been given a similar duty
in respect of university depanments of education which are also responsible
for the initial training of teachers. We are aware that HM1 mwntain informal
links witb university departments of education; we recommend that they
should be given the duty of appraising the initial training courses whleh these
departments provide .

711 We have received several suggestions that PGCE courses and three-year
BEd courses should be made longer in order to provide a better preparation
for the intending teacher. Although we can appreciate the reasons for these
suggestions, and although we have been told that the number of three-year
BEd courses is decreasing, we doubt whether any overall extension of initial
training courses would be practicable in the foreseeable future . However, this
is not to say that there should not be changes. We believe, for example, that
consideration should be given to the extent to which it would be possible to
make use of the weeks which lie outside the existing university and college
terms, and especially of those which lie within school terms.

712 We have already stressed the need for good induction programmes; we
believe that consideration should atso be given to ways in which initial training
and induction might be more flnnly linked.

713 Our report has many implications for the initial training of teachers of
mathematics in both primary and secondary schools. We have suggested em-
phases on the teaching of mathematics which are different from those found
in many schools at present. These include a greater differentiation in the cur-
riculum of secondary schools, the use of a greater variety of teaching styles,
and a greater emphasis on discussion, practical experience, applications of
mathematics, problem solving and investigation. It will be the responsibility
of those who train teachers to ensure that students experience a variety of
forms of learning for themselves, are aware of the need for variety in teaching
methods, and start teaching with an ability, at a beginner's level, to use these
methods in their teaching. Many students will not yet be able to observe our
suggestions in practice in the classrooms in which they find themselves; but
young teachers can influence their schools, as well as be influenced by their
schools, and we hope that tbe staff of initial training institutions will respond
1.0 our report and take account of its recommendations in their work with
students. Perhaps the most important characteristic \\~th whlch a new
teacher of mathematics can enter teaching in the 19805 is a determination con-
tinually to monitor and reappraise his teaching and his curriculum. It must
be for those who train teachers to seek to develop a flexible attitude in their
students which wiH enable them to respond positively to curriculum change in
mathematics.
 217

15 In-service support for teachers of

mathematics

714 In th e course of o ur report we have drawn attention io a number of ways

in which we believe that (he mathematics curriculum for so me pupils should
be changed. as well as to ways in which we believe it is necessary for mathematics
teaching to d evelop in the coming years. Whatever the reaction of central or
local government to our recommendations, the extent to which those recom-
mendation s are implemented in the classroom will depend upon the response
of those who teach mathematics and upon th ei r ability to work in the ways
which we have suggested . We wish now to co nsider the various forms of sup-
PO rt which can and should be provided to enable those who teach
mathematics to develop and extend their professional skill.

The need for in-service 715 In our view the need for such support is self-evident. Even if greatly in-
suppor. creased numbers of teachers who are well equipped to teach mathematics were
to enter teaching in primary and sec-ondary schools in the next few years, it
would take many years for this to have a significant effect on the overall quali-
ty of the mathematics teaching force . It follows that any improvement in the
standards of mathematics in schools must come largely as a resull of the ef-
forts of those teachers who are already in pOSI ; they must , therefore, receive
all possible support to enable them to improve the effectiveness of their
teaching.

716 The analysis of the present teaching force which we have given in Chapter
13 shows that there are many teaching mat hematics in primary , middle and
secondary schools whose qualifications for this task are weak or non-exiSlenl.
It should not, however, be supposed that in-service suppon is needed only to
remedy the deficiencies of those who lack suitable qualifications. However
good their initial training and induction may have been, all those who leach
mathematics need continuing support throughout their careers in order to be
able to develop their professiooal skills and so maintain and enhance the
quaUty of Iheir work .

7 17 The need to provide adequate support for teachers is siressed in very

many of the submissions which we have received , including submissio ns from
LEAs, training institutions, professional bodies and teachers themselves. The
need for support is not, of course, confmed to teachers of mathematics alone
and a number of the malters wh ich we disc uss in this chaptet appl y equally to
teachers of other subjects. \\'e are, however, concerned with the specific needs
of mathematics and believe that there are a number of reasons wltich justify
218 15 In-service .suppOrt for (C'achers of maille-malies

supp ort for teachers of malhemalics on a scalr which ma)' no t. on fi nancial

gro und s, be possi ble fo r leac hers of all s ubjec ls '1 lhe prcse n l lime.

7J8 In the first place. there is {he general acceptance {hal malhemalic~ is 3 11
essential part of th e cu rriculum for all pupils in both primary and secondary
;chools. Second ly, Ihere is Ihe p ublic co ncern abo ul Ihe leaching of
malhemalicswhich ha;ledl ()lheselling upof ou r lnq uiry. Thirdl y. Ihere is
the lack of suilable Qualifical:ion. to which we have already drawn a tt entio n,
of many of rh ose who leac h mathemarics. Fourl hly, rhe c ~rric ular changes
which we have reco mmended in thi s report will req uire many teachers to work
in ways which are different from Ihose which rhey use al prese m . Fiflhly, the
increasing availabilit y o f cakuJators and computers req uires all who teach
mathemalics ro reconsider th e co nt ent of the mathematics curriculum and the
methods which rh ey use in Ihe classroom . Sixthly. o ther ~reas of Ihe cur-
riculum which make use of mathematics are at a disadvamage ir m31hematics
is nOl wen taught. Finally, as we have nored in Chapre r 13. il is possible rhal
falling rolls in secondary school III the coming years, and consequent reduc-
lions in staffing, will increase the pressure for mathematics teaching to be
underta ken by reach ers for who m malhemalics did no l form a significant part
of their initial trainin g.

T y pes o f in -se rvice 719 In-service suPPOrt for reachers needs to be provided in a varielYof ways.
s upp o rt \\i'e may distin guish in general terms between the su pport and lraining which is
provided withi n Ihe sc hool itseif, the suppOrt whic h comes from meelings
\vit.h other reachers, visits
10 ot her sc hools and membership of professional
subject associarions, Ihe support provided by the starf of local allthori lies and
training institUlions. and the support which comes from training co urses o f
various kinds; I hese categories arc not. of course. wholly distinct. There is one
o lhe r kind of suppOrt which, alth o ugh perhaps nor so immedialeiy apparenl
LO many reachers . is pro vided by research int o mathemarical education and by
the centres which exist to un,dcnake and disseminate wo rk: of (hiS kind _ We
wish to discuss all of rhese .

School-based support 720 We are in no do ubl tha i sch oo l-based in-sen 'ice sup pOr1 fo r teac hers is of
fundamenls l imp ortance . II ca n be d irec red specifically to rhe needs of th e
school a nd irs pupils, so rh a l Ihose who teach mathemalics de velop profes-
sional ly as a resuil of worki ng togeth er to improve rhe work o f Ihe school.
Above all. it ca n and sho uld be a co nlinuing process which is nor limited 10 th e
length of a lecrure, a discussion or a co urse.
Every stafr group has withi n it lh e ingredients of a kind of co ntinuous educa-
lional \vork shop. For it is in I he slaffgrollp itself Ihal meeting points can be found
beL ween studen t and pract ltioner. bel ween the young and the middle-aged, between
(he inexpelienced an d the experienced, bet ween the enlhu~iast s and the cynics. Ihe
optimists and the pessimists. between Ihe so-called 'pupil oriented' and the 50-
1IE Richardson . "'h~ leo('her, ,IJu caJled ' subject oriented' (cachers."
s(:hoo/ and tlu' ,ark of m(1nng~­
mem . Heintmann Educaljonat
Book 1973 _
721 A desc riplion of Ihe kin d of day-by-day suppon which is needed is im-
plicit in the descri ptions of [he responsibilities of the malhematics CD-
/5 I n' ser\i C't supporr for (eachers of rnalhematics 219

o rdin a tor in a primary sc hool and the head of depan men t in a secondary
school which we have given in paragraphs 355 an d 508 . W e emphasise at the
ou tset th at the effectiveness or otherwise of school-based sup pon and of the
professional development of teachers to which it should contribute depends
on the ability of the mathematics co-ordinator or head of depanment to pro-
vide th e necessary leadership and example. The found atio n of school-based
suppOrt should be a suitab le scheme of work which gives guidance nO! only
about syllabus co nt ent but also about teaching meth o d. the availability o f
resources, assessment and record keeping, and necessary ad minist rative pro-
cedures; this scheme should be reviewed regularly. There is a need for th ose
who teach mathematics LO be given opportunity to observe and work with
each other a nd to share [caching ma terials and other resou rces. In our view it
is essential that those who teach math emat ics shou ld hold meetings on a
regular basis . So me of these meeti ngs should be'used to discuss th e leaching o f
particular gro ups of pupils or partic ular topics; such discussions can assist th e
development of a common approac h and lead ro th e preparation of teaching
materials which aU can use. Because meetings of this kind are likely 10 assist
with lesson preparation. the overall d ema nd which they make on the ti me of
teachers can be less th an might be supposed.

722 It is important that school-based activities do not become too inward-

look ing . It is therefore helpful from time to time to invite someone fro m out·
side {he school (0 join in meetin gs and discussion in order to offe r new ideas
and additional expertise. Su ch a person might perhaps be a teacher from
another school. a rnathem a ti cs advise r or advisory teacher, the warden of a
teachers' centre or a member of th e staff of a teacher t rain ing ins titu tion.
Unless this person knows the sc hool well and is well known to those who teac h
mathematics, a 'one-orr session may be of lit tle value; it is usually more pro-
fitable to arrange a se ries of mee tings so that mutual understanding can
develop and discussion be based on the perceived needs of the sch ool.

723 Because Ihe effectiveness of school-based support depends upon Ihe

leadership of mathematics co~o rdinalors or heads of department , it is essen.
lial that 'he)' Ihemselves sho uld receive support and training. W e believe thal
such training must be the responsibility oflocal edu cation authorities and that
it is necessary fo r it to be provided not onl y for newly appointed co-ordinators
and heads of d epartment but also, on a contin uin g basis, for those who are
alread y in post. Training should emphasise th e leadership and organisational
role of Ihe co-ordinator or head of department as well as the need to be aware
of current developments in mathematical education. 1n o ur view the traiDing
of co-ordinators and heads of department is likel)' to contrihute most quickl y
and effectively 10 the o\'erall improvemenl of mathematics teaching and
should be gi,'en top priority . Trai ning provided by local educat ion au thorities
will n eed to be accompanied by support fo r the work of the co-ordinator or
head of departmen t wit hin eac h schoo l. Th is must be the responsi bility o f the
head. We realise that it is not easy in either primary o r secondary schools to
provide oppo rtunity with in the schoo l day for th e co-ordinator or head of
d epanment to work with o th er teache rs but we believe that it is essential that
this problem should be overcome, if necessary by the use o f pan-time st a ff to
provide cover.
220 15 In-service SUPPOrT for teaehers of mat hematics

724 Except, perhaps, in small schools the co-ordinator or head of department

wi ll need assistance wit h some of the tasks for which he is responsible. This
will need [Q come from other teachers of mathematics who should be en-
couraged, singly or in groups, to undertake specific jobs within the school or
department; help of this kind will not only assist Ihe co-ordinator or head of
department but will also contribute to the professional development of [he
teachers concerned. The delegation of responsibility in this way also en-
co urages co-operation, both inside and outside [he classroom, between tho se
who teach mathematics. There are sufficient examples of co-operative work-
ing of I his kind to be found in both primary and secondary schools to show
[hal such working is both possible and effective. However, it is necessary to
realise [hat such methods of working have to be developed gradually;
perseverance is required over many terms throughout which support for th e
co-ordinator or head of deparment must continue bot h inside [he school and
from outside.

Meetings with other 725 However good the support which is provided within a school, it needs to
teachers be supp lemented by provision of other kinds. In particular, it is necessary for
those who teach mathematics to ha"e opportunity (0 meet other teachers.
Local teachers' centres can play an important part in providing Facilities fo r
teachers 10 meet each other. We have been in wrested to nOle [hat very can·
siderable impetu s to the establishment of teachers' centres in their presem
form was provided by the centres set up as part of the Nuflield Mathemat ics
Proj ect in the latter part of the 1%0s. These centres were seen as places in
which teachers co uld meet and where the ideas and activities put forward in
the Nuffield Teachers ' Guides cou ld be 'discussed. elaborated and modified ' .
We have no doubt that the re is need for provision of th is kind and regret that,
accordin g to repo rts which we have received, several teachers' centres have
recently been closed. We hope that they will be re-opened as soon as cir-
cumstances permit and that in the meant ime LEAs will endeavour to provide
in other ways th e kind of suPpOrt which can co me from leachers' centres.

726 Teachers' centres can no t only facilitate formal and informal discussion
and arrange cou rses of various kinds but can also act as resource centres. A
few authorities maintain one or more teachers' centres which are devoted en ·
tirely to mathematics. We have received evidence of the exceUent work which
is carried out by these mathematics centres and of the support which they pro-
vide for the teachers whom they serve. The staff of these centres are
mathematicians who are ab le [0 arrange mathematical activities in their cen-
tre s for groups of teachers, for tea chers with their classes, and sometimes also
for children. They also give help to individual schools and teachers and
generally provide a focal point for mathema tical activity in their area. In some
cases mathematics centres also produce a magazine or newsletler for teache rs.
We believe that, provided (he y are adequately resourced, centres or this kind
CBn play a most \'aluable part in improving (be leac hing of mathematics; we
strongly su pport their continuation .

727 In areas where mathematics centres do not exist we recommend that ef·
forts should be made to provide at least one resource centre for mathematics
 15 tn-service suppon for reacbers of mathematics 221

in each authority. This should have a library of reference books on the

teaching of mathematics, a selection of journals, a range of published text-
books and a collection of mathematical equipment; these should be available
both for use in the centre and for loan to teachers. Arrangements should be
made for a mathematics specialist to be available in the mathematics resource
centre at stated times so that he can discuss with teachers the classroom use of
the materials which are in stock.

VisilS [Q other schools 728 Teachers of mathematics-as, indeed, teachers of most other sub-
jects-very often have little idea of what goes on in other schools in their
neighbourhood. Time spent observing and joi·ning in with the teaching in
another school can provide valuable insight into different forms of organisa-
tion and different teaching methods. For this reason we consider that all
teachers should be enabled to visit other schools from time to time. These
visits must of necessit).' take place during school hours and cover of some kind
will have to be provided for the teachers involved . In secondary schools the
fact that many fifth form pupils are no longer in school during the second half
of the summer term may make it easier to release staff for visits to other
schools during t.his period. Some authorities arrange for a school to be closed
for a single day from time to time so that the whole staff may engage in in-
service work. An arrangement of this kind can enable all the teachers in a
school to spend the day visiting other schools in their own or a neighbouring
LEA.

729 Further opportunities of meeting and working with other teachers are
provided by membership of examination panels and especially of local work-
ing panies. These may be concerned with such matters as the preparation of
guidelines in mathematics, the preparation of teaching and assessment
materials, arrangements for continuity and transfer between schools or
liaison with local employers . Work of this kind is not only of benefit to the
mathematics teaching of an authority or group of schools but can also provide
a valuable means of advancing the professional development of those
teachers who take part .

The professional associa- 730 The professional mathematical associations provide yet another means
tions for teachers of of enabling those who teach mathematics to meet other teachers, both
mathematics through local branch meetings and national conferences. They also assist pro-
fessional development through their journals and other publications .
However, a disappointingly small proportion of those who teach
mathematics in schools belongs to one or other of these associations. We
understand that the joint membership of the two associations which are most
directly concerned with mathematics teaching in schools-the Mathematical
Association and the Association of Teachers of Mathematics-amounts to
some 12 000 but that, ifthose who belong to both associations are counted on-
ly once, the total is nearerto 9000; nor do all of these teach in schools. [n com-
parison with some 30 000 teachers who teach mathematics in secondary
schools and the very many who teach mathematics in primary and middle
schools, this is a very small number. Both the Mathematical Association and
the Association of Teachers of Mathematics publish journals which are ex-
222 J5 In-service suppon for teachers or rt1 at he=rtl atlc..~

pressly intended for those who teac h mathematics in schools and which con-
tain many articles which offer help and suggestions at both primary and
secondary leve ls. We believe th ai every efro n sho uld be made 10 enco urage
membership of Ihe professio nal ma the ma lical associalio ns and Ihal Ihe
associatio ns th emselves should d o as much as possible [0 develo p th ei r local
ac tivities.

731 The professio nal mathemalical associations are already playing an im-
portant pan in the devc loprnenl of mathematical education. We consider that
it is vital that they should continue to be ab le to present informed and indepen-
dent opinions. If they are 10 be able to do this effectively it is necessary Ihat
se rving teachers should playa fu ll part in the wor king groups and co mmittees
of these associations. We ho pe Iha l LEAs will give such supp on as mal' b.
necessary so that those o f their teac hers who are in vited (0 take part in Ihe
wo rk of Ihese gro up s . nd co mmillees mal' be able 10 do so .

Mathematics advisory staff 732 We believe Ih.1 m31 hemalicsad,·isoryslaff" ha ve a nesse n'ial pa ri 10
-There are differences in rhe: lil ies play if Ihe k ind or in-service suppon whic h we h ave alread y discussed ure to
used by LEAs. Some have 'ad· o perale effeclively. The firsl task of a mathematics adviser mUSI be to monitor
visers' , some have 'inspet:IOrs' and
the quality of the mathematics teaching in the schools for which he is responsi-
some have both . We use (he terms
' malh ematics adviier' and ble; in LEAs which do not have an adviser specifically for primary
'mathematics advisory slaff' to mathematics this must entail close contact with the advisers who work in
refer fO alilhose who have respon- primary sc hools. He has t hen 10 lake such ste ps as are open 10 him 10 improve
sibitilY fo r assessing the quality of Ihe quality of mathemalics teac hing througho ut the LEA and to encourage
fhe ma thematics !eaehing within
a nd disseminate good practice.
an LEA and providing support for
those who teAch mat hematics .
733 We have already stressed the central role of the mathematics co-
o rdinator or head of departmenl in providing school-based support for th ose
who teac h mathe malics. It follows that the mathematics adviser must be
aware of (he strengths and weaknesses of the mathematics co-ordinator and
heads of depanment in the schools which he visits and be prepared to offer
them such help as is possible . He will need, in particu lar, to make su re Ihal the
necessary in-service training is provided for them; in some cases it may be
helpful to arrange this on a shared basis with other authorities.

734 In addilion 10 moniloring the work of schools he will also need to main -
tain regu lar contact with wardens of teachers' centres and slaff of Jocal train -
ing inslitutions, as well as with local employers' organisations. He may need
to sel up local working panics and should be able to advise On visit s of leache rs
to other schools. He will be concern ed with arrangements for the provision of
in-service work with in the aUlhorilY and will need to idenlify teachers and
o t hers who are ab le to help with local courses_ He is likely a lso to be called
upon to give advice about the appointment of mathematics staff in schools.

735 Just as it is necessary for teachers in schools to be aware of whal is going

on in other schools . so it is necessary for the mathematics adviser to be aware
of what is going on in olhe r authorities. He must also be aware of curren I
developments in malhematical educalion both regionally and nationaJly. In
some pans of th e country it has become Ihe custom fo r mathematics advisers
IS IrHenice ~ uppO r\ rOT {e<lchers or mathemalic1> 223

from a gro up of neighbouring authorities to meetlogelher regularly, perhaps

once in each term, ro exc hange information a nd ideas, and so metimes also to
arrange in-service activities which are shared between [v..'o or more
authorities. 'We believe that consultation of Ihis kind is to be encouraged and
Ihat it provides a valuable method of sharing experience and assisti ng Ihe
development of good mathematics leaching.

736 The duties to which we have already referred constitute a formidable lisl,
and we do not suggesllhal it is complele. If Ihe adviser is to be able to do his
job effectively and offer Ihe necessary support to others, il is essenlial thaI he
himself receives support. We do not believe that all advisers receive adequate
training, either on appointment or subsequently. On appointment th ey
should be provided with a proper programme of induction which includes
opportunity to see advise rs al work in othe r authorities; there should also be
op portunity for fUrlhe r training from time to time.

737 There is considerable variation between a u thorities in the leve l or provi-

sion of mathematics advisory starr. Some au th orities have two or more
mathematics advisers a nd a team of adv isory teachers; some have a single
mathematics adviser; some have an advise r who has responsibility for
mathematics as well as for one or more ot her subjects; some have no
malhematics adviser. It is the responsibilit y of LEAs to ensure that the
leachers whom Ihey e mploy are sufficienl in qualit y and quanrity. We do nol
believe that an LEA can ensure that the qualit y of mathematics (caching in its
schools is adequate unless il has within its advisory staff adequate
mathematical expertise to carry out the necessary assessment a-n d identify
schools which are in need of assistance. The money required for the ap po int-
ment of a mathematics adviser is exceedingly small compared with th e cost of
the educatio n service as a whole or the cast of that pan of the teac hing force
which de.als with mathematics. \-Ve therefore believe that more expenditure on
mathematics advisers is essential~ since without it there are bound to be wide
and unacceptable '''ariations in Quality and inadequate resourceS to improve
it. If mathe matics advisers are to spend their lime [0 maximum advan tage.
they need to be provided with adequare sec ret arial and othe r administrative
support and, where appropriate, with support from mathemalics advisory
teachers.

738 Some advisers devote their wh o le time to mathematic s while others com-
bine a specialism in mathemarics with more general duties. \Vhichever ar-
rangemenl obrains within an authority, we believe it [0 be important that
mathematics advisers should be aware of the place of mathe matics wit hin th e
whole curriculum and be able to view the organisation for teaching
mathema tics in the context of the organisation of the school as a whole. 1t is to
be expected that advisers who are see n to be effecti ve in their own field are
likel y to be asked for commetll and help on other malters and so they need to
be aware of developments and sources of help outside their specialisl field. We
do not rberefore support the suggestion which has been made to us in some
submissio ns that mathematics ad vise rs should not al so be required to work in
more general ways. Howeve r, it must be for each LEA '0 ensure that suffi-
224 15 [n-service suppo rt ror teachers of marhemalics

cienl time overall is available for advisory work in math ematics and (0 ap-
po int further advisory s taff if necessary.

A1athematics advisory leathers

739 Although many LEAs do not make use of advisory teachers [or
mathematics. some have teams of advisory teachers with well-defined tasks.
In some LEAs there are teachers who work pan-time in a school and part-time
as mathematics advisory teachers. Advisory teachers most commonly work
alongside teachers in the classroom . They may spend a period of several days
in the same school or visit each of a group of schoo ls on a regular basis. They
may perhaps help with drawing up Or revising a scheme of work o r assist with
the in-service prog ramme of the LEA or a school. We believe that adv isory
teachers can playa valuable role in providing in-service support in a school
and in assisting with the introduction of new approaches to tcaching. This is
perhaps especiaUy the case in primary schools which lack a member of staff
who has mathematical expertise; it is likely that regula r visits from an advisory
teacher who is ab le to work alongside teachers in the classroom could be a very
effective method of improvi ng the level of mathematics teaching within such a
school. An advisory teacher may be able to make an especially valuable con-
Iri bution in ruraJ areas where the distance between schools and problems of
transport can make it difficult fo r teachers to take part in the activities of a
teachers' cen ne or to meet teachers in o ther schools.

Establishments of higher 740 Estabtishments of higher edu cation of all kinds have for many years
educalion made a major contribution to the in-service support of teachers. In addition to
providing full~time and pan-time courses for serving teachers both on a
regular ba,is and in response to panicular needs, their staff engage in many
other kinds of in-service support . One form of suppon which we believe to be
of great value, even though it is on a relatively small scale, is the provision of
'school-teacher fellowships' . Teachers who are appointed to these
fell owships, which are someti mes fun ded by the institutions themselves and
sometimes by outside sources including industry, are enabled to undertake a
period of study or research away from the classroom.

741 Those who work in establishments of higher education , and especially in

training institutions , often assist with courses organised by local authorities
or teachers' centres and serve on local in~service committees. Increasingly,
too. staff of training institutions assist with school based in-service wo rk,
especially in schools in which they have become known a, a resu lt of their
visits to supervise students on teaching practice. In some cases, 100, their in-
stitutions serve a~ resou rce cen tres fo r local teachers. who are encouraged to
make use of libraries and other facilities. Furthermore, training institutions
are often able to wor k across LEA boundaries, which enables teachers from
different LEAs to meet and wo rk together.

742 Our allention has been drawn to a maller which is said to operate against
the involvement of members of starr of training institutions in in-service work
with teachers. Such work is clearly of direct relevance to those who are con-
cerned with the initial training of tcachers bUI. if undertaken , reduces the time
 15 I n- 5cn i.::e ~ u ppOrt for leac hers or malli emalics 225

available for academic research . However, there can be no doubt that

publication of the results of academic research is considered to be essential for
promotion to higher posts in institutions of higher education, especially
universities. \Ve have been told that some of those who work in training in-
stitutio ns Ihcrefore feel lha( lime spem on in-service work can be (0 the detri-
ment of their academic careers, because those who have responsibiliry for
ma king appoinlmems do n01 value evidence of experience gained during in-
service work as highly as evidence of published work . If this is the case, we
great ly regret it.

743 'Consultancy' work in schools undertaken by the staff of training institu-

tions is nOI only of benelil 10 schools bUI also enables those who work in Irain-
ing institutions to gain up-tO-date and first-hand knowledge of the work
which is going on in primary and secondary classrooms. We have been told
Ihat the way in which time given to work of this kind is 'cosled' can in SOme
cases limit the amount of time which training institutions feel able to give to it,
particularly if a signi ficant amount of travelling is involved ; nor do the
methods which it is intended should be used to 'cost' time given 10 work in
schools appear to be entirely clea r. We understand that the Pooling Commit-
tee is aware of th is prob lem and is at present seeking ways of clarifying the
situation . We believe it to be very important tha t an )· orrangeme n ts should be
such as to encou rage and facilitate co nsultancy work un dertake n by th e starr
of training insfitut ions.

in-service courses 744 Although it is nOt our view that courses shou ld be regarded as the most
important form of in·scrvice support for teachers, we nevertheless consider
that Ihey have an esse ntia l ro le to play beca use no t aU th e forms of supp o rt
wh ic h are requ ired by teache rs ca n be provided wi thin a sc hool, by meetings
with olher teachers, by advisory staff or by the professional mathematical
associations. Courses provide a means whereby teachers from several schools
can come togelher for a special purpose, either to consider a particular aspec t
of mathematics teaching or to add to their own knowledge or qualifications.
We have, for example, already referred 10 the need (Q provide trainin g for
mathematics co-ordinators and heads of depanment; this will almost certain·
ly have to be done , at leasl in part, by the provision of suilable courses on a
local or regional basis .
745 Mosl short cou rses , and also some longer courses, operate on a part-time
basis, very often with one session each week or fortnight. It is commOn for
these sessions 10 tak e place after the end of the school day. However, many
have argued strongly in submissions 10 us that courses held al Ihis lime are
often less effective than they should be because teachers are tired after a fuU
day in school; in addition, preparation for the next day's work may suffer .
They bave therefore urged Ihat mare courses should be held during school
hours than is the case at presem ; we believe that there is subSlancc in this argu-
ment. We know thai in some LEAs it has been found helpful to Slart each ses-
sion in mid-afternoon , so Ihal half of Ihe session takes place during schoo l
hours.

746 An ad vantage of cou rses which o perat e on a part-time basis can be thai
226 15 In·se rvi cc S\lpnort fo r teac hers of mathematics

leache rs are mo re easil y able to mak e use in the class roo m of ideas an d ac -
t ivities which are suggested during the course and , jf necessary, La discuss
th ese fur t he r or obtain a ny heJp whic h th ey require during Ja ter sessio ns. O n
th e o ther han d , th e intervaJ of a week or a fonnight betwee n sessio ns ma y
make it diffic ult to ma int ai n co minuir y in certain types of co ur se . Full-time
co ur ses, wha tever their le ngth , tak e teac hers co mpletely OUI o f the classro om
a nd e na ble th e m to d evo te their full auention to th e co urse witho ut the
diSlractio ns o f daily sc hool life. If such courses a re resid ent ial , t here a re ad dj·
tio nal oppo nunilies fo r reflectio n and discussio n. Some longer co urses . fo r
example D ES regio nal co urses, o fte n co mb ine regular wee kl y or fo rtn ightly
sessio ns with occasio nal pe ri ods o f full-t ime work for two o r th ree days . In
o ur view t here is need fo r bo th part-t ime and full-time courses.

747 Th e ra nge o f mat hemat ical kn o wledge and experience which exists
am ong te ac hers on th e same co ur se can o fte n be very wide and it is not easy to
en sure th at t he co nt ent a nd level of a co urse is suited to all those who ar e ta k-
ing part in it. Fo r this reaso n it is impo rtant that, when a course is adve rtised,
there should be a clear expla na ti o n o f its purpose and o f t he level of
mathematical kn owledge an d experience whic h will be expected o f those fo r
whom it is int.e nd ed . In t his way teac hers. a nd t hose who will suppo rt t he ir a t-
tendance, will be able to jud ge Ln advance whe ther a course is releva nt to th eir
need s.

748 The long term effectiveness of in-".,rvice courses. especially those which
last only a short time, can be greatly diminished unless there is suitable follow-
up. In the case of courses wh ic h a re locall y based. e fforts should therefore be
made to a rrange o ne o r mo re fo llow-UD sessio ns a t intervals after the course
has been comple ted . The COSt o f o rganisi ng suc h sessio ns is likely to be small
in comparison with tb e cOSt o f th e original co urse . It has been pointed o ut to
us that, if seve ral teac he rs from t he same school have att ended a cou rse, eit her
togeth er o r on su ccessive occasions o n wh ich t he cou rse has been offered , it
ma y be mo re effective to o rganise follow-up work within the school itself.
The re was strong supp ort fo r this met hod of wo rking fr om teachers and
others whom we met. durin g our visit to th e ScOtt ish Education Department.
In an y case, teachers who have been o n co urses sho uld be encouraged to share
lh eir experiences with their colleagues o n th e staff a nd 10 discu ss them al staff
o r departmental meetings. It is al1 to o eruy fo r in-se rvice training courses to
res ult in no long-term improvement because o f lac k o f imeres t or suppo rt
wh en a teacher returns to his sch ooL

749 Full-time courses for teac he rs lasting eithe r a yea r o r a term are offered
by a number of trainin g institutions but recentl y a conside rable number o f
both p ri ma ry and secondary mathematics cOllrses have had to be cancelled
because they have been insu fficiently subsc ribed . Altho ugh we have no t been
abJe to o btain co mplete informa tio n, it is clear th a t so me LEAs have reduced
"
th e number of teachers who m th ey have seconded to these full-tim e co urses
because of lhe e ffects of current fina ncial strin gency. Jf a sustained effort is to
be made to jrnprove the Qualifications of those who at presenl le,ach
mathematics, the number of teachers seconded to fuU-time courses io
mathematics will need 10 increase subst.antially .
 15 I n-service support fo r teac hers of malhematics 227

Diploma in Mathematical Education

750 A substantial COnlribul io n to the in-service educatio n of teachers in
primary and middle sc hoo ls has been made by th e introduct ion of lhe
Mathematical Association's Diploma in Mathematica1 Education which is in-
tended for leach ers of children in the 5-13 age range who have at least two
years of teaching e.'<perience. Two year part-time co urses fo r t his diploma
starled in 1978 and are now offered at some fifty centres throughout the coun-
try . Abo ut 600 teachers enrolled for the diploma course in 1978 and much the
same number have do ne so in each following year. Of those who enrolled in
1978. about 400 obtained the diploma in 1980; a si milar number are expected
to do so in 1981 . Teachers who obtain th e diploma are entitled to one incre-
ment on th e Burnham salary scale . We believe thaI every support should be
gi'ien b~' LEAs to teachers who wish to enrol "or a diploma course since it pro-
"ides an effective means of inereasing (he mathemalical qualificat_ion or
teachers at a signiFicant rate .

