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EINSTEIN
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Sir.C.V.Raman Nagar, Tirunelveli-12

Department of Electrical & Electronics

Engineering
Subject Code: EE 38
Measurements & Instrumentation Lab

Name

Reg No

Branch

Year & Semester

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
S.No

Date

Name of the Experiment

Marks
No.

Staff
Remarks
Initial

DC Bridge Wheatstones Bridge

DC Bridge Kelvins double

2
Bridge
AC Bridge Maxwells Inductance3
Capacitance Bridge
4

AC Bridge Scherings Bridge

Study of transients
Study of Displacement Transducer -

6
LVDT
7

Instrumentation Amplifier
Calibration of Single Phase Energy

8
Meter
9

Calibration of Current Transformer

10

Digital to Analog Converter

11

Study of Pressure Transducer

Measurement of Three Phase Power

12
and Power Factor
Measurement of Iron Loss
13
(Maxwell Bridge)

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Ex. No:

DC BRIDGE WHEATSTONES BRIDGE

Date:
AIM:
To measure the given medium value of resistance using Wheatstones Bridge
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Apparatus
Resistors
Unknown resistors
Decade Resistance Box
Regulated Power Supply
Galvanometer
Bread board
Connecting wires

Range
1K

Quantity
2

(0-30V)
-

1
1
1
1
1 set

DESIGN:

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TABULATION:
Known Resistances (K)
S.No

True Value
(K)

Measured
Value
(K)

MODEL CALCULATION:

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FORMULA USED:
R = S * (P/Q)
Where

R Unknown resistance in

S, P, Q known resistances in
THEORY:
Wheatstone bridge is used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by
balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown
component. Its operation is similar to the potentiometer.
In the circuit on the left, R is the unknown resistance to be measured; P, Q
and S are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of S is adjustable. If the
ratio of the two resistances in the known leg (P/Q) is equal to the ratio of the two in
the unknown leg (R/S), then the voltage between the two midpoints (b and d) will be
zero and no current will flow through the ammeter. S is varied until this condition is
reached. The direction of the current indicates whether S is too high or too low.
Detecting zero current can be done to extremely high accuracy. Therefore, if P, S and
Q are known to high precision, then R can be measured to high precision. Very small
changes in R disrupt the balance and are readily detected. At the point of balance, the
ratio of R/S = P/Q.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Set 12v in the RPS
3. The variable resistance is varied until the galvanometer (or) ammeter shows
the zero deflection.
4. The unknown resistance is calculated using the formula R = S * (P/Q)

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by bridge circuit?

2. What are the uses of bridge circuits?

3. What are the advantages of bridge circuits?

4. What are the two main types of bridges?

5. What is meant by DC Bridge?

6. What are the types of DC bridges?

7. What is Wheatstone bridge?

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8. Write the balancing equation for Wheatstone bridge.

9. State the advantages & disadvantages of Wheatstone bridge method.

Advantages:

Disadvantages:

10. What are the applications and limitations of Wheatstone bridge?

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Ex. No:

DC BRIDGE KELVINS DOUBLE BRIDGE

Date:

AIM:
To measure the given low value of resistance using Kelvins double bridge
method
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Apparatus
Resistors
Unknown resistors
Decade Resistance Box
Regulated Power Supply
Galvanometer
Bread board
Connecting wires

Range
1,100

Quantity
2 each

(0-30V)
-

1
1
1
1
1 set

DESIGN:

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TABULATION:
Known Resistances ()

Measured
True Value
Value

S.No

Rx

()
()

MODEL CALCULATION:

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FORMULA USED:
R

PS
Lr
P K

Q
K
L
r
Q L

Rx Unknown resistance in

Where,

P, Q, p, q Known resistances in
S Variable resistance

THEORY:
A Kelvin bridge is used to measure an unknown electrical resistance below
1. Its operation is similar to the Wheatstones bridge except that in the circuit are
not four but seven resistors. When using a Wheatstone bridge to measure the low
resistor R, the non-perfect wires resistances cant be ignored and substantially affect
the measurement. To avoid this, some modifications must be introduced. If the ratios
K/L and P/Q are equal and the bridge gets balanced, the Wheatstone condition is
again accomplished, R = (PS/Q) result of this modification
a new measuring instrument, the Kelvin Bridge, is achieved. There are some
commercial devices reaching accuracies of 2% for resistance ranges from 0.001 to 25
ohms.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Required supply voltage(5v) is given using RPS.
3. The Variable resistance is varied until the galvanometer (or) ammeter shows
the zero deflection.
4. The value of resistance in DRB is noted.
5. The unknown resistance is calculated using the formula
PS
Lr
P K
R


Q

K L r Q

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is Kelvin bridge?

