Design of Automotive Engines, Kolchin-Demidov

A.
Kolchin
V. Demidov
DESIGN OF
AUTOMOTIYE
ENGINES
A. VI. K O J ~ ~ H H ,
B. II. ~ ~ M W O B
PACYET ABTOMOGHnbEZblX
M TPAKTOPRbIX
P[BI#rATEJIEH
AKolchin
R Demidw DESIGN OF
Translated from
the Russian
AUTOMOTIVE
by
P. ZABOLOTNYI ENGINES
First published 1984
Revised from the second 1980 Russian edition
The Greek Alphabet

A a Alpha IL Iota PP Rho
B $ Beta K x Kappa 2a Sigma
I'y Gamma A h Lambda TT Tau
A 6 Delta Mp Mu ru Upsilon
E E Epsilon N v Nu @ r ~ Phi
Z g Zeta 2E Xi XX Chi
H a Eta 0 a Omicron Y9 Psi
8 0 6 Theta IIn Pi 8w Omega
The Russian Alphabet and Transliteration

Aa a HK k X x kh
B6 b JIn 1 h ts
Bs v MM m g , ch
I'r €! HH n IIIm sh
An d 00 o nfrg shch
n
Ee e P '6
Ee e,yo PP r bI Y
X x zh Cc s b I
3a z TT t 3a e
kln i YY U IQ lo yu
mii f RR ya
f l a ~ a ~ e a a ct B
~ ~ oc r n amKoJIao,
~ 1980
@ English translation, Mir Publishers, 1984
CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s
Part One
WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Chapter 1. FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS ..........

1.1. General . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
1.2. Chemical ~ e a c t i o n sin &el' ~brnhus'tion .
1.3. Heat of Combustion of Fuel and Fuel-Air k i i t u r e . . . . . .
1.4. Heat Capacity of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES . . . * .

2.1. General .
2.2. Closed heo ore tical CyEles
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Open Theoretical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
Chapter 3 ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE . . . . . . * . . . .
3.1. Induction Process . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Compression Process
3.3. Combustion Process . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
3.4. Expansion Process . . . . . . .
3.5. Exhaust Process and k e t h d d s of ~ o l l i t i o nControl
3.6. Indicated Parameters of Working Cycle . . . .
3.7. Engine Performance Figures . . . . . . . .
3.8. Indicator Diagram . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE . . . .

4.1. General . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ..
4.2. Heat Analysis and Heat 3alaxke'of' a carburettor Eingine
4.3. Heat Analysis and Heat Balance of Diesel Engine . . . . . .
Chapter 5. SPEED CHARACTERISTICS ..............
. . . . . . . .
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
General
Plotting ~ i t e i n a i ~ p e k d'~haracte'ristic . . . ... ...
Plotting External Speed Characteristic of ~ a r k u i e t t o rEngine
.
..
5.4. Plotting External Speed Characteristic of Diesel Engine . . . . .
Part T ~ v o
KINEhfATICS AND DYNAhIICS
Chapter 6 . KISEhlATICS OF CRANK MECHANISM . . 127
6.1. General
6.2 Piston strike
. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 127
130
6.3. Piston Speed . . . 132
6.4. Piston ilcceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Chapter 7. DYKAMICS OF CRANK MECHANISM ......... 137

7.1. General .
5.2. Gas Pressure korces
. . . . . . . . . .
. . .
. .
. . . . . . . . 137
137
7.3. Referring Masses of crank ~ e c h ' a n i s m parts
7.4. lnertial Forces . .
7.5. Total Forces Acting in 'Crank' hiechan'ism
'
.. ... ... .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
139
141
142
-
7.6. Forces Acting on Crankpins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
"
1 . 1 . Forces Acting on Main Journals . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 152
7.8. Crankshaft Journals and Pins Wear 157
Chapter 8. ENGIKE EALA4i\iCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

8.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. Balancing Engines of biiferint' Types . . . . . . . . .
158
160
8.3. Uniformity of Engine Torque and Run . . . . . . . 167
8.4. Design of Flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Chapter 9. ANALI-SIS OF EKGISE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS . . 171

9.1. Design of a n In-Line Carburettor Engine . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.2. Design of 1:-Type Four-Stroke Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . 191
Part Three
DESIGK O F PRINCIPAL PARTS

Chapter 10. PREREQUISITE FOR DESIGN AND DESIGN CONDITIONS
10.1. General .
10.2. Design ~ondi'tions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .
10.3. Dcsign of Parts ~ o r k i n t' "~n i e r s ~ i t e A a i i n gZ'oads
Chapter 11. DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . .

11.1.
11.2.
Piston . . . . . . . . . . .
Piston Rings . . . . . . . . . .
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
11.3. Piston Pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 12. DESIGK OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY . . . . . .
12.1. Connecting Rod Small End . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2. Connecting Rod Big End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3. Connecting
12.4. Connecting
Rod Shank . .
Rod Bolts . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Chapter 13. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.
13.2.
General
Unit Area
. . . . . .
Pressures on 'crink'pins and Journals
. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
13.3.
13.4.
Design of
Design of
Journals and Crankpins
Crankwebs .
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
13.5.
13.6.
Design of
Design of
In-Line Engine ~ r a ' n k i h a h
. Type Engine Crankshaft
1
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
CONTENTS 7
Chapter 14. DESIGN OF ENGINE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . 296

. . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
14.1. CyIinder Block and Upper Crankcase 296
14.3. Cylinder Liners 298
14.3.
14.4.
Cylinder
CyIinder
Block Head
Head Studs
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 302
303
.
Chapter i5 DESIGN OF VALVE GEAR . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
15.1. General . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .
. . .
308
.
15.2. Cam profile cdnstruction 310
f 5.3. Shaping Harmonic Cams
1 5 . 4 . Time-Section of Valve
.. .. .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . 314
320
15.5. Design of the Valve Gear for a darburkttbr ' ~ n ~ i n e
15.6. Design of Valve Spring . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
321
331
15.7. Design of the Camshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Part Four
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Chapter 16. SUPERCNARGING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
16.1. General . .
16.2. Supercharging units gnci s'ysiems .
. . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 343
344
16.3. Turbo-Supercharger Design ~ u n d a m e n i a l s
16.6. ;ipgrosimate computation of a Compressor and a Turbine
. . . .. . . 348
362
Chapter 17. DESIGN OF FUEL SYSTEM ELEMENTS . . . 372

17.1. Genera1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
17.2. Carburettor . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 373
17.3. Design of carburetto1. . . . . 380
1'i.b. Design of Diesel Engine Fhei System ~ i e m e n t s . . . . . . . 385
Chapter 18. DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS . 390

18.1. Oil Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
18.2.
18.3.
Centrifugal oil ' ~ i i t e r
Oil Cooler . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 394
397
18.4. Design of ~ e a r k g s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Chapter 19. DESIGN OF COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . 403

19.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
19.2.
19.3.
Water Pump
Radiator
Cooling Fan
. .. .. .. ...
.
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . .
.. ..
. . .
..
.
..
.
.. .. .. ..
. . .
404
409
412
19.4.
19.5. Computation of" a i r cooling sur'face . . . . . . . . . . . 415
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Appendices 417
References 424
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
PREFACE
Nowadays the main problems in the field of development and

improvement of motor-vehicle and tractor engines are concerned with
wider use of diesel engines, reducing fuel consumption and weight
per horsepower of the engines and cutting down the costs of their
production and service. The engine-pollution control, as well as
the engine-noise control in service have been raised to a new level.
Far more emphasis is given to the use of computers in designing and
testing engines. Ways have been outlined to utilize computers direct-
l y in the construction of engines primarily in the construction of
diesel engines.
The challenge of these problems requires deep knowledge of the
theory, construction and design of internal combustion engines on
the part of specialists concerned with the production and service of
the motor vehicle and tractor engines.
The book contains the necessary informat ion and systerna tized
methods for the design of motor vehicle and tractor engines.
Assisting the students in assimilating the material and gaining
deep knowledge, this work focuses on the practical use of the knowled-
ge in the design and analysis of motor vehicle and tractor engines.
This educational aid includes many reference data on modern
e~iginesand tables covering the ranges in changing the basic mechan-
ical parameters, permissible stresses and strains, etc.
Part One
WORKING PROCESSES
AND CHARACTERISTICS
Chapter 1
FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1.1. GENERAL
The physical and chemical properties of the fuels used in automo-

tive engines m s t meet certain requirements dependent on the type
of engine, specific features of it,s design, parameters of working
process, and service condit.ions.
Modern automot,ive carburett,or engines mainly operate on gaso-
lines which are represented by a refined petroleum distillate and
cracking process product, or by a mixture of them. The minimum
requirement,^ to he met by the gasoline grades produced in the USSR
are given in Table 1.1
Table 1.1
Ratings by gasoline grades

C h a r a c t ~ r i 7ic
t
A-66 I A-72 1 - 7 ( dT!-93 ( .IU-88
Antiknock value:
octane number, min.
MON* 66 72 76 85 89
octane number, min.
RON** Hot rated 03 98
Content of tetraethyl lead,
g per kg of gasoline,
mas. 0.60 None 0.41 0.82 0.82
* M o t o r octane number.
** Research octane 1-:umber.
Except the AH-98 grade, automot,ive gasolines are divided into:

(a) Su.mmer grades-intended for use in all areas of t,his country,
except for arctic and northeast areas, within the period from April 1
to Oct,ober 1. I n south areas the summer-grade gasolines may be
used all over the year.
10 P A R T OXE. WORRIKG PROCESSHS AND CHARACTERISTICS
(b) Winter grades-intended for use in arctic and northeast areas

during all seasons and in the other areas from October 1 to April 1.
During the period of changing over from a summer grade t,o a win-
ter grade and vice versa, either a winter or a summer grade gasoline,
.or their mist,ure may be used within a mont,h.
The basic property of automobile gasolines is their octane number
indicating the antiknock quality of a fuel and mainly determining
maximum compression ratio.
With unsupercharged carburettor engines, t,he following relat,ion-
-ship may be approximately recognized between the allowable comp-
ression ratio and t,he required octane number:
Compression ratio).,.. 5.5-7.0 '7.0-7.5 7.5-8.5 9.5-10.5
Octancnumbcr. ..... 66-72 72-76 76-85 85-100
When use is made of supercharging, a fuel with a higher octane

nurnber must he utilized.
With compression ignition engines, use is made of heavier petro-
leum distillates, such as diesel fuels produced by distillation of crude
oil or by mixing products of straight-run distillation with a catalytic
gas oil (not more than 20% in the mixture composition). The diesel
automotive fuel is available in the following grades:
A-arc t ic diesel auto~no tive fuel recommended for diesel engines
operating a t -50'C or above;
3-winter diesel automotive fuel recommended for diesel engines
operating at -30'C and above;
J-summer diesel automotive fuel recommended for diesel engines
operating a t 0°C and above;
C-special diesel fuel.
The diesel fuel must meet the requirements given in Table 1.2.
The basic property of a diesel fuel is its cetane number determin-
ing first of all the ignition quality, which is a prerequisite for opera-
tion of a compression-ignition engine. In certain cases the cetane
number of a fuel may be increased by the use of special additives
(nitrates and various peroxides) in an amount of 0.5 to 3.0%.
In addition to the above mentioned fuels for automobile and tractor
engines, use is made of various natural and industrial combustible
gases.
Gaseous fuels are transported in cylinders (compressed or liquefied)
and fed to an engine through a preheater (or an evaporator-type heat
exchanger), a pressure regulator, and a miser. Therefore, regardless
of the physical state of the gas, the engine is supplied with a gas-
air mixture.
411 the fuels commonly used in automobile and tractor engines
represent mixtures of various hydrocarbons and differ in their elem-
ental composition.
CH. 1. FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 11
Table 1.2
-
Ratings by f u e l grades
C
Requirements
A 1 3 1 3 C 1 4 . 4 1 23 I 3 X ) nc
Cetane number, min. 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 50

Fraction composition:
5096 distilled a t
temperature, O C ,
max . 240 250 280 280 255 280 290 280
90% distilled at
temperature, O C ,
mar;. 330 340 360 340 330 340 360 340
Actual tar content
per I 0 0 ml of fuel,
mg, mas. 30 30 40 30 30 30 50 50
Sulfur content, %,
max. 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Water-soluble acids
and alltalis None
Mechanical impuri-
ties arid water None
lstands f o r diesel fuel.

?Vote. ;
The elemental colnposition of liquid fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel)

is usually given in mass unit (kg), while that of gaseous fuels, in
volume unit (m3 or moles).
With liquid fuels
where C. H and 0 are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen fractions of

total mass in 1 kg fuel.
Wit,h gaseous fuels
where C,H,O, are volume fractions of each gas contained in 1 m3

or 1 mole of gaseous fuel; N, is a volume fraction of nitrogen.
For the mean elemental composition of gasolines and diesel fuels
in fraction of total mass, see Table 1.3, while that of gaseous fuels
in volume fractions is given in Table 1.4.
42 PART OYE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
T a b l e 1.3
Content. kg
Liquid fuel
C I H I 0
Gas01ine 0.855 0.145 -

Diesel fuel 0.870 0.126 0.004
Table 1.4
Content, m3 or mole
I 0)
L 0
rd S E
7'
Z
2 0 El r:
M
14 X
3
M
H
x $ E
0
x C
E
W
0
z
54
-
a
"*",
Gaseous fueI u ~t
.4
b
.j
u" r C, E
d
c:
275 z
W
Ul
2
i
G
g-
W
C bW C
L
E:
3 E 0
5 L
T rd
2. m
fU 0U 2s
4
: 5
e
C e
b 2
g 3
& 6 ~2 Iz UU iZ
Natural gas 90.0 2.96

I
0.17 0.55 0.42
I
0.28 0.47 5.15
Synthesis gas 52.0 - - - 3.4 9.0 11.0 - 24.6
Lighting gas 16.2 - - - 8.6 27.5 20.2 5.0 22.2
1.2. CHEMICAL REACTIOKS 1K FUEL COMBUSTIOX
Complete combustion of a mass or a volume unit of fuel requires

a certain amount of air termed as the theoretical ai?'requirement and
is determined by the ultimate composition of fuel.
For liquid fuels
where 1, is the t,heoretical air requirement in kg needed for the

combustion of 1 kg of fuel, kg of aidkg of fuel;
Lo is the theoretical air requirement in kmoles required for
the combustion of 1 kg of fuel, kmole of air!kg of fuel;
0.23 is the oxygen content by mass in 1 kg of air; 0.208 is
the oxygen content by volume in 1 kmole of air.
In that
= ~ a L o
CH. 1. FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 13
where pa = 28.96 kg/kmole which is the mass of 1 kmole of air.

For gaseous fuels
where Li is the theoretical air requirement in moles or m3 required

for the combustion of 1 mole or 1 m3 of fuel (mole of aidmole of fuel
or m3 of air/m3 of fuel).
Depending on the operating conditions of the engine, power cont-
rol method, type of fuel-air mixing, and combustion conditions, each
mass or volume unit of fuel requires a certain amount of air that
may be greater than, equal to, or less than the theoretical air require-
ment needed for complete combustion of fuel.
The relationship between the actual quantity of air 1 (or L) par-
ticipating in combustion of 1 kg of fuel and the theoretical air re-
quirement I , (or Lo) is called the excess air factor:
~ h following
; values of a are used for various engines operating
a t their nominal power output:
Carburettor engines .................. 0.80-0.96
Precombustion chamber and pilot-f lame ignition engines 0.85-0.98 and
more
Diesel engines with open combustion chambers and volu-
me carburation....................
Diesel engines with open conlbustion chamhers and f i l ~ n
carburation ......................
Swirl-chamber diesel engines ..............
Prechamber diesel engines ...............
Supercharged diesel engines ..............
In supercharged engines, during the cylinder scavenging, use is
made of a summary excess air factor a,=rpsCawhere cp,, = 1.0-1.25
is a scavenging coefficient of four-stroke engines.
Reduction of a is one of the ways of boosting the engine. For
a specified engine output a decrease (to certain limits) in the excess
air factor results in a smaller cylinder size. However, a decrease
in the value of a leads to incomplete combustion, affects economical
operation, and adds to thermal stress of the engine. Practically,
complete combustion of fuel in an engine is feasible only a t a > 1,
as a t a = 1 no air-fuel mixture is possible in which each particle
of fuel is supplied with enough oxygen of air.
A combustible mixture (fresh charge) in ,carburettor engines con-
sists of air and evaporated fuel. It is determined by the equation
14 P-IHT ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CEEdR,ZCTERISTICS
where dl, is the quantity of c~mbust~ihlemixture (kmole of

corn.mir/kg of fuel); m f is the molecular mass of fuel vapours,
kg/kmole.
The following values of mj are specified for various fuels:
110 to 120 kgjkrnole for autonlobile gasolizres
180 to 200 kgjkmole for diesel fuels
In determining the value of iM, for compression-ignition engines,
the value of l/miis neglected, since i t is too small as compared with
t.he volume of air. Therefore, with such engines
With gas engines
where ilf' is the amount of combustible mixture (mole of com.rnix/mo-

le of fuel or rn3 of com.mix/m3 of fuel).
For any fuel the mass of a combustible mixture is
*
where rn, is the mass quantity of combustible mixture, kg of com.

mix/kg of fuel.
When the fuel combustion is complete (a 2 I ) , the combustion
products include carbon dioxide CO,, water vapour H,O, surplus
oxygen 0, and nitrogen N,.
The amount of individual components of liquid fuel combustion
products with a 2 1 is as follows:
Carbon dioxide (kmole of CO,/kg of fuel)
MCO2= C/12
-
Water vapour (kmole of H20/kg of fuel)
M H l o H/2
Oxygen (kmole of O,/kg of fuel)
Mar= 0.208 (a- l ) L o
Nitrogen (kmole of N,/kg of fuel) I
M N 2= o.792aL0 J
The tot,al amount of complete combustion products of a liquid fuel
(kmole of com.pr/kg of fuel) is
(;H. 1. FUEL _.\XI3 CHEBIICAL REACTIONS 15.
The amount of iildividual components of gaseous fuel combustion.

at a >
I is as follows:
Carbon dioxide (mole of C0,imole of fuel) )
.A v
JIbo2 - u n (
C,II,~~~~)
Water J7apour (mole of M,O/rnole of fuel)
Oxygen (mole of O,,/mole of fuel)

:Mb,=- 0.208 ( a - 1)L;
Nitrogen (mole of R:,:mole of fuel)
M k , = 0.792aLi + N,
where N, is the amount of nitrogen in the fuel, mole.
The total amount of complete combust,ion of gaseous fuel (mole
of com.primole of fuel) is
When fuel combustion is incomplete (a< 1)the combustion~prod-

ucts represent a mixture of carbon monoxide CO, carbon dioxide COT,
water vapour 1-I,O, free hydrogen H, and nitrogen N,.
The amount of individual components of incomplete combustion
of a liquid fuel is as follows:
Carbon dioxide (kmole of CO,/kg of fuel) )
Carbon monoxide (kmole of CO/kg of fuel) I

Water vapour (kmole of H,O/kg of fuel)
M H ~ o T-
H
= 2K - ,+,
I-a
0.208L0
Hydrogen (kmole of &/kg of fuel) I
l-a
MR2= 2K - ,+,
0.208Lo
Nitrogen (kmole of &/kg of fuel) I
M N z= 0.792aLo J
16 PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
where K is a constant value dependent on the ratio of the amount

of hydrogen to that of carbon monoxide which are contained in the
combustion products (for gasoline K = 0.45 to 0.50).
The t,otal amount of inc0mplet.e combustion of a liquid fuel (kmole
of corn.pr/kg of fuel) is
+ +
M , = Mco, Mco M Hao$ .lJA, 'IfN,.- +
The amount of combustible mixture (fresh charge), combustion

products and their constituents versus the excess air factor in a car-
burettor engine and in a diesel en-
Mi, krnole /kg of fuel gine are shown in diagrams (Figs.
1.1and 1.2).
The change in the number of
Q,6 working medium moles during
combust ion is determined as the
0.5 difference (kmole of mixkg of
44
fuel):
AiI~=JCr,-M, (1.18)
0.3 With a liquid fuel, the num-
ber of colnbustion product moles
0.2 always exceeds that of a fresh
charge (combustible mixture). An
47 increment ALW in the volume of
- combustion products is due to an
0
0.7 0.8 0.9 7.0 1.1 7.2 a increase in the total number of
molecules as a result of chemi-
Fig. 1.2- Amount of combustible mix- cal reactions during which fuel
ture (fresh ~ o l n b ~ s t i o pro-
n molecu] es break down to form
ducts, and their constituents versus
the excess air factor in a carburettor new mole~ules.
engine (mf= 110) An increase in the number of
combustion product moles is a po-
sitive factor, as i t enlarges the volume of combustion' products, thus
aiding in some increase in the gas efficiency, when the gases expand.
A change in the number of moles AM' during the combustion
process of gaseous fuels is dependent on the nature of the hydrocar-
bons in the fuel, their quantity, and on the relationship between the
amounts of hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon. I t may be either
positive or negative.
The fractional volume change during combustion is evaluated in
terms of the value of the molecular change coefficient of combustible
mixture p, which represents the ratio of the number of moles of the
combustion products to the number of moles of the combustible
mixture
po = M2/M1= 1 + AM/Ml (1.19)
ca. i . FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 17
The value of p, for liquid fuels is always greater than 1 and increas-
es ~ i t ah decrease in the excess air factor (Fig. 1.3). The break of
8 curve corresponding t o a = 1 occurs due to cessation of carbon
Fig. 1.2. Amount of combustible mixture (fresh charge), combustion products

and their constituents versus the excess air factor in a diesel engine
monoxide liberation and complete combustion of fuel carbon with
formation of carbon dioxide CO,.
I n the3.'cylinder of an actual engine a fuel-air mixture comprised
by a fresh charge (combustible mixture) M I and residual gases M , ,
Fig. 1.3. Molecular change coefficient of combustible mixture versus the excess
air factor
I - gasoline-air mixture; 2 -diesel fuel-air mixture
i.e. the gases left in the charge from the previous cycle, is burnt,
rather than a combustible mixture.
The fractional amount of residual gases is evaluated in terms of
the coefficient of residual. gases
yr = M,/M,
- .
(1.20)
$8 PART ONE. WORKING PROCBSSES AND GHARACTmISTICS
A change in the volume during the combustion of working mixture

(combustible mixture + residual gases) allows for the actual molecu-
lar change coefficient of working mixture which is the ratio of the total
number of gas moles in the cylinder after the combustion ( M , +
M,)
to the number of moles preceding the combustion ( M I M,): +
From Eq. 1.21 it follows that actual molecular change coefficient

of working mixture p is dependent on the coefficient of residual
Fig. 1.4. Molecular change coefficient of combustible mixture versus the coeffi-
cient of residual gases, fuel composition and excess air factor
gasoline; - - - - - diesel fuel
gases y,, and the molecular change coefficient of combustible mixtu-

re po. po in turn is dependent on the composition of the fuel and the
excess air factor a.
It is the excess air factor a that has the most marked effect on the
change in the value of p (Fig. 1.4). With a decrease in a the actual
molecular change coefficient of working mixture grows and most
intensively with a rich mixture (a < 1).
The value of p varies within the limits:
. . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
Carburettor engines 1.02 to 1.12
Diesel engines 1.O1 to 1.06
CH. i . FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS .i9
j.3. HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF FUEL AND FUEGAIR MIXTURE

the fuel combustion heat is meant that amount of heat which
is produced during complete combustion of a mass unit or a volume
unit of fuel.
There are higher heat of combustion H , and lower heat of combus-
tion Hu.By the higher heat of combustion is meant that amount of
heat which is produced in complete combustion of fuel, including
the water vapour condensat ion heat, when the combustion products
cool down.
The lower heat of combustion is understood t o be that amount of
heat which is produced in complete combustion of fuel, but minus
the heat of water vapour condensation. 8, is smaller than the higher
heat of combustion H , by the value of the latent heat of water vapori-
zation. Since in the internal combustion engines exhaust gases am
released a t a temperature higher t ban the tva t er vapour condensa-
tion point, the practical assessment of the fuel heating value is
usually made by t.he lower heat of fuel combustion.
With the elemental composition of a liquid fuel known, the lower
heat of its combustion (MJ/kg) is roughly determined generally by
Mendeleev 's formula:
where W is the amount of water vapours in the products of combus-

tion of a mass unit or a volume unit of fuel.
With a gaseous fuel, its lower heat of combustion (MJ/m3) is
HL = 12.8CO +
10.8H2 35.7B, +
56.0C2H, +
+ 59.5C2H4+ 63.3C2H6 + 90.9C3H8
$ 119.'i'C4H,o 146.2C5H,, + (1.23)
The approximate values of the lower heat of combusticon %orthe
automotive fuels are given below:
Fuel
8, . .. .. 44.0Gasoline
MJ/kg
, Diesel fuel
42.5 MJ/kg
Natural gas Propane
35.0 MJ/m3 85.5 hIJ/ms
Butane
112.0 M J / d
In order to obtain a more complete evaluation of the heating value

of a fuel, use should be made not only of the heat of combustion of
the fuel itself, but also the heat of combustion of fuel-air mixtures.
The ratio of the heat of combustion of unit fuel to the total quantity
of combustible mixture is generally called the heat of combustion of
Combustible mixture. When H, is referred to a volume unit @mole),
RC.,will be in MJ/kmole of com.mix, and when to a mass unit,
it will be in MJ/kg of com.mix.
Hc.7t-t = Hu/Ml or H,, = H,/ml (1.24)
2*
I n engines operating a t a ( 1, we have chemically incomplete

combustion of fuel (MJlkg) because of lack of oxygen
AHu = 119.95 (1 - a ) Lo (1.25)
Therefore, formula (1.24) with a < 1 takes the form
&. (HI4 - AH,)/M, or H -,.
m, = = (Hu - AH,)/m, (I .
26)
Figure 1.5 shows the heat of combustion of combustible mixtures
versus the excess air factor a. Note that the heat of combustion of
Fig. 1.5. Heat J combustion of fuel-air mixture versus the excess air factor
I - gasolineair-mixture, H,=44 MJ/kg; 2 - diesel f uel-air mixture,
H,=42.5 MJ/kg
a combustible mixture is not in proportion to the heat of combustion

of a fuel. With equal values of a, the heat of combustion of a diesel
fuel-air mixture is somewhat higher than that of a gasoline-air
mixture. This is accounted for by the fact that the complete com-
bustion of a unit diesel fuel needs less air than the combustion of the
same amount of gasoline. Since the combustion process takes place
due to a working mixture (combustible mixture residual gases)+
rather than to a combustible mixture, it is advisable to refer the
heat of combustion of a fuel t o the total amount of working mixture
(MJlkmole of w.m.):
Ata>I
i . FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS 2.1
~ r o mEqs. (1.27) and (1.28) i t follows that the heat of combustion

of a working mixture varies in proportion to the change in the heat
of of a combustible mixture. When the excess air factors
Fig. 1.6. Heat of combustion of working mixture versus the excess air factor
and the coefficient of residual gases
1- mixture of air, residual gases and gasoline; H,=44 MJjkg; 2 - mixture of air,
residual gases and diesel fucl, H , , = 4 2 . 5 MJ/kg
are equal, the heat of combustion of a working mixt.ure increases with

a decrease in the coefficient of residual gases (Fig. 1.6). This holds
both for a gasoline and a diesel fuel.
1.4. HEAT CAPACITY OF GASES
The ratio of the amount of heat imparted to a medium in a speci-
fied process to the temperature change is called the mean heat capacity
(specific heat) of a medium, provided the temperature difference is
a finite value. The value of heat capacity is dependent on the tem-
perature and pressure of the medium, its physical properties and the
nature of the process.
To compute the working processes of engines, use is generally made
of mean molar heat capacities at a constant volume me,- and a const-
ant pressure mc, [kJ/(kmole deg)]. These values are interrelated
mc,, - mcv = 8.315 (1.29)
-
x-
To determine mean molar heat capacities of various gases versus

the temperature, use is made either of empirical formulae, reference
tables or graphs*.
* Within the range of pressures used in automobile and tractor engines, the
effect of pressure on the mean molar heat capacities is neglected.
22 PART ONE. U'ORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Table 1.5 covers the values of mean molar heat capacities of certain
gases at a constant volume, while Table 1.6 lists empirical formulae
Table 1.5
--
Mean molar heat capacity of certain gases a t constant volume,

kJ/(kmole deg)
1, 'C
.. ,.- -
Air I 0 2 I N2 1 H-2 I CO I CO1 I H2O
0 20.759 20.960 20.705 20.303 20.809 27.546 25.185

100 20.839 21.224 20.734 20.621 20.864 29.799 25.428
200 20.985 21.617 20.801 20.759 20.989 31.746 25.804
300 21.207 22.086 20.973 20.809 21.203 33,442 26.261
400 21.475 22.564 21.186 20.872 21,475 34.936 26.776
500 21.781 23.020 21.450 20.935 21.785 36.259 27.316
600 22.091 23.447 21.731 21.002 22.112 37.440 21.881
700 22.409 23.837 22.028 21.094 22.438 38.499 28.476
800 22.714 24.188 22.321 21.203 22.756 39.450 29.079
900 23.008 24.511 22.610 21.333 23.062 40.304 29.694
1000 23.284 24.804 22.882 21.475 23.351 41.079 30.306
1100 23.548 25.072 23.142 21.630 23.623 41.786 30.913
1200 23.795 25.319 23.393 21.793 23.878 42.427 31.511
1300 24.029 25.543 23.627 21.973 24.113 43.009 32.093
1400 24.251 25.763 23.849 22.153 24.339 43.545 32.663
1500 24.460 25.968 24.059 22.333 24.544 44.035 33.211
1600 24.653 26.160 24.251 22.518 24.737 44.487 33.743
1700 24.837 26.345 24.435 22.698 24.917 44.906 34.262
MOO 25.005 26.520 24.603 22.878 25.089 45.291 34.756
1900 25.168 26.692 24.766 23.058 25.248 45 -647 35.225
2000 25.327 26.855 24.917 23.234 25.394 45.977 35.682
2100 25.474 27.015 25.063 23.410 25.537 46.283 36.121
2200 25.612 27.169 25.202 23.577 25.666 46.568 36.540
2300 25.746 27.320 25.327 23.744 25.792 46.832 36.942
2400 25.871 27.471 25.449 23.908 25.909
2500 25.993 27.613 25.562 24.071 26.022 47.305
47*079 1 37.704
37*331
2600*
2700*
2800*
26.120
26.250
26.370
27.753
27.890
28.020
25.672
25.780
25.885
24.234
24.395
24.550
26.120
26.212
26.300
47.710
47*515
47.890
11 38.395
38*060
38.705
* The heat capacity a t 2600, 2 7 0 0 and 2800°C is computed by the interpolation

method.
obtained on the basis of an analysis of tabulated data. The values

of mean molar heat capacities obtained by the empirical formulae
are true to the tabulated values within 1.8% .
car. a. FVEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
4'
Formulae to determine mean molar heat capacities
of certain gases a t constant volume, kJ/(kmole deg),
Name of gas at temperatures
from 0 to 1500°C I from 1 5 0 1 t o 2800°C
Air mcv =20.600+0.002638t mcv = 22.387+0.001449t

.Oxygen Oz mcyoz=20.930f 0.004641 t - rncvo2=23.723+0.001550t
-0 00000084t'
,Nitrogen N2 ~ C V =20.398+0.002500t
N ~ ~ C V N ~21.951+0.001457t
=
Hydrogen HZ mcVH2=20.684+0.000206t+ meva2= 19.678+0.001758t

