Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics Into Light Aircraft

Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics
into Light Aircraft
Safety Study
National
Transportation
Safety Board
NTSB/SS-01/10
PB2010-917001
NTSB/SS-10/01
PB2010-917001
Notation 7954A
Adopted March 9, 2010
Safety Study
Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics into Light Aircraft
National
Transportation
Safety Board
490 LEnfant Plaza, S.W.

Washington, D.C. 20594
National Transportation Safety Board. 2010. Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics into Light
Aircraft. Safety Study NTSB/SS-10/01. Washington, DC.
Abstract: This study used manufacturer records, aircraft investigation information, and a tailored subset
of general aviation activity survey data to assess how the transition to electronic primary flight display
(PFD) avionics has affected the safety of light aircraft. The study also evaluated the resources and
requirements supporting the transition to this new technology. The results of this study suggest that, for
the aircraft and time period studied, the introduction of glass cockpit PFDs has not yet resulted in the
anticipated improvement in safety when compared to similar aircraft with conventional instruments.
Advanced avionics and electronic displays can increase the safety potential of general aviation aircraft
operations by providing pilots with more operational and safety-related information and functionality, but
more effort is needed to ensure that pilots are prepared to realize that potential. The Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), manufacturers, aviation industry groups, and academia have an established history
of collaboration through the FAA Industry Training Standards (FITS) program initiative for supporting
aircraft model-specific and scenario-based training techniques that would teach pilots higher-order
thinking skills. However, the FAA has changed the focus of the FITS initiative and has to date relied on
manufacturers and commercial vendors to deliver the equipment-specific training originally envisioned
for FITS. Adoption of uniform equipment-specific training elements by the FAA to ensure pilots have
adequate knowledge of aircraft equipment operation and malfunctions, as well as improved reporting of
equipment malfunctions and service difficulties, is likely to improve the safety of general aviation
operations beyond those involving aircraft with glass cockpit displays. However, such actions are
particularly important in order to achieve the potential safety benefits associated with advanced cockpit
technologies in light aircraft.
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is an independent federal agency dedicated to promoting
aviation, railroad, highway, marine, pipeline, and hazardous materials safety. Established in 1967, the agency is
mandated by Congress through the Independent Safety Board Act of 1974 to investigate transportation accidents,
determine the probable causes of the accidents, issue safety recommendations, study transportation safety issues, and
evaluate the safety effectiveness of government agencies involved in transportation. The NTSB makes public its
actions and decisions through accident reports, safety studies, special investigation reports, safety recommendations,
and statistical reviews.
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available publications also may be obtained from the website or by contacting:
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The Independent Safety Board Act, as codified at 49 U.S.C. Section 1154(b), precludes the admission into evidence
or use of NTSB reports related to an incident or accident in a civil action for damages resulting from a matter
mentioned in the report.
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Aviation Safety Study
Contents
Figures ........................................................................................................................................... iii
Abbreviated Terms ........................................................................................................................v
Executive Summary .................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter 1: Background .................................................................................................................1
Introduction of Glass Cockpit Displays into Light Aircraft ............................................................1
History of Advanced Cockpit Avionics ...........................................................................................4
Advanced Avionics in General Aviation ...................................................................................4
Previous Lessons Learned ........................................................................................................5
General Aviation Research to Date..................................................................................................7
General Aviation Safety Record ......................................................................................................8
Chapter 2: Study Design and Methodology...............................................................................11
Study Design Issues .......................................................................................................................11
Methodology ..................................................................................................................................12
Study Aircraft Fleet.................................................................................................................13
Activity Survey .......................................................................................................................14
Accident Data .........................................................................................................................15
Analyses .........................................................................................................................................15
Statistical Comparisons ..........................................................................................................16
Chapter 3: Quantitative Analysis Results..................................................................................18
Description of Study Fleet .............................................................................................................18
Description of Study Accidents .....................................................................................................19
Accident Information .....................................................................................................................19
Accident Involvement .............................................................................................................20
Accident Severity....................................................................................................................21
Activity, Exposure Data, and Accident Rates ................................................................................22
Flight Conditions ...........................................................................................................................25
Time of Day ............................................................................................................................25
Weather Conditions.................................................................................................................27
Flight Plan Filed .....................................................................................................................28
Purpose of Flight ............................................................................................................................29
Planned Length of Flight ........................................................................................................31
Phase of Flight ........................................................................................................................32
Accident Event Type ...............................................................................................................33
Accident Pilot Information ............................................................................................................34
Number of Pilots .....................................................................................................................34
Pilot Age .................................................................................................................................34
Pilot Certificate Level .............................................................................................................35
Pilot Instrument Rating ...........................................................................................................35
Pilot Flight Hours ...................................................................................................................36
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Summary of Quantitative Analysis Results ...................................................................................37

Chapter 4: Qualitative Assessment ............................................................................................40
FAA Requirements and Guidance Materials .................................................................................40
Equipment-Specific Training .........................................................................................................41
Manufacturer Training Programs and Materials ............................................................................43
Aircraft Manufacturers ...........................................................................................................43
Avionics Manufacturers ..........................................................................................................44
Insurance Requirements .................................................................................................................44
Chapter 5: Case Study Review ...................................................................................................46
Pilot Expectations Regarding Glass Cockpit Displays ..................................................................46
Equipment Design and Reliability .................................................................................................48
Standardization of Instrument Design and Operation....................................................................51
Interpretation of Equipment Malfunctions.....................................................................................54
Equipment-Specific Training .........................................................................................................56
Tracking Equipment Function and Reliability...............................................................................58
Chapter 6: Data Recording in Glass Cockpit Avionics ............................................................61
Chapter 7: Discussion ..................................................................................................................64
Accident Involvement and Accident Rates ....................................................................................64
Safety Issues...................................................................................................................................65
Training Resources and Requirements ...................................................................................65
Providing Pilots with Information about Display Operation and Limitations ........................66
Equipment-Specific Training Requirements...........................................................................67
Equipment Malfunction Training ...........................................................................................68
Tracking Service Difficulties and Equipment Malfunctions ..................................................69
Summary .......................................................................................................................................70
Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................71
Findings..........................................................................................................................................71
Recommendations ........................................................................................................................72
Appendix: Study Accidents .........................................................................................................74
ii
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Figures
Figure 1. Example of a light aircraft conventional cockpit............................................................ 3
Figure 2. Example of a light aircraft glass cockpit. ....................................................................... 3
Figure 3. Annual general aviation accident and fatal accident totals, 19992008. ........................ 9
Figure 4. Annual general aviation accident and fatal accident rates, 19992008. ....................... 10
Figure 5. General aviation and on-demand Part 135 average annual flight hours by age of
aircraft, 2006. ................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 6. New registrations of aircraft study fleet by cockpit display configuration and year. ... 18
Figure 7. Accumulated study aircraft fleet size by cockpit configuration and year. .................... 19
Figure 8. Distribution of glass cockpit cohort aircraft and accidents per year. ............................ 21
Figure 9. Comparison of study accidents by severity of outcome. .............................................. 22
Figure 10. Comparison of study accidents by time of day. .......................................................... 26
Figure 11. Combined 2006 and 2007 flight hour distribution by time of day and cockpit
configuration. ................................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 12. Comparison of study accidents by weather. ............................................................... 27
Figure 13. Combined 2006 and 2007 flight hour distribution by weather and cockpit
configuration. ................................................................................................................................ 28
Figure 14. Comparison of study accidents by flight plan filed. ................................................... 29
Figure 15. Comparison of study accidents by purpose of flight. ................................................. 30
Figure 16. Combined 2006 and 2007 flight hour distribution by purpose of flight and cockpit
configuration. ................................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 17. Comparison of study accidents by phase of flight. ..................................................... 32
Figure 18. Comparison of study accidents by event type and aircraft configuration. ................. 33
Figure 19. Comparison of number of pilots aboard study accident aircraft................................. 34
Figure 20. Comparison of study accident pilots by certificate level. ........................................... 35
Figure 21. Comparison of study accident pilots by instrument rating. ........................................ 36
Figure 22. Illustration of a conventional airspeed indicator mechanism, copied from the FAA
Instrument Flying Handbook. ....................................................................................................... 52
Figure 23. Illustrations of the internal mechanisms that drive analog attitude and heading
indicator instruments, copied from the FAA Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. ...... 53
iii
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Figure 24. Illustration of an AHRS, copied from the FAA Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge..................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 25. FAA instrument rating knowledge test sample: instrument malfunction interpretation
(pitot tube intake and drain blockage). ......................................................................................... 55
iv
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Abbreviated Terms
AC
advisory circular
ADAHRS
Air Data Attitude Heading Reference System
AERI
Airmanship Education Research Initiative
AFM
aircraft flight manual
AGATE
Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiments
AHRS
attitude and heading reference system
AOPA
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
ATP
airline transport pilot
CAB
Civil Aeronautics Board
CB
circuit breaker
CFR
Code of Federal Regulations
CPS
certification process study
CRT
cathode ray tube
FAA
Federal Aviation Administration
FITS
FAA Industry Training Standards
GA
general aviation
GAATAA
General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity and Avionics Survey
GAMA
General Aviation Manufacturers Association
GIFD
Garmin Integrated Flight Display
G-LOC
G-induced loss of consciousness
GPS
global positioning system
IFR
instrument flight rules
IMC
instrument meteorological conditions
MFD
multifunction flight display
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
nm
nautical miles
NTSB
National Transportation Safety Board
NTSB
PFD
primary flight display
PTS
Practical Test Standards
SDR
service difficulty report
SFAR
special federal aviation regulation
TAA
technically (also, technologically) advanced aircraft
TSO
technical standard order
TSRV
Transport Systems Research Vehicle
VFR
visual flight rules
VMC
visual meteorological conditions
vi
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Executive Summary
In a span of only a few years, the cockpits of new light aircraft have undergone a
transition from conventional analog flight instruments to digital-based electronic displays
commonly referred to as glass cockpits. These new displays integrate aircraft control,
autopilot, communication, navigation, and aircraft system monitoring functions, applying
technology previously available only in transport-category aircraft. The enhanced function and
information capabilities of glass cockpits represent a significant change and potential
improvement in the way general aviation pilots monitor information needed to control their
aircraft. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) initiated this study to determine if the
transition to glass cockpits in light aircraft has improved the safety record of those aircraft.
Three different approaches were used in this study. First, a retrospective statistical
analysis of manufacturer records, aircraft investigation information, and activity survey data was
conducted to compare the accident experience of recently manufactured light single-engine
airplanes equipped and not equipped with glass cockpit displays. Second, an evaluation of glass
cockpit training requirements and resources was conducted to characterize the training and to
identify areas for potential safety improvement. Finally, accident cases were reviewed to identify
emerging safety issues associated with the introduction of glass cockpit displays into this class of
aircraft.
The statistical analysis found that for 20022008, light single-engine aircraft equipped
with glass cockpit displays experienced lower total accident ratesbut higher fatal accident
ratesthan the same type of aircraft equipped with conventional analog instrumentation.
Accidents involving glass cockpit aircraft were more likely to be associated with
personal/business flights, longer flights, instrument flight plans, and single-pilot operations,
while accidents involving conventional analog cockpit aircraft were more likely to be associated
with instructional flights, shorter flights, and two-pilot operations. Accident pilots flying glass
cockpit equipped aircraft were found to have higher levels of pilot certification and more total
flight experience than those flying conventional aircraft.
The evaluation of light aircraft glass cockpit training requirements found that the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) has been updating training handbooks and test standards to
incorporate generic information about electronic flight instrument displays. However, current
airman knowledge written tests (such as private pilot, instrument rating, commercial pilot, and
flight instructor certificates) do not assess pilots knowledge of the functionality of glass cockpit
displays. In addition, the FAA has no specific training requirements for pilots operating glass
cockpit-equipped light aircraft. The lack of equipment-specific training requirements from the
FAA results in a wide range of initial and recurrent training experiences among pilots of glass
cockpit aircraft. With the exception of training provided by airframe manufacturers with the
purchase of a new aircraft, pilots must currently seek out and obtain equipment-specific glass
cockpit training on their own.
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The review of accidents involving light aircraft equipped with glass cockpits found that
pilots experiences and training in conventional cockpits do not prepare them to safely operate
the complex and varied glass cockpit systems being installed in light aircraft today. Further, the
lack of information provided to pilots about glass cockpit systems may lead them to
misunderstand or misinterpret system failures. As a result, there is a need for new training
procedures and tools to ensure that pilots are adequately prepared to safely operate aircraft
equipped with glass cockpit avionics.
The results of this study suggest that the introduction of glass cockpits has not resulted in
a measurable improvement in safety when compared to similar aircraft with conventional
instruments. The analyses conducted during the study identified safety issues in two areas:
The need for pilots to have sufficient equipment-specific knowledge and

proficiency to safely operate aircraft equipped with glass cockpit avionics.
The need to capture maintenance and operational information in order to assess
the reliability of glass cockpit avionics in light aircraft.
As a result of this safety study, the NTSB made six recommendations to the FAA: five
address training requirements and one addresses reporting requirements.
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Chapter 1: Background
Introduction of Glass Cockpit Displays into Light Aircraft
In a span of only a few years, the cockpits of light aircraft 1 have undergone a transition
from conventional flight instruments to integrated, computerized displays commonly referred to
as glass cockpits. 2 This change has occurred rapidly. Glass cockpit avionics first started to appear
in light aircraft as noncertified systems installed in experimental and amateur-built aircraft.
Cirrus Design Corporation began the transition to glass cockpits in Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA)-certified light aircraft in 2003 when it started delivering single-engine
piston airplanes with electronic primary flight displays (PFD). The new displays quickly became
standard equipment in the companys SR20 and SR22 models. Cessna Aircraft Company, Piper
Aircraft Incorporated, Mooney, and Hawker Beechcraft soon followed, and data from the
General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA) indicate that by 2006, more than 90
percent of new piston-powered, light airplanes were equipped with full glass cockpit displays. 3
In addition to flight instruments, the previously separate components for autopilot,
communication, navigation, and aircraft systems have been integrated into glass cockpit displays
to provide flight management, terrain and traffic avoidance, enhanced/synthetic vision displays,
and upset recovery functions. Autopilots and global positioning systems (GPS) in particular have
become standard components in the avionics systems of light aircraft. Several manufacturers of
glass cockpit displays now produce displays with supplemental type certification for retrofit
installation in existing aircraft, suggesting that the number of aircraft equipped with full glass
cockpits will continue to grow. 4 The introduction of this advanced technology into light aircraft
has brought with it a new set of potential safety concerns to the National Transportation Safety
Board (NTSB), such as equipment design and operation; pilot performance and training; and new
accident investigation techniques.
This study was designed to test the hypothesis that the transition to glass cockpit avionics
in light aircraft will improve the safety of their operation. The study also sought to evaluate the
resources and requirements supporting the transition to this new technology. To accomplish these
goals, this study included three separate analyses, as described in this study report:
The term light aircraft is used throughout this report in reference to aircraft with a maximum gross weight
less than 12,500 pounds and certified under 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part 23. The statistical comparisons
included in this study were limited to a specific group of light aircraft: the single-engine piston aircraft typically
used in general aviation operations.
2
The term glass cockpit refers to the use of computer screens rather than analog gauges.
3
General Aviation Airplane Shipment Report, End-of-Year 2006 (Washington, DC: General Aviation
Manufacturers Association, 2007) indicates that 92 percent of the 2,540 piston airplanes delivered during 2006 were
equipped with glass cockpit electronic flight displays.
4
This study was limited to factory-installed cockpit displays and did not include any analyses of retrofit
installations of glass cockpit equipment.
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A retrospective statistical analysis of accidents and activity data from two cohorts 5 of
recently manufactured airplanes produced with and without electronic PFDs, conducted
to identify any differences in activity, accident rates, or accident circumstances associated
with glass cockpit displays.
A qualitative review of FAA and industry training resources and requirements related to
glass cockpit displays conducted to characterize the training and identify areas for
potential safety improvement.
A review of accident case studies conducted to identify emerging safety issues associated
with the introduction of glass cockpit displays into this class of aircraft.
Changing from conventional instruments to glass cockpit displays has created new
challenges for interface and display design with implications for the way pilots monitor
information in the cockpit. However, the differences between conventional and glass cockpit
displays extend beyond appearance (figures 1 and 2). Each of the conventional round-dial
instruments relies on electromechanical, pneumatic, or pressure-sensitive components to
generate and display specific aircraft performance and control parameters, such as airspeed,
altitude, heading, pitch and bank attitude, rate of climb, and rate of turn. In contrast, glass cockpit
displays rely on computerized systems that integrate multiple data inputs and controls. Glass
cockpit displays can present more information in the space required for conventional instrument
panels, but the increase in information places greater demands on pilot attention and creates a
risk of overloading pilots with more information than they can effectively monitor and process.
The complexity of the integrated computerized systems that drive glass cockpit displays may
also limit pilots understanding of the functionality of the underlying systems.
The typical light aircraft glass cockpit consists of at least two displays: a primary flight
display, or PFD, and a multifunction flight display (MFD). A PFD replaces individual flight
instruments to display the airspeed, altitude, attitude, and rate information that pilots use for
aircraft control. 6 As the name multifunction suggests, a wide range of supplementary and
status information can be selected for display on an MFD. Typical MFDs supplement or replace
discrete navigation, communication, weather displays, and system status information, such as
engine and fuel gauges. They can also display navigational charts, airport diagrams, and
electronic checklists. For this study, a glass cockpit aircraft is defined as having at least a PFD. 7
5
The term cohort is used in statistics to refer to a group of subjects, in this case aircraft, that share similar
characteristics. The aircraft cohorts in this study were all single-engine, piston-powered airplanes manufactured during
the same 5-year period, with either glass or conventional cockpit instruments.
6
Electronic PFDs replace pressure-sensitive mechanical instruments with an air data computer to process static
and dynamic pressure values for airspeed, altitude, and associated rate information. Computerized PFDs also replace
conventional mechanical gyroscopic flight instruments with an attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) that uses
sensors in three axes to calculate heading, attitude, and yaw information. Integrated PFD processing subsystems are
usually further integrated with aircraft autopilot and navigation systems.
7
Some light aircraft with conventional flight instruments have been manufactured or retrofitted with MFDs and/or
GPS equipment with moving map displays. In this study, the classification of a glass cockpit is based on the primary
flight instrument display, consistent with the industry consensus definition of an integrated cockpit/flightdeck provided
in GAMA Publication 12 - Recommended Practices and Guidelines for an Integrated Cockpit/Flightdeck in a 14 CFR
Part 23 Airplane: at a minimum, an integrated cockpit/flightdeck must include electronic display and control of all
primary airplane airspeed, altitude and attitude instruments, and all essential navigation and communication functions.
See <http://www.gama.aero/files/gama_publication_12_p23cockpit_april_2005_pdf_498cadb978.pdf>.
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Figure 1. Example of a light aircraft conventional cockpit.
Figure 2. Example of a light aircraft glass cockpit.
NTSB accident investigators now encounter glass cockpit-equipped aircraft more

frequently than in the past, and the onboard data recording capabilities in many of these displays
have enabled investigators to obtain detailed recordings that document specific actions, events,
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or equipment operations that would not be available with conventional instruments. However,
not all manufacturers include recording capabilities in their equipment, so these records are not
always available. Further, conventional analog instruments can be physically examined 8 for
indications of preaccident operation, but the software-based systems that drive electronic
displays leave no evidence to indicate how they were functioning before or during an accident
unless data are intentionally recorded. 9
History of Advanced Cockpit Avionics