2. Draw the circuit diagram of Kelvins bridge.

3. What is Kelvins double bridge?

4. Draw the circuit diagram of Kelvins double bridge.

5. State the advantages of Kelvin double bridge method.

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6. State the usual equation used in Kelvin double bridge method.

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Ex. No:

AC BRIDGE MAXWELLS INDUCTANCE CAPACITANCE BRIDGE

Date:
AIM:
To find the unknown value of inductance and Q factor of a given coil using
Maxwells bridge
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Apparatus

Range
10 K
-

Resistors
DLB
DCB
DRB
Function generator(AFO)
CRO
Bread board
Connecting wires

Quantity
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1 Set

DESIGN:

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TABULATION:
Known Values

R3
S.No

R2

C1
F

R1

Actual

Absolute

Value Lx

Value Lx

(mH)

(mH)

Dissipation
Factor
D = C1R1

MODEL CALCULATION:

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FORMULA USED:
Lx = R2R3C1
Dissipation Factor D = C1R1
Where,

= 2f
Lx Unknown inductance

THEORY:
A Maxwell Bridge (in long form, a Maxwell-Wien bridge) is a type of
wheatstone bridge used to measure an unknown inductance in terms of calibrated
resistance and capacitance. It is a real product bridge.
In the Maxwell Bridge, the resistance values of resistors R1 and R3 are known
fixed entities, and R4 and C4 are known variable entities. R4 and C4 are adjusted
until the bridge is balanced. R1 and L1 can then be calculated based on the values of
the
other
components:
R1 = (R4* R3)/ R2 &
L1 = R2R3C4
To avoid the difficulties associated with determining the precise value of a
variable capacitance, sometimes a fixed-value capacitor will be installed and more
than one resistor will be made variable.

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PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

Set 5v by using AFO as sine wave
Set the value of inductance by using DLB
The variable resistance and capacitance is varied until the amplitude of the
sinusoidal waveform in the CRO shows zero.
5. The unknown inductance is calculated using the formulae.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What are the types of Maxwell bridge?

2. What is the basic working principle of Maxwell bridge?

3. What is the other name for Maxwell inductance capacitance bridge?

4. What is the quality factor for Maxwell wien bridge?

5. What are the advantages of Maxwell bridge?

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6. List out the limitation of Maxwell bridge.

7. What is the range for Maxwell bridge?

8. State the disadvantage of Maxwell wein bridge.

9. Define Q-factor of the coil.

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Ex. No:

AC BRIDGE SCHERINGS BRIDGE

Date:
AIM:
To measure the unknown value of capacitance using Schering bridge
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
Apparatus
1
Resistors
2
DLB
3
DCB
4
DRB
5
Function generator(AFO)
6
CRO
7
Bread board
8
Connecting wires

Range
10 K
-

Quantity
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1 Set

DESIGN:

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TABULATION:
Known Values
Frequency
(KHz)

R3

R4

C2

C4

Actual

Absolute

Value C1

Value C1

(F)

(F)

Dissipation
Factor
D = C4R4

MODEL CALCULATION:

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FORMULA USED:
Dissipation Factor D = C4R4
Where,

