Fabrication of detailed parts

„ There are two broad groups of processes

Machining Process for fabricating detail parts of an a/c
„ metal cutting or machining process
„ desired shape is obtained by removal of metal
R. I. Sujith from the work piece

Dept. of Aerospace Engineering „ metal forming process

„ metal is conserved,
IIT Madras „ shape is obtained by plastic deformation of the
material

Metal Cutting Operations Machining

„ Also referred to as machining operations include
„ turning
„ Machining is resorted to depending on the
„ reaming shape of the component and when close
„ boring dimensional tolerances/surface finishes
„ milling are required
„ Broaching
„ Grinding
„ Honing
„ Lapping
„ drilling

Principle Other process for metal removal

„ By the shearing action caused by relative motion „ Electric discharge machining (EDM) for eroding hard
between the work piece and a cutting tool with material
sharp edge. „ Electro Chemical Milling (ECM) for fabricating complex
profiles as in turbine blades
„ The work piece is generally held in a fixture or
„ Electrochemical finishing (ECF) for superior surface finish
clamped on to the machine tool chuck/table
„ Chemical milling for making pockets or grooves in sheet
„ The relative motion can be controlled by an metal panels/bulkheads.
operator or in the case of CNC machines, by „ Laser drilling for drilling holes
computer control „ Water jet machining for cutting of composite material

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 Machinability & Parameters
Factors affecting cutting energy
Affecting Machining
„ A measure of machinability is “specific cutting „ Specific cutting energy depends on
energy”
energy” which is equal to F/BT „ the work-
work-piece mechanical properties,
„ F is the horizontal cutting force „ the tool material & tool geometry,
„ B is the width of the chip „ cutting speeds and feeds, type of cutting
„ continuous as in turning, or
„ T is the thickness of the chip „ intermittent as in milling),
„ The chip is the layer of metal which is removed „ types of cutting fluid,
from the work-
work-piece just in front of the tool „ rigidity of machine tool
cutting edge (due to shearing action) „ machining fixture or device
„ in which the work piece is clamped.

Speed & Feed Typical Speeds and Feeds

„ Speed is the surface velocity of relative „ Al alloy using HSS tool

motion between the tool and the work-
work- „ Speed 300-
300-500 m/min,
piece, measured in metres/minute
metres/minute „ Feed 0.3 mm for rough cut, 0.05 mm for
finish cut
„ Feed or depth of cut is the advancement „ Al alloy with carbide tool
of the tool per revolution (of the work-
work- „ Speed 800-
800-1200 m/min
piece/tool), measured in mm „ Feed 0.2 mm for rough cut, 0.07 mm for
finish cut

Speed & Feed for Steel Al Vs. Steel

„ Steel with HSS tool „ Material removal rate for Al is much higher
„ Speed 12-
12-17 m/min than for steel
„ Feed 0.15 mm for rough cut and 0.05 mm for
finish cut
„ Metal removal rates for both materials are
„ Steel with carbide tool higher when machining with carbide tools
„ Speed 70-
70-100 m/min in comparison with HSS tool.
„ Feed 0.15 mm for rough cut & 0.05 mm for
finish cut

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 Cutting Fluids Striking a Balance
„ Heat is generated during cutting and the tool tip „ Machining cost, in general, reduces with
temperature rises,
„ which weakens the tool materials and
increasing cutting speeds
„ shortens the tool life „ However, with increasing speeds, the tool
„ Amount of heat generated is a function of rate life is reduced and the tool has to be
of metal removal removed for re-
re-sharpening/replacement
„ Use of cutting fluid helps to which adds to the cost
„ conduct heat away from the tool tip & also
„ reduces the friction of the chip with the tool face, „ A balance has to be struck between these
„ and hence reduces tool wear two opposing factors.