Electronic flight displays were first developed for military applications in the 1960s, and
by the 1970s, computer-driven cathode ray tube (CRT) displays began replacing
electromechanical instruments in commercial transport-category airplanes. The use of CRTs led
to the moniker glass cockpit, which is still commonly applied to aircraft that incorporate
digital flight displays, even though lighter weight, liquid-crystal-display or light-emitting diode
technologies have replaced CRTs.
In 1974, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) started testing a full
glass cockpit in a specially equipped Boeing 737 as part of the Transport Systems Research
Vehicle (TSRV) project. The typical transport-category airplane cockpit at that time was crowded
with more than 100 instruments and gauges. Integrated displays were developed in conjunction
with increased automation as a means of reducing some crew tasks and combining aircraft
control, position, and status information into a few space-saving displays. 10 Much of NASAs
TSRV work made its way into the design of cockpits of civilian transport-category aircraft with
the introduction of the Boeing 757/767.
Although the airframe and engine systems in light aircraft are not nearly as complex, the
glass cockpit displays now being used in these aircraft share similarities with their transportcategory predecessors, such as integrated flight management and autopilot functions,
communications, and detailed navigation displays. The range of features offered in the cockpit
displays that are now being introduced into light aircraft has moved ahead of many of their
transport-category counterparts to include infrared imaging systems, synthetic vision, highwayin-the-sky navigation, and upset recovery capabilities.
Advanced Avionics in General Aviation
Much of the research leading to the recent introduction of glass cockpit displays into light
aircraft developed from the NASA-sponsored Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiments
(AGATE) consortium. In response to decreasing general aviation activity and aircraft sales
during the 1980s and 1990s, NASA, the FAA, the general aviation industry, and academia joined
8
Such evidence includes rotational scoring on gyros or witness marks from needles hitting the face of instrument
displays during impact.
9
Chapter 6 of this report contains more discussion of data recording functions in electronic flight displays.
10
L. E. Wallace, Airborne Trailblazer: Two Decades with NASA Langley Boeing 737 Flying Laboratory, NASA
SP-4216 (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1994).
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to form AGATE as the first step in pursuit of a new transportation system based on light aircraft.
The goal of AGATE was to develop new and affordable airframe and avionics technology,
certification methods, and flight training systems for the next generation of light aircraft used in
general aviation by adapting technology previously available only in transport-category aircraft
operated by commercial airlines. 11 At the core of the initiative was the vision of replacing shorthaul, intercity air carrier flights with personal flights in small aircraft that would be so easy to fly
that almost anyone could get in, select a destination, and go with minimal training and
expense. 12 AGATE-sponsored research resulted in new certification and design guidelines for
affordable composite materials, cockpit displays, and avionics that are now used in such
airplanes as the Cirrus Design Corporation SR20/22 series, the Diamond Aircraft DA40 series,
and new models of very light jets. 13 The AGATE program ended in 2001 before the real-world
effects of many of these changes could be assessed.
With the introduction of this new technology, the FAA and aircraft manufacturers
anticipated a need to provide specific training for general aviation pilots transitioning from
conventionally equipped aircraft to those with digital flight displays. To that end, the FAA
worked with academic and industry partners like the Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, the
University of North Dakota, and participating manufacturers to develop the FAA Industry
Training Standards (FITS) program. The original FITS program plan advocated aircraft typespecific training and the use of scenario-based techniques to teach pilots the higher-order
thinking skills required to safely operate high performance aircraft with advanced automation
capabilities. To date, several manufacturers and national training providers have developed FITSaccepted training courses. In addition, the FAA is incorporating FITS principles, such as
scenario-based training, decision-making techniques, and learner-centered grading, into its
training materials. Using a similar collaborative approach, the FAA has also worked closely with
manufacturers and industry groups to produce new and/or updated manuals that discuss
electronic flight displays. Such manuals include the Advanced Avionics Handbook, 14 Instrument
Flying Handbook, 15 and Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. 16
Previous Lessons Learned
The applicability of air carrier experience may be limited due to the diversity in general
aviation equipment, operations, and pilot population. Nevertheless, the large body of research
into human-machine interaction and aircraft control issues stemming from the increase in flight
11
E. M. Bolen, president of the General Aviation Manufacturers Association, statement before the
Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space, U.S. Senate Commerce Committee (April 24, 2001).
12
Affordable Alternative Transportation: AGATE Revitalizing General Aviation, NASA Facts, July 2,
1996, FS-1996-07-02-LaRC (Hampton, Virginia: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1996), available
at <http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/factsheets/AGATE.html> (accessed September 1, 2009).
13
K. Gale, The Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiments (AGATE) Alliance, AGATE Alliance
Commercialization Impact Report, 1995-2000, NASA AGATE-WP 12.0-120011-114 (San Francisco, California:
STARnet, 2002).
14
Advanced Avionics Handbook, FAA-H-8083-6 (Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration, 2009).
15
Instrument Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-15A (Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Federal Aviation
Administration, AFS-600: 2008).
16
Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, FAA-H-8083-25A (Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Federal
Aviation Administration, AFS-600: 2008).
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deck automation in transport-category aircraft during the 1980s and 1990s holds lessons for what
can be expected in light aircraft. In general, advances in automated control systems have led to
substantial improvements in equipment reliability and have increased the precision of complex
aircraft control functions. Airlines quickly realized that glass cockpit avionics, and the automated
control and flight management functions that accompanied them, would increase efficiency and
decrease operating costs. New displays also provided crews with far more status and planning
information. Further, glass cockpit displays are generally lighter and cheaper to maintain than the
multiple systems they replaced, and the integration of automation with aircraft systems allowed
aircraft to be certified for operation with a two-person crew. 17
Flight crew response to the new technology was also for the most part positive. However,
the overall effect of increased automation and system integration was to shift workload from task
performance to the higher level cognitive tasks of planning and systems monitoring. The new
technology generally reduced workload demands on the crew, but in some cases, the greatest
reductions occurred during times when workload was already low. In addition, crews began
reporting that glass cockpit equipment could actually increase workload during emergencies and
times of high demand because they were often forced to reconfigure the navigation and flight
management systems in flight to modify routing or approach information. 18 Pilot reports and
observational research also identified crew difficulties when transitioning to glass cockpit
aircraft 19 and occasional confusion with the operation of integrated systems, even among pilots
who reported feeling as though they understood their systems well. 20
Even before electronic displays became common, anecdotal reports from flight crews, as
well as findings from accidents and research, revealed potential problems if pilots relied too
heavily on automated systems or if they misunderstood automated system behavior. 21 In its
findings of probable cause on the 1984 Scandinavian Airlines accident at John F. Kennedy
Airport, 22 the NTSB identified the crews over-reliance on the aircraft auto throttle system and
issued the following recommendation to the FAA:
Apply the findings of behavioral research programs and accident/incident investigations
regarding degradation of pilot performance as a result of automation to modify pilot
17
A presidential task force determined in 1981 that transport-category aircraft such as the MD80 and Boeing
757/767 could be safely flown with only a two-person crew because automation could be used to replace flight
engineer duties. See J. L. McLucas, F. J. Drinkwater, and H. W. Leaf, Report of the Presidents Task Force on
Aircraft Crew Complement (Washington, DC: 1981).
18
E. L. Wiener, Human Factors and Advanced Technology (Glass Cockpit) Transport Aircraft, NASA-TR
177528 (NASA Ames Research Center: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1989).
19
N. B. Sarter, D. D. Woods, and C. E. Billings, Automation Surprises, G. Salvendy, ed., Handbook of
Human Factors and Ergonomics, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1997).
20
N. B. Sarter and D. D. Woods, How in the World Did We Get Into That Mode? Mode Error and Awareness
in Supervisory Control, Human Factors, vol. 37 (1995), pp. 5-19.
21
For example, see E. L. Wiener and R. E. Curry, Flight-Deck Automation Promises and Problems,
NASA-TM-81206 (NASA Ames Research Center: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1980).
22
Scandinavian Airlines System, Flight 90, McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30, John F. Kennedy International
Airport, Jamaica, New York, February 28, 1984, Aircraft Accident Report NTSB/AAR-84/15 (Washington, DC:
National Transportation Safety Board, 1984).
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training programs and flight procedures so as to take full advantage of the safety benefits
of automation technology. (A-84-123) 23
Subsequent fatal air carrier accidents, like the April 26, 1994, crash of a China Airlines
Airbus 300-600 in Nagoya, Japan, and the December 20, 1995, American Airlines Boeing 757
crash near Cali, Colombia, drew further attention to the issues of human interaction with
computerized aircraft systems, cockpit displays, and associated data input and communication
functions. In response to these issues, the FAA commissioned a comprehensive review of crew
interfaces with advanced flight deck systems. Among the findings were such vulnerabilities as
the flight crews inadequate understanding of complex flight deck systems and their occasionally
inappropriate decisions about how and when to use automation. 24
A 2001 study conducted by the U.S. Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory25 examined
how the Armys move to glass cockpits had affected safety in real-world flight operations. The
study analyzed accident rates of four models of helicopters with conventional and glass cockpit
configurations. Study results indicated a significantly higher accident rate for the glass cockpit
configuration group than for the conventional cockpit group. The authors suggested that the
findings provided reason for concern and discussed several possible reasons for the difference,
including the possibility that concurrent mission and equipment changes rather than cockpit design
alone contributed to higher accident rates. Subsequent survey research suggested that even though
pilots preferred the glass cockpit design and believed it improved safety, they found learning to use
the displays and maintaining their proficiency to be more difficult and reported issues of higher
cognitive workload in glass cockpit aircraft than in those with a conventional design. 26
General Aviation Research to Date

Less research is available specific to the safety consequences of glass cockpit avionics in
light aircraft, mostly due to their recent introduction and a general lack of available data. In
2003, a joint FAA and industry group published a study of technically advanced aircraft (TAA)
issues 27 based on subject matter expert evaluations and reviews of case studies using the Human
23
Closed in 1991, Acceptable Alternate Action, based on several actions by the FAA that included
(1) collaborating with NASA and aviation industry representatives in the development of a comprehensive National Plan
for Aviation Human Factors; (2) issuing Advisory Circular (AC) 120-35B, Line Operational Simulations: Line-Oriented
Flight Training, Special Purpose Operational Training, Line Operational Evaluation; and (3) issuing an advanced
qualification program special federal aviation regulation (SFAR) establishing alternative methods of complying with
training requirements of 14 CFR Parts 121 and 135 to incorporate advanced training methods and techniques.
24
K. Abbott and others, The Interface Between Flightcrews and Modern Flight Deck Systems, Federal Aviation
Administration Human Factors Team Report (Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration, 1996).
25
C. Rash and others, Accident Rates in Glass Cockpit Model U.S. Army Rotary-Wing Aircraft, Army
Aeromedical Research Laboratory Final Report (Fort Rucker, Alabama: U.S. Army Aeromedical Research
Laboratory, 2001).
26
C. Rash and others, A Comparison of AH-64 Pilot Attitudes Toward Traditional and Glass Cockpit
Crewstation Designs, Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory Final Report (Fort Rucker, Alabama: U.S. Army
Aeromedical Research Laboratory, 2002).
27
General Aviation Technically Advanced Aircraft, FAA-Industry Safety Study: Final Report of TAA Safety Study Team,
<http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/fits/research/media/TAA Final Report.pdf> (Washington, DC: Federal
Aviation Administration, 2003). This report defines a TAA as follows: A General Aviation aircraft that contains the
following design features: Advanced automated cockpit such as MFD or PFD or other variations of a Glass Cockpit, or a
traditional cockpit with GPS navigation capability, moving map display and autopilot.
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Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS). 28 The study was prompted by an industry
observation that accident numbers for TAAs were no better than for conventionally equipped
aircraftcontrary to expectation. Most safety problems identified in the study were attributed to
pilot judgment errors rather than issues associated with pilot-equipment interaction.
Unfortunately, findings from the study are of limited applicability to the current generation of
aircraft because none of the accident aircraft included in the study was equipped with a PFD.
A 2005 analysis by the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA) Air Safety
Foundation 29 came to conclusions similar to those in the 2003 FAA report and concluded that the
TAA accident record at the time was generally similar to that of legacy aircraft. Like the FAAs
TAA study, the report attributed most accidents to faulty pilot judgment rather than problems
with the avionics or the pilot-aircraft interface. In a 2007 followup study, 30 the AOPA Air Safety
Foundation compared accidents involving TAAs to general aviation accidents from 2003 through
2006. This study suggested that the number of TAAs involved in accidents was smaller than
would be expected, given the percentage of these aircraft in the overall population: while TAAs
made up 2.8 percent of the aircraft fleet, they were involved in 1.5 percent of total accidents and
2.4 percent of fatal accidents. Additional results suggested that differences in aircraft usage might
have contributed to the distribution of accidents. For example, the percentage of accidents
involving weather was higher for TAAs, and the percentage of accidents during takeoff and
climb was lower. 31 These findings would be expected if the TAAs were used for long distance,
point-to-point flying rather than primary flight training. The AOPA studies were limited because
comparisons were made to the diverse group of aircraft used in general aviation operations, and
the flight-hour or usage data needed to determine differences in exposure or to verify the
resulting conclusions were not available.
General Aviation Safety Record

The annual number of general aviation accidents, fatal accidents, and fatalities occurring
in the United States has been decreasing for many years. In 2008, U.S. general aviation
experienced the lowest number of fatal accidents and its second-lowest number of total accidents
since 1944. 32 As shown in figure 3, annual general aviation accident and fatal accident totals
28
For an explanation of the HFACS classification, see S. A. Shappell and D. A. Wiegmann, The Human
Factors Analysis and Classification SystemHFACS, DOT/FAA/AM-00/7 (Washington, DC: Federal Aviation
Administration, 2000).
29
Technically Advanced Aircraft: Safety and Training (Frederick, Maryland: Aircraft Owners and Pilots
Association, Air Safety Foundation, 2005).
30
Technically Advanced Aircraft: Safety and Training (Frederick, Maryland: Aircraft Owners and Pilots
Association, Air Safety Foundation, 2007).
31
The AOPA Air Safety Foundation report was based on data extracted from the NTSBs aviation accident
database; however, the reported accident categories are assigned by Air Safety Foundation analysts and may differ
from the NTSB findings of probable cause.
32
Based on data compiled from Annual Review of U.S. General Aviation Accidents Occurring in Calendar Year
1968 (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 1969); Annual Review of Aircraft Accident Data, U.S.
General Aviation Accidents Calendar Year 1979, NTSB/ARG-81-1 (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety
Board, 1981); Annual Review of Aircraft Accident Data, U.S. General Aviation Accidents Calendar Year 1989,
NTSB/ARG-93/01 (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 1993); and National Transportation Safety
Board, Aviation Accident Statistics: Accidents, Fatalities, and Rates, 19892008, U.S. General Aviation (available at
<http://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/Table10.htm>).
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declined from 1999 through 2008. Without any additional information, such as activity data, this
trend might be interpreted as being due in part to the introduction of new, advanced aircraft
technologies.
Figure 3. Annual general aviation accident and fatal accident totals, 19992008.
However, general aviation activity has also been decreasing. Normalizing the number of
accidents by annual exposure datain this case, the FAAs annual general aviation flight hour
estimatesresults in a rate that more accurately represents safety risk. 33 In contrast to annual
accident totals, general aviation accident rates and fatal accident rates per 100,000 flight hours
have remained relatively steady over the last decade. Annual accident rates and trends from 1999
through 2008 are presented in figure 4.
33
See chapter 2, Study Design and Methodology, for a detailed discussion of the FAAs General Aviation and
Air Taxi Activity and Avionics (GAATAA) Survey.
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Figure 4. Annual general aviation accident and fatal accident rates, 19992008.
It should be noted that the diversity of aircraft, operations, and pilots comprising U.S.
general aviation can easily mask localized safety issues and trends. Further, most analyses of
aggregate activity and accident data lack the specificity and detail necessary to assess the effect
of glass cockpits. Therefore, this study compared cohorts comprising conventional and glass
cockpit aircraft of similar age and type, and a corresponding subset of activity data for both
cohorts, to better assess how the introduction of glass cockpit display technology into light
aircraft has affected the safe operation of those aircraft.
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Chapter 2: Study Design and Methodology

To determine how the introduction of glass cockpit avionics has affected the safe
operation of light aircraft, the NTSB conducted both quantitative and qualitative assessments, as
well as a case study review. The goals for the quantitative portion of this study were to identify
any differences in the operational characteristics of conventional and glass cockpit aircraft and to
determine how the introduction of glass cockpit avionics into light aircraft has affected safety.
These goals were accomplished by comparing the accident records of two cohorts of airplanes
produced during the 5 years from 2002 to 2006, as well as aircraft activity and usage data
collected from 2 years of owner surveys. The cohorts selected had similar airframes, numbers of
engines, and engine types but differed principally in their type of primary flight instrumentation:
that is, one cohort comprised glass cockpit aircraft and the other included aircraft equipped with
conventional displays.
For the qualitative assessment, which is discussed in chapter 4, the NTSB reviewed
changes in training, resources, and requirements associated with the transition to glass cockpits.
To that end, the NTSB reviewed FAA and manufacturer-provided training materials, visited
aircraft manufacturers to observe factory transition training, and spoke with representatives of
the aviation insurance industry about their requirements for owners and operators of glass
cockpit aircraft. For the case study review, described in chapter 5, the NTSB reviewed the
circumstances of accidents involving the glass cockpit cohort to identify safety issues unique to
glass cockpit displays.
Study Design Issues

An assessment of the safety consequences of a specific aircraft equipment change is
easily confounded 34 if that change is associated with differences in aircraft use, pilot
demographics, or additional equipment changes. For example, the average number of annual
flight hours is known to decrease with aircraft age (see figure 5). 35 Comparisons of newly built
aircraft with all aircraft or with older aircraft of similar type are therefore likely to
mischaracterize risk exposure. New aircraft with new equipment capabilities may also attract a
new demographic of pilots to general aviation who may use their aircraft differently than pilots
flying older models.
34
A statistical confound is a variable not accounted for in statistical comparisons but correlated to study
variables in such a way that may result in misleading study findings. For example, a study may find that drownings
increase when ice cream sales increase. Without additional study controls, one might erroneously conclude that there
is a causal relationship between these variables. However, the confounding variable in this case is likely the time of
year because ice cream sales and swimming activity both increase during the summer months.
35
General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity and Avionics Survey, 2006 (Washington, DC: Federal Aviation
Administration, 2007), <http://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/general_aviation/CY2006/>.
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Figure 5. General aviation and on-demand Part 135 average annual

flight hours by age of aircraft, 2006.
Potential confounds related to aircraft age, equipment, and usage were controlled for to
the extent possible 36 in the present study by identifying groups of similar aircraft of similar age,
with and without glass cockpits, and then gathering the information necessary to further identify
any differences in use or user population.
Methodology
Quantitative data analyses in the current study included (1) a comparison of specified
aircraft models manufactured during the 5 years from 2002 through 2006, the years that spanned
the transition of the fleet from conventional to glass cockpit displays, (2) statistical comparisons
of retrospective accident data for the years 2002 through 2008 by display type, and (3) a
comparison of aircraft and flight activity data obtained from the FAA aircraft registry and an
analysis of GAATAA Survey data for the years 2006 and 2007.37 Aircraft cockpit display
configuration was determined using aircraft manufacturer records. All accident data were
extracted from the NTSB Aviation Accident Database. Study analyses were limited to accidents
involving U.S.-registered aircraft.
36
The models of aircraft included in the study vary to some degree with regard to performance, range, and
capability, but the study fleet represents a more homogenous group of aircraft than is typical of general aviation
operations as a whole.
37
The FAA conducts an annual survey of aircraft owners to generate information on general aviation and
on-demand Part 135 aircraft use and activity. The stated purposes of the survey are to (1) anticipate and meet
demand for National Airspace System facilities and services, (2) evaluate the impact of safety initiatives and
regulatory changes, and (3) build more accurate measures of the safety of the general aviation community.
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The NTSB worked with GAMA and individual manufacturers to identify the airplanes of
interest manufactured from 2002 through 2006 and to classify the instrumentation of each
airframe by serial number. Once this study fleet was identified, the NTSB worked with the FAA
and its survey contractor to generate activity estimates from the survey responses collected from
owners of those aircraft, grouped by type of cockpit display. The resulting activity estimates
derived from the subset of GAATAA Survey data from 2006 and 2007 were used along with
NTSB Aviation Accident Database records to develop accident rate measures by cockpit display
type for those years.
The period of study represented a unique window of opportunity during which both the
aircraft equipment information and activity records necessary to compare similar aircraft, both
with and without glass cockpits, were available. Before the FAA changed its GAATAA Survey
methodology in 2006, the activity data needed to compare newly manufactured aircraft were
insufficient. 38 Similarly, such comparisons will become increasingly challenging in the future
due to the growing number of glass cockpit retrofit options, which will make it difficult to
readily identify aircraft equipped with this technology.
Study Aircraft Fleet
The NTSB Aviation Accident Database does not contain sufficient detail to identify
accident aircraft by both year of manufacture and cockpit equipment. The NTSB therefore used
supplemental data available in the FAA aircraft registry, which includes build date information.
Because some of these data are missing, the NTSB worked with GAMA and aircraft
manufacturers to identifyby serial numbersingle-engine piston airplanes manufactured in
the 5 years from 2002 through 2006 and the cockpit display configuration of each aircraft. In
addition to being selected because they bridged the introduction of PFDs into this group of
aircraft, the years 20022006 were selected because they were covered by an expanded sampling
methodology introduced in the 2006 GAATAA Survey, which included contacting the owners of
all aircraft manufactured during the preceding 5 years for participation in the survey.
Once the list of aircraft was compiled, that information was used to summarize the data
and compare accident involvement by cockpit display type. Aircraft selected for the study
included the following makes and models of airplanes manufactured between 2002 and 2006.
Cessna Aircraft Corporation

172
182 series
206 series
38
Starting with the 2006 survey, the FAA modified its GAATAA Survey methodology to include a 100-percent
sample of aircraft manufactured during the preceding 5 years. In comparison, the 2005 survey sampled only about
16 percent of single-engine piston airplanes. The final number of valid survey responses was still limited, however, by
aircraft owners who declined to participate and aircraft that were subsequently exported, destroyed, or otherwise inactive.
For specific details associated with the sampling methodology used in previous surveys, see the 2005 GAATAA Survey,
appendix A, <http://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/general_aviation/CY2005/>. Washington, DC:
Federal Aviation Administration, 2006.
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Cirrus Design Corporation

SR20
SR22
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Lancair/Columbia Aircraft/Cessna Aircraft Company

300/350 39 and 400
Mooney
M20 series
Piper Aircraft Inc.
PA-28-161
PA-28-181
PA-28-201
PA-32-301 series
PA-46-350P
Hawker Beechcraft Corporation

36 series
A total of 8,364 airplanes were identified from FAA registry records for inclusion in the
study. Of those, 2,848 were identified for inclusion in the conventional cockpit display cohort,
and 5,516 were included in the glass cockpit cohort.
Activity Survey
As stated above, the FAA modified its GAATAA Survey methodology in 2006 by
increasing its survey sample to include all aircraft manufactured during the preceding 5 years.
The NTSB took advantage of this change to obtain the activity and usage data necessary to make
statistical comparisons based on cockpit display type. Working with the FAA and the contractor
responsible for conducting the survey, 40 the NTSB was able to obtain analyses of survey
responses from the selected aircraft models manufactured from 2002 to 2006 that had undergone
a change in standard equipment from conventional to glass PFD cockpit displays. Limiting the
sample to a group of aircraft manufactured within a 5-year period also reduced the likelihood of
confounding effects from changes known to occur as aircraft age, such as declining levels of
flight hours. The study sample was further defined to include single-engine, piston-powered
airplanes to allow direct comparisons between aircraft of relatively similar operational and
performance capability.
39
The Lancair 300 was only produced with conventional cockpit displays, but it is similar to the
Columbia/Cessna 350 produced with glass cockpit displays.
40
The FAA conducts the GAATAA Survey under a contract with PA Consulting Group, Madison, Wisconsin.
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Because the 2006 survey included aircraft that were manufactured during 2006and
therefore had not experienced a full year of operationactivity estimates for those aircraft were
also calculated from the 2007 GAATAA Survey responses. Due to the new survey sampling
methodology, a total of 2,738 responses from the 2006 survey and 2,357 total responses from the
2007 survey were identified for inclusion in this study. The targeted aircraft activity and usage
data obtained for the study were similar in format and content to the published GAATAA Survey
results, with separate datasets for conventional aircraft and glass cockpit-equipped aircraft. The
NTSB conducted several summary analyses of active aircraft, flight activity, and usage data from
GAATAA Survey responses to identify any differences associated with the type of cockpit
display.
Accident Data
Data from the NTSB Aviation Accident Database were used, along with the registration
and serial number information provided by manufacturers, to identify aircraft in each cohort that
were involved in accidents between 2002 and 2008 and to capture the details of those accidents.
NTSB accident data include details of the accident event, such as type of occurrence, phase of
flight, and environmental conditions; pilot demographics and experience; and accident
investigation findings. 41 These data were used to compare the accident experience of the two
cohorts and to make statistical comparisons of the accidents each cohort experienced.
Analyses
Summary statistics were calculated to compare the aircraft cohorts on variables such as
the number of aircraft, hours flown, usage details, and accidents. For those aircraft in the study
sample that had been involved in accidents, 42 univariate comparisons were made between the
conventional and glass cockpit groups on the basis of data collected during the accident
investigation, including accident occurrences and findings, weather and operational details, and
accident pilot demographics and experience. 43 Because the study was targeted at a relatively
small set of aircraft, the number of comparisons that could be made between glass cockpit and
conventional aircraft as a function of operational and pilot characteristics was limited by the
sample sizes (number of accident cases) for each comparison.
Statistical tests appropriate to the various accident-related variables were used to
determine the extent to which the conventional and glass cockpit cohorts differed.
41
See appendix for the list of accidents included in the study.