= 2f
C1 = C2 * (R4/R3)
r1 = (R3*C4)/C2

THEORY:
A schering bridge is a bridge circuit used for measuring an unknown electrical
capacitance and its dissipation factor. The dissipation factor of a capacitor is the ratio
of its resistance to its capacitive reactance. The schering bridge is basically a four-arm
alternating-current (AC) bridge circuit whose measurement depends on balancing the
loads on its arms.
In the schering bridge, the resistance values of resistors R4 and R3 are
known, while the resistance value of resistor r1 is unknown. The Capacitance
values of C4 and C2 are also known, while the capacitance of C1 is the value being
measured. To measure r1 and C1, the values of C4 and R3are fixed, while the values
of R4 and C1 are adjusted until the current through the ammeter between points B
and D becomes zero. This happens when the voltages at points B and D are equal,
in which case the bridge is said to be 'balanced'.
When the bridge is balanced, Z1/C2 = R3/Z3, where Z1 is the impedance of
R4 in parallel with C4 and Z3 is the impedance of r1 in series with C1. In an AC
circuit that has a capacitor, the capacitor contributes a capacitive reactance to the
impedance. The capacitive reactance of a capacitor C is 1/2fC.
As such, Z1 = R4/ [2fC4 ((1/2fC4) + R4)] = R4/ (1 + 2fC4R4) while Z3 =
1/2fC1 + r1. Thus, when the bridge is balanced: 2fC4R4/ (1+2fC4R4) = r1/
(1/2fC1 +r1).When the bridge is balanced, the negative and positive reactive
components are equal and cancel out, so
2fC1r1 = 2fC4R4 or r1 = C4R4 / C1.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Variable resistance R4 is varied until the galvanometer (or) ammeter
shows the zero deflection.
3. The unknown capacitance is calculated using the formula C1 = C2 * (R4/R3).

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is schering bridge?

2. Draw the circuit diagram of Schering bridge.

3. What are the advantages of schering bridge?

4. What are the measurement factors of schering bridge?

5. What is the measuring range of schering bridge?

6. What is the key advantage of schering bridge?

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7. How are the errors at low voltages rectified?

8. What is dissipation factor?

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

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Ex. No:

STUDY OF TRANSIENTS

Date:
AIM:
To study the transient response of the RLC transient circuit
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Apparatus
DLB
DCB
DRB
Function generator(AFO)
CRO
Bread board
Connecting wires

Range
-

Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 Set

DESIGN:

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TABULATION:
S.No

System

Critically Damped

Over-Damped

Under-Damped

Amplitude(mV)

Time(uS)

PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram
2. Choose square wave made in signal generator and apply a suitable
input
3. Observe and plot the output waveform
4. (i) Calculate the time required by output to reach 0.368 times (RC
transient) the input value (peak).This

value given practical time

constant
(ii) Calculate the time required by output to reach 0.632 times (RL
transient) the input value (peak).This value given practical time
constant

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What are transients?

2. Define settling time

3. Define overshoot

4. Define peak time

5. What are time domain specifications?

RESULT:

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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM:
Primary Winding (P1)

Second

(S1)
S2

SOFT IRON
CORE
Arm Displace
-ment A

MODEL GRAPH:

Absolute
Reading in
Volts

LVDT Reading

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Ex. No:
Date:

STUDY OF DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER - LVDT

AIM:
1. To study the characteristics of an LVDT position sensor with respect to
secondary output voltage and measure the voltage due to residual
magnetism.
2. To study the characteristics of an LVDT position sensor with respect to
signal conditioning output voltage.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. ITB-12-CE
2. LVDT Set up
3. Multimeter (CRO)
4. Power chords
FORMULA USED:
Core Displaceme nt - Micrometer Displaceme nt
% Error
* 100
Micrometer Displaceme nt
THEORY:
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a type of electrical
transformer used for measuring linear displacement. The transformer has three
solenoid coils placed end-to-end around a tube. The centre coil is the primary, and the
two outer coils are the secondaries. A cylindrical ferromagnetic core, attached to the
object whose position is to be measured, slides along the axis of the tube. An
alternating current is driven through the primary, causing a voltage to be induced in
each secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with the primary. The frequency
is usually in the range 1 to 10 kHz. As the core moves, these mutual inductances
change, causing the voltages induced in the secondaries to change. The coils are
connected in reverse series, so that the output voltage is the difference (hence
"differential") between the two secondary voltages. When the core is in its central
position, equidistant between the two secondaries, equal but opposite voltages are
induced in these two coils, so the output voltage is zero.
When the core is displaced in one direction, the voltage in one coil increases
as the other decreases, causing the output voltage to increase from zero to a
maximum. This voltage is in phase with the primary voltage. When the core moves in
the other direction, the output voltage also increases from zero to a maximum, but its
phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude of the output voltage is
proportional to the distance moved by the core (up to its limit of travel), which is why
the device is described as "linear". The phase of the voltage indicates the direction of
the displacement. Because the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube, it can
move without friction, making the LVDT a highly reliable device. The absence of any
sliding or rotating contacts allows the LVDT to be completely sealed against the
environment.