+O. 000000588t 2
'Carbon monoxide
CO mcvCo =20.597+0.002670t rncvco =22.490+0.001430t
Carbon dioxide
coa mcvco2 = 27.941+0.019t - mcvCoz == 39.123f0.003349t
-0.000005487t2
Water vapour H,O mcvfJ20= 24.953f0.005359t r n c ~ =~26.670
~ o f0.004438t
When performing the calculations, the heat capacity of fresh

charge in carburettor and diesel engines is usually taken equal to
the heat capacity of air, i.e. without taking into account the effect
of fuel vapours, and in gas engines, neglecting the difference between
the heat capacities of a gaseous fuel and air.
The mean molar heat capacity of combustion products is determin-
ed as the heat capacity of a gas mixture [kJ/(kmole deg)]:
where rt = M i / M , is the volume fraction of eacb gas included in

a given mixture; (me%):: is the mean molar heat capacity of each
gas contained in a given mixture a t the mixture temperature t,.
When combustion is complete (a > I), the combustion products
include a mixture of carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen, and
at a > l also oxygen. If that is the case
where to is a temperature equal to O°C; t , is a mixture temperature

at the end of visible combustion.
When fuel combustion is incomplete (a < I), the combustion

products consist of a mixture including carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, water vapour, free hydrogen and nitrogen. Then
For the values of mean molar heat capacity of gasoline combustion

products (composition: C = 0.855; H = 0.145) versus a see Table 1.7
and for the values of mean molar heat capacity of diesel fuel com-
bustion products (composition: C = 0.870; H = 0.126; 0 = 0.004)
see Table 1.8.
Chapter 2
THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES
2.1. GENERAL
The theory of internal combustion engines is based upon the use

of thermodynamic relationships and their approximation to the
real conditions by taking into account the real factors. Therefore,
profound study of the theoretical (thermodynamic) cycles on the
basis of the thermodynamics knowledge is a prerequisite for success-
ful study of the processes occurring in the cylinders of actual aut.0-
mobile and tractor engines.
Unlike the actual processes occurring in the cylinders of engines,
the closed theoretical (ideal) cycles are accomplished in an imaginary
heat engine and show the following features:
1. Conversion of heat into mechanical energy is accomplished in
a closed space by one and the same constant amount of working
medium.
2. The composition and heat capacity of the working medium
remain unchanged.
3. Heat is fed from an external sourc,e a t a constant pressure and
a constant volume only.
4. The compression and expansion processes are adiabatic, i.e.
without heat exchange with the environment, the specific-heat
ratios being equal and constant.
5. I n the theoretical cycles no heat losses take place (including
those for friction, radiation, hydraulic losses, etc.), except for heat
transfer to the heat sink. This loss is the only and indispensable in
the case of a closed theoretic.al cycle.
Table 1.7
$J
g+- Mean molar heat capacity of combustion products, kJl(kmo1e deg), of gasoline at a
b,l
gE 0 7 0 I 0.75 I 0.80 I 0.85 1 0.90 I
1
0.95 1 1-00 / 1-05 I I.LP I 1-15 / L.20 1 1.21
0 21.653 21.786 21.880 21.966 22.046 22.119 22.187 22.123 22.065 22.011 21.962 21.916
100 21.902 23.031 22.149 22.257 22.356 22.448 22.533 22.457 22.388 22.325 22.266 22.216
200 22.140 22.292 22.431 22.559 22.676 22.784 22.885 22.796 22.722 22.650 22.584 22.523
300 22.445 22.618 22.776 22.921 23.055 22.973 23.293 23.200 23 .I15 23.036 22.964 22.898
400 22.777 22.968 23.143 23.303 23.450 22.586 23.712 23.613 23.521 23.437 23.360 23.289
500 23.138 23.35 23.534 23.707 23.867 24.014 24.150 24.045 23.948 23.859 23.777 23.702
600 23.507 23.727 23.929 24.113 24.284 24.440 24.586 24.475 24.373 24.280 24.193 24.114
700 23.882 24.115 24.328 24.523 24.702 24.868 25.021 24.905 24.798 24.700 24.610 24.527
800 24.249 24.493 24.715 24.919 25.107 25.280 25.441 25.319 25.208 25.106 25.012 24.925
900 24.608 24.861 25.092 25.304 25.500 25.680 25.847 25.720 25.604 25.498 25.400 25.309
1000 24.949 25.211 25.449 25.668 25.870 26.056 26.229 26.098 25.977 25.867 25.766 25.672
1100 25.276 25.545 25.791 26.016 26.224 26.415 26.593 26.457 26.333 26.219 26.114 26.016
1200 25.590 25.866 26.118 26.349 26.562 26.758 26.940 26.800 26.672 26.554 26.446 26.345
1300 25.887 26.168 26.426 26.662 26.879 27.080 27.265 27.121 26.989 26.868 26.757 26.653
1400 26.099 26.456 26.719 26.959 27.180 27.385 27.574 27.426 27.291 27.166 27.051 26.945
1500 26.436 26.728 26.995 27.240 27.465 27.673 27.866 27.714 27.575 27.447 27.330 27.221
1600 26.685 26.982 27.253 27.501 27.729 27.941 28.136 27.981 27.836 27.708 27.588 27.477
1700 26.924 27.225 27.499 27.751 27.983 28.197 28.395 28.236 28.091 27.958 27.835 27.722
1800 27.147 27.451 27.728 27.983 28.218 28.434 28.634 28.473 28.324 28.188 28.063 27.948
1900 27.359 27.667 27.948 28.205 28.442 28.661 28.863 28.698 28.548 28.409 28.282 28.164
2000 27.559 27.870 28.153 28.413 28.652 28.873 29.078 28.910 28.757 28.616 28.487 28.367
2100 27.752 28.065 28.351 28.613 28.851 29.077 29.283 29.113 28.958 28.815 28.684 28.562
2200 27.935 28.251 28.539 28.803 29.046 29.270 29.475 29.306 29.148 29.004 28.870 28.747
2300 28.104 28.422 28.712 28.978 29.223 29.449 29.658 29.484 29.324 29.177 29,042 28.917
2400 28.268 28.588 28.879 29.147 29.394 29.621 29.832 29.655 29.494 29.345 29.209 29.082
2500 28.422 28.745 29.037 29.305 29.553 29.782 29.993 29.815 29.652 29.502 29.364 29.236
2600 28.570 28.892 29.187 29.458 29.706 29.936 30.149 29.969 29.804 29.653 20.523 29.384
2700 28.711 29.036 20.332 29,604 29.854 30.085 30.298 30.216 29.950 29.797 20.657 29.527
2800 28.847 29.173 29.470 29.743 29.994 30.226 30.440 30.257 30.090 29.936 29.794 29.663
m . d
Table I.&
$y Mean molar heat capacity 00 cornbu3tion products, kJ/(kmole deg), of diesel f ilcl at a
gw-
If
P*
I I 1.1 1 1.2 1 L.3 I 1.4 I 1.5 1 1.6 1 1.8 1 2.0 1 2.2 1 2.4 1 2.6
:-*.ssd
0 22.184 22.061 21.958 21.870 21.794 21.728 21.670 21.572 21.493 21.428 21.374 21.328
100 22.545 22.398 22.275 22.169 22.078 21.999 21.929 21.812 21.717 21.640 21.574 21.519
200 22.908 22.742 22.602 22.482 22.379 22.289 22.210 22.077 21.970 21.882 21.808 21.745
300 23.324 23.142 22.989 22.858 22.745 22.647 22.560 22.415 22.300 22.202 22.121 22.052
400 23.750 23.554 23.390 23.249 23.128 23.022 22.930 22.774 22.648 22.544 22.457 22.384
500 24.192 23.985 23.811 23.662 23.533 23.421 23.322 23.157 23.023 22.914 22.822 22.743
600 24.631 24.413 24.229 24.073 23.937 23.818 23.716 23.541 23.401 23.285 23.188 23.106
700 25.069 24.840 24.648 24.484 24.342 24.218 24.109 23.927 23.780 23.659 23.557 23,471
800 25.490 25.251 25.050 24.879 24.731 24.602 24.488 24.298 24.144 24.018 23.912 23.822
900 25.896 25.648 25.439 25.261 25.107 24.973 24.855 24.657 24.487 24.366 24.256 24.162
1000 26.278 26.021 25.804 25.620 25.460 25.321 25.199 24.993 24.828 24.692 24.578 24.481
1100 26.641 26.375 26.151 25.960 25.795 25.652 25.525 25.313 25.142 25.001 24.883 24.783
1200 26.987 26.713 26.482 26.286 26.116 25.967 25.837 25.618 25.442 25.296 25.175 25.071
1300 27.311 27.029 26.792 26.589 26.415 26.262 26.128 25.903 25.722 25.572 25.447 25.341
1400 27.618 27.328 27.085 26.877 26.698 26.541 26.404 26.173 25.986 25.833 25.705 25.596
1500 27.907 27.610 27.361 27.148 26.965 26.805 26.664 26.427 26.237 26.080 25.948 25.836
1600 28.175 27.873 27.618 27.400 27.212 27.049 26.905 26.663 26.468 26.308 26.473 26.059
1700 28.432 28.123 27.863 27.641 27.449 27.282 27.135 26.888 26.690 26.526 26.389 26.272
1800 28.669 28.354 28.089 27.863 27.668 27.497 27.348 27.096 26.894 26.727 26.587 26.469
1900 28.895 28.575 28.305 28.076 27.877 27.704 27.552 27.296 27.090 26.921 26.781 26.658
2000 29.107 28.782 28.508 28.275 28.073 27.898 27.743 27.483 27.274 27.102 26.958 26.835
2100 29.310 28.980 28.703 28.466 28.262 28.083 27 -926 27.663 27.451 27.276 27.230 27.005
2200 29.503 29.169 28.888 28.648 28.441 28.260 28.101 27.834 27.619 27.442 27.294 27.168
2300 29.680 29.342 29.057 28.815 28.605 28.422 28.264 27.991 27.774 2'7.595 27.444 27.317
2400 29.851 29.510 29.222 28.976 28.764 28.580 28.417 28.144 27.924 27.743 27.591 27.462
2500 30.011 29.666 29.375 29.127 28.913 28.726 28.562 28.286 28.064 27.881 27.728 27.598
2600 30.164 29.816 29.523 29,272 29.056 28.868 28.702 28.424 28.199 28.015 27.860 27.729
2700 30.311 29.960 29.664 29.412 29.194 29.004 28.837 28.557 28.331 28.144 27.988 27.856
2800 30.451 30.097 29.799 29.546 29.326 29.135 28.966 28.684 28.456 28.269 28.121 27.978
;
- .
Table 2.1'
1 I Basic thermodynamic relationships of theoretical cycles
Name and
designation P1'incipal definitions
Compression ratio The ratio of the z = V , / V , =pG

with heat( added
volume constant
V ) andatconstant
prcssurc (p)
-.
with heat added a t constant
v o l u ~ n e( V ) I with heat, added a t constant
pressure (p)
E volumes a t the
start and the end
of compression
Compression and The ratio of work-
expansion adia- ing med ium
batic indices heat capacities
a t constant p
and V
Pressure increase The ratio of the h. =p,/pc = T,,/Tc = T,IpT, A= pzlpc = T z / T c

in the case of
heat added at
maximum pres-
sure of cycle to h= Q1 ( k - 1) R T a ~ k - l + Q I ( k - 1) +
constant volu- the ~ r e s s u r e a t RTllek-l ( 1 kp- k ) + R Ta ~ k - l

the ehd of com-
pression
Preexpansion in The ratio of volu- p = V , / V , = s/G = Tz/hTc p=l p = V , / V , =~ / =

8 TZ/Tc
the case of heat mes a t points z ( k - 1) kh- h+l Ql (k-i)+i
added a t cons- and c = RTaek-'k
tant pressure p P = RT,~k-'kh t kh
f I I I
I 1
After expansion 6 The ratio be tween 6 = V b / V ,= V , / V , =e/p = I S =Va/V, = V a / V c=e 1 6 = V b / V z= V a / V z= e/p =
volumes a t po-
ints b and z
_.
Overall amount of Q1==

R
T, &k"l
QI= k~
R
T,&k-* (A- 1 ) 1-
-
-
k-1
R
Ta&kV1k( P - 1)
applied heat Q,
X [h-I+kh (p-I)]
\ 1 I I
Amount of rejec-
ted- heat Q,
Constant pressure
I I pc = pad+ and T,=Task-1
pc and constant
temperature T,
at- the end of
compression
. .
Tb
Pb
Therinal efficien- The ratio of the

C Y rlt~ amount of heat
converted into
useful work to
the overall
amount of a p
plied heat
Meark pressure of The ratio of the pt = -Q1-Q2 - &k

--Pa- E- l X P t =-v
QI-Q2
"Pa-
Ik
x pt = -Q'--Q2 -
-
cycle pt arnount of heat Va- J / c a -Vc E-1 V a -v c
converted into A-1+kh (p-1) h- 1 - k(~-1)
work to the work- X
k-1 Tt X
k--1 rlt -Pa-
s-l k-l vt
ing volume
30 P:\RT ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND C-HARACTERISTIGS
Prototypes of real working cycles of internal combustion piston

unsupercharged engines are theoretical cycles illustrated in Fig. 2.1:
(1) constant-volume cycle (Fig. 2 . l a ) , (2) constant-pressure cycle
(Fig. 2 . l b ) , and (3) combined cycle with heat added a t constant
pressure and constant volume (Fig. 2.1~).
FOPthe basic thermodynamic relationships between the variables
of closed theoretical cycles, see Table 2.1.
Each theoretical cycle is characterized by two main parameters:
heat utilization that is determined by the thermal efficiency, andi
the working capacity which is determined by the cycle specific
work.
The thermal efficiency is the ratio of heat converted into useful
mechanical work to the overall amount of heat applied to the work--
ing medium:
where Q, is the amount of heat supplied to the working medium

from an external source; Q, is the amount of heat rejected from t h e
working medium to the heat sink.
By the specific work of a cycle is meant the ratio of the amount of
heat converted into mechanical work to the working volume in J/ms:
where V , is the maximum volume of the working medium a t t h e

end of the expansion process (B.D.C.), m3; V , is the minimum vol-
ume of the working medium a t the end of the compression process
(T.D.C.), m3; LC,,= Q, - Q, is the cycle work, J (N m).
The specific work of the cycle (J/m3 = N m/m3 = N/m2) is numer-
ically equal to the pressure mean constant per cycle (Pa = N/m2).
The study and analysis of theoretical cycles make it possible to.
solve the following three principal problems:
(1) to evaluate the effect of the thermodynamic factors on the
change of the thermal efficiency and the mean pressure for a given
cycle and to determine on that account (if possible) optimum values
of thermodynamic factors in order to obtain the best economy and
maximum specific work of the cycle;
(2) to compare various theoretical cycles as to their economy and1
work capacity under the same conditions;
(3) to obtain actual numerical values of the thermal efficiency
and mean pressure of the cycle, which may be used for assessing
the perfection of real engines as to their fuel economy and specific
work (power output).
cH.2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES 32
2.2. CLOSED THEORETICAL CYCLES
The cycle with heat added at constant volume. For the constant-
volume cycle the thermal efficiency and specific work (the mean
pressure of the cycle) are determined by t,he formulae respectively
Thermal efficiency is dependent only on the compression ratio E.

and the adiabatic compression and expansion indices (Fig. 2.2).
Fig. 2.2. Thermal efficiency in the constant-volume cycle versus the compression
ratio at different adiabatic curves
An analysis of formula (2.3) and the graph (Fig. 2.2) show that t h e
thermal efficiency constantly grows with increasing the compression
ratio and specific-heat ratio. The growth of q r , however, perceptibly
decreases a t high compression ratios, starting with E of about 12
to 13. Changes in the adiabatic curve are dependent on the nature
of working medium. To calculate q t , use is made of three values of k
which approximate a working medium consisting: (1) of biatomic
gases (air, k = 1.4); (2) of a mixture of biatomic and triatomic gases
(combustion products, k = 1.3); (3) of a mixture of air and combus-
tion products (k = 1.35).
In addition, the value of the mean pressure of the cycle is depend-
ant upon the initial pressure pa and pressure increase h. With unsu-
percharged engines the atmospheric pressure is a top limit of the
initial pressure. Therefore, in all ~alculat~ions of theoretical cycles
the pressure pa is assumed to be equal to the atmospheric pressure,
i.e. pa = 0.1 MPa. A change in the pressure increase is det,ermined
first of all by the change in the amount of heat transferred to the
cycle, Q,:
b = Q, (k - 1)/(RTa&'-') 1 + (2.5)
where R = 8315 J/kmole deg is a gas constant per mole; T, is the

initial temperature of the cycle, K.
Figure 2.3 shows p versus pressure increase h at different cornpres-
sion ratios E and two values of adiabatic curve (k = 1.4-solid lines
.and k = 1.3-dash lines\. With the initial conditions being constant
(pa = 0.1 MPa, T , = 350 K and
V , = const) such a dependence
of p , takes place when the heat
supplied to the cycle increases
from Q, = 0 a t h. = 1 to Q , =
120.6 MJ/kmole a t h = 6 and
E= 20. As the heat of airless mix-
ture combustion a t a = 1 does
not exceed 84 MJIkmole, the rna-
ximum possible mean pressure of
the theoretical cycle with heat
added (Q, = 84 MJ/kmole) a t a
constant volume cannot be above
2.1 MPa at E = 20 and h = 4 . 5 ,
and p , will not exceed 1.85
MPa a t E = 8 and h = 6 (see
the curve Q, = 84 M Jlkmole
crossing the lines of p , in Fig.
2.3). To obtain higher values of
2 3 4 5 h ,,
h and p a greater amount of heat
must be applied, e.g. use should
Fig. 2.3. Cycle mean pressure versus be made of a fuelhaving a higher
pressure increase at different compres-
sion ratios and adiabatic indices heat of combustion.
k - 1 . 4 : - - - - - k=i.3 Figure 2.4 illustrates the re-
s u l t s of computating 11t, p and h
against changes in the compression ratio with three values of added
heat (Q1= 80, 60 and 40 MJIkmole). Referring to the data, the
mean pressure of the cycle grows in proportion to the growth of the
amount of heat added during the cycle. The growth of p , with an
increase in E while the amount of heat being added remains the same,
is less intensive than the growth of the thermal efficiency. Thus,
when s varies from 4 to 20 q increases by 69 % and p only by 33 %.
The intensity with which p , grows, when E increases, is independent
of the amount of heat applied during the cycle, e.g. a t any value of
Q, (80, 60 or 40 MJ/kmole), when E varies from 4 to 20, the mean
pressure increases by 33 %.
A decrease in the pressure increase, while the compression ratio
grows and the heat added remains constant, is in inverse proportion
to relationship between h and ek-l (see formula 2.5).
The above analysis of the thermal efficiency and mean pressure
of the closed theoretical cycle with heat added a t a constant volume
allows us to come to the following conclusions:
a
1. The minimum losses of heat in a given cycle are when air is
- used as the working medium and are not below 37% a t E = 12 and
. not below 30.5 % at s = 20 (see Fig. 2.2). Heat losses increase with
the use of fuel-air mixtures as the working medium.
4 6 8 70 12 14 20 E
76 18
Fig. 2.4. Thermal efficiency, mean pressure and pressure increase in the con-
atant-volume cycle versus the compression ratio at different amounts of added
heat (p, = 0.1 MPa, T, = 350 K, k = 1.35, R = 0.008315 ~ ~ / ( k m o ldeg)e
Subscripts: f - a t Q1=80 MJ/kmoIe, 2 - a t Q1=60 MJ/kmole, 8 - a t Qi=40 MJ/kmole
2. The maximum value of the cycle mean pressure, when heat

Q, = 84 MJ/kmole is added, approximates the combustion heat of
a fuel-air mixture and is not in excess of 2.0 MPa a t E = 12 and not
more than 2.1 MPa at e = 20 (see Fig. 2.3).
3. I t is advisable to accomplish the working process of a real engine
with a compression ratio of 11 to 12. Further increase in the comp-
ression ratio increases the specific work and efficiency of the cycle,
but little, within 1 to 2 % for p t and 0.7 to 1.3% for pt when the
compression ratio is increased by 1.
The cycle with heat added a t constant pressure. The thermal effi-
ciency and the mean pressure of the cycle with heat added a t a const-
.ant pressure are determined by the formulae:
The thermal efficiency of a given cycle, as well as that of a cycle

,with heat added a t a constant volume grows with an increase in the
compression ratio and specific-heat ratio. However, a t any compres--

sion ratio q of a cycle with heat added a t p constant is less than q
of a cycle with heat added a t ti constant, as the multiplier
(p" i)l[k (p - 1)l is always greater than 1 [see (2.3) and (2.6)l.
The thermal efficiency of a cycle with heat added a t p constant
is also dependent on the preexpansion ratio p, e.g. on the load:
With an increase in the amount of applied heat, i.e. with an in-

crease in the preexpansion rat,io, the thermal efficiency drops. This
Fig. 2.5. Thermal efficiency

in the constant-pressure cyc-
le versus the compression
ratio at different precompres-
sion values and adiabatic in-
dices ( p a = 0.1 MPa, T, =
350 K; Va = const).
Subscripts: I-a t p =: 2 and k =
= 1 . 4 , 2-atp =. 3ancl k = 1 . 4 ,
3-at Q1 = 80 NJ/krnole and
k = 1..4, 4-at Q1=80 MJ/kmole
and k = 1.3
is attributed to the fact that with an increase in p the amount of

heat withdrawn by the heat sink increases and, thus, the amount
of heat converted into mechanical work decreases. Therefore, the
maximum value of the thermal efficiency is attainable a t a minimum
amount of heat added. This may be the case under real conditions,
when an engine is idling.
Figure 2.5 shows the thermal efficiency of a cycle with heat added
a t p constarlt versus compression ratio e a t different values of preex-
pansion p and two adiabatic curves (k = 1.4-solid lines and k =
= 1.3-dash lines). Two curves q , are computed and plotted a t
p = 2 and p = 3 and, therefore, a t a varying amount of added heat
Q, for each value of compression ratio, and two curves are plotted
a t the same amount of added heat (Q, = 80 MJ/kmole) and, there-
fore, a t varying values of preexpansion. The resultant p versus E
is also shown in Fig. 2.5.
The mean pressure of the cycle, p t , versus the compression ratio E
and specific-heat ratio k shows the same relationship as the thermal
efficiency q, against the same parameters. With an increase in the
amount of heat added, Q,, i.e. with an increase in the preexpansion p,
CH. 2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES 35
however, the mean pressure of the cycle p t grows, though the thermal
drops (Fig. 2.6).
Analyzing the formulae and graphs of changes in q t and p t , we
can come to the following conclusions:
1. The values of q t and p t of the cycle with heat added a t p con-
stant for small compression ratios are far less than the associated
Fig. 2.6. Thermal efficiency

and mean pressure in the
constant-pressure cycle ver-
sus the amount of heat ad-
ded a t different values of
compression ratios
variables of the cycle with heat added a t a constant volume. Even

at e = 10 heat losses range from 46% a t p = 2 to 57% a t p = 4.1
in the air cycle, and with k = 1.3 heat losses a t e = 10 are equal
to 66%.
2. At small compression ratios and considerable amount of heat
added, there is no constant-pressure cycle a t all, as p cannot exceed E .
For example, a t Q, = 80 MJikmole (see Fig. 2.5) a cycle may exist
only a t E > 5.
3. Decreasing the value of specific-heat ratio from 1.4 to 1.3
causes a material decrease in t,he thermal efficiency and mean pres-
sure of the cycle. Thus, ac,cording t,o the computed dat,a, heat losses
grow from 41 % to 52% a t e = 20 and Q, = 80 MJ/kmole (see the
curves q t s and q r l in Fig. 2.5) and t,he mean pressure decreases
by 20%.
4. The use of this cycle as a prototype of working processes in real
engines is advisable only a t significant compression ratios (in excess
of lo), when operating underloaded (decreasing of p) and with a fairly
lean mixture (k approximating the k of the air cycle). Note, that
this cycle is not used as a prototype of the working cycle in the
modern automobile and tractor engines.
The combined cycle. In this cycle heat is added both a t constant

volume Q; and a t constant pressure Q; (see Fig. 2.1~):
where Q;=- k-lR T,ek-1 ( h- 1) is the heat added at a constant

R
value; Q;== Task-lkh(p- 1) is the heat applied at a cons-
t ant pressure.
The ratio of Q; to Q; may vary from Q; = Q, and Q; = 0 to
Q; = 0 and Q; = Q1.At Q; = Q1 and Q; = 0, all the heat is added
Fig. 2.7. Pressure increase versus preexpansion ratio ( s = 16, Ql = Q;

$ Q; = 80 MJ/kmole)
+
a t a constant volume and, therefore, this cycle becomes a cycle with
heat added a t a constant volume. I n this case the preexpansion
ratio p = 1 and formula (2.9) becomes a formula for the cycle with
heat added a t a constant volume (see Table 2.1).
At Q; = 0 and Q; = Q,, all the heat is added a t a constant pres-
sure and the cycle becomes a constant-pressure cycle for which pres-
sure increase h = 1. In this event formula (2.9) becomes a formula
for the cycle with heat added a t a constant pressure (see Table 2.1).
At all intermediate values of Q' and Q;, h and p are strongly
interrelated for a given amount of aided heat Q, and specified comp-
ression ratio e. Figure 2.7a shows the pressure increase h versus the
preexpansion ratio p a t Q, = 80 MJ/kmole and E = 16, while the
curves in Fig. 2.7b determine the amount of heat added a t V and p
constant versus the selected values of h and p. For example, the
values of h = 3.5 and p = 1.25 (Fig. 2 . 7 ~ )are associated with
Q; = 55 MJlkmole, that is the heat transferred to a t V constant,
ca. 2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES 37
Fig. 2.8. Thermal efficiency and mean pressure in theoretical cycles versus the
compression ratio in different methods of adding heat ( p a = 0.1 MPa, T, =
= 350 K , k = 1.4, Q, = 84 MJlkmole, V, = const)
Subscripts: V-constant-volume cycle, 1-combined c.yclc a t Q1' = Q I w - 0.5Qr =
= 42 M.T/kmole, 2-combined cycle with heat added at A = 2 = const, .?-combined cycle
with heat added at p = 3.2 = const, p =. const-pressure cycle
and = 25 MJ/kmole, that is the heat added at p constant

(Fig. 2.7b). If the amount of heat added a t V and p c,onstant is
prescribed, for instance Q; = Q; = 0.5Q, = 40 MJ/kmole, then
the curves illustrat,ed in Fig. 2.7b are used to determine the values
.of h = 2.8 and p = 1.5.
The thermal efficiency and the mean pressure of the cycle with
heat added a t constant V and p are as follows:
ek h-1+kh (p-1)
Pt =Pa e--l k-l rt
Analyzing the above formulae and the analytical relations of the
two above-considered cycles (see Table 2.1), we may come to a con-
clusion that under similar initial conditions and with equal amounts
of heat added, the thermal efficiency and mean pressure of the cycle
with heat added a t constant V and p are always less than the
corresponding l l t and p t of the cycle with heat added at a constant
volume and are always greater than the associated values of qt
and p , of the cycle with heat added a t a constant pressure. This is
borne out by the computation data shown in the graphs of Fig. 2.8a, b.
The computation of the thermal efficiency and mean effective

pressure of the cycle with heat added a t constant volume and pressure
(dual cycle) has been given for three different conditions of heat
transfer:
(1) a t all values of compression ratio the amount of heat added a t
a constant. volume remains constant and equal to the amount of
heat added a t a constant pressure, i.e. Q; = Q; = 0.5Q, =
= 42 IlfJikmole. I n this case the values of pressure increase h and
preexpansion ratio p continuously vary, depending on the change in
compression ratio E . The nature of changes in the thermal efficiency
and mean effective pressure of the cycle, however, is much the same
as that of changes in the associated parameters of the cycle with
heat added a t V constant (see the curves with subscripts I and V
in Fig. 2.8a, b);
(2) a t all values of compression ratio, the pressure increase h is
preserved constant and equal to 2. As a result, with an increase in
the compression ratio the amount of heat added a t a constant volume
is raised and a t a constant pressure reduced. Therefore, the thermal
efficiency and mean pressure of the cycle grow with an increase in E
more intensively than in the first case, and with high compression
ratios (E = 17 to 20) their values approximate the values of the as-
sociated variables of the cycle with heat added a t V constant (see
the curves with subscript 2 ) ;
(3) a t all values of compression ratio, the preexpansion ratio p
is preserved constant and equal to 3.2. The result is that an increase
in E decreases the amount of heat added a t V constant and increases
i t a t p constant. The growth of thermal efficiency and mean pressure
of the cycle is less intensive than in the above two cases, and their
values approximate the values of v t and p , of the cycle with heat
added a t p constant (see the curves subscripted 3 and p).
In order to analyze the theoretical cycles more completely, we
have t o consider, in addition to the changes in the thermal efficiency
and mean pressure of the cycles, the changes in the maximum tem-
perature and pressure values of the cycles, and also in the temperatu-
res a t the end of expansion. Under real conditions the maximum pres-
sures are limited by the permissible strength of the engine parts,
while the maximum temperature is limited, in addition by the re-
quirements for the knockless operation of the engine on a given fuel
and by the quality of the lubricant. The temperature a t the end of
expansion is also of importance. I n real cycles a t this temperature
the working medium begins to leave the cylinder.
Dependable performance of the engine exhaust elements is obtain-
ed by certain limitations imposed on the temperature a t the end of
expansion.
Figure 2.9 shows the curves of changes in maximum temperature
and pressure values and also in the temperatures a t the end of ex-
GET. 2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES 39
p n s i o n for the above-considered cycles versus the compression ratio.

Of course, the absolute values of the theoretical cycle parameters
are not the same as with actual cycles. The relationships of the theo-
retical cycle parameters under consideration, however, fully define
the nature of the same relationships in act,ual cycles.
Referring to the curves in Fig. 2.9, the maximum values of highest
temperatures and pressures are observed in the cycle with heat added
Fig. 2.9. Maximum tempe-

ratures T,, pressuresp,, and
temperatures a t the end of
expansion versus the comp-
ression ratio in different
methods of adding heat
(pa= 0.1 MPa, T, = 350 K,
k = 1.4,; Qr = 84
M Jlkmole)
Subscripts: V-constant-volume
cycle, Q-combmed cycle at
Q1'- Q;= O.SQ1 = 4 2 bTJ/krno-
l e , A-combined cyclv at h -- 2
= canst, ;,--const ant-prcss~iro
cycle
at constant volume (see the curves subscripted by V), and the mini-
mum values, in the cycle with heat added a t constant pressure (see
%hecurves subscripted by p). Intermediate values, T z and p,, are
encountered in the cycle with heat added a t constant volume and
pressure (see the curves subscript,ed Q and A).
The considerable increase in the maximum t,emperatures and pres-
sures with an increase in the compression ratio in the cycle with
heat added a t constant volume sets a limit on the use of this cycle
under real conditions a t elevated values of s. At the same time,
the given cycle has the lowest temperature a t the end of expansion
compared to the other cycles. However, a t the dual transfer gf heat
and uniform distribution of the added heat a t constant V and p
(see the curves subscripted by Q), the cycle maximum temperature
drops by about 600 K (by 11%) and the temperature a t the end of
expansion increases but only by 60-100 K (by 3.3 to 4.7 %).
The following conclusions can be made on the basis of the above
analysis:
1. The values of the basic thermodynamic figures of the combined
cycle lie between the associated figures of the constant-volume and

constant-pressure cycles.
2. Cycles with heat added a t constant volume and pressure repre-
sent a special case of the combined cycle. And, the constant-volume
and constant-pressure cycles are critical, which produce the maxi-
mum and minimum values of q l , p I, T zand p ,, respectively, under
similar initial conditions and with the same amount of heat added.
3. I n the combined cycle an increase in the portion of heat added
a t V constant (an increase in h) and a decrease in the portion of heat
added a t p constant (a decrease in p) raise the values of the thermal
efficieney and mean pressure of the cycle.
4. The combined cycle is advisable to be used a t considerable
compression ratios (in excess of 12) and a t as high a pressure increase
as practicable. This cycle is utilized in all high-speed automobile
and tractor unsupercharged diesel engines.
Theoretical cycles of supercharged engines. Increasing the pressure
a t the beginning of compression (see points a in Fig. 2.1) in order
to increase the specific work (mean effective pressure) of a cycle is
called the supercharging. I n automobile and tract or engines the
supercharging is accomplished due to precompression of air or fuel-
air mixture in a compressor. The compressor can be driven mechan-
ically, directly by the engine crankshaft, or with the aid of gases,
by a gas turbine powered by the exhaust gases of a piston engine.
I n addition, an increase a t the beginning of compression may be ob-
tained through the use of velocity head, inertia and wave phenomena
in the engine intake system, e.g. due to the so called inertia supercharg-
ing. With the inertia supercharging and supercharging from a mechan-
ically driven compressor the flow of theoretical cycles (see Fig. 2.1)
does not change. Changes occur only in specific values of the thermo-
dynamic variables that are dependent upon the changes in the pres-
sure and temperature a t the end of induction (see the formulae in
Table 2.1). Note, that in a real engine some power is used to drive
the compressor.
I n the case of gas turbine supercharging, the engine becomes
a combined unit including a piston portion, a gas turbine and a comp-
ressor. Automobile and tractor engines employ turbo-superchargers
with a constant pressure upstream the turbine. The working process
in a combined engine is represented by the theoretical cycle illust-
rated in Fig. 2.10. The acz'zba cycle is accomplished in the piston
portion of the engine, while the afgla cycle occurs in the turbo-super-
charger. The heat Q t rejected a t constant volume in the piston part
cycle (the ba line) is added a t a constant pressure in the turbo-super-
charger cycle (the af line). Further, in the gas turbine a prolonged
adiabatic expansion (the gf curve) occurs along with rejecting the
heat Q, a t a constant pressure (the gl line) and adiabatic compression
in the supercharger (the la line).
CH. 2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES 4.9
The thermal efficiency of such a combined cycle
where e, = V I / V ,= E E I is the total compression of the cornbinatioa

engine, equal to the product of the compression ratios of the pistom
Fig. 2.10, Theoretical cycle ,of a

combined engine (diesel with a tur-
bosupercharger and constant pres-
sure upstream the turbine)
part e = V J V , and supercharger = Vl/Va.