751 Because dipl o ma CO Urses normally tak e place in teacher training

establishment s, there are parts of the country in which it is not possible for
teachers to take th e course. We be~eve Ihal energetic efforts should be made
to explore wa~ 's in which diploma courses can be made available in areas
wbich are remote- from training institutions_

Open University
752 In recent years many se rving teachers have gained mathematics degrees
awarded by the Open University or degrees which indude some mathemalics.
We have been pleased to note the extensio n of the Uni versity' s work to include
in-s ~rvice support fo r teachers . A co urse on Mathemarics across the Cu r-
riculum is already being offered and a complementary course on Developing
mathematical thinking is in preparation . There are also provisional plans to
include these cou rses as part of a mathematics diploma course .

753 We believe that the Open University. which has now developed con-
siderable experience and expertise in the development of 'distance learning'
courses in mathematics, could playa major pan in improving the qualit y of
th e mathematics teaching force. At th e present time the cou rse fees for courses
such as Mathematics across the curriculum are high because cou rses of this
kind which the UniversilY offers are required 10 be financially self-
supporting. We belie.. Ihat means should be explored of providing financial
support for in-service work in mathematics provided by the Open University,
since the provision of suitable co urses wh ich could be followed by groups of
(Cachers with in LEAs might prove to be an effective method of providing in-
service support of good qualit y on a wide scale .

Radio a nd television 754 Mathematics programmes designed fo r use in the classroom are broad-
cast by both BBC and IBA, who consult to preve lll duplicatio n. These provide
material which can be used 10 form the basis of a mathematics co urse or sup-
plement other work in the class room; d iffe rent series of programmes caler for
the needs of pupils of different ages and levels of attainment. The program-
mes are usual ly accompanied by no tes for teachers and often by work books
228 15 In-serviee suppon for teachers of mathematics

for pupils . Programmes of this kind provide another form of in-ser vice sup-
pan for t.eachers ,\'hich can not only be used in the classroom but can also
serve as a basis for discussion by groups of teachers at a teachers' centre or
within a school.

755 In preparation for the raising of th e schoo l leaving age in 1973, the BBC
broadcast a series of television and radio programmes for teachers which were
followed and discussed by large numbers of teachers either at teachers' cen-
tres or within individual schoo ls. We believe that programmes of this kind on
different aspecis of mathematical education, designed to provide a basis for
discussion among groups of leachers and perhaps considering some of Ihe
issues raised in Ihis report, could make yet anOlher valuable conlribution 10
in-sen-ice support and Imining in mathemalics. We have been told by the BBC
(hat, in their view, an advantage of broadcast programmes is that they are im-
personal. so that the ideas contained within them can be criticised frankly
withom fear of giving offe nce; this is nOl always possible following inpUl
from a vis iting lect urer or ad viser.

Research into mathematical 756 A considerable number of research st udies have been carried out which
education relate to aspects of mathematical educatio n . These include work in such fields
as concept formal ion and development, mathematics learning, the classroom
behaviour of teachers and pupils, and curriculum development and evalua-
tion . Many of these studies are summarised in the Review of research (0 which
we have already referred several times. We are pleased to learn that plans are
"Information is available from the being made for a book based On this review to be published shortly' because
Shell Centre ror Mathematica l we believe that much of the research which has been undertaken remains
Education, Univer~ily or Not-
largely unknown to those who teach mathematics in sc hools and also to many
tingham ; ~ee also paragraph 188 .
who produce textbooks and other teaching materials. Even whe n teachers
become aware of the existence of a research study on a topic, they very often
find it difficult to appreciate its relevance to their own classroom. One of the
reasons for this is that research reports are usually written in a technical style
which is not always easy to follow and are very often published in journals
which most teachers do not see.

757 More recently some re searc h projects have published their work by
means of articles, which are written in a non-technical style, in the journals of
the professio nal mathematical associations. The project Concepts in secon-
dary mafhematicsand science, LO which we have aJready referred, is an exam-
ple or this . We suggest that more use should be made of the educalional press
bofh to disseminate the results of specific research projecls and also to review
and interpret for leachers the stale of research on differenl lopics. Advisers
and others who have responsibility for in-service suppOrt for leachers should
be aware of the need to disseminate and interpret the results of research
studies so tha, teac hers can be helped to find ways of making use of these in
their own thinking and classroom praclice.

Cemres for mathematical 758 There are a few centres whose reputation js international, such a..<i those at
education the University of Nottingham and at Chelsea Co Uege, University of L ondon ,
which foster curriculum development and research into mathematical educa-
 IS In-service sUppOrL ror [eachers of mathemalics 229

tion and which also provide in-service support for teachers of mathematics.
The work which these centres undertake is closely related to mathematics in
the classroom and we believe it to be of the greatest value . We would welcome
tbe establishment of a rew further centres of comparable qu.Uty; we beUeve
tbat the creation of such centres could lead to a significant. improvement in the
quality of matbematical education. However, a paramount consideration in
the establishment of any further centres must be the appointment of staff of
suitable quality. In our view any further centres should be suitably situated
geographically and be based on existing institutions, whether in universities or
elsewhere . which are known to be strong in the field of mathematical educa-
tion. In order to ensure that the work done by any new centre would be able to
be strongly classroom-related, it would be important that the LEAs, whose
teachers were likely to be most closely involved, should take part in the discus-
sions leading to the setting up of that centre .

Financial su pport 759 There are two matters which are fundamental to the provision of almost
all kinds of in-service support-finance and time. Unless the will exists to
make the necessary financial provision and to provide the necessary time, no
appropriate plans for in-service support can be formulated, either within a
school or an authority, or on a regional or national basis. It is clear from na-
tional surveys, as weB as from information which some LEAs have provided
for us, that a great deal of in-service work is undertaken by mathematics
teachers outside school hours and sometimes at their own expense _ This
voluntary effort is praiseworthy and to be encouraged. However, the problem
of providing support and training for all those who teach mathematics cannot
be solved entirely by schemes which depend on the voluntary attendance of
teachers. The fact that many teachers undertake in-service work outside
school hours shows that they already accept in-service training to be. part of
their professional commitment ; the fact that LEAs provide in-service training
courses shows that they accept the provision of training and support for
teachers to be part of their duty. We are aware that in some countries it is part
of the conditions of service of every teacher that a certain number of days each
year should be spent on in-service education and we believe that many local
authorities and teachers would wish to see a similar provision in this country.
Provision of this kind has been recommended in many of the submissions
which we have received. We realise that there are difficulties . not only of a
financial kind, in such a proposal but without some such arrangement we do
not beUeve that there can be sufficienr opportunity to influence and improve
the quality of mathematics teaching. We are convinced that the curricular
changes which we are proposing and the changes in attitudes and perceptions
on the part of teachers which they wiU require would have a far better chance
of implementation if such an arrangement were to exist.

760 There are two elements in the cost of providing in-service training for
teachers: one is the cost of providing the training courses themselves and the
other is the cost of releasing from their schools the teachers who take part in
them. These costs are met from a variety of sources . Part of the cost is borne
by local authorities, either individually or jointly; voluntary colleges and
230 15 tn·service support for teachcrs of mathematics

universi ti es co ntribut e through the courses which they provide_ Cemra)

government contri bu te through the rate suppOrt grant to local authorities and
through their funding of voluntary coneges and uni ve rsities, However. no
part of the rate support grant is specificalJ y ear-marked for in-service train-
ing; nor is any parr of [he gra nt to vo lunta ry colleges or universities ear-
marked in this way. Teachers themselves contribute both in terms of the ex-
penses which th ey incur and also by givi ng up their own time .

76 1 There are arrangemenrs whereby LEAs can recover a proportion of their

expenditure on certain in-se rvice training costs for teachers, including tuition
fees, travel and salaries, from a nat ional 'pool' which is financed by cont ribu-
tions from all LEAs accordi ng to an agreed formula . Pooling was at one time
restricted to full-time courses included in a natio nal p rogramme and lasting
either a year or a lenn, bUl the presenr position is that, in general. full-time
cou rses lasting for more than four weeks a nd part-time course lasting for at
least sixty hours are eligible for pooling. In addition , the costS or providing
courses of in-service rraining in de parrme nrs of ed ucadon in local authority
maimained colleges a re redislribmed between aUlhorities through the Ad-
va nced Further Education (AFE) Pool. Man y maintained sector departments
o f education provide direc t in-service support in school s; a proportion of the
lecturer costs in vo lved in giving this su pport is also chargea ble to the AFE
Pool.

762 We have noted two types or training which are not at present eligible for
poo l support. The first is the cost to aut horities of releasing mathematics
reachers to gain experience of industry and commerce. The second is th e COSt
or appropriate courses rrom the Open Universi ty Associated St ud en t Pro-
gramme which are tak en by teachers. We recommend that both of th.se
should be eligible for support .

763 Most LEAs pay, in rull o r in part, the ex penses of teachers who undertake
in·service work . either locally o r rurther afie ld . We have, though, been told or
cases in which unhelpful limitations have been placed on teachers, for exam·
pIe in terms of travel or of refu sal to permit attendance at a course which,
although su itable and near at hand, is taking place in the area of another LEA .
\Ve regret restrictions of (his kind and also failure to recompense in full ex-
penses which have been incurred; in o ur view, such disincentives to take pan:
in in-service work should not be placed in the way of teachers.

764 The methods by which in-service support is pro vided by local authorities
are likely to vary considerably. It will be approp riat e for LEAs to pay ror their
own faci lities, \\o'hether in SC hools, leachers' cemres or elsewhere and to make
recom pense for facilities provided for lheir leachers by other LEAs. In so me
cases join! resource cen tres may be established. often in conjunction with
training insritutions, and joint funding \\~11 be appropriate. We believe th at in
any suc h arrange ment there sho uld be an incentive for the training institution
\0 provide what is required. Payment, at least in part, for services rendered
would help to ensure that good provision not only survived but was
developed, whereas less good provision would cease.
15 In-senice support for teachers of maThematiC's 231

765 The Secreraries of Srare bear considerable responsibilit y for the qualit y
of the initial training of teac hers: we believe ir is also appropriate that th ey
should in!1uence the qua lit y of teachers during their subsequent careers by the
provision of direct financial support for programmes of in-service training.
We understand that und er Section 3(a) ofr he Education Act 1962 rhey possess
powers to do this which, until the introduction of the National Scholarship
scheme (see paragrap h 652), have not hitherto been used. Although we have
been told that local authorities do not , in general , like the concept of funding
for specific purposes , th ey nevertheless have experience of it and accept it in a
number of other fields . The evidence which is available to us suggests that at
the present time sufllcie nt money is not being spent on the provision of in-
service training and that in some areas the position is worsening. Unless the
Secretaries of State rake effective action in this field we do not beueve that suf-
ficienl resources 10 improve the quaJily of mathematics teaching wiU be made
available. In Ih is matter we believe that the Secretaries of State should work in
close associal io n with 10caJ authorities as the employers of teac hers and also .
as appropriate. with teacher training in st itutions .

766 In th e wo rds of the Government paper Education: a j ramework jor ex-

pansion published in 1972, •'expenditure to achieve an expansion of in-service
[raining . .. is a necessary investment in the fmu re qualit y of the teaching
force". The scale o n which it was at that time proposed to increase th e provi-
sion of in-service trai ning has not been achieved. We note that the Govern -
ment' s expend itu re plans prese nted to Parliament in March 1981 state that
"provisio n for the release of teachers to in-service training and inducti o n has
been held at th e current level." However, we believe that in-service support
and training for those who teach mathematics needs to be increased and that
this need is pressing if the developments and changes in mathematics teac hing
which we are ad vocating are to be realised . Not all o f our recommendations
will cos t money but many of them will. It will be for those who co nt ro l finance
to determine whet her additional money can be made available or whether
mo ney must be found [rom within the public expenditure limits already deter-
mi ned . In his address to the 68th North of England Conference in January,
1981, the Secretary of State for Education and Science said that "Even with in
our restricted resources, I believe it to be crucial that a high priority should
continue to be gi ven to th e right jn-service training. " In asking authorities
and teachers to give a high priority to c arefully-managed in -se rvice program-
mes . . . I am in effect asking that, in th eir very proper concern to do their ut-
most fo r today's children, rhey shou ld not lose sight of the need to do equally
well by tomorrow' s". Unless additional money is spent on in-service support
for those who teach mathematics, the improved mathematical education
which we believe could aDd should be provided for children in the fulure is
unlikely to be available to them.
232

16 Some other matters

767 [n this chapter we discuss four matters for which we have not found place
elsewhere in our report; they are nm related to each o ther. These mallers are
mathematics in middle schools, rhe teaching of statistics. mathematical
education in other cou ntries a nd statistical information relating to
mathematical education.

Mathematics in 768 The mathe matical needs of child ren are related to their ages, their kvels
middle schoo ls of attainment and their rat es of progress, and not to the type of school in
which th ey are being taugh t . Jt is for this reason that, in the titles of Chapters 6
and 9, we have referred to mathematics in the primary and secondary years
and not to mathema ti cs in p rimary and secondary schools. Pupils in middle
schools span th e ages traditionally associated with the word s primary and
seco ndary but the mathematical need s o f children in these schools are not di f·
ferent from those of childre n of th e same age in either primary or secondar y
schools . For this reaso n we have not included a separate chapter on
mathematics in middle sc hools: had we do ne so we would of necessity have
repeated a great deal of what we have written elsewhere in the repon .

769 We have received very few sub missio ns which make specific refere nce ( 0
middle schools. However, we have been able to visit middle schools and, in th e
co urse of our series of meetings with teachers in differe nt parts of the cou ntry,
to meet reachers who work in middle schools. )n addition, we have been able
to discuss the teaching of mathematics in middle schools with a small group of
marhemarics advisers whose areas contain schools of this kind. We have also
known that HM Inspeetors have carried out a survey of middle schools fo r
p upils aged 9 10 13 during the school year \979-80 and a survey of middle
schools for pupils aged 8 to J 2 during the year 1980-8 I. We understand that a
report on each of these surveys is to be published a nd that each report will ca n·
tain informatio n about th e teaching of mat h ematics.

Staffing 770 Mathematics is most often taught by the class teache r for at least the first
one or two years of the middle school course , bur set ting for mathematics is in-
troduced in many middle sc hools in the later years. The resu lts of the 1977
survey of staffing in maintained secondary sc hools, to which we referred in
"':V1iddle sc hoo ls wil h pupils aged Chapter 14 a nd whic h included middle sc hoo ls 'deemed secondary'" , show
up La 12 are normally deemed th a t there is a ve ry considerable shortage of ma the ma tically qualified teachers
primary; (hose wilh pupils aged in middle schools_ In the middle sc hools included in the survey, 62 per cent of
up to 13 are normally dt'emed
secondary .
the teaching of mathematics to pupils aged II to 13 in these schools was in the
 16 Sorm' Olher ~l1a~t e rs 233

hands of leachers who had no qnalification in mathematics (see Appendix 1,

paragraph A1S). We have no comparab le information about the qualifica-
tions of those who teach mathematics to pupils aged II to 12 in middle schools
deemed primary but. we have no reason to suppose that these teachers are any
beller qualified; indeed. it seems possible t hat the reverse is the case.

771 Most middle schools have been formed from either primary or secondary
modern schoo ls. Staff from the original schoo ls often remained as part of the
slaff of the new middle schools and so were in some cases required to leach
pupils of an age of which they did not have experience or for which they had
not been trained. We were, for example, told by the group of mathematics ad-
visers \lihom we met [hac former primary teachers who are now teaching in
middle schools for pupils aged 9 to 13 can find difficulty in meeting the needs
of 13 year aids. especially those whose attainment is high; equally. former
secondary teachers can very often find it difficull to work with 9 year a Ids. As
existing middle schoo ls recruit new staff the situation may change. bUI I he ad-
visers reported difficullY in attracting mathemalically qualified leachers 10
work in middle schools. One reason for Ihis would seem to be Ihe present short-
age of mathematics leachers in secondary schools. in which the promotion
prospects are also likely to be better. Another may be Ihe fact that very few
teachers in middle schools are able to work as specialist leachers of
mathematics; they are likel y instead to have to teach one or more other sub-
jects or take responsibility for the general leaching of a class. Furthermore.
because of the uneven distribution of middle schools throughoul the country.
it is difficult for teacher training in stirutions to provide in itiaJ training courses
which focus specifically on middle schools.

The marhematics 772 Because . as we pointed out in paragraph 770. a high proportion of
co-ordinator mathematics teaching in middle schools is undertaken by teachers who lack
suitable qualifications. the post of mathematics co-ordinator (or head of
department) is clearly of particular importance. We have. however. been told
that there are some mathematics co-ordinalors in middle schools who are not
themsel ves mathematically qualified; we find this disturbing. Furthermore. il
is often the case that th e mathematics co -ordinator has to combi ne respon-
si bilit y for mathematics either with responsibilily for another subject or with
administrati ve or pasloral responsibility of some kind. This clearly limits the
time which is availab le for the o versight of mathematics leaching within the
school. Often. laO. lhe mathemalics co-ordinator teaches on ly the older. and
perhaps also the higher allaining. pupils. It. is desirable that he should have ex-
perience of teaching pupils in each year group but. if it is not possible to ar-
range this. the mathematics co-ordinator should at least be enabled to visit the
classrooms of all those who teach malhelTuuics and work with these teacbers
from time to time.

773 When preparing a scheme of work the mathematics co-ordinator will

need to pay special attention to maintaining continuity of progress in
mathematics both when pupils transfer from first school and when they move
on to upper school. This may not be easy, especially if pupils move to anyone
of a number of upper schools; we have been told that difficulties can
234 16 Some other mailers

so metimes arise because of requests from upper schools (hal. by (he (jrne they
leave middle schools. pupils should be working from a particular textbook.
Because pupils from several middle sc hools very often proceed to the same
upper school, liaison is necessary not only with first and upper schools but also
with other middle schools in the area. We consider that mathematics advisory
staff are likely tn have an important role to play in encouraging and
facilitating liaison of this kind.

The teaching of 774 Surprisingly few of the submissions which we have received have made
st.atistics direct reference La the teaching of statistics . In the course or our report we
have oursel ves made several references to if, either directly or by implication ,
for instance in tbe foundation list (paragraph 458) and in Chapter I I. We now
consider briefly certain aspec ts in greater detail.

775 Statistics forms pan of the mathematics course in the majority of schools
al all age levels. ranging from the collection and representation of data in
primary schools to the mathematically oriented material in A-level syllabuses.
A survey carried out in 1976 by the Schools Coun cil Project on Statistical
Education lJ -16 (POSE) indicated that over three-quaners of all secondary
schools were teaching some stat ist ics as pan of the mathematics courses
followed by I I -16 year olds. However, the submissions which we have
received from POSE and from [he Joint Education Commillee of the Royal
Statistical Society and th e mstltUle of Statisticians ha ve stressed that.
although statistics is co mmonly taught within mathematics courses, it should
not be regarded solely as part of mathematics. The submission from POSE
states that "statistics is not just a set of techniqu es. it is an attitude of mind in
approaching data. In particular it acknowledges the fact of uncen.ainty and
variability in data and data collection. It enables people to make decisions in
the face of this uncertainly" .

776 SIatistic.s is essentially a practical subject and its study should be based on
the collection of data. whereve r possible by pupils themselves. It should con-
sider the kind s of data whicb it is appropriate [0 collect, the reasons for collec-
ting tbe data a nd the problems of doing so, the ways in wbich the data may
legitimately be manipulated and the kinds of inference wbicb may be drawn .
Work in subjects such as biological science f geography and economics can
therefore contribute to the learning and understanding of statistics. When
statistics is taught within secondary math emat ics cou rses too much emphasis
is very often placed o n the application of statistical techniques, rather than on
discussion of the results of ordering and examining the data and on the in-
ferences which should be drawn in the light of the context in which the data
have been collected. The work can therefore become dry and technique-
oriemed and fail [0 show the power and nature of statistics.

777 Many of tbe ideas of which statistics mak es use need time and exposure in
order [Q mature . This means that some of the more elementary ideas should be
introduced at an early stage so lhat understanding can develop and deepen
over a period of time. We have been tO ld that in the preparation ofmanyCSE.
16 So me ot her matlcr ~ 235

O-level a nd A-level syllabuses the difficulty of so me of th e statistical concep ts

whic h th ey co ntain appears to have been underestimated , wi th the result th al
the slalisrical con te nt of th ese syllabuses is lOa ex ten sive. This is said to be
eve n more tru e of the syllabu ses of ot he r subjects whi ch make use of statistical
techniqu es .

778 Fe",: teac hers, incitlding [hose wh ose degree or ot her courses have includ·
ed th e stud y of statistics, have recei ved lfainin g in how ro teac h statistics in
sc hools. There is therefore a considerable need for in-service trainin g courses
On the leachi ng of stalisOcs not o nly for malhematics teachers but also for
te.c her.; of o th er sUbjec ts . It is possible to identify th ree levels at whic h such
train ing is required. The first is training for those who will teach 5£ariSlics as a
subject tn its own right o r as part of a mathematics course which incl ud es
statistics. The seco nd is train ing for those wh o teach subjects which make use
of statistics an d who may them selves have to introduce t heir pupils to lhe
statistical mel hods which are used . The third is trainin g to enable other
teac hers {O deve lop in th eir pupils a n umericall y crirical a pproach 10 data and
an aware ness o f th e forms of misrepre sentation whjc h are very arLen to be
fo und in published mate rials of vari ous kinds. lL is desirable that atte ntion at
the appropriate level sho uld also be paid to these matters within inirial train-
ing co urses, preferably wit h gro ups of students whose majn subjects span a
va riety of di sciplines. We were pleased to hear or OLle PGCE course ill which
such an inte r-disc iplinary c urricu lum option o n (he teaching of statistics in
schools has been introduced ; we would suppo rt the pro visio n o f a similar
oplio n within oth er initial training co urses.

779 Because wo rk in subj ects other than mathemarics can co nuibu te [Q (he
learn ing and understanding of statist ics, effons sho uld be mad e to ensure [hat
there is co·o peration bet wee n an those in a school who make use of staristics in
their teaching. Such co·operation could be assis ted in seco nd ary sc hools by
lhe nomination o f a me mber of staff who would identify the use which was
made of statistics in the teachin g of a variety o f su bjects and act as co·
ordinator fo r the teach ing of staristics; such a co· ord inator need not
necessa rily be a teacher of mathemat ics.

780 We have been told that th ere is at prese nt a shortage of suit ab le books
about. statistics for both pupils and teachers, and th at such text books as are
ava ilab le co nce mrale On lheor y ra the r Iha n practice; iI seems clear that there
is need for the provision of further teaching malerials which will emphasise a
praclical approach to the leachin g of stalisW:s. The in trad uCllon of elecrronic
calc ula tors has eased proble ms of calculation and so has made it possible for
pupils to mak e use of 'real-life' data rather th an o f data whic h has been ar-
tificially co ntrived in order to avoid heavy calcula ti o n. This provides oppo r·
tun ity to emphasise t.he inte rpreta tion of dat a ralhe r than techniques o f
calcu la tion . In our view tbe increasing avaUabiHt), of micro-computers a nd
the visu.1 display whiCb they provid e should also offer opportunities to il-
luminate statistical ideas and techniques; we believe tbal de~elopment work in
this field is .Iso required .
236 16 Some other mail ers

781 To conclude our discuss.ion of th e leaching of statistics we quote from the

submission we have received fro m POSE .
Stal iSI ical numeracy requires a feel for numbers. an appreciation of appropriale
levels of accu racy, the making of sensible eS!imaleS~ a com mon sense approach 10
(he use of data in sUPPo rlin:g an argu ment. the awareness of (he variety of inter.
pretation of rigu res. and ajudicious understanding of widely used co ncepl ssuch as
means and percentages. All these aTe pan of everyday living . Good slaciS(icat
leaching can encourage pupils to think in these ways .

We endorse [his statement a:nd draw attention (0 the way in which it com·
plements our discussion in Chapler 2 of the mathematical needs of adull life .

Mal.hemalical 782 Our terms of refe rence have not required us to study the teaching of
education mathematics in other co unldes. Nevenbe less, among the earliesl5ubmissions
in other counlries which we received were some which drew comparisons with other countries
and it was clear that both similarities and differences existed in the app roaches
to mathematics leaching which were used in these countries. \Ve therefore
decided to seek information aboul matbematics teaching in other English-
speaking coumries as well as in SOme comparable European countries, while
realising that any effort wh ic h we were able LO make would of necessity pro-
vide only very limited information which we could not assume would be
representative of the country from which it had come. We were aware that dif-
ferent cultural and social attitudes innuenced education at all levels, from
cenr.ral legislation to classroom pract ice, even in olher English ·speaking CO un -
tries, bUI we wished to see wh,ether our own debate could be enhanced by so me
knowledge of methods of wo rking in olher cou", Iies.

783 With Ihe help of the League for the Exchange of Commonwealth
Teachers and lhe Central Bureau for Educational Visits and Exchanges we
were able to write to a number of teachers from England and Wales who had
recently been Leaching on ex-change in Australia. New Zealand, Canada and
the United Slates of Amer ic(l as weU as to teachers from these cou nlries who
were at the time working in schools in England and Wales; we received many
helpful replies from these teachers. Through the good offices of the
Secretariat of the European Community we received official statements
about mathematics teaching in several o f the countries within the community,
and the British Council provided us with information relating to countries in
other parts of the world . Some of our members were able to pay shon visits 10
Denmark, Holland and West Germany and, nearer home, to Scotland. Dur-
ing these visits we were able to talk with teac hers and induSlfiaUsts. as we ll as
with those concerned with curriculum development and teacher uajning, and
to visit several schools.

784 We cannot over-emphasise the diversi ty of approach which we ou rselves

have observed and of which we have been told, a diversity wb ich we have also
found in th e schools in th is country which we have visited. Th is diversity has,
on the one hand, provided a valuable stimulus to ou r discussion but, on the
otber, has made it clear that, especially on the basis of the very limiled infor-
mation which we possess, WI! can in no way generalise about mathematicaJ
16 Some o ther mallers 237

educarion in any other country . Il is clear that th ere are no model solutions; in
all cQumries of which we have some knowledge we have been aware of con-
cern to improve the quality of mathematical education.

785 Notable differences exist between countries in the extent to which there is
central control of the curriculum. In Scotland, the existence of a single ex-
amination board exercises a unifying effect on tbe secondary curriculum, as
does th e use of centrally deve loped materials at both primary and secondary
levels. In Holland and the various Lander in West Germany, curriculum
control is exercised by national or regional government. In France. there is
centralised control of the syllabus and of the associated textbooks . However.
the existence of nationally or regionally determined curricula in no way
removes the requirement for teachers to exercise professionaJ judgement in
rheir mathematics teaching.

786 The pan played by public examinations also varies considerably from
country to country. In some coumrirs. on ly those pupils who wish to proceed
to higher education are requ ired to attempt a public examination; o ther pupils
are assessed by their teachers. oflen according to crit eria which are specified in
detail. In some other countries pupils attempt an examination only at the time
at which they leave school. On the other hand , in some countries internal
assessment procedures within schools can mean thaL pupils can be required to
repeat a yea r if their progress is adjudged LO bave been insufficient. These
practices are in marked contrast to the situation in England and \Vales in
which public examinatIons exert a strong influence throughout the secondary
years, but in which it is unusual for pupils not to be promoted with their
fellow s.

787 In mher coumries it is often the case that secondary reachers are requ ired
to have a higher academic qualification than those who teach in primary
schools. Furthermore, the subjects which secondary teachers are permitted to
teac h are often restricted to those in which the y have a graduate qualificat ion
or to subj ects which are closely related to these. The restriction which is often
placed on the level of qualification of those who teach in secondary schools as
\\-'ell as on the subjects which they can teach is also in marked contrast to the
situat ion in EngJand and Wales. It is clear that at the present time it would not
be possible to require all those who teach mathematics at secondary level to
hold a minimum mathematical quaJification. However, just as we have urged
that all who teach mathematics should be professionally qualified , so we
believe that they should possess suitable academic qualificat ions . We believe,
therefore, that there should be an investigation into ways in which such a re-
Quirement might be introduced over a period of years and tbal the firs I steps
towards introducing such a requirement should be laken as soon as possible.

788 Shonage of mathematics teachers did not seem to be thought a problem

in Denmark . Holland or West Germany and in all of these countries teachers
appeared to enjoy a high status. In contrast we were told that. in some parts of
the United States of America, there is an extreme shortage of mathematics
teachers above elementary level. In West Germany saJaries of teache rs in
238 16 Some OI her ma ilers

seco ndary sc hools were said to be comparable with those of ' middle
management ' in industry and commerce. In Bavaria we \\.:ere to ld lil aL
teachers were a ssessed every four years by [he head teac her and thm th e result s
of this assessm ent co uld materially affec t the ['jme which was spe n t by a
leacher at a given grade .

789 OUf discussio ns wi th teachers in Olher co untries. as well as the leiters

from the exchange teachers [Q whom we wrote . re\'ea led a very wide range
barh of (eachin g s(yles and syll abus content. It is clear, for exampl e , (hat both
modern courses and traditional courses are so metimes taught in very form al
\'lays. We have received criticism of modern courses ta ught in this way fr0111
[hose who see such courses as too abstract and diffi cu lt for the average pupil.
Equally, we have rece ived criticism of for mal ap proac hes to traditional
co urses because such app roac he s can lead to teaching o f a kjnd which e m-
phasises routin es at th e expense of und erstandin g . On the mher ha nd . in the
co urse of our visits a broad, as well as from Olher so urces, we have beco me
a ware of the high rega rd whic h is onen accorded in o the r countries [Q so me or
the teaching maLeria ls whic h have bee n produced in (h is co umry and some of
(he educational resea rc h an d c urriculum deve lop ment which has been und er-
tak en . Bmh are see n as morc firmly based on classroo m pract ice and less
(heOre lical in approach I han is often the case abroad.

790 We have been impressed by the Danish tradition of in-se rvice training for
leachers which goes bac k for very many yea rs. We were [Old that each year
about one-third of all teac hers in Folkeskoler tak e in-se rvice trai ning courses
organised by the Royal Danish Sc hool of Educalional SlUdies. In (he United
Sla tes o f America ma ny (eac he rs fo llow rvlaster' s degree programmes in
ed ucatio n during th e s ummer vac ations and in some a reas there is an ex pecra-
lio n thal teac hers will und ertake [raining of thi s kind . In W est" Germany we
we re (Old Ihat, in some Lander, head teachers had a responsibilit y for staff
developmem which co uld include a requirement that teache rs should under-
t ake appropriate in- service co urses. We have also been give.n [0 understand
that. in so me Canadian provinces. th e conditions of se rvice of (cachers re-
quire t he m (0 undertake some in-service training each year.