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TABULATION:

Micrometer
Displacement

Core
Displacement

Secondary
Output Voltage
(mv)

(mm)

Signal Conditioned
Output Voltage
% Error
(mv)

(mm)

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LVDTs are commonly used for position feedback in servomechanisms, and

for automated measurement in machine tools and many other industrial and scientific
applications.
PROCEDURE:
1. Install the LVDT position sensor and interface the 9 pin connector with ITB12-CE.
2. Switch on the kit.
3. Connect the multimeter (or) CRO (in ac mv mode) across the T4 and T7 for the
secondary output voltage measurement.
4. Adjust the micrometer in 10mm displacement and turns the zero displacement
POT to 0 mm displacement on display.
5. Adjust the micrometer to 20mm displacement and turns the gain adjustment
POT to 10mm on the display.
6. Repeat the zero and span calibration until the core displacement is 0mm for
10mm displacement in micrometer and 10mm for 20mm displacement.
7. After completion of the calibration, give the displacement in micrometer to
core of the LVDT system.
8. Gradually increase the micrometer displacement from 10mm to 20mm and
note down the forward core displacement from 0mm to 10mm on the display
and see the output voltage across T4 and T7.
9. Similarly decrease the micrometer displacement from 10mm to 0mm and note
down the reverse core displacement of 0 to 10mm on the display and see the
output voltage across T4 and T7.
10. Tabulate the readings of core displacement (mm), micrometer displacement
and output voltage (mv).
11. Plot the graph between core displacements (mm) along X-axis and see the
output voltage (mv) across Y-axis.
12. The same procedure repeated and note down the reverse core displacement of
0 to 10mm on the display and signal.
13. Tabulate the readings of the core displacement, micrometer displacement and
signal conditioned output voltage (V).
14. Plot the graph between core displacement (mm) along X-axis and signal
conditioned output voltage (V) along Y-axis.

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MODEL CALCULATION:

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by transducer?

2. Mention some basic requirements of a transducer.

3. What are the classifications of transducers?

4. What is active transducer?

5. What is passive transducer?

6. What is inverse transducer?

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7. What is inductive transducer?

8. Mention some advantages of LVDT.

9. List the disadvantages of LVDT.

10. Mention the applications of LVDT.

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Ex.No:

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

Date:
AIM:
To construct an instrumentation amplifier and observe the output voltage
value.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Op-amp IC-741
2. Resistor 10 K,22 K
3. RPS
4. CRO
FORMULA USED:
CMRR = 20 log Ad /Ac
Ad = V0 /( V1- V2 )
Ac = 2V0 /( V1+V2 )
Where, CMRR Common Mode Rejection Ratio
Ad Difference mode gain
Ac Common mode gain
THEORY:
An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is a type of differential
amplifier that has been outfitted with input buffers, which eliminate the need for input
impedance matching and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in
measurement and test equipment. Additional characteristics include very low DC
offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop gain, very high common-mode
rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation amplifiers are used
where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short- and long-term are
required.
Although the instrumentation amplifier is usually shown schematically
identical to a standard op-amp, the electronic instrumentation amp is almost always
internally composed of 3 op-amps. These are arranged so that there is one op-amp to
buffer each input (+,), and one to produce the desired output with adequate
impedance matching for the function. The ideal common-mode gain of an
instrumentation amplifier is zero. Common-mode gain is caused by mismatches in the
values of the equally-numbered resistors and by the mis-match in common mode
gains of the two input op-amps. Obtaining very closely matched resistors is a
significant difficulty in fabricating these circuits, as is optimizing the common mode
performance of the input op-amps.
An instrumentation amp can also be built with 2 op-amps to save on cost and
increase CMRR, but the gain must be higher than 2 (+6 dB).
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TABULATION:
Differential mode:
Input Voltage

S. No

V1

V2

(V)

(V)

Output Voltage V0

Difference Mode Gain

(V)

Ad = V0 /( V1- V2 )

DESIGN:

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Procedure:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

Supply is given through switches.
Different voltages are set as two inputs for different mode.
The output is observed in voltmeter.
The same voltage is set in two inputs for common mode.
The output is observed in voltmeter.
The value of Ad and Ac are calculated using formula.