The mean pressure of the cycle referred to the piston displacement
8
: h - l + k h (p-i)
Pt=Po,_i k-1 rl t
2.3. OPEN THEORETICAL CYCLES
The closed theoretical cycles illustrate the processes in real engines
and the changes in their basic characteristics (qt and p t), depending
on various thermodynamic factors. However, the quantitative indic-
es of closed theoretical cycles are far from the real values and, first
of all, because they do not account for the three basic processes
occurring in any real engine.
First, this is the process of working medium intake and exhaust
which is completely excluded from the closed cycle because of the
assumption that the working medium and its specific heat are const-
ant. In a real'engine each cycle is accomplished with participation
of a fresh mixture and each cycle is followed by cleaning the cylinder
of waste gases. More than that, in the real cycle the specific heat of
the working medium is dependent on the temperature and constantly
varying composition of the working medium.
Fig. 2.11. Open theoretical cycles (E = 8, T, = 350 K, pa = 0.1 MPa, a = 1)

(a) with gasoline
fuel blunt a t V = const, p = const arld h -
b~urnta t V -= const, ( b ) v i t h diesel fuel burnt a t p =: corkst, ( c ) with diesel
2
Secondly, the combustion process is replaced in the closed theore-

tical cycle by a heat transfer process from an external source. In
a real engine the combustion process proceeds in time following
a complex law with intensive heat exchange.
Thirdly, they do not take into account additional losses caused
by the continuous heat exchange between the working medium and
the surroundings through the cylinder walls, cylinder block head,
piston crown, and also by leaks of working medium through clearan-
ces between the cylinder and the piston, by overcoming mechanical
and hydraulic resistances. Besides, heat losses in a real engine are
dependent upon the temperature (heating) of residual gases and ex-
cessive air (at a > 1), or upon chemically incomplete combustion
,(at a < 1) of the fuel.
Unlike the closed cycles, the open theoretical cycles (Fig. 2.11)
utilize the t,hermodynamic relationships to additionally take into
account:
(1) the intake and exhaust processes, but a t no resistance a t a l l
;and no changes in the temperature and pressure of the working
CR. 2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES 43
medium, and neither with allowing for power loss due to the gas
(2) quality changes in the working medium during the cycle,
i.e. they allow for changes in the composition of the working medium
how its specific heat depends on the t.emperature;
(3) how the compression and expansion adiabatic indices depend
upon the mean specific heat, but without allowing for the heat trans-
fer and, therefore, for heat losses during the compression and expan-
sion processes;
(4) the fuel combustion process, more exactly the heat transfer
which is dependent upon the working mixture combustion heat and
allows for changes in the quantity of the working medium during
the combustion process (allowing for the factor of molecular changes);
(5) heat losses caused by a change in the temperature (heating)
of residual gases and excessive air (at a > I ) , or by chemically
incomplete combustion of the fuel with lack of air oxygen (at a < 1).
Therefore, the open theoretical cycles far more exactly depict
the processes occurring in real engines and the quantitative figures
of the parameters of these cycles may serve the purpose of assessing
the corresponding parameters of actual processes.
Because of their thermodynamic relations being far more compli-
cated, the quantitative analysis of the open cycles is more intricate
than that of the closed cycles. The use of modern computers, however,
allows this problem to be solved in a fairly simple way.
An algorithm and a program for cornp~tat~ions on a B3CM-6 corn-
puter have been developed for the analysis of open theoretical cycles
with heat added a t constant volume (see Appendices I1 and 111).
The analysis is given below.
The change in the quantitative indices of an actual open cycle
utilizing a certain fuel is dependent, only upon four independent
variables: compression ratio E , temperatmure T , and pressure pa
a t the beginning of compression and the excess air factor a. I n this,
of 28 parameters covering- the open cycle fairly completely, ten
- -
( 1 9 &o, Mcoz, M ~ s 7 A ' f ~ n ~ 7 fils2? M27

M ~ z 7 Po and AH,)
are dependent only upon a ; the coefficient of residual gases y , de-
pends only on E; five parameters are dependent on t ~ v ovariables:
the compression adiabatic curve k,, temperature at the end of comp-
ression T , , and mean molar specific heat of a fresh charge (air) a t
the end of compression (rnc,):: depends upon e and T,, while the
molecular change coefficient p and combustion heat I I , . , of the
working mixture-on E and a ; the pressure at. t,he end of compression
-
&--on E , To and p a ; eight parameters [(rnc;)::, ( m c ; ) f ~(mcj)::,

,
T,, k,, h, T b and q tl are dependen,t upon three variables-&, T ,
and a ; and only three parameters (p,, p b , and p,) depend on all
the four variables, i.e. e , T,, a and pa.
The quantitative indices of the above-mentioned parameters can
44 PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERfSTXS
be obtained through this computation program simultaneously for

several hundreds or even thousands of open cycles with different
values of the four independent variables (8,pa, T, and a ) and differ-
ent combinations of them.
This analysis can be used:
to obtain quantitative relations between the initial (prescribed)
and basic parameters of open cycles;
to obt,ain critical values
of any of the 28 parameters
of a real cycle having the-
same init,ial parameters a s
the open cycle.
The availability of the
critical values of such pa-
rameters as the ternpera-
ture and pressure a t speci-
fic points of the cycle (p,
and T,, p , and T,, p , and
T b ) , the pressure increase,
the molecular change coef-
ficient, the excess air fac-
tor, e t ~ allows
. us to define
the trends of further mo--
dification for any engine.
For instance, the change
in the value of thermal ef-
ficiency of an open cycle
wit,h t,he combustion of
Fig. 2.12. Thermal efficiency in an open fuel a t V constant is de-
cycle with fuel burnt at V = const versus pendent on the changes in
the excess air factor at different compression
ratios and at an initial temperature three init,ial parameters E,
-- Ta = 290 K , - I - - Ta = 440 K Ta and cc as follows:
where R , is a gas constant per mole for air.

Figure 2.12 shows this dependence as i t is computed on a computer
by means of the program whose listing is given in Appendix 111.
Referring t o the figure, y , = 0.45 can be obtained a t different
values of compression ratio E , excessive air factor a and initial
temperature T,. In that q t = 0.45 may be obtained a t E. = 20 and
E = 8, but through selection of mixtures having different composi-
tion a t a = 0.845 and a = 1.150, respectively. The value of the
CH. 2. THEOREPIGALICYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES 45
initial temperature T, affects, but little, the change in q t a t a < l.

At a > I , however,: an increase in T, materially decreases the therm-
al efficiency. If q t = 0.45 can be obtained a t E = 8, T , = 290 K
and a = 1.15, then to obtain q t = 0.45 a t e = 8 and T, = 440 K ,
the leaning of the mixture should be increased to a = 1.365 (the
dash line in Fig. 2112 is extended outside the graph).
To obtain a more profound analysis of open cycles, it is of import-
ance to have the values of the other basic parameters, such as maxi-
mum pressures and temperatures, pressures and temperatures a t the
Fig. 2.13. Basic parameters of closed (solid lines) and open (dashed lines) of
theoretical cycles in a constant-volume cycle versus the compression ratio ( p a =
= 0.1 MPa, T, = 350 K, a = 1, V , = const)
exhaust, etc. For the comparative indices of the basic parameters of

closed and open theoretical cycles with heat added a t V constant
versus the compression ratio, see Fig. 2.13. To begin with, note that
the maximum temperature and pressure of the open cycle a t all
values of the compression ratio are far less than the associated param-
eters of the closed cycle. This is due to the specific heat variable
increasing with temperature.
As a result, the temperature and pressure a t the end of expansion
(point b) decrease and especially a t compression ratios not in excess
of 10 to 12.
The thermal efficiency of the open cycle with fuel combustion
at V constant is dependent upon [see formula (2.14)l changes in T,,
8 , a, k,, k p and also upon I,, Hu and R, whose values are constant
for a given fuel. In turn, the compression adiabatic k , and expansion
adiabatic k , inaices included in the formula are dependent on the
compression ratio e and initial temperature T,. Therefore, with
46 PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES A N D CHARACTERISTICS
Fig. 2.14. Thermal efficiency in an open constant-volume cycle versus the corn-
pression ratio and excess air factor (T, = 350 K)
a specified fuel (gasoline, for example), the thermal efficiency de-

pends only on changes in the parameters 8, a and T, (Fig. 2.14).
Referring to the figure, t'he initial temperature of the cycle affects,
but little, the value of thermal efficiency, as the temperature at the
end of expansion varies almost in proportion to changes in the initial
temperature, the other things being equal. I n addition to the comp-
ression ratio, a basic factor having an effect on q t is the excess air
factor a. An increase in the thermal efficiency with leaning of the
mixture is accounted for by a relative decrease in the fuel content
in the combustible mixture and, thus, a relative decrease in the
amount of combustion products which possess a higher specific heat.
It is naturally that a "pure" air (a = oo) cycle will have the maxi-
mum value of t'hermal efficiency. Note, that with an increase in a ,
the increment t o the values of thermal efficiency increases due to
changes in the ompr press ion ratio (curve q, a t a = 1.3 is steeper than
curve q t a t a = 1, and is still steeper than curves q t a t a = 0.8
and a = 0.7). At the same tjme a lean mixture (at a > 1) decreases
he specific work (mean pressure) of the open cycle (Fig. 2.15):
CH. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE
Fig. 2.15. Thermal efficiency and mean pressure in an open constant-volume

cycle versus the excess air factor and compression ratio (T, = 350 K and pa=
= 0.1 MPa)
The mean pressure of the open cycle reaches its maximum a t

a = 1, when the maximum heat is added. The further leaning of'
,
the mixture decreases p though the thermal efficiency grows. The
change in the mean pressure of the cycle is proportional to the change
in the initial pressure pa [see formula (2.15) and Fig. 2.151. I n real
engine an increase in the initial pressure pa above the atmospheric
pressure is possible in supercharging.
A similar analysis may be made for open cycles with heat added
a t p constant and heat added a t p and V constant.
Chapter 3
ANALYSIS OFACTUALCYCLE
3.1. INDUCTION PROCESS
During the period of induction the cylinder is filled with a fresh

charge. The change in the pressure during the induction process is
illustrated in Fig. 3.1 for an unsupercharged engine and in Fig. 3.2
4 PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS - '
for a supercharged engine. The r'da'aa" curves in these figures schern-

.atically show the actual pressure variation in a n engine cylinder
during the induction process. The points T' and a" on these curves
correspond to the opening and closing of the intake valves.
I n computations, the flow of the induction process is taken to be
from the point r to the point a, and assumptions are made that the
pressure at the T.D.C. instantaneously changes along the line rr"
Fig. 3.1. Pressure variation during the Fig. 3.2. Pressure variation during the
induction process in a four-stroke 'un- induction process in a four-stroke
supercharged engine supercharged engine
and then remains constant (the straight line rna).After the computa-
tion is made and the coordinates of the points r, r" and a are obtain-
ed a rough rounding is made along the curve rat.
In modern high-speed engines the intake valve opens mainly 10-
30 degrees before the piston is a t T.D.C.and closes 40-80 degrees
after B.D.C. However, these average limits of the intake valve
opening and closing may be either increased or decreased to meet
the design requirements.
Opening the intake valve before the piston reaches T.D.C. provid-
es a certain flow area in the valve to improve the filling of the engine
cylinder. Besides, this is also used for scavenging supercharged
engines, which reduces the exhaust gas temperature in the combus-
tion chamber and cools the exhaust valve, top portion of the cylind-
er and piston. The effect of scavenging, when the intake valve is
preopen, is taken into account in the computations by means of
scavenge efficiency cp,. The value of cp, is dependent mainly on the
supercharging ratio, engine speed, and duration of the valve overlap
period. The scavenging efficiency ,is included, as a rule, in the com-
putations of supercharged engines. When no scavenging is used,
the scavenge efficiency cp, is equal to 1, and when the cylinders are
fully cleaned of combustion products during the valve overlap period,
the scavenge efficiency equals 0.
Closing: the intake valve after B.D.C. allows the velocity head,
inertia and wave phenomena in the intake system to be used t o force
CN. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE 49
an additional amount of fresh charge into the engine cylinder. This

improves bhe efficiency of the engine cylinder swept volume. Addi-
tional filling of t,he cylinder after t,he cylinder passes R.D.C. is
called the charge-up. The effect. of charge-up on the parameters of
the intake process may be t'aken int,o account in the comput,at.ions
through t.he charge-up efficiency cp ,h . Charging-up the swept volume
the cylinder wit,h a fresh charge is mainly dependent on proper
valve t,iming (first of all on the value of the intake valve closing
retardation), length of the intake passage and speed of the crank-
shaft. According to prof. I. M. Lenin, good selection of the above-
mentioned paramet,ers may raise the charge-up under nominal operat-
ing conditions of an engine to 12-1596, i.e. cpCh = 1.12 to 1.15. With
a decrease in the revolutions per min, however, the charge-up effi-
ciency falls down, and a t the minimum speed a backward flow up
to 5-12 %, i.e. cp,h = 0.95 to 0.88% occurs in place of charge-up.
--'
Ambient pressure and temperature. When an engine is operating
with no supercharging, atmospheric air ent,ers t,he cylinder. If t,hat
-isthe case, when computing the working cycle of an engine, the arn-
bient pressure po is taken to be 0.1 MPa and temperature T ,293 K.
When automobile and tractor engines are supercharged, air is
forced into the cylinder from a compressor (supercharger) in which
it is precompressed. Accordingly, when computing the working cycle
of a supercharged engine, the ambient pressure and temperature are
assumed to equal the compressor outlet pressure p , and temperatu-
re T,.When a charge air cooler is used, the air from the supercharger
first enters the cooler and then is admitted to the engine cylinder.
In this case, the cooler outlet air pressure and temperature are taken
a s the ambient pressure p , and temperature T,. Depending on the
scavenging ratio, the following values of the supercharging air pres-
sure p , are used:
1.5 p, for low supercharging
(1.5 t o 2.2) p, for average supercharging
(2.2 to 2.5) p, for high supercharging
The compressor outlet air temperature is
where T I , is a polytropic index of air compression in the compressor

(supercharger).
Referring t.o expression (3.I), the supercharging air temperature is
dependent on the pressure ratio in the supercharger and the compres-
sion polytropic index.
According t o the experience data gained and as dictated by the
type of supercharging unit and cooling ratio, the value of n , is as
For piston-type superchargers........... 1.4- 1.6

For positive displac,ement superchargers . .
... 1.55-1.75
For axial-flow and centrifugal superchargers ... 1.4-2.0
The temperature T, may be also defined by the espression:
where qad. = 0.66 to 0.80 and is a compressor adiabatic efficiency.

Pressure of residual gases. Certain amount of residual gases is left
in the charge from the previous cycle and occupies the volume 17,
of the combustion chamber (see Figs. 3.1 and 3.2). The value of
residual gas pressure is dependent on the number and arrangement
of the valves, flow resistance in the intake and exhaust passages,
valve timing, type of supercharging, speed of the engine, load, cool-
ing system and other factors.
For unsupercharged automobile and tractor engines and also for
supercharged engines with exhaust to the atmosphere, the pressure
of residual gases in MPa is
Greater values of p i are used for high-speed engines.

For the supercharged engines equipped with an exhaust gas tur-
bine
pr. = (0.75 to 0.98) p ,
The pressure of residual gases noticeably decreases with a drop
in the engine speed. When p , is to be determined a t different engine
speeds and with the value of p , in the nominal mode of operation
defined, use may be made of the approximation formula
where A , = (p,, - 1 . 0 3 5 ~ ~X) 108/(p,n&);p,, is the pressure of

residual gases in the nominal mode of operation, MPa; n, is the
engine speed under nominal operating conditions, rpm.
Temperature of residual gases. Depending on the type of engine,
compression ratio, speed and excess air factor, the value of residual
gas temperature T, is defined within the limits:
For carburettor engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900-1100 K
For diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600-900K
For gas engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750-1000 K
When defining the value of T,, it should be noted that an increase
in the compression ratio and enriching of the working mixture
decrease the temperature of residual gases and an increase in the
engine speed raises it.
CH. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE 51
Fresh charge preheating temperature. During the cylinder filling

process the temperature of a fresh charge somewhat increases due
to hot parts of the engine. The value of preheating AT is dependent
on the arrangement and construction of the intake manifold, cooling
system, use of a special preheater, engine speed and supercharging.
~ncreased temperature improves fuel evaporation, but decreases
the charge density, thus affecting the engine volumetric efficiency,
These two factors in opposition resulting from an increase in the
reheating temperature must be taken into account in defining
the value of AT.
Depending on the engine type, the values of AT are:
Carburettor engines . . .....,..
, , 0-20°
.......
Unsupercharged diesel engines 10-40"
Supercharged engines ......... ... (- 5)-( + IO)O
With supercharged engines the fresh charge preheating decreases

due to the fact that the temperature difference between the engine
parts and the supercharging air temperature is reduced. When the
supercharging air temperature rises, negative values of AT are pos-
sible.
The change in the value of AT against the operating speed of the
engine in rough computations can be determined by the formula
where A t = AT,/(110 - 0.0125nN);A T N and n N are the preheat-

ing temperature and engine speed, respectively, under nominal
operating conditions of the engine.
Pressure at the end of induction. The pressure a t the end of induc-
tion (MPa) is the main factor determining the amount of working
medium trapped in the engine cylinder:
Pressure losses App,due t o resistance i n the intake syst,emand charge

velocity fading in the cylinder may be determined with certaiq
assumption by Bernoulli's equation:
where f3 is the coefficient of charge velocity fading in the cylinder

: cross-sectional area in question; ti, is the coefficient of intake system
' resistance referred to the narrowest cross-sectional area of the system;
', mi, is the mean charge velocity a t the narrowest cross-sectional area
:of the intake system (as a rule in the valve or scavenging openings);
' pk and p, is the intake charge density with supercharging and without
: it, respectively (at p k = p , and pk = p,).

4.
52 P-ART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
According to the experience data, i n modern automobile engines

operating under nominal conditions (BZ +
f i n ) = 2.5 to 4.0 and
mi, = 50 to 130 m/s.
Hydraulic losses in the intake system are reduced by increasing
the passage cross-sectional areas, streamlined shape of the valves,
machining the internal surfaces of the intake system, proper valve
timing, and the like.
The intake charge density (kg/m3)
where R is the gas specific constant of air.

R , = Ripe = 8315128.96 = 287 J/(kg deg) (3.7)
where R = 8315 J/(kmole deg) and is the universal gas constant.
The average velocity of charge flow at the smallest cross-sectional
area of the int,ake n~anifold:
nD2
coin = VnMaX -=
Fp
fin
-
nR n l / i + ~ 2 -
30 4fin
where F p is the piston area, m2; f i n is the smallest cross-sectional

area of the intake manifold, m2; R and D are the crank radius and
piston diameter, respectively, m; h = RIL,.,. is the ratio of the crank
radius to the connecting rod length; n is the crankshaft speed, rpm;
A , = (Rn2D2 v1 + h2)/120fin.
Substituting (3.8) in formula (3.51, we obtain
Apa = (P2 f f i n ) (Ann /2) p, X
2 2
(3.9)
With four-stroke unsupercharged engines the value of Apa varies
within the limits:
Carburettor engines ............ (0.05 t o 0.20) p,
... ....
Unsupercharged diesel engines (0.03 to 0.18) po
As compared to carburettor engines the diesel engines have some-
what lower value of A p , a t the same engine speed. This is because
of the reduced hydraulic resistances due t o absence of a carburettor
and a less complicated intake manifold.
When a supercharged engine is operating (see Fig. 3.2), the value
of pa approximates p k . However, the absolute values of the resistan-
ces in the intake manifold increase. For supercharged four-stroke
engines Ap, = (0.03 to 0.10) pk MPa.
The coefficient of residual gases. The value of the coefficient of
residual gases y, is characteristic of how the cylinder is cleaned of
combustion products. With an increase in y, the fresh charge enter-
bng the engine cylinder during the induction stroke decreases.
In four-stroke engines, the coefficient of residual gases:
; with allowance for scavenging and charge-up
without allowance for sca~engingand charge-up (rp, = cpCh = 1)
where E is the rat.io.

In four-stroke engines the value of y , is dependent on the compres-
sion ratio, parameters of the working medium a t t,he end of initlietion,
speed and other factors. With an increase in the compression ratio e
and residual gas temperature T, the value of y , decreases. while
with an increase in the pressure p , of residual gases and t,he speed n
it increases.
The value of y , varies within the limits:
Unsupercharged gas and gasoline engines ..... 0.04-0.10
Unsupercharged diesel engines . . . . . ..... 0.02-0.05
With supercharging the coefficient of residual gases decreases,
Temperature at the end of induction, This temperature ( T , in K)
is fairly accurately determined on the basis of the heat balance equa-
tion set up along the intake line from the point r t,o the point a
(see Figs. 3.1 and 3.2):
+
M i(mc,):; (T, AT) + M , (mcp)t0
tr
T, = ( M i 4- Jfr) ( m ~ ; ) :T a (3.12)
N
where #I, (mc,),: (T,-+ AT) is the amount of heat carried in by

t
the fresh charge, including the charge heating from the walls;
M, (mci):)::
TT,is the amount-of heat contained in the residual gases;
(Mi+ M , ) ( r n ~ ,ta) ~T,
I
, is the amount of heat contained i n the work-
ing mixture.
trs -
Assuming in equation (3.12) (rnc,):: -; - (me,):, gives us
Ta = (TR-I-AT + yrTr)/(1 + ~ r ) (3.13)
The value of T, is mainly dependent on the temperature of work-
ing medium, coefficient of residual gases, charge preheating and
to a less degree on the temperature of residual gases.
In modern four-stroke engines the temperature a t the end of
induction T, varies within the limits:
Carbure t tor engines . . . . . . . ......... 320-370 K
Diesel engines . . . . . . . . . ......... 310-350 K
Supercharged four-s troke engines ......... 320400 K
Volumetric effieieney. The most important value characteristic
of the induction process is the volumetric efficiency which is defined
PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
as the ratio of the actual mass of fresh mixture that passes into the
cylinder i n one induction stroke to that mass of mixture which would
fill the piston displacement, provided the temperature and pressure
in it are equal to the temperature and pressure of the medium from
which the fresh charge goes:
q v = G,/Go = V,/Vo = M,IMo (3.14)
where G,, V,, M a is an actual amount of fresh charge passed into
the engine cylinder during the induction process in kg, m3, moles,
respectively; Go, V,, M , is an amount of charge which would fill
the piston displacement a t p o and T o (or p k and Tk)in kg, m3,
moles, respectively.
From equation (3.12) of heat balance, the volumetric efficiency
along the intake line is associated with other parameters character-
istic of the flow of the induction process.
For the four-stroke engines, cylinder scavenging and charge-up
being included, we have
For the four-stroke engines with scavenging and charge-up neglect-

ed (cp, = cp,, = 1)
The volumetric efficiency mainly depends on the engine cycle

events, its speed and perfection of the valve timing.
Referring to expressions (3.15) and (3.16), the volumetric effi-
ciency increases with an increase'in the pressure a t the end of induc-
tion and decreases with an increase in the exhaust pressure and tem-
perature of working mixture.
Volumetric efficiencies q, for various types of automotive engines
operating under full load vary within the limits:
Carburettor engines . . . . ........... 0.70-0,90
Unsupercharged diesel engines .......... 0.80-0,94
Supercharged engines . . . . ........... 0,80-0.97
3.2, COMPRESSION PROCESS

During compression process in the engine cylinder the temperature
and pressure of the working medium inczease, and this provides
reliable ignition and effective fuel combustion.
The pressure variation during the compression process is shown
in Fig. 3.3. Under real conditions the compression follows an intricate
law which practically does not obey the thermodynamic relation-
ships, for the temperature and pressure in this process are under the
influence (in addition to changes in the working medium heat capa-
Ca. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE 55
of the following factors: leaks of gases through the gaps of the

piston rings, extra charging (charge-up) of the cylinder till the intake
valves are closed, changes in the direction and intensity of heat
exchange between the working mixture and the cylinder Galls, fuel
evaporation (in the spark-ignition engines only), beginning of fuel
ignition a t the end of the compression process.
As a matter of convention, t,he compression process in a real cycle
is assumed to follow a polytropic curve with a variable index nl
(the adc curve in Fig. 3.3)
which a t the start of comp-
ression (line ad) exceeds
the specific-heat ratio k,
(heat is transferred from
the hotter walls of the cy-
linder to the working me-
dium), at a certain point
(point d) becomes equal
to k, (the wall temperatu-
re and working medium
temperature are balanced),
and t,hen (line dc) beco-
mes smaller than k , (heat
is transferred from the work- Fig. 3.3. Pressure variation during the com-
ing medium to the cylin- pression process
der walls).
: In view of the difficulty in determining the variable value nl
and resultant complication of the computations, the usual practice
is to assume the compression process to follow a polytropk curve
with a constant index n, (curve aaUc'c) whose value provides the
same work on the compression line as is the case with variable
index nl.
The compression process computations consist of determining
the compression mean polytropic index n,, parameters of the compres-
sion end ( p , and T,) and specific heat of working medium a t the end
of compression (mc+)fr ( t , is mixture temperature a t the end of
compression, "C).
The value of n, is defined against empirical data, depending on
the engine speed, compression ratio, cylinder size, material of the
piston and cylinder, heat transfer and other factors. For the compres-
sion process is fairly fast (0.015-0.005 s in design condition), the
overall heat exchange between the working medium and the cylinder
walls during the compression process remains negligible and the
value of n, may be evaluated by the mean specific-heat ratio k,.
By the nomograph shown in Fig. 3.4, the value of k, is determined
for the corresponding values of e and T,. The nomograph is plotted
a s a result of jointly solving two equations associating k, with T,,
56 PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CRARACTERISTICS
Pig. 3.4. Nomograph for determining compression specific-heat ratio ic,
T,, e and air specific heat (mcv):r:

k, = 1 +- (log T, - log T,)/log E (3.17)
k, =1 -+8.315/(mcv):r (3.18)
CH. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCIJ3
where
The nomograph may be more exact, if the working mixture specific

heat (mc;)fz is substituted in formula (3.18) for the air specific
heat (mev):?.
The values of compression polytropic indices 7t, versus k, are defin-
ed within the following limits:
.........
Carburettor engines (k,-0.00) t o (k,- 0.04)
Diesel engines ........... +
(k, 0.02) t o (k,-0.02)
The values of E and T , being equal for both types of engines, the
value of n, is usually lower for carburettor engines than for diesel
engines, because the fuel-air mixture compression process involves
fuel evaporation with heat consumption. Besides, the presence of
fuel vapours increases the working mixture specific heat. Both fact,ors
reducethe value of n,.
When defining the value of n, against the corresponding specific
heat ratio, it is essential to keep in mind that nl increases with
engine speed and also with a decrease in the ratio of the cooling
surface to the cylinder volume. Increasing the mean temperature of
the compression process and enhancing the engine cooling intensity
decrease the value of nl. The other things being equal, the value of
nl is higher for air-cooled engines than that of engines using a liquid
coolant. Changing-over from an open cooling system to a close-loop
system also raises the value of n,.
The pressure in MPa and temperature in K a t the end of compres-
sion process are determined from the equation with a constant
polytropic exponent of n,:
P C = pa&"'
T, = Taenl-l
In modern automobile and tractor engines the pressure and tem-
perature a t the end of compression vary within the limits:
Carburettor engines . . . . . . . . p, =0.9 to 2.0 MPa and
T,=600 to 800 K
High-speed unsupercharged diesel
engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . p,=3.5 to 5.50MPaand
T,=700 to 900 K
With supercharged diesel engines the values of p , and T c rise,
depending on the extent of supercharging.
The mean molar specific heat of fresh mixture a t the end of comp-
ression is taken equal to the air specific heat and determined against
Table 1.5 or by the formula in Table 1.6 within the temperature
range 0-1500°C. The mean molar specific heat of residual gases a t the
end of compression (rnct):: [kJ/(krnole deg)] can be determined

directly against Table 1.7 for a gasoline or against Table 1.8 for
a diesel fuel.
When ( m c j ) : cannot
~ be determined against these tables (due to
different elemental composition of the fuel), i t is determined by the
equation
+
(mck2)e):r fMivr (mcbN,)frf ~(mcjoz):~]
20 (3.22)
where the mean molar specific heats of individual constituents of
the combustion products are determined against Table 1.5 or by
the formulae in Table 1.6 within the temperature range 0-1500°C.
The mean molar specific heat of working mixture (fresh mixture+
residual gases) is determined by the equation
lllfter the computations are made and the parameters of point c

are determined, the compression line is roughly corrected with
a view to taking into consideration the start of combustion. The
position of point c' (see Fig. 3.3) is dictated by the advance angle
(ignition timing). With modern high-speed engines the ignition
advance angle under normal operating conditions lies within 30-40"
and the injection timing angle-within 15-25', The position of point f
(separation of the combustion line from the compression line) is
determined by the delay of working mixture ignition. As this hap-
pens, the pressure a t the end of compression roughly rises to pc. =
= 1 5 - 2 5 )p (point c").
3.3. COMBUSTION PROCESS
The combustion process is the principal process of the engine

working cycle during which the heat produced by fuel combustion
is utilized to enhance the internal energy of the working medium and
to perform mechanical work.
FOP pressure variation during the fuel combustion process i n
a carburettor spark-ignition engine, see Fig. 3.5 and in a diesel
engine, Fig. 3.6. The curves clfc"z, schematically show actual pressu-
re ariat ti on in the engine cylinders during the combustion process.
In real engines the process of fuel burning, more exactly of after-
burning, continues after point z, on the expansion line.
The flow of the combustion process is under the influence of many
diverse factors, such as parameters of induction and compression
processes, quality of fuel atomization, engine speed, etc. How the
parameters of the combustion process depend upon a number of
CE. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL C Y C U 59
factors, and also the physical and chemical nature of the engine
fuel combustion process are studied yet insufficiently.
With a view to making the thermodynamic computations of auto-
mobile and tractor engines easier, it is assumed that the combustion
Fig. 3.5. Pressure variation

during the combustion pro-
cess in a carburettor engine
process in the spark-ignition engines occurs a t V coonstant, e.g. is

represented by an isochore (straight line ce"z in Fig. 3.5) and in the
Fig. 3.6. Pressure variation

during the combustion pro-
cess in a diesel engine
compression-ignition engines a t V constant and p constant, e. g.

follows the combined cycle (straight lines cc"z' and z'z in Fig. 3.6).
The objective of combustion process computations is to determine
the temperature and pressure a t the end of visible combustion
(points z and 2,) plus volume V , for a diesel engine.
The gas temperature T, at the end of visible combustion is deter-

mined on the basis of the First Law of thermodynamics according
to which dQ = dU -+
dL. As to automobile and tractor engines
H, - Qloss = ( U r - U,) + L C , for combustion a t a 1
(3.24)
(Hu- AHu) - Ql,,, = (U,- U,) $ L C ,for combustio~la t a < 1
where H , is the lower heat of combustion, k J ; QI,,, are heat losses

due to convective heat transfer, fuel after-burning on t.he expansion
and dissociation line, kJ ; U , is the internal energy of gases at the
end of visible combustion, k J ; U , is the internal energy of working
mixture a t the end of compression, kJ; L C , is the heat used for gas
expansion work from point c t o point z ( L C ,= 0 for spark-ignition
engines), k J .
The heat balance over sections cz may be written in a shorter form:
where 5%= [ ( H , - AH,) - Qloss]/(Hu- AH,) is the coefficient

of heat utilization over visible heat section cz.
The coefficient g, stands for the fraction of lower heat of combus-
tion utilized to increase the internal energy of gas ( U , - U,) and
to accomplish the work LC,.
The value of the coefficient of heat utilization is taken on the basis
of experimental data, depending upon the engine construction, mode
of engine operation, cooling system, shape of the combustion chamb-
er, method of mixing, excess .air factor and engine speed.
According to experimental data the value of g, for engines operat-
ing under full load varies within the limits:
Carburettor engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80-0.95
High-speed diesel engines with open combustion
chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.70-0.88
Diesel engines with divided combustion chambers 0.65-0.80
Gas engines ................... 0.80-0.85
Smaller heat utilization factors are characteristic of engines with
unperfect mixing. The value of e,is increased on account of reducing
gas heat losses to the walls, selecting perfect shape combustion chamb-
ers, reducing aftercornbustion during the expansion process and
selecting a n excess air factor providing for accelerated combustion
of working mixture. The value of the heat utilization coefficient g,
CH. 3. ANALYSIS OF -%CTUALCYCLE 61
is also dependent on t,he engine speed and load and, as a rule, i t

decreases with a lower load and speed.
The computation combustion equations for automobile and tractor
engines are obtainable by transforming the heat balance equations
(3.26) and (3.27) (see line sections cz in Figs. 3.5 and 3.6).
For the engines operating by a cycle with heat added a t a constant
volume, the combustion equation has the form:
where H,*, is the working mixture combustion heat determined by

equations (12 7 ) or (1.28); (mc;)if is the mean molar specific heat
of the working mixture a t the end compression process as determin-
ed by equation (3.23); (mc;i):: is the mean molar specific heat of
combustion products as determined by Eq. (1.32).
For the engines operating with heat added at constant volume
and pressure, the equation takes the form
where = p , / p , is the pressure increase; 2270 = 8.315 X 273.