79 1 The dive rsity of practice in sc hools whic h we ha ve o utlined in the

prev io us paragraph s is co mplem ent ed by the diversity of employe rs' views of
whic h we have become aW'a re, bO£h throu g h the commentS of th ose engaged in
ed ucation in o the r countries and also in the course of t he small numb e r of
di sc uss ions wh ich we have been able to have with emplo yers th emselves. No
uni form picture has emerged a nd th e mi xture of satisfaction. rese rv a ti o n and
critic ism has bee n nOl unlike that which we have obtained from employers in
E nglan d a nd Wales. In D enmark a nd Ho ll and we gained the impress ion from
ed ucationalists [hat there was little criticism of the mathematical a nainmenr
of school Ie avers. In West Germa ny we were made awa re o r the ad van rages
which were see n by those employers ro whom we talk ed ( 0 res ult from [he
Berufsschule syslem of vocatio nal edu cat ion, which requires all (hose who
have lefl full-time educatio n before (he age of 1810 continue part· time voca-
ti o nal ed ucar ion up to this age fo r th e eq ui valent of about one day a wee k.
 16 Some other mailers 239

These employers exp ressed enthusiasm for the courses provided by the
Berufsschulell and words such as 'meaning' and 'relevance' were used fre-
quently in connection with the courses which were provided. Anolher advan -
tage was seen to lie in the fruitful liaison wlllch developed between industry
and schools. We were told that courses for some 15 year aids in pans of West
Germany were very much more vocationaJly orientated than is the case for
pupils of the same age in this country and one UK industrialist has made clear
to us his regret that similar provision is not made in schools in England and
Wales. We have been told that in the United States of America some
employers hav e complained of a lack of ability among schoolleavers to apply
mathematics; on the other hand one di stinguished industrialist expressed the
view that the differenc es to be found in educational provision in the United
States" reflected to a considerabl e extent the ability of the different regions to
support through direct taxation establishments of education that have the
quality in tbeir teaching staff essential to produce the best results" .

792 For the reason s which we explained at the beginning of this section, ou r
references to malhemalicaJ ed ucation in other countries can only be fragmen-
tary and incomplete. However, we believe tbat the information which we have
been able to obtain has been of use in aU[ work. All the poims to which we
have drawn attention in the preceding paragraphs have been reflected in our
own discussions and so have contributed to our thinking and our conclusions;
some of them raise more general issues which we believe merit funher in-
vestigation. We are mOSl grat eful to those whom we met in the course or our
visits for the help which they afforded us so willingly.

StatiSI.ical information 793 It has proved very much more difficult and has taken very much longer
relating to t han we had expected to obtain statistical information abo ut the various
mathematical aspects of mathematical education. This has not been because of any unwill-
education ingness o n the part of the DES or of other bodies to provide in formation but
because, fo r example, mu ch of the information which is collected eac h year
from schools and universities has not hitherto been analysed in ways which
provide the kind of infonnatio n which we have been seeking. Accordingly,
the computer programs wbich were needed to do this did not exist an d have
had to be specially written. A less important, though not insignificant, pro-
blem is that it is not , in general, possible to obtain separate figures relating to
comput er studies and statistics because they have traditionally been included
as pan of mathematics for the purposes of statistical analysis.

794 We have tried to obtai n information relati ng to four main areas. The first
of these relates to pupils in schools . In addition to making use of information
published in the DES Volumes of Statistics and by the vario us examinatio n
boards, we have made exte nsive use of informalion provided by the an nual 10
per cent survey o f scboolleavers carried o ut by the DES . We understand that ,
as a resu lt of the work which has been carried our for Our Committ ee, com-
puter programs have been developed wbich will in fUlure enable lhe informa-
tion provided by lhis survey to be analysed more readily. We welcome this
move because we believe it is important that this information shou ld be read i-
240 16 So me oth er rna!( ers

ly available for analysis in ways which are subject specific. We recommend

Ihal analyses of Ihe kind which have , at our requesl, been produced for the
years 1977 -1979 should conlinue to be produced for subsequenl years. We
wish also to recommend, Ihat. so far as is possible, the DES and examination
boards should cease '0
include computer studies and statistics under the
general heading of malhemalics and Ireal them as separate subjecls for the
purpose of statistical analysis. We draw attention 10 the fact that we ha\'e not
been able to obtain inform'lion about the CSE and GCE results 01 students
aged 16 to 19 who are studying in teniary and FE colleges. We believe thai this
information should be available .

795 The seco nd area about which we have sought infomlation relates to the
entrance qualifica!ions o n a subjec t specific basis or those e me ring eourses in
higher educa tio n. As we explained in paragraph 170, detailed info rmation
about students at uni versities is collecled by the Universities Statistical Record
but co mparable info rmati o n abo ut stude nts on co urses at orhe r institulio ns o f
higher education is not al present a vailable , To our regre t we have not
there fore been a ble to obta in informatio n about th e mathematical qualifica-
(io ns o f stude nts e ntering co urses at th ese institutions nor have we been able to
reconcile information abo ut th e numbers o f stud e nts on d eg ree co urses in th e
non-university sector provid ed by th e DES and th e Coun cil for National
* H ouse of Co mmo ns. Firth Academic Awards. We have noted with inieresl Ihal the recent report of Ihe
Repo rl rro m Ihe Education , Educalion, Science and Arls Commiltee of Ihe House of Commons' recom-
Science and Art s Commillee. The
mends Ihal "Ihe son of informalion collected for Ihe Universilies Slalislical
fu nding and o rgamsalLOI1 of
courses in higher educatiofl.
Record should be collecled for college and polytechnic personnel" and Ihal
HMSO 1980.
"Ihe dala bases mainlained by Ihe Universilies SI.lislical Record al
Cheltenham and Ihe Further Educalion Stalislical Record al Darlinglon
should be made compalible". We support this recommendalion slrongly .

796 The third area relat es to th e mathematical qualifi cations o f th ose who
enler initial training courses for intendin g tcach ers, We have not, for exam-
ple, been able to identify th e proponi o n o f students enrolling fo r BEd
degrees , other than at universities, wh o have an A-level qualificatio n in
mathematics. This problem would be overcome if the recommendatio n of th e
Parliamentary Committee to which we referred in th e previous paragraph
were implemented. We believe thai Ihere is a need 10 identify the kind ofinfor·
mation which should be available aboul the academic quaUfications of en·
Iranls to BEd and PGCE courses and Ihe way in which Ihis is collecled and
analysed: for example, il should be possible 10 discover the exlent of the
mathematical QuaUfications of those who choose mathematics as 11 first or
second melhod course in PGCE or as a main course in BEd .

797 The fourth area about which we have sought infonnation rela tes to the
qualifications of teachers and the subjects which they are teachin g, A major
diffie_ulty in identifying teachers who are mathematics specialists ari.ses from
the fact that education is recorded as the first subject of qualification of those
who hold the BEd degree. This means that , for BEd graduates who are
mathematics specialists, mathematics is recorded as the second subjec[ rather
than the first, whereas for mathematics specialists with other kinds of
16 Some olher maile rs 241

graduate qualification, mathematics is recorded as the firsl or only subject of

qualification , We recommend that educalion should nol be recorded as Ihe
first subjec i of qualificalion of graduales who hold Ihe BEd degree since Ibe
litle of the degree itself provides Ihis information; inslead , Ibe su bjec i of Ibe
main course should be reco rded as Ihe first subjecl of qualificalion . T he
survey of secondary staffing carried OUI. in 1977 provided a great deal o f
valuable information . We believe Iha t surveys of. similar kind should be car-
ried oul alleasl once every five yea", and Ihal agreemenl should be reached on
the kinds of informalion which it is necessary 10 oblain SO thaI allY LEA which
,,;shes from lime 10 lime to collect informalion aboul its own leaching fon:e
";11 be enabled 10 do so ill a way which it knows ";11 be compalible, and
therefore comparable, ";Ih any information wbich becomes .vailable as a
resull of naliollal surveys.
242

17 The way ahead

798 OUf terms of reference have required us 1'0 consider the teaching of
mathematics in schools in the light of the mathematical needs of pupils when
they proceed to further or higher education or to employment, as well as of
their needs as adults. In the first part of our report we have sought to identify
these needs, in the second part to discuss the ways in which a baJanced and
coherent mathematics curriculum can provide for these needs, and in the third
part to identify the provision and support which is required to enable good
mathematics teaching to take place.

799 Changes of many kinds have led to increasing pressure on teachers dur-
ing the last fifteen years. These years have been a time of rapid social,
technological and economic change. There has been a move to comprehensive
education in almost all parts of the country and the school leaving age has
been raised; in some areas the reorganisation of local authorities placed addi-
tional strains on teachers. The 'bulge' in the birth rate, which reached its peak
in 1964 and led to a rapid increase in the teaching force, has been succeeded by
the present sharp fall in the number of pupils in many areas and so to uncer-
tainty and reduced opportunities of promotion for teaehers. Pressure on
mathematics teachers in particular has also arisen from the introduction of
new mathematics syllabuses' resulting in the need to teach courses of a dif-
ferent kind, often without opportunity to undertake the necessary prepara-
tion and in-service training . The introduction of CSE has created examination
pressures on pupils and teachers which did not exist earlier; metrication and
the introduction of decimal currency led to initial difficulties in terms of tbe
availability of suitable books and other teaching materials in many schools.
More recently the rapid increa.~e in the availability of electronic calculators,
without sufficient guidance as to the use which could and should be made of
them in the classroom, has presented further problems to many teachers.
FinalJy, throughout Ihese years there has been a continuing shortage of
mathematically well qualified teachers in both primary and secondary
schools .

800 Alongside these changes, there has been increased public criticism of the
education system, and especially of mathematics teaching, expressed by
parents and employers as welJ as by many in political and public life. [n these
circumstances it would be surprising if the moraJe of some of those who teach
mathematics had not suffered, Yet these years have also been a time of
mathematical development during which many teachers have given willingly
of their time to join, for example, in local working groups, 'in curriculum
Ii The 14'<t:; ahead 243

development and in other kind s of in ~ serv ice work. In many schools good
work is be ing done in the teaching of mathematics and very many teachers are
making considerable efforts to satisfy a public expectation of achievement in
mathematics which is by no means always realistic. Neve rtheless, as we hope
our report will have made clear, th ere are at present many pupils who are be-
in g offered mathematics co urses which are not suited to their needs and man y
[eachers of mathemat ics who lack suitable qualifications. For these and other
reasons, the mathemat ical education which many pupils are receiving is not
satisfactory. We th erefore believe that major changes are essemial.

80 1 Those who teach mathemarics must take into account the great variatio n
which exists between pupils both in their rate of learning and also in their level
of attainment at an y given age. It follows that mathematics courses must be
maLched both in level and pace to the needs of pupils; and th erefo re that a 'dif-
ferentiated curricu lum ' musl be provided so that pupils will be enabled to
develop to the full [heir math ematical skill and understanding, a positive at-
titude tOwards mathematics, and confidence in making use of it. Examin a-
tions at secondary level must also be better suiLed to the needs of pupils than is
the case at present.

802 'Ne believe, too, that it is essential [0 improve th e overall quality of the
mar.hematics teaching force. This means that active effons mus t be made to
attract more well qualified mat hemat ic ians into the teaching profession , to re-
rain those mathematics teachers who are weI! qualified and effective, and to
provide increased levels of in-service support and training. Good supp Ort at
c la ssroom level is essential for all who tea ch mathematics; this requires not
only th e provision of adequate teaching facilit ies and equipment , but also
good leadership by mathematics co-ordinators and heads of depart ment who
have been trained for their task .

803 Among the suggestions and recommendatio ns which are included in our
repon are many to which leachers th emselves can respond and , ind eed, for
whose implementation teachers themsel ves must accept the main responsibil-
ity. \Ve th erefore hope that teachers will read with particular care those parts
of th e report, notably Chapters 5 to II, in which th ese suggestions are concen-
trated and consider how best they can help to bring about the changes we are
recommending. For example, computational skills should be related to prac-
tical sit uations and applied to problems. Math ematics Leaching for pupils of
all ages should incl ud e exposition, discussion, appropriate practical wo rk,
problem solving, investigation , consolidation and practice, as well as mental
and oral work . Assessment sho uld be both diagn ostic and supportive, and
teaching should be based on a scheme of work which is appraised and revised
regularly. All of this and marc is necessary if mathemat ics teaching is to be ef-
fective; aU of this is in the hands of teachers.

804 On the other hand , we have made several suggestions and recommenda-
tions which teachers cannot implement by themselves and which require ac-
tion by oth ers. For example, in Chapters 6 and 9 we have stressed the impor-
tance of the ro les of the mathematics co-ordinator and head of department; it
244 17 The way ahead

is essential that these teachers should be given training for rheir task and conti-
nuing support to enable them to carry it out. Those who teach mathematics re-
quire the suppon of effective advisory services as well as opponunities for in-
service training of various kind s; they also need suitable facilities and equip-
ment in their schools. Responsibility for provision of lhese kinds must rest
primarily with local education authorities. We discuss th e faciliti es required
to reach mathematics in Chapler 12, and in-service support , for teachers in
Chapter 15.

805 Severa! of our recommendations relate to examinations and tests. In

Chapter 10 we argue lhal examinatio ns at all levels should provide suitable
largets and renect s uilable curricu la . They sho uld enable candidales to
demonstrate what lhey know an d sho uld not und ermine lhe con fiden ce of
those who att empt th em. We reco mmend that in rhe new single system of ex-
amination at 16 + lhere should be a range of papers in mathematics focussed
at different levels. We also recommend that a study sho uld be co mmissioned
to consider whether it is possible to devise a mean s of providing evidence of
achie vement fo r lower attaining pupils in \vays which will assist, and not con-
flict wi th, th e provision of suirable courses for these pupils; th e outcome of
such a study co uld have a bearing on the need for employers' tests, which are
disc ussed in Chapter 3. We recommend in Cbapter 8 lhar in the near future an
overall appraisal sho uld be prepared of th e educat ional implications of the
mathematics testin g which has been carried out by th e Assessment of Perfor-
mance Unit. Action in these matters must rest primarily with examination
boards and , in certain respects, with central and local government. 1n stud y-
ing our recommendations the y should bear in mi nd the needs of pupils in late r
life, which we disc uss in Chapters 2, 3 and 4.

806 No effo rts to improve the quality of math ematics teaching are likely to
succeed unless there is an adequate supply of suitably qualified mathematics
reacbers. In Chapter 13 we discuss the supply and recruitment of teachers and
include proposals fo r greater flexibilir y within the salary system, for financial
incemives LO suitably qualified students and for a guarantee of employment
for newl y trained mathematics teachers. In man y of th ese matters we believe
that primary responsibility rests with central government ; local education
authorities as employe rs of teachers also have considerable responsibilit y.

807 All who teach mathematics require inirial training whicb fits them both
mathematically and professionally 10 start teaching. We ho pe that those who
are engaged in initial training in mathemat ics will review the content of th ei r
courses in th e light of our discussion of mathematics teaching. We would
draw th e attention of all who are re spo nsible for teacher training to our
discussion in Chapter 14, in which we recommend a review and evaluation of
th e initial training of all who will teach mathematics.

808 Finally, we have drawn attenrion in the co urse of o ur report to the need
for curriculum development of various kind s leading to the preparation o f
materials for use in the classroom. For example. work is required to develop
materials which will renect the content of the ' foundation list ' we have set o ut
11 The way ahead 245

in Chapter 9 and also to develop the range of materials which are written in
Welsh. We suggest in Chapter 7 that materials are required which will enable
teachers to exploit the use of calculators as an aid to mathematics teaching and
that software of good quality is required for use with micro-computers. We
hope that those public and private bodies which fund curriculum develop-
ment and educational research will bear our suggestions in mind when con-
sidering proposals which are submitted to them.

809 In this chapter we have set out our recommendations in a way which
many will not have expected . Our report includes many .suggestions which we
could have set out in a list. but we have preferred instead to draw attention to
them by the use of heavier type in the main body of Our report. We have done
this because we believe that the teaching of mathematics must be approached
as a whole and that the significance of many of the points which we could have
set out separately becomes more apparent when they arc read within the con-
text of our argument. We have therefore identified instead, in paragraphs 803
to 808, six agencies whose active response to our report we believe to be essen-
tial if the changes in mathematical education which we are recommending are
to be brought about. These agencies are teachers, local education authorities,
examination boards, central government, training institutions and those who
fund and carry out curriculum development and educational research. It will
not be sufficient if only some of these agencies respond, since the contribution
of all wiU be necessary if progress is to be made . Educational change cannot be
accomplished overnight and the fuU implementation of our proposals will
take time. For this reason we believe it to be essential that action should not be
delayed and that the necessary resources for this action to begin must be made
available.

810 But even the active co-operation of the six agencies we have identified js
not likely to lead to lasting results unless there is support from a seventh, the
public at large, including especially parents, employers and those engaged in
public work . The setting up of our Committee demonstrated a widespread
view that action was needed in order to meet the perceived nationaJ need for a
numerate population . During the past Lhree years we have received many ex-
pressions of support for our work which indicate a widespread belief thaI
every boy and every girl needs to develop, while at school, an understanding
of mathematics and confidence in its use. In our view this can only come about
as the result of good mathematics teaching by teachers who have been trained
for their work and who receive continuing in-service support . It must
therefore be the task of all who share this belief to support and encourage the
implementation of the changes which we believe to be necessary and to make it
clear that, as part of the education which our children receive, mathematics
counts.
246

Appendix 1 Statistical information

AI This appendix contains a selection of the considerable amount of

statistical information which has been made available to the Committee from
a number of sources. We are most grateful to all who have helped us. We
acknowledge in particular the assistance we have received from DES Statistics
Branch and the Universities Statistical Record; both have, at our request,
devised and carried Qut additional invest igations. Some reordering, re-
classification and amalgamation of the data has been undertaken by members
of the Committee and its s~~cretariat .

List of tables Table

I School populat ion
2 Numbers of schoolleavers
3 O-Ievel grades in Mathematics: as percentages of anleavers
4 CSE grades in Mathematics: as percentages of allieavers
5 j Best' gra<.les in Math ematics: as percentages of allieavers
6 O-level grades in Additional Mathematics: by age
7 Sixlh form pupils studying Mathematics at A-level
8 A-level grades in Mathemalics: sixth form pupils
9 A-level Mathematics grades related to O-level grades of the same pupils
10 A-level passes in Mat hematics: as percentages of allieavers
II Comparison of O-Ievel and CSE results in Mathematics and English: as
percentages of alileavers
12 Comparison of O-Ievel and CSE results in Mathematics and English:
cumulative percl!ntages
13 Comparison of grades in Mathematics and English : by sex, as percen-
lages of alileavers
14 Average class sizes: selected subjects
15 DES 1977 Survey of secondary school staffing: composition of sample
16 Mathematics teaching in maintained secondary schools: by levels of
qualification of teachers
17 Estimated percentages of mathematics curriculum 'suitably' Slaffed
18 Percemage of mathematics curriculum 'suitably' staffed: schools in-
cluded in t he sample
19 Deployment of ' unsu itably' qualified teachers in comprehensive
schools: by year grOUlpS
 Appentli .\ 1 Sta[lstica! inrOrma lia n 247

20 Full~tjme teachers in maimained nursery, primary and secondary

schools
21 FulJ~tjme teachers in maintained schools who are mathematics
graduates: by sex and phase
22 Rates of leaving teaching: by age and sex
23 Trained and untrained mathematics graduates: entry and wastage, by
age
24 Entry to Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses
25 Qualifications of studentS entering PGCE courses who are taking main
method courses in mat hematics
26 Entry to BEd courses in 1980
27 Entrants to first degree or first degree and first diploma courses:
numbers with A·level mathematics
28 Entrants to first degree Or first degree and first diploma courSes:
quaJifications in mathematics
29 Entrants lO first degree or first degree and first diploma courses: as
percentages of all entrants with stated quatification
30 Entrants to first degree or first degree and first diploma courses: as
percentages of eOl rants to each subject group with stated qualification
31 Destinations of graduates in mathematical studies
32 Type of permanent home employment : graduates in mathematical
srudies
33 Services to management and financial work : graduates in mathematical
slUdies
34 Graduate employment in computer programming: by subject group

Pupil numbers A2 The figures in Table I are based on age in Seplember. In broad terms,
'primary' refers to pupils aged 5 to II and 'secondary' to pupils aged t I to 16,
lOgelher with those who elect to remain in full-time education in schools after
the age of 16. The secondary projections therefore make assumptions abom
st.aying-on rales. Schools include sixth form colleges bUI nol te rtiary co Ueges.
which operale under FE regulations.

Table J School population

Maintained schools, England Thou san ds

Aetual numbers Projecfed numbers

1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 198] 1984 1985 1990 1995 2000

Type o f school:
Primary 4187 4335 3850 3691 3531 3338 3202 3154 ]471 3938 4140
Seco ndary 2848 3558 3818 3779 3712 3660 3573 3457 2760 2953 3370

AU schoo l.) 7035 7893 7668 74]0 7243 6998 6775 6611 6231 6891 )510

Sourct : DES SI ru:j~,,~s BranCh

248 Appendix 1 Stali.stical information

Examination A3 The only information which is available about the exami nation perfor-
performance of mance of pupils in schools on a national scale comes from the annual 10 per
pupils in schools cent survey of school leavers in both maintained and independe,nl schools
which is carried out by the DES and Welsh Office. This su rvey coUects infor-
mation a bout all school leavers whose birthdays fall on the 5th, 15th or 25th
day of each calendar month and includes details of their examination entries
and results.

A4 Because the information relates to pupils who leave school in anyone

year, the examination resu lt s which are recorded may have been obtained over
a period of years before leaving school. The figures do not therefore relate to a
complete year group. However, the relativities between the number of leavers
in any year, the number of examination entries in [hat year and {he size of the
year group have remained reason,bly constant for th e yea rs 1977 to 1979. We
therefore believe that the picture displayed in the tables which follow is unlike-
ly to differ significantly from the picture which would have emerged if it had
been possible to obtain comparable information for a complete year group.

A5 The information for all three years relat es to both maintained and in-
dependent schools in England and W ales. It refers (0 pupils in schools
(including six th form colleges) but not to students in FE or tertiary colleges.
The examination results of this latter group are therefore included only up to
the time at which they left school. In very general terms this mean s tbat most
of their O-Ievel and CSE results are included but that t heir A-level results are
nol. In cases in which a sc hoolleaver has entered for the sa me examination
more than once he is credit ed with the highest grade obtained . 'Mathematics'
includes Statistics and Computer Studies when these are taken as separat e
subjects.

A6 The information displayed is for th e whole population, derived by

multiplying up from the 10 per cent sample surveyed, and is therefore subject
to sampling error. Tn cases where the numbers are large the true figures are
unlikely to differ from those given by more than half of one percentage point .
[n tables which relate to smaller numbers, the error may be greater I up to 3 per
ccnt .

Table 2 Nwnbers of schoolleavers

England and Wales

Number of lC3vers

Boys Girls All

Year of leavlng:
1977 384020 367070 751 070
1978 394 890 373 570 768460
1979 399 630 381 610 78 t 24{)

Sou{CC; DES 10--", Lea"Cf~ ' Survey

Appendix I SliHisl ica\ infu rmation 249

Table 3 O-level grades in Mathematics: as percentages of all leavers

England and Wales Percen tages

Year of leaving

1977 1978 1979

nays Girl5 All Boys G irls Ali Boys Girls All

,
a· level !!rad e.~:
J.5 2.1 2.8 ./.9 2.' 1.7 5.' 2.6 4.1
B '. 7 ./, ~ ' .9 8.2 5. 8 7.0 8.7 6.2 1.'
C 8.7 7. '1 8.J ~.9 SA '. J 10.2 8.B 'j
Pas~1 3.8 U 2.5 0.' 0.1 0.1 0 0 0

A. B. C or Pass 21. 8 16. I 19.5 23.7 16.7 20.3 U5 17.6 H I

l> J.3 I5 2.' 2.3 2.5 2.4 2. 4 2.5 1.5

E 2.' 2.' 2.1 2.7 1. 0 2.9 ].0 1.3 3.1
U or fail 4.2 4.' 4.' n ' .8 4. 5 4.3 5.1 •. 7

0 , E. U o r Fail 9.1 9.B 9 .5 9.2 10. l 9.1 9./ 10. Y 10.3

V:o of an leaven 31.9 15.9 19.0 31.9 26.9 )0.0 34.1 18.5 31.4
N umber~ entered J22 580 94980 217560 J 30050 100 610 230660 136770 108 730 245 .500

S O~Re: DES 10':', Lc a \'e r;:'Su r\'c~

Grades a l O·level we re not' awarded unl"il (he Summer o f 1975 (see nOle 10 paragraph 448).

Table 4 CSE grades in Mathematics : as percentages of ailleavers

Engla nd and Wale s Percent:t ges

Year o f !ca\-'i ng

1977 1978 1979

Boys Girls Ali Boys Girls All Bo ys Girls All

CSE grades :'

,
7. '
7.:.1
5. 8

68
6.'
7.1
7.'
1.2
' .1 ' .8
7.J
1.7
7.5
•••
7. 5
/. 2
/.j
7. '
' .J 9., 9.4 9.B 9.9 ' .8 10.3 10.8 JO.5
4 (/.9 J3. :.I 12. 6 /1.6 11. 9 lJ.l U.5 }5.1 14.4
5 8. r ' .j '.8 8.' 10. 3 9.' 8. 2 JO.5 9.1
U 6. 8 8.' /.6 6.8 B.J ' .j 6-' 8. 1 1.2

0:'0 ot' alllc,h erS 50.9 j).6 51.1 52. 3 55.8 54.0 5).5 58.8 56. 1
Numbe rs eotered 195 400 196 620 392 020 206 350 208 600 414 9.50 213 850 224 370 4,38 220

Sourt:~: DES IW... Lea\cl"$·Su..... e)·

, Some CSE boards o ffer a separate examination in Arithmetic; Ihe [able. sho ws lhe combined
resull s fo r M athematics and Arithmetic .
250 Appendix I Sl atislical informaLion

A7 Some pupils attempt both O-Ievel and CSE examinations in mathematics,

either in the same year or in different years . An aggrega tio n of the O-Ievel
results given in Table 3 and the CSE results given in Table 4 does not th erefore
give a picture of the overall situation. Table 5 amalgamates the O-Ievel and
CSE results obtained by school leavers in such a way that each pupil appears
only on ce, according to his 'best' grade. In the case of leavers whose highest
grades included both O-Ievel grade A, B, C or O-Ievel pass and CSE grade I we
have taken account of the O-level result and discounted the CSE result. We
have grouped together those whose ' best' grade was either O-level grade D or
CSE grade 2 and thos" whose 'best' grade was either O-level grade £ or CSE
grade 3. ' Best ' grades have been defined in the order presented in Table 5; for
example, if a pupil obtained O-Ievel grade E and CSE grade 2 it is the CSE
grade which has been included, whereas if a pupil obtained O-Ievel grade E
and CSE grade 4 it is the O-Ievel grade which has been included. We emphasise
that these steps have been taken solely for the purpose of drawing up the table
and should not be interpreted in an y other sense. In the table, 'higher grades'
include O-level grades A, B or C, O-level pass and CSE grade I; 'lower grades'
include O-Ievel grades D and E and CSE grades 2 to 5.

Table 5 'Best' I grades in mathematics: as percentages of allleavers

EnglslId and WaJe ~ Percetllages

Year of lea ving

1977 1978 1979

Boys Girls A ll Boys Girls All Boys Girls AU

Q.h;vel or C<;E
grades:
A 3.5 2. 1 2. 8 4.9 2.4 3.7 5.5 1.6 4. 1
B 6.7 4.9 5.9 8.2 5.8 7. 0 8.7 6.2 75
C 8.7 7.9 8.3 9.9 8.4 9.2 /0.2 8.8 9.5
Pass 3.8 1.2 1.5 0.6 0. 1 0.3 0 0 0
t 4.7 4.2 4.4 4.' 4.3 4.' 4.4 4.5 4.5

All 'higher grades' 27.4 20.2 23.9 2I!.1 21.0 24.6 18.9 22. 1 25.6

D or 2 7.9 7.8 7.8 7.8 8.3 8.0 8. 0 8. 3 8. 2

E or 3 10.2 10.8 10.5 10.6 /1.1 10.8 11.2 12.0 11.6
4 11. j 13.0 12.2 12.1 13.5 12.8 13.0 14.8 13. 9
5 8.0 9.3 8.6 8.3 10. 1 9.2 8.0 10.2 9.1

All 'lower grades' 37.5 40.9 39.1 38.9 43.0 40.9 40.2 45.4 42. 7

U or failed 8.3 10.3 9.3 8.0 10.0 9. 0 7.8 9.8 8.8

TOlal entry 73.2 71.4 72.3 75. 0 74. / 74.5 76.8 77.3 77.1

So urtt: DES 1O"i.lcaye~' Sll ~

I Sec paragraph A7.
Appendix 1 S[al islica i in for mati on 251

A8 The table which follows analyses examination results in Additional

Mathematics at O-Ievel or AO-Ievel according to the age at which the best
result was obtained . ' By age 16' means during or before the school year in
which the pupil reached the age of 16; 'at age IT, du ring the scbool year in
which the pupil reached the age of 17; 'at age 18 or over', during or after the
school year in which the pupil reached the age of 18. Thus, in general, ' by age
16' refers to results obtajned in the fifth form, or earlier; 'at age J7' to results
obtruned in the first-year sixth ; <at age 18 or over' to results obtained in the se-
cond year sixth or later. The proportion of leavers who had attempted the ex-
alnination at some stage inc reased from 3.5 per cent in J977 to 3.7 per cent in
1979 but the overall pattern of entry and success was similar for aU three years .
We therefore give the figures for leavers in 1979 only.

Table 6 O-Ievel grades in Additional Mathematics: by age

England and Wales

Leavers jn 1979

By age 16 1 A t age 17 A t age 18 or ovel

Boys Gi rls Bo ys Girls Boys Girls

.,
O-leveJ grade :
2660 220 1290 570 130 50
B )580 5.30 2030 800 210 100
C 3870 7'90 2140 900 600 160

A , B or C 10 110 IS40 5460 2270 950 300

D. Eor U J380 1()40 2120 SSO 730 260

Source: DES 100;', Lc:a"er.' Su u'ey

1 See paragraph A8.
252 Appendi); I Sta tisti cal information

Table 7 Sixth rorm pupils studying Mathematics at A-level

E ngland I

Firsl year Sixth Seco nd yea r siJah !

Pupils ' Popil.', l

Pupils o n
A-level
cou rses
taking
mal hematiC!.
'" lak in g
malhem a [ic ~
Pupils o n
A- level
courses
taking
"I.
lakil1g
mathematics mathematics

School year :'

1976- 77 :
Boys 77704 35283 45.4 72434 3D 768 42. 5
Girls 68887 t2702 18. 4 60 529 10 173 16.8
All 146593 47 985 32. 7 132 963 40 441 30.8
1977 - 78:
Boys 78 31] 37 721 48.2 71 932 32 135 44. 7
Girls 65940 14 374 20.9 60 606 II 165 /8.4
All 14 7 253 52095 35.4 132 ; 38 43 300 32.7
1978-79,
Boys 79428 4() 046 50.4 72872 35 149 "i!.2
Girls 72444 15 693 21. i 62 11 7 12 901 20.8
All 151 872 55 739 36.7 134989 48 050 35.6
1979 - 80: '
Boys 8t 050 4t 250 50.9 7] 750 36450 49.4
Girls 75 150 t 7300 23.0 65050 13900 2/.4
All 156200 58 550 37. 5 138800 50 4()Q 36. 3

So ur(:~; OES SlilH!>I ,U Branch IForm "

Figures rO T En gland only becau se comparable fIgures for Wales have nol been collecled since
1977.
! Includes third year pupils ....'ho a re taking A· lewd courses.
1 Malhemat ics illCludes. Statislics afild C omputer Studies if studied as separate A-level subjec Ls .

• Number s at end o f January in eal;h schoo! year.

~ T hese figures il1 elude a small amClum of e.;timalion in respeCI o f some indepeudem schools for
which no informatio n was availablf~.