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MODEL CALCULATION:

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. Features of instrumentation amplifier.

2. What is mean by CMRR?

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3. Characteristics of instrumentation amplifier.

4. Applications of instrumentation amplifier.

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

10A

(0-10)A
M

FUSE

R1
1

L1
2
10uH

C2

R1

2
1
1k

C1

L1
21

1k

P1

2
10uH

P2

10A
N

FUSE

MODEL GRAPH:

% Error

Current

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Ex.No:

CALIBRATION OF SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER

Date:
AIM:
To calibrate the given wattmeter and energy meter by direct loading.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
Apparatus
1
Ammeter

Range
(0-10A)MI

Quantity
1

Voltmeter

(0-300V)MI

Wattmeter

300V,10A,UPF

Resistive load

1 auto transformer

Energy meter

240V,50HZ,1200rev/KWhr

Connecting wires

Few

Screw driver

FORMULA USED:

Trueenergy

Watt * time(sec)
3600 * 1000

KW / hr

No of revolutions
Energy meter constant
= 10/1200 =8.33 * 10-3

Actualenergy

% Error

KW / hr

Actual energy - True energy

True energy

* 100

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TABULATION:

Voltmeter

Ammeter

Reading

Reading

Time for 10
Revolutions

Wattmeter
Reading

(Sec)
(V)

(A)

True
Energy
% Error
(KW/Hr)

(Watt)

MODEL CALCULATION:

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THEORY:
Calibrating the energy meter means to find out the error in the measurement of
energy by energymeter.Every energy meter has its own characteristics constant
specified by the manufacturer which relates the energy measured in joules and the
number of revolutions of the disc. For example say X revolutions corresponds to the
measurement of Y joules. But practically the value of X is very large and cannot be
measured in the laboratory. Hence using this constant energy recorded for certain less
number of revolutions say 5, is calculated in the laboratory for the calibration
purpose. This energy is denoted as Er. Thus Er can be calculated from X as Er =
(5X)/Y joules
To have zero error, the actual energy consumed by the load for the time
corresponding to the 5 revolutions must be same as Er .this energy is called actual
energy consumed are the true energy denoted as Et. For various loads, the time
required to complete the 5 revolutions of disc is measured with the help of stop watch.
The percentage of error can be calculated by
Actual energy - True energy
% Error
*100
True energy
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. By varying the auto transformer rated voltage is set and no load readings are
taken.
3. There by applying the load, ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and other energy
readings are noted.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is calibration?

2. What is the significance of calibration?

3. What are the different calibration methodologies?

4. Why calibration of instrument is important?

5. What are the types of energy meters?

6. Name the constructional parts of induction type energy meter.

7. How voltage coil is connected in induction type energy meter?

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8. How current coil is connected in induction type energy meter?

9. What is the purpose of registering mechanism?

10. What is the purpose of braking mechanism?

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Sub Code: EE 38

Ex.No:

CALIBRATION OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Date:

AIM:
To study the performance of current transformer and to find out the
transformation ratio.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. VPL-01 ACC module
2. Current transformer
3. Ammeter
FORMULA USED:
Transformation ratio K = I1/I2
Error = I1-I2
Where,

I1 Primary current in Amps

I2 Secondary current in Amps

THEORY:
A current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents.
Current transformers are also known as instrument transformers. When current in a
circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer
produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which
can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current
transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high
voltage in the primary circuit.
For a current transformer, it is necessary that the transformation ratio must be
exactly equal to turns ratio and phase of the secondary turns must be displaced by 180
degree from that of the primary turns .Two types of errors affect these characteristics
of an current transformer which are ratio error, phase angle error.