The value of the pressure increase for diesel engines is defined
against experimental data, depending mainly on the quantity of fuel
supplied to the cylinder, shape of the combustion chamber and mix-
ing method. Besides, the value of h is influenced by the fuel igni-
tion delay period an increase in which raises the pressure increase as
follows:
h = 1.6 to 2.5 for diesel engines with open combustion chambers
and volumetric mixing;
h = 1.2 to 1.8 for swirl-chamber and prechamber diesel engines
and for diesel engines with open combustion chambers and film mix-
ing;
the value of h for supercharged diesel engines is determined by the
permissible values of temperature and pressure at the end of visible
comb~zs tion process.
Combustion equations (3.28) and (3.29) include two unknown
quantities: temperature a t the end of visible combustion t , and
specific heat of combustion products at constant volume (rnc5):f or
constant pressure (rnc;):: a t the same temperature t ,. Defining
(mc"y)::or (mc",)ff against the tabulated data (see Table 1.5), the
combustion equations are solvable for t , by the successive appro-
ximation method (selection of t ,). When (mc?):: or (rnc~;)::is determ-
ined by means of approximate formulae (see Table l.6), the combus-
tion equations take the form of a quadratic equation after substitut-
ing in them numerical values for all known parameters and subse-
quent transformations
At: + Bt, - C = 0
where A , B, and C are numerical values of known quantities.
Hence
+ +
t , = ( -B V.B2 ~ A C ) / ( ~ A"C) ,and T,= t , $273 K
Defining the value of pressure p , a t the end of combustion is de-
pendent on the nature of the cycle being accomplished.
For engines operating with heat added a t constant volume, press-
ure (MPa)
Pr =pc~Tz/Tc (3.31)
and the pressure increase
= PJP~ (3.32)
For carburettor engines h = 3.2 to 4.2 and for gas engines h = 3
to 5.
FOPengines operating with heat added at constant volume and
pressure
P Z = AP,
while the preexpansion ratio
For diesel engines p = 1.2 to 1.7.

The piston pumping volume during the preexpansion process
After the computation has been accomplished and the coordinates

of points z and z' obtained, the computed lines of combustion are
approximated to the actual lines.
- -
For engine operating by a cycle with heat added at constant vol-

ume (see Fig. 3 3 , p,, = 0.85 p,. The position of point f dependent
on the duration of ignition delay is determined by angle A n vary-
ing within the limits 5-18 degrees of the crankshaft angle. The
position of point z, on the horizontal line is determined by the per-
missible rate of pressure growth per degree of the crankshaft angle
A p l A q , where Ap = p,, - p,., while Acp, for carburettor engines
lies within the limits 8-12 degrees of the crankshaft angle. With mo-
dern carburettor engines permissible operation may be a t
ApplAq, = 0.1 to 0.4 MPaldeg of the crankshaft angle. At
Ap/Av, ( 0.1 the aftercombustion on the expansion line materially
increases which affects the engine economy, while a t Ap/Acp2 > 0.4
an increase in the rate of pressure growth makes the operation more
tough with resultant premature wear and even damage to the engine
parts.
For diesel engines operating by a compound cycle (see Fig. 3.6)
PZ. = p r The position of point f dictated by the duration of i gni-
tion delay (0.001-0.003 s) is determined by the value of angle Acp,

which (for automotive diesel engines) varies wit,hin 8-12 degrees
of crankshaft angle.
As the case is with the engines with heat added a t c.onst,ant~ o l n ~ n e ,
the position of point z , on t.he horizontal line is determined by the
value of ApIAcp,. For diesel engines the permissible rate of pressure
growth ApjAcp, = 0.2 to 0.5 MPa/deg of crankshaft angle. For the
diesel engines with volun~etricmixing the maximum rate of pre,,cquse
growth AplAcp, may reach 1.0 to 1.2 MPaIdeg of wtnkshaft angle
at Acp, = 6 t o 10 degrees of crankshaft angle after T.D.C.
For modern automotive engines operating under full load the
values of temperature and pressure at the end of combustion vary
within the following limits:
Carburettor engines ....... Tz= 2400 t o 2900 K

pZ =3.5 to 7.5 MPa
p,,=3.0 to 6.5 MPa
Diesel engines ......... T,=-=2800 to 2300K
p, = p , , -- 5.0 Do 12.0 MPa
Gas engines .......... Tz= 2200 t o 2500 K
p, =3.0 to 5.0 MPa
p,, ==2.5 to 4.5 MPa
The lower temperatures at the end of combustion in diesel engines
as compared t o carburettor and gas engines are due to a greater value
of excess air factor a and, therefore, greater losses of heat for air
heating, a smaller value of the heat utilization coefficient Ez over
the visible combustion section, differences in the flow of combustion
and aftercombustion process during expansion, and partial. ut iliza-
tion of heat to perform work during the preexpansion process (section
2'2).
3.4. EXPANSION PROCESS
As a result of the expansion process the fuel heat energy is convert-

ed into mechanical work.
For pressure variation during the expansion process, see Fig. 3.7.
Curves z,b 'b" schematically show actual pressure varying in the
engine cylinders during the expansiori process. In real engines ex-
, pansion follows an intricate law dependent on heat exchange he-
>, tween the gases and surrounding walls, amount of heat added due
: to fuel afterburning and recovery of dissociation products, gas leaks
: at loose joints, reduction of combustion product specific heat because
q of the temperature drop during expansion, decrease in the amount
( of gases because of the start of exhaust (the exhaust valve opens near
' the end of the expansion stroke).
k-
As the case is with the compression process, a conventional as-

sumption is made t,hat the expansion process in a real cycle follows
a polytropic curve \\-itch a variable exponent which a t first varies
from 0 to '1 (the fuel aftercombustion is so intensive that the gas
temperature rises t,hough the expansion is taking place). Then it
rises and reaches the value of the specific-heat ratio (heat release
Fig. 3.7. Pressure variation during the expansion process

( a ) carburettor engine; ( b ) diesel engine
due to fuel aftercombustion and recovery of dissociation products

drops and becomes equal to heat dissipation due to the heat exchange
and gas leakage in loose joints), and, finally, it exceeds the specific-
heat. ratio (the heat release becomes less than the heat dissipation).
In order to make the computations easier the expansion process
curve is usually taken as a polytropic curve with constant index
n2 (curves zb'b in Fig. 3.7).
The value of the mean expansion polytropic exponent n, is de-
fined against experimental data depending on a number of factors.
The value of n, grows with an increase in the heat utilization coef-
ficient, ratio of the piston stroke S t o cylinder bore B and in the
rate of cooling. With a growth of the load and an increase in the
linear dimensions of the cylinder (at SIB constant), the mean poly-
tropic index n , decreases. With an increase in the engine speed, the
value of n,, as a rule, decreases, but not with all types of engines and
not a t all speeds.
As according to the experimental data the mean value of the
polytropic index n, differs, but little, from the specific-heat ratio
k,, and as a rule, moves down, the value of n, in designing new engin-
es may be evaluated by the value of k , for the associated values of
E (or S), a and T z . The expansion adiabatic exponent is determined
in this event through the joint solution of two equations:
k, = 1+(log Tz- log T b ) / l o ge for carburettor engines (3.36)
a 8. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE 65
Fig. 3.8. Nomograph to determine expansion adiabatic index k, for a carburet-

tor engine
or kz==l +(log Tz- log T,)/log 6 for diesel engines (3.37)
and k , - I 1+ 8.315/(mc+)$ (3.38)

'\ where
b
J.
'r 2 (rnc;):; = [(rnc;);: t, - t,~!(t,- t,) (3-39)
U
- These equations are solved by selecting k , and T b with much

c
,;:difficulty and varying degree of accuracy. In order t o make the corn-

:. !putat ions o n defining k , easier, nornographs are plotted (Figs. 3.8
,".-
\
1 and 3.9) on the basis of the set of equations (3.36) through (3.39)
%
y4 5--0946
Fig. 3.9. Nomegraph to determine expansion adiabatic index k, for a diesel engine
and the formulae (see Table 1.6) t o determine mean molar specific
heats of combustion products.
Determining k , against the nornographs is accomplished as follows.
A point associated with the value of k , a t a = 1is determined against
the available values of E (or S for a diesel engine) and T z . To find
the value of k , with a specified, the obtained point must be displacetl
along the horizontal line to the vertical line corresponding to a = 3
and then in parallel with the auxiliary curyes up to the vertical
line corresponding to the specified value of a. Figures 3.8 and 3.9
show the determination of k , for designed carburettor and diesel
engines.
The mean values of n, obtained from the analysis of indicator

diagrams for various modern automobile and tractor engines v a r y
within the limits (under design load):
...............
Carburettor engines 1.23 to 1.30
Diesel engines ................. 1.18 to 1.28
Gas engines . . . ............... 1.25 to 1.35
The values of pressure in MPa and temperature in K a t the end
of expansion process are determined by the formulae of the polytrop-
ic process. With the engines operating in a cycle
with heat added a t constant volume
with heat added a t constant volume and pressure
where 6 = e/p is the degree of subsequent expansion.

Suggested values of pressure p b and temperature T b for modern
automobile and tractor unsupercharged engines (under design ope-
rating conditions) lie within the limits:
Carburettor engines ....... pb =0.35 t o 0.60 hiPa and
TI,=1200 to 1700K
For diesel engines ........ pb=0.20 to 0.50 MPa and
T b =lo00 to 1200 K
3.5. EXHAUST PROCESS AND METHODS OF POLLUTION CONTROL.

During the exhaust the waste gases are withdrawn out of the
engine cylinder.
For the pressure variation during the exhaust process in a cylinder
of an unsupercharged four-stroke engine, see Fig. 3.10, and in a
supercharged engine, Fig. 3.11. Curves btb"r'da' schematically show
the actual variation of the pressure in an engine cylinder during the
exhaust process. Points b' and a' on these curves stand for the open-
ing and closing points of the exhaust valves, respectively. Straight
lines bl and Zr are exhaust process computation lines and curves
b"r'r are approximately substituted for them after the coordinates
of points b and r have been defined.
Opening the exhaust valve before the piston reaches B.D.C. re-
duces useful work of expansion (area btbb"b') and improves t h e
removal of combustion products and also reduces the work required
to exhaust the waste gases. I n modern engines the exhaust valve
5*
opens 40 to 80 degrees before B.D.C. (point b'). This is the instant

waste gases start outflow at a critical velocity of 600-700 m/s. Dur-
ing this period ending near B.D.C. 60-70 % of waste gases in unsu-
percharged engines and somewhat later with supercharging are ex-
Fig. 3.10. Pressure variation du-

ring the exhaust process in an un-
supercharged engine
hausted. With the piston travel towards T.D.C. the gases are ex-
hausted a t a velocity of 200-250 m/s and near the end of exhaust the
velocity does not exceed 60-100 m/s. The mean velocity of gas out-
Fig. 3.11. Pressure variation during

the exhaust process in a superchar-
0 T0.C. B.D.C. v gedengine
flow during the period of exhaust under nominal operating condi-

tions lies within 60-150 m/s.
The exhaust valve is closed 10-50 degrees after T.D.C. in order to
add t o the quality of clearing the cylinder because of the ejection
property of the gas flow leaving the cylinder a t a high velocity.
Computations of the intake process (see Section 3.1) are start,ed
with defining the exhaust process parameters ( p , and T,), whilst
the accuracy of selecting the residual gas pressure and temperature
is checked by the formula
When designing an engine, attempts are made to reduce the value

of p , in order t o avoid an increase in pumping losses and coefficient
of residual gases. Besides, an increase in the exhaust pressure de-
creases the coefficient of admission, affects the combustion process
and increases the temperature and amount of residual gases. In-
creasing the pressure a t the end of exhaust in the case of turbocharg-
ing is, as a rule, fully compensated for by an increase in the intake
pessure (Fig. 3.11).
CE. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCIZ 69
The rapid growth of vehicle and tractor population urgently poses

in the recent years problems of controlling emissions from engines in
service. The main source of air pollution from the engines in service
is formed by combustion products of which toxic constituents are
carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NO,) and hydrocarbons
(C,H,). Besides, hydrocarbons find their way to atmosphere in t h e
form of fuel and oil vapours from the tanks, fuel pumps, carburet-
tors, and crankcases. According to certain data 121 one automobile
engine throws into the atmosphere about 600 kg of carbon monoxide
and 40 kg of nitrogen oxides per year.
From the design point of view the problem of reducing toxicity i s
being solved in three aspects.
1. Improvement of working process in the existing types of in-
ternal combustion piston engines with the view to materially reduce
toxic emissions both from combustion products and from vapours of
fuel and oil. The use of various techniques to control mixing pro-
cesses (an example is an electronic ignition fuel system) and com-
bustion processes (an example is improvement of combustion chamb-
ers), deboosting the engines on account of decreasing the compres-
sion ratio and engine speeds, crankcase ventilation, selection of
combustion mixtures with less toxicity of combustion products and
a series of other measures allow us even today to materially reduce
air pollution from the automobile and tractor engines in service.
2. Development of additional devices (neutralizers, traps, after-
burners) and their use on engines make it possible to this or t h a t
degree to deprive c,ombustion products of toxic constituents.
3. Development of engines new in principle (electric, flywheel.
energy storing) which allow the problem of air pollution from auto-
motive engines to be challenged and completely solved in distant
future. However, application of electric vehicles in large cities for
specialized purposes within the city can even in the nearest future
perceptibly reduce emissions of toxic constituents to the atmosphere.
From the standpoint of operating automobile and tractor engines
now in use this problem is met by imposing more stringent require-
ments on the adjustment of fuel supply equipment, systems and
devices involved in mixing and combustion, wider use of gaseous
fuels whose combustion products possess less toxicity, and also by
modifying gasoline engines to operate on gaseous fuels.
3.6. INDICATED PARAMETfiRS OF WORKING CYCLE

The working cycle of an internal-combustion engine is evaluated
in terms of mean indicated pressure, indicated power and indicated
efficiency.
The indicated pressure. How the pressure varies during the entire
- Working cycle of spark-ignition and diesel engines is shown on in-
Fig. 3.12. Indicator diagram

of a carburettor engine
dicator diagrams (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13). The area of nonrounded

diagrams (aczba) expresses to a certain scale the theoretical design
work of gases per engine cycle. When referred to the piston stroke
this work is the theoretical mean indicated pressure pi. When p: is
determined graphically against the indicator diagram (Figs. 3.12
and 3.13) it is necessary to take the following steps:
(a) determine the area under curve ac (the work utilized to com-
press the working mixture) and after having referred it to the piston
stroke, obtain the value of mean pressure of compression process
Pac;
(b) determine the area under curve zb (Fig. 3.12) or under curve
z'zb (Fig. 3.13) which expresses the work of expansion. After having
referred this area to the piston stroke, determine the mean pressure
of expansion process p Z b or p ,rZb;
(c) determine pi = P b - pa, for a carburettor engine or
p; = p Z t r b- pat for a diesel engine;
(d) compare the area of the shaded rectangle having sides pf and
,.
V h with the area of indicator diagram ac (2') zba. If pa,, p ,b ( p , b )
a n d pi are determined correctly, the areas being compared should
be equal.
For a carburettor engine (Fig. 3.12) operating in a cycle with heat
added at constant volume, the theoretical mean indicated pressure
CB. 3. ANALYSIS O F ACTUAL CYCLE
Fig. 3.13. Indicator diag-

ram of a diesel engine
is as follows
For a diesel engine operating in a combined combustion cycle

(Fig. 3.13) the theoretical mean indicated pressure is
The mean indicated pressure p i of an actual cycle differs from the

value of pf by a value in proportion to the reduction in the design
diagram because of rounding off at points c, z, b.
A decrease in the theoretical mean indicated pressure as a result
of the fact that the actual process departs from the design process
is evaluated by the coefficient of diagram rounding-off cp, and the
value of pumping loss mean pressure Api.
a The coefficient of diagram rounding-off cp, is taken as equal to:
; Carburett or engines . . . . . .. . . .. .... 0.94-0.97
Diesel engines . . .. .... . . . . .. .. .. 0.92-0.95
The mean pressure of pumping losses in MPa in the intake and

exhaust processes
API = P r - P o (3.47)
With four-stroke unsupercllarged engines the value of A p i is posit-
ive. In engines superchargeck by a driven supercharger a t p , > p,,
the value of A p i i,.: negat il-e. With exhaust turbosupercharging the
value of p a may be either greater or less than p,, e.g. the value of
A p i may be either negative or positive.
When performing design computation5 , ga5 exchange losses are
talien into account in the m70rk to overcome rnecharlical losses, since
in determining friction work csperimentally, use is generally made
of the engine motoring method and naturally the losses due t o pump-
ing strokes are taken into account in the mechanical losses caused
by engine motoring and determined by this method. In view of this
the mean indicated pressure p i is taken to differ from pi only by the
coefficient of diagram rounding-off
When operating under full load the value of p i (in MPa) is:
Four-stroke carburettor engines . . . ... . . . . 0.6-1.4
Four-stroke carbure.ttor hopped-up engines.... up to 1.6
Four-stroke .. .. .
unsupercharged diesel engines 0.7-1 -1
Four-stroke supercharged diesel engines...... up t o 2.2
Less values of mean indicated pressure in llnsupercharged diesel
engines as compared with carburcttor engiucs are accountetl for by the
fact that the diesel engines operate wit11 a greater excess air factor.
This results in incomplete nlilization of the cylinder displacement
and extra heat losses caused by heating the excess air.
The indicated power. The indicated power of an engine, AT,, is
the work performed by gases inside the cylinders in unit time.
For a multi-cylinder engine the indicated power in klLr:
where p i is the mean indicated pressure in ,\.[Pa; V h is the displace-

ment of a cylinder, I (dm3); i is the number of cylinders; n is the
engine speed, rpm; T is the engine number of cycle events.
With four-stroke engines
The indicated power of a cylinder
The indicated efficiency and specific indicated fuel consumption.

The indicated efficiency q i is characteristic of the extent of the fuel
heat consumption in an actual cycle to obt,ain useful work. It re-

present's t'he rat,io of heat equivalent to the indicated cycle work t,o
the overall amount of heat admitted to t,lle cylinder with the fuel.
For 1 kg of fuel
qi = LiIHu (3.52)
where Liis the heat equivalent t o the indicated work in AIJlkg; I$,,
is the lower heat of fuel combustion in hf Jlkg.
Therefore, the indicated efficiency accounts for all heat losses
of an actual cycle.
With automobile and tractor engines operating on a liquid fnel
where pi is in BIPa; I , is in kglkg of fuel; H,, is in JlJIkg of fuel;

P k is in kg/m3.
With automobile and tractor engines operating on gaseous fuel
where 174; is in molelmole of fuel; T k is in K: p i and p , are in MPa,

H , is in MJ/m3.
In modern automobile and tractor engines operating under norn-
inal operating conditions the vi1111e of indicated efficiency is as
follows:
Carburettor engines ................ 0.26-0.35
Diesel engines . . ................ 0.38-0.50
Gas engines . . . . ................ 0.28-0.34
With t,he value of indicated efficiency known, the specific indicat-
ed fuel consumption of liquid fuel [g/(kW h)]
With engines operating on a gaseous fuel the specific indicated

consumption of fuel [ni3/(kW h)]
while the specific consumption of heat per unit power [hfJ/(kW h)]:
In formulae (3.55) througll (3.57) p j and p are in hl Pa; ph is in

kg/m3; H , in MJlkg; H ; is in MJ/m3; I , is in kgikg of fuel; M i is
in mole/mole of fuel, T k is in K.
The specific values of fnel consumption i11 design conditions for
......
Carburettor engines
Diesel engines . .
Gas engines
.......
...........
-
gi=235 to 320 g/(kW h)
gi 170 to 230 g/(kW h)
qi = 10.5 to 13.5 MJ/(kFV h )
74 PART OXE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
3.7. EYGIXE PERFORRfASCE FIGURES
The parameters characteristic of the engine operation differ from

t,he indicated parameters in that some usef~zlwork is utilized to
.overcome various mechanical resistances (friction in the crank gear,
driving t,he auxiliaries and supercharger, etc.) and t,o accomplish
the intake and exhaust processes.
Mechanical losses. Losses due to overcoming various resistances
are evaluated by the value of m e c h a ~ ~ i closs
a l power or the value of
work corresponding t,o the mechanical loss power related to unit
displacement.
When carrying out preliminary computations on engines, mechan-
ical losses evaluated in terms of mean pressure p , may be approxim-
at,ely defined by the linear dependences on the mean piston speed
U p . m (for selection of values of u,.,, see Chapter 4).
Given below are empirical formulae to determine the values of
p , in MPa for engines of ~ ~ a r i o utypes:
s
for carburettor engines having up to six cylinders and a ratio
SI.B > 1
p , = 0.049 $ 0.O152up., (3.58)
for carburettor eight-cylinder engines having a ratio SIB <1
for carburett.or engines having up to six cylinders and a ratio

SIB 1 <
for four-stroke diesel engines having open combustion chambers
for prechamber diesel engines
for swirl-chamber diesel engines
The mean pressure of mechanical losses p , is computed by the

formulae (3.58) through (3.63), neglecting the quality of the oils
used, thermal condition of the engine, type of surface friction and
supercharging. Therefore, prior to using the values of p,, obtained
by the above formulae, they should be properly scrutinized.
When a driven supercharger (mechanical supercharging) is used
t,he losses in the engine increase by the value of its drive power.
Mean effective pressure. The mean effective pressure p , is the
ratio of the effective work on the engine crankshaft to unit displace-
ment. In the engine computatioris, p , is determined by the mean
indicated pressure
P e = Pi -Pm
For the engines with mechanical supercharging
Pe =P i - Pm- Ps (3.65)
where p, are the supercharger drive pressure losses.
Under nominal loads, the values of mean effective pressure p ,
in MPa lrary within the following limits:
Four-stroke carbure t tor engines ........ 0.6 to 1.1
...
Four-stroke oarburettor hopped-up engines up to 1.3
...
Four-stroke unsupercharged diesel engines 0.55 to 0.85
....
Four-stroke supercharged diesel engines up to 2.0
Two-stroke high-speed diesel engines ..... 0.4 to 0.75
Gas engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 0.5 to 0.75
The conditions of utilizing the cylinder displacement improve
with growth in the mean effective pressure and this makes it possible
t o create lighter and more compact engines.
There was a tendency for a long period of time to constantly in-
crease p , in creating automobile and tractor engines. However, dur-
-ing the last decade this tendency perceptibly changed because of
requirements to control toxicity of engines in use. Thus, the modern
automobile and tractor engines are known for preservation or even
a certain decrease in p , with a steep drop in the emission toxicity
due to better working processes, use of high-grade fuels, improve-
ment of the fuel system and use of supercharging.
Mechanical efficiency. The ratio of the mean effective pressure
to the indicated pressure is mechanical efficiency of an engine:
With an increase in engine losses, q, decreases. When the load

of a carburettor engine is decreased, p , substantially increases due
to an increase in gas exchange losses. Under idling conditions pi = p ,
and q, -- 0.
The value of mechanical efficiency grows with a decrease in the
losses caused by friction and driving the auxiliaries, and also with
increasing the load to a certain limit.
According to experimental data, the mechanical efficiency for
various engines operating under design condition varies within the
following limits:
. .....
Four-stroke unsupercharged diesel engines 0.7-0.82
Four-st roke supercharged diesel engines (not inclu-
ding p o ~ ~ ~losses . . . . . 0.8-0.9
e r on the supercharger)
Two-s t roke diesel engines. . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7-0.85
Gas engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75-0.85
56 PART ONE. W O R K I N G PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Effective power. This is the power a t the engine crankshaft. per

unit. time and designated f i e . The value of N , in kW can be determ-
ined by the indicated power through the mechanical efficiency:
where p , is in NPa, V J lis in litres, n is in rprn.

The effective power versus the basic engine parameters is expressed
by the following relationship:
where V h is in litres; n is in rpm; If, is in J1J/lig; pk is in kg/m3.

I t follows from the analysis of expression (3.65) that the effective
(net) power of an engine can be generally increased on account of:
(a) increasing the cylinder displacement (an increase in the linear
dimensions of cylinder bore and piston stroke);
(b) increasing the number of cylinders;
(c) increasing tlie engine speed;
(d) change-over from a four-stroke to a two-stroke cycle;
(e) increasing the lower heat of fuel combustion;
(f) increasing the charge density and coefficient of admission (for
esample, by supercharging and also on account of improving the
gas exchange, decreasing intake and exhaust resistances, use of
inertia supercharging to increase the charge-up, etc.);
(g) increasing the indicated efficiency (due to improving the com-
bustion process and reduction of fuel heat losses during t'he compres-
sion and expansion processes) ;
(h) increasing the mechanical efficiency of the engine (for example,
due to use of high-grade oils, reduction of contacting surfaces, de-
creasing pumping losses, etc.).
Effective (thermal) el ficiency and effective specific fuel consump-
tion. The effective efficiency 4, and the effective specific fuel con-
sumption g e are characteristic of engine economical operation.
The ratio of an amount of heat equivalent to the useful work ap-
plied to the engine crankshaft to the total amount of heat admitted
to the engine with the fuel is called the effective efficiency:
where L , is the heat equivalent to the effective work in MJ/kg of

fuel; H , is the lower heat of fuel combustion in NIJ/kg of fuel.
The relation between the effective efficiency and mechanical
efficiency of an engine is determined by the expression:
-
"le - T i q m (3.70)
With the engines operating on a liquid fuel
I;Vit,h the engine operating on a gaseous fuel
The effective efficiency is characteristic of how the fuel heat is

utilized in the engine with due considerat.ions to all losses, thermal
or mechanical.
The values of the effective efficiency under design condition are:
Diesel engines . . ................ 0.35-0.40
Gas engines . . . ................ 0.23-0.30
Higher values of effective efficiency q , in diesel engines compared
with carburettor engines are mainly due to their higher values of
excess air factor and, therefore, more complete combustion of the
fuel.
The effective specific fuel consumption [gi(kW h)] of a liquid fuel
For the engines operating on a gaseous fuel, tJhe effective spec$ific

fuel consuluption [m3/(kW h) ]
and the specific heat consumption [MJ/(kW h)] per unit effective
power
(3.75)
q e = veXf; = 9 ' 7 0 0 ~ 1 ~ 1 l ~ H ~ / ( p ~ M : ~ )
For the modern automotive engines the effective specific fuel
consumption under nominal load is as follows:
Carburett'or engines ........ g, =250 t o 325 g/(kVJ h)
Diesel engines with open chambers (2,=210 t o 245 g/(kW h)
Prechamber and swirl-chamber die-
sel engines ........... g, - 230 t o 280 g/(k?V h)
Gas engines, specific heat consurnp-
tion ............... q, = 12 to 17 MJ/(kIV hl
Cylinder-size eHects. If t h e effective power of an engine is spe-
cified and the SIB ratio is seleet'ed (for the selection of SIB, see
Chapter 4), then the basic structural parameters of the engine (cylin-
der bore and piston stroke) are determined as follows.
The engine displacement in litres is determined by the effective
,power, engine speed and effective pressure
where iV, is in kW; p , is in NIPa and n is in rpm.