Table 8 A-level grades in M'a thematics: sixth form pupils

England and Wales Percen lages

Year of leaving
1977 1978 1979
Boys Girls .>\11 Bo ys Gir ls- All Boys G irls All
A-level grades I :
A f4.</ 10.3 /3.4 /3.6 9. 5 12.6 15. 4 /0. / / 4.0
B / 6. / 18.7 / 6.7 15,4 13.9 /5.0 /4.6 /6.1 15.0
C /1. 9 f2. I /2.0 U.7 /3.0 /2.8 12.2 II .3 12.0
0 14. 1 J5.9 14.6 /5.9 /9. 3 /6.8 15.0 /6.0 15.3
E 17.2 18.5 17.5 16.2 19.3 17.0 16.2 /9.5 /7./

Grades A-E 73. 7 75.4 74. 1 73.8 74. 9 74.2 73. 4 73.0 73 .1

Numbers e lilered ' 30420 10080 40 500 31660 It 0 10 42670 34670 12350 47020

Sou rce: DES LOo/, L ~~~tr~ ' Survey

I If a puri! has au empted more [han o ne mat hcmatieal snbjee[ at A-level. the best result is
recorded.
l Enlry numbers in Ihi!> table are tower (han t he numbers of pupils in the seeond year o f the !>lxth
form shown in Table 7. The numbelTs in thjs table are <lelUa l entries, those in Table 7 are fo r pupils
st udyi ng the cou(se when schools made their return s in January,
AppendIx I Swtistical informal ion 253

Table9 A-level Mathematics grades related to O-Ievel grades of the same

pupils'
England and WaJes

A-Jc:vel grade (070 of eaeh row)

Year of O-level Number A B C D E O/ Fail

leaving grade of pupils

A 10760 }O.2 26.6 /5 .0 14.5 /3.5 /0.4

1917 B 10 420 2.4! 9.3 11 .2 /7.5 24.1 35.4
C 3840 0.0 2.3 6.5 11.5 /8,2 6/.7

A 15650 22.9 24.1 /5.5 /6.0 /),6 8,9

1978 B 14 680 3. / /0, 7 /2.7 1/,2 2/, 7 30,6
C 5290 0 . 41 3 ,2 6.4 /2.9 /9, / 58,0

A 17940 28,/ 13,6 14.9 /3,5 11.3 8.5

1979 B 16460 3,8 / 2./ 1/,9 /8.3 22.4 3/.5
C 5710 / ,4 1.4 5, / 11,2 17.!i 63.4

SOurce' DES I O~ Lea,cli' Survey

The se tables include o nly thoS( pupils who had obtained O-Ievel grade A , 8 or C (as their
highest gn~d e) by age 16 (see paragr'aph A8). The rotaJ numbers of A -level candidates to whom
the lable (efer~ are I.h erefore smaller than tholoe shown in Table 8.

Table 10 A- level passes in M at hemat ics: as percentages of ali leavers

England and Wales

Year of leavi ng

1m2 (97) 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Mafhematical subjects passed

al A-le"el J
I subject only 20 1)0 20 330 2) 440 24900 26070 28090 304 10
0" of all leavers 3, / 3./ 3,3 3.3 3,4 3,6 3,8
Z or more subjects 7040 6210 .5740 5120 5570 6370 6770
OJ'1I of ali leavers I.J' 0,9 0,8 0,7 0,7 0.8 0,9
At least I subj ec t 27 170 26540 29180 30 020 )1 640 34460 37 180
tl.'o of all leavers 4. 2 4.0 4,1 4.0 4, / 4.4 4.7

Lcavers with 2 or more passes

in mathematics as fl/o oi
leavers with at leasl I pass
in mathematics 15.9 23 .4 19.7 17.1 /7.6 /8,5 /8.2

Sou~e: DES ( ~ Lea-·trs· S\lf~e}

1 Inc ludes passes at grades A (0 E iin any marbemalicaJ subjects. inc luding Statistics and Com-
purer Science.
254 Appendix I S tat ist ical informatio n

Comparison of exam.ina- A9 Tables II, 12 and 13 compare the O-Ievel and CSE resullS obtained by
,jon results in mat.hematics pupils in mathematics/ arjthmetic with those obtained in English. The 'best'
and English grades in English have br,en defined in the way which is explained in
paragraph A7. If more than one English subj ect was attempted, the overall
'best' grade has been used.

Table Jl Comparison of O-Ievel and CSE resulls in Mathematics and

English: as percentages of alileavers
England and Wa1e~ Pc rcenlage ~

Year of leaving

1977 1978 t979

Malhema lic5 Mathematics Mathematics

or English or English or Englb;h
Ari(hmetic Arithmetic Arithmetic

O- I e~'el or
CS E grades:
A, B, C or I }3.9 34.7 24.6 34.5 25.6 34. .5
o or2 7.8 11 .8 8.0 12.1 8.2 13. 1
E or] /0.5 12.9 10.8 13.3 1/,6 14.1
4 12.2 10.7 12.8 1/.5 13. 9 11 ,1
5 8.6 4.3 9.2 4.5 9.1 4.7
U 0 1 Fai l 9.3 3.7 9.0 3.8 8.8 ) ,9
Not entered 27. 7 21,9 25,6 20,3 22,8 18,6

Total 100,0 100,0 100,0 100.0 100,0 100,0

Source:: DES 1O'fu Leave,, ' S lirvey

Table 12 Comparison of O-Ievel and CSE results on Mathematics and

English: cumu lative percen tages
England and Wales Cumll la! iv(' pe rcen lages

Year of leaving

1977 1978 t979

Malnemalics Mathematies Mathematics

or English or English or English
ArithmC'tic Arith melic Arithmetic

O -leve[ or
CSE grades:
A,B,Cor l ]),9 34.7 24.6 34.5 25,6 34. .5
and 0 or 2 31.7 46.5 12.6 46.6 33.8 47.6
andEor3 41_1 59,4 43.4 59,9 4.5,.J 61.7
and 4 54.4 70,1 56.} 71.4 59.3 72.8
and 5 63.0 74.4 65.4 75,9 68,4 77.5
and U or Fail 72,3 78.1 74.4 79,7 77. 2 BJA
and Not
entered 100,0 100,0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Sollrce: DES 100;. Leavl:a ' Sll"'t~

Appendix I Slalis,icaJ information 255

Table J3 Comparison of grades in Mathematics and English: by sex, as

percentages of alileavers

England and Wales Percentages

Leavers in 1979 1

Boys Girls

Malhema{ics English Mathematics English

O-LcveJ/ CSE
grades:
' Higher grades" 28.9 30. 1 22./ 39.1
' Lower grad es' 40.2 44.3 45.4 41.8
Ungraded /.8 4.7 9.8 3.0

TOlal entry 76.8 79.0 77.3 84.0

50ur« : DES 10..-, Lea"crs' Su"·e)·

I Results in 1917 and 1978 fo llowed a similar pallern.
l See paragraph A 7.

Table 14 Average dass sizes: selected subjects'

England and Wales Average elass size

Subjeet

Ma(hemal i:e~ English History French Physics

Secor,tdary schools:
Year t 25 .7 25 .6 27.0 27.4 26.9
Year 2 26.t 26.3 27 .5 27.9 27.6
Year 3 26.2 26.3 27 . ( 27.8 27. '
Year 4 24 .5 24 .2 22.3 21.7 22 .8
¥ear 5 24.1 24.1 21 .8 20.7 22.1

Sour~~: DES 1977 SurvcyofScroociarySchoulSlalTing

I These figures are averages (o~ alllPupils across alJ schools. Mathematics and English are taken
by Ihe f!real majorilY of pupils Ihrough out years J to 5. wherea.!o th e other subjects are often o p-
lional at some stage.
256 Appendix 1 SI!lIislical informatio n

Qualificalions of AID Tables 15 to 18 are based on information obtained from the Survey o f
those who leac h Secondary School Staffing carried o ut by the DES in 1977.
n13lhcmnlics
Table 15 DES 1977 Survey of Secondary School Staffing : composilion of
sample
England and WaJcs

Number o f eaeh
lype o f school

Type of schoo l:
Middle 910 13 1 56
Comprehe nsive 13/1 4 to 18 62
Comprehensive 11 / 121 0 18: Large 1
Comprehensive 11/ 1:2 10 18: Medium '
: } t5J
Comprehensive 11 11 210 18: Small '
Compreheo si ..'e 11 / 12 10 16 96
Comprehens-jlle 10/ 11 10 14 t8
Modern 42
G rammar J2
Sixth fo rm college ' 29

All schools 488

Soo r~' DES l'l1 Sllt.. ty o ( ~condarys.:hool SI .H\ 1I1

I The middle schOQ I~ were all fo r pupil.!. aged from 910 13 and " deemed .secondary" . For middle
schools and 10/ 11 10 14 school s. informal ion refers only to the leaching of pupils aged J 1 o r o ver .
~ See paragraph A II .
' The sixlh form colleges did nOI include an), ..... hich still cont ained a residual clement of younger
p upil s.

A I 1 Some of the analysis displayed in this seclion is restricted to the schools

in th e sample. In other cases, estimated national to tals have been derived by
using " weighted multiplers" wh ic h take account of the percenrage of sc hools
of each type in Ihe sample in relation 10 Ihe IOtal numbers of such schools in
Ihe country. In calego rising the 11 112 to 18 schools by size, those with up to
800 pup ils were regarded as small, those wilh 801 to 1200 pupils as medium
and th ose wilh more Ihan 1200 pu p ils as large. In formation about the staffing
of middle sc hools is given in paragraph A 15 and is nOl included in Tables 1610
18.
 Appendi X I S\a\istical inf'ormalion 257

A12 The four categories of qualification of teachers 10 which we refetTed in

paragraph 625 were defined a.s foUows:

'Good'
• Trained graduates, or equ ivalent , with mathematics as th e first, main or
only subject of a degree course.
"'I'.:hHhemcuics' mcludes statistics.
Related subjec(s, a1 any le ... el, in ·
• Bachelors of Education (BEd) with marhemarics as a main specialist
subject.
clud e Computer Studies, Phys ics,
Engineering (Of Engineeri ng
• Teachers whose general qualifications were of either of th ese types with
mathematics as a subsidiary subject provided their main specialism was
Sc ience) a nd Combined Physical in a re lated* subject.
Sciences at graduate level.

'A ccepwb/e'
• Trained graduates. graduate equivalents, or BEd with mathematics as a
second or subsid iary speciaJism if tbeir first subj ect was not related.
• Untrained graduates wi'th mathemarics as first, main or only subjeci.
• Teachers holding the Certificate in Education , having followed a secon-
dary co urse in which mathematics was their firsl. main Or onJy
specialism .
• Teachers with no initial mathematical qualifications who had a further
qualification resulting from a cou rse of at least one year in which
mathematics was the main subject.

<U-'eak '
• Teachers holdin g the Coertificate in Education having followed a secon-
dary course with mathematics as a second or subsidiary subject provid-
ed their first Or main subject was related.
• Teachers holding the O:' rtificare in Education having fo llowed a Junior
or JuniorlSecondarycourse with mathematics as {heir firsl or main sub-
ject.
• Teache rs in the imm.ediately preceding category with subsidiary
mathematics provided their main subject was related.
• G raduates in any subject provid ed thei r course included a re lated sub-
ject.

'Nil'
• Qualified teachers without any recorded ma thematics and not covered
by any previous specification .
• Teachers ho lding th e Cenificate in Educat ion with mathematics sub-
sidiary [0 an unrelated subject.
• Teachers witho ut any initial qualification who possessed a further
qualification which did not lead to graduate status and in which
mathematics wa~ not [he main subject.

A 13 Tables 16 to 19 exami ne the distribution of all mathematics teaching bet-

ween teachers in the qu alifi cation categories defi ned above. Numbers of
periods have been sta nd ardised to a 40 period week .
258 Appendix 1 Statistica l informalion

Table 16 Mathematics teaching in maintained secondary schools: by levels

of qualification. of teachers
Maintained schools in England and Wales

No of maths period s ta ught I fIlo of mathematics Icaching

Qualifi.;;at[om of staff ' Quaii(icalions of staff

Good A ccepl . \V eel Nil Goo d Accept. Weak Nil

432 sc hools in sa mple:

Comprehensive
13/ 14- 18 5774 3 532 1569 1860 ~5 28 12 /5
111 12- 18 Large 4905 37 11 2245 2078 38 29 /i /6
!\1edium 5754 3 858 2739 3534 36 24 17 22
Small 2298 2039 1042 I 828 32 28 /4 25
11 / 12- 16 4037 5865 3410 4015 23 34 20 23
10/] 1-14 364 438 519 821 /7 20 24 38
\1odern 889 I 762 873 I. 860 17 33 /6 35
Grammar 2937 I 408 383 283 59 28 8 6
Sixlh form college 2892 1269 312 234 6/ 2i 7 5

Esti mated lotal for all

secondary schools
(exduding middle) 278000 },43 800 136900 178 000 33 29 17 2/

SCourc.:. DES 197; S\,, ~C',..orSeoo l1(!3 rySehoo l SI~ (fi OI!
I The numbers o f periods shown are Ih ose reco rded for the S(',hools in (he sample , adjusted to a 40
peri od week ,
1 ~ defined in paragraph All ,

Table 17 ESlimated percentages of mathematics curriculum 'suitably'

staffed
Mainlained schools in England and Wales

Estimated numbel C u mularivl' to tal:;

of schools !

Cumulati ....e
0/0 o f curriculum Wo of cmricu lum
'suitably' sta ffed 'suilably'staffed:
0 152 0 15 2
1- 10 27 0- /0 179
1/- 20 49 0- 20 228
21-30 260 0- JO 488
3/ - 40 250 0- 40 738
41 - 50 543 0- 50 1281
5/-60 796 0- 60 2077
6/-70 780 0-- 70 2857
71 - 80 548 0- 80 3405
8 / - 90 528 0- 90 3933
9/-99 199 0- 99 4lJ2
/00 241 0- /00 4373

SourCt: DES 197' Sllf\'eyo fS ccondllf1/ Sc.hool Staffing

I Middle schools arc oat included,

! 'Suitably' cove r$ the aggregate of teaching by teachers with 'good' and 'acceptab le' qualifica-

tianse
.\ppendi . . I Slatistical in formali on 259

AI4 The percentages and totals in Table 16 conceal the extensive variation
between individual school, of the same type . One aspect of this is shown in
Table 18.

Table 18 Percentage of mathematics curriculum 'suitably' staffed: school,

included in the sample
England and Wales Sc hoo l~ in sample

Type of sc ho nl

COlilprehensive
Modern Grammar Sixth rorm
13/ 14- 18 11 / 12 - 18 11 / 12- 16 101 11 - 14 college

070 of mathematics
curriculum
'suitably' slarred: I
0 0 I 8 0 0
/-10 0 0 I 2 0 0 0
1/ - 20 0 3 0 0 I 0 0
21 - 30 0 9 6 4 3 t 0
3/-40 3 8 7 4 2 0 0
4/ - 50 6 J7 20 0 6 0 0
5} - 6O 4 3I 21 9 0 2
6J - 70 JO 34 16 9 0
7/ -80
81- 90
J6
12
16
26
IJ
4
9
10 ,
3

9/ - 99 10 3 ] I 3 5
IOIJ 5 4 0 9 II

Number of
schools: 62 153 % 18 42 32 29

Swrce : DES 1'1'/7 SlII"'e},ofScoondary School Sl3(fjrlg

I See nOle 1 to Table l7 ,

Table 19 Deployment of 'unsuitably' qualified teachers in comprehensive

schools: by year gro ups
England and Wales Percentages

Comprehensive schools

11 / 12- IS J 11 12- 16 all

ll,;'o of mathematics curriculum taught by

'unsuilably' qnaJiried teachers in:
Year 1 48 46 47
Year- 2 45 47 46
Ycar 3 39 4} 40
Year 4 37 40 38
Year 5 36 40 37

Source: DES 19ii SurveyofSocolldary SchoolSlathflJ!:

'Unsuitably' covers [he aggregare of reaehing by teachers .....it h ·weal.;' and 'nil' qualifications .
260 Appendix I Slalislical information

AI5 Analysis of the qualifications of those teaching mathematics to pupils

aged li ar over in the middle schools for pupils aged 9 to 13 which were includ-
ed in the sample shows that. according LO the caregorles set out in paragraph
A12, 6 peT cent of the leaching wao;; by teachers whose qua/ilieation was
'good '. J 7 per cent by teachers whose Qualification was 'acceptable' , 15 per
cent by teachers whose qualification was 'weak' and 62 per cent by teachers
whose Qualification was 'nil' . A s we point out in paragraph 629. it could be
argued that, for teachers in middle schools, some of the qualifications
classified as !weak' on the ground that lraining had been for a younge r age
group should be regarded as 'acceptable'. Ifali the qualifications classified as
'weak' were lO be regarded as 'acceptable', it would be the case that 38 per cent
of the teaching of mathema·tics to pupils aged liar more would have been by
'suitably' qualified teachers, and 62 per cem by teachers whose qualification
was ·unsuitable'.

Suppl} of teachers in main- A 16 Precise definition of the term 'mathematics graduate' is not possible; for
tained schools exam ple. the Universities Statistical Record lists 63 different degree cOurses
unde:- (he main heading of 'mathematics' . (It is this group of COurses which we
have called 'mathematical studies' in the main body of (he report; see nme to
paragraph 150.) Published informalion about numbers of teachers who are
mathematics graduates is therefore diflicult to reconcile because of the differ-
ing definitions which have been used to compile th e information. For this
reason Tables 20 to 23 which follow do not all show the same total of
mathematics graduates. Vvhen recording the qualifications of graduates,
DES records show education as the first subject of qualification of all holders
of the BEd degree . For holders of BEd who have taken mathematics as a main
subject, mathematics appears as the second subject of qualification. In Tables
20 to 23, 'all graduates' include holders of the BEd degree, but references to
graduates who have mathematics as the only or first subject of their degree do
not include holders of BEd .

Table 20 Full-time teachers in maintained nursery, primary and secondary

schools
England and Wrues

Year endi_ng 31 March

1970 t916 1971 1978 t919

Qualifical ion:
Mathematies
graduates I , 340 7 22\ 1 461 7748 1816
Other graduales 46561 107 573 J 16 180 t24 389 134 662

All graduat es 51 901 114 794 t 23 647 132 137 142538

NOll-graduates 260 162 316 t83 3t2649 306 734 300 490
All teachers H2663 430977 436296 43881 1 443028
Malhem91ies graduates
as % of all graduates 10.3 6.3 6. 0 j,9 5.5

SO\ln:: ~: DES StllfIJ l tcrOJ&/UCtJlIOrl Vol. "

I Re~1 rieted 10 graduates in math ematics o nly or in mathemalies and physics .
Appendix I Slarislical infonnation 261

A17 Table 21 analyses mathematics graduates by t he sec[Or in which theyare

leaching and displays lhe number of men and women who make up lhe totaJ.
T he figures include those who have mathemalics named as the only subject of
their degree o r who have mafhematics named as the first of two subjects in
their degree. Conseque" tly the numbers shown in Table 2 1 are ;omewhat
larger than lhose in Table 20.

Table 21 Full-time teachers. in maintained .schools who are mathemat ics

grad uates: by sex and phase
England and Wales

Y.ear eoding 31 March

1975 1976 1977 t978 t979

Mathernatics graduates: I
Primary::
Me" 131 t2t tl7 113 106
Wome n 174 195 179 18l 165

A ll :!IDS 3t6 296 296 271

Secondary:
Men 4804 5033 5222 5364 54.55
'''-Iomen 2Z96 2387 2460 2619 2668

All 7100 7421) 7682 7983 8m

All schools:
\ 1en 4935 5 15.4 5)39 5477 5561
'Nome n 2470 2582 26)9 2802 2833

A ll 7405 7756 7978 8279 8394

Source: DES Sialls/,C4 Q/ Edllcarinn vol . .j

I Incl udes gradua!es who ha\'e ma thematics as the only or the first of two subjects inlheir degree.
! Includ e!. nursery .

AlB Table 22 gives details by age and sex of the rates al which mathematics
graduates leave teaching, and compares Ihese with the rates of leaving for all
graduate teachers . Table 23 compares entry and wastage rates fo r trained and
untrained mathematics graduales. Both tables relate to graduates who have
mathematics as the only subject of their degree or as Ihe first subject of a
degree which does not include science. The tables have been compiled from in-
for mation which is supplied [0 the DES each year by local education
authorities.
262 Appendix I $(alisllcaJ informa l ion

Table 22 Rates of leaving teaching: by age and sex

(i) 1\:l /:'n

Age al 31 March

U nder 25 25·29 30-34 35·39 40 & over

-~
- - - -
1974 - 75 '
f\'lalhs gradual~s:
Slock ~ 290 1233 582 413 1081
Leavers ' 44 J 13 30 12 9)
Percentage leaving:
Malhs graduates 15.2 9.2 5.2 2.9 8.6
Ail graduates 16.2 9.6 6.0 4.J 1.2
1975 - 76
Malhs grad u ale~:
SIOCK )02 1361 600 454 1067
Leavers 38 )0
Percentage leavi ng:
Malhs graduates 12.6
"' 4.4
12 86

8.1
8.1 2.6
All grad na(t's 9.5 7.5 4.1 2.B 6.0
1976- 77
\'laths graduates:
Stock )22 1448 83 I 497 1081
Leaver~ 37 69 20 I) 85
Percentage leaving :
\1alhs graduates 11.5 4.8 2.< 2.6 1.9
All gra duates I. I 5.4 J.O 2.' 6.0
1977 - 78
r.,'l<u hs gradume5:
Stock 295 1524 1028 528 Jll2
Leavers 27 99 36 10 83
Percentage leaving:
Math .. graduates 9.2 6.5 3.5 1.9 1.5
All gradu ates 6.5 5.6 J.5 2.2 5.5
\9 7 8- 79
\1al hs grad uates :
SWCK 271 l S47 1202 599 li S)
Leavers 22 12 ) 46 17 60
Percentag{.' lea ving:
\-1at hs gradual es 8. 1 7.8 J.8 2.8 5,2
All graduates 5.9 5.9 3.5 2.6 5. 0

So urce: OESSI<l.l iuks Brandl

, Year from I Apri l to 31 \>1arch
! Stock at , Ap ril.

\ Leavers by 31 r....1areh .
Appendh: \ StaLi5l icai information 263

Table 22 (contin ued)

(ii) Women

Age at 31 March

Under 25 25-29 30-34 35·39 40& o\>er

1974- 75 !
T\'laths graduates:
Stock! 386 802 2L6 L53 634
Leavers~ 54 J7I 38 L3 56
Percentage leaving:
Matll s graduates 14.0 21.J 17.6 8.5 8.8
All graduates 13.9 20.9 17. 9 9.2 8.8
1975- 76
Math ') ~raduale-s :
Stock 397 948 234 183 628
Leavers 4L L88 3L L4 50
Percenlage lea\ling:
Mmh s graduates 10.3 19.8 /3.2 7.7 8.0
All graduates 11 .6 18.9 {5. 1 8. 8 7.6
L976 - 77
Ma[hs graduate~:
SLoe k 428 1007 328 188 661
Leavers 3L 181 44 L3 53
Percentage leaving :
:,\1aLhs graduates 7.2 18.0 13.4 6.9 8.0
All graduates 8.5 15.9 /3. 9 6.5 6:7
L977- 78
Malhs graduates:
Sloek 409 LJ3L 362 239 685
Lea\'ers 26 [76 44 17 44
Percentage lea ving :
~'l alhs graduat es 6.4 15.6 /2.2 7. / 6.4
A ll graduates 7.3 /5.0 13.5 6.6 6.5
1978 - 79
Math s graduales:
Siock 408 1240 384 286 747
Lca ...·er5 48 216 55 L7 8L
Percentage leaving:
Math s graduates 11 .8 17.4 /4.3 5 .9 10.8
All grad uates 7.5 /j.B /5.0 7.2 6.8

Source: DES Sl:llistit's Branch

1 Year from 1 April 10 31 Murch
J Stoek at I ApriL

; Leaven. by 31 MarCh.
264 Appendix I Statistical inl"onllation

Table 23 Trained and untrained mathematics graduates : entry and wastage,

by age
\1en and women

Ages al 31 \ 'Ia rch

Trained Unrrained

U ndel' 25- 29 30- 34 all ages Under 25 -29 )0-)' All ages
25 25

1974-75 J

In service J April 565 1592 5)5 4275 II I 44) 263 15J5

Wastage ' 76 222 51 494 29 101 )2 215
Emra nl S' 561 121 21 727 11 2 66 IJ 194
Re-entrant s' etc J5 70 56 195 2 14 I) 68

[n service 31 March 1065 J56J 56 1 4703 196 422 257 1562

1975-76
III service ! A pril 593 1860 642 4703 106 45 5 272 15 57
\Vaslage 63 Z37 56 462 23 89 21 un
Enrrant s 56S J2S 32 756 91 78 J7 200
Re-enlram s etc II 63 )5 172 ) 19 18 86

In service 31 March 11 09 1814 65) 5169 177 46) 286 1636

1976- 77
[n selVice I Ap ril 642 200, 848 5J53 105 456 314 1638
\\lastage 42 19'7 45 405 28 69 22 172
Entrant.s 559 120 28 729 47 32 j) 102
R e~en(ranr s etc 13 6:3 168 0 17 12
" 64

J n service 31 March 11 72 2(0) e75 5645 12' 436 317 1632

1977-78
I n service I April 645 2242 1043 5680 59 413 347 1633
Waslage 47 228 8 65 30 154
Entrants 557 124
,7
5'
25 '"743 '9 32 II 102
Re-emranF. ele 8 )8 150 4 15 20 7)

In service) I :'v1arch 11 63 218.5 1052 6129 104 395 348 1654

1978-79
In service I April 624 2421 123 1 6170 55 366 J55 1667
Wastage 60 296 84 565 14 67 35 17$
Entrant s 529 126 5) 756 J5 35 4 S,
Re·enT rams etc 6 45 60 190 3 16 13 69

ln service 31 March 1099 22% 1260 655 1 79 350 337 1645

SOllr"~: DESSlall$l/n B, anch

I Year from I April 10 31 March .
.' Wastage includes I hose leaving teaching and those transferri.ng to other sectors o f eduealjo n
e .g. FE or teacher training.
, Entran ts den ote those entering teac hing fo r Ihe firsl time .
• This line includes those re·entering teach ing, and lhose transferri.ng from other sectors o f
education, toge ther with those wh o change statu s e.g. fr om non ·grad uale to graduate .
 Append ix 1 Stfitis tkaJ info rmation 265

Enlr)' 10 inil.ial AI9 Tables 24 to 26 provide infonnation about entry to initial training
training courses.

Table 24 Entry to Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses

England and Wales Men and Women

Yltnr of entry

1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980

Univcrsil Y Depanmenl 5 or
Edu catio n:
Tota l ent ry I 4959 4808 4935 4923 4947 552J
No laking main method
courses in mathematics' 445.5 458 .3 495 .5 436 401.5 5 18
wQ tak.ing mathematic:; 9.0 9.5 fO.O 8.9 S./ 9.4
Non·unive rsit y instilUtions:
Total entry 5609 5415 4438 4431 45 !4 5198
No takin g main method
co urses in mathematics 320.5 J42 393.3 291.2 234 .7 310
fJ/o laking rn<l\ll cmaljc~ 5.7 6.3 8. 9 6.6 5.2 6.2
AI! institutions:
Ta la! entry 105 68 10223 9373 9J54 9461 10721
No [ak.ing main metllod
courses in mathematics 766 800 .3 888.8 727.2 636.2 828
1170 laking mathematics 7.2 7.8 9.5 7. 8 6.7 7. 7

S<:J UTce . Grodu a lc Teacbe, Trainlll~ RI.'8;'i. ~·

) Numbers in O ctober o f each year ..
I If a studem is laking main method co urses in two subjects, ~ is recorded againsl each subj ecl;

for main meth od courses in three subjects. ~ is recorded. Subsidiary subjects are not reco rded .

Table 25 Qualifications of students enlering PGCE courses who are taking

main method courses in mathematics
England and Wales Men a nd Women

Year of entry

1978 1979 1980

PGCE stud ents laking main method

courses in mathematics :
University Depanment 50 (I f Edueatio>n:
TOial number 436 401 .5 518
Gr aduale~ in mathema ties or in
in mal hemal ies/pllysics 323 305 343
N(l n·un iversity institutions:
TOlal number 291.2 2)4.7 310
G radua tes in mathematics or in
in marhe maties/ physies 123 98 139
All in stitutio ns:
T o ral number 727 .2 636.2 828
G rad ualcs in maLhematics or in
in mathematjcs/ physics 446 403 482

Mathematics or mathematics/ph ysic s

gradu al es as 0:0 of all PGCE students 4.8 4.1

SOlu te: Groo uate T e~her Trai ning R~

266 Appendix I Sta ti stica l in formation

Table 26 Entry to BEd co u rses in 1980

England and Wales. 1980 '

Men Women TOlal

Enll)' to BEd cou rses: I

Student s la king one maitl subject o nly:
Math emat ics 97 176 273
Olher subjects 583 2520 3103
TOlal 680 2696 3376
SludelllS taking more than one main subject:
in el uding mathematics 85 127 212
NO! in clud ing ma lhema tics 278 963 124J
T oLal 363 1090 1453
All s( udent.s following subject-oriented
co urses:
Including mathematics 182 303 485
Not including math ematic s 861 3483 4344
10la1 1043 3786 4829
St udent s nm fo llowin g subject-
oriented cou rses 93 390 483
T otal entry La BEd cou rses 1[36 4176 53 J2

Souru : Cen.lra! Rc~,~c! and Ouring Hou!oe 3,...1 DE';

I Comparable ligure s. for ea rUe r years were n OI collected.
) Numbers include full-tim e ho me stud ent s o nly and exclude those I ran sferring 10 BEd courses
a fter a J-year Cemficale iu Ed ucation course .

EntranlS to lJniversities in A20 Tables 27 to 30 which fo llow are derived from information supplied by
England and Wales the Universities Statistical Reco rd. They refer to ent rantS to full-time and
sandwich first degree or first degree and first diplom a courses at universities in
England and Wales who had home fee-paying statllS and whose entry
qualification was based o n A-levels. Over the years 1973 - 1979 these con-
stit uted about 92 per cent of a ll entrants 10 these courses at universities in
England and Wales.

Table 27 Entrants to first degree or first degree and first diploma courses:
numbers with A-level mathematics
Universities in Engla nd and Wales

Yea r of e mry lO first degree co urse

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

/I,:le n:
Entra nt s with A -levels 29 J73 30 532 32456 33 430 34 793 14974 35097
Any mal hs A- level 14690 14 514 15694 16 360 17 173 t789 1 t8903
0;0 with A-level mafh ~ 50.4 47.5 48.3 48.9 49. 4 51.2 53. 9
W o men :
EntranlS with A·leve ls 16227 17479 18462 19 126 2053 1 21 308 22 928
A n y maths A ·level 4230 4269 4 395 4560 4 887 5 33 1 6244
"'10 wi th A -le vel malhs 26. 1 24.4 23.8 23.8 23.B 25.0 l7.2

So uroc Onovcrlll lCSSl31iSlicat R~ord

A ppendi \ I Sta ti stical inforrnal iol:l 267

.'1.21 Tables 28 (0 30 provide details of the dislribution of the entrants defined

in paragraph .'1.20 between categories of degree courses, and also details of
their mathematical qualifications , The caregories used are
• Engineering and technology, including the various types of engineering,
mining. metallurgy, surveying, other technologies and combinations of
these
• Physical sciences, including mathematics/ physics, physics, chemistry,
general and combined physical sciences.
• l\tlathematical studies, including mathematics, statistIcs, computer
scien ce and combinations of these; and combinations of mathematics
with other subjects.
• Medical and de ntal, including pre-clinical medicine and dentistry, and
para-medical courses such as pharmacy.
• Biological sciences, im::luding veterinary and agricultural studies and
fo restry.
• Other sciences, including combinations of physical and biological
sciences and of variou s sciences with other subjects.
• Business studies, induding business and management studies,
economics and accoun tanc y.