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TABULATION:
Primary
Current I1
(A)

Secondary
Current I2
(A)

Transformation Ratio
K = I1/I2

Error = I1 - I2

MODEL GRAPH:

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MODEL CALCULATION:

PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Connect the output 1 to the current transformer of P1.

Connect the output 2 to the current transformer of P2.
Connect the current transformer S1 to ammeter 5th Pin.
Connect the current transformer S2 to ammeter 2nd Pin.
Connect 230V AC supply to meter of 6th and 8th Pin (6th line, 8th neutral).
Initially kept in current adjustment pin at 0.
Switch ON Kit. Vary the current source and take the readings till the primary
current reaches 15A.
8. Tabulate the primary and secondary output values.

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is transformer?

2. What is meant by instrument transformer?

3. What are the types of instrument transformer?

4. List out the Limitation of instrument transformer.

5. What are the types of error in current transformer?

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6. Define ratio error.

7. How the phase angle error is created?

RESULT:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER:

MODEL GRAPH:

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Ex.No:

D-A CONVERTER

Date:
AIM:
To construct and test the R-2R ladder network D-A converter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
1

Apparatus
Resistor

Range
10K,2.2K

Quantity
4

Voltmeter

(0-10V) MC

IC741

--

RPS

(0-30V)

Dual RPS

(0-15V)

Bread Board

Connecting wires

few

THEORY:
In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter (DAC or D-to-A) is a device for
converting a digital (usually binary) code to an analog signal (current, voltage or
electric charge). A DAC converts an abstract finite-precision number (usually a fixedpoint binary number) into a concrete physical quantity (e.g., a voltage or a pressure).
In particular, DACs are often used to convert finite-precision time series data to a
continually-varying physical signal.
A typical DAC converts the abstract numbers into a concrete sequence of
impulses that are then processed by a reconstruction filter using some form of
interpolation to fill in data between the impulses. Other DAC methods (e.g., methods
based on Delta-sigma modulation) produce a pulse-density modulated signal that can
then be filtered in a similar way to produce a smoothly-varying signal. Most modern
audio signals are stored in digital form (for example MP3s and CDs) and in order to
be heard through speakers they must be converted into an analog signal. Applications,
DACs are therefore found in CD players, digital music players, and PC sound cards
Video signals from a digital source, such as a computer, must be converted to analog
form if they are to be displayed on an analog monitor. A device that is distantly
related to the DAC is the digitally controlled potentiometer, used to control an analog
signal digitally.

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TABULATION:
Digital Input
Analog Output V0
A

C
(Volt)

PIN DETAIL:

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PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

Set the input voltage and note down the output voltage using multimeter.
By varying the input voltage different output voltages are noted.
Outputs are verified using truth table.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. List the broad classification of ADCs.

2. What is integrating type converter?

3. Explain in brief the principle of operation of successive Approximation ADC.

4. What are the main advantages of integrating type ADCs?

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5. Where is the successive approximation type ADCs used?

356. Define conversion time.

7. Define resolution of a data converter.

8. Define accuracy of converter.

9. What is settling time?

10. What is monotonic DAC?

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11. What is a sample and hold circuit? Where it is used?

12. Define sample period and hold period.

RESULT:

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MODEL GRAPH:
1) Gauge Pressure Vs Bridge Voltage

2) Gauge Pressure Vs Output Voltage

3) Gauge Pressure Vs % Error

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Sub Code: EE 38
Ex. No:
Date:

STUDY OF PRESSURE TRANSDUCER

AIM:
To study the characteristics of the pressure coil with respect to bridge voltage
and signal conditioned output voltage.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1.
2.
3.
4.

ITB-16-CE trainer kit

Pressure coil Set up
Multimeter
Power chords

FORMULA USED:
% Error

Gauge Pressure - Displayed Pressure

Displayed Pressure

* 100

THEORY:
A strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object. The strain
gauge consists of an insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern.
The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive .As the object is deformed,
the foil is deformed, causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance
change, usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the
quantity known as the gauge factor.
A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical
conductance's dependence on not merely the electrical conductivity of a conductor,
which is a property of its material, but also the conductor's geometry. When an
electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not
break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer, changes that
increase its electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, when a conductor is
compressed such that it does not buckle, it will broaden and shorten changes that
decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. From the measured electrical resistance
of the strain gauge, the amount of applied stress may be inferred. A typical strain
gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zigzag pattern of parallel lines such
that a small amount of stress in the direction of the orientation of the parallel lines
results in a multiplicatively larger strain over the effective length of the conductor and
hence a multiplicatively larger change in resistance than would be observed with a
single straight-line conductive wire.