The displacement of a cylinder in litres
The cylinder bore (diameter) in mm
The piston stroke in mm

S = BSIB
The obtained values of B and S are rounded off to the nearest

integers, zero or five. The resultant values of B and S are then used
to determine the basic parameters and figures of the engine:
The engine displacement in litzes
The effect.ive power in kW

N, =p ,Vln/(30.c)
The effective torque in N m

T ,= (3 x 1O41n)( N ,In) (3.82)
The fuel consumption in kgih
The mean piston speed in m/s

r ~ ~ =, . sn~ / ( 3 x i o 4 )
If the value of up., adopted previously is not equal to that obtained
by formnla (3.84) wlthin 4 per cent, the engine effective parameters
must be recomputed.
3.8. INDICATOR DIAGRAM

The indicator diagram of an internal-combustion engine is con-
structed wit,h the use of the working process computation data. When
plotting a diagram, i t is good practice to choose its scale values in
such a way that its height is 1.2 to 1.7 of its base. To begin the dia-
gram const,ruction, lay off straight-line segment AB on the X-axis
(Figs. 3.14 and 3.15) corresponding b,o the cylinder displacement and
equaling in value the piston stroke to scale M , which may be taken
as 1 : 1, 1.5 : 1 or 2 : 1, depending on the piston stroke.
The straight-line segment OA (in mm) corresponding to the com-
bustion chamber volume
ca. 3. ANALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE
Fig. 3.14. Analytically plot-

ting an indicator diagram
of a carburettor engine
The straight-line segment z'z for diesel engines operating in a cycle

with combined combi~stion(Fig. 3.15)
When plotting a diagram, it is recommended to clloose pressure

scale values M , = 0.02, 0.025, 0.04, 0.05, 0.0i-0.10 MPa per mm.
Then, the pressure values are laid off a t typical points a , c, zf, z,
b, r of the diagram t o the chosen scale against the data of thermal
cornput ation.
The compression and expansion polytropic curves may be con-
structed analytically or graphically. In the analytical mcthod of
constructing compression and expansion polytropic curres (Fig. 3.14)
a number of points associated with intermediate volumes located
between V , and V , and between V , and V bare computed by the poly-
tropic curve equation pVnl = const.
For a compression polytropic curve p,V;l = p,V;l, hence
where p, and V , are the pressure and volume a t the compression

process point being searched.
The ratio V , / V , varies within 1 - E .
QO PART OKE. WORICING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Fig. 3.15, Graphically plotting an indicator diagram of a supercharged diesel

engine
Similarly for an expansion polytropic curve we have
The ratio V I , / V , varies within 1 - E for carburettor engines and

within 1 - 6 for diesel engines.
When constructing the diagram analytically, it is convenient to
determine y-coordinates for compnt,ation points of compression and
expansion polytropic curves in a tabulated form (see Table 4.1 be-
low).
Connecting points a and c with a smooth curve passing through
the computed and plotted in the diagram field the points of the com-
pression polytropic curve and points z and b, with a curve passing
through the points of the expansion polytropic curve, and connecting
points c wit11 z and b with a with straight lines (when constructing
a diesel engine diagram, the point c is connected with a straight
CH. 3. -4NALYSIS OF ACTUAL CYCLE 81
line to point z ' , and z' to z , see Fig. 3.15), we obtain a computation
indicator diagram (except for pumping strokes). The exhaust and
intake processes are taken as flowing a t p constant and V constant
(straight lines bl, Zr, rr" and r"a, see Figs. 3.12 and 3.13).
In the graphical method, according t o - ~ r a u e r ' smost widely used
techniques, the compression and eipansion polytropic curves are
plotted as follows (Fig. 3.15).
From the origin point of the coordinates, OC is drawn a t an arbi-
trary angle a to the X-axis (in order to obtain enough points on the
polytropic curves it is good practice to take a = 15 degrees). Next
OD and OE are drawn from the origin point of coordinates a t certain
angles P, and CJ, to the Y-axis. These angles are determined from the
expressions:
tan = (1 + tan +
- 1; tan 6, = (1 tan a)% - 1
(3.89)
The compression polyt,ropic curve is const,ructed by means of OC
and OD. A horizontal line is drawn from point c until i t crosses the
Y-axis. From the crossing point a line is drawn a t 45 degrees to the
vertical line until i t crosses with OD, and from this point another
horizont.al line is drawn in parallel with the X-axis. Next, a vertical
line is drawn from point c until i t crosses OC and on a t 45 degrees to
the vertical line until i t crosses the X-axis, and from this point ano-
ther vertical line in parallel with the Y-axis until i t crosses another
horizont.al line. The cross point of these lines will be intermediate
point 1 of the polytropic curve. Point 2 is plott.ed in
a similar way, point I being taken as the start point for the con-
.struetion.
The expansion polytropic curve is plotted by means of OC and
OE starting with point z in a way similar to the compression poly-
tropic curve.
The obtained diagrams are c,omputa t ion indicat,or diagrams which
allow us to determine
= FfMP/AB (3.90)
where F' is the diagram area ac ( 2 ' ) zba in mma; M p is the pressure
scale, hlPa per mm; .4B is a straight line segment in mm.
When obtained by formula (3.90), the value of pf must equal the
value of pi resulting from the heat analysis.
I n view of the fact that in a real engine, the working mixture is
ignit.ed before the piston reaches T.D.C. (point f ) due to an ignition
advance angle or injection delay angle (point c t ) with resultant
increase in the pressure a t the end of compression (point c"), the
actual indicator diagram acfc"z,b'b"ra differs from the computation
diagram. The visible combustion process occurs a t varying volume
and follows curve cttz,, rather than straight line cz for carburettor
engines (Fig. 3.14) or straight lines cz' and z'z for a diesel engine
(Fig. 3.15). Opening the exhaust valve before the piston is in B.D.C.
(point b') reduces the pressure a t the end of expansion (point bJ'
which is usually between points b and a,). To locate the positions
of the above-mentioned points properly, we should establish the
relationship between the crankshaft angle cp and piston travel S,.
This relationship is established on the basis of choosing the connect-
ing rod length L C . ,and the rat'io of crank radius R to the connecting
rod length h = RIL,. ,. For choosing LC.,, defining A, and establish-
ing the relationship between cp and S,, see Chapter 6.
For checking the heat analysis and proper con~t~ruction of dia-
gram acfc"z,b'b"a the indicated pressure is det.ermined from the
indicator diagram
where F is the diagram area ac' c"z,b' bVa.
Chapter 4
HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE
4.1. GENERAL
The heat analysis permit,^ us to define analytically t,he basic para-

meters of an engine under design with a sufficient degree of accuracy,
and also to check how perfect the act,ual cyc<leof a really operating
engine is.
This manual lays special emphasis on the c~rnputat~ions of a newly
designed engine. In view of this the manual contains the basic con-
cepts underlying the choice of input. parameters used in the heat
analysis and subsequent computations in the engine design.
Power and speed. I n the design of an engine the rated power is
generally prescribed or it is determined from traction survey. By
rated power 1Y, is meant the effective power guaranteed by the ma-
nufacturer for certain operating conditions. I n the automobile and
tractor engines the rated powe; is equal to the maximum power a t
the rated speed of t,he engine. The rated power is first of all dictated
by the engine application (a car, truck or tractor), then by the engine
type (a carburettor, gas or diesel engine), by operating conditions, etc.
The power of modern automobile and tract,or engines ranges f r o ~ n
15 t,o 500 kW.
Another engine index of importance is the engine speed character-
istic of the engine type and engine dynamic properties. During
many years there was a trend of increasing the engine speed. The re-
sult was reduction of the engine size, weight and overall dimensions.
cH. 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE 83
With an increase in the engine speed, the inertial forces grow, cy-
linder filling becomes worse, the exhaust toxicity increases, wear
of engine parts grows, and the engine service life drops. Because of
this, in the last decade the engine speed practically became stable
and in certain types of automobiles, particularly in US-made, the
engine speed was reduced.
At present the engine speed of cars ranges from 4000 to 6000 rpm
and only in some models (racing cars are an example) the engine
speed exceeds 6000 rpm. Engines designed for trucks and tractors
are materially decelerated with a view to reducing inertia stresses
and increasing the service life. Nevertheless, there are certain models
of truck and tractor engines whose speed reaches 3000-4000 rpm
(diesel engines) and 4000-4500 rpm (carburettor engines). The speed
of modern tractor diesel engines is 1500-2500 rpm.
Number and arrangement of engine cylinders. Choice of the numb-
er of cylinders and their arrangement are dependent on the power
output, and also on dynamic and structural factors. Four- and six-
cylinder motor vehicle engines are most widely used in European
countries and eight-cylinders engines in the USA. Where the require-
ments to the engine mass and overall dimensions are especially
high, the number of cylinders of automobile engines may reach 12
and very seldom 16. Tractor engines usually have four cylinders,
seldom six, and sometimes 12. An increase in the number of cylinders
a l l o l ~ sengines to be enhanced in speed, improves the starting fea-
tures and makes the engine balancing easier. At the same time, how-
ever, an increase in the number of cylinders adds to rrechanical
losses and affects the engine economy.
In m a n y aspects the choice of a number of cylinders is dependent
on the engine displacement. Thus, displacement V l of a four-cylinder
earburettor engine usually lies within 0.7 to 2.2 1 and only some
models have V l > 2.2 1. Four-cylinder diesel engines have far larger
displacements which come to 4-8 1. There are some models of tractor
diesel engines having V l greater than 10 litres. Six-cylinder carbu-
rettor engines have V l about 2.0-5.6 1 and diesel engines, V l about
20 litres.
Modern automobile and tractor engines have their cylinders ar-
ranged in-line, in V-configuration and in an opposed manner. The
most popular are four-cylinder in-line engines as most simple in
operation and cheaper in fabrication. I n recent years Vee engines
tend to be most popular in the automobile and tractor building
industries. As compared with in-line engines, they have a higher
mechanical efficiency, are smaller in size and have better specific-
mass figures. More than that, higher stiffness of Vee engines allows
higher engine speeds.
In a number of countries use is made of horizontal-opposed engines
known for their convenient arrangement on the powered units.
Cylinder size and piston speed. The cylinder size, i.e. the bore
and stroke, are the main structural parameters of an engine. The
cylinder bore (diameter in rnm) of modern aut,omobile and tractor
engines varies within fairly close limits, 60-150 mrn. I t is mainly
dependent on the engine type and application. The bore diameter
B of various engines varies approximately within the following
limits:
.....,.......
Carburettor engines for cars 60-100
............
Carburettor engines for trucks 70-110
Tractor diesel engines ................ 70-150
Automobile diesel engines.............. 80-130
The piston stroke is usually evaluated in terms of the relative

value of SIB (stroke-bore ratio) directly associated with the piston
speed. By the value of stroke-bore ratio, engines are differentiated
into short-stroke engines (SIB < 1) and long-stroke engines
(SIB > 1).The short-stroke engine has less height and mass (weight),
increased indicated efficiency and coefficient of admission, decreased
piston speed, and reduced wear of engine parts. At the same time
decreasing the value of stroke-bore ratio results in a higher pressure
of gases on the piston, aggravates mixture formation, and increases
the engine overall length.
Modern carburettor engines are designed with a small stroke-bore
ratio. Usually SIB = 0.7 to 1.0. With automobile diesel engines
the stroke-bore ratio is taken close to unity (SIB = 0.9 to 1.2). Most
of diesel engines have S!B > 1. With tractor diesel engines SIB =
= I.l to 1.3.
The mean piston speed v,., is a criterion of the engine speed. By
the value of up,, the engines fall into low-speed (v,. , ( 6.5 m/s) and
high-speed (up., > 6.5 mls). All automobile and almost all tractor
engines are high-speed, as their piston speed is in excess of 6.5 m/s.
With an increase in the piston speed, mechanical losses rise, therm-
a l stresses of the parts increase, the engine service life grows shorter.
I n this connection, an increase in the mean piston speed involves
the necessity of improving the life of parts, use of more durable
materials in the engine building industry, and improving the quality
of oils in use.
In modern automobile and t'ractor engines the piston speed
U P . m (mis) generally varies within the following limits:
Carburettor engines for cars............. 12-15

............
Carburettor engines for trucks 9-12
Gas engines for motor vehicles........... 7-11
Automobile diesel engines .............. 6.5-12
Tractor diesel engines ............... 5.5-10.5
CH. 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE 85
Compression ratio. The value of compression ratio is one of the

most important characteristics of an engine. Its choice mainly de-
pends on the miring method and type of fuel. Besides, the value of
compression ratio is chosen with due consideration for the fact wheth-
er the engine is supercharged or not, the engine speed, cooling system
and other factors.
With the carburettor engines, the choice of compression ratio is
determined first of all by the antiknock quality of the fuel in use
(see Section 1.1). Certain grades of fuel allow the compression ratio
to be raised 011 accolznt of: (a) proper choice of combustion chamber
form and arrangement of the spark plug (a spark-plug equally spaced
from the combustion chamber walls allows E to be increased); (b)
cylinder size (a smaller bore of cylinder increases E due to shorter
flame path and increased relative surface of cooling); (c) higher
speed (an increase i n n increases E mainly because of the growth in
the combustion rate); (d) selection of the material for the pistons
and cylinder head (a piston of aluminum alloy allows E to be increas-
ed by 0.4-0.5 and the use of a cylinder head of aluminum alloy in
place of cast iron increases E still more by 0.5-0.6); (e) choice of
cooling system (a liquid cooling system allows higher values of E
than an air cooling system does); (f) use of an enriched (a < 0.8) or
lean (a > 0.9) working mixture.
In modern carburettor engines e = 6 t o 12. Engines of trucks
have compression ratios closer to the lower limit, while the compres-
sion ratio of car engines is usually greater than 7. The compression
ratio of such engines is some~vhatbelow 7 only in the case of air
cooling. Increasing the compression ratio for carburettor engines
in excess of 12 is limited both by possible self-ignition of the air-
fuel mixture and by knocking occurring during the combustion
process. More than that, with E > 12 the resultant relative and
absolute increase in the indicated efficiency is minute (see Chapter 2).
Recently, there is a tendency to certain decrease in the compression
ratio with resultant lower toxicity of combustion products and long-
er service life of engines. As a rule, even the engines of high-class
cars have a compression ratio not above 9.
The minimum compression ratio of diesel engines must provide
a t the end of compression a minimum temperature to meet the re-
quirement for reliable self-ignition of the injected fuel. As fuel is
injected before the complete compression takes place and since an
increase in the compression temperature reduces the ignition delay,
omp press ion ratios below 14 are not utilized in unsupercharged diesel
engines and below 11, in supercharged diesel engines.
Modern automobile and tractor compression-ignition engines have
a compression ratio ranging from 14 to 22. Increasing the compres-
sion ratio in excess of 22 is undesirable, as i t leads to high compres-
sion pressures, reduct ion of mechanical efficiency and heavier engine.
The choice of a compression ratio for diesel engines is determined

first of all by the shape of combustion chamber and fuel-air mixing
method. Depending upon these parameters, the compression ratios
of diesel engines are wit.hin the following limit,s:
Diesel engines with open colnbustion chambers and
volumetric mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-17
Swirl-chamber diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-20
Precombustion chamber diesel engines . . . . . . . . 16.5-21
Supercharged diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-17
The heat analysis of the engine is made on the basis of determined
or prescribed init'ial (input) data (engine type, power IV,, engine
speed n , number of cylinders i and cylinders arrangement, stroke-
bore ratio, compression ratio E ) which is then used to determine the
basic power (p,, N 1 ) , fuel economy (g,, q .) and mechanical (bore,
stroke, V l ) parameters of the engine. The results of the heat analysis
are used then to plot the indicator diagram. The parameters obtained
by the heat analysis are used in plotting a speed curve and in per-
forming the dynamic and strength computations.
This manual includes examples of designing a carburettor engine
and a diesel engine. I n order to consider different methods and tech-
niques of conducting heat, dynamic and strength computations, the
heat analysis of a carburettor engine is carried out for four speeds,
and the heat analysis of a diesel engine, for the rated speed, but in
two versions: for an unsupercharged diesel engine and for a super-
charged engine. The heat analysis underlies the external speed cha-
racteristic, dynamic analysis and design of the principal parts and
systems for each engine. I n view of this, the specification for the
design of each engine is set forth once before the execution of the
heat analysis.
4.2. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALAKCE OF A CARBURETTOR ENGINE
Carry out the design of a four-stroke carburettor engine intended
for a car. The engine effective power N , is 60 kW a t lz = 5600 rpm.
I t is a four-cylinder in-line engine with i = 4. The cooling system is
closed-type liquid. The compression rat,io is 8.5.
The Heat Analysis

When carrying out t,he heat analysis for several operating speeds,
choice is generally made of 3-4 basic operating conditions. For car-
burettor engines they are:
(1) operation with minimum speed n,,, = 600 to 1000 rpm prov-
iding stable operation of the engine;
(2) operation with maximum torque a t n , = (0.4 to 0.6) n,;
(3) operation with maximum (rated) power a t n,;
(4) operation with maximum automobile speed a t n,,, = (1.05

t o 1.20) a,.
On the basis of the above recommendations and the design specifi-
cation ( n N = 5600 rpm) the heat analysis is carried out in succession
for n = 1000, 3200, 5600 and 6000 rpm.
Fuel. In compliance with the specified compression ratio of 8.5,
use may be made of gasoline, grade AM-93.
The mean elemental composition and molecular mass of the fuel
are as follows:
C = 0.855, H = 0.145 and mf = 115 kglkmole
The lower heat of combustion
Parameters of working medium. Theoretically the amount of

air required for combustion of 1 kg of fuel
= 0.516 kmole of air/kg of fuel
=14.957 kg of air/kg of fuel

The excess air factor is defined on the basis of the followingreasons.
Modern engines are furnished with compound carburettors providing
almost an ideal mixture as to the speed characteristic. The opportun-
ity of using a double-chamber carburettor having an enrichment and
an idle syst,em for the engine under design, when properly adjusted,
allows us to obtain a mixture meeting both the power and economy
requirements. In order to have an engine featuring enough economy
along with low toxicity of combustion products, obtainable a t
a % 0.95 to 0.98, allows us to take a = 0.96 in the basic operating
conditions and a = 0.86 in the regime of minimum speed (Fig. 4.1).
The amount of combustible mixture
At n = 1000 rpm M , = 0.86 x 0.516 +1/115 = 0.4525 kmole

of com. mix./kg of fuel;
a t n = 3200, 5600 and 6000 rpm MI = 0.96 x 0.516 +11115
= 0.5041 kmole of corn. mix./kg of fuel.
The quantities of individual constituents contained in the com-
bustion products a t R = 0.5 and in the adopted speeds are as follows:
a t n. = 1000 rpm
1-0.86
-2 l+o.s
0.208 x 0.516 - 0.0512 kmole of CO,/kp-of fuel
= 0.0200 kmole of COikg of fuel
7000 20017 3000 4000 5000 rr, rpm
Fig. 4.1. Initial data for heat analysis of a carburettor engine
1-0.86
-2 x 0.5 1+0.5
0.208 x 0.516=0.0625 h o l e of H,O/kg of fuel
I-a 1-0.86
illH, = 2K
1+K
0.208L0=2 x 0.5 40.5 0.208 x 0.516
= 0.0100 kmole of H,/kg of fuel
MN2=0.792aL,=0.792 x 0.86 x 0.516
= 0.3515 kmole of N,/kg of fuel
a t n=3200, 5600 and 6000 rpm
0.855 1-0.96
.w,*,=- 12
-
1+0.5
0.208 x 0.516
= 0.0655 kmole of CO,/kg of fuel
1-0.96
1Vco= 2 lt0.5
0.208 x 516 = 0.0057 kmole of CO/kg of fuel
= --
0.145 1-0.96
MHZO
2 x Oq5 1+0.5
0.208 x 516
= 0.0696 kmole of H,O/kg of fuel
CH. C. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE 89
f%fN3 = 0.792 X 0.96 x 0.516 = 0.3923 kmole of N,/kg of fuel

The total amount of combustion products
At n = 1000 rpm 1W, = 0.0512 0.02 + +

0.0625 0.01 + +
+0.3515 = 0.4952 kmole of corn. pr./kg of fuel.
The check: 42, = 0.855/12 +
0.14512 +
0.792 x 0.86 x 0.516
= 0.4952 kmole of corn. pr./kg of fuel.
At n = 3200, 5600 and 6000 rpm M , =:0.0655 0.0057+ +
0.0696
+ 0.0029 +
0.3923 = 0.5360 kmole of Corn. pr./kg of fuel.
The check: M , = 0.855112 +
0.14512 +
0.792 x 0.96 x 0.516
= 0.5360 kmole of corn. pr./kg of fuel.
Atmospheric pressure and temperature, and residual gases. When
an engine is operating with no supercharging, the ambient pressure
and temperature are: ph = p, = 0.1 MPa and T k = T o = 293 K.
When the compression ratio is constant and equals 8.5 the residual
gas temperature practically linearly grows with an increase in the
speed a t a constant, but i t diminishes when the mixture is enriched.
Keeping in mind that at n = 1000 rprn cc = 0.86 and in other con-
ditions a = 0.96, assume (Fig. 4.1) the following:
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
T, = 900, 1000, 1060, 1070 K
011 account of expansion of timing phases and reduction of resis-
tances through proper construction of the exhaust manifold of the
engine under design, the pressure of residual gases, p, can be obtained
at the rated speed
p,, = ~ ~1.18 x 0.1 = 0.118 MPa
1 . 1 8=
Then
A , = (p,, - p, x 1.O35)1O8/(nkpO)
= (0.118-0.1 x 1.035) 108/(56002 x 0.1) = 0.4624
P r = P O (1.035 +
A , x 10-*n2) = 0.1(1.035 +
0.4624
x lo-$ n2) = 0.1035 $ 0.4624 x n",
Hence,
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
p , = 0.1040, 0.1082, 0.1180, 0.1201 MPa
The induction process. The temperature of preheating a fresh
charge. In order to obtain a good breathing of the engine a t the
rated speed, we take A T N = 8 O C . Then
90 P-4RT ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Then we obtain:
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
The induction charge density
where R, = 287 Jlkg deg is the specific gas constant of air.

The induction pressure losses. In compliance with the engine speed
(n = 5600 rpm) and provided the intake manifold internal surfaces
+
are well finished, we may take pZ f i n = 2.8 and m i n = 95 m/s.
Then
A, -- oinlnN= 95/5600 = 0.01696
Hence, we obtain:
a t 72 = 1000rpm Apa = 2.8 x 0.016962 x 10002 x 1.189 x 10-6/2
= 0.0005 RlPa;
at n3200 rpm Ap, = 2.8 x 0.016962 x 32002 x 1.189

=
x 10-"2 = 0.0049 hfPa;
a t n = 3600 rpm App, = 2.8 X 0.016962 x 56002 x 1.189
x 10-V2 = 0.0150 h4Pa;
at n = 6000 rprn Apa = 2.8 X 0.016962 x 60002 x 1.189
x 10-6/2 = 0.0172 MPa.
The pressure at the end of induction
P a = PO -A P ~
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
pa = 0.0995, 0.0951, 0.0850, 0.0828 MPa
The coefficient of residual gases. When defining yr for an unsuper-
charged engine we take the scavenging efficiency q ~ ,= 1, and the
charge-up coefficient a t the rated speed rp, = 1.10, which is quit,e
feasible t o be obtained in selecting tile angle of retarded closing with-
in the range of 30-60 degrees. In this case, a backward ejection
within 5 % , i.e. cpch = 0.95 is probable a t the minimum rated speed
(n = 1000 rpm). At the other speeds the values of cp,, can be obtained
by taking cp,h as linearly dependent on the speed (see Fig. 4.1). Then
CH. 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE
At n = 3200 rpm
A t n = 5600 rpm
A t n = 6000 rpm
The temperature a t the end of induction

T, = (To 4- AT 4- y,T,)/(1 + y,)
At n 1000 rpm
=
+
T, = (293 19.5 $ 0.0516 x 900/(1 + 0.0516) = 341 I<
At n = 3200 rpm
T, = (293 + 14 + 0.0461 x 1000)/(1 + 0.0461) = 338 K
At n = 2600 rpm
T , = (293 + +
8 0.0495 x 1060)/(1 -+ 0.0495) = 337 K
At n = 6000 rprn
The coefficient of admission
To I
-- 1
9 v = T,+AT e-I -
p, ( ~ c h ~ I ~P Sa ~ ~ )
At n=1OOO rpm
At n =: 3200 rpm
At n = 5600 rpm
At n = 6000 rpm
The compression process. The mean compression adiabatic index
k , a t F = 8.5 and computed values of T, is determined against the
graph (see Fig. 3.4), while the mean compression polytropic index n ,
is taken somewhat less than k,. When choosing n,, it should be taken
into account that with a decrease in the engine speed, the gas heat
rejection t o the cylinder walls increases, while n, decreases as com-
pared with k , much more:
n = 1000, 3200, 5600? 6000 rpm
k , = 1.3767, 1.3771, 1.3572, 1.3772
T,, = 341, 338, 337, 337 K
n, = 1.370, 1.376, 1.377, 1.377
The pressure a t the end of compression
Pc =
At n = 1000 rprn p , 0.0995 x 8.5lb37O = 1.8666 hCPa
=
At n = 3200 rpm p , = 0.0951 x 8 . 5 ' ~ ~ '=
~ 1.8072 hiPa
At n = 5600 rprn p , = 0.085 X 8.51*377 = 1.6184 JIPa
At n = 6000 rprn p , = 0.0828 X 8.51*377 = 1.5565 MPa
The temperatmurea t the end of compression

Tc = T,~nl-l
At n = 1000 rprn T , = 341 x 8.516370-1
-
AAt n = 3200 rpm T, 338 x 5.51.37+-1 -
At n = 5600 rpm T, = 337 x 8.51.377-1= 755 K
= 753 F;
- 756 K.
At n = 6000 rpm T , = 337 x 8 . 5 1 . 3 7 7 - I = 755 K

The mean molar specific heat at the end of compression:
(a) fresh mixture (air)
(meI7)f: = 20.6 +- 2.638 x 10-st,
where t , = T, - 273°C.
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
t, = 480, 483, 482, 482°C
(me,)k = 21.866, 213 7 4 , 21.852, 21$72 kJ /(kmole deg)
(b) residual gases
(mci)k is determined by extrapolation against Table 1.7:
At n = 1000 rpm, a = 0.86 and t , = 480°C
(nci)y= 23.303 + (23.450-23.303) 0.01/0.05
CH. 4 . HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE 93
where 23.303 and 23.450 are the values of combustion product speci-
fic heat a t 400°C with a = 0.85 and a = 0.9 respectively, as taken
from Table 1.7,
= 23.707 +
(23.867-23.707) 0.01 10.05
= 23.739 kJ/(kmole deg)
where 23.707 and 23.867 are the values of combustion product specific
beat a t 500°C with a = 0.85 and a = 0.9, respectively, as taken
from Table 1.7.
The combustion product specific heat a t t , = 480°C is
(me;):ca = 23.332 + (23.739-23.332) 80/100 = 23.658 kJ!(kmole deg)
At n = 3200 rpm, a = 0.96 and t , = 483°C t,he determination
of (rnc3): is also made by extrapolation with the use of data in
Table 1.7.
+
(mci.):IO= 23.586 (23.712 - 23.586) 0.01/0.05
= 23.61 1 kJ/(kmole deg)
-
(rne;)f:O = 24.014+(24.150 -24.014) 0.0110.05
24,041 kJ/(kmole deg)
(nc~)~~=23.611+(24.041-23.611)83/100
23.968 kJ/(kmole deg)
1-
At n = 5600 and 6000 rprn, a = 0.96 and t , = 482°C

(rnc;)k = 23.611 +(24.041-23.611) 82/100
= 23.964 kJ/(kmole deg)
(c) working mixture
tc 1
(mcv)t.= 1- k ~ r [(mcv)?
f
+ ~t (mc321
At n 1000 rprn
=
'
(mc;):;= 1 +0.0516 [21.866 0.0516 + x 23.6581
= 21 .954 k J/(kmole deg)
At n = 3200 rpm
tc [21.874+0.0461~23*968]
( m c ~ ) t o = 4 +().04fj1
--- 21.966 kJ/(kmole deg)

.At n = 5600 rpm
r tc- [21.872$0.0495~23.964]
(mcv)to - 1 $- 0.0495
= 2 1.971 k Jj(kmole deg)
= 21.9'73 kJ/(kmole deg)

The combustion process. The molecular change coefficient of corn-
bustible mixture p, = M,/M, and that of working rnirturc
+ +
LL = ( 1 ~ 0 ~ r ) / ( l
At n = 1000 rpm p, = 0.4952/0.4525 = 1.0944; LI, = (1.0944
+ 0.0516)/(1 + 0.0516) = 1.0898;
A t n = 3200 rprn p, = 0.536010.5041 = 1.0633; p. = (1.0633
+ +
0.0461)/(1 0.0461) = 1.0605;
At n = 5600 rpm p, = 0.5360J0.5041 = 1.0633; y = (1.0633
+ 0.0495)/(1 $ 0.0495) = 1.0603;
At n = 6000 rpm p, = 0,536010.5041 = 1.0633; p = (1.063::
+ +
0.0309)/(1 0.0509) = 1.0602.
The amount of heat lost because of chem'cally incomplete com-
bustion of fuel
AH, = 119 950 (1 - a ) L o
A t n = 1000 rpm AH, = 119 950 (1-0.: 6) 0.516 = 8665 kJ/lig.
At n = 3200, 5600 and 6000 rprn AIi,, = 119 1:50 (1--0.1(;:
x 0.516 = 2476 kJ/kg.
The heat of combustion of working mixture
H,,, = ( H , - AH,)/[df, (1 -!,- p,.)]
A t n = 1000 rprn H,., = (43 930 - SbG)/(0.4523(1 + 0.051(i)
= 74 110 kJ/kmole of work. mix.;
At n = 3200 rpm' H,., = (43 030-2476). [0..5041(1 + 0.0461 i
= 78 610 kS/kmole of work. mix.;
A t n = 5600 rpm H,., = (43 930-2456)/[0.5041 (1
q'--
+ 0.0491).
= 58 a m kJ/kmole of work. mix. ;
4 t n = 6000 rpm H,., = (43 930-2456)/10.5041 (1 + 0.050!1)
= 78 251 kJ/krnole of work. mix.
The mean molar specific heat of coa-tbust,ionproducts
At n 1000 rpm (me?):: = (110.4952) L0.0512 x (39.123

=
- 0.003349tZ) + 0.02 (22.49 +
0.00143 t,) +
0.0625 (26.67
+ 0.004438 t,) +
0.01 (19.658 +
0.001758 t,) +
0.3515 (21.951
+ +
0.001457 t,) = 24.298 0.002033 t , kJ/(kmole deg);
CH. 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE 95.
At n = 3200, 5600 and 6000 rpm ( m e ~ ) = f : (1/0.536) L0.0655

+ + +
x (39.123 0.003349 t,)
0.0696 (26.67
+ +
0.0057 (22.49
0.004438 t , )
+
0.00143 t ,)
0.0029 x (19.678 +0.001758 t ,)
+ 0.3923 (21.951 $ 0.001457 tz)]= 24.656 +
0.002077 t , kJ/(kmo-
l e deg).
At n = 5600 and 6000 rpm the value of the heat utilization coef-
ficient g, decreases due to material aftercombustion of fuel during the
process of expansion. At n = 1000 rprn it intensively drops because of
the increase in heat losses through the cylinder walls and at clearan-
ces between the piston and cylinder. In view of this, when the speed
varies, g , is roughly taken (see Fig. 4.1) within the limits which
take place in operating carburettor engines:
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
g, = 0.82, 0.92, 0.91, 0.89
The temperature a t the end of visible combustion process
At n = 1000 rpm the formula will 'ake the form: 0.82 x 74 110
+ 21.954 x 480 = 1.0898 (24.298 + 0.002033 t,) t,, or
0.002216 t,2 + 26.480 t , - 71 308 = 0.
Hence
At n = 3200 rprn
+ 0.002077 t,) t,,

Hence
or 0.002203 tz + 26.148 t , - 82 931 = 0.
tz = ( -26.148 + 1/26.1482 + 4 x 0.002203 x 82931)/(2 x 0.002203)
= 2602°C
T, = t , + 273 = 2602 + 273 = 2875 K
At n 5600 rpm
= 0.91 x 78 355 + 21.971 x 482 = 1.0603
X (24.656 +
0.002077 t,) t,, or 0.002202 ti + 26.143 t,
- 81 893 = 0.
Hence
At n 6000 rpm 0.89 x 78 251

= +
21.973 x 482 = 1.0602
x (24.656 -1- 0.002077 t,) t,, or 0.002202 t: -+ 26.140 t ,
- 80234 = 0.
Hence
t,= (-26.140+1/26.14~-+4 x 0.002202 x 80 234)/'(2 x 0.002202)
The maximum theoretical combustion pressure
At n 1000 rpm p , = 1.8666 x 1.0898 x 25371753 = 6.8537 hlPa;

=
At n = 3200 rpm p, = 1.8072 x 1.0605 X 28751756
= 7.2884 MPa;
At n = 5600 rpm p , = 1.6184 x 1.0603 x 2848/755
.= 6.4730 MPa;
At n = 6000 rprn p , = 1.5765 x 1.0602 X 2803/755
= 6.2052 MPa.
The maximum actual combustion pressure
Pz, = 0.85 P ,
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
p,, = 5.8256, 6.1951 5.5021 5.2744 hIPa
The pressure ratio
h = P,/P,
n 1000,
= 3200, 5600, 6000 rprn
X = 3.672, 4.033, 4.000, 3.936
The expansion and exhaust processes. The mean figure of expansion
adiabatic index k , is determined against the nomograph (see Fig. 3.8)
with E = 8.5 specified for the corresponding values of a and Tz,
while the mean figure of expansion polytropic index n, is evaluated
b y the mean adiabatic index:
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
a = 0.86, 0.96, 0.96 0.96
T , = 2537, 2875, 2848, 2803 K
k , = 1.2605, 1.2515, 1.2518, 1.2522
n, = 1.260, 1.251, 1.251 1.252
The pressure and temperature at the end of the expansion process
p b = pz/enz and T b = T , / E ~ ~ - '
At n = 1000 rpm p h = 6.8537/8.51.26= 0.4622 MPa and
T o = 2537/8.5l~2~-'= 1455 K:
CH. 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND BEAT BALANCE 97
At n = 3200 rpm p b = 7.2884/8.51-.261 = 0.5013 MPa and

Ta = 2875/8.51*251-1 = 1680 K;
At n = 5600 rpm p b = 6.4730/8.51.251 = 0.4452 MPa and
= 1665 K;
I ( b = 2848/8.51*251-1
At n = 6000 rprn p b = 6.2052/8.51-252= 0.4259 MPa and T b
= 2803/8.51.252-1 = 1634 K.
Checking the previously taken temperature of residual gases
= 885 K;
A t n = 1000 rpm T,= ,
1455
0.4622/0.104
1680
At n = 3200 rpm T,= = 1008 K;
3/0.5013/0.1082
-At n = 6000 rpm T,= 1634/70.4259/0.1201= 1072 K;