Study accident analyses were limited to U.S.-registered aircraft.
43
Univariate comparisons are those that compare differences between two groups based on one variable in
isolationfor example, percentage of accidents resulting in fatality by cockpit type.
42
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Statistical Comparisons
Chi-square statistics 44 were used to compare the cohorts on categorical accident variables
such as weather, time of day, and purpose of flight. Mann-Whitney U tests 45 were used to
compare differences in continuous variables, including planned flight distance, pilot age, and
flight experience. The following variables were selected for analysis:
Accident flight information
Accident severity
Planned length of flight
Purpose of flight
Day/night and visual meteorological conditions
Visual/instrument meteorological conditions
Instrument/visual flight rules flight plan
Accident phase of flight and event details
Pilot information
Number of pilots aboard accident aircraft
Age at the time of the accident
Highest certificate level
Instrument rating
Flight hours
44
Chi-square is a statistical test that can be used to determine whether two or more groups differ significantly
with respect to the proportional distribution of a given characteristic or quality. The chi-square statistic compares the
observed counts of a categorical variable for one or more groups to those expected by the relative distribution of the
groups. The chi-square test results in a measure of significance or probability that the observed distributions of a
variable were similar for the study groups. A very low probability, such as 5 percent or less, indicates that the groups
likely differed with regard to the variable of interest.
45
Mann-Whitney U is a statistical test for assessing differences between two groups with regard to the
distribution of a continuous variable. The test results in a measure of the probability that observations of a variable
from both groups are similar, which is also an indication of whether observations of that variable are greater for one
group than the other.
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Accident rates were calculated for comparison with the applicable exposure data, such as
number of aircraft or flight hours. Standard error values were included with GAATAA Survey
results and calculated rate comparisons when appropriate. 46
The following rate comparisons were calculated:
Accidents and fatal accidents per active aircraft
Accidents and fatal accidents per flight hour
Accidents and fatal accidents by time of day
Accidents and fatal accidents by weather condition
Accidents and fatal accidents by purpose of flight
Accident records for the 20022008 period covered by this study provided enough data to
make statistically reliable comparisons between the two study groups. While the activity data
were limited to 2 years of FAA surveys, the similarities between the patterns of aircraft usage
reported by survey respondents and the patterns in the accident data for the 7-year study period
indicate that the accident rates derived from the activity data provide valid comparisons between
the conventional and glass cockpit groups.
46
Rate calculations, such as the number of accidents occurring annually per flight hour, are estimates of the
true rate of an event based on historical occurrences of that event. Accident rates are subject to variability due to
chance, particularly when the number of events and/or the size of the population of interest is small. The larger the
population and/or number of events being studied, the more likely it is that the computed rate will be close to the
true rate. The variability of a rate can be evaluated by computing a standard error that includes both the number of
events and the size of the denominator (for example, registered aircraft, active aircraft, or flight hours) measured. In
this report, standard error values are presented as a percentage of the associated value or rate. Rates based on small
numbers are particularly unstable, which is reflected in a high percent of standard errors. Standard error values were
either excluded for rates based on fewer than 10 events or noted as such. Note that most of the accident rates
calculated from the 2006 and 2007 GAATAA Survey data are based on small numbers and that the resulting
differences are therefore not statistically significant but are provided as possible further explanation of the
differences in the 20022008 accident record for these aircraft.
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Chapter 3: Quantitative Analysis Results

Description of Study Fleet
By comparing manufacturer aircraft serial number data with FAA aircraft registration
records, the NTSB identified 2,848 single-engine piston airplanes for the conventional cockpit
display cohort and 5,516 for the glass cockpit cohort, all manufactured between 2002 and
2006. 47 Figure 6 illustrates the rapidly changing distribution of the aircraft included in the study.
Most aircraft in the conventional display cohort were manufactured between 2002 and 2004,
while aircraft in the glass cockpit cohort first appeared on the FAA registry in 2003.
Figure 6. New registrations of aircraft study fleet by cockpit display configuration

and year.
After 2004, the size of the conventional cohort remained relatively constant, while the
size of the glass cockpit cohort increased rapidly, surpassing the conventional cohort in 2005 and
nearly doubling it in 2006. Figure 7 shows the accumulated size of the study fleet for each year
from 2002 through 2006 and the accumulated number of aircraft in the conventional and glass
cockpit cohorts each year.
47
The study aircraft fleet was identified by comparing the aircraft serial number and cockpit display data
provided by manufacturers with FAA aircraft registry data. An aircraft was included in the study fleet if it ever
appeared on the registry, regardless of whether it was subsequently deregistered or exported, or the registration later
became inactive.
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Figure 7. Accumulated study aircraft fleet size by cockpit configuration and year.
Description of Study Accidents

Study analyses of accidents included the years from 2002 through 2008. The years of
aircraft manufacture from 20022006 were selected to correspond with the 2006 GAATAA
100-percent sampling methodology for newly built aircraft. However, although the activity and
accident data included aircraft manufactured throughout 2006, the number of study aircraft did
not stabilize until the end of that year. Accident records for 2007 and 2008 were therefore
included to represent 2 full years of accidents associated with the study aircraft, unaffected by
the addition of newly manufactured aircraft.
Accident Information
This section contains summary analyses of the relative accident occurrences and rates
associated with the conventional and glass cockpit cohorts defined in this study. Comparisons of
accident numbers are limited because aircraft can be used differently and in ways that expose one
group of aircraft to more or less risk for severe accident outcomes than another. The validity of
comparisons of accidents with aircraft manufacturing and registration records is likewise limited
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by the possibility that aircraft may be sold, exported, deregistered, or placed in storage. 48
Therefore, the accident data provided in this section should be considered within the context of
corresponding activity data. Active aircraft information, flight activity, and aircraft usage data
from the 2006 and 2007 GAATAA Surveys are presented throughout this section for comparison
with FAA aircraft registry information and NTSB accident records from 2002 through 2008. Due
to the unequal cohort sizes, the aircraft and accident data are presented as percentages of the
respective cohort totals to facilitate interpretation. The complete list of study accidents is
included in the appendix.
Accident Involvement
A comparison of the list of study aircraft with NTSB records identified 266 total
accidents involving study aircraft between 2002 and 2008, 62 of which resulted in one or more
fatal injuries. 49 Of the 266 study accidents, 141 accidents23 of them fatalinvolved
conventionally equipped aircraft. The remaining 125 total accidents and 39 fatal accidents
involved glass cockpit aircraft. It is important to note that direct comparisons of the overall
accident totals would be misleading in this case because of the changes in the sizes of the cohorts
during the time period analyzed.
Comparisons of accident involvement from 2002 through 2006 must account for changes
in the size of the study fleet due to the newly manufactured aircraft added to the fleet each year.
The distribution of study aircraft and accidents associated with the glass cockpit cohort (as
shown in figure 8) shows that the percentage of accidents involving glass cockpit aircraft was
smaller than would be expected based on the percentage of the study fleet that those aircraft
represented. During 2004 and 2005, fatal accidents for conventional and glass cockpit aircraft
were proportional to the percentage of the study fleet they represented, but starting in 2006, the
glass cockpit group began to experience proportionately more fatal accidents. Over the entire
period from 2002 through 2008, aircraft in the glass cockpit cohort showed a disproportionately
lower rate of total accidents per registered aircraft but a disproportionately higher rate of fatal
accidents per registered aircraft than those in the conventional cohort.
48
For example, data provided by GAMA indicate that approximately 30 percent of aircraft produced in 2007
and 2008 were exported. Similar data do not exist for 20022006, but the number of aircraft that remained active in
U.S. civil aviation is likely well below the 8,354 total aircraft that had appeared on the FAA aircraft registry. Further
support for this suggestion comes from the active aircraft estimate results of the 2006 and 2007 FAA GAATAA
Survey cited in table 2 of the Activity, Exposure Data, and Accident Rates section later in this chapter.
49
One accident (SEA03LA180) was excluded from study analyses because it occurred during the factory flight
test.
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The study aircraft fleet included aircraft manufactured between 2002 and 2006; therefore, the distribution of glass
cockpit aircraft in the study aircraft fleet remained constant from 2006 through 2008.
Figure 8. Distribution of glass cockpit cohort aircraft and accidents per year.
Accident Severity
Statistical comparisons of the 2002 through 2008 accident data, independent of the
registry or survey information, show similar differences in accident severity by cockpit display
type. As shown in figure 9, the percentage of accidents resulting in fatality was about twice as
high for the glass cockpit cohort as for the conventional cohort. Of the 266 accidents involving
study aircraft between 2002 and 2008, accidents involving aircraft in the glass cockpit cohort
were significantly more likely to be fatal: 2 (1, N = 266) = 8.216, p = 0.004. 50
50
Throughout this report, the results of chi-square (2) statistical tests are included in the text using the
following notation (degrees of freedom, N = number of cases compared) = resulting chi-square value, p =
probability (that is, significance) of the result. The p value can be interpreted as the percent likelihood that the
observed value occurred by chance. Therefore, a difference that results in a small p value is unlikely to have resulted
from chance and is more likely the result of differences between the two groups. For the purposes of this study, p
values of 0.05 (5 percent) and less are considered statistically significant. Refer to table 7 at the end of this chapter
for a summary of all study chi-square statistical test results.
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Figure 9. Comparison of study accidents by severity of outcome.
In addition to the statistical comparisons of accident data from 2002 through 2008,
GAATAA Survey data were used to develop rates for the years 2006 and 2007 that represent
accident risk by providing estimates of the number of aircraft actively operated, the number of
hours flown, and specific characteristics of how those aircraft were operated. Rates based on
flight activity provide a clearer indication of the relative safety of the conventional and glass
cockpit configurations by identifying differences in the number of aircraft that were actively
flying versus those that may have been sold or placed into storage, or that may have become
inactive for other reasons. Differences between aircraft buyers who opted for a glass cockpit
airplane can contribute to differences in accident risk, and pilots may use aircraft differently
based on their avionics capabilities. The 2 years of available GAATAA Survey data were used to
further explore these possibilities and provide evidence of activity and usage differences to aid
interpretation of the aircrafts accident record to date. 51
Activity, Exposure Data, and Accident Rates

Of the 2,848 airplanes included in the conventional display cohort, 935 of the owners
responded to the 2006 GAATAA Survey, and 472 responded to the 2007 survey. Of the 5,516
aircraft in the glass cockpit cohort, 1,803 owners responded to the 2006 GAATAA Survey, and
1,885 responded to the 2007 survey. These responses were used to calculate estimates of the
number of active aircraft and total hours flown, as well as the number of hours flown by purpose
of flight, day/night operations, and visual/instrument flight activity in accordance with the
51
Note that the study includes statistical comparisons of all accidents involving the study aircraft fleet from
2002 and 2008. However, GAATAA Survey data were only available for the years 2006 and 2007. No attempt was
made to apply the 2006 and 2007 survey results to the prior years 2002 through 2005.
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normal GAATAA Survey methodology. 52 Results of the active aircraft and flight hour analyses
are presented in table 1 below.
Table 1. GAATAA Survey analysis results.
Year
2006
2007
Active Aircraft
Flight Hours
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
2,412
4,203
593,853
805,152
(0.2% Std. Error)
(0.2% Std. Error)
(2.6% Std. Error)
(1.6% Std. Error)
1,738
(0.2% Std. Error)
4,205
565,370
838,573
(0.2% Std. Error)
(4.0% Std. Error)
(1.6% Std. Error)
The large drop in the estimated number of active conventional aircraft in 2007 was likely due in part to
increased variability in survey estimates for this group because aircraft manufactured during 2002 were not
included in the 100-percent 2007 survey sample. This subsequently resulted in fewer total responses for aircraft
built during 2002, which were exclusively of the conventional cockpit design. The effect of this change is that the
number of conventionally equipped aircraft and their associated activity were likely higher than the survey
results indicate for 2007. The effect of this change is also evident in the higher standard error value associated
with the flight hours for the conventional cohort in 2007.
Dividing the flight hours from the GAATAA Survey by the number of active aircraft
provides an estimate of the average number of hours flown per aircraft. For the years 2006 and
2007, the average estimated hours flown per aircraft was 286 for the conventional cohort (246
hours/aircraft in 2006 and 325 hours/aircraft in 2007) and 195 for the glass cockpit cohort (192
hours/aircraft in 2006 and 199 hours/aircraft in 2007).
As illustrated in table 2, accident rates calculated from NTSB accident records and
GAATAA Survey data indicate that the 2006 and 2007 accident rates per 1,000 active aircraft
were higher for the conventional display cohort, but the fatal rates were higher for the glass
cockpit cohort for both years.
Because the study cohorts included only a few thousand aircraft, and the numbers of total
and fatal accidents within the cohorts were relatively small each year, the 2006 and 2007 activity
and accident data were summed for comparisons of accident rates and specific accident details to
provide more stable rate estimates and to reduce the potentially distorting effect of small
numbers of events on rate calculations. Even when using this approach, the standard errors
associated with the fatal rates are high due to the relatively small number of total events.
52
Analyses of the subset of GAATAA Survey data were done by the contractor responsible for conducting the
survey in accordance with the established survey methodology; however, this is the first published use of a subset of
GAATAA Survey data for targeted analyses like those included in this report.
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Table 2. Accident rates for 2006 and 2007 per 1,000 active aircraft, by aircraft cockpit
configuration.
Year
Accident Rate Per 1,000 Active Aircraft

Total
Conventional
Fatal
Glass Cockpit
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
2006
9.12
7.85
1.24*
2.62
2007
12.08
6.9
1.15*
1.43*
10.36
7.37
1.20*
2.02
(15.3% Std. Error)
(12.7% Std. Error)
(44.9% Std. Error)
(24.3% Std. Error)
Combined
2006-2007
*Rate based on fewer than 10 events.
As previously stated, comparisons of accident rates based on active aircraft provide a

better indication of risk than those based on numbers of aircraft manufactured because they do
not include aircraft that were subsequently exported, placed in storage, or not flown. However,
accident rates based on owner-reported flight activity provide the best indication of risk because
they include both the extent of operation and the way the aircraft was operated. Accident rates
calculated from the survey responses regarding the number of hours flown annually are shown in
table 3, along with comparison accident rates for all general aviation operations. 53
Those results indicate that the total accident rate per 100,000 flight hours was higher for
the glass cockpit cohort in 2006, but higher for the conventional cohort in 2007. The combined
2-year accident rates per 100,000 flight hours for 2006 and 2007 were similar for both the glass
and conventional cohorts (3.77 and 3.71 respectively). The total accident rate for both cohorts
was less than the 6.63 accidents per 100,000 flight hours for all general aviation operations for
the same period, reflecting the wide range of aircraft and flight operations included in general
aviation.
The fatal accident rate for the glass cockpit cohort exceeded the rate of fatal accidents per
100,000 hours for the conventional cohort for both years, and for all general aviation operations
in 2006. Like the rates per active aircraft discussed previously, the fatal rates per 100,000 flight
hours for both cohortsespecially the conventional cohorthave large standard errors due to
the small number of events. The resulting rates, however, are consistent with the results of other
study analyses, indicating that accidents involving the glass cockpit cohort were more likely to
be fatal. The combined fatal accident rate for 2006 and 2007 was higher for the glass cockpit
cohort (1.03) than for the conventional cohort (0.43). The combined 2006 and 2007 fatal rates for
both study cohorts were less than the 1.24 fatal accidents per 100,000 hours for all general
aviation operations for the same period.
53
Includes all study accidents.
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Table 3. 2006 and 2007 accident rates per 100,000 flight hours, by cockpit configuration.
Year
Accident Rate Per 100,000 Flight Hours

Total
Conventional
2006
2007
Combined
2006-2007
Fatal
Glass Cockpit
All General
Aviation
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
All General
Aviation
3.70
4.10
6.33
0.51*
1.37
1.28
3.71
3.46
6.92
0.35*
0.72*
1.20
3.71
3.77
6.63
0.43*
1.03
1.24
(15.3% Std. Error)
(12.7% Std. Error)
(44.2% Std. Error)
(19.2% Std. Error)
*Rate based on fewer than 10 events.
National Transportation Safety Board, Aviation Accident Statistics: Accidents, Fatalities, and Rates, 1989 - 2008, U.S. General
Aviation. Available at: http://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/Table10.htm.
At the time of writing, targeted GAATAA Survey flight-hour data were not available to
calculate 2008 accident rates for the study cohorts. If the hours flown for both cohorts during
2008 were similar to the averages in 2006 and 2007, the total accident rates for both the
conventional and glass cockpit cohorts would again be less than the overall general aviation rate.
However, with 13 fatal accidents during 2008, the fatal rate of aircraft in the glass cockpit cohort
in this study would well exceed both the conventional cohort and the overall general aviation
fatal rates for the year. 54
Flight Conditions
Accident details and survey responses associated with both cohorts were compared to
identify any differences in accident circumstances, aircraft use, or pilots that could affect the
severity of accident outcomes and explain the observed differences between the accident and
fatal accident rates for the conventional and glass cockpit cohorts. For example, accidents that
occur at night or in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) have historically been more
likely to result in fatality than those that occur during the day in good weather. 55
Time of Day
As illustrated in figure 10, the 2002 through 2008 accident data indicate that a higher
percentage of accidents involving aircraft in the glass cockpit group occurred at night, but the
difference was not statistically significant: 2 (1, N = 266) = 3.058, p = 0.080.
54
For example, if total flight hours were estimated for the study groups by averaging the 2006 and 2007 survey
results, the 2008 fatal rate for the conventional group would be 0.35 fatal accidents per 100,000 flight hours, and the
rate for the glass cockpit group would be 1.58, compared to the overall general aviation fatal rate of 1.20 in 2008.
55
Risk Factors Associated with Weather-Related General Aviation Accidents, Safety Study NTSB/SS-05/01
(Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 2005).
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Figure 10. Comparison of study accidents by time of day.
As figure 11 shows, distribution of GAATAA Survey flight hour estimates by time of day
for 2006 and 2007 was similar for both cohorts. However, when compared with the accident data
for those years, the rates of total and fatal accidents per flight hour at night were higher for the
glass cockpit cohort (see table 4).
Figure 11. Combined 2006 and 2007 flight hour distribution by time of
day and cockpit configuration.
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Table 4. Combined 2006 and 2007 accident rates per 100,000 flight hours by time of day
and cockpit configuration.
Total
2006-2007
Day
Fatal
Conventional
4.01
Glass Cockpit
3.86
Conventional
0.30
Glass Cockpit
0.87
1.85
3.31
1.23
1.84
Night
Weather Conditions
As shown in figure 12, the 2002 through 2008 accident data indicate that a higher
percentage of glass cockpit accidents occurred in IMC. The difference in accident weather
conditions was marginally significant: 2 (1, N = 264) = 3.639, p = 0.056.
Figure 12. Comparison of study accidents by weather.
GAATAA Survey data regarding flight hours by weather conditions, shown in figure 13,
indicate that glass cockpit aircraft owners reported a larger percentage of flight time in IMC. A
comparison of accidents and flight hours during 2006 and 2007 (table 5) shows similar total
accident rates for both groups in visual meteorological conditions (VMC) but higher total and
fatal accident rates per flight hour in IMC for the glass cockpit cohort.
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Figure 13. Combined 2006 and 2007 flight hour distribution by weather
Table 5. Combined 2006 and 2007 accident rates per 100,000 flight hours by weather and
cockpit configuration.
Total
2006-2007
Conventional
Fatal
Glass Cockpit
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
IMC
1.63
2.68
1.63
2.34
VMC
3.86
3.94
0.29
0.67
Flight Plan Filed