Typical Tolerances & Surface

Finishes
„ Turning/boring
20-30 µm, Surface Finish 0.4-
0.4-0.6 µm
Machining Operations
„ Tolerance +20-
„ Drilling
50-75 µm, Surface Finish 1.6-
„ Tolerance +50- 1.6-3.2 µm
„ Reaming
„ Tolerance +8-12 µm, Surface Finish 0.8-
0.8-3.2 µm
„ Milling
30-50 µm, Surface Finish 0.8-
„ Tolerance +30- 0.8-6 µm
„ Broaching
„ Tolerance +5-8 µm, Surface Finish 0.8-
0.8-3.2 µm
„ Grinding
„ Tolerance +4-5 µm, Surface Finish 0.1-
0.1-0.2 µm
„ Lapping/Honing
„ Tolerance +4-5 µm, Surface Finish 0.05-
0.05-0.4 µm

Turning Turning

„ Turning operations generate external „ Typical parts which are machined by turning
surfaces of revolution on rotating work-
work- „ shafts, axles, housings, conical parts, and as a first
operation prior to boring
pieces using a traversing tool.
„ Turning is more economical than milling and a
„ Turning machines -> lathes. better tolerance and finish is achieved.
„ Lathes are versatile machines and can be „ Single point cutting tools are used for turning.
adapted for drilling and boring operations
also.

3
 Drilling Reaming

„ Is a process of producing holes, „ Reaming is a finishing operation for

countersinking and spot facing enlarging a drilled hole as to obtain close
tolerance and good surface finish
„ The cutting tool, called drill is usually held
in the machine rotating spindle and the „ The cutting tool is called a reamer
drill is forced into the work-
work-piece.

Boring Jig Boring

„ Boring is a process in which the internal surfaces of „ Jig boring machine is a vertical boring
revolution are generated using a traversing tool.
„ If boring is done in a lathe, the work-
work-piece is held in the machine
rotating chuck. „ designed for precision boring of components,
„ Where higher accuracy is required, machines specially „ mainly used for tooling applications and
designed for boring are used
„ In such machines, the work-
work-piece is clamped to a table and the „ for certain aero-
aero-engine components such as
cutting tool rotates and traverses the depth of the bore casings
„ Internal bores of undercarriage struts and hydraulic
system jacks are examples of components bored in
horizontal boring machines.

Milling Broaching
„ In this metal is removed by rotating a multiple „ Metal is removed by a rotating multiple
tool cutter.
„ The cutting action is INTERMITTANT unlike in tool cutter called a broach, against the
turning or boring. work-
work-piece surface
„ The work-
work-piece is clamped to the table of the
machine and the milling cutter is fixed to the
rotating spindle. „ The cutter is pushed through or pulled
„ Milling operations are used for machining through a hole or across a surface
„ flat surfaces or “cubic components”
components”
„ curved surfaces of complex shapes.

4
 Broaching Grinding

„ Close dimensional tolerances and good „ Metal is removed by mechanical action of

surface finish are achieved by broaching abrasive particles bonded together in a
grinding wheel.
„ Slots, keyways and serrations in levers, „ Grinding is essentially a finishing process
shafts are usually broached for obtaining close tolerances and good
surface finish

Honing & Lapping

„ These are finishing processes which are used to
„ obtain very good surface finish,
Computer Numerical Control
„ even better than what can be achieved by grinding. Machines
„ The peaks and valleys on a machined
component are smoothed out in the
honing/lapping process
„ By the action of an abrasive medium suspended
in a fluid or paste form which is caused to scrub
the surface of the component by relative motion
of the honing/lapping tool called a ‘stone’
stone’ over
the surface of the component.

NC Machines Why NC?

„ Numerical Control (NC) machine tools were „ Manual operation under these conditions
developed in the early 1950s in the USA is tedious and are prone to error.
„ to meet the critical developments for machining „ NC was developed to automate machine
aerospace components which call for tools using electronic digital technology.
„ close dimensional tolerances, „ The information to actuate and control the
„ repeatable accuracy and machine tool slides was coded numerically
require considerable removal of stock and several and hence the name ‘numerical control’
„
control’
hundred positioning movements of the machine tool
slides. machine.

5
 CNC Machines Driving the tool

„ With further development of NC „ In CNC machine, the machine tool slides

technology, mini computers and are driven by AC or DC servomotors
microprocessors were incorporated in NC
machine tools
„ much of the control logic was realized through
computer hardware and software.
„ Such improved machines are called
Computer Numerical Machines (CNC).