• Geograph y.
• All other subjects.
Geography was examined separately in order to invest igate whether its
allegedl y increasing mathematical emphasis was reflected in th e mathematical
qualifications o f those enrolling.

A-level qualification in Mathematics denotes a pass in at least one of the sub-

jects Pure Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Pure and Applied
Mathematics (including Mathematics with Statistics), Further Mathematics;
double-subject Mathematics deno tes a pass in Applied Mathematics or fur-
ther Mathematics .
268 Appendi x I Statistica l inrorma 'lio n

Table 28 Entrants to First degree or First degree and First diploma courses:'
qualifications in mathematics
Universilies in England and Wales

Year or enl ry 10 first degree co urse

- -"-- -
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1918 1979
Subjecl group :
Engineering and technology
EI\trants wi th A- levels 5459 5499 5864 6295 67()< 7100 7451
of whom AllY mtllhs A-leve l 5122 48% 5429 5810 6235 6666 7()<5
a/whom Doubl e 5ubjeci maths 1617 1416 1534 1662 15)5 170) 1714
Physic al sciences
Entrant s with A-levels 4166 )950 4021 4148 4350 451 9 4852
Any mal hs A-level 3717 3356 )411 3505 3641 )871 41 85
Do uble subject maths 1048 826 860 865 817 877 %8
l\1alhematlcal studies
En/rants with A-l evels 2649 2637 2539 2590 27% 2926 3143
Any math s A- level 2643 2604 2534 2572 2759 290) 3107
Do uble 5ubjeci mat hs 2103 1944 1871 1859 1688 1669 1728
Medical and dental
Entranls wilh A-l c'icls 3852 4152 4386 4533 4635 46% 4764
AllYmalh s A- level 1285 1468 1499 1628 1693 1885 2095
Double subjec t math s 1)9 129 142 147 117 138 161
Biological sei e n ce~
Eillrants with A · le~'els 3770 4189 4441 4676 4819 4847 4914
Any maths A-level \097 1124 1236 1J31 1469 1554 1656
Double subjec t math s 61 51 60 62 45 52 47
Olher seien ces
Entrant .. \...·ilh A-levelS 2897 29)1 302 1 2945 )052 ) 123 3108
Any maths A-level 1506 1434 1512 1458 14 57 L469 1646
Double subjec t marhs 422 324 327 298 222 202 281
8miness sludles
Entralll s with A-Ie..,el$ 2062 2343 2828 3060 2884 2873 2986
A ny rnalh!l A-level 86) 1064 [)42 1364 1446 1447 1621
Double subje<:t ",3 lhs 185 189 260 232 163 155 177
Geography
Entral\! s with A-levels 1506 1657 1)16 1795 1805 1804 1823
Any malhs A- level )72 364 436 459 474 413 454
Double subject malhs 34 )0 12 ]JJ 23 16 19
Other subjects
Enlrall\s wilh A-levels 19089 20653 22 102 22 51 4 24 279 24394 '24984
Any malhs A- level 2315 2473 2689 2793 2886 30 14 3)38
Double subject malh s 397 354 360 356 282 244 246

All ~ ubj ecl groups

Entrants with A-levels 45 400 4801 1 509 18 52566 55 324 56282 58 02.\
OJ whom Anpnalhs A-level 18920 18 783 20089 20 920 22060 23 222 25 147
OJ whom Do uble 1mbjecl maths 6006 5263 5446 550 1 4892 5056 5341

SOUC1:(,; Ufl ; versn ~ SI3Ii\1 It1l Rt co.d

l W ilh home fee-paying ~la[Us .

, See paragraph A21 .
A ppendi >. I ':ila liSlical informa tion 269

Table 29 Entrants [0 fir st degree Or first degree and first diploma courses: I

as percentages of all entrants wit.h stated qualifications

Universities in England and Wales Perce nla ge~

Year o f entry [0 fir s! degree cour~

1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 [979

Subjec t group :
Engineering and tech no tosy
Ent r;J nl S with A -Ie .. els ' 12. 0 "_5 1l .5 12.0 12.} 12. 6 12.8
Any matll s A ·level ' 2 7, I 26, I 27. 0 27.8 28.3 28. 7 28,0
Double subject malhs ' 26. 9 26.9 28.2 30,2 31.4 33.7 32.1
Pnys k al sci enees
Entrant s wilh A-Ie ... els 9.2 8.2 7,9 7,9 7.9 8 ,0 8.4
Any ffi:11h s A -level 19,6 17.9 17.0 16,8 16.5 16. 7 16,6
Do uble subjec! mal hs 17.5 15.7 15,8 15.7 16.7 17.3 18. I
\ tathemalica\ sludks
EnLra/ll :-, wi th A-Ie..e ls 5.8 5.5 5.0 4,9 5, I 5.2 5.4
A ny math s A-level 14.0 13,9 12.6 12.3 12.7 12,5 11.4
Double su bject ma lh s 35. 0 36.9 34,4 33.8 34,5 3.1.0 32. 4
\~ ed ical
and de nial
Entranl $ with A -Je ... els 8,5 8.6 8. 6 8. 6 8.4 8.3 S.l
Any math s A -level 6.8 7,8 7. 5 7.8 7,7 8. 1 8.3
Dou ble su bjec t ma ths 2.3 2.5 2. 6 2, 7 1.4 2. 7 3. 0
Bi o logil.:aJ sciences
EnlTanlS wi th A · leve ls 8.3 8.7 8.7 8. 9 8. 7 8,6 8,5
An y math s A-level 5.8 6.0 6,2 6.4 6.7 6.7 6.6
Double subjec t mmlls 1.0 I .f) I, I I,I 0.9 1.0 0. 9
Other scie nces
Emrants with A · levels 6.3 6. 1 5,9 5.6 5,5 5.5 5.4
A ny malii s A-Ie ....e l 8.0 7.6 7.5 7.0 6.6 6. 3 6.5
Doubl e "ubjecl malh s 7.0 6,2 6.0 5,4 4.5 4.0 5.3
Busio es~
studies
Emr3nlS ",ilh A-Ie\'els 4,5 4,9 5,6 5.8 5. 2 5. 1 5.1
A ny m3rhs A· le ... el 4. 6 5.7 6. 7 6. 5 6.6 6. 2 6.5
Do uble subjec t marin 3. 1 3,6 4,8 4.2 3. 3 3, I 3,3
Geogra phy
EntranlS with A-levels 3.3 3.5 3.4 3 .4 3.J 3.2 3. 1
Any ma th s A -leve l l.O 1.9 2.2 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.8
Do uble w bjecI malhs 0,6 0.6 0.6 0. 4 0.5 0.3 0 ,4
O ther subjects
Entrant s wil h A-levels 42.0 43, 0 43.4 42.B 43.9 43, 3 43. 1
Any ma lhs A-level 11.2 13.2 /3.4 13.4 13. J no I3.J
Do uble subjeci ma th s 6. 6 6.7 6,6 6.5 5.8 4,8 4.6

All s ubject grou ps

En [Tam.s with A-le ....e ls 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
An y ma lh s A-leve l 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Double s ubject maths 100 100 100 100 100 100 100

So u rc~: U niv eu il J;!~Sl'll i, t leal RetOld

I With home fee· pa.,.·ing stu3lUS .
! See paragraph A2l.

. As percenlage or .111enlrants wilh A-Ie vels_

~ As percentage o f al\ ell\rant ~ wilh any nlaths A-leve l.
, A ~ perce lllage o f all e nrranlS ....ith do uble-subject math ~.
270 Appendix I Sta listica l informa tion

Table30 Entran ts to firs t degree or first degree and first d iploma COurses: as
percentages of ent rants to each subject group with stated qualifIcation
Universities in England and Wales Percentage!.

Year or elltry to fir!>! degree cour$eS

1973 1974 1975 t976 1977 t978 1979

S ubject group I
Engjneering ant.l l echno log~·
Single -subject ma th ~) 64.1 63.3 66. 4 65.9 70.1 69.9 71.5
Double-s ubjeet marhs ! 29.6 15.8 16.1 26.4 22.9 2'.0 23.0
Any ma lh s A- level.' 93.6 89.0 92.6 92.1 93.0 93.9 94.6
Physical sciences
Single-subjec t malhs 64.0 64./ 63.4 63.6 64.9 66.3 66.3
Double-subject malhs 15.1 20.9 )/.4 10.9 /8.8 /9.' 10.0
Any m31hs A-level 89.1 85.0 84.8 84.5 83.7 85.7 86.3
Mathematical '5.ll1dies
Singk-snbje<"1 maths 10.' 15.0 16. / 27.5 38.3 42.2 '3 .9
Double-subject malhs 79.4 73.7 71.7 71.8 60.4 57.0 .15.0
An y malhs A -level 99.8 98.7 99.8 99.3 98. 7 99.2 98.9
Medical and denIal
Sinsie-subj eci mal hs 29.8 31.1 30. 9 32.7 14.0 31.1 40.6
Double-subject mat hs 3.6 3. / 3.2 3.1 2.5 2.9 3. '
A ny mal hs A-Ie ~'e l 33.4 35.4 34.1 35.9 36.5 40. / 44.0
Bioiosicai sciences
Single-subjeCt mal h.s
Double-5nbjlX't malhs
A ny m3ths A- level
17.5
/ .6
29. /
25.6
/.2
16.8
/ .
26.5

17.8
27,/
U
28.5
29.5
0.9
30.5
3/ .0
/./
32. /
32. 7
1.0
33.7
Ot her Scie nces
Slngk-su bjel:Lmal.hs 38.1 37.9 39.2 39. 4 40.5 40.6 '3.9
Doub le-subject mal hs 14.8 1/, / /0.8 10. / 7.3 6.5 9.0
A ll Y maths A-leveJ 52.9 48.9 50.0 49. .5 47.7 47.0 53.0
Busi ness stu dies
Single-subject malhs 32.9 37.3 38.3 37.0 44.5 ' J. O 48. 4
Double-subject malhs 9.0 8. / 9.2 7.6 5. 7 5,4 5. 9
Any maths A- level 4/.9 4.5.4 4 7.5 44.6 50. / .50. 4 54.1
Geography
Single-subject malhs ]2.4 20.2 23.J 24.J 25.0 22.0 23.9
Do uble-subject mal hs 1.3 /.8 /.9 /./ /.3 0.9 / .0
A ny mal hs A-level )4. 7 11.0 ]j . 4 25.6 16.3 11.9 24.9
Other subjects
Single-subject mal hs 10.0 /0.3 /0.5 /0.8 /0.7 /l.. /1.4
Dou ble-subject marhs 2. / 1.7 /.6 1.6 1.2 1.0 / .0
Any maths A- level /2.2 / 2.0 /1.2 /2.4 1l.9 /1,4 /3.4

All subject g rO~ l ps

Single-subject malh s 18.' 28.2 18.8 29.3 3/.0 31.3 J4.1
Do ubl e-subject ma ths /3.1 1/.0 /0.7 /0.5 8.8 9.0 9.2
Any malhs A- leve l 41. 7 39. 1 39.5 39.8 39.9 4/.3 43.3

Sou.n:e: Uni\·crsilkJ s...lillll"al Record

, See paragraph A21.
! Percentage of entrants to 5ubj:<:1 group who have this Qua lification .
 Appendix I Sla tistical information 271

Desf inations of A22 Tables 31 to 33 provide information about the destination of those ob-
graduates in taining first degrees in mathematical studies (see paragraph AI6 and note to
mathematical studies paragraph 150) from universities in England and Wales in the years 1977, 1978
and 1979. They are not restricted to those with home fee-paying status. /n
each of these years the overall proportion of those obtaining first deg rees who
had home fee-paying status was more than 90 per cent of men and more than
95 per cent of women.
Table 31 Destinations of graduates in mathematical studies·
Uni ve rsities in En gland and Wales

Year of completing degree course

1977 1978 1979

Moo Wome n Men Women Men Women

Destination :
Funhet' shldy or training
(olher than for teac hing) 280 71 309 68 299 69
Teacher training 156 165 1[1 100 109 [08
TOta l (study or Haining) 4]6 236 420 168 408 177
Permanent home
employment ~ 934 406 1080 404 1102 419
Already employed or no t
8'.ailabIe J 13' 67 139 71 143 93
Temporary home em ploy-
men! or nne mployed 117 26 n 22 89 19
Not known 152 30 135 34 192 48
Total 1773 765 1846 699 1934 756

I See paragraph A 22, So~ rct : UJli~e r ;i l te5SIalhi ocai Record

: Analysed further in Table 32.

1 lndudes rClU rn overseas o r emp]oyment o verseas .

Table 32 Type of permanent home employment : Graduates in

mathematical s([..tdies I Uni\'ersilies in England and Wales

Y(~ar of compledng degree course

1977 (97 8 1979

(vlen \Vomen Men Women Men Women

Type of work :
Re.search, design in
engincerlng/technolo8}' 78 26 101 27 121 43
Services 10 managemen t ) 462 182 560 191 589 192
Financial work 1 255 108 169 11 8 265 105
Teaching. (nOl onJy in
schools) 19 18 20 14 11 15
Oilier 120 72 130 54 116 64

Total 93 4 406 11)80 404 ItO! 419

• Analysed further in Table 33 . Sol! r<:~: 1 : 1I;~"C"rsl l les S181 1~I ICI!.I R.-.:; orJ

See paragraph A22

272 Appendix 1 Statislical inforn1tllion

Tablr 33 Services to management and financial work : Graduates in

mathematical studies I
Universities in England and \Vales

Year of eompleting degree COlJf5t"

1977 1978 1979

Men Women Men v,,'o men Men Women

Service'!- to managemen t:
Compu ler programming 3113 127 420 134 440 144
Systems analysis 50 21 53 17 58 18
Ope rational research 20 6 22 15 27 13
Other 74 28 65 25 64 17

Tmal 462 182 560 191 589 192

financial work :
Accounlaueyankles 110 56 146 BO 123 59
Other accountancy 43 25 15 15 39 15
Aetuarial 68 7 74 13 75 15
Banking 1:5 8 12 I 18 9
Other 19 12 22 9 JO 7

Tola) 255 108 269 liS 265 105

, See paragraph A22.

A23. Table 34 compares the number of grad uates in mathematical studies

who gained employment in computer programming wit h the number of
graduates from other subject groups who were similarly employed.
Table 34 Graduate employment ID computer programming: by subject
group
Uni"ersil ies in EngJand and WaJes

Ye'ar of co mpleting degree ~o urse

19'77 1978 1979

Women Men Women Men \Nomen

Subjecl gro up: '

Engineering and technology 50 5 74 6 95 6
Ph ysical sc ience~ 98 21 115 24 lSI 35
Mathematical s tudi e~ 318 127 420 134 440 144
Medical and dental I o 4 I I 2
Biological science~ 22 17 47 39 56 39
Other S{' i e n :::e~ 53 38 75 31 73 39
Business s[Udies 24 8 42 IS 41 II
Geography II 7 18 18 27 17
Oill er sn bjec is 39 33 71 71 91 74

All 616 256 866 342. 975 367

O'!n who were gradu.ues in

malhemalical studies 51,6 49.6 48.5 39.2 45.1 39.2

Source: Umvenilin S I3ltSl lCai Record

I See paragraph A21.
 273

Appendix 2 Differences in mathematical

performance between girls
By Miss H B Shuard and boys

B I Pupils in schools are often classified acco rding to their sex, and discussion
of their educational programme may take their sex into account, either direct-
ly or because of social custo m. Until fairly recently in Britain, it was com-
mo nplace to d iscuss separately the educatio n of boys and girls, including the
mathematics courses they should fonow, and expectations of their
mathematical attainment we:re different. In this appendix, differences in
mathematical performance are described , and possible causes of these dif-
ferences are discussed . Historical and statistical evidence, and the con-
siderable volume of research on educational differences between lhe sexes,
are drawn upon . Suggestions are made for measures which might help to im-
prove the mathematical performance of girls.

Historical Background B2 Mathematics established itself in th e curriculum of boys ' public and
secondary schools in the first half of the nineteenth century , 'Il1d when girls'
secondary schools began to be founded later in the ceorury, the pioneers of
girls' education wished to introduce its study into their schaab; . Lecturing in
1848, Professor F D Maurice discussed the curri culum of th e, newly opened
Queen 's College; his remarks about mathematics have often b,,"n quoted Out
of co ntext as a belief "that women students were unlikely to lldvance far in
mathematics" I. However, the belief which he actually expressed was that
although " we a re aware that our pupils are nOt likel y to advance far in
Mathematics", there were po sitive benefits which girls would gain from its
study, a nd " the least bit o f kno wledge . . . must be good" '. At another new
girls' school, C heltenham L adies ' Coilege, Miss Dorothea Beale acknowledg-
ed that although she wished to introduce mathemat ics into the curriculum, it
would spell financial ruin for the school, because parents did not wish their
daughters to study it. Even ar ith metic was suspect; around 1860, a father
wrote to Miss Beale, on deciclilng to send his daughters to another sc hool, " My
dear lad y, if my daughters were going to be bankers, it would be very well to
teach arithmetic a'i you do, but really there is no need " J , However, th e o pen-
ing of the Cambridge Local Examinations to girls in 1863 gave impetus to the
teaching of arithmetic and mathematics in girls' secondary schools. Of the
first 25 candidates from the Nonh London Collegiate School, 10 failed in
arithmetic; the headmistress, Miss Buss, was horrified. and the leaching of
arithmetic at once became a matter of extreme importance in her schooP . On-
ly three years later, girls were doing as well in arithmetic as in other subjects in
the Cambridge Local Examinations, and when substantial numbers of girls'
secondary schools were founded after 1873, mathematics became a regul ar
274 Appendi x 2 mCfe rences in rnal hemal ical performance between girlS a nd boys

subject of (he c urric ulum. At first th ere were great di ffic ulties bec au se of the
inadequ a te supply o f teacher s: this slowly impro ved as more women
graduared from universities, bUl in 1912 it was est imated that , our o f some 900
wome n teaching mathemat ics in secondary schools, only about one-third had
lhemselves studied as far as the calc ulu s. However, [he boys' schools were no
betrer off, fo r ab o u! the same proportion of men teach ers of math ematics in
seco ndary school s had slUdied calculus. I

B3 In the public elementar y schools, bo t.h boys and girls learned arithmetic,
but as th e Ro yal Commission o n th e Eleme ntary Edu cation Acts 4 re poILed in
J888, "as the time of the girls is largel y tak en up with needl ework, the tim e
th ey can give to arithmetic is less than that whic h can be gi ven by boys". They
there for e recommended that th e arithm etical requirement s o f th e c urriculum
should be modified in th e case of girls .

B4 In the 1912 Report on th e teachin g of math ematics in Britain ' , Miss E R

Gwatkin, headmistress of Queen Mary High School, Liverpool, noted that
mathe matics occ upied a good position in the c urriculum of most girls) secon-
dary schools, bUllhe pressure caused b y the introduc tio n of a wid er range of
subj ec ts into th e curriculum was causing this position to be questio ned .
Amon g rhe o bjec tions to mathematics as an imponant subject fo r girls were
that th e subject was un imeresting to most girls, that its utilitarian vaJue to
them was negligible, which co uld explain th e lack of interes t, and that its dif-
ficuh y pur a slrain on pupils ou[ of all proportio n to the benefi t received. Miss
Gwatkin presented a clear (:ase a gainst th ese object ions, using such arguments
as the following:
All girls o ught 10 gr o w up reaso nable beings, and ma ny o f them do oa t; all gi rls
ought to acquire a kno wl edge o f the meani ng o f langu age . and a power o f using it
accuratel y. and man y of {hem d o not. Mathematics, pro perly taught, will hel p to
both end s. [n all branches of Malhematics. tho ugh perhaps more especialJ y in
G eomeu y, it is ne cessary (0 be clea r-headed.

Wo men are said to be iu co nsislem , and . mo reO'1eT. to be Quile una ble to recogn ise
their inconsisrenc), . There is 11 0 pla ce where the penalties o f in consistency a re mOTe
Strikin g than in lhe mathematical classroom .

Mal hem atics ... o ffers un ique o pportunities [0 the teacher fo r recognismg and en -
co uraging independent th o ugJ"lt. . . . Girls, perh aps, need a greater stimu lus to in-
dependenl t ho ugh t than boys do.

Much harm is d o ne b y r,a tin g to o highly a gir l's po wer to pro duce- someho w,
a nyhow - the co rreCl answer to a given sum, and more attentio n should be paid [0
style , a nd more c redit givE~ n fo r co nnected and inteUigi ble explanation s, both o ral
and writte n.
A teacher o f girls is, perhaps , loa easily sali~fied when her pupils are working steadi·
ly and co nscienti o usly along rhe lines which she has la id do wn fo r th em; a boy is
almost cenain to go off a[ a ta ngent. . rouline does him less harm, be<: ause he is
less s usceptible (0 ils influence . Probably one of the weaknesses o f girts is thar rhey
win submit to so much dullness without resentment. . . Many girls who are ap-
parently good wo rkers are really mentally Jazy. th ey repro duce , but they do no t pro -
duce. A teacher needs to be alive to litis da nger, and to realise lbat it is her business
to srimulate intellectual curi osi ty, the d esire to know, and not o nly to know , but to
Appendix 2 Differences in mathemarical performance between girts and boys 275

find Qui at first hand; she has every opportunity in Mathematics, where hardly any
of th e work should be reproductive.

The evidence cited laler in this appendix shows lhat some of the reasons given
for girls' need for mathematics as pan of their education in 1912 are now ad·
vanced as reasons for their failure to perform beller at [he subject.

B5 In 1923, when the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education

reported on differentiation of the curriculum for boys and girls ' , the Regula-
tions for Secondary Schools provided that:
an appro ...·ed course in a combination of these (domestic) subjects may for girl s
over 15 years of age be substituled panial1y or wholly for Science and for
Mathematics Olher than Arithmetic.

Moreover, OUl of 230 Advanced Courses in Mathematics and Science provid-

ed in secondary schools, less than one quarter were in girls' schools. The Com-
mittee, however. noted that:
The present degree of girls ' inferiority in Ihis subject shoutd not be regarded as
permanenl. being du e parr I)' [0 unskilful reaching of an old-fashioned kind and
partty to an impression among pare nt s~ whkh has influen ced the timetable. that
Mathematics is unsuitable for girls.

B6 At intervals between 1905 and 1937 the Board of Eduction issued hand-
books of Suggestions for the Guidance of Teachers ' . These suggestions were
addressed to teachers in elementary schools, induding in the 1937 edition the
senior schools which were the forerunners of the secondary modern schools.
In (he early issues there was little suggesrjon Ihat the arithmetic curriculum
should differ for boys and girls, but as standards rose and children stayed
longer at school, comment on curriculum differe nce for the sexes appeared.
From 1918 onwards it was suggested that "difference of sex must affect to
some extent the treatment of many ordinary subjects in the curriculum", so
that in arithmetic. u a course suitable for boys often requires considerable
modification if it is to Serve the needs and interest of girls" . Girls should deal
with "detailed accounts accompanying shopping and housekeeping", while
boys "established by experimental methods some of the more important
theorems of elementary geometry". In 1927 it was noted that in the senior
classes, girls spent less time on mathematics and were less likely to be using it
in other subjects. However, this threw more responsibility on the teacher for
providing a basis of reality for girls' mathematical work :
the fact that the girls miss the scale-drawing and "plan and elevation" work of
the handicraft co urse should be a reaso n not for doing less but for doin g more of
.such work in mathematics, and the same remarks apply to the practical measure-
menr which girls miss through not studying elementary physics.

By the next edition of the Handbook in 1937, the education of girls and boys
had come closer together, and this edition stated that :
In menial capacity and intellectual interest s they have much in common, the
range of difference in either sex being greater than the difference between the sexes.
But in early adolescence the (hought s of boys and girls are turning so stro ngly
towards their future roles as men and women [har it would be entirely inappropriate
10 base their education solely on their intellectual similariry .
276 Appendix 2 Oifferenees in mathemalieaJ performance between girls and boy!.

Thus by 1937 educational opinion had come to regard girls and boys as in-
tellectually similar, although different in interests.

Present-day differences B7 Today, almost all girls as well as boys st udy mat hematics up to the age of
in the examination 16. but gi rls are still not as successfu l in mat hematics exa minations as are
performance of boys. The proportion o f entries fo r public e xaminations in mathematics by
boys and. girls gir ls decreases as the level of the examination increases. At eSE, almost equal
numbers of boys and -girls en ter ' , although the same was nOl true in earlier
years. In O· levei mathemat;cs, only 44 per cent of the 1979 entr y was from
girls, while in A-level, 26 per cent of the 1979 entry was from girls. However,
th e position is improving; in 1968, 37 per cent uf the mathematics O-Ievel en-
try was from girls, and only 17 per cent of the mathematics A-level entry.

88 Info rmation about the relative performance of boys and girls has also
been obt ained from the DES Survey of 10 per cent of schoolleavers. discussed
in Appendix I. This data relates to pupils who left school in 1979, so that not
all their examination results were obtain ed in th e same year. At O-level, 24.5
per cent of boys who left scbool in 1979 had a pass in mat hematics at grade A,
B or C, but only 17.6 per cent of girls, and at the highest grade, grade A, more
than twice as many boys (5 .5 per cent) as girls (2 .6 per cent) obtained this
grade . This is significant for th eir future careers, as amongst the pupils who
went on to take A-level mathematics, 91 per cent of both boys and gi rls who
had obtained a grade A pass at O·level passed at A-level, while only 48 per cent
of boys and 36 per cent of girls who had a grade CO-level pass obtained an
A-level pass. Howe ver, a smaller proportion of the gi rls who had a grade A
pass in O-Ievel mat hematics co ntinued 10 A-level than did boys; the percen-
tages were 48.6 per cent of gi rls as aga inst 66.9 per cent of boys. In summary, a
smaller proportion of girls than boys enter for O·level mathematics; of those
who do enter, a smaller proportion of girls achieve high grades, and of those
with high grad es , a smaller pro portion of girls than boys proceed to A-level.
The result of this is that nearly three times as many boys as girls entered for
A-level mathematics in 1979: 12 350 girls as against 34 670 boys. Although
the overall pass rates for boys and girls were very similar (boys 73.4 per cent ,
girls 73.0 per cent), at the highest grade boys were more successful ; 10.1 per
cent of girls obtained a grade A pass, as against 15.4 per cen t of boys.

B9 Although boys are more successful than girls in public examinations in

mathematics. the opposite holds in English, as Appendix I shows. The picture
which emerges is that girls under-achieve in pub lic examinations in
mathematics compared with boys, while in English the positio n is reversed.
This pattern contin ues into the teach in g careers of men and women . so th at in
1978, among the 258 811 women teac hers and ISO 060 men teachers in main·
tained schoo ls, there were 2484 women mathematics graduates, as against
5264 men mathematics graduates'. The same pattern holds among students
who follow the BEd route into teaching; the percentages of 1980 entrants to
subject-o riented BEd courses who too k mathematics either as a single subject
or in combination were: men 17.4 per cent, women 8 per cenl.
 Appendix 2 Difrerences in mathematical performance beLween girl ~ and boys 277

Details of differences BID In order to see how girls' performan ce in mathematics might be improv-
in mathematical ed , it is necessary to look at details of the differences. This information can be
performance gathered from a number of sources at different age levels. More work has
been done in the USA than in Britain on sex di ffere nces in mathematics; the
position in the two countries seems to be roughly co mparable, and American
as well as British work is therefore referred to.

BII In the proj ect reponed in Mathematics alld the 100year-old, Ward '
tested 22% child ren in England and Wales; each item was administered to
more than 550 children . Girls performed sign iticantly belter than boys on II
items Out of 9 1. These items were on com putatio n with whole numbers and
money. and on entirely verbal items in volving naming geometric shapes and
making a deduction from given verbal (non-numerical) information. Girls
-also did signifi cantly bener on one logic item involving mappings. Boys per-
formed significantly belter on 14 items out of 91. Four of these items were on
place-value, and of the other five place-value items, boys did better on four.
The other items on which boys did significantly better involved measurement
and visual items, word problems and reversing an operatjon, as in
105 .. !J. = 21 . The items on which girls did significantly belter were easier, wilh
average success rate 64 per cent , as against an average success rate of 49 per
cent for tho items on which boys did significantly beller. The items on which
gi rls did better were also thought to be more imponant by their teachers, in a
survey carried out as pan of the project. The types of items on which boys did
better at the age of 10 become more important as children get older. An
understanding of place-value, an ability to reason about a word-problem and
to reverse an operation become more important as pupils proceed towards
O-level, when routine co mputation is less important than problem-solving
ability.

BI2 The first APU Primary Survey, in 1978 ' , found some differences bet-
ween boys a nd girls in the results of its written tests at the age of cleven:
The girls' mean score is significantly higher statistically in com putation (whole
numbers and decimals). The boy s' mean sco re js significamly higher statistically in
three sub-categories: length, area, vo lume and capacily; applicalio ns of number;
and rate and ratio.

However, in the 1979 APU Primary Survey' 0, girls were not significantl y in
advance of boys in computation, while there were two additional categories in
which boys sco red significantly higher: the measuremem of money, time,
weight and temperature; and concepts of decimals and fractions. Both the
1978 and 1979 Primary Surveys also found differences between the sexes in
the practical testing. Boys were significantly betler at building from a diagram
a model which needed four hidden blocks to make it stand; in 1979,82 per cent
of boys succeeded, but only 63 per cent of girls. Although 71 per cent of the
girls in the first survey could halve a given piece of string and then Cut off one
quaner of this piece as against 60 per cent of boys, the percentages who knew
what fraction of the wh ole string they now had were : boys 43 per ceO! and girls
40 per cem; a similar resull occurred the next year. There were aJso two signifi-
cant differences in favour of boys among the questions on the topic of
weighing. Girls, on the other hand, were slightly bener at giving change from
27B Append ix 2 Differences in malilema(ical perrormance between girls a nd boys

a sum of money; there was a difference of between 6 per cent and 9 per cent on
each of the ilems on this topic .

B13 The first APU Seco ndary Survey" found that bythe ageof 15116, the
composition of the top 10 per cent of achievers was: boys 61.5 per cent and
gi rls 38.5 per cent . However, the difference between proportions of boys and
girls in the middle 10 per cent of achievers and in the bottom 10 per cent was
small. Over ali th e written tests, boys had higher scores than girls in every sub·
category. and were furthest ah ead in descriptive geometry (a success rate of 7
per cent mo rc than that for girls), rate and ratio (6 per cent) and mensuration
(5 per cent). There were also considerable differences between boys and girls
in the practical tests. particu larly in the mass/ weight to pic, in which 19 pe r
cent more boys than girls succeeded in finding the mass of one peg from a bag
o f equal small pegs when given only a 20 gram mass and a balance. This ropic
was an ex(ension of the task on weighing used in th e Primary Surveys .