Consistent with the previous results showing that glass cockpit aircraft spent a higher
percentage of flight hours in IMC, the aircraft cohorts also differed with regard to flight plan
filed for the accident flight. Figure 14 shows that among those accidents during 2002 through
2008 with flight plan information available, pilots in the glass cockpit cohort were significantly
more likely to have filed an instrument flight rules (IFR) flight plan for the accident flight:
2 (1, N = 250) = 11.718, p = 0.001. GAATAA Survey data do not provide estimates of the
number of hours flown by type of flight plan.
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Figure 14. Comparison of study accidents by flight plan filed.
Purpose of Flight
The study cohorts differed noticeably with regard to aircraft usage. Figure 15 shows that
accident flights involving aircraft in the conventional cohort were almost equally split between
instructional flights and personal/business flights, while glass cockpit accidents were significantly
more likely to involve personal/business flights: 2 (1, N = 258) = 31.616, p < 0.001.
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Figure 15. Comparison of study accidents by purpose of flight.
GAATAA Survey results regarding reported aircraft use indicated that a larger percentage
of the conventional cohorts activity during 2006 and 2007 involved instructional flights, while
the glass cockpit aircraft were more often used for personal and business flying (see figure 16). A
comparison of accidents with reported aircraft use from 2006 through 2007, summarized in
table 6, indicates that the conventional aircraft experienced higher total accident rates during
both instructional and personal/business flying. Both cohorts experienced equally low fatal
accident rates for instructional flights, but the glass cockpit cohort experienced a higher fatal
accident rate during personal/business flights.
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Figure 16. Combined 2006 and 2007 flight hour distribution by purpose of
flight and cockpit configuration.
Table 6. Combined 2006 and 2007 accident rates per 100,000 flight hours by purpose of flight
Total
2006-2007
Instructional
Personal/Business
Conventional
3.98
6.62
Fatal
Glass Cockpit
2.79
5.05
Conventional
0.20
1.26
Glass Cockpit
0.20
1.65
Planned Length of Flight

Among those accidents for which both point of departure and intended destination were
known, the median planned length of accident flights associated with the glass cockpit cohort
was 96 nautical miles (nm), compared to a median of 25 nm for conventional aircraft flights.
Differences in the planned length of study flights for both cohorts were evaluated using the
Mann-Whitney U test statistic. Results indicated that accident flights involving the glass cockpit
cohort were significantly longer than those for aircraft in the conventional cockpit cohort
(U = 5649.5, N (conventional) = 140, N (glass cockpit) = 122, p < 0.001). 56 Much of the
56
Throughout this report, the results of Mann-Whitney U statistical tests are included in the text using the
following notation (calculated value of the U statistic, n1 and n2 = number of cases in each study cohort, p =
probability, or significance of the result). Like the results of the chi-square test previously discussed, the p value can
be interpreted as the percent likelihood that the observed value occurred by chance. The Mann-Whitney test is
calculated by ranking each of the observed values and summing the rank scores within the groups being compared.
The sums of ranks are compared for both groups to identify the group with the higher result. In this case the sum of
ranks for the conventional group is less than the sum of ranks for the glass cockpit group, so the significant U score
can be attributed to accident flights involving glass cockpit aircraft being longer than those involving aircraft with
conventional cockpit instruments. Refer to table 8 at the end of this chapter for a summary of all study
Mann-Whitney U statistical test results.
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difference in planned flight distance between the two cohorts can be attributed to the large
percentage of conventional aircraft operating on local or very short flights, versus the percentage
of glass cockpit aircraft, which were more likely to be operating on longer flights. Of the 140
conventional aircraft accidents with flight length information, 71 (51 percent) were conducting
local flights that were planned to return to the departure airport or very short flights of less than
25 nm. Only 26 percent of glass cockpit accident flights were localor less than 25 nmbut
42 percent of accident flights involving glass cockpit aircraft were planned for more than 150 nm
versus only 16 percent of flights associated with conventional aircraft.
Phase of Flight
In general, aircraft in the glass cockpit cohort were involved in a higher percentage of
accidents during the in-flight phases from initial climb to approach, while conventional aircraft
were involved in higher percentages of accidents during takeoff, landing, and other, which
include taxiing and standing (see figure 17).
Figure 17. Comparison of study accidents by phase of flight. 57
57
Totals do not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
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Accident Event Type

Glass cockpit aircraft were involved in higher percentages of loss-of-control in flight and
collision-with-terrain events, and conventional aircraft were involved in more loss-of-control on
ground and hard-landing events. This is consistent with the results of the previous comparison
showing more glass cockpit accidents during in-flight phases and more takeoff and landing
accidents for the conventional cohort. A summary comparison of accident event types is
presented in figure 18.
Figure 18. Comparison of study accidents by event type and aircraft configuration. 58
The higher percentage of collisions with terrain versus all other events for the glass
cockpit cohort was the only statistically significant difference between the two cohorts in
accident events: 2 (1, N = 255) = 3.980, p = 0.046.
58
Totals do not sum to 100 percent due to rounding.
33
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Accident Pilot Information

Information regarding accident pilots was compared to identify differences that might
have affected the safety record of study aircraft. For example, if one cohort was more likely to be
flown by less experienced pilots, the accident record would likely be worse for those aircraft.
Number of Pilots
As illustrated in figure 19, aircraft with conventional cockpits were more likely to have
two flight crewmembers aboard than those with glass cockpits, which were more likely to be
operated by a single pilot. The difference in the number of flight crew was statistically
significant: 2 (1, N = 266) = 7.063, p = 0.008. In approximately half of the conventional aircraft
cases with two pilots, the second pilot was identified as a flight instructor, which is consistent
with the previously presented results indicating that conventional aircraft were more likely to be
used for instructional flights.
Figure 19. Comparison of number of pilots aboard study accident aircraft.
Pilot Age
Age data were available for 257 of the 266 accident pilots considered in the study.
Accident pilots in the glass cockpit cohort ranged in age from 18 to 76, with a median age of 47.
Accident pilots in the conventional cohort ranged in age from 17 to 77, with a median age of 43.
Accident pilots flying glass cockpit aircraft were significantly older than those flying
conventional aircraft (U = 6736.5, N (conventional) = 139, N (glass cockpit) = 118, p = 0.014).
Much of the difference between the conventional and glass cockpit study cohorts with regard to
age can be attributed to differences in the percentage of young pilots. Of the 139 accident pilots
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in the conventional aircraft cohort whose age was known, 38 (27 percent) were under 30 years
old. In contrast, for the glass cockpit cohort, only 14 of the 118 accident pilots (12 percent) for
whom age information was available were under 30 years old.
Pilot Certificate Level
Of those accident pilots for whom certificate information was available, 26 percent held
airline transport pilot (ATP) or commercial certificates, 50 percent held private pilot
certificates, and 24 percent held student pilot certificates. As shown in figure 20, nearly equal
proportions of the two cohorts held commercial or ATP certificates, but the two cohorts
differed significantly with regard to student and private pilot certificates: 2 (2, N = 261) =
21.931, p < 0.001. In comparison, the data concerning the FAAs U.S. civil airman certificate
for 2002 through 2008 59 indicate that an average of approximately 14 percent of active pilots
held a student pilot certificate, 38 percent a private pilot certificate, and 43 percent a
commercial pilot certificate or ATP.
Figure 20. Comparison of study accident pilots by certificate level.
Pilot Instrument Rating

As illustrated in figure 21, approximately 65 percent of accident pilots in the glass
cockpit cohort were rated for instrument flight, compared to 37 percent of those in the
59
See <http://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/civil_airmen_statistics/2008/>.
35
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conventional cohort. 60 The difference in instrument rating between the aircraft cohorts was
statistically significant: 2 (1, N = 257) = 20.828, p < 0.001. In comparison, the FAAs U.S. civil
airman statistics indicate that, on average, 51 percent of the active pilot population from 2002 to
2008 held an instrument rating.
Figure 21. Comparison of study accident pilots by instrument rating.
Pilot Flight Hours

The most commonly available measures of accident pilot flight experience were total flight
hours in all aircraft and total time in the accident aircraft make and model. The total flight time of
accident pilots in glass cockpit aircraft ranged from 22 to approximately 25,000 hours, while the
total flight time for accident pilots in conventional aircraft ranged from 1 to 23,000 hours. The
median number of total flight hours for glass cockpit pilots was higher than the median total flight
hours for pilots of conventional aircraft (466 hours and 167 hours, respectively), and accident
pilots in the glass cockpit cohort had significantly more total flight hours than those in the
conventional cohort: U = 5503.0, N (conventional) = 138, N (glass cockpit) = 118, p <0.001.
Flight experience in the accident aircraft make and model for pilots in glass cockpit
aircraft ranged from 11 to approximately 1,430 hours and for accident pilots in conventional
aircraft, from 1 to approximately 6,200 hours. Median flight experience in make and model for
glass cockpit pilots was higher than for those flying conventional aircraft (99 hours and 70 hours,
60
Insufficient data were available to compare instrument flight experience and currency at the time of the
accident.
36
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respectively). However, the overall distributions of flight time in the accident make/model were
not significantly different: U = 6087.5, N (conventional) = 129, N (glass cockpit) = 106, p= 0.148.
It is important to note that data concerning flight experience in aircraft make and model made no
distinction in cockpit design, so some pilots may have been experienced in the aircraft type while
having little experience with the particular cockpit display in the aircraft.
Summary of Quantitative Analysis Results

Study comparisons of total and active aircraft, flight hours, and accidents showed similar
patterns of accident rates for study aircraft. A comparison of the accidents from 2002 through
2008 involving the glass cockpit and conventional study cohorts with the number of registered
aircraft indicates that the glass cockpit aircraft study cohort experienced a lower accident rate but
a higher fatal accident rate. Analyses of the study-specific estimates obtained from the FAAs
2006 and 2007 GAATAA Surveys indicate that the 2-year, 2006 and 2007 accident rate per
100,000 flight hours was similar for both study groups, but the fatal accident rate per flight hour
was higher for the glass cockpit cohort.
Statistical comparisons of accident characteristics identified several variables with
distributions significantly different between the conventional and glass cockpit groups, including
(1) accident severity, (2) purpose of accident flights, (3) planned length of accident flight,
(4) number of pilots, (5) pilot age, (6) pilot certification level, (7) pilot total flight experience,
and (8) pilot instrument rating. Accidents involving glass cockpit aircraft were more likely to be
associated with personal/business flights, longer flights, and single-pilot operations, while
conventional aircraft were more likely to be associated with instructional flights, shorter flights,
and two-pilot operations. Accident pilots of glass cockpit-equipped aircraft were older, held
higher levels of pilot certification, were more likely to hold an instrument rating, and had more
flight hours than those flying aircraft with conventional instruments. The glass cockpit cohort
was involved in more accidents in IMC, but the difference was only marginally significant.
These results are consistent with GAATAA Survey data indicating that the conventional
cohort flew more instructional flight hours. A younger pilot group, two-pilot crews, and shorter
flights are consistent with new pilots learning to fly. Aircraft in the conventional cockpit cohort
were more likely to be involved in an accident but less likely to be involved in a fatal accident,
which is also consistent with the conventional aircraft being used to conduct more instructional
flights, which historically have had lower fatal accident rates than personal flying. 61
Differences in accident rates between the study cohorts followed a similar pattern. The
2-year fatal accident rates for 2006 and 2007 were similarly low for both cohorts during
instructional flights. The total accident rate was higher for conventional aircraft during both
instructional and personal/business flying, but the fatal accident rate was highest for glass
cockpit aircraft during personal/business flights.
61
Annual Review of U.S. General Aviation Accident Data, 2005, Annual Review NTSB/ARG-09/01, Focus on
General Aviation Safety: Instructional Flight (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 2009).
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Finally, accident and fatal accident rates were higher for the glass cockpit cohort in IMC
and at night despite the aircraft being flown by pilots with higher levels of certification and more
flight experienceand the additional capabilities of glass cockpit displays, which were intended
to improve the safety of those flight operations. The tables that follow summarize the results of
all statistical tests included in this study. Table 7 summarizes all comparisons of categorical
accident variables in this chapter, with total numbers of cases included in each comparison,
relative percentages, chi-square values, and significance.
Table 7. Summary of chi-square analyses.
Total
Accidents
Accident Severity
Fatal
NonFatal
Total
Light Condition
Day
Night
Total
Weather
VMC
IMC
Total
Flight Plan
VFR/None
IFR
Total
Purpose of Flight
Instructional
Personal/Business
Total
Accident Event Type
Collision with Terrain
Other
Total
Flight Crew Aboard
Single Pilot
Two Pilots
Total
Highest Pilot Certificate
Student
Private
Commercial or ATP
Total
Pilot Instrument Rating
Not Instrument Rated
Instrument Rated
Total
Conventional
N
Glass cockpit
% within cohort
266
23
118
141
16%
84%
39
86
125
31%
69%
122
19
141
87%
13%
98
27
125
78%
22%
129
11
140
92%
8%
105
19
124
85%
15%
110
22
132
83%
17%
76
42
118
64%
36%
66
70
136
49%
51%
19
103
122
16%
84%
11
126
137
8%
92%
19
99
118
16%
84%
117
24
141
83%
17%
117
8
125
94%
6%
49
55
35
139
35%
40%
25%
14
76
32
122
12%
62%
26%
88
51
139
63%
37%
41
77
118
35%
65%
266
264
250
258
255
266
261
257
38
% within cohort
8.216
0.004
3.058
0.080
3.639
0.056
11.718
0.001
31.616
< 0.001
3.980
0.046
7.063
0.008
21.931
< 0.001
20.828
< 0.001
NTSB
Table 8 summarizes all comparisons of continuous accident variables in this chapter, with
total numbers of cases included, median values, sums of ranks, Z-scores and Mann-Whitney U
values, and significance.
Table 8. Summary of Mann-Whitney analyses.
N
Pilot Age
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
Total
Pilot Total Flight Time
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
Total
Pilot Flight Time in Make/Model
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
Total
Planned Flight Length
Conventional
Glass Cockpit
Total
Median
Sum of Ranks
139
118
257
43yrs
47yrs
16466.5
16686.5
138
118
256
167hrs
466hrs
15094.0
17802.0
129
106
235
70hrs
99hrs
14472.5
13257.5
140
122
262
25nm
96nm
15519.5
18933.5
39
2.467
6736.5
0.014
4.469
5503.0
<0.001
1.445
6087.5
0.148
4.807
5649.5
<0.001
NTSB
Chapter 4: Qualitative Assessment

In addition to conducting the retrospective data analyses included in this study, the NTSB
reviewed FAA and manufacturer training materials and programs applicable to glass cockpit
aircraft and visited aircraft manufacturers to observe factory training available to general aviation
pilots transitioning to glass cockpit avionics. The NTSB also spoke with several representatives of
the aviation insurance industry regarding experience and training requirements for coverage of
glass cockpit-equipped light aircraft. This review enabled the NTSB to understand and assess the
current state of training requirements and glass cockpit training available to general aviation pilots.
FAA Requirements and Guidance Materials

The FAA has established minimum requirements for persons wishing to obtain initial or
additional pilot certification and ratings. Pilot applicants must log a minimum number of flight
hours, meet specified flight and ground training requirements, and pass a knowledge and/or
practical test to receive a pilot certificate or additional qualifications, such as an instrument
rating. Knowledge tests are designed to sample an applicants understanding of the information
necessary to exercise the privileges of a particular certificate or rating. Prospective pilots must
pass the required knowledge test and obtain an instructors endorsement to be eligible to take the
practical test for a certificate or rating. The current pool of questions for FAA airman knowledge
tests, such as private pilot, instrument rating, commercial pilot, and flight instructor certificates,
do not assess pilots knowledge of the functionality of glass cockpit displays. 62 However, most of
the FAAs training handbooks and Practical Test Standards (PTS) have been updated to
incorporate information about electronic flight instrument displays.
The FAA currently has no specific initial or recurrent training requirements for pilots of
Part 23 certified 63 aircraft related to cockpit equipment or avionics. There are general requirements
for all pilots to be knowledgeable about the operation and limitations of the aircraft they fly
including all aircraft systemsand to be proficient in the use of those systems. The FAA PTS
requires that applicants be able to demonstrate proficiency with all equipment installed in their
airplanes, and the FAAs most recent Instrument Rating64 and Flight Instructor, Instrument 65 PTS
mentions electronic flight displays with regard to knowledge of the operating characteristics of
installed equipment and operating procedures such as preflight checks. The Aircraft and Equipment
62
Based on the June 26, 2009, revision of FAA airman knowledge test banks, available online:
<http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/airmen/test_questions/>.
63
Title 14 CFR Part 23 contains airworthiness standards for airplanes in the normal, utility, acrobatic, and
commuter categories. The maximum takeoff weight of an airplane in the normal, utility, or acrobatic category
cannot exceed 12,500 pounds, and the maximum takeoff weight of an airplane in the commuter category cannot
exceed 19,000 pounds. In comparison, 14 CFR Part 25 contains airworthiness standards for airplanes in the transport
category, which typically have a maximum gross weight of more than 12,500 pounds.
64
FAA-S-8081-9C, available online:
<http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/airmen/test_standards/media/FAA-S-8081-9C.pdf>.
65
FAA-S-8081-4E, available online:
<http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/testing/airmen/test_standards/media/FAA-S-8081-4E.pdf>.
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Required for the Practical Test section of the PTS also mentions electronic primary flight
instrument and abnormal or emergency procedures for instrument failures.
The FAA Instrument Rating PTS specifically addresses electronic flight instruments in its
guidance to pilot examiners regarding the evaluation of an applicants response to instrument
failures as follows:
The loss of the primary electronic flight instrument display must be tailored to failures
that would normally be encountered in the aircraft. If the aircraft is capable, total failure
of the electronic flight instrument display, or a supporting component, with access only to
the standby flight instruments or backup display shall be evaluated.
Equipment-Specific Training
Even before it began updating its training materials and PTS, the FAA recognized a need
to improve general aviation pilot training. The FAA developed its FITS initiative in anticipation
of the increasing demands of managing advanced technology in general aviation cockpits. With a
focus on scenario-based training techniques, the FITS initiative attempted to make pilot training
more engaging and more relevant to real-world demands. Another element included in the initial
FITS initiative was aircraft- and equipment-specific training.
Findings of the 2003 General Aviation Technically Advanced Aircraft: FAAIndustry
Safety Study noted a divide between the potential safety benefits of increased use of technology
and the realization of those benefits, as described below:
TAAs provide increased available safety, i.e., a potential for increased safety.
However, to actually obtain this available safety, pilots must receive additional training in
the specific TAA systems in their aircraft that will enable them to exploit the
opportunities and operate within the limitations inherent in their TAA systems. 66
and
The template for securing this increased safety exists from the experiences with previous
new technology introductionsthe current aircraft model-specific training and insurance
requirements applicable to high-performance single and multi engine small airplanes.
However, the existing training infrastructure currently is not able to provide the needed
training in TAAs. 67
The FITS program plan, 68 published by the FAA in 2003, cited several intended product
categories. In addition to general FITS training, the program sought to produce a specific FITS
66
Finding 4 of the FAA-Industry study.