A 100 (1072- 1070)/1070 = 0.2% where A is a computation error.
The results show that the temperature of residual gases is taken
properly a t the beginning of the design computations for all speeds,
as the error does not exceed 1.7%.
The indicated parameters of working cycle. The theoretical mean
indicated pressure
A t n = 1000 rpm
A t n =3200 rprn
[
I 4.80'72
Pr = 8.5 -1 4T
:lit 8.51.251-1
9s PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
At n = 5600 rprn
- 1.377-1
(1-
~.~1.377-1)]=i.i120~~a
At n = 6000 rpm
The mean indicated pressure
where the coefficient of diagram rounding-off cp, = 0.96.

n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
pi = 1.0864, 1.2044, 1.0675, 1.0176 MPa
The indicated efficiency and the indicated specific fuel consumption
At n =1000 rpm qi = 1.0864 x 14.957 x 0.86/(43.93 x 1.189

x 0.8744) = 0.3060; gi = 3600/(43.93 x 0.3060) = 268 g/(kW h);
At n = 3200 rpm q i = 1.2044 x 14.957 x 0.96/(43.93x 1.189
x 0.9167') = 0.3612; gi = 3600/(43.93x 0.3612) = 227 g/(kW h);
At n = 5600 rpm q i = 1.0675 x 14.957 x 0.96/(43.93 X 1.189
x 0.8784) = 0.3341; gi = 3600/(43.93 x 0.3341) = 245 g/(kW h);
At n = 6000 rpm q i = 1.0176 x 14.957 x 0.96/(43.93 X 1.189
x 0.8609) = 0.3249; gi = 3600/(43.93 x 0.3249) = 252 g/(kW h).
The engine performance figures. The mean pressure of mechanical
losses for a carburettor engine having up to six cylinders and a
a stroke-bore ratio SIB 1 <
Having taken the piston stroke S as equal t o 78 mm, we obtain
Up. m = Sn/3 x 10&= 78 n/3 x 104= 0.0026 n m/s, then p , = 0.034
+ 0.0113 x 0.0026 n MPa, and at various speeds
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
v,., = 2.6, 8.32, 14.56, 15.6 m/s
f3H. 4. HXAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE
The mean effective pressure and mechanical efficiency

Pe = P i -Pm and qm. = ~ebi
n= 1000,3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
pi =1.0864, 1.2044, 1.06'75, 1.0176 kIPa
p , = 1.0230, 1.0764, 0.8690, 0.8073 h4Pa
q,=0.9416, 0.8937, 0.8141, 0.7933
The effective efficiency and effective specific fuel consump tion
y e = qiqm and ge = 3 6 0 0 / H U ~ ,
n i000,
= 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
qi 0.3060, 0,3612, 0.3341, 0.3249
=
q, = 0.2881, 0.3228, 0.2720, 0.2577
gc = 284, 254, 301, 318 g/(kW h)
Basic parameters of cylinder and engine. The engine displacement
V , = SOtN,/(p,n) = 30 X 4 X 60/(0.869 x 5600) = 1.4795 1
The cylinder displacement
The cylinder bore (d.iameter) is as follows. As the piston stroke has

been talren equal to 78 mm, then
--
R = 2 x 103 l/vh/(ns)= 2 x lo3 1/0.3699/(3.14 x 78) = 77.72 mrn
The bore B and stroke S are finally assumed to be equal to 78 mm
each.
The basic parameters and indices of the engine are defined by tho
finally adopted values of bore and stroke
V z = nB2Si/(4 x lo6) = 3.14 x 7B2 x 78 x 4/(4 X 109 = 1.49i1
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm

p , = 1.0230, 1.0764, 0.8690, 0.8073 MPa
N , = 12.70, 42.77, 60.42, 60.14 kW
M e = 121.3, 127.7, 103.1, 95.8 N m
G f = 3 . 6 0 7 , 10.864, 18.186, 19.125 kg/h
The engine power per li-tre
Plotting the indicator diagram. The indicator diagram (see

Fig. 3.14) is plotted for the rated (nominal) regime of the engine,
i.e. a t N , = 60.42 kW and n = 5600 rprn.
The diagram scale is as follows: the piston stroke scale M , = 1 mm
per mm and the pressure scale M p = 0.05 MPa per mm. -
PART
I()() ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
The reduced values corresponding to the cylinder displacement

and the combustion volume (see Fig. 3.f4) are:
d B = SIM, = 7811.0 = 78 mm; O A = A B / ( e - 1)
The maximum height of the diagram (point z )

p ,IMP = 6.47310.05 = 129.5 mrn
The ordinates of specific points
p,/Mp = 0.08510.05 = 1.7 mm; pc/Mp= 1.6184J0.05 = 32.4 mrn
p,/M, = 0.445210.05 = 8.9 mm; p,lMp = 0.118/0.05 = 2.4 mm
p,/M, = 0.1/0.05 = 2 mm
The compression and expansion polytropic curves are analytically
plotted as follows:
(a) the compression polytropic curve p , = p,(V,/V,)%. Hence,
~ ~1.7(88.410X)4377 mm
pxlMp = ( p , / M p ) ( O B I O X )=
h e r e OB = OA + +
AB = 10.4 78 = 88.4 mm;
(b) the expansion polytropic curve p , = p b (Vb/Vx)ns. Hence,
'
The results of 'computations of polytropic curve points are given
.in Table 4.1. The comptltation points of polytropic curve are shown
Table 4.1
o Compression polytrope Expansion polytrope
(g) I
z
1.251
n,. MPa P x l ~ p * px, MPa
'PI mrn
1 10.4 8.5 19.04 32.4 14.55 129.5 6.47

(point z)
2 11.0 8 17.52 29.8 13.48 120.0 6.00
3 12.6 7 14.57 24.8 11.41 101.5 5.08
4 17.7 5 9.173 15.6 7.490 66.7 3.34
5 22.1 4 6.747 11.5 5.666 50.4 2.52
.6 29.5 3 4.539 7.7 3.953 35.2 1.76
7 44.2 2 2.597 4.4 2.380 21.2 1.06
8 58.9 1.5 1.748 3.0 1.661 14.8 0.74
9 88.4 1 1 1.'l 1 8.9 0.445
(point b )
in Fig. 3.14 only to visualize them. For practical computations they

are not shown in the diagram.
The theoretical mean indicated pressure
where F' = 1725 mm2 is the area of diagram aczba in Fig. 3.14.
The value pi = 1.106 MPa, obtained by compnting the area of the
indicator diagram, is very close to the value pi = 1.112 MPa obtain-
ed from the heat analysis.
Rounding off the indicator diagram is accomplished on the basis
of the following reasons and computations. Since the engine under
design has a fairly high speed (n = 5600 rpm), the valve timing should
be set with taking into account the necessity of obtaining of good
scavenging of waste gases out of the cylinder and charging up the
cylinder within the limits assumed in the design. In view of this,
the intake valve starts to open (point r') 18 degrees before the piston
is in T.D.C. and it closes (point a") 60 degrees after the piston leaves
B.D.C. The exhaust valve is assumed to open (point b') 55 degrees
before the piston is in B.D.C. and to close (point a') 25 degrees after
the piston passes T.D.C. Because of the engine speed, ignition advance
angle 8 is taken 35 degrees $andthe ignition delay Acp,, 5 degrees.
In accordance with the assumed timing and ignition advance angle
determine the position of points r', a', a", e', f and b' by the formula
for piston travel (see Chapter 6):
AX=-
AB
2
[ ( I - cos cp) + T7L (1-eos
where A is the ratio of tmhecrank radius to the connecting rod length.
The choice of the value of h is carried out during the dynamic ana-
lysis, and in plotting the indicat,or diagram it is preliminarily taken
as h = 0.285.
The computations of ordinates of points r', a', a", c', f and b' are
tabulated below (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2
-
-
Points are
Point Point position cpO (1 -cos 0 ) +-
h
4
x (I-cos distant from
2 ~ T,D.C,
) (AX),
mrn
i
r'
I 18" before T.D.C. 18 0.0655 2.6
a' 25Oafter T.D.C. 25 0.1223 4.8
a" 60°after B.D.C. 120 1.6069 62.5
c' 35' before T.D.C. 35 0.2313 9.0
f 30°beforeT.D.C. 30 0.1697 6.6
b' 55" before B.D.C. 125 1.6667 65.0
$a PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
The position of point c" is determined from the expression

p,. = (1.15 to 1.25) p , = 1.25 x 1.6184 2.023 MPa
=
pclplM, = 2.023/0.05 = 40.5 mm
The actual combustion pressure
p,, = 0 . 8 5 ~=~0.83 x 6.473 = 5.5021 MPa
p,,/M, = 5.5021/0.05 = 110 mrn
The growth of pressure from point c" to z, is 5.5021-2.023
= 3.479 MPa or 3.479122 = 0.29 MPa/deg of crankshaft angle, where
12" is the position of point za on the horizontal (to make the fur-
ther computation easier, it may be assumed that the maximum com-
bustion pressure p,, is reached 10" after T.D.C., i.e. when the crank-
shaft revolves through 370idegrees).
Connecting with smooth curves point r to a', c' to c" and on to z,
and with the expansion curve point b' to b" (point b" is usually found
between points b and a) and the exhaust line bnr'r, will give us a
rounded-off actual indicator diagram ra'ac'fc"z,b'b''r.
Heat Balance
The total amount of heat introduced into the engine with fuel
Qo = H,Gf/3.6 = 43 930Gj/3.6 = 12 203Gt
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
Gt = 3.607, 10.864, 18.186, 19.125 kglh
Q, = 44 020, 132 570, 221 920, 233 380 J/s
The heat equivalent to effective work per second
Q e = 1000 N e
n = 1000, 3200, 5600, 6000 rpm
Q, = 12 700, 42 770, 60 420, 60 140 J/s
The heat transferred to the coolant
Q, = ciB1+2anm( H , -- AH,)l(aH,)
where c = 0.45 to 0.53 is the proportionality factor of four-stroke
engines. In the computations c is assumed equal t o 0.5; i is the num-
ber of cylinders; B is the cylinder bore (diameter), cm; n is the engine
speed i n rpm; m = 0.6 to 0.7 is the index of power for four-stroke
engines.
We assume i n the computations that rn = 0.6 a t n = 1000 rpm
and rn = 0.65 at other speeds.
At n = 1OOOrpm Q, = 0.5 x 4 x 7.81c2x0*6x 1000°*6x (43 930
-8665)/(0.86 x 43 930) = 10 810 Jls;
At n = 3200 rpm Q , = 0.5 x 4 x 7.81+2X0.65 x 3200°*65x (43 930
- 2476)/(0.96 x 43 930) = 42 050 J/s;
CE. 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE 103
At n = 5600 rpm Q,= 0.5 X 4 X 7.81+2X0*65 x 5600n=65x (43 930

- 2476)/(0.96 x 43 930) = 60 510 J/s;
At n = 6000 rpm Q, = 0.5 x 4 x 7 . 8 1 + 2 X 0 * 6 j x 60000.65 x (43 930
- 2476)/(0.96 X 43 930) = 63 280 Jls.
The exhaust heat
Q, = ( G j / 3.6) { M , [mcj):: t 8.3151 t , - M,[(mcT)t,20 -- 8.3151 to]
1
A t n = 1000 rpm Q , (3.607/3.6){0.4952[24.19i f 8.3151

=
x 612 - 0.4525[20.775 + 8.315120)= 9610 J/s
where (mc2): = 24.197 kJ/(kmole deg) is the specific heat of
residual gases (determined against Table 1.7 by interpolatiilg at
a = 0.86 and t , = T, - 273 = 885 - 273 = 612°C); (mcTT);:
= 20.775 kJ/(kmole deg) i s the specific heat of fresh charge as deter-
mined against Table 1.5 for air by the interpolation method a t t o =
= T o- 273 = 293 - 273 = 20°C.
A t n = 3200 rpm
where (mcj):: = 23.043 kJl(kmo1e deg) is the specific heat of resi-

dual gases (determined against Table 1.7 by the interpolation meth-
od a t a = 0.96 and t;=;-T,-,;- 273 = 1008-273 = 735°C).
Pig. 4.2. Heat balance components

versus speed of a carburettor engine
At n 5600 rprn
=
Qr= (18.186/3.6) i0.536 125.300 8.3151 x 797 +
+
-0.5041 [20.775 8.3151 20) = 71 060 J/s
where (mc;): = 25.300 kJ/(kmole deg) is the specific heat of
residual gases (determined against Table 1.7 by the interpolation
method a t a = 0.96 and t , = T, - 273 = 1070-273 = 79'7°C).
At n = 6000 rprn
Qr = (19.125/3.6) {0.536 125.308 8.3151 X 799 +
+
- 0.5041 120.775 8.3151 20) = 74 940 J/s
where (mcx)::= 25.308 kJ(krno1e deg) is the specific heat of resi-
dual gases (determined against Table 1.7 by the interpolation meth-
od at a = 0.96 and t , = T, - 273 = 1072-273 = 799°C).
The heat lost due to chemically incomplete combustion of fuel
.
At n = 1000 rprn Qi, = 8665 x 3.607/3.6 = 8680 J/s
At n = 3200 rpm Qi. = 2476 x 10.86413.6 = 7470 J/s
At n = 5600 rpm Qi.,= 2476 x 18.186/3.6 = 12 510 J/s
A t n = 6000 rpm Q i , ,= 2476 x 19.125/3.6 = 1 3 150 J/s
Radiation, etc. heat losses
Qetc. = QO - (Qe + Qc $- Qr + Qi. e)
At n = 1000 rpm Qr = 44 020 - (12 700 + 10 810 + 9610

+ 8680) = 2220 J/s;
Table 4.3
Engine speed, rprn
Heat balance
components
Heat equivalent to
9. % Q, J/s 1
5 6 0 0p, ?). I 1
Q. J/s6 o o op, %
net effective work 12 700 28.9 42 770 32.3 60420 27.2 60 140 25.8
Heat transferred to
coolant 10810 24.6 42050 31.7 60510 27.3 63280 27.1
Exhaust heat 9610 21.8 38 770 29.3 71 060 32.0 74 940 32.1
Heat lost due to che-
mically incomplete
combustionoffuel 8680 1.7 7470 5.6 12510 5.7 13150 5.6
Radiation, etc. heat
losses 2220 5.0 1510 1.1 17420 5.8 21870 9.4
Total amount of heat
introduced into
enginewith fuel 44020 100 132570 100 221920 100 233380 100
At n = 3200 rpm Q e t , . = 132 550 - (42 750 +

42 050 +
38 770
+ 7470) = 1510 JIs;
A t n = 5600 rpm Q e t , , = 221 920 - (60 420 +
60 510 +
71 060
+ 12 510) = 17 420 Jls;
At n = 6000 rpm Q e t , . = 233 380 - (60 140 +
63 280 +
74 940
+ 13 150) = 21 870 JIs.
For the components of the heat balance, see Table 4.3 and Fig. 4.2.
4.3. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE OF DIESEL ENGINE

Carry out the analysis of a four-stroke engine for truck applica-
tion. The engine is an eight-cylinder (i = 8), open combustion cham-
ber, volumetric mixing diesel having a speed n = 2600 rpm a t
compression ratio E = 17. The computations must be made for two
engine versions: (a) an unsupercharged diesel engine having an effec-
tive power N , = 170 kW; (b) a supercharged diesel engine with
supercharging p , = 0.17 MPa (a centrifugal compressor with a cooled
casing and a vaned diffuser and a radial-flow turbine having a con-
stant pressure upstream the turbine).
Heat Analysis
Fuel. According to St. Standard the engine under analysis employs,
a diesel fuel (grade JI for operation in summer and grade 3 for ope-
ration in winter). The ceianes number of the fuel is not less than 45.
The mean elemental composition of the diesel fuel is
C = 0.870, H = 0.126, 0 = 0.004
The lower heat of combustion
+
H , = 33.91C 125.60H - 10.89(0 - S) - 2.51 (9H W) +
= 33.91 x 0.5'7 + 125.60 x 0.126 - 10.89 x 0.004 - 2.51
X 9 x 0.126 = 42.44 MJ/kg = 42 440 kJ/kg.
Parameters of working medium. Theoretically the amount of air-
required for combustion of 1 kg of fuel
= 0.500 kmole of air/kg of fuel
= 14.452 k g of air/kg of fuel

The excess air factor. Decreasing the excess air factor a to permis-
sible limits decreases the cylinder size and, therefore, increases the
engine power per litre. At the same time, however, it aggravates the
heat stresses of the engine, which is especially true of the piston group
parts and adds to smoky exhaust. The best modern unsupercharged

diesel engines with jet injection provide trouble-free operation a t the
rated speed without overheating materially a t a = 1.4 to 1.5, and
supercharged engines, a t a = 1.6 to 1.8. I n view of this we may
assume a = 1 . 4 for an unsupercharged diesel engine and a = 1.7 for
a supercharged diesel engine.
The quantity of fresh charge
at a = 1.4 M , = aLo = 1.4 x 0.5 = 0.5 kmole of fresh char-
gelkg of fuel;
a t a = 1.7 M , = a L , = 1.7 x 0.5 = 0.83 kmole of fresh char-
gelkg of fuel.
The quantities of individual constituents contained in the combus-
tion products
Mca, = C/12 = 0.87112 = 0.0725 kmole of CO,/kg of fuel;
MH%O = HI2 = 0.126/2 = 0.063 kmole of 13,Olkg of fuel.
At a = 1.4 Mo, = 0.208 (a - 1) Lo = 0.208 (1.4 - 1) 0.5
= 0.0416 kmole of O,/kg of fuel;
M x = 0.792 a L , = 0.792 x 1.4 X 0.5 = 0.5544 kmole
of kg of fuel;
At a = 1.7 M o , = 0.208 (a- 1) Lo = 0.208 (1.7 - 1) 0.5
= 0.0728 kmole of- O,/kg of fuel;
MN = 0.792 aLo = 0.792 x 1.7 X 0.5 = 0.6732 kmole
of N,L~ of fuel.
The total amount of combustion products
M 2= MCO,f M H ~ O + $. M N~
At a = 1.4 M , = 0.0725 f 0.063 + 0.0416 + 0.5544
-=0.7315 kmole of corn. pr./kg of fuel;
at a = 1.7 M , = 0.0725 + +
0.063 +
0.0728 0.6732
-=0.8815 kmole of corn. pr./kg of fuel.
Atmospheric pressure and temperature, and residual gases. The
.atmospheric pressure and temperature
Po - - 0.1 MPa; T o = 293 K
'The atmospheric pressure for diesel engines:
p , = p , = 0.1 MPa without supercharging
p , = 0.17 MPa as specified - with supercharging
The ambient temperatures for diesel engines:
T, = T o = 293 K without supercharging
T, = T o ( p c / p o ) ~ n ~ - i ) =
l %293 (0.17/0.1)(f*65-1)/1.65 = 361 K with
supercharging
where n, is a compression polytropic index (for a centrifugal super-
charger with a cooled casing is taken 1.65).
A high compression ratio (E = 17) of an unsupercharged diesel engine
reduces the residual gas temperature and pressure, while an elevated

engine speed somewhat increases the values of T , and p,. When
the engine temperature rises and increases the values
@f T, and p r . Therefore, we may assume that without supercharging
T, = 750 K, p , = 1.05 X p , = 1.05 X 0.1 = 0.105 MPa; and
with supercharging T, = 800 K, p , = 0.95 p , = 0.93 x 0.17
= 0.162 MPa.
The induction process. The fresh charge preheating temperature is
as follows. Thefengine under design has no device for preheating
a fresh charge. However, the natural preheating of a charge in a die-
sel engine without supercharging may reach 15-20°C, while in a su-
percharged diesel kngine the preheating grows less because of a de-
crease in the temperature difference between the engine parts and the
supercharging air. Therefore, we assume:
AT = 20°C for unsupercharged diesel engines;
AT = 10°C for supercharged diesel engines.
The inlet charge density
PC = P C X 106/(RaTc)
p, = 0.1 X 106/(287 X 293) = 1.189 kgirn3 for unsupercharged
diesel engines;
p, = 0.17 x 106/(287 x 361) = 1.641 kg/m3 for supercharged die-
sel engines.
Engine inlet pressure losses
Ape = (p2 +
Ein)ofnpe X 10-'/2 = 2.7 x 70' x 1.189 x 10-'/2
= 0.008 MPa for unsupercharged diesel engines;
Ap, = 2.7 x 702 x 1.641 x 10-V2 = 0.011 MPa for superchar-
ged engines where (pa +
gin) = 2.7 and mi, = 70 m/s are taken in
compliance with the engine speed and assuming that the diesel
engine inlet manifold resistances are small both in supercharged and
unsupercharged engines.
The pressure at the end of induction
pa = 0.1 - 0.008 = 0.092 MPa for unsupercharged diesel engines;

pa = 0.17 -- 0.011 = 0.159 MPa for supercharged diesel engines.
The coefficient of residual gases
293 4-20 0.105

Y r =- 750 17 x 0.092 -0.105
-
= 0.030'for unsupercharged diesel
engines;
Yr =
361 +i 0 0.162
= 0.030 for supercharged engines.
800 -17 x 0.159-0.162
The temperature a t the end of induction

T, = ( T , + AT + y,T,)I(1 + y,)
T, = (293 + 20 + 0.03 x T50)/(1+ 0.03) = 326 K for unsuper-
charged diesel engines;
T, = (361 + 10 + 0.03 x 800)/(1 + 0.03) = 384 K for super-
charged diesel engines.
The coefficient of admission is
Ilv Tc ( & p a - P,)/[(TC
= + AT) (8 - 1)pcl
+ 20) (17-1)0.1] 0.854
q v = 293 (17 x 0.092-0.105)/[(293 =
for unsupercharged diesel engines;
qv = 361 (17 x 0.159 - 0.162)/[(361+ 10) (17 - 1) 0.171
= 0.909 for supercharged diesel engines.
The compression process. The mean compression adiabatic and
polytropic indices are as follows. When a diesel engine is operated
in design conditions, we may fairly a c c ~ r a t ~ e take
l y the compression
polytropic index as roughly equal to t,he adiabatic index which is
determined against the nomograph (see Fig. 3.4):
(a) with unsupercharged diesel engines a t E = 17 and T, = 326 K
n, is about k , = 1.370
(b) with supercharged diesel engines a t E = 17 and T, = 384 li
k, = 1.3615 and n, is about 1.362
The pressure and temperature at the end of compression
p c = paenl and T, = T,&nl-'
p , = 0.092 x 171.37 = 4.462 MPa, T, = 326 x 1 7 1 - 3 7 - 1
= 930 K for unsupercharged diesel engines;
p , = 0.159 x 1 7 1 . 3 6 2 = 7.538 MPa, T, = 384 x l ' i l . 3 6 2 - 1
= 1071 K for supercharged diesel engines.
The mean molar specific heat a t the end of compression:
(a) of air (mev):: = 20.6 +2.638 x 10-3 t,:
(mev)::= 20.6+ 2.638 x loh3x 657 = 22.333 kJ/(kmole [deg) for
an unsupercharged diesel engine where t, = T,- 273 ==930 - 273 =
= 657" C:
(mc,)k = 20.6 +
2.638 X X 798 = 22.705 kZ/(kmole deg)
for a supercharged diesel engine where t , = T, - 273 = 1071-253
= 798°C;
(b) of residual gases (determined against Tablec 1.8 by the inter-
polat ion method):
with an unsupercharged diesel engine a t a = 1.4 and t , = 657°C

(nci.):: 24.168 kJ/(kmole deg)
-;
with a supercharged diesel engine at a = 1.7 and t, = 798°C

(rnc;)t = 24.386 kJ/(kmole deg)
(c) of the working medium
(me;):: = [1/(1+ y,)l [(~cv)::$. Y, (mc'6):61
with an unsupercharged diesel engine (mck):: = [1/(1+0.03)] x
+
'
x 122.333 0.03 x 24.1681 = 22.386 kJ/(kmole deg);

with a supercharged diesel engine ( r n c ~ )= : ~[1j(1 $- 0.03)] x
x t22.705 -t- 0.03 x 24.3861 = 22.754 kJ/(kmole deg).
The combustion process. The molecular change coefficient of fresh
mixture:
P,, = M,/M, = 0.7315/0.7 = 1.045 for unsupercharged diesel en-
gines;
Po -- M,IM, = 0.881510.85 = 1.037 for supercharged diesel en-
gines.
The molecular change coefficient of working mixture
+ +
P = (pO$ yr)l(l Y,) = (1.045 0.03)/(1 $ 0.03) = 1.044 for
-
' unsupercharged diesel engines;
+
P = (po yr)/(l + y,) = (1.037
supercharged diesel enginss.
+ 0.03)/(1 + 0.03) = 1.036 for
The heat of combustion of working mixture:

+ +
H,., = Hu/[M, (1 y,)] = 42 440/[0.7(1 0.03)l = 58 860
kJlkmole of work. mix. for unsupercharged diesel engines;
+
HW,,= XuIIMl (1 yr)] = 42 440/[0.85 (1 $ 0.03)]
= 48-480 kJ/kmole of work. mix. for supercharged diesel engines.
The mean molar specific heat of combustion products in diesel
engines
+ Mo,(mcbot)'t:+MIV2 (mc"y&) :: +
((mc,)? = ( m c ~ ) ; : 8.315
(mcf',):: = (110.7315) l0.0725 (39.123 f 0.003349 t J
++ 0.063 (26.67 f 0.004438 t , )
0.5544 (21.951 +
+
0.001457 t,)] = 24.160 +
+
0.0416 (23.723 0.00155 t,)
0.00191 t,)
+
(rnc;);; = 24.160 0.00191tZ+ 8.315 = 32.475 + 0.00191tZ for unsu-
percharged diesel engines;
qft) PART ONE. WORKING PROCBSSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
+
(mc",):= 23.847 0.00183tZ+ 8.315 = 32.962 + 0.00183tZ for supe-
rcharged diesel enginea.
In modern open combustion chamber diesel engines with jet injee-
tion well performed, the heat utilization coefficient may be taken
as 5, = 0.82 for an unsupercharged diesel engine and 0.86 for a super-
charged diesel engine because of an increase in the engine heat-release
rate creating better combustion conditions.
The pressure increase in a diesel engine mainly depends on the
quantity of cycle fuel feed. In order t o reduce the gas-caused stresses
of the crank-gear parts, it is advisable to have a maximum combus-
tion pressure not in excess of 11-12 MPa. In view of this it is advisable
to take h = 2.0 for an unsupercharged diesel engine and h = 1.5 for
The temperature a t the end of visible combustion process
with an unsupercharged diesel engine 0.82 x 58 860 +

i22.386
+ 8.315 x 21 657 +2270 (2.0 - 1.044) = 1.044 (32.475
+ 0.00191 t,) 1, or 0.001994 t: +
33.904 t , - 76 069 = 0 , hence
with a supercharged diesel engine 0.86 x 48 480 + r22.554

+ 8.315 x 1.51 798 + 2270 (1.5-1.036) 1.036 (32.162
=
+ 0.00183tZ)t, or 0.001896t: + 33.320tZ - 70 860 = 0 , hence
t, = ( - 33.32
The maximum pressure of combustion

p , = h p , = 2.0 x 4.462 = 8.924 MPa for an unsupercharged
diesel engine;
p , = kp, = 1.5 x 7.538 = 11.307 MPa for a supereharged diesel
engine.
The preexpansion ratio:
p = pT,/(ATc) = 1.044 x 2280/(2.0 x 930) = 1.28 for a n unsu-
percharged diesel engine ;
p = pTz/(hTc) = 1.036 X 2192/(1.5 x 1071) = 1.41 for a super-
charged diesel engine.
CH. 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE 11p
The expansion process. The afterexpansion ratio:

f = e/p = 17/1.28 = 13.28 for an unsupercharged diesel engine:
8 = &/p = 1711.41 = 12.06 for a supercharged diesel engine.
The mean expansion adiabatic and polytropic indices for diesel
engines are chosen as follows. The expansion polytropic index in the
rated condition can be taken, in view of a fairly large cylinder sizc,
as somewhat smaller than the expansion adiabatic index which is
determined against the nomograph (see Fig. 3.9):
with an unsupercharged diesel engine a t 6 = 13.28, T, = 2280
and a = 1.4, k , will be 1.2728, and n, = 1.260;
with a supercharged diesel engine a t 6 = 12.06, T, = 2192 K and
a = 1.7, k , = 1.2792 and n, is 1.267.
The pressure and temperature a t the end of expansion:
for unsupercharged diesel engines p = p ,/6n3 = 8.924113.281 2q
= 0.343 MPa; T = T ,ISn2-I = 2280113.281-26-1 = 1164 K;
for supercharged diesel engines p = p ,/6"2 = 11.307/12.061*267
= 0.482 MPa; T = T ,/Sn2-I = 2192112.061-267-1 = 1129 K.
Checking the previously taken temperature of residual gases
T, = T bli/9c- p J p , = 1 1 6 4 / 7 0.34310.105 = 784 K for an unsuper-
charged diesel engine; A = 100 (784-750)/784 = 4 . 3 % , which is
tolerable;
T, = T~ITZ = 1129/~0.482/0.162= 786 K for a super-
charged diesel engine; A = 100 (786-800)/786 = 1.896, which is
tolerable.
The indicated parameters of working cycle. The theoretical mean
indicated pressure
with an unsupercharged diesel engine pf = -

4*462 [2 (1.28- 1)
17 - 1
with a supercharged diesel engine p i - =

7.538
[I .5 (1.41 -- 1)
The mean indicated pressure:

with an unsupercharged diesel engine p i = cp,pi = 0.95 X 1.011
=: 0.960 MPa, where the coefficient of diagram rounding-off is taken
8s qr = 0.95;
-1 12 PART ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
with a supercharged diesel engine pi = cp,pf = 0.95 X 1.266

-=1.203 MPa.
The indicated efficiency for diesel engines
with an unsupercharged diesel engine qi = 0.96 x 14.452

.X 1.4/(42.44 x 1.189 x 0.854) = 0.450;
with a supercharged diesel engine q i = 1.203 x 14.452
x 1.7/(42.44 x 1.641 x 0.909) = 0.467.
The indicated specific fuel consumption:
with an unsupercharged diesel engine gi = 3600/(Hu~i)
= 3600/(42.44 x 0.45) = 189 g/(kW h);
with a supercharged diesel engine g i = 3600/(Huqi) = 3600/(42.44
x 0.467) = 182 g/(kW h).
The engine performance figu.res. Tlie mean pressure of mechanical
losses
.Pm -- 0.089 + 0.0118 u p . , = 0.089 $ 0.0118 x 10.2 = 0.212 MPa
where the piston mean speed is preliminary taken as v,,, = 10.2 1x11s.
The mean effective pressure and mechanical efficiency:
with an unsupercharged diesel engine p , = p i - p , = 0.960
-0.212 = 0.748 MPa; 1, = pelpi = 0.74810.96 = 0.779;
with a supercharged diesel engine p , = pi - p , = 1.203-0.212
= 0.991 MPa; q, = pelpi = 0.99111.203 = 0.824.
The thermal efficiency and effective specific fuel consumption:
with an unsupercharged diesel engine q, = qiqm = 0.45 x 0.759
= 0.351; g, = 3600/(H,qe) = 3600/(42.44 x 0.351)= 242 g/(kW 11):
with a supercharged diesel engine q, = qiqm = 0.467 x 0.824
= 0.385; g, = 3600/(HuqJ = 3600/(42.44 x 0.385) = 220 g/(kW h).
The cylinder size ef fects. The engine displacement V l=30 z N,l(p,n)
= 30 x 4 x 170/(0.748 x 2600) = 10.49 1.
The cylinder displacement
The cylinder bore (diameter) and piston stroke of a diesel engine

are as a rule made so that the stroke-bore ratio (SIB) is greater than
or equal to 1. However, decreasing SIB for a diesel engine, as the case
is with a carburettor engine, decreases the piston speed and increases
q,. In view of this it is advisable to take the stroke-bore ratio
equal to 1.
= 100 V ~ V ~ / ( ~ S= v-4
/ B100
)
Finally we take B = S = 120 mm.
x 1.311/(3.14 x 1)= 118.7 mm
The adopt,ed values of bore and stroke are then used to determine
the basic parameters and indices of the engine:
Sn/(3 x lo4) = 120 x 26001(3 x 104) = 10.4 mls, which is

V p .NZ =
fairly close (the error is less than 2 %) to the above-assumed value
of up., = 10.2 mls;
with an unsupercharged diesel engine
N e = p ,lilnl(30 t) = 0.748 x 10.852 x 2600/(30 x 4)
= 175.9 kW
= 646.4 Nm
Gf = Nege = 175.9 x 0.242 = 42.57 kglh
Nl Ne/Vl = 175.9/10.852 = 16.21 kWIdrn3
=
with a supercharged diesel engine
N , = p,Vg/(30~)= 0.991 x 10.852 x 2600/(30 x 4) = 233.0 kW
M e = 3 x 104 x N,l(nn) = 3 x 104 x 233.0/(3.14 x 2600)
= 856.2 Nm
' Gf = N , g , = 233.0 x 0.220 = 51.26 kg/h
N l = N , / V l = 233.0110.852 = 21.47 kWIdm3
Plotting an indicator diagram for supercharged diesel engine.
The diagram scale (see Fig. 3.15) is as follows: the piston stroke scale
M, = 1.5 mm per mm and the pressure scale M , = 0.08 MPa per mm.
The reduced values of the cylinder displacement and combustion
chamber volume are AB = SIM, = 12011.5 = 80 mm and O A =
= ABI(E - 1) = 80/(17-1) = 5 mm, respectively.
The maximum height of the diagram (points z' and z ) and the posi-
tion of point z on the axis of abscissas
pr/M, = 11.30$/0.08 = 141.3 mm; OA (p - 1)
z'z =
= 5 (1.41-1) = 2.05 about 2 mrn
The ordinates of specific points
114 P A R T ONE. WORKING PROCESSES ,4ND CHARACTERISTICS
The compression and expansion polgtropic curves are plotted

graphically (see Fig. 3.15) :
(a) angle a = 15" is taken for ray OC;
(b) tan = (1 +t a n a ) n l - l = (1 T tan15O)f-362 - 1 = 0.381;
= 20'49';
(c) using OD and OC, we plot the compression polytropic cnrye
starting with point c;
+
(d) tan (3, = (1 t a n ~ ) ~ t -1- = (1 +tan 15c)i.267- 1 =
= 0.350; P, = 19'14';
(e) using OE and OC, we construct the espansion polytropic curve,
starting with point z.
The theoretical mean indicated pressure
which is very close t o the value of pi = 1.266 3lPa obtained in the

heat analysis (F' is the area of diagram acz'zba).
The indicator diagram rounding-off is as follows. Taking iiito
account the sufficient speed of the diesel engine under design and t h e
amount of supercharging, roughly determine the follo~vingv a l ~ e
timing: intake - starts (point r') 25" before T.D.C. and enc1.q
(point a") 60" after B.D.C.; exhaust - starts (point b') 60" before
B.D.C. and terminates (point a') 25" after T.D.C.
Because of the high speed of the diesel engine t h o injection advan-
ce angle (point c') is taken 20 degrees and the ignition delay angle
Acp, (point f) 8 degrees.
In accordance with the adopted valve timing and injcctioll adx+ancc
angle determine the position of points b', r', a', a", c' ancl f by the
formula for piston travel (see Chapter 6)
AX = (AB/2)[ (1 - cosy) + (h/4)(1 - cos 2q)]
where h is the ratio of the crank radius to the counecting rod lerlgtb.
The choice of the value of h is made clnring the dynamic analysis,
and in plotting the indicator diagram the value is rouglily defined
as 3L = 0.270.
The results of computing ordinates of points b', r', a', a", c' and /
are given in Table 4.4.
The position of point c" is determined from the expression
Point z, is found on line Z'Z roughly near point z.