B14 In 1973 and 1974, Wood' , analysed performance on the London Board
O·level Syllabus C papers. On the multiple·choice papers he found that, in ad·
dition to the fact that girls generally performed worse than boys, they were
panicularly weak on items on scale, pie·charts and probability, and had a
poor grasp of size and of distance·time graphs. Girls were strong on sets, Venn
diagrams, mau ic es, the real number-line or line-segments, and on
straightforward vector addition. In the free·response question s, probabilit y
and geometry were much more popular among boys, and girls' relative per-
fonnan ce was worst on a Question about size and estimat ion. Girls in single-
sex schools did rather better than girls in mixed schools, but the items on
which girls from single·sex schoo ls out·performed girls from mixed schools
were on subslitut ion, intersection of sets, reflec tion and matrix definition .
The performance on the "boys' items" remained low. The compa rison bet-
ween single-sex and mixed schools needs to be treated with some caution, as in
1973-4 many of the single·sex schools were selective, and it is therefore nol
clear how far like was compared with like . Wood summarises
None of (he items on which girls o ut-perfo rmed boys required what co uld be
termed problem -so lving beha viour; ins tead Lhey call for recognition or classifica-
tion, the supplyin g of definiti o ns, application of techniques, sub sti tution o r
numbers into an a lgebraic expression and so ro rth . just the kind or operations
which are most susceptible EO drilling.

Wood pUI S forward two hypotheses to explai n lhe differences. The nrst is the
difference between the sexes in ability in spatial visualisation, which is weU
doc.umented, and which is discussed in paragraph BI B. The second is what he
caBs in another article ll Cable's Comparison Factor. He uses the term 'com-
parison factor ' for a number which is used to stat e how one quantity compares
\.\~th another, and he sees the existence of a comparison factor as a common
thread linking the diffjcult (for girls) ilems o f fractio ns, proportion and
measures.

BI5 A number of similar studies have been carried out in the USA. Many of
those which dealt wirh children of ages between 10 and 14 were surveyed by
Fennema in 19741 J.
 Appendix 2 Difierences in ma thema tica l perfor mance between girls and boys 279

She concluded that

Girls performed s,lighLly better than did boyS in the lea st complex skill (computa-
tion). In {he 77 tests of more complex cognitive sk ilis (comprehension, applica-
lioll and analysis) five tests had results (ha[ favoured girls, while 54 lest:; showed
significa m differences in favour of boys. The conclusion is inesea pabJe [hat the
boys of these pop ulations learned the mathematics measured by these tests better
(han did the girls .. .
in overall performance on lests measuring mathematies learning . . . there are
no signi ficant di fferences that consisrenrly appear between the Jearning of boys and
girls io {he fo urth 10 ninth grade . . . . if a difference does exis[, girls lend (0 perform
better in test s of mathema{ical comp utatio n. and boys tend to perfo rm better in
Tests of mathemat ical reaso ning.

Bl6 Fennema also analysed the 1978 mathematics test of the USA National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) " . Testin g was carried out at
ages 9. 13 and 17. and the lest was analysed into scores on knowledge. skills,
understanding and applications. It was found that with the exception of the
s kills scores of the 9 and 13 year olds. boys did better than girls in all cases. and
the higher the cognitive level. the greater the difference between the sexes.
Moreover, in items related [Q geometry, such as measuremenl skills,
geometric manipulations and items on perimeter, area and volume, the dif-
fere nces were particularly large .

Bl7 The test ing carried out in 1964 as part of the Int ernat ional Srudy of
Achievemcm in Mathematics l " showed a similar pattern . In all twelve
de veloped countries which took part in the study. [he performance of boys
was higher than that o f girls at the age o f 13. and the performance of boys was
further ahead on verbal mathematical problems than on computational pro-
blems. However. there was a considerab le difference between countries. the
sex differences in performance being greatest in Belgium and Japan. and least
in the USA and Sweden.

B 18 There has been much research on the subject of differential performance

between the sexes on non-mathematical tests of variou s types, and jt is well
established that males tend to petform better than females on tests of spatial
visualisation, which include the ability to rotate objects in the mjnd and to
orient oneself or other objects in space l ~ . Evidently. some aspects of
mathematics make use of this ability. but it is not yet clear how far spatial
visualisation is direclly related to the learning of mathematics. In tests of ver-
bal ability. on the other hand, the average abili ty of girls is greater than that of
boys, but it is not kn own how important thjs ability is in the learning of
matnematics. On all tests. however, the overlap between the sexes is very
large. and it would bea gross distortion to expectthat most bo ys wou ld be bet-
Ler than most girls at, for example, tasks involving spat ial visualisation.

Reasons suggested for Bl9 A number of biological theories have been put forward to explain dif-
differences in fe reuces bet ween the sexes in spatial visualisation. Three of these theories con-
performance cern a recessive gene on the x-chromosome. [he role of sex hormones. and dif-
between boys and girls ferences in brain .1ateralisatjon· 8. The question of biological differences in
280 Appendi.'( 2 Differences in mathematical performance between girl s and bo)'s

eirher spatial visualisation or mathe matical abiliry is not yet fully understood,
but in view of the fact that differences between th e sexes in mathematical at-
tainment are morc marked in some countries than in others' II . there would
seem to be factars other than differences in ability in spalial visualisation
which influence differences in mathematical attainment. These factors may
be classified as fo llows: lirs!, patterns of socialisarion may be produced by
child-rearing practices and peer-group pressures; second ly, the expectadons
of schools and individual teachers may affect pupils' performance; finally,
the pupils' own motivation may have significant effects on their attainment.
AJI these factors may be expected to interact \\'lth one another in innu encing
the different mathematical attainments of boys and girls. These factors are
now surveyed, and reference is made to research studies concerned with them.

Socialisation patterns B20 A child-rearing practice which may have an effect on mathematical at-
tainment is the fact that boys are given significantly more spatial and scientific
toys, rather than th e dolls which girls receive' '. A recent British study" found
significant differenccs between the spontaneous play of boys and girls in a
nursery school; girls engaged in more fantasy and creative play, while boys
chose more const ruction play and play with sand and water. Thro ughout
childhood, boys play more with constructional toys and take part in more
pbysical games, both of which promote spatial awareness and problem-
solving a.ctivity . Bo ys are encouraged to be morc independent , a valuable
characteristic for problem-solving, while girls are expected to be more passive
and conformist, and to spend time helping mother around the house, rather
than helping father with 'do-it-yourselr and ,vit h the car, both of which are
more directl y related to measurement, shape and calcu lation than are
washing-up and simple cooking and sewing. Boys seem to receive more auen-
tion. mOre punishment and more praise from adults, and adults respond to
boys as if they find th em mOre interesting and more attention-provoking than
Birls. ' · Thus, boys' ideas seem to be more valued by adults, and so boys put
their ideas forward . This may have some co nsequences for later mathematics
learning in scbool.

B21 Peer-group pressures centre o n sex-stereotyping, and on the view of

mathematics taken by children's contemporaries. Peer-group pressure in-
creases in ado lescence, and is enhanced by rhe influence of pop culture, the
media and the teenage magazines, some of which still put forward stereotypes
which conflrm the restricted image of the girl who is engaged al the age of 16
or 17 and married at 20' o. Thus, the st udy of mathematics !)lay seem pointless
to girls who are influenced by rhese pressures.

B22 Recent studies suggest that the sex-typing of mathematics is decreasing,

bUI that male prejudice against girls' in volvement in mathematics st ill exists.
or at least girls believe it does " . It has also been shown that mathematically
gifted girls fear thar Iheir achievemenl wiU have negative consequences for
their relationships with bo ys I I and that girls who under-achieve in
mathematics see intellectual achievement as only appropriate for men ll. The
 Appendix 2 Differences in mathematical performance between gids and boys 281

evidence as to whether boys do in fact stereotype mathematics as a male do-

main is somewhat conflicting 1 J! 21. In providing opportunities for
mathematically gifted pupils in Baltimore, Fox" found that more 13 year old
boys than girls were eager to enrol in a special mathematics course, and that
many girls dropped out of the course. They appeared to be afraid that their
participation would have negative social consequences for them.

Factors within the school B23 It is widely believed in the USA that the most important influence on
learning and achievement in mathematics is how great an opportunity the
pupil has to learn mathematics, and that boys take more advanced
mathematics courses than girls do, so that they have more opportunity to
learn mathematics , However, the 1978 National Assessment of Educational
Progress in the USA' , shows only very small differences in course-taking in
mathematics between the sexes. This is not the case in England and Wales,
where more boys than girls take O-level as against CSE courses, and where
this pattern is greatly intensified at A-level. Hence, in the APU's testing of
mathematical attainment in England and Wales at the age of 16, boys might
be expected to score rather higher than girls, because more boys than girls take
O-level courseS.

B24 Mathematics is not only learned in mathematics lessons; a great deal of

mathematics is used and learned in science, especially in the physical sciences,
and in technical drawing, In these subjects, not only is mathematics learned
and practised in a practical co ntext, but the message is conveyed that
mathematics is useful in the technicaJ, scientific and employment worlds, par-
ticularly in the traditional worlds of boy's employment and interests. In the
physical sciences and technical drawing there is a great difference between
numbers of boys and girls who take these subjects.

B25 In mixed schools, in groups in which boys and girls are foilowing the
same course, there is some evidence that boys still have more opportunity to
learn that do girls. Secondary school teachers have been shown to interact
more with boys than they do with girls" and to give more serious considera-
tion to boys' ideas " ; they also give boys more opportunity to respond to
higher cognitive level questions". High-achieving girls have been found to
receive significantly less altention in mathematics cla,ses than do high-
achieving boys J 1.

B26 Even in the primary school, there are differences between the treatment
of boys and girls. In a 1973 survey " HMI found that
_.. Boys engage in a wider range of crafts involving the use o f a range of tools
and materials leading to three-dimensional modelUng and construction and the use
of measurement __ . the boys' experience further helps t.O familiarise them with
geometrical ideas

However, HMI also found that, in middle schools, opportunities for mixed
classes in the crafts were on the increase. This trend towards COmmon ex-
perience for boys and girls in the crafts has no doubt continued since 1973.
282 Appendix 2 Difrerence~ in malhema[kal performance between girls and beys

B27 In primary schools, 100, children are expected to behave in ways regard-
ed as appropriate to their sex. Boys and girls are asked to help in diffe rent
ways in the classroom; boys move PE apparatus and milk crates, while girls
tidy up and arrange displays " . Primary teachers see girls as sensible , obe-
dient. hard-working and co-operative, while boys are excitable and raJkat ive,
and need more supervision and attention 1 0 . Thus, no doubt. teachers find
themselves interacting more with boys Ihan with girls.

B28 Dweck has investigated a phenomenon she caUs 'learned helplessness')'

'Learned helplessness' exists when a person believes that failure at a task is in-
surmountable, and it is accompanied by a deterioration in performance.
Dweck found that some children become incompetent following a failure,
while others rise to the challenge, persist and improve their performance. She
found that the child' s interpretation of the failure, what he thinks ca used it
and whether he thinks he can overcome it, predicts his response. She was able
to train children to attribute their failures to insufficient effort rather than to
innate inability; most of them then showed improvement in a problem-solving
task following a failure. In contrast, children whom she arranged to have ex-
periences only of successful problem-solving during her experiment did not
improve their abiijty to cope with failure when it occurred . She then in-
vestigated by classroom observation (in the USA), the ways in which elemen-
tary school teachers commented on pupils' failures. She found that more of
the negative feedback received by boys referred to conduct than to intellectual
ability, and even feedback about their work was largely about neat ness,
instruction-fallowing or style of presentation. On the other hand, much of the
negative feedback girls received for their work related to ils intellectual
aspects. However, Fennema" made similar observations of pupils aged 12 in
mathematics classes, and found relatjvely few instances in which the teacher
provided feedback to ei ther boys or girls which attributed success or failure to
such causes. Fennema, however, noted that boys who were high in confidence
received a great deal more attention from their mathematics teachers than did
any of the girls, whether they were confident or not, orthan the less confident
boys. In another recent study", Fennema has found significant differences
between boys and girls in the ways in which they themselves attribute their suc-
cesses and failures in mathematics learning. People may attribute their suc-
cesses or failures to relatively stable and unchanging causes such as their own
ability (or lack of it), or to relatively unstable and changeable causes such as
lack of effort, the difficulty or ease of the task, the unfairness of tbe teacher,
or luck . Fennema's wo rk confirmed, for the learning of mathematics, fm-
dings obtained by workers in other areas, that boys are more likely to attribute
their successes to stable causes such as ability and their failures to unstable
causes such as lack of effort, while girls attribute their successes to unstable
causes such as the effort they put into their work, and their failures to stable
causes such as their lack of ability.

Motivation and B29 There is some evidence that boys see more clearly than do girls that
attitudes towards mathematics will be useful in their future Jives and work. Fox, surveying
mathematics American research in 1977 ", found many studies which suggested that girls
Appendi~ 2 Differences in ma thematical performance between gi rl s and boy.~ 283

are less oriented towards careers outside the home than are boys, and that the
use fulness of mathematics in the traditional wom en's careers in business, nur-
sing, teac hing and the soc ial se.rvices is less plain than is its usefulness in tradi-
tional men 's careers. Fennema, however, has reported that in the 1978 NAEP
survey' J , no significant differences were found between boys and girls in the
perceived usefulness of mathematics. This suggests that American atti tudes
may be changing. The recent British evidence on this point is inconclusive. A
survey of the attitudes of 13 year old Sheffield schoolchildren ' " found a smali
but significant difference in the mean scores fo r boys and girls on the attitude
scales. with boys showing a greater liking for mathematics. It was also found
that the most common reason for liking mathematics is it s perceived
usefulness in ge tting a job. or in doing a job. or in general everyday use; on e
boy is quoted as saying " It is helping you to get a better job with good pay
even though the lessons may be boring and confusing".

B30 The APU has surveyed the attitudes of 11 year old children to
mafhematics. In the [jrsl survey 9, it was found that most children agreed with
statements about the usefuln ess of mathematics , and that there were no sex
differences. However, primary mathematics is fairly clearly related to every-
da y life , while the mathematics of the secondary school is less clearly oriented
towards dail y living, and more towards qualifications, further study, and use
in science and technology. in the second survey, in 1979 10 , it was found that
significantly more boys than girls beHeved th at they usually und erstood a new
mathematical idea quickly, that they were usually correct in their work and
that mathematics was one of their better subjects, However, significantly
mOre girls than boys con firmed that they often got int o difficult y with
mathematics and were surprised when they succeeded. Thus, I I year old girls
were already showing a tendency to attribute failure to stable causes such as
lack of ability, while boys showed greater self-co nfide nce in their
mathematics. In their comments on ind ivid ual mathematical topics,
significantly more boys tha n girls liked and found easy topics such as
measurement and geometry, while girls prefered numerical topics such as fac-
tors and multiplication tables .

B3! Many peo ple also regard mat hematics as a male domain. Weiner" main-
tains that
__ _ mathematics \S regard ed by pupils of all ages both primary an d secondz.ry
(and by teachers) as a subject at which bo ys excel.

~la(hematjcs teachers in secondary schools te nd to be men, and in primary

schools men teachers tend to teach the older classes, where the mathematics is
more advanced, while_ women teachers are concentra ted in younger age-
groups where the emphasis on language and reading is greater.

B32 Children acquire many of their attitudes from their parents. Parents still
often hold lower educational aspiratio ns for girls than fo r boys, and it has
been found in the USA that lo w levels of mat hemat ical achieve ment are more
easily accepted by parents of girls than by parents of boys " . Teachers, too,
may unconsc iously playa pan in the sex-role stereotyping which reinforces
children 's attitudes to mathe matics. It is well-known that children's books
284 Appendix'2 Differences in m31hemalica l performance bClween girls and boys

often reinforce traditional pictures of sex-ro les; mathematics textbooks and

examination papers sometimes do the same . It has been said that in one well-
known British secondary mathematics series, aJJ the shopping is done by the
female sex, while in another example, the girls knit while the boys make con-
crete or play football" .

B33 Pupils' self-confidence and self-concept may affect their achievement in

mathematics, and sex differences in self-confidence in mathematics have been
found in several studies " . In one study" most students gave lack of effort as
the reason why they failed to be successful in most subjects of the curriculum.
In mathematics, however, 26 per cent of girls gave their lack of ability as the
reason, but only 15 per cent of boys, Fennema" states that females often feel
inadequate about intellectual, problem-solving activities, and under-estimate
their ability to solve mathematical problems. The APU Primary SU/veys con-
firm that there is a comparative lack of mathematical self-confidence among
girls in England at an age as early as I I. High anxiety is also associated ....,th
lower ach ievement in mathematics. and as schooling progresses, American
girls have been found to display greater anxiety of a debilitating type. Recent
work by Buxton ' , , as well as the report of the study undertaken by ACACE
for our inquiry, suggest that anxiety about mathematics also occurs frequent-
ly in Britain .

Evidence submjtted (0 B34 In view of the evidence cited earlier which shows the differences in ex-
tbe Committee amination success in mathematics between boys and girls in England and
Wales, and the fact that there is a large volume of research evidence on sex dif-
ferences in mathematics, it is surprising that little evidence was submitted to
the Committee relating to this topic. However, the Committee for Girls and
Mathematics pointed out to us that
The debate on standards. paruculariy in relation to the mathematical needs of in-
dustry, has orten seemed to be directed very largely towards boys. Schools, the
careers service and industry appear to have shown very little initiative in encourag-
ing or attracting girls with ability in mathematics into some of the fields where there
arc short faJls of good applicants.

Strategies for improve- B35 The evidence reviewed in this appendix suggests a number of strategies
ment which might improve the attitudes and achievement of girls in mathematics.
Girls should be helped to realise that mathematics is as important for their dai-
ly lives, and in their future careers, as it is for boys. Investigations into the uses
of mathematics in employment have shown the importance of mathematical
knowledge in , for instance, the traditional women's career of nursing, while
failure to obtain O-Ievel mathematics at grade C or higher now provides a bar-
rier to entry to teaching. In less traditional women's careers, public awareness
of equal opportunities for women is increasing. and more girls are entering
these careers. It will be a consequence of this development that greater
demands will be made on girls' mathematics. Boys as weU as girls need to be
aware of the imponance of mathematics [or women's careers and daily lives,
so that boys do not unconsciously emphasise outdated stereotypes in their ex-
pectations of girls.
Appendix 2 Differences in malhemalica\ performance between girls and boys 285

B36 Teachers should ensure that girls receive additional help and encourage-
ment in the areas of measuring, spatial and diagrammatic work and problem-
solving, and should ensure that girls attain a good grasp of the principles of
place-value. Girls should be encouraged to tackle higher cognitive level tasks,
and not be content with success at low-JeveJ tasks such as routine computa-
tion.

B37 Teachers need to become aware of the fact that they may unconsciously
give cues to both boys and girls. and that these cues may affect not only at-
titudes to mathematics but also the learning of mathematics. If a teacher
responds to pupils in a way which conveys the message to a boy that
mathematics is imponant for him, that he is expected to succeed and that lack
of success is due to his lack of effon, while a girl receives the message that her
lack of success is due to lack of ability and that lack of mathematical ability is
common and unimponant in girls, then it is not surprising if the girl gives up
trying while the boy tries hard,er. Thus, teachers need to be consciously aware
of the importance of helping girls to see their successes in mathematics as the
result of their good mathematical ability. and not solely due to their hard
work. Teachers also need to be well informed of the specific areas of
mathematics in which girls may need additional experience and help if they are
to achieve well. and of the imponance of ensuring that girls are given tbe
necessary opportunities,

B38 Authors, publishers, examiners and teachers should ensure that written
material in mathematics does not reinforce the stereotyping of boys as active,
exploratory problem-solvers while girls are pomayed as passive helpers
whose interests do not extend beyond fashion and the home. Applications of
mathematics should encompass those with which girls as well as boys can
identify , Teachers also need to ensure that mathemat ics is not presented as a
male domain in the daily oral work of the classroom, as well as in written
materials .

B39 In choosing their options in the secondary school, girls should be cn-
couraged (0 take more subjects in which the uses of mathema(,ics are made
plain. As well as the traditiom~ subjects of physics and technical dra,,;ng, the
newer Craft, Design and Technology and computer studies can encourage a
problem-solving approach which is relevant to today's world.

B40 Careers guidance should make plain to girls, early in the secondary
school, t.he qualifications which they will need for entry to various occupa-
tions, and the importance of mathematics among those qualifications .
Mathematics often acts as a 'liilter', whose absence as a qualification can ex-
clude girls from many fields of employment, training and fun her education.

B41 Research is needed in Britain into the causes of girls' comparative under-
achievement in mathematics. A good deal of the research quoted above was
undenaken in the USA, and it is not clear how accurate is its application in the
British educational system, and in a society whose expectations are not exactly
the same as those of society in t he USA. It is clear, however, from the statistics
286 Appendix 2 Differences in mat hematical perfo rma nce between girls and boys

of public examinations in England and \-Vales tha t , even in the las t few years,
many fewer girls Ihan boys were sludying malh emalies al Ihe higher levels.
and Ihal Ih ose who co nlinu ed Ihe stud y of malh emal ics did nol, perform as
well as did boys al Ihe hi ghesl grades.

R e fe~nl'cs ' Special RcpoJ1S on Ed ucalional Subj e<:l s; Volume 26, The leach ing of malhemo/ic5 in Ihe
Uniled Kingdom, HMSQ, 19 12.
}Maurke F. D., Queen's Coflege, London: ils objects and methods, Lo ndon . 1848.
lKamm. J . Ho w Differenl From Us, Bod ley H ead , 1958.
t

' Finol Report 0/ Ih e Commissioners oppointed /0 I flqulI"e inl o lhe Elementary Education Acts,
England and Wales. (t he Cross Report ), HM SQ, \880.
5Board of Education. Repor/ of rhe Consul/alive Commilfee on Dif/erentiotion oj the Cur·
riculumjor Boys and Girls respeclively in Secondary Schools. H MSO, 1923 ,
• Board of Educalio n, Suggeslions/Qr the Considerafion o/Teochers and others concerned in {h e
Work 0/ Public Elemen/ary Schools, HMSO, First issue 1905. Th e handbook was re-issued in
1909, 1912, 19 J5. )918, 1922. 1923, 1927 and 1937, T here were s ubslan lial c hange ... to th e sectio n
on mat hemat ics in 1915. 1927 and 1937.
: DES, SfafLslicso/education, HMSO. 1978 .
~ W ard, M .. Marhemotics ond Ih e IO-year-old, Schoo ls Co un cil Working Paper 6 1,
Evans/ Melh ue n Educalional. 1979.
' Assessmcut of Performance Unil, Malh ernalicof developmenl . Primary sUr'lley report No.1.
HMSO. )980.
I ~ Assessment of Perfo rman ce Unit. !alhemalicaldevelopment . Primary survey report No.2,
l ..

HMSO. 198 1.
I I A.~se£s m ent of Performance Unit. Mathematicol development. Secondary survey report No. 1,

HMSO. 1980.
'!Wood , R., Sex differe nces ill mathematics auainmenl a t GCE Ordinary Level. Edu cational
Siudies, 2, 2, 1976. 141 - 160.
I l Wood. R , Cable's Co mparison FacLOr : Is t hi s wh ere girls' tro ubles start? Malhemalics in
Sch oo/~6. 4, Sep t. 1977, 18-2 1.
I 'Fennema , E., Mathematics learning and the sexes: a review, Jo urnal Jor Research in

/vIa/hematics Educolion, 5. 1974, 126.

I ' Fennema, E . , Carpenter, T., Sex-related differences in mathematics: Res.ults fro m national

assessment. Maihemalics Teacher, 74. 7, OCI . L981, 555-559.

I "Husen , T .. (ed .), International Swdy 0/ Achievement in Mathematics. Vols I and II , John

Wiley and Sons. 1967.

, 'Maccob y, E .E . , JackJio, CN . , The psychology oJsex differences, O UP , 1975.
, 'Sher man, J ., E ffecls of Bio logical Facwrs on SC)Il·ReLa ted Diffe rences in Mathematics A ttain-
me nt , in NIE Popers in Education and Work: No.8. WOmen andmarhematics: research perspec-
lives/or change, Nalio nal InslilUte of Education, Washingto n . D.C .. 1977 .
I 9E.yna rd_ R .. Walkerdine_ V. , The practice 0/ reason, Vol. 2: Girls and molhemalicr, Univ . of

Londo n, In sti tute of Education, 198 1.

~o Weiner , G., iu Deem, R., Schooling /or women's work, Routledge and Kegan P aul, 1980.

J I Schildkamp-KUndiger. E . , Mathematics and gender, in Campara/jlle Studies oj Ma thematics

Curriculo- Change and Stabiliry / 960-80, Malerielien und Swdien, Band 19, Institut flir
Didak tik der Matl1ematik derUnive r:,ltti.t Bielefeld, 1980.
I~ FoJ(. LH., The effecls o f .!.eX ro le sodaliLalioo o n Mat.hematics part icipalion and achie ...e-
m enl. in NFE Papers in £ducalion and Work No.8 (sec ref. 18 above .)
U Fenncnt:l , E .. Women and girls in ma themacic<i-Equity in mathemat ieal education, Educa-
tional Siudies in Mathematics, 10, 1979, 384- 401.
" Fox, LH ., Brody, L. , T obin , D ., (eds)., Women and the mathematical mystique, John s
Hopkins, U. P., 1980.
Appendix 2 Djffer~nce1 in mathematical perfo rmance between girls i\nd boys 287

: ' Becker. J., A sfudy oj difJerentlal lreoiment of/emoles and moles in mathemalics cla.sses, un-
published doct oral dissert at ion. University of Maryland. 1979.
: 'Sears. J .. Developmcna of Gender Role, in Bcach, F .• Sex and behaviour. John Wiley. 1965.
~ 'Good, T .L .• Sykes. J .N ' r Brophy. J .E., Effects of teaeher sex and student sex on classroom in-
teractio n, Jo urnol oj Educational Psychology. 65, 1. 1973 , 74- 87 .
I t Depanmen! of Education and Scienc~, Curncular differences/or boys and giris in mlxrd ond

single-sa schools, Education S urvey 21, HMSO, 1975.

H Lobban, G ., Sex.ism in primary .~hools, women Speaking . 4, 1975.
J6 Dweck . C.S . . 8ush, E.5., Sex di rferences in learned helplessness I. Developmental
Psychology, 12,2,1976,1 47- 156.
Dweck , e.S ., Davidson, W ., Nelson. S., Enna. B., Sex differences in learned helplessness. II
and Ill. Developmental Psychology, 14, 3. 1978,268- 276 .
1 j F~nnema , E., Atlribution thear), and achievement in mathematics, in Yussen . S. R . (cd). The
Deve/opmenr oj Reflection , New York, Academlc Press. 1981 .
J1 Fennema, E .• The sex factor: real o r not in Mathematics Ed ucation, in Fennema. E . (M .).
Malhemalics education , euart·" : Implications/or Ihe 80s. Association for Supervision and Co r-
riculum DC'o·e)opment . Washington . D .C .• 1981.
J IPreece, M .• SlUcgeon, S., Mathematics education and girls, draft report of BP project. Shef-

field City Polytechnic (unpublished), 1981 .

J -levine, M ., Identification 0/ nasons why qualijted WOmen do not pUmJe mOlhemotkaf
careen , report LO the NationaJ Science Foundation , USA , 1976.
J! 8 errW, R., Wallis, P .. Sex ro les in mathematics, Mathematics in Schoof. S, 2, Marc h 1976,28.
h Dornbusch. S., To try or no! lO l ry, Stanford Magaz.ine, 2, 2, 1974, SO- 54.
" 8uxlon, t ., Do you ponicaboul moths?, Heinemann . 1981 .
288

Appendix 3 List of organisations and

individuals who have made submissions to
the Committee

, denotes those who have met members oj the Commilleejor discussion.