Finding 5 of the FAA-Industry study.
68
FAA-Industry Training Standards (FITS) Program Plan (Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration,
2003).
67
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program for a specific aircraft or technology. The FITS program plan described the intended
product as follows:
Specific standards will be initially developed in partnership with [manufacturers and
training centers]. They will prototype and implement initial, transition, recurrent, and
flight instructor training requirements of their customers and flight operations. Incentive
mechanisms in these programs will include regulatory incentives within the current
[Code of Federal Regulations] CFR (i.e. 141.57, Special curricula) as well as industry
incentives such as insurance. Development will be in conjunction with certification under
14 CFR Part 142 and Part 141.
The description went on to suggest that similar specialized training was expected to be
developed for individual avionics systems and displays and for pilots transitioning to upgraded
equipment that was being retrofitted into existing aircraft.
The NTSB identified the need for pilots to receive specialized training for advanced
aircraft equipment in a 1992 special investigation and analysis of several accidents involving the
Piper Aircraft Corporation model PA-46 airplane. 69 The PA-46 included an autopilot and flight
director system that was an advanced technology for single-engine light aircraft at that time. In
response to the investigation of several accidents and one incident in which pilots misunderstood
or misused that system, the NTSB issued the following recommendation to the FAA:
Amend 14 CFR 61.31(f) to include integrated flight guidance and control systems as part
of the ground and flight training requirements specified in subparagraphs (f) (1) (i) and
(ii). (A-92-88)
The FAA did not establish the recommended training requirements, but in 1997, it
enacted 14 CFR 61.31(h) requiring pilots to receive aircraft type-specific training and a logbook
endorsement for aircraft identified by the Administrator as requiring such training. 70 On July 30,
1998, the NTSB noted that the FAA did not plan to make the recommended regulatory changes
and classified Safety Recommendation A-92-88 ClosedUnacceptable Action. One of the
anticipated actions described in the FITS program plan was development of mandatory pilot
training and qualification standards in accordance with 14 CFR 61.31(h). This approach would
have created equipment-specific requirements akin to a type rating for a Part 23 aircraft. The
program plan suggested that Promulgation could be through an amendment to the aircraft flight
manual, which refers to the FITS standard directory.
Since publication of the 2003 TAA report and FITS program plan, the FAA has shifted
the focus of FITS away from equipment-specific training for advanced aircraft systems, as
mentioned in the original program plan, and has focused instead on updating training manuals
and promoting instructional techniques, such as scenario-based training and student-led
performance reviews, for pilots of all aircraft. To date, the FAA has encouraged manufacturers
69
Piper Aircraft Corporation PA-46 Malibu/Mirage Accidents/Incident, May 31, 1989, to March 17, 1991,
Special Investigation Report NTSB/SIR-92/03 (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 1992).
70
The type-specific training requirement of 14 CFR 61.31(h) was never applied to the PA-46.
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and training providers to develop specific training but has not incorporated equipment-specific
elements into its training, testing, or currency requirements.
Manufacturer Training Programs and Materials

The NTSB observed FITS-accepted training programs provided by two of the large
manufacturers of aircraft included in this study and reviewed training materials provided by
several glass cockpit display manufacturers.
Aircraft Manufacturers
In general, aircraft manufacturers provide transition training for buyers of new aircraft,
and most include training or require that pilots take a training course as part of the purchase
contract. Manufacturer training includes several components. Written and electronic study
materials, typically completed by the new owner before arriving at the factory to begin flight
training, include several hours of familiarization study on aircraft systems, checklists, and
operating procedures. Ground training and flight training, which generally occur at the factory,
include 2 to 3 days of instruction, with the possibility of additional instruction if desired. Flight
and ground training includes takeoffs/landings and flight maneuvers, normal and emergency
procedures, and aircraft systems and equipment. Pilots who are instrument rated typically also
practice instrument flying and instrument approaches. NTSB observations and anecdotal reports
from pilots and instructors suggest that for many general aviation pilots, the transition to new
avionics requires as muchor often moreeffort than the transition to the new aircraft itself.
Both manufacturers visited by the NTSB incorporated flight training devices and avionics
simulators into their training to provide additional avionics instruction.
Typical factory training is designed as familiarization training or as a checkout, rather
than as a proficiency evaluation. Persons who complete the course receive a certificate or proof
of completion that insurance companies acceptand often requireand that can be credited
toward the FAAs WINGS pilot proficiency program. 71 Factory training typically does not result
in an endorsement for a flight review or instrument proficiency check, 72 but manufacturers will
provide the additional instruction necessary to complete a flight review or instrument proficiency
check at additional owner expense. Manufacturers can also arrange to have a flight instructor
accompany the owner on the flight home in the new aircraft, and most maintain networks of
training centers and/or factory-trained instructors to provide additional and recurrent training
throughout the country. Although aircraft manufacturers will provide training to anyone, free
factory training programs almost exclusively target the original aircraft owner. Some new owners
choose to allocate the transition training included with the purchase of a new aircraft to local
flight instructors so that they can continue to receive factory-approved training after returning
home. Buyers of used aircraft, or other pilots wishing to receive factory-approved training, can
also purchase training at the factory, but they would typically receive training through the
71
See <https://www.faasafety.gov/WINGS/pppinfo/default.aspx> for an explanation of the FAA Safety Team,

WINGS pilot proficiency program.
72
See 14 CFR 61.57 for the requirements of the flight review and instrument proficiency check.
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distributed network of training centers or factory-approved instructors. Some aviation insurance

providers require periodic factory-approved recurrent training or encourage such training through
discount incentives.
In some cases, manufacturers and aviation insurance companies have collaborated with
academic institutions to develop training programs and accident reduction initiatives. In addition
to the FAAs FITS program and the training materials and programs currently in place, industry
efforts are underway to identify new methods for reducing accidents. 73
Avionics Manufacturers
Most manufacturers of glass cockpit avionics produce training materials to support their
products. A common training tool produced by some of the larger avionics manufacturers is a
software simulator for use on a personal computer that allows pilots to interact with the display
interface to become familiar with display operation and capabilities, menu organization, and
control functions. These software simulators are not intended to replicate the functionality of an
approved flight simulator or training device 74 but rather to serve as interactive procedural
trainers that allow pilots to practice using glass cockpit avionics and experience various display
system malfunctions and failures that may not be easily or safely replicated in the aircraft. Some
avionics manufacturers provide free software simulators, while others charge a small fee but
provide a free copy with purchase of the avionics equipment.
Some glass cockpit avionics manufacturers also produce training curricula and manuals.
For example, Garmin produces a guide to its cockpit avionics for flight instructors and pilot
examiners 75 that includes an overview of potential failure modes and operational scenarios that
correspond to pilot knowledge and performance requirements of the FAA Instrument Rating
PTS. Garmin also produces a pilot training guide and knowledge test, along with resource
materials for flight instructors to train and evaluate pilots on the operation of its G1000 glass
cockpit system. 76
Insurance Requirements
Although the FAA currently has no specific training requirements for pilots of light
aircraft related to aircraft avionics and displays, aviation insurance providers often require pilots
to complete training to receive and maintain coverage. The NTSB spoke with several aviation
73
For example, the Airmanship Education Research Initiative (AERI) is a collaborative research effort by Cirrus
Design Corporation, Avemco Insurance, and the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign aimed at identifying methods
for teaching improved decision-making techniques: <http://www.humanfactors.illinois.edu/news/news.aspx?29>.
74
Title 14 CFR Part 60 and FAA Advisory Circular AC-61-136 provide guidance for the approval of flight
simulators and training devices for pilot training and certification.
75
Garmin International, Inc., Integrated Flight Deck, Guide for Designated Pilot Examiners and Certificated
Flight Instructors, 190-00368-02 Revision C, May 2008. (Olathe, Kansas). Available online at:
<http://www8.garmin.com/manuals/G1000:Non-AirframeSpecific_GuideforDPEsandCFIs.pdf>.
76
Garmin International, Inc., Integrated Flight Deck, Pilots Training Guide, Instructors Reference (-06). 19000368-06 Revision B, May 2008 (Olathe, Kansas). See <http://www8.garmin.com/manuals/G1000:NonAirframeSpecific_PilotsTrainingGuide_InstructorsReference-06_.pdf>.
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insurance company representatives and insurance underwriters to better assess the nonregulatory
training requirements for pilots and owners of glass cockpit-equipped aircraft.
Actuarial data, including claims information and person-specific details, allow insurance
companies to determine coverage costs and establish tailored training requirements for pilots
transitioning to glass cockpit aircraft. Insurance companies consider each pilots history and
flight experience, as well as the pilots record as a customer with a particular company, when
establishing requirements for coverage. A private pilot with an instrument rating, 1,000 hours of
flight time, and no history of major claims may be required to complete factory transition
training, while a new private pilot who does not hold an instrument rating may be required to
receive additional initial and/or recurrent factory-approved training beyond the basic transition
course. Some providers suggested that they may decline coverage to pilots wanting to insure
high-performance aircraft with glass cockpit avionics unless the pilots were previous customers
with a good claims history. The exact details of insurance company requirements are tailored to
individual pilots and vary from one company to the next. However, these requirements are often
more rigorous than the regulatory requirements that the FAA has established for general aviation
pilots based on other equipment-specific properties, such as high performance, complexity, or
conventional landing gear. 77
In some cases, however, insurance requirements are not particularly rigorous or do not
establish additional requirements for pilots transitioning into aircraft with glass cockpit avionics.
For example, the NTSB spoke with some insurance providers who suggested that they would not
require additional training for an existing customer upgrading from an older aircraft with
conventional instruments to a similar new aircraft with glass cockpit displays (for example, from a
1980 Cessna 172 to a 2006 Cessna 172), but that they would adjust coverage and premiums based
on the value of the airframe. Other providers said they would require a one-time,
equipment-specific checkout. With regard to new glass cockpit displays retrofitted to existing
aircraft, insurance providers said that they typically would not be aware of the new equipment
unless owners contacted them to increase their coverage, and that in that case, they would be
unlikely to impose additional requirements for training. Manufacturers and insurance company
representatives also mentioned that they are aware that in some cases, owners have chosen to
self-insure their aircraft or forgo coverage and assume the responsibility for any problems they
might encounter.
The lack of equipment-specific training requirements from the FAA and the variability of
insurance company requirements result in a wide range of initial and recurrent training
experiences among pilots of glass cockpit aircraft. With the exception of the training provided by
manufacturers with the purchase of a new aircraft, pilots must currently seek out
equipment-specific training.
77
Title 14 CFR 61.31 details requirements for aircraft-specific training required to act as pilot-in-command.
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Chapter 5: Case Study Review

In addition to the data analyses and the assessment of training resources and requirements
described above, the NTSB reviewed accident investigations involving glass cockpit-equipped
aircraft to identify cases in which glass cockpit displays either malfunctioned or functioned in a
manner that was different from a conventional display and/or pilot expectation. This chapter
discusses those case studies and several issues identified in those reviews.
Pilot Expectations Regarding Glass Cockpit Displays

On April 9, 2007, at 1159 mountain daylight time, a Cirrus Design Corporation SR22,
N953CD, piloted by a private pilot, sustained substantial damage when it collided with trees 16
miles north of Luna, New Mexico, following a ballistic parachute deployment. 78 The personal
flight was being conducted under the provisions of 14 CFR Part 91 on an IFR flight plan. The
pilot was not injured. The cross-country flight originated at Tucson, Arizona, and was en route to
Englewood, Colorado.
The pilot said he was climbing from 15,000 feet to 16,000 feet to avoid building
thunderstorms and snow showers. The pilot reported that he was in IMC when the airspeed
indication started to decrease and the airspeed and altimeter readouts on the PFD went to hash
marks (an indication of system malfunction or data loss, which would have appeared on the
display as red Xs). The pilot stated that he manually overrode the autopilot to initiate a descent
and turned the pitot heat on. The pilot reported that shortly thereafter, the airspeed indication
returned. The pilot sensed that he was in a descent and pulled back to slow the airplane down,
and the attitude indicator went haywire. The terrain warning system activated, and the pilot
elected to activate the ballistic recovery parachute on the airplane. The airplane impacted trees
and came to rest inverted at the top of several trees. The empennage separated from the airplane.
The outboard portion of the right wing was crushed aft and had partially separated.
The pilots written statement indicated that the airplane was getting hit by snow pellets.
He stated that he turned the TKS [supplemental ice protection system] on to maximum and set
the windshield defroster to its highest setting. The pilot contacted air traffic control and
requested another altitude to get out of the clouds, as he was in light icing. The pilot wrote
that when he completed a routing change, he noted that the numbers on the airspeed indicator
were red. 79 The pilot stated that he immediately pushed the nose down. Shortly thereafter, the
airspeed indication went to hash marks. He stated that the altitude indicator also gave no
indication of altitude and appeared to have completely failed. The pilot wrote that a cross-check
of the backup airspeed indicator showed no readings, and in a followup telephone interview, he
stated that the event happened so quickly that he did not initially look at the backup airspeed
78
79
See DEN07LA082 <http://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/GenPDF.asp?id=DEN07LA082&rpt=fa>.

Numbers changing to red is consistent with the aircrafts approaching stall speed.
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indicator, but when he did, it was at zero. The pilot also stated that he did not look at either the
backup altimeter or backup attitude indicator. 80
Data recovered from the aircraft PFD indicated that when the airspeed indication decreased
to zero, internal validity checks in the PFD flagged the pitot data input as invalid. 81 The
extracted data further indicated that system logic checks identified the invalid airspeed value as an
air data computer failure and subsequently flagged all air data parameters as invalid. According to
the manufacturer, the result would be to replace all air data information on the display: airspeed,
altitude, and vertical speed with red X indications, and outside temperature with dashed lines.
The display operated as designed in this case, but the resulting behavior was different from that of
conventional cockpit instruments. (If the pitot tube drain remains open, blockage of the pitot tube
intake will typically result in a decreased or zero airspeed indication on a conventional airspeed
indicator while the remaining instruments will continue to function normally.) In this case, the PFD
displayed failure indications for all air data parameters, 82 which led the pilot to initially interpret a
likely pitot tube intake blockage due to icing to be an air data computer failure.
During the investigation of an accident only a few months later, which involved a Piper
Aircraft PA-46-500TP Meridian equipped with dual PFDs produced by the same avionics
manufacturer as in the previous accident example, NTSB investigators found similar flagging of
air data parameters in response to suspected pitot tube intake blockage due to airframe icing. 83
Data recovered from the accident aircraft indicated that the PFD software had also flagged as
invalid the airspeed, altitude, and vertical speed information as the dynamic pressure sensed by
the system decreased to zero. In that case, the pilot and copilot PFDs in the accident airplane
were fed from separate pitot inputs, and the backup airspeed was fed from the pilots side pitot
input. According to the manufacturer, 84 blockage of both pitot tube intakes would have resulted
in loss of all air data on both primary displays and a loss of usable information on the backup
analog airspeed indicator. The flagged air data would also have resulted in the autopilot
automatically disengaging with an audible warning. 85 The Piper Meridian was not equipped with
a ballistic parachute as was the Cirrus involved in the earlier accident. The accident aircraft
experienced a loss of control and subsequent in-flight breakup, resulting in fatal injuries to the
pilot and two passengers.
Although the PFD displays in these accidents functioned differently than conventional
displays would have under similar circumstances, they performed in accordance with the
80
Refer to the document Statements in the NTSB Docket Management System records for accident case
DEN07LA082.
81
Refer to the flight data recorder group chairmans factual report in the NTSB Docket Management System
records for accident case DEN07LA082.
82
The other data parameters affected in this case included altitude and vertical speed.
83
NTSB investigation number CHI07FA183, June 28, 2007. This accident is included here as an example of the
PFD function, but it was not included in the statistical study analyses because it involved a turboprop-powered
aircraft.
84
Refer to manufacturer letter dated August 12, 2009, in the NTSB Docket Management System records for
accident case CHI07FA183.
85
For a complete discussion of system operation, see final accident report in the NTSB Aviation Accident
Database at <http://www.ntsb.gov/ntsb/GenPDF.asp?id=CHI07FA183&rpt=fa>, as well as the manufacturer and
FAA correspondence included in the official NTSB docket for this case.
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intended design and software logic. Title 14 CFR 23.1309(b) requires that warning information
be provided to alert pilots to unsafe operating conditions to enable them to take appropriate
corrective action, and the requirements of 14 CFR 23.1581 state that an aircraft flight manual
(AFM)which must contain information about the safe operation of aircraft systems in the
event of malfunctionmust be furnished for each aircraft.
Given its concerns about pilots need to understand complex aircraft system operation,
which was established in its 1992 special investigation of several Piper Aircraft model PA-46
airplane accidents, 86 the NTSB issued the following recommendation to the FAA:
Require the manufacturers of integrated flight guidance and control systems, for which
supplements to the airplane flight manual and pilots operating handbook must be
provided, to develop and make available to operators detailed training information that
will enable pilots to diagnose system failures, understand pilot-induced flight control
system problems, and use the system in a safe and proficient manner. (A-92-89)
In response to NTSB recommendation A-92-89, the FAA issued Change 1 to AC 23-8A,

Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes, and AC 23.13091B, Equipment, Systems,
and Installations in Part 23 Airplanes, emphasizing that complex integrated systems may dictate
that cockpit warning indicators and/or detailed emergency procedures information be included in
the FAA-approved AFM or AFM Supplement. Based on this action by the FAA, the NTSB
classified Safety Recommendation A-92-89 ClosedAcceptable Action on June 28, 1996.
The AFM Supplement for the PFD installed in the Piper Aircraft Corporation Meridian
included a full description of a loss of air data computer information, along with guidance to use
the analog backup instruments in the event of failure. However, the manual did not provide
specific information about system behavior in response to the loss of specific data inputs, such as
a pitot tube intake blockage. In response to communication from NTSB investigators, the FAA
and the avionics manufacturer reviewed this case and determined that flagging all air data
parameter indications as invalid in response to a loss of pitot input was not ideal. The
manufacturer agreed to change the functionality in future software revisions, and the FAA agreed
that a revision would be added to the AFM to better inform pilots of the system functionality
until the software could be changed.
Equipment Design and Reliability

Like all aircraft systems and equipment installations, glass cockpit displays are subject to
14 CFR Part 23 requirements for reliability and safety assessment. The reliability of electronic
PFDs is generally assumed by the FAA and the pilot community to exceed that of their
conventional analog equivalents due to the mechanical reliability of solid-state systems and the
additional redundancy often required for electronic systems. For example, guidance provided in
14 CFR 23.1311and in the associated AC 23.1311-1B, Installation of Electronic Display in
86
Piper Aircraft Corporation PA-46 Malibu/Mirage Accidents/Incident, May 31, 1989, to March 17, 1991,
Special Investigation Report NTSB/SIR-92/03 (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 1992).
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Part 23 Aircraftspecifies that to satisfy the requirements of 14 CFR 23 for IFR flight,
electronic displays of airspeed, attitude, and altitude information require either dedicated standby
instruments or dual independent PFDs. Similar redundant instrumentation is not required for
Part 23 aircraft in order to be certified for IFR flight with conventional analog instruments. The
general principle guiding this and similar requirements for electronic displays is that the safety,
workload, and operational consequences of a new technology should be at least as good as the
equipment it replaces. Manufacturers must provide evidence that the operational reliability
aspect of this requirement is met during initial certification. Following certification,
manufacturers must report certain equipment failures to the FAA, and their manufacturing
processes are subject to inspection by the FAA, but reliability information is generally not
available outside the manufacturer. 87
Human performance objectives of increasing pilot awareness while simultaneously
reducing workload and error are more difficult to achieve and validate than equipment reliability.
AC 23.1309-1D addresses this difficulty in section 19(a), Flight Crew and Maintenance Task,
stating that quantitative assessments of the probabilities of flight crew and maintenance errors
are not considered reasonable. The qualitative standard is that crews should respond to
equipment malfunctions in a timely manner without jeopardizing other safety-related tasks and
that such a response should not require exceptional skill or strength.
While arguably difficult to validate, assessments of the interaction between equipment
design and human performance could greatly improve safety, especially in light of the criticality
of human/equipment interactions. In its 2006 Safety Report on the Treatment of Safety-Critical
Systems in Transport Airplanes, 88 the NTSB expressed concern about the failure to consider
guidance for human performance evaluation of Part 25 aircraft and issued the following
recommendation to the FAA to consider human/airplane system interactions in the assessment of
safety-critical systems in transport aircraft certification:
Amend the advisory materials associated with 14 CFR 25.1309 to include consideration
of structural failures and human/airplane system interaction failures in the assessment of
safety-critical systems. (A-06-37) 89
This recommendation was directed at Part 25 aircraft, but human/airplane system

interaction failures are also a safety concern in Part 23 aircraft. At the time of writing, the FAA is
reviewing the Part 23 certification process and related guidance. In addition, several FAA ACs
that address avionics systems are currently open for comment, such as AC 23-17C, Systems and
Equipment Guide for Certification of Part 23 Airplanes and Airships; AC 23.1309-1E, System
Safety Analysis and Assessment for Part 23 Airplanes; and AC 23.1311-1C, Installation of
87
Title 14 CFR 21.3 requires holders of TSO authorization to report certain equipment failures to the FAA, and
14 CFR 21.615 requires that each manufacturer of equipment under TSO authorization allow the FAA to inspect
equipment, inspect manufacturing facilities, review technical data files, inspect the manufacturers quality control
system, and observe any equipment tests upon request of the Administrator. However, these activities are typically
prompted by specific events rather than being part of a continuous review process.
88
Safety Report on the Treatment of Safety-Critical Systems in Transport Airplanes, NTSB/SR-06/02.
(Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 2006).
89
As of November 2009, this recommendation was classified OpenAcceptable Response.
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Electronic Display in Part 23 Airplanes. In July 2009, the FAA released its Part 23 - Small
Airplane Certification Process Study (CPS), 90 which included findings and recommendations
from the FAA and industry groups, such as the AOPA, GAMA, the Experimental Aircraft
Association, and the National Business Aviation Association. This report, which predicted that
the introduction of new 14 CFR Part 23 technologies would continue to accelerate over the next
two decades, went on to recognize increased responsibility on the part of the FAA: This is good
news for [general aviation], but it increases the FAA oversight burden. The FAA must develop
new regulatory, policy and guidance materials to address such technologies.
One area identified in the CPS report as needing greater uniformity was the application of
good human factors design principles to keep pace with the increasing capabilities and
complexities of avionics systems. The aviation industry has attempted to develop design
frameworks and voluntary guidance for the design of glass cockpit avionics, 91 and the FAA
includes human performance considerations in its ACs 92 and Policy Statements 93 for
certification. Nevertheless, design challenges persist due to the complexity and rapid
development of display technology. FAA and industry representatives included a finding in the
CPS report acknowledging the following:
Avionics and aircraft systems in Part 23 airplanes are offering more features and
integration of these features. There is a broad range of system complexities offered in
Part 23; some intuitive and others non-intuitive for pilots.
Not all airplane and avionics designers have considered the pilot-machine interface by
using good human factors practices. General aviation needs airplanes that are intuitive to
operate, requiring as little training as possible.94
Analyzing Part 23 certification requirements was not within the intended scope of this
NTSB study, other than to highlight the historic emphasis on equipment reliabilitydespite an
acknowledgment of human performance as a leading factor in aviation safety. The approach to
certification of Part 23 aircraft equipment has implied that human error can be reduced with
increased use of technology. This approach and the importance placed on avionics technology
are summarized in AC 23.1309-1D:
90
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Part 23 - Small Airplane Certification
Process Study (Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration, July 2009).
91
See for example, GAMA Publication 10 - Recommended Practices and Guidelines for Part 23 Cockpit/Flight
Deck Design (<http://www.gama.aero/files/gama_publication_10_hf_september_2000_pdf_498cad6edd.pdf>) and
GAMA Publication 12 - Recommended Practices and Guidelines for an Integrated Cockpit/Flightdeck in a 14 CFR
Part 23 Airplane <http://www.gama.aero/files/gama_publication_12_p23cockpit_april_2005_pdf_498cadb978.pdf>.
92
FAA AC 23.1311-1B, available online at
<http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgAdvisoryCircular.nsf/0/48bc1051f079b7418625702100639
56c/$FILE/AC23.1311-1B.pdf>.
93
FAA Policy Statement PS-ACE100-2001-004, available online at
<http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgPolicy.nsf/0/ad52dc6379f1e4e786256c40004a0128/$FILE/
polmen.pdf>.
94
Finding 5.2.
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For all airplanes, but particularly GA [general aviation] airplanes, pilot decision-making
causes most accidents. Pilot decision-making accidents, the largest single cause, often are
the result of a lack of situational awareness relative to terrain or weather, or to a loss of
control due to excess workload. Correct pilot interventions and actions have prevented
some of these accidents. An increase in avionics equipage rates that improved pilot
situational awareness or simplify the task had a significant positive impact on the GA
accident rate.
The text of the AC goes on to cite the AOPA Air Safety Foundation study of TAAs as
evidence of that positive effect. However, the AC also acknowledges that increased aircraft
technology must be accompanied by pilot training in that technologically advanced aircraft has
delivered multiple safety benefits to GA pilots, but pilot training tied to experience has to evolve
with it.
Standardization of Instrument Design and Operation