The pressure growth from point c" to point z, is 11.305-8.669 =
= 2.638 .\!Pa or 2.638110 = 0.264 MPaideg of crankshaft angle,
where 10 is the position of point z , on the axis of abscissas, deg.
CH. 4. HEiiT ANiiLYSIS AND HE.4T BALANCE 115
Table 4.4
Points are
Point Position ( 1 -cos cp) +- 1"
4
distant ( A X )
( 1 -cos 2 ~ )
T.D.C., mm
b' 60" hefore B.D.C. 1.601 64.0

Y' 25' before T.D.C. 25 0.122 4.9
a' 25" after T.D.C. 25 0.122 4.9
a" 6UG alter B.D.C. 120 . 1.601 64.0
. c' 20" before T.D.C. 20 0.076 3.0
f (20" -8") before T.D.C. 12 0.038 1.5
Connecting with smooth curves points r to a', c' to f and c", and
on to z, and connecting wit11 the expansion curve b' t o b" (point b" is
found between points b and a) and on to r' and r, we obtain a rounded-
off indicator diagram rafac'fc"z,b'b"r.
Heat Balance
The total amount of heat introduced into the engine with fuel
Q , = H,Gf/3.6 = 42 440 x 42.5713.6 = 501 850 J/s for an unsu-
percharged diesel engine;
Q , = 42 440 x 51.2613.6 = 604 300 J/s for a supercharged diesel
engine.
be heat equivalent to, effective work per second:
Q, = 1000 N , = 1000 X 1'75.9 = 17*5900 S/s for an unsuper-
chirged diesel engine;
Q, = 1000 N , = 1000 x 233.0 = 233 000 J / s for a supercharged
diesel engine.
The heat transferred to the
Q , = CiB1+2mnm(l/a) = 0.48 >< 8 X 12.01+2~*-67 X 26000.67 x
X (1j1.4) = 178 460 J/s for an u n ~ n p e r ~ h a r g ediesel.
d engine;
Q, = 0.53 x 8 x 12.Ol+?XO.68 x 2600°-68 ;< (1,'1.7) = 184 520 S/s
for a supercharged diesel engine where C is a proportionality factor
(for four-stroke engines C = 0.45 to 0.53); i is the number of cylin-
ders; B is the cylinder bore, cm; m is tho index of power (for four-
stroke engines rn = 0.6 to 0.5); n is the engine speed, rpm.
The exhaust heat (in a supercharged engine, a part of waste gas
heat is used in a gas turbine).
-
0, (Gji3.6) [ M , (rnc,)f:t, - LIT, (mc P
t
O tL.I
= 136 150 J/s for an unsupercharged d iesel engine where (rncb);:2

= (rnc;):. +-
8.313 =23.577 +
8.315 ~ 3 1 . 8 9 2kJ:(kmole deg); ( m cj ) : =
~
~ 2 3 . 5 7 7is determined against Table 1.8 by the interpolation
116 P.WT ONE. MTORICII%G PROCESSES -4ND CHARACTERISTICS
method a t a = 1.4 and t , = T r - 273 = 784-273

= (rncv):; + +
511°C; (me&, -
fc -
-
8.315 == 20.775 8.315 =29.090 kJ/(kmole deg); (mcv)i: =
-- 20.775 is determined against Table 1.5 (column "Air") a t t, = T,-
- 273 == 293 - 273 = 20°C;
Q, = (51.26/3.6) I0.8815 x 31.605 s 513 - 0.85 x 29.144 x
x 881 = 164 7'70 J/s for a supercharged diesel engine where (mc,):; =
+
= ( m c j )t n' ~ 8.315 = 23.290 $. 8.315 = 31.605 kJ/(kmole deg);
(mc;)); = 23.290 is determined against Table 1.8 by the interpola-
tion method a t a = 1.7 and tr = T , - 273 = 786-273 = 513°C;
(rnc,):: = (me,)? + 8.315 = 20.829 $- 8.315 = 29.144 kJ/(kmole
deg); (me,)? = 20.829 is determined against Table 1.5 (column
"Air") a t t , = T , - 273 = 361 - 273 = 88°C.
The radiation, etc. heat losses
Qr = Qo- (Qe + +Qo Qr)
Q , = 501 850 - (17.5 900 178 460 + +
136 150) = 11 340 J/s for
n unsupercharged diesel engine;
Qr = 604 300 - (233 000 184 520 + +
164 770) = 22 010 J/s for
For the components of the heat balance, see Table 4.5.
Tnblc 4.5
Unsupercharg~d Supercharged diesel

diesel engine englne
Compont.nls of heal balance
Q,J/s 1 (I,%Q.J/s 1 q,%
Heat equivalent t o effect.ive work 175 900 35.1 233 000 38.6
Heat transferred to coolant 178 460 35.6 184 520 30.5
Exhaust heat 136 150 27.1 164 770 27.3
Radiation, etc. heat losses 11 340 2.2 22010 3.6
Total amount of heat introduced .
into engine with fuel 501850 100.0 604300 100.0
-
Chapter 5
SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
5.1. GENERAL
For the performance analysis of automobile and tractor engines

use is made of various characteristics, such as speed, load, governing,
control and special characteristics. Generally, all characteristics are
obtained experimentally in t s t i n g the engines.
CH. 5. SPEED CH;IRACTERISTICS
Fig. 5.1. Speed characteristic of the B143-2106 engine
When designing a new engine, certain characteristics (for example,

speed and load ones) can be plotted analytically. Then, a number of
parameters are determined by empirical relations obtained on the
basis of processing many experimental data.
The speed characteristic shows the power, torque, fuel consumption
and other parameters versus the engine speed.
Depending on the position of the fuel delivery control, there are
an external and part-load speed characteristics.
The speed characteristic obtained a t the fully open throttle (carbu-
rettor engine) or with the fuel pump rack (diesel engine) in the posi-
tion of rated power is known as external. The external characteristic
makes i t possible t o analyse and evaluate the power, fuel economy,
dynamic and performance figures of an engine operating under full
load.
Any speed characteristic of an engine obtained with the throttle
open, but partially (carburettor engine), or with the fuel pump cont-
rol rack (diesel engine) in a position corresponding to a partial power
output is referred to as the part-load speed characteristic. Such cha-
racteristics are utilized to analyse the effects of a number of factors
(ignition advance angle, combustible mixturc composition, mini-
mum idling speed, etc.) 011 the engine performance a t partial loads.
118 P A R T ONE. \VORI<ING PROCESSES A N D CHARACTERISTICS
Fig. 5.2. Speed characteristic of the IiaMA3-740 engine
They also allow us t o outline ways of improving t h e engine power

and fuel economy indices.
Fur the eslernal speed characteristic of a ~ a r b u r e t ~ t oengine,
r SPP
Fig. 5.1 and that of diesel engine. Fig. 3.2.
5.2. PLOrIY"NG l<STERSAL SPEED CHARACTEKTSTIC
IYlzen plotting esiernal speecl characteristics of newly desig.rler1

engines. sometimes used are the results of the heat analysis made
for several colditions of an engine operating wit11 full load. This
methocl, however, provides reliable results of computing speed cha-
racteristics only ~ v h e fairly
r~ complete data are available on a number
of engine performance parameters obtained a t partial speeds (see
Sec. 4.2).
l h e external speed characteristic5 may be plotted, to a sufficient
r 1
degree of accilracy. by the re~rlltr;of a heat analysis made only of OJW

operating coliditiol~of an engine. i.e. a t t h e masimuln power and the
use of empirical relationships.
The curves of speed characteri~ticare plotted within the ranqe:
(a) from 12:1,,,, = 600-1000 rpnl o 1 2 = (0-1.20) ?zs for
carburettor engines: (h) from I Z ? , , ~ , -. :3;10-800 rpm t o rz,, where n , ic
the engine speed a l tllc ratecl power. f o r d i e ~ e lengines.
CH. 5. SPEED CHARACTERISTICS 119
The maximum engine speed is limited by the conditions dictated

by the normal working process, thermal stresses of parts, permissible
inertia forces, etc. The minimum engine speed is determined by the
conditions for stable engine performance under full load.
The computation points of the effective power curve are defined
by the following empirical relations over the intervals of each
500-1000 rpm:
carburett or engines
diesel engines with open combustion chambers
prechamber diesel engines
: swirl-chamber diesel engines
In the above formulae AT, is the nominal effective power in kW

and n, is the engine speed in rpm; N , , and n, are the effect-ive power
in k\V and engine speed in rpm, in the searched point of the engine
speed c11araci;eristic.
According t o the computed points the effective power curve is
plotted t,o the M N scale.
The points of the effective torque curve (N m) are determined by
the formula
T,
, = 3 X 1O4N /, (xlz,) (5.5)
Tlze torque curl-e plotted to the scale also expresses the change
in the mcan e f f e c t i ~ epressure. but to the scale M , (JIPaImrn)
The value of mean effectil-e pressure p,, in 41Pa for the points
being cornpnlc'tl call he determined by curve T,, or from the espres-
sion
p = Nex30~/(T/Tlnx) (3.7)
Thc points of the mean indicrated pressure are found by the for-
mula
P i x = P e x -f- P m x (5.8)
320 PART ONE. PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
where p,, is the mean pressure of mechanical losses (in MPa) deter-
mined, depending upon the engine type and design by the expres-
sions (3.58) through (3.63).
When plotted to the M p scale, the curve of mean indicated pres-
sure also expresses the change in the indicated torque, but to the
scale M T (N rn/rnm):
The computation points of the indicated torque may be de1;ermi-

ned by curve pix or from the expression
Ti,= pi,Vl x 103/(n.r) (5.10)
The specific effective fuel consumption, g/(kLV h) a t the searched
point of the speed characteristic
for carburettor engines
g,, -
- g,, 11.2-1.2n,/nN +
(n,/nx)21 (5.11)
for diesel engines with open combustion chambers
g,, = g,, l1.55-1.55 iz,/n, $- (n,/nN)21 (5.12)
where g,, is the specific effective fuel consumptioll a t the rated
power, g/(kW h).
The fuel consumption per hour, kg/h
In order to determine the coefficient of admission, we must assume

the manner in which a changes versus the engine speed. With carbu-
rettor engines, the value of a may be sufficiently accurat.ely assumed
to be constant a t all speeds, except the minimum speed. With
n, = nmin, use should be made of a mixture somewhat more enri-
ched than with n, = n,, i.e. anmjn< anN.
In diesel engines, when operating a t an accelerated speed, a
somewhat increases. For a four-stroke direct-injection diesel engine,
a may be assumed to change linearly, a,,,, being equal to
(0.7-0.8) anN.
With an a, change manner chosen, the coefficient of admission
Then determined against the speed characteristic is the udaptabilify

coefficient k which is the ratio of the maximum torque T , ,,, to tor-
que T e N a t the nominal power
k = T, m a x / T , ~ (5.15)
This coefficient used to assess the engine adaptability t o changes
in the external load is charackristic of the engine ability of over-
CH, 5. SPEED CHARACTERISTICS 121
coming short-time overloads. With carburettor engines k = 1.20-1.35.

With diesel engines the torque curve is more flat and the values of
adaptability coefficient lie within 1.05 t o 1.20.
In addition t o the above-c,onsidered method of plotting speed
characteristics, there are other methods. Thus, Prof. I. M. Lenin
has recommended percentage relations between the power, engine
speed and specific fuel consumption obtained through plotting rela-
tive speed curves for constructing external speed characteristics of
engines.
The percentage relations between the parameters of the relative
speed characteristic of a carburettor engine are as follows:
oe n . . .
~ n ~ i sljeed . 20 40 60 80 100 120
Effective power N , . . 20 50 73 92 100 92
Specific ef fec t,ive fuel
con&mption g, . . . 115 100 97 95 100 115
With four-stroke diesel engines, the percentage relations between

the parameters of the speed characteristic are as follows:
Engine speed n . . . . 20 40 60 SO 100
Excess air factor o: . . . 1.0 1.35 1.30 1.25 1.20
Effective power iY, .. 17 41 67 87 100
I n the above data those values of power, engine speed and specific
fuel consumption are recognized as 100% which are obtained on the
basis of the heat analysis.
5.3. PLOTTING EXTERNAL SPEED CHARACTERISTIC

OF CARBUnETTOR ESGIXE
The heat analysis made for four-speed operation of a carbu-

rettor engine (see Sec. 4.2) is used for obtaining and tabulating
(Table 5.1) the required parameters for plotting an external spe-
ed characteristic (Fig. 5.3).
Table 5.1
Parameters of externa 1 specd chnracteristic

Engine
sPaed n, rpm
N,,BW I g , . g / ( ~ ~ h ) I T e , s m lC I , k g / h I qv a
1000 12.70 284 121.3 3.607 0.8744 0.86

3200 42.77 254 127.7 10.864 0.9167 0.96
5600 60.42 301 103.1 18.186 0.8784 0.96
6000 60.14 318 95.8 10.125 0.8609 0.96
-
422 P A R T ONE. WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Fig. 5.3. Speed charact.er'istic o l a carbure ttor engine
The a d a p t a b i l i t , ~coefficient according t,o the speed characteristic
I n order to compare different l n e t l ~ o d sof plotting speed characte-

ristics and checking t o see whether tho heat analysis is correct (see
Sec. 4.2). additional coll~plltatioilshave been made o n changes i l l
the power and specific fuel consllinptioil for several speeds of all
engine on tho basis of percen tagc rrla t i o w belweell tho paramelrr.
of a relative speed characteristic.
The results of compniations arc give11 i n Table 5.2, and Fig. - '> ?>.TI
shows the computation poin 1s of power and specific fuel c o n w m p -

tior).
d will1 curves .Iv, and g , (see Fig. 3.::)
Coinpariilg the o b t a i ~ ~ edata
plotted to the r r s u l t ~of the Ileal analysis. t h e Eollo\~inginlerenrc.
car1 he made:
I. The points of t h e relati\-P ch;rmcteri.;tic practically coinci(i:
with the exterilnl *peed clulri~cteri~iic of powcr o f t h e rllgine I I T I ( ~ C ~
design.
CH. 5. SPEED CHARiiCTERISTICS 4 23
Table 5.2
Engine speed, n, P o w r , K, Specific fuel consumption, g,
?; I rJ?m bo I bur Sb I !g,(lrU.bl
20 1120 20 12.08 115 346

40 2240 50 30.21 100 301
GO 3360 73 44.11 97 292
80 4480 92 55.59 95 286
100 5600 100 60.42 100 301
120 G720 92 55.59 115 346
2. The point,s of relat,ive c11aracl;eristic of specific fuel con-

sumption somewhat differ from curve g, plotted by the heat analy-
sis in that g, increases and specifically a t low engine speeds. The
maximum discrepance takes place a t n = 1000 rpm and equals about
2396 1350 and 284 g/(kW h)]. Since the specific fuel consumption a t
n = 1000 rpm in tlie latest models of the engines available from the
Volga Auton~obileWorks amount,^ t.o 300-325 gl(kmT h), t.he data
obtained from the heat analysis may be rec.ognized as fairly close to
the real fuel consumpt.ior! rat,es of the engines that are built and
put into service.
5.4. PLOT'I'IKG EXT"RN+4L SPEED CHARACTERISTIC

OF DIESEL EKGINE
On the basis of the heat analysis made for opera1;ion at the rated
power (see Sec. 4.3). the follow&lg parameters i r e obtained that are
necessary for t,he ~ o m p u t a t ~ i o nand
s plotting of the external speed
characteristic of a diesel engine:
(a) wit11 an unsuperc,har&d - diesel engine, effeclive power A', ==
= 175.0 kW, t h e engine speed at t,he maximum power n , =
= 2600 rpm, number- of cycle events T -
4, displacement Y l =
required to burn 1 kg of fuel I , -
= 10.832 E , piston stroke S = 120 mm, quantity 01 air theoretically
14.452 kg of airikg of frlel, inlet
charge density pC = 1.189 kg/m\ excess air factor a , = 1.1,specific
fuel consumption g,, = 242 g:'(kIr h):
,-
(b) with a supercharged diesel engine, effective power .\-, =
= 233.0 kW, tlie engine speed at the maximum porn-cr n 2(iOi) rpm,
number of cycle events -c = 4, displacemenl T i 1 = 10.832 1, piston
stroke S = 120 mm, quantity of air theoretically required t o burn
1 kg of fuel 1, = 14.452 kg of air!& of f u e l . inlet charge density
PC = 1.641 kg/m3. excess air factor a , = 1.7. specific flrel consllmp-
tion g,, = 220 gi(kW 11).
124 PART ONE. IVORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS
The conlputation points of the speed characteristic curve are as

follows. Let us assume nmin = 600 rpm, n,, = 1000 rpm, further
over each 500 rpm and a t n , = 2600 rprn.
All computation data are tabulated (Table 5.3).
Table 5.3
--
Parameters of external speed characteristic
Unsupercharged diesel engine
Supercharged diesel engine

1.067 2.4 0.117 1.184 1023 274
1.146 4.0 0.136 1.282 1108 242
1.178 6.0 0.160 1.338 1156 217
1.137 8.0 0.183 1.320 1140 209
1.023 10.0 0.207 1.230 1063 217
0.991 10.4 0.212 1.203 1039 220
The power a t the cornputatmionpoints
with an unsupercharged diesel engine ?Vex= (175.9 n,/2600) x

x f0.87 + 1.13 nx12600-(n,/2600)21 kW;
with a supercharged diesel engine N e x = (233.0 nx/2600)[0.87+
+ 1.13 nx/2600- (n,12600)2] kW.
The effective torque
The mean effective pressure

p,, = N , , X 30 't./Vlnx= 30 x 4 x NeX/(10.852n,)
= 11.058 iliex/n, MPa
The mean piston speed
The mean pressure of mechanical losses

p,, = 0.089 +
0.0118 v,., MPa
CH. 5 . SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
, The mean indicated pressure

Pix = Pes + Pmr MPa
The indicated torque
= 10.852 x i03 pis/(3.14 x 4)
T i x = p i X V rX IO3/'(n~)
~ 8 6 pi,
4 N m
The specific fuel consumption in diesel engines
g,, = g,, [1.55-1.55 n,/n, + (nx/nN)2]
with an unsupercharged diesel engine g,, = 242 l1.55-1.55 nx/n +
,
+ (nX/nN)'1 g/(kW h);
Fig. 5.4. Speed characteristics of a diesel engine

(a) unsupercharged; ( h ) supercharged
with a supercharged diesel engine g,, = 220 r1.55- 1.55 n,/n N+

4- (n,lnN)21 gl(kW h).
The fuel consumption per hour
The assumed excess air factor:

with an unsupercharged diesel engine a, ni, = 0.86 a = 0.86 X
x 1.4 = about 1.2;
with a supercharged diesel engine a, ,in = 0. i 4 a = 0.74 x
X 1.7 = 1.25.
Connecting points a, mi, and a, (Fig. 5.4a, 6) wit,h a straight line,

we obtain the values of a, for all computat,ion points for unsuperchar-
ged and supercharged diesel engines.
The coefficient of admission
with a n unsupercharged diesel engine t l r r = 14.452 p,,a,ge,/(3600 x

x 1.189) = 0.00338 p ,,a,g,,;
with a supercharged diesel engine ll,, = 14.452 p ,,a,g ,,/(3600 x
x 1.641) = 0.00245 p,,a,g,,.
Following the computation data given in Table 5.3, we plot the
external speed characteristics for unsupercharged diesel engines
(Fig. 5.4a) and supercharged diesel engines (Fig. 5.4b).
The adaptability coefficient:
with an unsupercharged diesel engine k = T,,,,/T,, ==
= 769/646 = 1.19;
with a supercharged diesel engine k = T e ,,,IT , , = 10181856 =
= 1.19, where the values of T,, ,, are determined against the speed
characteristic curves.
Part Two
KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
Chapter 6
6.1. GENERAL
I n internal c,ornbustion engines the reciprocating motion and force

of pistons and connecting rods are converted int,o rotary motion
and torque of the crankshaft through the crank mechanism.
The crank mechanism may be a cent,ral t.ype in which t,he ases of
the crankshaft and cylinders lie in one plane (Fig. 6 . l a ) or an offset
(desaxe) type, when the ases of crankshaft. and cylinders lie in
different planes (Fig. 6.16). A desaxe mechanism may be obtained
also on account of displacing the pist,on pin axis.
In modern practice most popular with automobile and tractor
engine is the central crank mechanism. For t,he main designations
of such a mechanism, see Fig. 6 . 1 ~ s, : - t,he current travel of the
piston ( A stands for the piston pin axis); cp - crank angle (OB stands
for the crank) conn.ted off from the cylinder axis A'O in t.he crank-
shaft rotation direction, clockwise (point 0 stands for the crankshaft
axis, point R - for the c,rankpin axis, and point A' is T.D.C.);
Fig. 6.2. Diagrams of crank

~ a ehanisms
c
( a ) central type; ( b ) desasp type
128 PART TWO. ICINEMATICS -4ND DYNAMICS
fi - the angle through whic,h the connecting rod axis (AB) diverges
from the cylinder axis; o - angular velocity of crankshaft rota-
tion; R = OR - radius of crank; S = 2R = A'A" - piston stroke
(point A" stands for B.D.C.); LC., = AB - the connecting rod
length; h = RIL,., - the ratio of the radius of crank to the connect^-
Fig. 6.2. Crank mechanism diagram used to

determine a minimum length of the connect-
ing rod
ing rod length; R + L C , ,= A f O - the dist,ance from the crank-

shaft axis to T.D.C.
In contrast to the designations for the central crank mechanism
in the offset Crank mechanism (Fig. 6 . l b ) angle cp of crank rotation
is counted off from straight line CO parallel with the cylinder axis
A'D and passing through the crankshaft axis, and S = A'A" # 2R.
The desaxe mechanism is evaluat,ed in terms of relative offset
k = a/R = 0.05 t,o 0.15 where a = OD is the cylinder axis offset'
from the crankshaft axis.
Inertia forces in the engine are dependent upon the above-men-
tioned dimensions and their relationships.
I t is established that with a decrease in h = R/L,. , (due to in-
creasing LC.,) the inertia and normal forces grow less, but in t,his
case, the engine height and mass grow larger. I n view of this h = 0.23
to 0.30 is adopted for automobile and tract,or engines.
Actual values of A for certain Soviet-made automobile and tractor
engines are as follows:
Engine hleM3-965 hT3MA-412 BA3-2106 3AJI-130 a-20 CILIA-14 HM3-240 ~ ~ r n A 3 - 7 4 0

model:
h .. 0.237 0.265 0.295 0.257 0.280 0.280 0.264 0.267
CH. 6. KINEhlATLCS OF CRANK MECHANISM 129
For engines having a small bore the ratio RI'LCmF is chosen so that
the connecting rod does not strike the bottom edge of the cylinder.
The minimum length of the connecting rod and the maximum per-
missible value of h, so that the connecting rod does not strike the
cylinder edge, are chosen as follows (Fig. 6.2). The crankshaft center
point 0 is marked on the cylinder vertical axis. From this point the
crankpin rotation circle is circumscribed a t a radius R = S/2.
Then, using the constructional dimensions of the crankshaft ele-
ments (see Table 13.1), the crankpin circumference is drawn from
point B (the center point of the crank in B.D.C.) at a radius of r,,,.
Nest, another circle showing the web or counter-weight extreme
point rotation is circumscribed from center point 0 with radius r,:
Engines without counterweights,.. r,= R+ (1.15 t o 1.25) r,, p

Engines with counterweights . .. r , = R + - ( 1 . 3 to 1.5) r , . p
Departing down 6-8 mrn from point C draw line A-A square with
the cylinder axis to determine a minimum permissible approach of
the pistcon edge to the crankshaft axis. Using the piston construc-
tional size relations (see Table ll.l), outline the piston upward from
line A-A, including the piston pin center (point A").
The distance between points A" and B is a minimum connecting
rod length LC.,,in. This distance is used to define ,A = RIL,. ,,I,.
In order to prevent the connecting rod from striking the walls,
its path is checked when the piston moves from T.D.C. to B.D.C. To
this end, pattern the connecting rod outline by cutting i t of tracing
paper and move it over the drawing so that the small-end center of
the connecting rod moves along the cylinder axis, while the big-end
center moves along the circle having radius R to ascertain that the
connecting rod does not strike the bottom edge of the cylinder which
may be 10-15 mm above the skirt edge of the piston when i t is in
B.D.C. (line E-E). If the connecting rod strikes the cylinder bottom
edge in motion, increase the connecting rod length or cut recesses in
the cylinder walls to receive the connecting rod. The same diagram is
used to draw the path of the out,er points of the connecting rod big
end t,o define the overall dimensions of the engine crankcase and
location of the camshaft. The value of h taken preliminarily in plot-
ting the indic.ator diagram remains true, provided 3L A,,,.<
The computation of the crank mechanism kinematics consists in
defining the path, speed and acceleration of the piston. I t is assumed
that t,he crankshaft rotates a t a constant angular velocity w (in prac-
tice w is not constant because of continuously varying gas loads
applied to the piston and strains in the crankshaft). This assumption
allows us to consider all kinematic values as a function of the crank
angle which is in proportion to time a t o const,ant.
130 P-IRT TWO. KIXEnIATICS AND DYNAMICS
6.2. PJSTON STROKE

For an engine having a central crank mechanism, t,he piston tra-
vel (m) versus the 'rank angle is
S, = R [(I - cos cp) -;-- -
I
h
(1 - cos B)]
The computations are more convenient when use is made of an
expression in which the piston travel is a function only of angle cp.
For practical computations such an expression is obtained accurate
enough, when substituting in formula (6.1) only two first terms for
the values
neglecting (due t o the minute value) the berms above the second
order:
s, = R [(I - coscp) f -
4
h
(1- cos 2cp) 1
Table 6.1
X
t ' a l u ~ sof ( 1 - cos v) -r -
-4
( 1 - cos
7 2 cpl a t i, of
cp
iO.24 1 0.25 0.26 0 7 1 1 1 /
0.28 0.29 0.30 0 3 1
v3
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 360

10 0.0188 0.0190 0.0191 0.0193 0.0194 0.0196 0.0197 0.0199 350
20 0.0743 0.0749 0.0755 0.0761 0.0767 0.0773 0.0779 0.0784 340
30 0.1640 0.1653 0.1665 0.1678 0.4690 0.1'703 0.2715 0.1728 330
40 0.2836 0.2857 0.2877 0.2898 0.2918 0.2939 0.2960 0.2980 320
50 0.4276 0.4306 0.4335 0.4364 0.4394 0.4423 0.4452 0.4482 310
60 0.5900 0.5938 0.5975 0.6013 0.6050 0.6088 0.6125 0.6163 300
$0 0.7640 0.7684 0.7'728 0.7772 0.7816 0.7860 0.7905 0.7949 290
80 0.9428 0.9476 0.9525 0.9573 0.9622 0.9670 0.9719 0.9767 280
90 1.1200 1.1250 1.1300 1.1355 1.1400 2.1450 1.1500 1.1550 2'70
100 1.2900 1.2948 1.2997 1.3045 1.3094 1.3142 1.3191 1.3239 260
110 1.4480 1.4524 1.4568 1.4612 1.4656 1.4700 1.4745 1.4789 250
120 1.5900 1.5938 1.5975 1.6013 1.6050 1.6088 1.6125 1.6163 240
130 1.7132 1.7162 1.7191 1.7220 1.7250 1.7279 1.7308 1.7338 230
140 1.8156 1.817'7 1.6197 1.8218 4.8238 1.8259 1.8280 1.8300 220
150 1.89€9 1.8973 1.8985 1.8998 1.9010 1.9023 1.9035 1.go48 2.10
160 1.9537 1.9543 1.9549 1.9555 1.9561 1.9567 1.9573 1.9578 200
170 1.9884 1.9886 1.9887 1.9889 1.9800 1.9892 1.9893 1.9895 190
180 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 180
while a t cp = 180°, S1800
sed by square brackets versus IL
-
I t follows from equation (6.2) that a t cp = 90', s s p = R (1 A- A, 2) 111,
2R m. The values of the multiplier enclo-
and cp are tabulated in Table 6.1.
Using expression (6.2) and data of Table 6.1, the piston travel
from T.D.C. to B.D.C. is analytically deter~ninedfor a series of
intermediate values of (C (dependent on the accuracy required over
each 10, 15,20 or 30 degrees) and curve s = f (cp) (Fig. 6 . 3 ~is ) plotted.
When the crank turns from T.D.C. to B.D.C., the piston travels
under the influence of the connecting rod moving along the cylin-
der axis and diverging from this axis. Due to the fact that the direc-
tions of the piston travel through the first 114 (0-9W) of a crankshaft
revolution coincide, the piston covers more than half its stroke.
The same follows from equation (6.2). When the crank travels
through the second quarter of the crankshaft revolution (90-180°),
the connecting rod travel directions do not coincide and the piston
covers a shorter path, than during the first quarter. When plotting
the piston travel graphically, this behaviour is accounted for by
inserting the Brix correction Rh/2 = RZ/(2L,.,).
Fig. 6.3. Plotting curves of piston travel

( a ) by the analytical method (i.. = 0.24); (b) hg the Bris method Ih =. 0.20); (c) by adding
movements of the firsl and second orders (h = 0 . YO)
932 PART TWO. KINEBI:\TICS AND DYXdRIICS
Figure 6.3 b shows s = f ((c) plotted by the method of F. A. Brix.