Mr J Abramsky Association of Teachers of Domestic

MrG Adlam Science Limited
Advisory Unit For ComlPuter Based Association of Teachers of Geology
Education -Association of Teachers of
Professor M Aitken Mathematics
Mr A G Aitken & Mrs N E Hughes Association of University Teachers
Staff of Albemarle Primary School, Mr R Atherton
London SWl9 MrG M Austin
Rotary Club of Aldridge Miss M E Austin
Mrs E F Allan Avery Hill College
Mrs A Allen
Mr J HAllen Mr J K Backhouse
Amersham (Old Town) Women's Mr C W Baker
lnsriwtc Mr D Ball
Ms M L Andison Rotary Club of Bangor
Mr D Armer Banking Information Service
Professor A M Arthurs Mr B Banks
Ash & Lacy limited 'Barbers of Fulham
Mrs S Ashby Mr J K Barnes
Mr E R Ashley Barnet lEA
• Assistan[ Masters & Mist resses Rotary Club of Barnet and East
Association Barnet
Associated Examining Board for the Rotary Club of Barnstaple
General Certificate of Education Miss Julia Barrett
Association for Science Educalion, Barton Conduits limited
Education (Co-ordinat ion) Bath College of Higher Education
Commjttee Rotary Club of Bath
Association of British Chambers of Uni"ersity of Bath, School of
Commerce Education
Association of Career Teachers Mr E Bathgate
Association of Educational Miss J S Batty
P sychologists Professor Dr H Bauersfeld
Association of Graduate Careers Mr S R Beaumont
Advisory Services Mr T Beck
Association of Headmistresses of Bed ford CoUege of Higher
P reparatory Schools Education
"Associated Lancash ire Schools Ro tary Club of Bedford
Examining Board Bed fordshire LEA
Association of Polytechnic Teachers Mr K M Bedwell
 Appendix 3 List of organisations and -:individuals who have made submissions to the 289
CommiUee

'Dr A W Bell Rotary Club of Bristol

Mr J A Bell British Airports Authority
Mr B 0 Bennell British Airways
Mr D H Bennell British Association for Early Child-
Mr D Bent hood Education
Berkshire LEA British Broadcasting Corporation,
Miss B J Berry BBC Education
Rotary Club of Beverley *British Broadca~ting Corporation,
J Bibby & Sons Limited Open U ni versity Prod uctions
Mr R G Biddlecombe British Council
Bifurcated Engineering Limited British Petroleum Company
'Miss E Biggs Limited
Rotary Club of Billingham British Rail
Mr D Bird British Society for the History of
Ms MHBird Mathematics
Mr J G Birkett British Society for the Psychology
City of Birmingham LEA of Learning Mathematics
Rotary Clu b of Birmingham British Steel Corporation
Bishop Burton College of Mr W R Broderick
Agricult ure 'W Brooks and Sons
Bishop Grosseteste College Bromley LEA
Rotary Club of Bishop 's Start ford Mr J Brown
'Dr A J Bishop 'Mrs M L Brown
Rotary Club of BJackpool Mr R V G Brown
Bolton LEA Professor M Bruckheimer
Mr C L Boltz Brunei University Departmcnt of
Boots Company Limited Education
'Mr J W G Boucher Rotary Club of Buckingham
Rotary Club of Bournemouth Buckinghamshire College of Higher
Mrs C Bowler Education
Boxfoldia Limited Buckinghamshire LEA
Mrs V R Bradbury Professor H Burkhardt
Bradford College Bury LEA
City of Bradford LEA Business Education Council
University of Bradford , Under- Mr L G Buxton
graduate School of Studies in
Mathematical Sciences
C&A Modes
Rotary Club of Braintree & Backing
Mr J Cable
Mr F T Brawn and Mr G Johns
*Mr J Cain
Mr S E Bray
Calderdale LEA
Mrs S Brennard Camb ridge Institute of Education,
Brent LEA Acadcmic Board
Bretton Hall College Cambridgeshire LEA
Brighton Polytechnic University of Cambridge,
Rotary Club of Brighton Department of Edu cation
University of Bristol, School of University of Cambridge, General
Education Board of the Faculties
Bristol Polytechnic Faculty o f University of Cambridge Local
Education Examinations Syndicate
290 Appendix 3 List or organisalions and individuats who have made submissions (0 the-
Committee

University Coliege, Cardiff, Commercial Union Assurance

Department of Educat.ion Company Limited
Careers Service Advisory Council Committee for Girls and
for Wales Mathematics
Mr J B Carmel Commillee of Heads of University
Carpet [ndustry Trainlng Board Geological Departments
Mrs J E Carrick Committee of Professors of
Centre for Science Education, Statistics
Chelsea College Committee of Vice-Chancellors and
Centre fo r Statistical Education Ptincipals of the UniversitieS of
Ceramics, Glass & Mineral Products the United Kingdom
Industry Training Board "Confederation of British Industry
Mrs M Chadwick 'Confederat ion of British lndustry
Mr B R Chapman (Wales)
Chartered institute of Public Confederation for the Advancement
Finance and Accountancy of State Education
Chartered Insti tute of Transport Conference of Professors of Applied
Rotary Club of Chatham Mathematics
Chelmer [nstitUle of Higher Educa- Construction Industry Training
tion, Faculty of Education, Arts Board
and Human ities Professor D E Conway
Rotary Club of Chelmsford Mrs FConway
Rotary Club of Cheltenham Mr E C Cooper
Chemical and Allied Products Mrs J Cooper
lndustry Training Board Dr M G Cooper
Chemical Society Rotary Club of Corby
Cheshire LEA Mr M L Cornelius
"Rotary Club of Chester Cornwall LEA
Staff of the Mathematics Depart - Mr G B Corston
mem, Chipping Sod bury School, COllon and Allied Textiles Industry
Bristol Training Board
Christ's College, Liverpool Council for Educational T ech nology
City and Guilds of London Institute fo r the United Kingdom
ary University 'Council for National Academic
Civil Service Commission Awards
Staff of Clapthorne Church of "Council of Engineering Institul.ions
England Primary School . 'Council of Local Education
Peterborough Authorities
Ms S I Clark Council of Science & Technology
Mr C G Claylon Institutes Limited
Mr H F Cleaves Council of Subject Teaching
Cleveland LEA Associations
Mr C Cleveland Courtaulds Limited
Rota ry Club of Clitheroe Coventry & District Engineering
Clothing and Allied Products Employers' A ssociation
Ind ustry Training Board Coventry LEA
Clwyd County Council Rota ry Club of Coventry
College of Preceptors Professor J Crank
Mr A P W Collins Ms A Crawshaw
 Appendix 3 Li.!.1 of orgaojs.uions .lInd individual!! lO.'ho have made submissions (0 the 29 1
Corn mit tee

Mr M B Cresswell Miss J M Du ffin

Crewe & Alsager College of Higher Mr J Dunford
Education Mrs A Dunn
ROLary Clu b of Crompton & RO)10n Durham Industry Commerce
Mr G T Cross Educalion Association
Croydon LEA UniversiLY of Durham Board of
Rotary Club of Croydon Studies in Engineering Science
Cumbria LEA Dyfed LEA
Mr D M C und y
Mr H J C UrLis
Ms M REagle
University of East Anglia
Dacorum Education and T raining EasL Anglian Examinations Board
Forum East Anglian Regional Adviso ry
Mrs E Daincey Council for Funher Education
Rotary Club of Darlington EasL Midland Educational Union
Rotary Club of Dart ford 'East Midland Regional
Mr J R M Davies Examinal ions Board
'Mr J D Dawson Rotary Club of Eastbourne
Mrs D M Dean
Ea ton Hall College of Education
Debenhams LimiLed
Edge Hill College of Higher
'Mr 1 A Deft
Educa tion
DelLa Metal Company Limited
Mr N A Edney
Staff of the Mathematics Depart -
Educatio nal Publishers Cou ncil
ment, Denstone College,
UuoxeLer Mr M N Edwards
Derby College of Further Educa- Dr R Edwa rd s
tion, Mathematics Sl udyGroup Professor AS C Ehrenberg
Derby Lonsdale College of Higher Mr; E R Ehrhard,
Education . Division of Elecnici ty Supply Indus'ry
MaLhematics Educat ion Training Committee
Derbyshire LEA Rotary Club of Ellesmere Pon
Develo pment of Ideas in Mathe- Mr R C Ellis
matical Education (DIME) Mr H Elston
Project Professo r L R BElton
Rotary Club of Devizes EMI Limited
Ms D M Diamond Enfield LEA
Mrs A Disney ·Engineering Ind ustry Training
"DislribUlive Industry Training Board
Board "Engineering Professors' Conference
Mr C Dixon Englis h China Clays Limi,ed
Dr M H Dodson Equal Opportunities Com mission
Dr M M Dod so n ROLary Club of Erith
DoncasLer LEA Rptary Club of Esher
Rotary C lub of Dorchester Essex LEA
Dorset Institut e of Higher Mr D M ESterson
Educalion Mr I Evans
Dorset LEA Rotary Club Exete r or
Ms E Drury University of Exeter, SchOOl of
Rotary Club or Dudley Education
292 Appendix 3 Lisl or orgartisBlioR.\ and indi,,·iduals who have made submissions to the
Committee

MrJCFFair West Glamorgan lnstitute of

Ro tary Club of Falmouth Higher Education
Mrs P Farndell Mr J A Glenn
Mr M D Fellows Gloucestershire LEA
Mr D S Fielker Ms R Goldhawk
Dr C R Fletcher and Dr I Danieic Mrs S J Gowar
Food, Drink & Tobacco Industry Mr J D Graham
Training Board Mr M JGtaham
Mrs B Foord 'Dr M A Grant
MrAGFoot Mrs 0 J Gray
Mr S Forbes Ms A D Green
Ford Moto r Company Limited Mr L J Green
Mrs M A Fowler 'Mr F G regory
Mrs R E Fraser Mt B Griffiths
'Mr D W French Mr D Griffiths
Professor M J French Mr E N Griffiths
Staff of Friarswood County 'Professor H B Gtiffiths
Primary School, 'Mr M Griffiths
Newcast le-u nder -Lyme Mr P L Griffiths
MrC Frisby 'Mr A G Gronow
Furniture & Timber Industry Gwent College of Higher Education
Training Board Gwent LEA
Gwynedd LEA
'Gaines and Gaines (Overseas)
Limited Mr G Haig
Mrs D Gale Rotary Club of HaUsham
Miss S Gale Rorary Club of Halesworth
Mr A Gallant Staff of Halifax Primary School,
Mrs T Gant Ipswich
Mr A Gardiner Mr F Hall
Garnett College Mr P J D Halpenny
Rotary C lub of Garston Hampshire, Sixth Form Colleges,
Staff of Gastrells County Primary Heads of Mathematics
School , Stroud Mr A Hanley
Gateshead LEA Ms T Hardy
General Elecrtic Company Limited Haringey LEA
GEC- Marconi Electronics Limited Mrs M Harris
Genetal Nursing Council for Rotary Club of Harrogare
England and Wales 'Dr K M Hat!
Geographical Association Mr J R Hartley
Miss R F Gibbons Mrs J Harvey
Mr F D Gibson Rotary Club of Haverfordwest
Dr W G GiJch rist Ha vering LEA
Mr G Giles Mrs A Hawot!h
Rora ry Club of Gil~ngham Mrs M Hayman
Mid G lamorgan LEA Mr J Hayter & Miss J Yates
South Glarnorgan LEA Mr S Hayward
South Glamorgan Institu te of ·Headmasters' Conference
H igher Education Mrs S H eaney
West Glamorgan LEA Rotary Club of Hemel Hempstead
 Appendix 3 USI of organis.uions and individuals who have made submissions 10 tt\( 293
Commilltf:

Mr J M Hepplewhite Independent Broadcasting

Dr J Herbert AUlhority
Hereford & Worcester LEA Mrs D M Ingham
'HM Inspectorate of Schools Inner London Educat ion Authority
Hertfordshire College of Higher ILEA Division 10, Heads of
Education Mathematics
Hert fordshi re LEA Instit ute of Actuaries
Professor J Heywood [ostitute of Bankers
Master Callum Hickey In stitute of Biology
Mrs P Hickey Insti tute of Caree rs Officers
Hillingdon LEA Institute of Chart<red Acco untants
Dr S Hilsum in England and Wales
Dr B Hilton Inslitute of Chartered Secrelaries
Dr D Hilton and Administrat ors
Mr D Hindson I nstitute of Geologists
Mr M Hiscox -Institute of Mathematics and its
Mr G Hjtch Appljcations
Mr B E Holley Institute of Personnel Management
Mr K Holling Inslitute of Purchasing and Supply
Miss B Hollinshead In stitute of Quantity Surveyors
Mrs M Holloway Institution of Civil Engineers
Rotary Cl ub of Honiton Institution of Mechanical
Homerton CoUege Engineers , North Midlands
Mr R Hooper Branch
H otel & Caterin g Indu stry Training Inslitution of Mining Engineers
Board Institution of Mining and
Hotel, Catering & Institutional Metallurgy
Managemcnr Association Inslitut ion of Structural Engineers
Hounslow LEA International Association of Lions
Dr A G Howson Clubs
Mr G Hubbard [nternalional Computers Limiled
Rota ry Club of Hucknall ROlary Club of Ipswich
Hull College of Higher Education Dr I C Irmler
Hull, Senior High chools, Heads Staff of InWingborough ln fanl
of Ma(hematics School, Northants
Rotary Club of HuU Isle of Wight LEA
University of Hull Department of
Educational Studies Mr H Jackson
Humberside LEA Dr H L W J ackson
Hurnberside, East Riding Divisio n, Mr D Jacobs
Heads of Mathematics Mr P E Jaynes
Humberside, Grimsby Division, Mr P G Jenkins
Heads of Mal hemalics Ms L Joffe
Mrs A Johncock
IBM United Kingdom lid Staff of John Ru ski n School
Ilk ley College (Infanls Department) , Londo n
'Imperial Chemical Induslries SE5
Limited Professor D C Johnson
Incorporared Association of Mr FT Johnson
Preparatory Schools Mr J R Johnson
294 Appendix 3 List or organisati.ons and individua ls who have made submissions to the
Commi(t«

Mr H T Joi nt Mr J M Letchford
Joint Mathematical Council of the Rotary Club of Letchwon h Garden
United Kingdom City
Joint Matriculati on Board Mr A Levy
'Miss A D Jones Mr R Lewis
Mr A P Jones MrW H Lewis
°Mr E Jones ROtary Club of Lichlield
Mr E G Jones 'Sir James Lighthill
Mr G H Littler
Mr P Kaner Littlewoods Organisation Limited
Mr C Keal & Mr J D Warren Lincolnshire LEA
Mr 0 A Keane City of Liverpool College of Higher
Kent LEA Education, Deparlment of
Kent Mathematics Project Mathematics
'Mr J M Ke nyon City of Liverpool LEA
Mr J K Kerley Rotary Club of Liverpool
Miss D Kerslake University of Liverpool, Depan-
Rotary Club of Kidderminster ment of Applied Mathematics
Ms P Kilmister and Theoretical Physics
King Alfred's College, Winchester Mr A H Livingstone
Rotary Club of King's Lynn Rotary Club of Llandudno
Dr B M Kingston Rotary Club of Llangollen
Mr C Kiralfy Mr A S Llewellyn
Mr John Kirkham Mt J Lockett
Kirklees LEA London Mathematical Society
Professor Dr U Knauer "London Chamber of Co mmerce and
Knitting, Lace and Net Indust ry Industry (Commercial Education
Training Board Scheme)
Mrs E Knott Rotary Club of London
Knows ley LEA London Transpon Executive
Un iversity of London Entrance and
MrCW Lambie School Examination Cou ncil
M. Mathieu Lambrec ht West London Institu te of Higher
Lancash ire LEA Education
Rotary Club of Lancaster Loughborough University of Tech -
University of Lancaster Department nology, Department of Education
of Environmental Sciences Miss M Louis
Professor F W Land Mr E Love
Mr N Langdon Mr A W Lupton
Mr D Laycock
Leapfrogs Group Miss S M Macaskill
Leeds LEA Miss M I McClure
University of Leeds, School of Mrs J McConachie
Education Miss M J McConn ell
Mr D J Lee Mr G McFarlane
Rota ry Club of Leicester Mr H McMahon
University of Leicester, School of Mr P J McVey
Education Mr K Madgett
Leicestershire LEA Rotary Club of Maidstone
Rotary Club of Leighton Buzzard Mr A F Makinso n
 Appcn~ix J List of organisallons and individuals who have made submissions to the 295
Commlu eoe

Man-Made Fibres Producing Mr B Morris

Industry Training Board Mr R W Morris
City of Manchester LEA Mullard Limited
Manchester Polytechnic, Didsb ury Mr A Murphy
School of Education
Ro tary Club of Man chester
University of Manchester,
Faculty of Techno logy National Association for Gifted
Mr M J Mapleton Children
Mr R J Margetls National Associatio n for Remedial
·Marks and Spencer Limited Education
Mr J Marshall National Association for th e
Mrs M M Massey Teaching of English
*MathematicaJ Associat ion 'National Association of Head
'Mathematical A ssociat ion, Diplo ma' T eachers
(Math ematical Education) Board National Association of Inspectors
Mathematical Associatio n, Schools and Educational Advisers
an d indust ry Committee ·National Association of
Mathematics Ad visory Un it Mathematics Advisers
Mathematics Applicable Group ·National A ssociatio n of School-
Mathematics Education on Mersey- masters/Union of Women
side Teachers
Mathematics Teachers' Group National Association of Teachers
(Covent ry) in Funher and Higher Education
Matlock College of Educatio n ·National Association of Teachers
Professor G Matthews and in Further and Higher
Mrs J Matthews Education, Mathematical
Mr P Matts Education Section
·Miss S Maughan National Coal Board
Mr D J Maxwell 'National Coal Board (Wales)
Ms J M Maxwell National Conference of Teachers '
Merchant Navy Training Boa rd Cemre Leaders
Professor J E Merritt National Extension College
Rotary Club o f Menh yr T ydm National Federat ion of Women's
Menon LEA Institutes
Metal Box Limited National Institute of Adult
Metrication Board Education
MetropUtan Regional Examinations National Institute for Careers
Board Education and Co unselling
National Scientific Society of Wales
Rotary Club of Middlesbro ugh
"National Union of Teachers
Middlesex Polytechnic Math', matical Mrs P Neal
Education Group
Nene College
Middlesex Regional Examin iLlg Cit y of Newcastle upon T yne LEA
Board Newcastle upon Tyne P olytechnic
Milton Keynes Co llege of Education Faculty of Education and
Mr B Mollo y Librarianship and St Mary's
Mr RMoon Col/ege, Fenham
Mr D I Morgan University of Newcastle upou T yne
·Professor A 0 Morris School of Education
296 Appendix- 3 List of organisations and ind ividu als who have made ~ubmissions 10 lhe
Committee

Uni versi ty of Newcastle upon Tyne Uni versi ty of Oxford Department

Faculties of Engineering an d of Physics
Science University of Oxford Board of the
Newham LEA Faculty of Mathematics
Rotary Club of Newport (Mon) Oxfordshire LEA
'Mr M D Noddings
Norfolk College of Arts and Parke-Davis and Company
Technology Mr A R Pa rr
Norfolk LEA Miss D M Parry
Mrs P Parsonson
Normal College qf Education ,
Bangor Mrs M E Payne
North East London Po lytechnic Mr A Peace
North OxfordshireTechnical Mrs M Peach
College a nd School of Art Mrs E Pearson
No rth Regional Examinations Mr J L Pearso n
Board 'Mr J Peel
Unive rsity College of North Wales, Staff of Mathematics Department ,
School of Mat hematics and Peers School, Oxfo rd
Computer Science Mr G Pemberton
North Yorkshire LEA Rot ary Club of Pembroke
North Western Regional Advisory Rotary C lub of Penanh
Council for Further Educatio n Mr D J Pentecost
Nort hamptonshire LEA Rotary Club of Penzance
Nonhern Counties Tech nical Miss D M Perry
Examinations Council Peter Brothe rhood Limited
No rthumbe rland College o f Higher Mr H W Pellman
Philips Industries Limited
Educatio n
Pilkington Brot hers Limi ted
Northumberland LEA
Mr B S Pin field
Staff of Northumberland Park
Sister Mary Timoth y Pinner
Secondary School, London
Nottinghamshire LEA Pirelli Limited
University of NOllingham Mr D Pitman
Universit y of Nottingham School Mrs P D Playle- Mitc hell
Plenty Group Limi ted
of Education
Nuffield Mathematics National Mr S P 0 Plunkett
Plymouth Rotary Club
Committee
'Rotary Club of Nu neato n MrGEPohu
Rotary Cl ub of Porthcawl
Rotary Club ofOadby Po rtsmouth Polytechnic, Facul ty
MrsP Odogwn of Educational S tudies
Oldham LEA Rotary Club of PortSmouth &
Mr A J Oldknow South sea
"Opel1 UniversiLY POSt Office
Mr C Orrnell Powys LEA
OxJord and Cambridge Schools Rotary Club of Presto n
Examination Board Professional Association of
Oxford Delegacy of Local T eachers
ExaminaLions Professors of Mechanical E ngineer-
University of Oxford Depa rtment ing in the Northern Universities
of Educational Studies 'Professors of Statistics
 Appendix J List of organisalion..<; and individuals who have made submissions 10 Ihe 297
Committee

Providem Mutual Life Assurance Rochdale Borough Council

Association Rotary Clu b of Rochester
Prudential Assurance Company Staff of Rodford Junior School,
Limited Bristol
Mr 0 W Purdy Mr A Rodgman
Dr C W Puritz MrO W Rodda
Mr F J Purkiss Roehampton Institute of Higher
Education
Mrs L Roland
• M r 0 A Quadling Rolls Royce Limited , Aero Division
Mi;s E Quartly Mr D J Rooke
Miss V Quin Professor A M Ross
MrT DRoss
Rotary International in Oreat
Britain and Ireland
Mr N Radcl iffe
Rot herham LEA
Mr N F Radford
Royal Institu tion of Chartered
Staff of Ravenstone Infant School,
Surveyors
London SWI2
Royal Institution of Naval
Mr J W M Read
Architects
University of Reading School of
Royal Navy
Education
Royal Society
Redbridge LEA
Royal Society of Arts
Rotary Club of Redcar
Examinations Board
Mr D L Rees
Royal Statistical Society/ Institute
Professor C M Reeves
of Statisticians Education
Regional Adviso ry Council for the
Committee
Organisation of Further Educa-
Rugby District Chamber of
tion in the East Midlands
Commerce
Regional Ad visory Council for Tech-
nological Education, London and Rotary Club of Ruislip &
Northwood
Home Coumies
Staff of Ruskin County Junior
Regional Council for Further
School, Wellingborough
Education for the South West
Professor W R Russell
Mr 5 J Relf
Mrs A I 0 Remon
Staff of La Rctraite High SchOOl,
London SW 12 Mrs M J Sadler
"Mr P Reynolds J Sainsbury Limited
Mr F Rhodes Rotary Club of St Austell
Ms K Rich St Helens LEA
Mr A Richards Staff of St John's Church of
Mr F 0 Richards England School, Bristol
Sir Alan Richmond St Katharine's College, Liverpool
Staff of Ripley County Junior St Martin's College, Lancaster
School , Derby CoUeges of St Mary and St Paul,
Miss 0 Roake Cheltenham
Mr P T Robbins St Mary's College, Strawberry Hill
Mr A Roberts Rotary Club of St Pancras
Dr H 0 F Roberts City of Salford LEA
298 Appendix 3 List or organisations and individuaJ& who ha ve made submissions 10 I he::
Committee

University of Salfo rd Mr C H Smith

Rotary Club of Salisbury Mr J H Smith
Mrs B Sanders Mr J J Smith
Sandwell LEA W H Smith & Son Limited
Mr G J Sasse Society of Company and
School Broadcasting Council fo r Commercial Accountants
the U nited Kingdom Society o f Ed ucation Officers
'School Mathemarics Project Society of Headmasters of
Schools Calculators Working Party Independent Schools
' Schools Council SolihuU LEA
' Schools Council Project Learning Rotary Club of SolihuU
through science Somerset County Counci l
Schools Counci l Project Low 'South-East Hampshire Chamber
alloinment in mathematics of Commerce and Ind ustry
Schools Council Project on South-East Regional Examinations
Statistical Educatio n Board
'Professor R L E Schwarzenberger South Nott inghamshire Project
Scottish Mathematical Council South Western Examinations Board
Rotary Club of Scunthorpe Rotary Club of Southampton
'Secondary Heads Association Southern Regional Council for
Sentra Engineering Training Further Education
Limited 'Southern Regional Examinations
Mr K E Selkirk Board
Miss B E Severs Southern Universities Join t Board
MrT R Sharma for School Examinations
Dr M J R Shave Stafford CoUege of Further
Mr R W Shaw Education
Mrs Sheaney Rotary Club of Staffo rd
City ofSheffield LEA Staffordshire LEA
Sheffield City Polyrechnic Mr M A Stamp
Sheffield and District Engineering Standard Telephone and Cables
Group Training Association Limited
Unive rsity of Sheffield (Careers Standing ConJerence of Heads of
Advisory Service) Department of Mathematics in
SheU UK Limited Polytechnics and Major Colleges
Shipbuilding Ind ustry Training Standing Conference on University
Board Entrance
Mrs J Shoenberg Staveley Industries Limited
Shoreditch College 'Mrs J Stephens
Mr G Short Rotary Club of Stevenage
Miss H B Shuard , Mr A Ro thery Ms S Stewart
and Mr M Holt Stockport LEA
Mr A R Shuttleworth Rotary Club of Stockport
Mrs E Shuttleworth Mr E L Stocks
Ro tary Club of Silloth on Solway Major (Rtd) A R Stockton
Professor R R Skemp Mr R J Stone
Miss S L Skuba Rotary Club of Strat ford -upoo-
Mr D K Sledge Avon
Rotary Club of Slough Mr R TStreet
Professor CAB Smith Mr D Strong
Appendix J LiSl o f organi!Jilions and individuals who have made submissions to the 299
Commillee

Mrs S B Sturgeon Trent Polytechnic Depanment of

Mr D A Sturgess Education
Suffolk LEA Trent Polytechnic, Department of
Dr R Sumner Mathematical Sciences
underland Polytechnic Faculty Trinity Co Uege, Carmarthen
of Ed ucation Trinity and AU Saints' Colieges,
Rotary Club of Su nderl and Division of Mathematics and
Surrey LEA Science
East Sussex LEA Rotary C lu b of Truro
West Sussex LEA North Tyneside LEA
Sutton Cold field Teache rs' Centre , Sout h Tyneside LEA
Mathematics Scho ol/Employ ment
Interface Working Party 'Understanding British Industry
Swan Hunter Shipbu ilders Limited Unileve r UK Holdings Limited
Rotary Clu b of Swanage & Purbeck United Kingdom Atomic Energy
Rotary Club of Swansea Authority
University College of Swans"a Universities Council for the
Department of Education Ed ucation of Teachers
Mr J C B Sweeten • niversity Depanments of
Mr K Swinbo ume Education Mathematics Study
Rotary Club of Swind on Group
Sir Peter Swinnerton- Dyer Un ive rsity Grants Committee
Mr A Unsworth

Dr WTagg ' Mr P Vallom

Mr D G Tahta Staff of Vica rage Infant School,
Tamesid e LEA London E6
Rot ary Club of Ta unton
Mrs G Taylor Mr F Wade
Mr G V Ta ylor MrG TWain
Mr H Taylor Wakefield LEA
Mrs J T aylor Mr A A G Walbridge
Mr P Taylor University CoUege of Wales,
Mr Peter Taylor Aberystwyth, Faculty of
Mr R M T aylor Educat ion
Technician Educalion Council Mr M C Wales
T esco Stores Limited MrT W Wales
Thames Polytechnic Miss R Walker
Mr M Thirlb y • Professor C T C Wall
Dr B Thwaites WalsaU LEA
M r B Tilibrook Waltham Fores t LEA
Mrs B A Tilling Ms M Warden
M r J D Tinsley Mrs C Warm
MrC T odd Universit y of Warwick, Depart-
Mr DToeman ment of Science Ed ucation
Rotary Cl ub of Tonbridge University of Warwick, Mathemat-
Mr J To wers ics Institute
T rades Union Congress Warwickshire LEA
Trafford LEA Mr N CC Webb
Mr D Traviss Mr J M Weseen
300 Appendix. 3 li sl of organisations and indh'iduals who have made submissions lO U1C
Commille:c.

Mr 0 WeUs Wiltshire LEA

'Welsh Joint Education Committee Wirral LEA
Welsh Secondary Schools Rotary Club of Wisbech
Association Wol verhampton LEA
Rotary Club of Welshpool Wolverhampton Polytechnic
Mr P M West MrPGWood
West Cumbria Careers Association, Or 0 Woodrow
Working Pany on Mathematics Mrs M 0 Woods & Mr P A Rodgers
and Industry Wool, Jute and Flax Industry
West London Institute of Training Board
Higher Education Worcest.er College of Higher
West Midlands College Education
West Midlands Examinations Board Working Mathematics Group
West Midlands Mathematics Mr R Won
Advisers/ HMI Group Mr A E Wright
Westhill College Mr 0 Wright
Rotary Club of Whitchurch, Salop Professor J Wrigle y and
Mrs E R B White Mr 0 D Malvern
Mr G M Whitehead
Mr M N Whitley Ms J Yates
Rotary Club of Whitley Bay Rotary Club of York
Wigan LEA University of York Deparrmem of
Staff of William Shrewsbury Education
Primary School,
Yorkshire & Humberside Council
Bunon-an-Trent
for Further Education
'Mrs B Williams
Yorkshire Regional Examinations
Mr 0 L Williams
Board
Mrs J Williams
Miss J 0 Young
Mr M Williams
Mr R S Williams
Mr B J Wilson ·Professor E C Zeeman
Appc:udix 4 Visits 10 schools, industry and commerce: meetings wilh teac hers 30 I

Appendix 4 Visits to schools, industry

and commerce: meetings with teachers

Schools Islington Green Comprehensive

Albury Manor Comprehensive School, ILEA
School. Surrey Light Hall School, Soli hull
Bishop Perowne Church of England Liverpool Parkhill Primary Sc~ool,
Secondary School. Hereford and Liverpool
\Vorcesler Manor Field First School, Norfolk
Bodedem School. Gwynedd Mead Junior School, Havering
Cavendish School, Hertfordshire Okehampton School and Conunun-
Chipping Nonon Comprehensive ity College, Devon
School,Oxfordshire Oulder Hill Community School,
City Road Junior and In fa nt s Rochdale
School, Birmingham Page Hill County Middle School,
Crescent Junior School , Buckingharnshire
Leicesrershire Parsloes Manor School, Barking
Daubeney CP Junior School, ILEA Peasedown St John Primary School,
Daynecourt Comprehensive School, Avon
Nottinghamshire Peter Lea Junior School,
Downsend School. Leatherhcad South Glamorgan
Great Cornard Middle School, Prior Western County Primary
Suffolk School, ILEA
Haberdashers' Aske 's School, Rhodes Avenue Junior Mixed and
Elstree Infants School, Haringey
Hammersmith County Girls' Ripley County Junior School,
School, ILEA Derbyshire
Hermitage Comprehensive School , Riverside School, BexJey
Durham St Asaph VC Infants School, Clwyd
High bury Secondary School, St Oswald's Roman Catholic Prim-
Wiltshire ary School, Newcastle upon Tyne
Hi pperholme Grammar School, St Wilfrid's Roman Catholic High
CaJderdale School, Sefton
Holloway Boys' School, ILEA Sandylands County Primary School,
Holyhead County Secondary Lancashi re
School, Gwynedd Sbaftesbury Church of England
Houghton County Primary School, Primary School, Dorset
Cambridgeshire Stirling Junior School, Doncaster
Howden Clough High School, Stokesley Comprehensive School,
Kirklees Cleveland
Hylton Red House Junior School, Thomas Telford High School,
Sunderland SandweU
302 Appendix 4 Visits 10 schoo ls. ~ n du s try and commerce : meetings with teachers

Tinsley Ju nior School, Sh·eftield Littlewoods Organisation Limited

Upwood Count y Primary School, Marks and Spence r Limited
Cambridge Metal Box Limited
William Shrewsbury School, Mid G lamorgan Health Authorit y
Staffo rdshire Mullards Mitcham
Winstanley Cou nt y Primary School, Ponh Textiles Limited
Wigan Post Office
Wombwell High School, Barnsley Prudential Assurance Co mpany
Wyche County Primary School, Limited
Cheshire Sheffield Indu strial Training
Wyndham School, Cumbria Company
Ysgol Cymerau Pwllheli, Gwynedd Standard Life Insurance Company
Ysgol Esgob Morgan Jun ior, C1wyd Swan-Hun ter Shi pbuilders Limited
Ysgol Gyfun L1anhari. Vickers Limited
Mid Glamorgan Wales Gas (Nwy Cymru)
William Walkcrdine Limited
Industry and Commerce
Abbey Panels Meetiugs "ilh teachers
Barclays Bank Limited The Lamorbey Park Teachers'
Baugh and Weedon Limited Centre, Bexley
British Airways Mathematics Teachers' Centre,
Brit ish Rail Brunei Un iversity
British Steel Co rporat ion William Tyndale Mathematics
Clarks Limited Centre, ILEA
Coral Leisure Group Limited Ogmore Residential Ed ucation
Debenhams Limited Centre, Mid Glamo rgan
Delta Metal Company Limited Coxlodge Teachers' Centre .
English Chin a Clays Limited Newcastle upo n Tyoe
Ford Motor Company Limited The Reading Centre, University of
John Williams of Cardiff Limit ed Reading
 Appendix. 5 Abbrevialions used withiu Ihe lexl of th e repofl 303

Appendix 5 Ab breviations used within

the text of the report

ACACE Advisory Council for Adult an d Continu ing Education

APE Advanced Furt her Education
AGCAS Association of G raduate Careers Advisory Services
A PU Assessment of Performance Unit
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BEC Business Ed ucation Council
BEd Bacbelor of Education
CBI Confederation of British Industry
CEE Certificate of Extended Education
CGLI City and G uilds of London Institute
CNAA Council for National Academic Awa rds
CSE Certificate of Secondary Education
CSMS Concepts in Secondary Mathema tics and Science
DES Department of Edu cation and Science
EITB Engineering Industry Training Board
FE Furthe r Education
GCE General Certificate of Education
HMI Her Majesty's l nspector(ate)
HNC Higher National Certificate
HND Higher National Diploma
IMA Institute of Mathematics and its Applications
IBA Independent Broadcasting Authority
LEA Local Education Authority
ME l Mat hematics in Educat ion and Industry
NFE R National Foundation for Ed ucational Research
O NC Ordinary National Certi ficate
O ND Ordinary National DiplolDa
PGCE Postgraduate Certificate in Ed ucation
POSE Schools Council Project on Statistical Education
RSA Royal Society of Arts
SCUE Standing Conference on University En trance
SEN State Enrolled Nurse
304 Appendix S Abbrrvia( ions used within the ttxt of the report

S.I Systeme International d 'Unites

SLAPONS School Leaver's Attainment Profile of Numerical Skills
SMP School Mathematics Project
SRN State Registered Nurse
TEC Technician Education Council
UCCA Universit ies Central Council On Admissions
USR Universities Statistical Record
VAT Value Added Tax
 305

Index

References in the index are to paragraphs in the main repon unless otherwise
stated . An outline of Ihe contents of each chapter will be found in Ihe index
under the entry for the chapter heading.