Unlike glass cockpit displays, the design and operation of conventional flight instruments
is similar regardless of aircraft or manufacturer. The six instruments that make up a conventional
cockpit include three pitot/static and three attitude instruments. Pitot/static instruments use
aneroid capsules, calibrated diaphragms that expand and contract in response to changes in static
air pressure to provide information about altitude (altimeter and vertical speed indicator) and the
differential between static and dynamic pressure associated with speed (airspeed indicator). The
attitude instruments (attitude indicator, heading indicator, and rate-of-turn indictor) use
vacuum-driven and/or electrically driven gyros to provide information about aircraft orientation.
Individual manufacturers may vary the design of their instruments or instrument display
face slightly, but the basic operation is so similar for all Part 23 aircraft that instructional
materials often explain instrument design and functionality using detailed cutaway views of the
instruments. Not all pilots may share an equal understanding of the inner workings of analog
instruments, but the information is readily available in training material. The following sample
illustration of a conventional airspeed indicator (figure 22) is taken from the FAAs most recent
(2007) edition of the Instrument Flying Handbook.
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Figure 22. Illustration of a conventional airspeed indicator mechanism, adapted from the FAA
Instrument Flying Handbook.
A similar example of instructional materials for analog instruments can be found in the
FAAs newly revised Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. 95 The illustrations in
figure 23 were copied from chapter 7 of that handbook and show the operating and design
principles at work in the instruments that display attitude and heading information. Like the
altimeter, the basic design of the analog version of these instruments can be explained using
cutaway images.
95
Federal Aviation Administration, Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, FAA-H-8083-25.
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Figure 23. Illustrations of the internal mechanisms that drive analog attitude and heading
indicator instruments, copied from the FAA Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge.
Unlike the relatively simple system of gyros and linkages that drives analog instruments,
very little information is available to pilots about the glass cockpit display equivalent. The
computerized systems at the heart of electronic PFDs are combinations of electronic components
and software that are both unique to the manufacturer and equipment, and that are subject to
change with any future system software revision. In contrast to the cutaway illustrations for
analog instruments, illustrations of digital instruments do not lend themselves to the same
amount of detail. Figure 24, for example, shows an AHRS, which drives the attitude and heading
indicator displays of a PFD. As this illustration shows, the system is both figuratively and
literally a black box. Although the FAA Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge includes
more than five pages of text and illustrations to describe the design and function of the analog
gyroscopic instruments, it includes only four sentences describing the design of an AHRS.
Rather than being indicative of an incomplete manual, this difference reflects the nature of the
design of electronic display systems.
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Figure 24. Illustration of an AHRS, copied from the FAA Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge.
The FAA summarizes the problem in its inspector handbook as part of the background
information provided to inspectors regarding FITS acceptance of training courses or materials:
In the past, displays, avionics, and navigation equipment all looked and functioned in a
similar manner regardless of the manufacturer. This is not the case with todays advanced
avionics systems and displays. Training in the operation of one manufacturers GPS
receiver may not give the pilot sufficient knowledge to safely operate another
manufacturers receiver. This is even more evident with full glass cockpits. Not only does
the functionality of PFDs and MFDs vary between manufacturers, but also due to aircraft
systems differences, the same avionics equipment in a different type aircraft may
function differently. 96
Interpretation of Equipment Malfunctions

The wide variability in system design has implications for pilots ability to identify and
diagnose system malfunctions. For example, one of the fundamental skills required to fly an
aircraft by reference to flight instruments is instrument cross-checking. Cross-checking, or
scanning, refers to the task of comparing information from individual instruments and integrating
that information into an overall understanding of the aircrafts orientation and performance. If
information from one or more instruments does not agree with pilots understanding of the
aircraft attitude or performance, the pilots must rely on an understanding of instrument design
and operation to reconcile discrepancies while ruling out the possibility of instrument
malfunction. With conventional cockpit instruments, partially obstructed or blocked pitot tubes
and static ports, vacuum pump failures, and gyro malfunctions exhibit characteristic symptoms
96
FAA Order 8900.1, Flight Standards Information Management System (FSIMS), Issue an FAA Industry
Training Standards (FITS) Acceptance When Requested by a Flight School, Training Center, or Other Training
Provider (Vol. 5, Chapter 9, Sec. 5), 5-1669, CNG 0.
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that can be identified by comparing information from all six instruments. Although these
instruments use common sources of input, the independence between inputs and the redundancy
among instrument displays are sufficient to enable pilots to diagnose common failure modes.
Figure 25 is an example of a graphic referenced in questions from the FAA airman instrument
rating knowledge test in which a pilot applicant must interpret an instrument failure
identification. A typical knowledge test question associated with this type of graphic would ask
the pilot applicant to identify the system that has failed and/or determine the corrective action
necessary to return the airplane to straight-and-level flight. Similar graphics and questions are
included in the knowledge test, requiring pilots to identify unusual aircraft attitudes and
determine the corrective action necessary for recovery.
Figure 25. FAA instrument rating knowledge test sample: instrument malfunction interpretation
(pitot tube intake and drain blockage).
As the pilot of the Luna, New Mexico, accident saw firsthand, however, the task of
interpreting malfunctions and failures in glass cockpit displays is different than for conventional
cockpit instruments. Different glass cockpit systems can also behave very differently from one
another. For example, the pitot tube intake blockage in the system installed in the New Mexico
accident aircraft resulted in the air data parameters being flagged as invalid. Further, some
manufacturers of glass cockpit systems use designs that combine both the air data computer and
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AHRS component functions so that a similar blockage could affect not only the airspeed and
altitude displays but also the aircraft attitude display. 97
Most of the current generation of light aircraft equipped with glass cockpit displays
includes conventional airspeed, attitude, and altitude instruments as backup in the event of a PFD
malfunction. These backup instruments typically share the same pitot and static inputs as the
PFD. In some cases, a single small PFD-like electronic flight display is provided as a backup
instead of conventional instruments. Due to differences in the design and operation of different
electronic flight displays, it is possible that the backup display and the primary display will
respond differently to a loss of data input, and that both will function differently than
conventional instruments would under the same circumstances.
Equipment-Specific Training
Problems associated with pilots learning to operate new and complex aircraft systems are
by no means new, nor are they unique to glass cockpits. On February 3, 1959, a Beechcraft
Bonanza, N3794N, crashed just after departure from Mason City Municipal Airport, Mason City,
Iowa. The aircraft collided with terrain in an approximately 90-degree bank, nose-down pitch
attitude, killing the pilot and three passengers: Charles Hardin, J. P. Richardson, and Richard
Valenzuela, also known, respectively, as Buddy Holly, The Big Bopper, and Richie Valens. 98 The
accident gained a level of notoriety in popular culture because of the celebrity of the passengers
and subsequent movie and television depictions of the circumstances surrounding the accident.
Less well known, however, are the findings of the accident investigation. In its final report on the
accident, the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB)predecessor to the NTSBfound the probable
cause of the accident to be the pilots decision to depart into IFR flight conditions when he was
not qualified to do so. In addition, the pilots unfamiliarity with the attitude indicator, which
provided a pitch display opposite that of the artificial horizon to which he was accustomed,
was found to be a contributing factor to the accident.
The CAB considered the problem serious enough that it included as an attachment to the
report a Safety Message for Pilots, stating the following in regard to flight instruments:
The assumption may be that, providing one is aware of this difference, no difficulty
should be experienced in utilizing either instrument. This assumption, however, is true
only if the pilot has had sufficient training on both instruments.
The attachment went on to issue a warning to pilots:

97
For example, the Airplane Flight Manual Supplement for the Aspen Avionics EFD1000 system (A-01-175-00
Rev. D) contains a warning that, Because the EFD1000 uses pitot and static pressures as part of the ADAHRS [Air
Data Attitude Heading Reference System] solution, loss or corruption of this data, such as from a line blockage, will
impact the accuracy of data output by the ADAHRS. Affected parameters can include the airspeed, altitude and
attitude information displayed by the EFD1000. If erroneous pitot or static inputs are detected by the EFD1000, the
EFD1000 will present a CROSS CHECK ATTITUDE annunciation.
98
Beech Bonanza, N3794N, Mason City, Iowa, February 3, 1959, File No. 2-0001 (Aircraft Accident Report,
Washington, DC: Civil Aeronautics Board, September 15, 1959).
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KNOW YOUR AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT, ITS CAPABILITIES AND
LIMITATIONS. DO NOT RELY UPON ANY EQUIPMENT UNDER
CIRCUMSTANCES REQUIRING ITS USE FOR THE SAFE CONDUCT OF
THE FLIGHT UNTIL YOU HAVE ACQUIRED SUFFICIENT EXPERIENCE
UNDER SIMULATED CONDITIONS TO INSURE YOUR ABILITY TO USE
IT PROPERLY. (emphasis included in the original)
Pilots transitioning to glass cockpit-equipped aircraft face a situation similar to that of the
Mason City accident pilot, but glass cockpit avionics present new and unique challenges for
flight training that do not apply to conventional round-dial instruments. Rapidly changing
equipment, the complexity of the systems, and the lack of standardization also increase the
burden on flight instructors and pilot examiners to maintain their knowledge and proficiency
with the variety of systems they may encounter when providing instruction.
The difficulty or inability to simulate various failure modes and functions can limit an
instructors or examiners ability to train pilots and evaluate their ability to respond to various
emergencies or equipment malfunctions. For example, the easiest type of equipment malfunction
to simulate in a typical glass cockpit aircraft is the failure of a display screen or the associated
backlighting. This is commonly simulated by decreasing screen brightness until it appears blank.
In the event of an actual failure, a pilot would transfer functions to the remaining display and
refer to backup instruments as necessary. It is also possible to simulate the discrete failure of the
air data computer or AHRS components of some PFDs, depending on the system, by either
switching off the unit or pulling a circuit breaker. However, a circuit breaker should not be used
as a switch, 99 and pulling a circuit breaker is therefore not an appropriate method of simulating
failures, even though some avionics manufacturer may suggest the practice. 100 In aircraft
equipped with analog gauges, failure of an instrument can be simulated by covering that
instrument, using static covers designed for the purpose or sticky notes. However, the various
flight data parameters of airspeed, attitude, heading, vertical speed, and altitude are combined on
a PFD, making partial failures harder to simulate. Display manufacturers recommend against the
use of sticky notes or static covers because they might harm expensive display screens. Some
third-party vendors have developed full-screen overlays to simulate various failure modes.
99
For example, FAA Advisory Circulars AC 23-17B and AC 120-80 include guidance stating that a circuit
breaker (CB) should not be used as a switch. AC 120-80 (page 11-12) states, Since CBs are designed to open an
electrical circuit automatically at a predetermined overload of current, they should not be used for day-to-day
operational functions because they would not be performing their intended function, which is protection against
overloads. Circuit breakers, even those suitable for frequent operation, should not be used as a switch to turn
protected items on or off.
100
The Recommendations for Failure Simulation section (page 17) of Garmin International, Inc., Integrated
Flight Deck, Guide for Designated Pilot Examiners and Certificated Flight Instructors, 190-00368-02, Revision C,
May 2008 (Olathe, Kansas) includes instructions for two methods of simulating failures. The instructions state that
the preferred method is to use the display dimming controls to simulate a display failure and that the other, less
desirable, method is to pull various circuit breakers. However, the guide subsequently (page 19) notes that Cessna
does not recommend this practice for its aircraft: Cessna does not recommend pulling circuit breakers as a means of
simulating failures on the GIFD [Garmin Integrated Flight Display]. Pulling circuit breakersor using them as
switcheshas the potential to weaken the circuit breaker to a point at which it may not perform its intended
function. The guide also acknowledges that pulling circuit breakers can interfere with the safe operation of other
equipment.
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In summary, accident records have demonstrated the importance of pilots understanding

the capabilities and limitations of their aircraft. The nature and complexity of glass cockpit
displays, and the variety of unique glass cockpit system designs, have created a need for new
training procedures and tools to ensure that pilots have that understanding.
Tracking Equipment Function and Reliability

The NTSB identified relatively few instrument failures in the set of study accidents that
involved either conventional or glass cockpit aircraft, 101 and the information necessary to compare
the reliability of conventional and glass displays was not available. In fact, one of the issues
identified during the review of study accident reports was a lack of information being captured
about system malfunctions and service difficulties, which could be used to research ways of
preventing future accidents. One accident citing instrument malfunction in a glass cockpit aircraft
occurred on January 15, 2005, when a Cirrus Design SR22, N889JB, was destroyed as the result
of impact with a house and terrain following a loss of control in flight. 102 The certificated
commercial pilot was fatally injured.
The pilot departed on an IFR flight plan in instrument meteorological flight conditions
and shortly thereafter, misinterpreted a series of air traffic control instructions. Subsequent
callouts and responses by the pilot indicated confusion, to the point at which he stated, I gotta
get my act together here. Less than 1 minute later, the pilot reported avionics problems, and
about 40 seconds after that, during his last transmission, he stated that he was losin it. The
airplane subsequently descended nose-down, out of clouds, and impacted a house and terrain.
NTSB investigators were unable to determine the nature of the failure reported by the
accident pilot due to the severity of impact damage. However, a review of the accident aircraft
maintenance records identified a history involving several PFD issues. According to aircraft
maintenance records, the PFD was replaced three times before the accident: first in response to
an air data failure, then to fix a navigation course indicator failure, and finally in response to an
AHRS data failure. During the third replacement, maintenance personnel found that the display
had been replaced again previouslywithout logbook entrydue to damage to pitot and static
fittings during installation of an air conditioning system.
The FAA maintains a service difficulty report (SDR) system to collect information about
aircraft or equipment problems to accomplish the following:
Provide assistance to aircraft owners, operators, maintenance organizations,
manufacturers, and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in identifying aircraft
problems encountered during service. The Service Difficulty Program provides for the
101
Of those cases with a probable cause published at the time of writing, two accidents in the glass cockpit
cohort (NTSB case numbers IAD05FA032 and DEN07LA082), and one accident in the conventional cohort (NTSB
case number MIA06FA050) included reported malfunctions or failures of flight instruments.
102
NTSB case number IAD05FA032.
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collection, organization, analysis, and dissemination of aircraft service information to
improve service reliability of aeronautical products. 103
Title 14 CFR Parts 121 and 135 include requirements for air carriers to report certain
aircraft and equipment malfunctions, failures, and maintenance difficulties. 104 Title 14 CFR
Part 125 includes a similar requirement for reporting malfunctions or defects involving large
aircraft not engaged in common carriage. 105 In addition to the list of specified failures, operators
are required to report the following:
Any other failure, malfunction, or defect in an aircraft that occurs or is detected at any
time if, in its opinion, the failure, malfunction, or defect has endangered or may endanger
the safe operation of the aircraft.
Although the SDR system was designed to collect information related to large aircraft, it
also accepts malfunction and defect reports from light aircraft used in general aviation
operations. The NTSB has previously identified the need to improve malfunction and defect
reporting and service difficulty reporting for all aircraft, issuing the following recommendation
to the FAA in 1993:
Review the reporting items and establish standardized reporting formats for malfunction
or defect reports and service difficulty reports that include the capability for electronic
submission. Encourage all operations under 14 CFR Parts 21, 43, 91, 121, 125, 127, 135,
and 145 to use electronic reporting methods for submission of service difficulty
information. (A-93-61) 106
The NTSB also issued the following recommendation to the FAA to improve malfunction
and defect reporting for light aircraft and general aviation operations in particular:
Encourage all persons or organizations that operate under 14 CFR Parts 43 and 91 to
submit malfunction or defect reports and provide appropriate guidance to improve the
quality and content of the general aviation service difficulty data base. (A-93-62) 107
In response, the FAA published AC 20-109A, providing guidance for use of the SDR
system by the general aviation community, but the reporting of malfunctions or defects is
voluntary and not required for general aviation. A search of the FAAs SDR system found no
records associated with any of the display failures or the installation damage event involving
N889JB.
The FAAs Part 23 CPS report included a finding highlighting under-use of the SDR
system by general aviation maintenance personnel as a continuing problem. 108 The report
103
FAA Advisory Circular 20-109A.

Title 14 CFR 121.703 and 135.415, respectively.
105
Part 125 applies to aircraft with a seating capacity of 20 or more passengers or maximum payload capacity of
6,000 pounds or more when common carriage is not involved.
106
Closed in 2006, Unacceptable Action.
107
Closed in 1994, Acceptable Action.
108
Finding 4.4 of the FAA CPS Report.
104
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included five recommendations to improve SDR reporting for 14 CFR Part 23 aircraft, covering
issues such as improving maintenance personnel training requirements, communication with the
aviation community about the SDR system, and the usability and functionality of the SDR
database.
In addition to collecting voluntary failure, malfunction, or defect reports from operators,
owners, and maintenance personnel, the FAA requires manufacturers to report certain types of
equipment failures. In accordance with 14 CFR 21.3, holders of FAA type certificates,
supplemental type certificates, parts manufacturer approvals, or technical standard order (TSO)
authorizations are required to report to the FAA any failure, malfunction, or defect in any
product, part, process, or article manufactured that may result in failure or malfunction of more
than one attitude, airspeed, or altitude instrument during a given operation of the aircraft. In a
typical scenario, a pilot experiencing an equipment malfunction or failure would report the
problem to a maintenance facility for repair. The manufacturer would then be notified of the
problem through a warranty claim or an order for repair or replacement of the affected
equipment. A manufacturer who determines that the problem involves a failure, malfunction, or
defect outlined in 14 CFR 21.3 must notify the FAA through the appropriate Directorate Aircraft
Certification Office. That report must include specific details of the aircraft and equipment
involved and the nature of the failure. FAA Order 8150.1B regarding the TSO program explains
that the Aircraft Certification Office will work with the manufacturer to determine the need for
corrective action.
The failure, malfunction, and defect reporting requirements for manufacturers under
14 CFR 21.3 are limited to a specific set of circumstances, and problems similar to those
experienced by N889JB prior to the January 15, 2005, accident would likely not result in a
manufacturers report to the FAA. An additional requirement under 14 CFR 21.3(e) states the
following:
Whenever the investigation of an accident or service difficulty report shows that an
article manufactured under a TSO authorization is unsafe because of a manufacturing or
design defect, the manufacturer shall, upon request of the Administrator, report to the
Administrator the results of its investigation and any action taken or proposed by the
manufacturer to correct that defect. If action is required to correct the defect in existing
articles, the manufacturer shall submit the data necessary for the issuance of an
appropriate airworthiness directive to the Manager of the Aircraft Certification Office for
the geographic area of the FAA regional office in the region in which it is located.
In summary, NTSB accident investigations have identified cases in which system

malfunctions and service difficulties with glass cockpit equipment were not captured in a
systematic way prior to an accident. FAA requires equipment manufacturers to report specific
failures and malfunctions and allows for voluntary reports to its SDR system of malfunctions and
defects affecting light aircraft. However, the reported underutilization of the SDR system for
reporting of problems associated with light aircraft leaves accident and incident investigation as the
only publicly accessible means of identifying many types of equipment malfunctions and defects.
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Chapter 6: Data Recording in Glass Cockpit