Software driven Feedback Control

„ A CNC program (software) provides „ Feedback devices mounted in the machine

instructions to the CNC controller, which tool slides
sends signals to the servomotors driving „ measure the linear/angular displacement of
the slides
the machine tool slides.
„ this information is sent to the CNC controller
„ The machine tool slides move in „ which in turn sends the requisite signals to
accordance with the positioning the servomotors to ensure the desired
information contained in the CNC positions of the machine tool slides are not
program. overshot

CNC Control & Accuracy CNC Control

„ Following the servomechanism principles, „ The selection of spindle speeds, feeds, coolant,
fitment of required cutting tools in the machine
the machine tool slides are caused to tool spindle are under CNC control.
move to the exact positions as per the „ The majority of CNC machines used for
instructions set in the CNC programme.
programme. machining are either machining centers or
turning centers.
„ Machining centre: essentially a milling machine, but
can also undertake boring, drilling & tapping
„ The positioning accuracy and repeatability operations
is of the order of 5 to 10 µm. „ Turning centre: A lathe, but can also undertake
drilling, tapping and milling operations.

6
 Tool Magazine Automation of machine tools
„ A number of tools are stored in a tool magazine, „ The CNC principle of automation of machine
attached to the CNC machine. tools have been extended to
„ The required cutting tools can be „ Jig boring
„ selected & fitted into the spindle „ Grinding
„ after removing the cutting tool used for the previous „ Coordinate measuring (inspection) machines
operation
„ in a few seconds „ Drilling & routing
„ automatically as per the instructions given in the „ Blanking
program. „ Pipe bending
„ All these features ensure that setup time is „ Electron beam welding
reduced to a very great extent. „ Electric discharge machining

Programming for CNC Machines Where to cut?

„ Essentially consists of giving a set of „ To do this, it is necessary, in the first instance, to define
the location and path of the cutting tool in relation to the
instructions to the CNC control surface of the component to be machined throughout
the process of machining.
„ which will cause the machine tool slides to „ Thereafter, it is necessary to arrange to coordinate the
move in such a manner that the cutting „ movement of the machine tool slides with the cutter
location/path, taking due account of the
tool is suitably „ cutting tool shape,
„ positioned, oriented, and moves in the path „ its dimensions,
method of clamping the component to the machine table and
required to machine the component as per
„
„ limits of travel of the machine tool slides.
drawing dimensions.

Machining Parameters Programming

„ CNC parameters also take into account 1. Manually

various machining parameters, such as 2. With the assistance of computers
spindle speeds, feeds, coolant usage, tool 3. Following the CAD/CAM route using a
wear compensation etc. workstation with interactive graphic
simulation and other facilities (such as
FEM) for design analyses.

7
 Manual Programming Machine Operator – does whaaat?
whaaat?

„ Useful for very simple jobs, in which „ Load the components on to the machine before
commencing the CNC operations and unload the
machining is required in 2 axis only. component after CNC operations are over
„ Most aerospace components require „ Switch on the machine after loading the
component and switch off the machine after
control over 3 or 4 or 5 axis and it will not CNC operations are over
be practical to do manual programming „ Supervise operations carried out automatically
for such components under CNC control to ensure that no untoward
damage occurs, such as tool breakage in which
the operator can override the control and stop
the machine.

Skills of the operator

„ CNC operator does not have to have the high Advantages and Disadvantages
manual skills required of machine operators of
conventional machines (with manual tool slide of CNC Machining
controls).
„ However, he needs to be suitably trained to
understand the principles of programming and
operation of CNC machines and be alert while
machining is going on.

Advantages Advantages….

„ Improved quality „ Significant reduction in requirement of expensive

„ Repeatable accuracy as human error is jigs and fixtures
reduced „ Simple holding fixtures are sufficient
Manufacturing lead time cut down drastically
„ Manufacturing flexibility „
„ Due to reduction in scale of jigs and fixtures and due
„ To accommodate frequent job changes to short setup times
„ as set-
set-up times are short „ Consequently, reduced inventory of tools and raw
„ design changes material
„ CNC programs can easily be modified. „ Satisfying customer demand in a short period

8
 Advantages Disadvantages

„ Reduction in number of machine operators „ High initial (capital) costs of acquisition of CNC
machines
„ One CNC machine can do the work of more
„ Associated capital costs of CNC programming
than one type of conventional machine
aids, precision tool setting equipment and CNC
„ E.g., one machine centre can replace 3 regrinding machines
conventional machines, a milling machine, a
drilling machine and a boring machine „ Cutting tools have to be re-re-sharpened accurately
„ Higher overheads costs
„ Due to costlier maintenance and requirement for air
conditioning for the CNC shop

Which way to go?

„ The advantages offset the disadvantages.

„ Use of CNC machines results in overall
economy
„ If one can raise the capital funds for
purchasing the CNC machines