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PROCEDURE:
(a) Gauge Pressure Vs Bridge Voltage
1. Install the Pressure coil Set up and interface the 9 pin connector with ITB-16CE.
2. Connect the multimeter (or) CRO (in ac mv mode) across the T2 and T3 for the
bridge voltage measurement.
3. Switch on the kit.
4. Initially open the air release valve and exhaust tank inlet air and nullify the
bridge voltage by using zero adjustment POT.
5. Now choose the opened air release valves, by pressing the pump piston. The
pump sucks the air atmosphere and supplies it to the cylinder. Then the
pressure will be developed in the cylinder and now measure the bridge voltage
(mv) across T2 and T3.
6. Gradually increase the pressure by pressing the pump piston and note down
the bridge voltage (mv) for corresponding gauge pressure.
7. Tabulate the readings and put a graph between gauge pressure and bridge
voltage.
(b) Gauge Pressure Vs Signal Conditioned Voltage
1. Install the pressure coil set up and interface the 9 pin D connector with ITB16-CE.
2. Connect the multimeter (or) CRO (in ac mv mode) across the T5 and ground
for the signal conditioned voltage measurement.
3. Switch on the kit.
4. Initially open the air release valve and exhaust tank inlet air and nullify the
signal conditioned voltage by using zero adjustment POT.
5. Now close the opened air release valve and apply the pressure of 50 psig to the
cylinder and adjust the display to 50 psig by using gain adjustment POT.
6. After the gain calibration open the air release valve and exhaust tank inlet air.
7. Again close the opened air release valve by pressing the pump piston, the
pump sucks the air atmosphere and supply it to the cylinder. Then the pressure
will be developed in the cylinder and measure the signal conditioned voltage
(mv) across T5 and ground.
8. Gradually increase the pressure by pressing the pump piston and note down
the signal conditioned output voltage (mv) for corresponding gauge pressure.
9. Tabulate the readings and put a graph between gauge pressure and signal
conditioned output voltage
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is the purpose of strain gauge?

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2. Define strain gauges.

3. Define gauge factor.

4. What is meant by Poissons ratio?

5. Mention types of strain gauges.

6. What are the advantages of semiconductor strain gauges?

7. What are disadvantages of strain gauge?

RESULT:

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Sub Code: EE 38
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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Sub Code: EE 38
Ex.No:

MEASUREMENT OF THREE PHASE POWER AND POWER

FACTOR

Date:
AIM:
To measure the three phase power using two wattmeter method and also find
the power factor value.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No
Apparatus
1
Ammeter

Range
(0-10A)MI

Quantity
1

Voltmeter

(0-600V)MI

Wattmeter

600V,10A,UPF

Three phase Resistive load

Three phase autotransformer

Connecting wires

Few

FORMULA USED:
Total Power W = W1+W2 watts
Where,

W1&W2 Wattmeter Readings

Total Power W = 3 VLIL cos

VL & IL Load Voltage and Current
THEORY:
In 3 circuits whether the load is star connected or delta connected, total 3
power is given by 3 VLILcos. The is the angle between Vph and Iph. The power is
measured by using wattmeters. Wattmeter is a device which gives power reading,
when connected in 1 or 3 system, directly in watts. It consists of two coils 1.
Current coil, 2.voltage coil (or) pressure coil. The current coils of the two wattmeter
are connected in any two lines while the voltage coil of each wattmeter is connected
between its own current coil terminal and the line without a current coil. For example,
the current coils are inserted in the lines R and Y then the pressure coils are connected
between R B for one wattmeter and Y B for other wattmeter. The connections are
same for star or delta connected load. In two wattmeter method, the algebraic sum of
the two wattmeter reading gives the total power dissipated in the 3 circuit. If W1
&W2 are the two wattmeter readings then the total power W= W1+W2 in watts
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TABULATION:

Load

Load

Supply
Voltage

Current

Wattmeter

Total Power

Power Factor

Reading

W= W1+W2

cos

Total
PowerW =3
VLIL cos

(Watts)

(Watts)

=W /3VLIL

(Watts)

(V)
(A)

W1

W2

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PROCEDURE:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

The total voltage is given by adjust the autotransformer.
The meter readings are note down at no load conditions.
By applying the load gradually the corresponding meter readings are noted
down.
5. The above procedure is repeated for different input voltage by adjust the
autotransformer.
6. The load is released gradually and the supply is switched off.

MODEL CALCULATION:

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is balanced voltage?

2. What is balanced impedance?

3. What is phase sequence?

4. Write the relation between the line and phase value of voltage and current in a
balanced
star connected source load.

5. Write the relation between the line and the phase value of voltage and current
in a
balanced delta connected source/load.

6. Write the relation between the power factor wattmeter readings in two
wattmeter
method of power measurement.

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7. Name the methods used for power measurement in three phase circuits.

8. Name the methods used in Wattmeter calibration.

RESULT:

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Sub Code: EE 38
Ex.No:

MEASUREMENT OF IRON LOSS (MAXWELL BRIDGE)

Date:
AIM:
To measure and study the iron loss and permeability of given ring specimen.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. ITB- 26B unit
2. Patch chords
3. Multimeter
4. Microphone
FORMULA USED:
At balance condition,
Unknown inductance

Ls = Std R1* Std R3*C

Unknown Resistance

Rs = (Std R1* Std R3) / R2

Unknown Permeability

= (ls R1 R3C) / N2As

Where,
in

Rs Specimen resistance in
R2 Standard resistance measured by using multimeter across POT 2
ls Specimen winding length in mm

R1 & R3 Standard resistances in

C Capacitance in F
THEORY:
To measure iron loss and permeability in an accurate manner we use
maxwells inductance bridge in a sensitive way. Maxwells bridge is use to measure
unknown inductance of the coil which is connected in one arm of the bridge circuit.
Measurement of iron loss and permeability of ring specimen unit contains the
following three major parts as follows.
Oscillator
Maxwells Bridge
Output detector.
In a specimen the iron loss meant for the power loss due to magnetization
loss. The power loss in a ring specimen includes both copper loss and iron loss. In our
instrument specimen made up moulded ferrite core, so the total power loss is equal to
iron loss = IL2(Rs - Rw).The iron loss unit in terms of mw (or)w. Permeability of an
ring specimen dependent upon the following parameter namely length of the winding
number of turns, area of the specimen and the arm parameters. Normally these values
are given by the specimen manufacturers.

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I12(RS Rw )

Rs
(mH)
(mA)
()

R1POT(
)
R3

R2POT(
)

Rw()

Resistanc
e

Std
Resistanc
e
Std
Resist
ance

TABULATION:

Std
Resistanc
e

Winding

I1

(mH)

Specimen
Inductance

Specimen
Inductance
Practical

Resistanc
e

Specimen

Iron

Loss
=

Permeability

= (ls R1 R3C) /
N2As

Sub Code: EE 38

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the ring specimen to the arm for which measured to be made.
3. Keep the POT 2 in maximum position and switch ON the unit.
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4. The output can be detected either by microphone (or) CRO multimeter.
5. For detecting the output by CRO, vary the POT 1 from lower to higher value
at particular point the output goes to minimum value.
6. Note down the resistance by using multimeter.
7. In this condition note down the AC current through ring specimen POT 2 &
the source current by using multimeter.
8. Apply those values in to an approximated formula and find out the iron loss of
the ring specimen.
9. Similarly proceed the same procedure for the given three ring specimen.
MODEL CALCULATION:

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

SPECIMEN TECHNICAL DETAILS:

Specimen Value

Length ls

Number of Turns

Area As

mH

(cm2)

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DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by iron loss?

2. What are the different methods of measuring Iron loss?

3. Which type of bridge is used to measure iron loss?

4. What are the reasons for using Bridge method?

5. What is the limitation of wattmeter method?

RESULT:

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