Avionics
One of the biggest changes associated with the introduction of glass cockpit displays in
light aircraft is the capability for onboard recording of flight parameters and system information.
The software-based systems that drive glass cockpit displays and their internal memory provide
recording capabilities previously available only to large aircraft with dedicated flight data
recorders.
On August 21, 2006, about 1341 eastern daylight time, a Cirrus SR22-GTS, N518SR,
experienced an in-flight loss of aircraft control during cruise flight near McRae, Georgia. The
personal flight was operated under the provisions of 14 CFR Part 91 under visual flight rules
(VFR). Neither the private pilot nor the two passengers were injured, but the airplane was
substantially damaged by aerodynamic forces.
The pilot stated that the aircraft encountered clear air turbulence bounced once, and
then after losing altitude, hit a very hard bounce of severe turbulence. After stabilizing the
airplane, the pilot noticed thin lines of paint missing from the top of the right wing. The pilot
slowed the plane and landed at the nearest airport with no issues. The pilot contacted the
manufacturer regarding the occurrence, and after examining the airplane, the manufacturer
contacted the NTSB to report that the aircraft had sustained substantial damage.
This case initially generated interest because it involved a relatively new and popular
airframe. Structural damage to the extent sustained by the accident aircraft would not be
expected to result from a transient turbulence encounter. Had this event involved an aircraft
equipped with a conventional cockpit, the investigation would have had to rely on analysis of the
airframe structure and materials to estimate the forces encountered. However, the glass cockpit
avionics in this aircraft provided additional information critical to understanding the event.
The Avidyne PFD installed in the accident aircraft contains flash memory that stores
information processed by the unit to generate the various flight data displays. The PFD software
includes a data logging function used by the manufacturer for maintenance and diagnostics.
Working with the manufacturer, NTSB investigators were able to retrieve data recorded in the
PFD from the AHRS, such as pitch, roll, heading, and accelerations, and by the air data
computer, such as pressure altitude, indicated airspeed, and vertical speed recorded during the
accident flight. The information recorded by the flight displays provided an entirely different
description of the accident event than that described in the pilots initial report.
Recorded data indicated that the airplane actually climbed to 15,400 feet above mean sea
level, nearly 17,500 feet density altitude, which was the maximum operating altitude for the
airplane. The airplane then slowed, stalled, and began a rapid descent, losing 13,000 feet of
altitude in about 40 seconds before recovering. During the dive, the aircraft experienced several
positive and negative pitch excursions (+50 to -80 degrees), rolled to the right about its
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longitudinal axis through two complete 360-degree revolutions, and started a third roll before
recovering to straight-and-level flight. The airspeed increased from a low of 72 knots at the start
of the dive to a maximum of about 336 knots indicated135 knots (about 67 percent) above its
published maximum limit. 109 During recovery, the airplane sustained a positive loading of at
least 4.733 vertical Gs, 110 with an average of more than 4 Gs vertical loading for more than 20
seconds. 111
During interviews with the NTSB investigator-in-charge of this accident, the pilot stated
that he did not use oxygen during the flight. The NTSBs medical officer reviewed the
circumstances of this event and determined that the sustained G-loading experienced by the pilot
would likely have resulted in G-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC) or near-loss of
consciousness. The NTSBs medical officer determined further that the pilots apparent failure to
accurately recall the events of the flight most likely resulted from the confusion associated with
hypoxia and the subsequent confusion and amnesia associated with G-LOC or near G-LOC.
Data recovered from PFDs and MFDs have significantly changed the understanding of
other accident events. An example is the April 9, 2007, Cirrus accident near Luna, New Mexico,
described in chapter 5 of this report. The pilot initially reported that the accident resulted from a
PFD failure. Only after review of data recovered from the aircraft PFD and MFD was the
mismatch between equipment function and pilot expectation understood.
Another example involved a Piper aircraft model PA-44-180 operated by the University
of North Dakota on a VFR night cross-country flight. 112 On October 23, 2007, about 2212
central daylight time, the twin-engine PA-44-180, N327ND, was substantially damaged during
an in-flight collision with terrain near Browerville, Minnesota. The accident pilot and flight
instructor were fatally injured. With no additional information, this accident could well have
been assumed to have been the result of crew disorientation or loss of control at night. However,
data recovered from the aircraft PFD indicated that during cruise flight, the aircraft experienced
an abrupt departure from controlled flight in both roll and pitch. Subsequent microscopic
examination and DNA testing by forensic ornithologists identified material recovered from the
wing skin section as remains of a Canada goose. As a result, investigators determined that a bird
strike resulted in damage to the aircrafts left stabilator, causing the airplane to become
uncontrollable. Based on the findings of this investigation, the University of North Dakota
provided additional training to its pilots and instructors regarding bird strike hazards and
recommended procedures for reducing the probability of bird strikes during night cross-country
flights.
109
The aircraft pilot operating handbook specifies a maximum never exceed speed (Vne) of 201 knots indicated
airspeed.
110
The PFD unit is limited to recording a vertical G-loading of 4.733 Gs even though the actual Gs loading may
have been higher.
111
For a detailed description of the recorded data, refer to Specialists Factual Report of Recorded Cockpit
Display Data for NTSB case ATL06LA134 in the NTSB Docket Management System.
112
NTSB investigation number CHI08FA027: this accident is included here as an example of glass cockpit data
recording, but it was not included in the statistical study analyses because it involved a twin-engine aircraft.
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Prior to the advent of PFDs and the availability of recorded information, techniques used
to collect information from flight instruments during general aviation accident investigations
were often limited to analysis of witness marks from needles striking instrument faceplates and
inspection of internal instrument components. Investigators were similarly limited to the analysis
of physical evidence of ground scars, witness marks on flight instruments, postaccident engine
tests, and aircraft wreckage when determining details of an aircraft accident or assessing aircraft
performance prior to an accident. In contrast, software-driven systems typically leave no physical
evidence of their performance but do allow for the recording of digital flight information that
was previously limited to dedicated flight data recorders in large aircraft, enabling investigators
to review aircraft and engine performance data from the flight.
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Chapter 7: Discussion
This study set out to assess the safety effect of advanced avionics capabilities on general
aviation accident rates. To that end, the study compared the operational and accident history of
two selected aircraft cohorts, one with conventional flight displays and the other with glass
cockpit primary displays. Study analyses identified several differences in the activity and
accident records of these two groups of aircraft.
Accident Involvement and Accident Rates

Study analyses showed that glass cockpit-equipped aircraft experienced proportionately
fewer total accidents than a comparable group of aircraft with conventional round-dial
instruments. The 2007 AOPA report, Technically Advanced Aircraft: Safety and Training,
included similar findingsthat is, that fewer glass cockpit aircraft were involved in accidents
than would be expected, given the percentage of the aircraft fleet they represent. However, unlike
the NTSB analyses, which showed that glass cockpit aircraft had a proportionately higher
number of fatal accidents than their numbers would indicate, the AOPA study found that glass
cockpit aircraft experienced a proportionately lower number of fatal accidents. Differences in the
results are due in part to differences in the methodologies of the two studies: while the AOPA
study made comparisons throughout general aviation as a whole, the NTSB study limited its
comparisons to a defined group of glass cockpit aircraft and a cohort of the same makes/models
of aircraft with conventional instruments to reduce the potential for confounds associated with
comparing aircraft of different age and capability. The NTSB study also used survey data to
make additional comparisons between aircraft using activity-based accident rates that reflect
accident risk.
The fact that the rate of total accidents observed for conventionally equipped aircraft was
higher than that of the glass cockpit aircraft would suggest a safety benefit resulting from the
new technologyif it were not for the glass cockpit cohorts significantly higher percentage of
fatal accidents during the years 2002 through 2008 and the higher fatal accident rate observed for
the cohort in 2006 and 2007. Activity and usage data from the FAAs GAATAA Survey
confirmed that differences in the activity of the two cohort groups were likely to influence the
type and severity of accidents involving the aircraft in each group.
When considered as a whole, the results describe two distinct aircraft operational profiles.
Aircraft with conventional cockpit displays were more likely to be used for flight instruction.
Accordingly, these aircraft were also found to have flown more hours per aircraft 113 although
they were used for shorter flights 114 and flew less time in instrument conditions. 115 As a result,
aircraft in the conventional group were involved in more accidents during takeoffs and landings,
113
Based on 2006 and 2007 GAATAA Survey data.

Based on statistical comparisons of accident flights.
115
Based on 2006 and 2007 GAATAA Survey data and statistical comparisons of accident flights.
114
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which often resulted in less severe outcomes, most likely due to the relatively low speeds during
those phases and the resulting low impact forces.
Conversely, the operational profile of glass cockpit-equipped aircraft was found to
involve fewer flight hours per year but longer trips. Consequently, the glass cockpit-equipped
aircraft reportedly spent more time than conventional aircraft operating on instrument flight
plans. The accident record is consistent with the way the aircraft were reportedly used. Glass
cockpit aircraft experienced more accidents while on long trips and in IMC but also reported
spending more time operating in instrument conditions.
Previous NTSB research has identified a higher risk of aircraft on longer flights being
involved in weather-related accidents and has noted that accidents occurring in IMC are more
likely to be fatal due to the event profiles and impact forces typically associated with such
accidents. 116 The higher number of hours flown during long trips or in IMC results in increased
exposure to the risks associated with those circumstances, but a comparison of activity-based
accident rates would be expected to reveal similar rates for both cockpit configurations if the
underlying accident risk were similar. The glass cockpit cohort instead experienced higher fatal
accident rates and higher accident rates in IMC than the conventional aircraftdespite the fact
that the pilots had higher levels of certification, were more likely to be instrument rated, had
more total flight experience, and had more experience in the aircraft type.
Although the study analyses provided clear evidence of a difference in operational
profiles, they did not reveal whether aircraft owners chose to purchase glass cockpit-equipped
aircraft because they wanted the increased capabilities to support the type of flight operations
they engaged in, or if the increased capabilities of their new aircraft encouraged them to conduct
longer flights and/or fly in more adverse conditions. Pilot motivation and perception of the
capabilities of their aircraft influence the risks they are willing to accept. Additional research is
warranted to better understand how pilots of light aircraft perceive glass cockpit displays and
how those perceptions influence safety. However, based on the pattern of study results, the
NTSB concludes that study analyses of aircraft accident and activity data showed a decrease in
total accident rates but an increase in fatal accident rates for the selected group of glass cockpit
aircraft when compared to similar conventionally equipped aircraft during the study period.
Overall, study analyses did not show a significant improvement in safety for the glass cockpit
study group.
Safety Issues
Training Resources and Requirements
The study included reviews of training resources, requirements, and initiatives indicative
of the FAAs efforts to address the needs of pilots transitioning to glass cockpit aircraft. Despite
116
Risk Factors Associated with Weather-Related General Aviation Accidents, Aviation Safety Study
NTSB/SS-05/01 (Washington, DC: National Transportation Safety Board, 2005.)
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these efforts on the part of the FAA, the NTSB did identify several safety issues and areas for
improvement during the course of the study.
A review of training resources and requirements showed that the FAA has been updating
its training materials and PTS in response to the introduction of glass cockpit displays in Part 23
aircraft. However, FAA airman knowledge tests, such as those required for the Private Pilot
Certificate, Commercial Pilot Certificate, and Instrument Rating, do not currently assess pilots
knowledge of glass cockpit displays. The NTSB concludes that pilots must be able to
demonstrate a minimum knowledge of primary aircraft flight instruments and displays in order to
be prepared to safely operate aircraft equipped with those systems, which is necessary for all
aircraft but is not currently addressed by FAA knowledge tests for glass cockpit displays.
Therefore, the NTSB recommends that the FAA revise airman knowledge tests to include
questions regarding electronic flight and navigation displays, including normal operations,
limitations, and the interpretation of malfunctions and aircraft attitudes.
A review of the FAAs training initiatives showed that the FAA worked with
representatives from the general aviation industry and academia to develop its FITS initiative in
response to a recognized need for improved training for advanced aircraft systems. Initial
planning documents show that the FITS initiative intended to combine teaching techniques, such
as scenario-based training, with requirements for equipment-specific training. The FAA is now
incorporating scenario-based training and pilot decision-making tools, but to date it has not
implemented the equipment-specific training requirements suggested in the original FITS
program documents. Rather, the FAA has recognized several factory and national training
provider programs as being FITS accepted. This study relied on a retrospective review of
accident records that did not allow for detailed comparisons of the training history of all accident
pilots, but a review of manufacturer training programs suggests that they primarily benefit the
first owner (purchaser) of a new aircraft or pilots who seek out such training. In some cases,
insurance companies may require pilots to receive equipment-specific transition and/or recurrent
training, but those requirements are neither uniformly nor universally applied. Further, some
aircraft owners may avoid insurance requirements by choosing to self-insure their aircraft. The
lack of FAA training requirements and the variability of nonregulatory training requirements and
programs suggest that additional equipment-specific training requirements are necessary to
ensure that all pilots of glass cockpit-equipped aircraft possess the knowledge and skill necessary
to operate their aircraft safely.
Providing Pilots with Information about Display Operation and Limitations
The study considered several accident case studies that highlighted the complexity and
unique functionality of glass cockpit displays in comparison to conventional instruments, as well
as potential safety-critical issues associated with the design and operation of software-based
systems. The case studies illustrate the importance of pilots receiving sufficient information
about system operations and limitations so that they are prepared to identify and safely respond
to system malfunctions and failures.
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The functions of conventional instruments can be replicated in many ways using solidstate systems, and manufacturers have developed unique designs of pressure transducers,
specially mounted gyros, accelerometers, and magnetometers controlled by proprietary software.
The wide variety of complex glass cockpit equipment designs, and their proprietary technology,
demands that any discussion of these displays be system-specific. Consequently, as electronic
systems replace analog gauges, the expectation that average general aviation pilots will
understand the inner workings of their cockpit instruments is no longer realistic. This problem is
compounded by the fact that, unlike analog gauges, the functionality and capability of electronic
display systems can continue to evolve after they are installed because of subsequent software
revisions. The resulting increase in system complexity burdens pilots with the need to keep up
with changes so that they can understand their avionics systems well enough to identify and
troubleshoot any abnormal system operations or malfunctions that they might encounter in flight.
An additional difficulty is that, in comparison to the detailed information included in FAA
training handbooks about conventional flight instruments, the information about glass cockpits is
currently limited to very general descriptions of system components and displays.
In addition, as the pilot of the Luna, New Mexico, accident aircraft found, glass cockpit
displays may function differently than conventional displays under certain conditions. In that
case, a blocked pitot tube intake that would have affected only the airspeed indicator of a
conventional cockpit display resulted in loss of airspeed, altitude, and rate-of-climb information
in a glass cockpit display. The information provided to the pilot indicated only that the air data
computer had failed, with no indication of why it had failed or whether the situation could be
safely corrected in flight. The NTSB concludes that pilots are not always provided all of the
information necessary to adequately understand the unique operational and functional details of
the primary flight displays in their airplanes. Therefore, the NTSB recommends that the FAA
require all manufacturers of certified electronic PFDs to include information in their approved
AFM and pilots operating handbook supplements regarding abnormal equipment operation or
malfunction due to subsystem and input malfunctions, including but not limited to pitot and/or
static system blockages, magnetic sensor malfunctions, and attitude-heading reference system
alignment failures.
Equipment-Specific Training Requirements
Integrated electronic displays have the potential to increase the safety of general aviation
aircraft operations by providing pilots with more operational and safety-related information and
functionality. For that potential to be realized, however, the burden of responsibility falls on
pilots to operate the equipment safely and efficiently. Any deficiencies or inefficiencies in
equipment functionality and interface design must be addressed through superior pilot training
and skill.
As aircraft equipment becomes more complex, the demands placed on pilots to manage
and monitor equipment operation will continue to increase. FAA Part 23 - Certification Process
Study Report 117 findings and comments included in pertinent draft FAA ACs suggest that the
117
FAA, July 2009.
67
NTSB
human-equipment interaction issues previously identified for Part 25 transport-category aircraft

will become increasingly critical for Part 23 aircraft. In contrast to the generalized training
traditionally required to operate the relatively simple systems in Part 23 aircraft, the complexity
and variation of Part 25 aircraft systems have been addressed by requiring pilots to hold a type
rating to act as pilot-in-command. 118 However, now that light aircraft are incorporating
integrated glass cockpit avionics that rival in complexity those in Part 25 aircraft, generalized
systems training may not be sufficient for pilots of these aircraft. Different system architectures
require different operating techniques, and responses to failure and knowledge of one type of
glass cockpit display are not likely to transfer to other systems. The NTSB concludes that
generalized guidance and training are no longer sufficient to prepare pilots to safely operate glass
cockpit avionics; effective pilot instruction and evaluation must be tailored to specific
equipment. Therefore, the NTSB recommends that the FAA incorporate training elements
regarding electronic PFDs into its training materials and aeronautical knowledge requirements
for all pilots. The NTSB also recommends that the FAA incorporate training elements regarding
electronic primary flight displays into its initial and recurrent flight proficiency requirements for
pilots of 14 CFR Part 23 certified aircraft equipped with those systems that address variations in
equipment design and operation of such displays.
Equipment Malfunction Training
Although PFD screen failure is easy to simulate in a training environment, the accident
case studies cited in this safety study suggest that screen failure may not be the most likely type
of glass cockpit failure or abnormal operation that a pilot will encounter. That is, training pilots
to fly by backup instruments when faced with a blank primary display may not adequately
prepare them to respond to a partial failure in which they are likely to see a compelling display
that is presenting erroneous or incomplete data. To be adequately prepared to respond to flight
instrument system malfunctions and failures, pilots should be trained to identify and respond to
all anticipated failure modes. However, in many cases, it is neither appropriate nor practical to
train for all anticipated types of glass cockpit avionics failures and malfunctions in the aircraft.
The NTSB concludes that simulators or procedural trainers are the most practical alternative
means of training pilots to identify and respond to glass cockpit avionics failures and
malfunctions that cannot be easily or safely replicated in light aircraft. Pilots who do not have
ready access to approved flight simulators or training devices could benefit from
equipment-specific training using software applications or procedural trainers that replicate glass
cockpit displays. Therefore, the NTSB recommends that the FAA develop and publish guidance
for the use of equipment-specific electronic avionics display simulators and procedural trainers
that do not meet the definition of flight simulation training devices prescribed in 14 CFR Part 60
to support equipment-specific pilot training requirements.
118
Title 14 CFR 61.31.
68
NTSB
Tracking Service Difficulties and Equipment Malfunctions

NTSB investigations have revealed multiple instances of glass cockpit avionics
malfunctions that were not required to be reported to the FAA and that did not result in an SDR
system report. Findings of the FAA Part 23 - Small Airplane Certification Process Study suggest
a general difficulty with tracking Part 23 equipment performance due to SDR system
underreporting for light aircraft. The NTSB concludes that identification and tracking of service
difficulties, equipment malfunctions or failures, abnormal operations, and other safety issues will
be increasingly important as light aircraft avionics systems and equipment continue to increase in
complexity and variation of design, and current reporting to the FAAs SDR system does not
adequately capture this information for 14 CFR Part 23 certified aircraft used in general aviation
operations. The NTSB also concludes that the FAAs current review of the 14 CFR Part 23
certification process provides an opportunity to improve upon deficiencies in the reporting of
equipment malfunctions and defects identified by the FAA and aviation industry representatives
in the July 2009 Part 23 - Small Airplane Certification Process Study.
However, the review of 14 CFR Part 23 and resulting regulatory actions will likely
require considerable time. Therefore, to improve the voluntary submissions to the FAA SDR
system in the interim, the NTSB recommends that the FAA inform aircraft and avionics
maintenance technicians about the critical role of voluntary SDR system reports involving
malfunctions or defects associated with electronic primary flight, navigation, and control systems
in 14 CFR Part 23 certified aircraft used in general aviation operations.
Despite the identified problems associated with tracking the function and reliability of
glass cockpit displays in Part 23 aircraft, the technology has provided a new potential source of
safety information. The NTSB concludes that some glass cockpit displays include recording
capabilities that have significantly benefited accident investigations and provide the general
aviation community with the ability to improve equipment reliability and the safety and
efficiency of aircraft operations through data analyses.
69
NTSB
Summary
This study used manufacturer records, aircraft investigation information, and a tailored
subset of general aviation activity survey data to assess how the transition to electronic PFD
avionics has affected the safety of light aircraft. The study also evaluated the resources and
requirements supporting the transition to this new technology. The results of this study suggest
that, for the aircraft and time period studied, the introduction of glass cockpit PFDs has not yet
resulted in the anticipated improvement in safety when compared to similar aircraft with
conventional instruments. Advanced avionics and electronic displays can increase the safety
potential of general aviation aircraft operations by providing pilots with more operational and
safety-related information and functionality, but more effort is needed to ensure that pilots are
prepared to realize that potential. The FAA, manufacturers, aviation industry groups, and
academia have an established history of collaboration through the FITS program initiative for
supporting aircraft model-specific and scenario-based training techniques that would teach pilots
higher-order thinking skills. However, the FAA has changed the focus of the FITS initiative
and has to date relied on manufacturers and commercial vendors to deliver the
equipment-specific training originally envisioned for FITS. Adoption of uniform
equipment-specific training elements by the FAA to ensure pilots have adequate knowledge of
aircraft equipment operation and malfunctions, as well as improved reporting of equipment
malfunctions and service difficulties, is likely to improve the safety of general aviation
operations beyond those involving aircraft with glass cockpit displays. However, such actions are
particularly important in order to achieve the potential safety benefits associated with advanced
cockpit technologies in light aircraft.
70
NTSB
Conclusions
Findings
1. Study analyses of aircraft accident and activity data showed a decrease in total accident rates
but an increase in fatal accident rates for the selected group of glass cockpit aircraft when
compared to similar conventionally equipped aircraft during the study period. Overall, study
analyses did not show a significant improvement in safety for the glass cockpit study group.
2. Pilots must be able to demonstrate a minimum knowledge of primary aircraft flight
instruments and displays in order to be prepared to safely operate aircraft equipped with
those systems, which is necessary for all aircraft but is not currently addressed by Federal
Aviation Administration knowledge tests for glass cockpit displays.
3. Pilots are not always provided all of the information necessary to adequately understand the
unique operational and functional details of the primary flight instruments in their airplanes.
4. Generalized guidance and training are no longer sufficient to prepare pilots to safely operate
glass cockpit avionics; effective pilot instruction and evaluation must be tailored to specific
equipment.
5. Simulators or procedural trainers are the most practical alternative means of training pilots to
identify and respond to glass cockpit avionics failures and malfunctions that cannot be easily
or safely replicated in light aircraft.
6. Identification and tracking of service difficulties, equipment malfunctions or failures,
abnormal operations, and other safety issues will be increasingly important as light aircraft
avionics systems and equipment continue to increase in complexity and variation of design,
and current reporting to the Federal Aviation Administrations service difficulty reporting
system does not adequately capture this information for 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part
23 certified aircraft used in general aviation operations.
7. The Federal Aviation Administrations current review of the 14 Code of Federal Regulations
Part 23 certification process provides an opportunity to improve upon deficiencies in the
reporting of equipment malfunctions and defects identified by the Federal Aviation
Administration and aviation industry representatives in the July 2009 Part 23 - Small
Airplane Certification Process Study.
8. Some glass cockpit displays include recording capabilities that have significantly benefited
accident investigations and provide the general aviation community with the ability to
improve equipment reliability and the safety and efficiency of aircraft operations through
data analyses.
71
NTSB
Recommendations
As a result of this safety study, the National Transportation Safety Board makes the
following recommendations to the Federal Aviation Administration:
Revise airman knowledge tests to include questions regarding electronic flight
and navigation displays, including normal operations, limitations, and the
interpretation of malfunctions and aircraft attitudes. (A-10-36)
Require all manufacturers of certified electronic primary flight displays to include
information in their approved aircraft flight manual and pilots operating
handbook supplements regarding abnormal equipment operation or malfunction
due to subsystem and input malfunctions, including but not limited to pitot and/or
static system blockages, magnetic sensor malfunctions, and attitude-heading
reference system alignment failures. (A-10-37)
Incorporate training elements regarding electronic primary flight displays into
your training materials and aeronautical knowledge requirements for all pilots.
(A-10-38)
Incorporate training elements regarding electronic primary flight displays into
your initial and recurrent flight proficiency requirements for pilots of 14 Code of
Regulations Part 23 certified aircraft equipped with those systems that address
variations in equipment design and operation of such displays. (A-10-39)
Develop and publish guidance for the use of equipment-specific electronic
avionics display simulators and procedural trainers that do not meet the definition
of flight simulation training devices prescribed in 14 Code of Federal Regulations
Part 60 to support equipment-specific pilot training requirements. (A-10-40)
Inform aircraft and avionics maintenance technicians about the critical role of
voluntary service difficulty reporting system reports involving malfunctions or
defects associated with electronic primary flight, navigation, and control systems
in 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part 23 certified aircraft used in general
aviation operations. (A-10-41)
72
NTSB
BY THE NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD

DEBORAH A.P. HERSMAN
Chairman
ROBERT L. SUMWALT
Member
CHRISTOPHER A. HART
Vice Chairman
Adopted: March 9, 2010
73
NTSB
Appendix: Study Accidents

ntsb_no
ev_date
Registration
Make
Model
Glass
Severity
ANC06CA036
24-Mar-06
N514ER
Cessna Aircraft Company
ANC06CA114
12-Aug-06
N2469U
172
Conventional
NonFatal
172
Glass cockpit
ATL03LA022
3-Dec-02
N289HG
Piper Aircraft, Inc.
PA-28-161
Conventional
NonFatal
NonFatal
ATL03LA034
11-Jan-03
N5199H
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL04FA096
19-Apr-04
N8157J
SR20
Glass cockpit
Fatal
ATL04LA060
27-Dec-03
N742CD
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL04LA140
24-Jun-04
N2116P
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL04LA143
20-Jul-04
N2069S
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL04WA042
12-Oct-03
N100BR
SR22
Conventional
Fatal
ATL05CA153
24-Aug-05
N21670
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL05CA160
10-Sep-05
N1251C
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ATL05FA034
9-Dec-04
N42SE
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Conventional
Fatal
ATL05LA105
20-Jun-05
N53538
182
Conventional
Fatal
ATL05LA156
31-Aug-05
N5213M
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL06CA068
16-Apr-06
N21527
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL06CA089
6-Jun-06
N1046P
Mooney
M20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ATL06CA117
3-Aug-06
N124CK
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL06FA029
29-Dec-05
N799TM
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
ATL06LA035
13-Jan-06
N87HK
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL06LA058
31-Mar-06
N2157V
182
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL06LA134
21-Aug-06
N518SR
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ATL07CA035
28-Jan-07
N221GW
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL07CA047
5-Mar-07
N2145T
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL07CA049
11-Mar-07
N313L
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ATL07CA093
15-Jun-07
N2228L
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ATL07CA105
15-Jul-07
N13151
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ATL07FA010
22-Oct-06
N2135L
182
Glass cockpit
Fatal
ATL07LA041
9-Feb-07
N315P
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Conventional
NonFatal
ATL07LA115
17-Aug-07
N869CD
SR20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CEN09CA002
3-Oct-08
N5172J
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CEN09CA020
11-Oct-08
N764C
PA-28-181
Conventional
NonFatal
CEN09CA049
3-Nov-08
N558SR
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CEN09FA083
6-Dec-08
N6053B
206
Glass cockpit
Fatal
CEN09WA033
22-Oct-08
N467BD
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
CHI02FA231
4-Aug-02
N316PM
PA-46-350
Conventional
Fatal
CHI02LA258
17-Aug-02
N336CB
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI03FA057
18-Jan-03
N9523P
SR22
Conventional
Fatal
CHI03FA284A
22-Aug-03
N53033
172
Conventional
Fatal
CHI03LA061
31-Jan-03
N670CS
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI04CA251
9-Sep-04
N379BF
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI04FA257
12-Sep-04
N843MC
182
Conventional
Fatal
CHI05CA007
16-Oct-04
N555MN
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI05CA027
31-Oct-04
N814FA
182
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI05CA035
21-Nov-04
N967SA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI05CA085
2-Apr-05
N8150F
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
74
NTSB
ntsb_no
ev_date
Registration
Make
Model
Glass
Severity
CHI05FA042
9-Dec-04
N587C
PA-32-301
Conventional
Fatal
CHI05LA223
10-Aug-05
N795WW
SR20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI05LA227
11-Aug-05
N632FA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI06CA122
28-Apr-06
N1129P
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI06CA133
20-May-06
N814SN
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI06CA135
23-May-06
N409TA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI06CA183
8-Jul-06
N335SP
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI06CA189
13-Jul-06
N918TA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI06CA197
22-Jul-06
N52728
206
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI06CA267
15-Sep-06
N6500V
350
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI06CA276
6-Sep-06
N2430A
206
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI06FA043
11-Dec-05
N621PH
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
CHI06FA186
11-Jul-06
N8163Q
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
CHI06FA218
5-Aug-06
N658CD
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI06FA245
28-Aug-06
N91MB
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
CHI07CA308
29-Sep-07
N2327J
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI07LA164
7-May-07
N51827
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI08CA002
3-Oct-07
N437ND
PA-28-161
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI08CA029
29-Oct-07
N77LU
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI08CA091
17-Mar-08
N53417
172
Conventional
NonFatal
CHI08CA138
21-May-08
N1387C
400
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
CHI08CA263
25-Aug-08
N1281
SR20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DCA07MA003
11-Oct-06
N929CD
SR20
Conventional
Fatal
DCA07WA024
2-Feb-07
N901SR
SR20
Glass cockpit
Fatal
DEN03LA017
20-Nov-02
N850FS
PA-28-201
Conventional
NonFatal
DEN04CA137
29-Aug-04
N2099J
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DEN04FA087
7-Jun-04
N6162E
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Conventional
Fatal
DEN04LA053A
26-Mar-04
N5345G
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DEN05LA022
29-Oct-04
N203RF
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN06CA022
10-Dec-05
N1053X
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DEN06FA023
13-Dec-05
N1257Z
172
Conventional
Fatal
DEN06FA114
15-Aug-06
N8127J
SR20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN06FA131
15-Sep-06
N787SL
SR20
Glass cockpit
Fatal
DEN07CA128
26-Jul-07
N1049V
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN07CA154
13-Aug-07
N249FS
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN07LA082
9-Apr-07
N953CD
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN07LA119
11-Jul-07
N97PP
206
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN07LA137
14-Aug-07
N395MR
Mooney
M20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN07WA005
8-Oct-06
N147SR
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN08CA051
17-Jan-08
N819C
PA-32-301
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DEN08FA141
15-Aug-08
N487TC
182
Glass cockpit
Fatal
DEN08LA111
21-Jun-08
N5178Y
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DFW05CA077
21-Jan-05
N832TC
182
Conventional
NonFatal
DFW05CA253
29-Sep-05
N5343U
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DFW06CA098
9-Apr-06
N358TW
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DFW06LA038
9-Dec-05
N302BY
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DFW06LA101
7-Apr-06
N142SF
SR20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DFW07CA012
15-Oct-06
N1013Y
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
75
NTSB
ntsb_no
ev_date
Registration
Make
Model
Glass
Severity
DFW07CA210
28-Sep-07
N364GW
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DFW07FA019
5-Nov-06
N53443
172
Conventional
Fatal
DFW07LA021
31-Oct-06
N506C
PA-32-301
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DFW07LA207
25-Sep-07
N22237
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
DFW08CA021
26-Oct-07
N5181A
172
Conventional
NonFatal
DFW08FA060
2-Feb-08
N824BJ
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
DFW08FA111
22-Apr-08
N729SR
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
DFW08FA204
10-Aug-08
N214MT
182
Conventional
Fatal
ERA09CA007
7-Oct-08
N889LD
SR20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ERA09CA016
6-Oct-08
N22AS
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ERA09CA017
7-Oct-08
N771CP
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ERA09CA035
1-Nov-08
N2055R
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ERA09CA041
6-Nov-08
N1242C
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
ERA09CA110
27-Dec-08
N178AF
172
Conventional
NonFatal
ERA09FA053
13-Nov-08
N827GM
SR22
Conventional
Fatal
FTW02CA249
4-Sep-02
N9855S
PA-28-161
Conventional
NonFatal
FTW04CA163
16-Jun-04
N2101M
172
Conventional
NonFatal
FTW04LA072
7-Feb-04
N2124Z
172
Conventional
NonFatal
FTW04LA123A
9-May-04
N89SE
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Conventional
NonFatal
FTW04LA178
24-Jun-04
N810SA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
IAD03FA039
20-Mar-03
N1005P
Mooney
M20
Conventional
Fatal
IAD04CA009
5-Feb-04
N5165M
172
Conventional
NonFatal
IAD05CA014
19-Nov-04
N2120M
172
Conventional
NonFatal
IAD05CA056
16-Apr-05
N127X
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
IAD05CA131
5-Sep-05
N209SL
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
IAD05FA032
15-Jan-05
N889JB
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
IAD05LA043B
9-Mar-05
N3513F
172
Conventional
NonFatal
IAD05LA111
20-Jul-05
N1328N
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX02LA192
8-Jun-02
N480DW
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX03LA170
29-May-03
N5329L
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX03LA186
8-Jun-03
N519ER
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX03LA228
7-Jul-03
N288PA
PA-28-181
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX03LA231
12-Jul-03
N5327G
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX03LA273
31-Aug-03
N280KT
PA-46-350
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX04CA130
14-Feb-04
N262TA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX04CA288
8-Aug-04
N5327G
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX04LA060
6-Dec-03
N396TA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX04LA211
14-May-04
N5341G
182
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX04LA324
19-Sep-04
N931CD
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX05CA028
5-Nov-04
N20519
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX05CA299
4-Sep-05
N53056
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX05FA032
10-Nov-04
N803ZG
PA-32-301
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX05FA088
6-Feb-05
N286CD
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX05LA073
18-Jan-05
N2157H
172
Conventional
Fatal
LAX05LA109
7-Mar-05
N517SW
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX05LA118
22-Mar-05
N562AB
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX05LA210
18-Jun-05
N626Z
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX06CA039
30-Oct-05
N51732
182
Conventional
NonFatal
76
NTSB
ntsb_no
ev_date
Registration
Make
Model
Glass
Severity
LAX06CA128
9-Mar-06
N8141L
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX06CA173
28-Apr-06
N1488C
SR20
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX06CA218
27-Jun-06
N562H
206
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX06FA014
17-Oct-05
N285JB
400
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX06FA087
9-Jan-06
N526CD
SR20
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX06FA186
27-May-06
N451JE
182
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX06FA243
23-Jul-06
N241JL
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX07CA092
14-Feb-07
N289SP
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX07CA101
3-Mar-07
N526ER
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX07CA139
28-Apr-07
N1273E
206
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX07CA171
7-May-07
N533ER
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX07CA185
2-Jun-07
N65755
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX07CA193
24-Jun-07
N567DD
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX07CA199
1-Jul-07
N214GZ
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX07CA202
3-Jul-07
N619TH
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX07CA213
9-Jul-07
N747PZ
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX07FA021
25-Oct-06
N121LD
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX07FA062
18-Dec-06
N457S
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX07FA160
11-May-07
N512DS
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX08CA084
22-Mar-08
N3105Q
PA-32-301
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX08CA102
13-Apr-08
N21705
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX08CA124
7-Apr-08
N65630
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX08CA158
28-May-08
N2252Z
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX08CA189
24-Jun-08
N877CM
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX08FA023
28-Oct-07
N21101
172
Conventional
Fatal
LAX08FA261
7-Aug-08
N15963
172
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX08FA265B
10-Aug-08
N8341
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX08LA179
12-Jun-08
N233GW
172
Conventional
NonFatal
LAX08LA191
22-Jun-08
N2436F
172
Glass cockpit
Fatal
LAX08LA217
6-Jul-08
N2544W
400
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
LAX08LA283
30-Jul-08
N5329L
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA03CA125
18-Jun-03
N53352
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA03LA096
12-Apr-03
N52903
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA03LA144B
18-Jul-03
N431ER
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA04CA028
21-Nov-03
N378FA
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA04CA077
17-Apr-04
N5280D
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA04CA106
17-Jul-04
N315PA
PA-28-181
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA04CA109
12-Aug-04
N21063
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA04FA045
19-Jan-04
N298PA
PA-28-181
Conventional
Fatal
MIA05CA121
2-May-05
N66113
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA05CA156
13-Sep-05
N513JG
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA05FA140
30-Jul-05
N65982
172
Conventional
Fatal
MIA05LA042A
6-Dec-04
N294PA
PA-28-181
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA05LA043
17-Dec-04
N375LP
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA05LA083
28-Mar-05
N53589
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA05LA129
2-Jul-05
N53269
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA05LA143
4-Aug-05
N513CD
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA06CA021
18-Nov-05
N5182Z
172
Conventional
NonFatal
77
NTSB
ntsb_no
ev_date
Registration
Make
Model
Glass
Severity
MIA06CA072
26-Mar-06
N326XT
PA-32-301
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA06CA079
5-Apr-06
N4654M
Mooney
M20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA06FA050
4-Feb-06
N667WP
SR22
Conventional
Fatal
MIA06LA067
18-Mar-06
N777YM
SR20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA07CA008
21-Oct-06
N401ER
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA07CA019
19-Nov-06
N53095
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA07CA045
27-Jan-07
N20956
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA07CA101
24-May-07
N904MM
Mooney
M20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA07CA115
1-Jul-07
N321MD
Mooney
M20
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA08CA056
15-Feb-08
N618VT
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA08CA068
26-Jan-08
N65329
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA08CA073
6-Mar-08
N213LP
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA08CA092
20-Apr-08
N375LP
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA08CA112
5-Jun-08
N300PB
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA08CA124
20-Jun-08
N65357
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA08CA165
9-Aug-08
N1600U
172
Conventional
NonFatal
MIA08CA192
11-Sep-08
N710ND
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
MIA08FA081
20-Mar-08
N615WM
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
MIA08FA115
7-Jun-08
N206GG
206
Glass cockpit
Fatal
MIA08LA132
14-Jun-08
N166DS
350
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC02FA089
24-Apr-02
N837CD
SR22
Conventional
Fatal
NYC04CA085
10-Mar-04
N316MA
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC04CA094
25-Mar-04
N340PA
PA-28-181
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC04CA164
30-Jun-04
N421RW
172
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC04LA061
22-Jan-04
N344CD
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC04LA209
11-Sep-04
N579AL
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC05LA024
21-Nov-04
N5294W
172
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC05LA040
22-Dec-04
N714KL
PA-46-350
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC05LA110
30-Jun-05
N3452L
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC05LA131
7-Aug-05
N915DJ
SR20
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC06CA058
22-Jan-06
N285MG
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC06CA116
14-May-06
N642KM
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC06CA232
30-Sep-06
N61WT
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC06FA072
22-Feb-06
N400WX
400
Glass cockpit
Fatal
NYC06WA203
12-Aug-06
N357MV
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC07CA010
19-Oct-06
N246MT
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC07CA074
9-Mar-07
N323RW
Mooney
M20
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC07CA112
4-May-07
N462ER
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC07CA116
9-May-07
N924LP
172
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC07CA131
2-Jun-07
N2298W
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC07FA037
30-Nov-06
N665CD
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
NYC07FA083
24-Mar-07
N324ST
PA-32-301
Glass cockpit
Fatal
NYC07FA126
26-May-07
N2537A
350
Glass cockpit
Fatal
NYC07LA032
17-Nov-06
N1442E
400
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC07LA134
8-Jun-07
N729P
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC08CA179
10-May-08
N65433
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC08CA187
7-May-08
N513JG
172
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC08CA214
13-Jun-08
N65939
172
Conventional
NonFatal
78
NTSB
ntsb_no
ev_date
Registration
Make
Model
Glass
Severity
NYC08CA233
29-Jun-08
N357TG
182
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
NYC08CA282
10-Aug-08
N5210A
172
Conventional
NonFatal
NYC08FA041
21-Nov-07
N108GD
SR20
Conventional
Fatal
NYC08FA138
14-Mar-08
N141SR
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
NYC08LA004
5-Oct-07
N5205X
SR22
Conventional
NonFatal
SEA04LA040
10-Feb-04
N6503C
350
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
SEA05FA023
4-Dec-04
N1159C
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
SEA05FA038
20-Jan-05
N6057M
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
SEA05FA075
12-Apr-05
N448T
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Conventional
Fatal
SEA06CA187
22-Sep-06
N320CP
172
Conventional
NonFatal
SEA06TA118
30-May-06
N8210G
206
Conventional
NonFatal
SEA07CA003
5-Oct-06
N134GW
182
Conventional
NonFatal
SEA07CA064
24-Feb-07
N224MT
SR22
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
SEA07CA089
31-Mar-07
N65067
206
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
SEA07CA207
18-Jul-07
N907JW
172
Conventional
NonFatal
SEA07FA247
31-Aug-07
N2520P
400
Glass cockpit
Fatal
SEA07LA013
31-Oct-06
N2097G
172
Conventional
NonFatal
SEA08CA052
26-Dec-07
N13974
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
SEA08CA131
10-May-08
N196DC
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
SEA08CA205
19-Sep-08
N420FP
Diamond Aircraft
DA40
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
SEA08FA023
8-Nov-07
N881CP
182
Glass cockpit
Fatal
SEA08FA078
16-Feb-08
N621ER
400
Glass cockpit
Fatal
SEA08FA108
8-Apr-08
N868PC
SR22
Glass cockpit
Fatal
SEA08LA015A
30-Oct-07
N309PA
PA-28-181
Conventional
NonFatal
SEA08LA095
25-Mar-08
N432RM
PA-28-181
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
WPR09CA007
9-Oct-08
N206TT
206
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
WPR09CA066
21-Dec-08
N379P
PA-46-350
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
WPR09CA273
5-Oct-08
N6048Z
172
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
WPR09LA049
27-Nov-08
N936EW
Hawker Beechcraft
36
Glass cockpit
NonFatal
79

Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics Into Light Aircraft

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Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics Into Light Aircraft

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Introduction of Glass Cockpit Avionics

into Light Aircraft

490 LEnfant Plaza, S.W.

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Summary of Quantitative Analysis Results ...................................................................................37

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Air Data Attitude Heading Reference System

Airmanship Education Research Initiative

aircraft flight manual

Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiments

attitude and heading reference system

Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association

airline transport pilot

Civil Aeronautics Board

Code of Federal Regulations

certification process study

cathode ray tube

Federal Aviation Administration

FAA Industry Training Standards

General Aviation and Air Taxi Activity and Avionics Survey

General Aviation Manufacturers Association

Garmin Integrated Flight Display

G-induced loss of consciousness

global positioning system

instrument flight rules

instrument meteorological conditions

multifunction flight display

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

National Transportation Safety Board

Aviation Safety Study

primary flight display

Practical Test Standards

service difficulty report

special federal aviation regulation

technically (also, technologically) advanced aircraft

technical standard order

Transport Systems Research Vehicle

visual flight rules

visual meteorological conditions

Aviation Safety Study

Aviation Safety Study

The need for pilots to have sufficient equipment-specific knowledge and

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Figure 1. Example of a light aircraft conventional cockpit.

Figure 2. Example of a light aircraft glass cockpit.

NTSB accident investigators now encounter glass cockpit-equipped aircraft more

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History of Advanced Cockpit Avionics

Aviation Safety Study

Aviation Safety Study

Aviation Safety Study

General Aviation Research to Date

Aviation Safety Study

General Aviation Safety Record