A 'profile' 190, Figure B, high attaining pup ils 330 - 3,

Accommodation fo r leaching mathematics 603-7 474 - 81, low attai ning pupils 334- 8, 459- 66. very high
attaining pupils 331, 482. very Jow attaining
primary 603
pupil) 337-8, 467-9
secondary 604- 7
Altiwdcs 10 malhemafics
Addilional mathematics 439. 478
of pnrc:nts 24, 2IJ7. of pupils 205-6, 345- 7. of young
Adu ll life. malhematical needs of C hapt er 2
employees 198- 204
Make il COlint 13
Researc h study 16-1 8
Out come of research stud y 19-30 o
feelings or anxiety 20- 2. usc o f approximation 23, Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree see Initial training courses,
dislike of mathematics 24-5, undemanding or percen- statiMical infonnatton relating to mathematieal education
tage 26- 7. reading of charts and tables 28, use of Da.nk of obiecliveS(TEC) 152
calculators 29. slr3legies for coping 30 ' Basits', Ihe 276-8
Mathemat ical needs of adult life J 1-4 Bath study 45. }9- 66, 68 - 9, 71 , 73. 77, 104, 166, 199-204,
Numeracy 35-9 446
Advanced FunherEd ucalion ( FE) Pool 761 Berujsschule (West Gennany) 791
Ad\'jsory Council for Adult and Continuing Educalio n Blueprint 4 1
(ACAC E) 14- 15. 18 Doo k • use o f 3 12- 14, 476, 563, 615
Adults' mathematical obilityand per/onnanu 16n. Use Burnham salary s.cales 654. 658 -62, 750
0/ mothematics by adults;n doily life 16n Business Education CounciJ ( BEC) 113 . 11 5. 149, 154 - 8,
Agricultuft IJS - 7 164, 168
Aims and objectives in (he: primary ye:an 367-71
A-lt~"rl ma~hrmadcs see Sixth form C
Aigebrn 201, 294 . 3 18, 451. 461 calculat.ion 70- 2, 263 - 8, 298- 303
usr in e:mp}oyme.nt 11 beginn ings of 304-5, menea,1 70, 254-6, 316, of timc 30t
Appl>cd mathematics a l A-level 565- 15 Ca lcu la. tOls and computers Chapler 7
AliSC'~mcm and conti nu ity Chapter 8 rapid ly increasing avaiJabitit-y 372- 3, implica tio ns fo r
A~s.smc:nt 414-26 malhcm81ics teaching 374
marking 415- 11, should be diagnostic and sup ponive Calcu lators 376-95
4 15-16, nol possible to mark every piece of work 417, no adverse effect o n computational ability 377,
recording of progress 418- 19, tesling 420-3. purpose of mathcma( ical understanding still necessary 378.
lesling 420, standardised tens 42 1-3. as part of transfer motivating effect on pupils 379-80, good habit'> o f U5C
plocedure 423 . evaJualion 424, Assessment of Perfor· essential 38 I. usc in primary years 384-8, use: in secon·
maner Unit 425-6, practical testi ng 426 dary years 389-92, calculat ors should replaee logarithm
Conlin uity 427- 35 l able~ 39 1. provisio n o f calcu lators in .secondary
with in sehoo l 427. at time o r transfer to new 6choo ls 393-4 , uSe in examinations 395
schoo l 428 - 35, need for consu ltation between Co mputer stud ies 396- 401
schools 4)0, leSIS at lime o f transfer 432, use o f informa· not part of mathematics 397, dema nds on ma thematic..c;
lion from previous se hool 433-4, transfer at 16 + 435 tenchers 398-400. dcmands on advisory s taff 401
Assessmcn t of Performance: Uf\il (A P U) 205-6, 340. 425- 6. Co mpOlcrs 402- 13
453,534 can assislleaching of mathemalics 402-6, mo~ software
Associnlion of Graduate Careers Advisory Services required 4(J7. use in primary years 408-9. usc in secon·
(AGCAS) 639,654 dary years 410- 11, use byindividuaJ pupils 412-13
Assoeiatiofl ofTenchers of Mathemades 730-1 Calculators, U5e tn c:mployment 73 - 4, 133. 114
Actainment in mathematics Canada 790
a l age II 339- 44, levels 10 be eXpe<:ted 189, Calc:ring and hotcl5 141- 3
306 Index

Cemres rer ma(hematicaJ educ3 1io ll 758 range of mathematics required 68. methods of calcula·
Certific:ue of E)tlended Education (CEE) 598 - 60 1 tion 70-2. usc of calculators 13-4 , rractio ns 75 - 6.
Cenificare of Secondary Education (CSE) 68, 1.05, 150. 162, a lgebra 77, cstimaljo n 78, mc~ urement 79- 81, metnc
189. 194- 7. "40- 1. 443 - 7. 470. 472 . 519-20. 515. 5)7. 54 1. and imperial un its 82
599- 60 1, Figure E Implications for I he classroom 83 - 6
Ch e l~a College 758 E mploye rs' se lectio n tCSIS 87 - 98
Cilyand Guild s of London tnsli lUle (Ce Ll ) li S, 149, 151. reasons for using leSIS 88 , lack of (raining of th ose who
159- 60. 165 sel test :> 91. level at whic h sel 92 -3 , a mbiguous qucs·
Classroom tion s 94 , methods of mark ing 95, provision of specimen
accOmmod<llion 603 - 7, equipment 608 - J J. mat erials papers 96. tests s hared by grou ps o f employers 97 see
related to industry 107-9 also S LAPON S
Clerical work 133 Liaison 99- 1J 6
Commun ica tio n . mat hematics as a means of 3- 4 sc hool/em ployers 99- 112, loeal groups 103, iden tifieu.
Co mput at ion see Calcu lation li ol1 o f mathemalical need 104- 6, class roo m
Co mpUi crs 402- 13 mate rials 101- 9, visil s 11 0. a ltachment s for
compu ter studies 396-401 . employm ent in com- teae hers 111-12. sehooVFE 1/ 3- IS, link co urses 114,
pUling 144, see also Calculators and comput ers need fo r sustained effo r! 10 maintain liaison 116
Concepfs in Secondary Mathematics and Science future needs I L1- 19
(CSMS) )41 . 45) . 757 Math emalical needs of some areas of employment 120- 148
Co nfederation of 8rilish Ind uslry {C BI} 4],50 operatives 122- 4, craft smen 125-; . technicians 128- 32.
Consolidation and practice 248 clerical work 133, retaillrade 134, agriculture 135·7,
Construction industry 138 - 40 co nslru ction indu st ry 138 - 40. hOlelsand ca ler·
Conti nuing Mathema lics PlOject 109 ing 141 -3 . work wiTh comp uters 144. nUIl-jng 145- 8-
Concinuity 427 - 35 Engineering nod lechn oloID'. enlra nl S (0 degree courses
see also ,\ sscssmenl a nd co ntinu ity in 182
Co-ordin ator . m~lIh e matics 354- 8, 723 , 772-3 E ngineering apprenlices
, ore' at A-1evd 576-8. at 16 + 451-2 criticism o f applicam s .54-5
Council fo r N31ion1l1 Academic Awards (CNAA) 161.577. m31hemalical needs 126- 31
670. 686 Engi nce1ing Industry Training Board 41, 43, 55
C rartsmen 125- 7 English. c.xamination rcsuh s in 193- 197
C ro wl her Repol'l 36 Equipmenl for Leaching mathematics 608-13
C urriculum prima ry 609-11 , secondary 612- 13
primary 286- 324, secondary 451-82, mathematics Ebtablishmenls o f higher educalio n , provision of suppOrt for
across Ih e 325 - 9, 483-5 Icaehers 740- 3
C urricu lum and method courses in initial training 676- 86 ESlimalion 78, 257- 62
Eva lua don 424
D E:caminatiolls at 16+ C hapler JO
Denmark 783 . 788 . 790 sho uld no: impose inappropriate constrain ts 5J 8
jolklSkolf! 351 , 790.lradil ion of in·.service training 790 FundamenlaJ principles 521
Depan mcnl o f Ed uc31ion a nd Science ( DES) Sin g le s ~'!Wem at 16+ 512- 30
secondary sc hool teacher sho rtage survey 621 , 10910 a proposal .524-30, papers to be 'focussed' 524 - 6.
S U f\o c ~' o f school Jeavers 193 - 5, Appendi.'( I. 1977 survey ' re ferenee levels' 530
or sccondal)' school sia ffing 623 - 33. Appendix 1 Teac her assessmenf 53L - 6
Diseusoe;iotl 246 provision should be made for 535 . traini ng fo r leac hers
Display facil ities in hoots 6[4 necessary 536
Ooublc-subjecl ma lhcmali csal A-levc! I73, 177-82,558, Evidence of achie'..-ement for lower auaining pupils 537 - 56
586- 9 sehemes at present in usc 541 - 4, view o f ommil.
lee 545 - 56. graduated tests 547- 56. reasibililYslud y
E reco mmended 553, graduaTed teS1s in relalio n 10 single
Elements in th e leachin g of mathemalies 240-1 syslemat 16 + 555
Employment. mat hematical needs of C hapler 3 Elcaminalions, use o f calculators in 39.5
Views cxpresS(d before Commil1ec set up 40-4 EJ<po!oilioll 245
Emplo yers' ,<,iews expressed to Commi ttee 45-58 'Ext ra Mathematics' 480- 1,528
litt le real dis5.ati) rac tion 46, change o f levels of
recru itment 50. relationshi p between level of criticism F
and level of unemployment 5 1-2. provision of remediaJ Facilities ro r leaching mathematics C hapter 12
traini ng 56- 8 Aecommodalion 603-7,
RC$f!'arch !,Iudies 59-66 primary 603, secondary 604- 7
Findings o f research sludics 67- 82 Equipmem 608- 13
 307

primary 608 - II , secondary 612- J3

DiSPlay fadlilies 614 l·level 11l31hcrOa lics 595 -7
Libraries 615 Impenal unit 82.273 - 5
Referen ce material rOrteachers 616 lndividnallearning -.chemes 499- 501
Financial arrangcmt'rus 617 Induction period
Falling rolls for teac hers 102-6, for advisory staff 736
dfecl o n promolion oppoTlunit ies 654 , oppOnun ilY to Inili:11 rraining courses Chap ter 14
re·arrange leaching accommOdation «J7 . opponunilY to ROUle ,~ int o teaching 666- 7
redepl oy primary trained leachers 65 1, possible effect on E utry ql1alificalio n$ 668-9
mathematics h!achin s 622 R'ccenl ch::lOges in teacher training 670
Fi na ncial ince nt ive.) for teac hers of mathematics 654-64 Views o f recently [rained leaehers 67 1- 4
Folkeskole (DermHll'k) 351. 790 Prof(S!.io nallraining 675 - 91
Form ula sheets . use ~I A-level 590- 4 euniculum and metho d courses 676-86. prepar.nion rOr
Fo undatio n lisl or 1l13111CIllalicalwpics 455 - 8 leaching in primnry and middle sch ools 679- 80.
FourJh Inlc rnalio llal Congress o n V1 alhematical Education pr eparatiol1 for specin lis{ tenchfng o f
209,212 mathemntics 681 -4 . lime allm..·ance for cu rriculum nnd
Fra~tions 75 - 6.300 method courses 685 - 6. school experience 687 - 91
FI"ance 7R5 R,eQuirem(.11I to undenake initial training 692-4
Further and higher educalion, mat hematical needs of Chapler 4 Main ma thcmalics cOUIses in BEd 695- 9
Funher education 149-66. size or groups 696-8
TE e courscs l50-3. BEe courses 154-8, CGLI cou rses Balance within inilial train ing courses 700-1
159- 60. RSA cou rses 161 Induction 702-6
Match betweeu.lp('hool. employn,,:nt and further educa· provision very uneven 704
lion 162- 6 Future de\'-c:lopmenls 700
d emands of course oflen g.realer than demands of need to review aud evaluate initial training courses 708.
job 163 . craft and t(,chnician ap preutice~ often on same HMI appraisal o f iLlirial training courses 710
co urse 164 , altitudes to wa rds mathematics of FE In -<;er"'icc )UppOII fo r leachen Chapter 15
students 166 R,easo ns why suppo n esseu(ial 71 5- 18
Hig her edu cation 167- 82 T~ pes of in -se rvice suppon 719-58
non'llllivcrsi l>' seClor 167- 9, uniVer5i{ y se<:to r 170- 82, "C hoo l based suppon 720- 4, meelin gs with o ther
Uni versilie.ti StB tist ica l Recmd 170, und ergraduates wilh leac he rs 725 - 7, visits to o ther schools 728 - 9, profc:s-
A-leve l math emat ics 173- 9, undergraduates with dou ble sional mal hema tical associalions 730- I , rnathcm ~lI ics
subj ect ma the mat ics 177 -9, degree courses in advisory l>I3rf 732- 9. mathematks advisory
mat hematica l 5tudk~ 180- 1. decre~ in entrants with leachers 739, e.s l ab lishmeDl ~ of higher ed ucation 740- J.
double subject mathematics 180, degree courses in in'se(vice o urses 744-9, diploma in mathemalical
engineering and technology 181 education 750- 1, Open Universit}' 752- 3. rad io and
1alhematieaJ requiremen ts of professional bodies 183-6 lelc\>isio n 754.- 5. research into mathematical educa-
tion 756-7 . cenlres for mathematical educalion 758
G
Financial support 759-66
Gallup PoU If! Ir.lillt ute of Mathemalics and itS Applicalions ( IMA) 655
Getman)' 783. 785. 788 . 790. 791 lutemational Congre.sson Mathematical Edueation. Fourth
Girh 209.212
mathematical perfolmance 108-16, need to increase InvestigilliOllal Work 250 - 2
numbers 0 11 A · level Co urses 647. set also Appendix "1
G raduared tests in mathematics 547-56
GI"antS for sl ude01s during trai ning 652- 3
Graphica l work. 293 - 4
G rouping of pupils 348-51, 491 - 50 l L..
G uidc:lines for teaChing mat hematics 359- 62 Language, use of iu mathematics 306- J I
,., Liaiso n
schools/ell1 ploycrs 99-112 . schools/FE 11 3- 14. see also
Head ofmalhematics depanment 507 - 17, 721. 723 A ~ ss menl and cO lltinuilY
High-anaining pupils 330- 3. 474-82 Libraries
Higher education eSlablishmeuts as providers of in -,servIce sup- provision 615. use of 563- 4
port for teachers 740-3 Li:1k cou rses 114
HIgher educllliou. mathematical ueeds of see Furthe r and higher link s. with 01her curricular areas 325-9, 483- 5
education Logarithm tables, eontinuing u~ of 391
Holland 783. 785. 188 Logic 295
Hotels and caterin& 141 - 3 Low·attaining pupils 334 - 8, 459-69
308 Index

M 1etricalion 27 3- 5
Main maLhem3tics eour:»es in BEd 695-9 ' T he b3.!oics' 276- 8
siu of groups 696-8 Modern malhemaltcs 279 - 83
Moke if count IJ Mathematics in the primary yearssee Primary years
Mal king Mathemalics in the secondary yean see Seco nd ary years
of em ployers' {('stS 9S, of pupils ' WOrk 41 5-17 Mathematics in the sixlh form see Sixth form
~ a th c m alica l Association 730- 1 Math/ Scienee Network 216
Diploma in Mal hemaricat Education 750- 1, Schoall!. an d Measurement 79- 81 , 269-72_, 291
Industry Com mitlce 98, 102 ,\1ccha nics, as part of A- level eou r$oe .566-7j
Mathemat ica l educalion in OIher co untries 782-92 ~em o ry 234- 7

diver.!.ilY or app roach 784, curriculum 785 , examina - Mental caJculalion 202, 254- 6. 316
tions 786. qualifica tions o f leachers 787 , shonage of Menta l mathematics 315-20
leachers 788 , leaching 'i1)'l e and syllabus content 789. in - Metricatio n 273 - 5
se rvice training 790. au ainmcnt of sc hool leavers and use of metric and imperial unit s in indusl ry and com·
vocalionalr raining 79 1 merce 82
Mathematical needs of ad ult life see Adult life Micf()..compUlers see Calculators and co mputers
Mathemat ical needs o f c:mploym em see Employment Mkro·Eleclronics EdueaLion P rogramme 406
Mathematical needs o r f urther and higher educati~n see Further Middle schools 629, 768- 73
and higher educ:uion levels of qualifica tio n of teachers 629, sta fling no- J.
mathematics co-ordinator 772, conlinuit)' and Liruson 11)
Mathematics see Mathematics in SChools. Primary years . Mid·
die schoo ls. Secondary years, Su..th form. Why reach 1ilk round ' of un ivers hies. DES participation in 641
m al hematic~?
Mued ability gro ups 495 - 8
MOlhemQfks ond 'lie young pnfroIU to employment 104 Modern mat hematics 279 - 83
Muhemalics in Education and InduSlry (ME l ) 106,58 ) Mulr i-base arithmetic 5)0
Mathematics in middle schools see Middle schools
Malhemat ics in schools Chapler 5 N
Allainmem in mat hemalic.s 189 National Foundation ('or Educational Research ( NFER) 640.
Comparison of examination results in English and 611- 4.704
mathematics 193 - 7 Natio nal sc ho larships fo r intending teachers o f mat hemalic.s 6.52
difference in positi o n of grade boundaries 197 NOll ingham study 45 . 59- 66, 68- 9, 71, 73. 77. 104. 166, 199,
Attitudes to ward s mal hematics 198- 206 446
)'oun8 employees 199- 204, discussion in Review 0/ Nurrield Mathemati cs Project 286, 725
resl!orch 205-6 Number and computatio n 298 - 303
ParentS and schools 207 Numcracy ))- 9
Mathematical per fo rma nce o f girls 208-1 6 Nursing 145- 8
girls perform IC& wcllthan b oys 210. differem e.\pccla·
lion:. of gjrli and boys 211 - 13, need {O be aware of dir· o
ferenees 21S
Objecti\les and aims in the primaf')' years 367- 11
Teaching mathematics th rough medium of Welsh 211-20
O-/eveI1lO, 162, 189,194- 7, 439-41 , 448, 470-2 , 519 - 20,
or
tack leaching materials written in Welsh 218-20
53.5, 599- 601. Figure.\ E and F
Teaching matl.Jt'mat~ to Ihose for Wh(1ffi EngJish is nOI Ihe:
Opcn University 7S2- 3, 762
firSI langua,ge 121-4
Operatives 122 - 4
Teaching and learnin 8 of malhemalics 225 - 75
Organisation of leaching gro ups
esscmialt o establish con l'idence 225, subject to use and
primary 348-.52. seco ndary 49l-507
to e njoy 226- 7, mathematics difficult (0 teach and
learn 228 - 30
p
Und emanding 23J - 3
Memory 234- 7 Parents. altitudes o r 24. 201
Ro te lea rning 238- 9 Perce ntage 26- 7, 72, 266
Teaching methods 240-1 P lace valu e 298 - 9, )41 - 2
Classroom praCtice 242- 52 P ostgradu ate Ce rtifica te in Education (PGCE) 666 -7, 680- 4
eJlpo!lition 245, disc ussion 246. practical work 247. Con- Practical WOrk 247 . 289- 97
solid atio n and practice 248. problem solving 249. in· Practice a nd consolidation 248
vesligalio nal work 2.50- 2 Pri ma ry yeatS, malhem atics in the Chapter 6
Men Ia l calculatioll 254- 6 Primary mathematics curriculum 286- 324
Estimatio n 2.57- 62 practica l met hod s not new 286, pracrical work 289 -97,
Approache 10 ca lcu t31ion 263 -8 mea!iurcment 29 1. shape and space 292. graphical
u se of non -st andard methods 26.5 - 7 work 293-4, logic 295, general aCli... ities 296. number
Mea~reme.nt 269- 72 and computation 298- 303 , frac(ion~ )00, comptllar ion
 Index 309

o f ti mc )01 , beglnning~ of calculatio n )04- 5. Re~iew 0/ research inlo mathemalicol educarion 188, 205-6.
IM~ u 3ge 306- 11 . 'verbal cues' 309. use of 2J4 - 7. 240- I
boo k.!. 312- 14. me mal math emafics 3 15- 20. so lving ROle aeaming 238- 9
problems 321 - 4 Royal Societ), of Ans (RSA) 98 , 149. 161
Link s with Othcr c urrie ular areas 325- 9
links Wilh science .327 - 8 5
Children whose allai nment i.s high 330- 3 Schemes of work 363-4, 510
need fOrS uilable p rovision )32-3
School experience in initial training 687-9 1
Children whose allainment is Jow 334-8 Schoolleavers. DES IOlt/o sur ....ey of 193
children whose a llainmenl is very low 33 7- 8
Schoo! M athcmatie~ Project (SMP) J08, 279-IH. 58 1
Auainmerlt al age t I 339- 44
Sc hools Co uncil Mathematies Committee 578. 585
'seven year difference' 342
Scot land 748. 785
Altitudes to mathematics 345-7
Secondary yearS, mathematics in the C hapter 9
O rganisatio n of leachins groups 348-52
Differen ces in attainmenl between pupils 436-7
vertical gro uping 349. &fauns based o n allainmenl 350,
Difference between syllabus and curriculum 438
leam u:aching 35 1
Ch anges in last twenly years 439- 41
Time allocation 353
introduclion o f CSE 440-1
Mathematics co~ o rdinator )54-8
Innucnee of examination syllabuses 442- SO
dut ies 355 , suppan esse ntial 357
CSE limited vade examinations 447
M3thematics guidelines 359- 62 C) urscs for 11-1 6 year o ld pupils 451 - 82
need for regular revisio n 36 1 fou ndalion list o f mathematical topics 458_ provision for
Schemes of work 363 - 4 lo,""cr atlaining pupils 459-66, provision for very low 3t-
Small schools 365- 6 ta inin& pupils 467-9, provision for pupils for v'hom
Aims and object ives 367- 71 CSE and O-Ievet are intended 470-3 . provision for high
Probability and stalistics ;n A·le\'el 566-75 attaining pupils 474-81. ' extra mathemat ic5' 480-1.
Problem solving, 249. 321 - 4- proviskl n (or very high attaining pupils 482
ProfeMional bodies . mathemaT ical requirement s for entry
Mathematics ac roS.!. the curriculum 483- 5
to 183- 6
Time allocation 486- 90
Professio nal t raining ror teacher,~ 675- 94 Organisation of teaching groups 491 - SO I
Project On Sfafistical Education (POSE) 775 teac hing in seued groups 493-4, leac hin g in mixed ab iH ·
Pure mathemat ics <It A·level 565 . 576-8
t)' gro ups 495 - 8, individnallearning schemes 499 - 501
D.~pJoymeni or teaching stafr 502-6

o H(!ad o j' dcpanment 507- 17

Qualirtcatio ns o f teachers. Je\'els o f 625- J I du ties 508. 510- 16. need for time to carry o ut duties 509
SeJel."1.ioll tests, e mployers 87- 98
Set/ cd groups 350. 493 - 4
R ' Seven year difference' 342. 436
Radio and television 754- 5 Shape and space 292
Raising of sehool leaving age $2,440 Shell Cenlre fa t Mathematical Ed ucation ISBn. 756n . 758
Rangoli patle'rns 224 Shonage of mat hematics tC3chers 621 - 2, 63 1
Reco rd ing of pu pils' progress 418- 19 see alsu Supply o f mathematics teachers
'Reference levels' in examinations a t 16 + 472,530 Sixt h foml. rTUlthemalic.s in t he C hapter II
Reference rTUllerial fOr teachers 6 16 A·level mathema tics 558-94
Rehearsal 237 propon ion o f students who proceed 10 funher Sludy 559.
Remedial classes 3)7- 8. 467-9 need for course to be- balanced and coherent 560,
Remedial lraining provided by employers 56- 8 leaching of A·1evel conr.ses 561 -4, ap plications of
Res.earch into mathematical education 756- 7 mathem atics 565- 75. ;\·level core 576-8. need for
Research s t udies regular revIew 578. the variet y of A· level
Concept.'> in Secondary Ma ,hemotic5 and Science s)'lIabu!.Cs 579- 85. moniloring of s)'Uabuses and ex ·
(CS MS) 341, 45.3,757 , Mak e I, COlml 13. math emaTical aminations 585, double subject mathematics 586- 9, use
needs o f adu lf life 16- 18. math ematical needs of of formula sheets 590---4
employment set Bal h study , Nottingham SLUdy, I·level mathem atics 595 - 7
MOlhemolk<f. ond the youllg ell/ronl 10 employment 104. Sub· I-level courses 598- 601
Project Oil statiS/H:aJeducation (POSE) 775, Review 0/ O·levei and CSE courses 599 - 601
researc:h inlo malhematicol education 188, 205 - 6, Skil/ 41 , 47, 52
2)4 - 7. 2.40-1, views of recently Trained teac hers 67 1-4. SLAPO NS (School Leaver's ProfIle or Numericat Skills) 98,
"oung people and tmploymenl 48 S4\. 54J
Retail trade S maJ\ schools 365 - 6
crilirum o f ent rants TO 53, mathematieal needs of 134 SOflW<JrC rOr :::ompulers 407, 409. 411
310 Index

Some olher maUe rs ChapleT 16 po n 7 15- 18, rat es of e ntering and leaving
midd le sc hools. 768- 73. teaching of ~t alj s l teS 774- 8 1. teaching 634 - 6. reference materia ls tor 6 16, suppo n for
malhemalicai educa tion in other coun lries 782- 92, see in ·se rvice suppOrt, traini ng o f see [nilialtraining
sla tistical information relating /0 mathematical educa- {'ourses, trans fer from m h er t'm ployment 648- 9, nse of
[ion 793-7 primal)'-traincd in se.:ondary schools 65 1. use 10 teach
Sta ndardised tests 42 1- J other subjects' (,mism atch') 632 - 3. " iew~ of recently
Slan ding Co n ference on University Entrance (SeVE) 5S9, 577 trained 67 1- 4
Slafling, S \Jrve~: of secondary sc hools 623- 33 T4!aching or mal hemat ics 225- 41
Sta ti stical in fo rmaLion relatin g to mathematical educa- classroo m praclice 242- 52. facil iti es fo r see facilities.
Lion 793- 7 orga nisation of lcaching gro ups 348- 52, 49 1- 50 [,
sc hool, 794, entran ts 10 high er education 795, enlrantS s hared tcac hing 505 , team leaching in primary
[0 Leacher training courses 796, Qualific31io ns of ~c hools 351, t hrougtl the medin m of Welsh 21 7- 20, to
leacher s 797, see also Append ix I tho st' for whom English is nOI Ihe fi rst lan g.ua ge 22 1- 4
S latiSlics cou rses Ttxhnic ian Ed uca rion Council (TEe) 113, [15 . 149 - 53
A-level 566 - 75. I-leve l 597 Techn ic ians t28 - 32
Teachin g of 774 - 81 T(: [cvisiort and radio 754- 5
slalisl ics a prac Tical subject 776. need for in-service lrain- Tc~sti n g
ing for leac hers 778. leaching maLcrials requ ired 780 by employers 87 - 98, in sc hools 420- 3. see also Assess-
S tructural app aratus 299 , 610, 6 13 ment of Pe rform ance Unit
Supply of malhematics teac hers C hapter 13 Time a llo...:a rion
The prescn! sit uation 620-3 3 for curricu lum and meth od courses in initia l I rain-
p rimary sc hools 620, seco ndary IK: hools 62 [- 33 , DES ing 685 - 6. for double-subjecl malhemalics at
su rvey o f secondary school sta rting 623 - 33 , leve[s of A-le\'el 5R7 , in prim ar}' yeal'~ 353_ in second ary
q uali fi catio n of teachers 625- 3.1 , teachers in midd[c yeal'S 486- 'XJ
schools 629. teaching of you nger pupib-In eOnJprehen- Tra ining and ret rain ing co ur ~es 650
si~c schools 630, deployment. of teachers qualified to T raining o( teachel:.see [n ilia l trainin g
[eac h mathematics 632- 3 Transfer be/ween schoo ls 428- 35
Rares of entering and leaving teaching 634- 6
\ kthods of increasing SUpply of mathematics C
teac hers 637- 50
need to imprm'e public image of teaching 640, need to U'ndergrad uales, malhemat iea [ qualificat.ions of 170-82
make greater e fforts to rec ruil teachers 64 1, mathematics with dou ble-subject mathematics [77-9, cOle-ring degree
degree cou rses as preparation for teaching 642- 7, need to courses in marh emalical studies 180- J, eot e-rin g degrcc
encourage more gi rls to stu dy ma thematics 647, en ley to co ulses in engiueering a nd tC<."h no log)' 182
teaching from o ther em ployment 648 - 9, trai nin ga nd Understanding 23 t- 3
reHaining cou rses 650 ll l1derslanding BritiSh Industry project I I J
E mploymen t of primary tra ined leachers in seco ndary Unemplo>'m enl among school lea vcrs 5 1- 2, Figure A
Uni(ed Slatesof America 783, 788 , 790, 79t
sch ools 65 J
Gran ts during training 652 - 3 Unh'ersitie:., math ematics degree cou rse.') in 642 - 7
Financial incent ivcs 656- 64
see also Undergradu ates
addilional payment co teachers of mathematics 655- 64 U niversit ies. StaliSliea[ Record 170 . 180n , 795
Need 10 employ newly lrained mathematics leachers 665 {he of wolhemalics by adults if! dai~y life 16n
Support fo r teachers see In -serviee SUp pOrl fo r teachers
Surveys , DES v
.<.econdary !oC hool teacher sho n age survey 62 1, Vacan cies rOT se hoolleavers 51 - 2, Figu re A
10&10 sun'- ev of schoolleave rs 193-5. Appendix I , V~lrie l }o of A- [evel co urses j 79-·85
J 977 survey of secondary school staffing 'Verba [ cues' 309
623-33. Append b: 1 Veni cal grouping. in primary schools 349
Sy llabus develo pment 450 Vi,~ws of rece ntly trai ned leache rs 67 [- 4
Vi :~ i l s
T
schaal/i ndust ry 110. by teachers to o lher sc hools 728
Teachers: of mathema lics
alt3chments to ind ustry and commerce 111 - 12, dep [oy-
ment wifhin malh ematics depanmetlts 502- 6. financia l W
incentives 654-64, levels o f Qoalificalion 625 -3 1. Way ahead , th e Chapter 17
meeti ngs with other leachers 725- 9 . membershi'p of pro- changes in rece nt yeaH~ 799, maj o r chan ges in
fessiona l math ematical associaLions 730- 1. method s o f malhematica [ educa tio n essen tia l 780-1. need La irn-
increaSing supply 637 - 50, need to employ newly- pro \'e overall quality of malhematics teac hin g force 802.
trained 665 , need La improve public image 640, need for agencies fro m whom response is required 803- 9, need 10
greafer efforl~ to recruit 641, need fo r in-service sup- su ppon and encou rage impJctnenlation o f chan ge 810
 Index 3 11

Welsh. tea t'hinli: mattlematies through the medium o r 217-20 Implications (or teachers 12
short age or leachi ng materials '218-20 Women and mathematics 216
West Germany 783. 78!i. 788 . 790. 791 Wo rk. $oi;hemes of 363.5 10
Why leach mathematics? C ha pter I Working ~alhem3li cs G ro up 109
Re3soll5 for tl?at'hin@ 2- 8
means of communication 3- 4, use in ocher fields 5, in -
heretll inter~ 51 7 v
The dirricult y o f learuin g 10- 11 Yo ung people an.d employmer11 ~

Pn"ltd in England roo lin t-' 3,1t'ltV', St;lti.._rr o ff,"

b)' Com mC"rcul Colour Prfl~. loooun E ';'
Dd i}606~ Cl(l It n