The center of the circle having radius R is displaced towards B.D.C.
bj- the value Rh12,and a radius-vector is drawn from the new center,
over certain values of rp (over each 30" in Fig. 6.30) until it crosses
the circumference. The projections of cross points (I,2, 3 , ...) on the
asis of the cylinders (the T.D.C. to B.D.C. line) give us the searched
piston position versus given values of angle cp.
When the piston trayel is considered as a sum of two harmonic
movements of the first s,~ = R (1 - cos cp) and second s,rr =
= (Rh/4)(1 - cos 2 q ) orders, the graphical plotting of s = f (9)is
accoinplished as shown in Fig. 6.3 c.
The piston travel (m) in an offset crank mechanism
s, = R [(l +
- cos v) (h/4)(1 - cos 2 ~ -) kksin cpl (6.3)
6.3. PISTON SPEED

When a piston travels, its speed (rn/s) is a variable dependent only
on the crank angle and ratio h = RIL,.,, provided the crankshaft
rotates a t a constant speed:
The values of the multiplier in parentheses in equation (6.4)

versus h and q are tabulated below (Table 6.2).
I t follows from equation (6.4) thad piston speed a t dead centers
(cp = 0 and 180') is equal to zero. At cp = 903, v, = Rw, and a t
cp = 270°, up = - Ro, i.e. the absolute values of piston speed a t
these points are equal to the circumferential velocity of the crankpin.
The maximum piston speed is dependent (the other things being
equal) on the value of h accounting for the final connecting rod length
and is achieved a t cp < 9Q3 (+v,) and cp > 270" (-v,). With an
increase in h, the maximum piston speed values grow and become
shifted towards dead centers:
Illustrated in Fig. 6 . 4 ~is a curve showing the piston speed versus cp,
which is analytically computed by formula (6.4). For plotting pis-
ton speed curves graphically, see Figs. 6.4b, c .
In order to plot the piston speed curve in Fig. 6.46 use is made of
the crank mechanism diagram. The values of piston speed for each
angle p are determined on the axis square with the cylinder axis by
the values of segments ( 0 I r , 02', 03', ...) cut by the connecting rod
axis line and transferred to the vertical lines of the corresponding
angles 9 . If that is the case
133
Table 6.2
Values of (sin q
a sin 2
+- ~ at) 3, of
2
cP"
c
.#
QO
Cr)
0.24 1 / 1 / 1
0.25 0.21 0.27 0.28 0 . 2 4 0.30 / 0.31
-
d
I:
V;
cc0
0 +0.0000 0.0000 0.0~000.0000 0.OOoO O.@OOO 0.0000 0.0000 - 360

10 +0.2146 0.2164 0.2181 0.2198 0.2215 0.2232 0.2249 0.2266 - 350
20 +0.4191 0.4224 0.4256 0.4288 0.4320 0.4352 0.4384 0.4416 - 340
30 +0.6039 0.6083 0.6126 0.6169 0.6212 0.6256 0.6299 0.6342 - 330
40 +0.7610 0.7659 0.7708 0.7757 0.7807 0.7856 0.7905 0.7954 -
' 320
50 +0.8842 0.8891 0.8940 0.8989 0.9039 0.9088 0.9137 0.9186 - 310
60 +0.9699 0.9'743 0.9786 0.9829 0.9872 0.9916 0.9959 1.0002 - 300
70 +1.0168 1.0201 1.0233 1.0265 1.0297 1.0329 1.0361 1.0393 - 290
80 +1.0258 1.0276 1.0293 1.0310 1.0327 1.0344 1.0361 1.0378 - 280
90 +1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 - -770
100 +0.9438 0.9420 0.9403 0.9386 0.9369 0.9352 0.9335 0.9318 - 260
110 +0.8626 0.8593 0.8562 0.8329 0.8497 0.8465 0.8433 0.8401 - 250
120 +0.'7621 0.7577 0.7534 0.7491 0.7448 0.7404 0.7361 0.7318 - 240
130 -f- 0.6478 0.6429 0.6380 0.6331 0.6281 0.6232 0.6183 0.6134 - 230
140 +0.5246 0.5197 0.5148 0.5099 0.5049 0.5000 0.4951 0.4902 - 220
150 +0.3961 0.3917 0.3874 0.3831 0.3788 0.3744 0.3701 0.3658 - 210
160 +0.2649 0.2616 0.2584 0.2552 0.2520 0.2488 0.2456 0.2424 - 200
170 -5. 0.1326 0.1308 0.1291 0.1274 0.1257 0.1240 0.1223 0.1206 - 190
180 +0.0000 0.0000 0-0000O.OOOO O.OOOO O.OOOO O.OOOO 0.0000 - 180
vp = oR sin (cp p)icosfl + (6.6)

In Fig. 6 . 4 ~the piston speed curve is plotted by adding the speed
harmonics of the first v,, = oRsincp and second u , l ~ = o)R (jd/2)
sin 2cp orders.
To compare engine speeds, use is often made in computations of
the mean piston speed (m/s)
where s and R are in m, n in rpm and o in radis.

The ratio of up , ,, t o P,., at h = 0.24 to 0.31 is 1.62 to 1.64:
The piston speed in an offset crank mechanism

134 PART TWO. IiIKEhX.4TICS AKD DYNARIICS
VP. max
Fig. 6.4. Plotting curves of piston speed

l a ) by the analytical methoG ( h = 0.24); i b ) by the gr;l.phical m e t l ~ o dagainst the crank mecha-
nism diagram (A .= 0.30); (c) by the method of adding t h e speeds of t h e first and second orders
(3, = 0.80)
6.4. PISTON ACCELERATIOX
The piston acceleration (m/s2) is C
The values of the multiplier in parentheses in formula (6.8) ver-

sus h and t-p are tabulated below, Table 6.3.
The maximum piston acceleration is achieved at (F = 0'
The minimum piston acceleration at,:

(a) h < 0.25 at point (p = 180'; j,i, = - 0 2 R(1-A);
(b) h >0.25 at point (F. = arccos ( - 1/4h); (6.10)
jmin= - o2R h 1/(8h)]. +
135
Table 6.3
y a l u ~ sof (cos q + ?" cos 2rp) at 3. of I

'c0
.rn5 (1.21 1 0.25 1 0.26 1 0.27 1 0.28 1 0.29 1 0.30 10.31
c
2
x
Q"
0 J- 1.2400 1.2500 1.2600

1
1.2700 1.2800 1.2900 1.3000 1.3100 - 360
10 -+ 1.2103 1.219'7 1.2291 1.2385 1.2479 1.2573 1.2667 1.2761 -- 350
20 -r 1.I235 1.I312 1.I389 1.I465 1.1542 1.I618 1.1695 l.1772 1 340
30 + 0.9860 0.9920 0.9960 1.0010 1.0060 1.0110 1.0160 1.0210 1 330
40 + 0.8077 0.8094 0.8111 0.8129 0,8146 0.8163 0.8181 0.8298 - 320
50 T 0.6012 0.5994 0.5977 0.5959 0.5942 0.5925 0.5907 0.5890 - 310
60 + 0.3800 0.3750 0.3700 0.3650 0.3600 0.3550 0.3500 0.3450 7- 300
70 + 0.1582 0.1505 0.1428 0.1352 0.12'75 0.1199 0.1122 0.1045 -j- 290
- 280
80 - 0.0519 0.0613 0.0'707 0.0801 0.0895 0.0989 0.1083 0.1177
90 - 0.2400 0 -2500 0.2600 0.2700 0.2800 0.2900 0.3000 0.3100 - 270
100 - 0.3991 0.4085 0.417'3 0.4273 0.4367 0.4461 0.4555 0.4649 260-
110 -.- 0.5258 0.5335 0.5412 0.5488 0.5565 0.5641 0.5718 0.5795 - 250
,120 - 0.6200 0.6250 0.6300 0.6350 0.6400 0.6450 0.6500 0.6550 - 240
230 -- 0.6845 0.6862 0.6879 0.6897 0.6914 0 .ti931 0.6949 0.6966 -- 230
140 - 0.7243 0.7226 0.7209 0.7191 0.7174 0.7157 0.7139 0.7122 -- 220
150 - 0.7460 0.7410 0.7360 0.7310 0.7260 0.7210 0.7160 0.7110 - 210
160 - 0.7559 0.7482 0.7405 0.7329 0.7252 0 ,7176 0.7099 0.70'22 - 200
470 - 0.7593 0.7499 0.7405 0.7311 0.7217 0.7123 0.7029 0.6935 - 190
180 - 0.7600 0.5500 0.7400 0.7300 0.7200 0.7100 0.7000 0.6900 - 180
Using equation (6.8) and data of Table 6.3, we determine analy-

tically the values of piston acceleration for a series of angles cp
within the range of ((: = 0-360- and plot curve j = f (9)(Fig. 6.5a).
Graphically the acceleration curve may be plotted by the method of
tangent lines or by the method of adding harmonics of the first and
second orders ..
When plotti" g an acceleration curve by the method of tangent
f
lines (Fig. 6 . 5 , first, plot curve j = f (s,) and t'hen replot it into
to a certain scale: j
downward.
-
curve j = f (y)). Then, lay off on segment AB = s at points A and B
+
0 2 R (1 A) upward and j = - ol2R (1 - h)
The obtained points E and C are con~lectedby a straight line.
Then, the value of 302Rh is laid off a t point D where E C and AB
intersect down~vardsquare with AB. The obtained point F is con-
nected with points E and C. Segments EF and C F are divided into
an arbitrary but equal number of parts. The same points (a, b , e , d )
QII segments EF and CF are intercon~lectedby straight lines aa, bb,
cc, dd. The enveloping curve tangent t o these straight lines repre-
Fig. 6.5. Plotting curves of piston acceleration
-
( a ) hy the analytical rr~cthod0, 0 . 2 4 ) ; ( b ) by the method of tangent lines
the method of adding t h e first. and second harmonics (A = 0.60)
(A = 0.30); ( c ) hy
sent,s the acceleration curve j = f (s,) versus the piston travel. Con-
verting j = f (s,) into j = j (cp) is accomplished by the method of
F.X. Bris (Fig. 6.50).
Plotting the curve j = f ( q ) (Fig. 6 . 5 ~ ) is made by adding acce-
leration harmonics of the first j , = a2Rcoscp and second j I I =
= 02Rhcos 2 q orders.
The piston acceleration in an offset crank mechanism
j = o% (cos rp + h cos 2cp + kh, sin q )

CH. 7. DYNAMICS OF CRANK RIECHANISR.1
Chapter 7
DYXAAIICS OF CRAXK RIIECHANISM
7.1. GENERAL
The dynamic analysis of the crank mechanism consists in deter-

mining overall forces and moments caused by pressure of gases and
inertia forces which are used to design the main parts for strei3gt.h
and wear and also to determine the non-uniformity of torque
and extent of nonuniformity in the engine run. During the opera-
tion of an engine the crank mechanism parts are acted upon by gas
pressure in the cylinder, inertia forces of the reciprocating masses,
centrifugal forces, crankcase pressure exerted on the piston (which
is about the atmospheric pressure), and gravity (gravity forces are
generally ignored in the dynamic analysis).
All forces acting in the engine are taken up by the useful resis-
tance a t the crankshaft, friction forces and engine supports.
During each operating cycle (720' for four- and 360" for two-
stroke engine), the forces acting in the crank mechanism continu-
ously vary in value and direction. Therefore, t o determine changes
in these forces versus the crankshaft rotation angle. their values are
determined for a number of crankshaft positions taken usually a t
10-30 degree intervals. The results of dynamic analysis are tabulated.
7.2. GAS PRESSURE FORCES

The gas pressure forces exerted on the piston area are replaced
with one force acting along the cylinder axis and applied to the
piston pin axis in order to make the dynamic analysis easier. I t is
determined for each moment of time (angle cp) against an indicator
diagram obtained on an actual engine or against an indicator dia-
gram plotted on the basis of the heat analysis (usually at the rated
power output and corresponding engine speed).
Replotting an indicator diagram into a diagram developed along
the crankshaft angle is generally accomplished by the method of
Prof. F. A. Brix. To this end an auxiliary semicircle having radius
R = S / 2 is drawn under the indicator diagram (Fig. 7.1). .\Jest,
a Brix correction equal to Rh/2 is laid off from the semicircle center
(point 0 ) towards the B.D.C. The semicircle is then divided into
several parts by rays drawn from center 0 , while lines parallel with
these rays are drawn from the B r i r center (point 0').The points on
the semicircle thus obtained correspond to certain angles (p (in
Fig. 7.1 these points are spaced a t 30'). Vertical lines are then drawn
vertically from these points until they cross the indicator diagram
lines. The pressure values thus obtained are laid off on the vertical
Fig. 7.1. Replotting (de\~eloprnent)of an indicator diagram int,o co0rdinat.e~
P -cp
of the corresponding angles cp. The indicator diagram development is

usually started from T.D.C. during the induction stroke. S0t.e
t h a t in a nondeveloped diagram the pressure is counted from an
absolute zero, while in a developed diagram an escess pressure over
the piston A p , = p , - pu is shown. Therefore, engine cylinder
pressures below- the atmospheric pressure will be shown in a develo-
ped diagram as negative. The gas pressure forces directed towards
the crankshaft axis are known as positive and those outwards it.
negative.
The piston pressure force (MN)
where F , is the piston area. m2; p, and p, are the gap pressure a t
a n y inoment of time and the atmospheric pressure, MPa.
I t follows from equation ('7.1) t h a t the gas pressure curve versus
the crank angle will vary similarly t o the gas pressure curve dp,.
To determine gas forces P , against the developed diagram of pres-
sures Ap, the scale must be recomputed. If curve Apg is plotted to
the scale ill, hIPa per mm, then the scale of the same curve for P ,
M i l l he a,,= :1I,F, RIS per mm.
7.3. REFERRIKG fi4ASSES OF CRAn'IC JlECHANIShI PARTS
As to the type of motion the masses of the crank mechauism parts

may he divided illto reciprocatiilg (the piston group and the con-
necting rod small end), rotating (the cranksllaf t and the connecting
rod big end), and those performing plane-parallel nlo t ion (the con-
nec t ing rod shank).
To malce the dj-ilaiuic analysis. the actual crank inecha13isin is
replaced with an equivalent system of concentrated masses.
Fig. 7.2. System of concentrated masses dynamically equivalent to the crank

mechanism
(a)systeln of thc crank mechanism refe1,icd t o asps; ( b j referring crank mass
The mass of the piston group m , is concentrated at the piston pin

axis a t point A (Fig. 7.2a). The mass of t,he connecting rod group nl,,
is replaced by two masses one of which (rn,.,.,) is concentrated on
t h e piston pin axis at point A , and the other (rn,,,.,) - on the
crank axis, at. point B. The values of these masses (kg) are:
where LC.,is the connecting rod length; LC,,.,,is the distance from
the big-end center to the connecting rod center of gravity: LC.,,,,
is the distance froin the small-end center to the corinecting rod
center of gravity.
In most of existing automobile and tractor engines rn,.,.,. = (0.2
to 0.3) m,., and rn,,., = (0.7 t o 0.8) m ,,,. hlean values may be
used in computations
140 PART TWO. KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
The crank mass is replaced with two masses concentrated on the

crank axis a t point B (m,)and on the main bearing journal axis
at point 0 (m,) (Fig. 7.2b). The mass of the main bearing journal
plus part of the webs t8hat are symmetrical with regard to the axis
of rotation is balanced. The mass (kg) concentrated a t point B is
m, = m,.p +
2m,p/R
where m,., is the mass of the crankpin with adjacent parts of t h e
(5.4)
webs; m,, iu the mass of the web middle part within the outline abcd
having its center of gravity a t radius p.
In modern short-stroke engines the value of m , is small compared
with m,,, and may be neglected in most cases. The values of m,.,
and also m,, if necessary, are determined proceeding from the crank
size and density of the crankshaft material.
Therefore, the system of concentrated masses dynamically equi-
valent to the crank mechanism consists of mass mj = rn, +
rn,.,.,
concentrated a t point A ? which reciprocates, and mass m , = rn, +
+ m,.,., concentrated a t point B, which rotates. In Vee engines with
an articulated crank mechanism rn, = m, , +-
2rn,.rm,.
When carrying out dynamic computations on an engine the values
of m, and m,., are defined by the prototype data or are computed
on the drawings.
Roughly the ralues of m,, m,., and m, may be determined, using
the structl~ralmasses rn' = m/F, (kg/m2 or g/cm2) tabulated below
(Table 7.1).
Table 7.1
Structural mass*, kg/&
Elements of crank mecl-ianism C"$o,f:r Diesel engines

(B=60to (B=80to
100 m m ) 120 m m )
Piston group ( m b = m p / F p ) :
piston oE aluminum alloy 80-150 150-300
piston of cast iron 150-250 250-400
Connecting rod (rnE.,= m,., J F p ) 100-200 250-400
Unbalanced parts of a crank throw w/o counter-
weights (m:= rn,/Fp):
s tee1 forged crankshaft with solid journals
and pins 150-200 200 -400
cast iron crankshaft with hollow journals
and pins 100-200 1 50-300
When determining masses against Table 7.1, note that large values
of m' correspond to engines having cylinders of large bores. Decxeas-
CEf. 7. DYSXPIIICS OF CRANK MECHANISM 142
ing SIB (stroke-bore ratio) decreases rnb, and mi. Greater values
of mi correspond to Vee engines having two connecting rods on the
crankpin.
7.4. INERTIAL FORCES
Inertial forces acting in a crank mechanism, in compliance with

the type of motion of the driven masses, fall int,o inertial forces of
reciprocating masses P and
inert,ial cent,rifugal forces (b) L-
of rotmatingmasses K . (Fig. +-
7.34.
The inertial force produ-
ced by the reciprocating
masses
P j = -mjj = - rnjRwZ
+
x (cos cp hcos 2q)
As the case is with pis-

ton acceleration? force P j
may be represented by the --
sum of inertial forces of
primary P I and secondary
P I I forces:
pj = P j , +Pj,, Fig. 7.3. Action of forces in the crank me-
chanism
= -(mjRo2 cos ( a ) inertial and gas forces; ( B ) total forces
In equations (7.5) and (7.6) the minus sign shows that the inertial
force is opposing the acceleration. The inertial forces of recipro-
cating masses act along the cylinder axis and like the gas pressure
forces are positive, if directed towards the crankshaft axis, and negat-
ive, if they are directed from the crankshaft.
The inertial force curve of reciprocating masses is plotted similarly
to the piston acceleration curve (see Fig. 6.5).
The P j cornputnationsmust be made for the same crank positions
{angles cp) for which Ap, and P, were determined.
The centrifugal inertial force of rotating masses
is constant in value (at o = const). It acts along the crank radius

and is directed from the crankshaft axis. The centrifugal inertial
force K R is a resultant of two forces:
142 PART TWO. I<INEnIATICS AND DYNXhIICS
tbe inertial force of the connecting rod rotating masses

K R c e r= .- m c , l - . c R ~ 2
and (7.8)
the inertial force of the crank rotating masses
K~ c = -mcR03 (7.9)
With Vee engines
K R Z= K R c 3 K R c.r.2 ? K R c . r . r = - (212, tmc.r.c.1 tm c . r . c . r ) Ro2
(7 .lo)
where K , ., 1 and K c . r . r are inertial forces of the rotating masses
of the left and right connecting rods.
In T e e engines which have two similar connecting rods fitted on
one crankpin
K ~ ~ = K 2~K Rec . rf -- -(mc ~I 2 m c . r .)cR o 2 = -mRzRo2 (7.11)
7.5. TOTAL FORCES ACTING IN CRAYK MECHANISM
The total forces (kN) acting in the crank mechanism are deter-
mined by algebraically adding the gas pressure forces to the forces
of reciprocating masses:
P =Pg Pj + (7.12)
When making dynamic cornputations on engines, i t is advisable
to make use of specific forces referred t o unit piston area, rather
than full forces. Then the specific total forces (h1Pa) are determined
by adding the excess pressure above the piston Ap, (MPa) and spe-
cific inertial forces pj (hIN/rn2 = MPa):
where
P = +
A P ~ Pj (7.13)
Pj PjIFp = -(mjRo2/Fp) (COS
= +
h cos 2 ~ ) (7.14)
A curve of specific total forces P is plotted by means of diagrams
Ap = f (9)and p j = f (cp) (see Fig. 7.1). When summing up t:hese
diagrams constructed to the same scale M p , the resultant diagram p
will be plotted to the same scale.
The total force P, as forces p , and p j , is directed along the cylinder
axis and applied to the piston pin axis (Fig. 7 . 3 b ) . The action of
force P is transferred to the cylinder walls perpendicular t'o it,s
axis and to the connecting rod along its axis.
Force N (kN) normal to the cylinder axis is called the normal force
and is absorbed by t,he cylinder walls:
N = P tan (3 (7.15)
Xormal force ATis known as positive, if the torque it produces with
regard to the crankshaft axis opposes the engine shaft rotation.
Force S (kK) directed along the connecting rod acts upon it and
is transmitted to the crank. I t is known as positive, if compresses
the connectiilg rod, and negative, if it stretches the rod:
S = P (Iicos p) ('7.16)
Acting upon the crankpin, force S produces two component forces
(Fig. 7.30):
a force directed along t,he crank radius (kN)
K = P cos (q + @).!co (7.17)
and a force tangent to the crank radios circumference
T = P sin ((r + p);'cos P (7.18)
Force I< is k n o ~ - nas positive, when it compresses the crank throw
webs.
Force T is taken as positive, if the torque prodrlced by i t coincides
with the ranksh shaft rotmat ion direction.
The numerical values of the trlgongmetrical f~rnctionsincluded
in equations (7.13) through (7.18) for various h and cp are given in
Tables 7.2 through 7.5. Using t h e data resulting from the solution
Table 7.2
Values of tan p a t h of
TO
5
V?
0.21 1 0 . 2 5 ( 0 . 2 G / 0.27 10.28 1 0 . 2 9 1 0 . 3 0 10.31 .?
FI
rn
V0
144 PA\H T T1tTO. ICIS.EAI.\TICS AXD DYNAMICS
Table 7.3
Values of Ilcos I3 a t h of
Qj" - 0.24 1 0 . 2 5 10.26 10.27 / 0.28 / 0.29 10.30 10.31
6 CP"
.@
VI
.-
m
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 360
10 +
1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 + 350
20 +
1.003 1.004 1.004 1.004 1.005 1.005 1.005 1.006 + 340
30 - 1.007 1.008 1.009 1.0013 1.0110 1.011 1.011 1.012 + 330
40 - 1.012 1.013 1.014 1.015 1.016 1.018 1.019 1.020 +320
50 - 1.017 1.019 1.020 1.022 1.024 1.025 1.027 1.029 -F 310
60 1.022 1.024 1.026 1.028 1.030 1.032 1.035 1.037 -t 300
'70 1.026 1.028 1.031 1.033 1.036 1.039 1.041 1.044 +290
80 + 1.029 1.031 1.034 1.037 1.040 1.043 1.046 1.049 +280
90 1.030 1.032 1.035 1.038 1.041 1.044 1.047 1.050 +270
+
1.029 1.031 1.034 1.037 1.040 1.043 1.046 1.049 +260
100
1lO +
1.026 1.028 1.031 1.033 1.036 1.039 1.041 1.044 +250
120 +
1.022 1.024 1.026 1.028 1.C130 1.032 1.035 2.037 + 240
2-30
130 +
1.017 1.019 1.020 1.022 1.024 1.025 1.027 1.029 4-
1.020 -k 220
140 +-
1.012 1.013 1.014 1.015 1.016 1.018 1.019
150 +
1.007 1.008 1.009 1.009 1.010 1.011 1.011 1.01'2 $-
1.006 -k
210
200
160 +
1.003 1.004 1.004 1.004 1.005 1.005 1.005
+
1'70 +
1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1.001 1-001
+
190
180 +
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 180
of these equations we plot curves of changes of full forces N, S, K

and T (Fig. 7.4) or specific forces p , p,, p ~ and
, p (see Fig. 9.2). ,
Graphically T, is determined by tlze area enclosed under curve T:
where Xf, and Z f , are positive and negative areas, respectively, en-
closed under curve T, mm2; IMP is the scale of full forces, MN per
mm; OB is the length of the diagram base line, rnm (Fig. 7.4).
The accuracy of computations and construction of the curve of
force T is checked by tlze equation
where T , is the mean value of the tangential force per cycle, Mil';
Pi is the mean indicated pressure, MPa; F p is the piston area, m2;
a is the number of cycle events.
The torsional moment (torque) of one cylinder (MN m) is deter-
mined by the value of T
M t W c 1 =T R (7.21)
CH. 7. DYNAMICS OF CRANK MECHANISM
Fig. 7.4. Plotting forces P, N, S , K and T Fig. 7.5. Plotting a curve of

against crank angle total torque in a four-cy-
linder four-stroke engine
The curve of T versus cp is a t the same time the curve of changes

in Mt.,. but to the scale M A , = M p R MN m per mm.
In order to plot a curve of total torsional moment M t of a rnulti-
cylinder engine, graphically sum up the curves of t>orqnerof each
cylinder by shifting one curve relative to another through the crank
angle between igniting flashes. Since the values and nature of chan-
ges in the torques to the crankshaft angle are the same for all the
engine cylinders and differ only in angle intervals equal to the angle
intervals between igniting flashes in individual cylinders, the torque
current of one cylinder will be enough to compute the overall torque
of an engine.
446 PART ~ 1 ~ KINEMATICS
~ 0 . AND DYNXP~IICS
Table 7.4
I
121 0,Zi I 0.25
Values of cos ( Q
I 0.26 1 0.27
+ P)/cos P a t h of
1 0.28 0.29 ( 0.30 10.11 /$I O0
0 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -+ 360
10 +
0.978 0.977 0.977 0.977 0.976 0.976 0.975 0.975 + 350
20 +
0.912 0.910 0.909 0.908 0.907 0.906 0.905 0.903 + 340
30 +
0.806 0.803[0.801 0.798 0.795 0.793 0.790 0.788 f 330
40 -+
0.666 0.662 0.657 0.653 0.649 0.645 0.640 0.636 -/- 320
50 $- 0.500 0.494 0.488 0.482 0.476 0.469 0.463 0.457 + 310
60 -+
0.317 0.309 0.301 0.293 0.285 0.277 0.269 0.261 $- 300
70 +
0.126
- 0.064
0.117 0.107 0.098 0.088 0.078 0.069 0.059 $-
-
290
80 0.075 0.085 0.095 0.106 0.117 0.127 0.138 280
90 - 0.245 0.256 0.267 0.278 0.289 0.300 0.311 0.322 - 270
100 - 0.411 0.422 0.432 0.443 0.453 0,464 0.475 0.485 - 260
110 - 0.558 0.568 0.577 0.536 0.596 0.606 0.615 0.625 - 250
120 - 0.683 0.691 0.699 0.707 0.715 0.723 0.731 0.739 - 240
130 - 0.785 0.792 0.798 0.804 0.820 0.816 0.822 0.829 - 230
140 - 0.866 0.870 0.875 0.879 0.883 0.887 0.892 0.896 - 220
150 - 0.926 0.929 0.931 0.934 0.937 0.939 0.942 0.944 - 210
160 - 0.968 0.969 0.970 0.971 0.973 0.974 0.975 0.576 - 200
170 - 0.992 0.992 0.993 0.993 0.993 0.994 0.994 0.994 - 190
180 - 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 - 180
With an engine having equal intervals between igniting flashes,

the total torque will regularly change (i is the number of cylinders):
In a four-stroke engine over ........ 0 = 720°/i
In a two-stroke engine over . . . .. . . . . 8=360°/i
When graphically plotting curve M t (Fig. 7.5), curve M , . , of
a cylinder is divided into a number of segments that equals 720°/0
(for four-stroke engines). All the curve segments are brought together
and summed up. The resultant curve shows the total torque versus
the crankshaft angle.
The mean value of the total torque M t . , (MN m) is determined
by the area enclosed between curve M t and line OA:
where F , and F , are the positive and negative areas, respectively,

enclosed between curve M i and line OA and equivalent to t,he work
performed by the total torque (at i >
6 no negative area is, as a role,
present), mm2; M , is the torque scale, %IN m in 1 mm; OA is the
interval between igniting flashes in the diagram (Fig. 7 . 5 mm.
CH. 7. DYNAMICS OF CRANK RIECHANISM 147
Table 7.5
Valrres of sin ( q + p)/cos
7
' 1 0.21 1 0.25 1 0.26 0.27 I 0.28
Torque M t . , represents an engine mean indicated torque. The

actual effective torque a t the engine crankshaft
where q, is the mechanical efficiency of the engine.
7.6. FORCES ACTING ON CRANKPINS

The forces acting upon the crankpins of row and Vee engines are
determined analytically or by graphical plotting.
Row engines. The analytical resulting force acting on t,he crankpin
of a row (in-line) engine (Fig. 7.6~) is
where P C = K +KR is the force acting on the crankpin by the

crank, N.
148 PART TWC). KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
Tlle direction of resulting force R,,, in various positions of t h e

crankshaft is determined by angle $ enclosed between vector R,.,
and the crank axis. Angle $ is found from the relation
Resulting force R,,, acting upon the crankpin may be obtained

by vectorial addition of force P C acting by the crank and tangential
force T, or by vectorial addition of summed-up force S acting by the
Fig. 7.6. Forces loading

(a) crankpin; ( b ) crankshaft throw
connecting rod and centrifugal force K ,of the connecting rod rotat-
ing masses (see Fig. 7 . 6 ~ ) .
Force RC,pis plotted graphically according to the crank angle
in the form of a polar diagram (Fig. 7.7b) with the pole a t point O,.,.
When considering force R c masp the sum ofr forces T and PC,a polar
rr
diagram is constructed as follows (Fig. / . l a ) .
Positive forces T are laid off from diagram pole point 0 , on the
axis of abscissas rightwise and negative forces P C - on the axis of
ordinates upward. Resulting force P ,. for a corresponding crankshaft
angle is determined graphically as a vector sum of forces T and P C .
Figure 7 . 7 ~shows forces Rc.p plotted for angles cp, = 0, cp, = 30
and q,, = 390 degrees. Forces for other positions of the crankshaft
are plotted in a similar way.
To obtain a polar diagram, the ends of resulting forces R , . , are
connected, as the angles grow, with a smooth curve.
The polar diagram of the crankpin load in Fig. 7.7b, c is construct-
ed by vectorial addition of forces S and K , ,. In Fig. 7.7b forces S
are determined by vectorial addition of forces T and K , e.g. S =
= v~~+ K2. We also see in it how the vector of force S,, corres-
ponding t o angle (pl,= 390°0f crank angle is constructed. Forces 8
first comput,ed analytically are added in Fig. 7 . 7 ~t o force K R . c .
Constructing a polar diagram of the crankpin load (Fig. 7 . 7 ~ ) by
vectorial addition of total force S acting along the connecting rod
CH. 7. DYNAMICS OF CRANK MECHA4NISM
axis to inertial centrifugal force K R , acting along the crank is
accomplished as follows.
A circle having a radius taken to the adopted scale and equal to
the crank radius is drawn from point 0 representing the center of
a main journal assumed stationary. Another circle having a radius
equal to the connecting rod length taken t o the same scale is drawn
from point Of representing the center of the crankpin at T.D.C.
The circ.le with center 0 is divided into equal parts (generally 12
or 24). Rays are drawn from center 0 through the division points
until they cross the circle drawn from point 0'. These rays represent
relative positions of the engine cylinder axis that rotates. The cylin-
der is assumed to be rotating a t an angular velocity equal in value
to, but opposing the angular velocity of the crankshaft. Connecting
the point to the ends of the drawn rays, we obtain segments 0'1".
Ot2", etc. These segments are relative positions of the connecting
rod axis at certain crankshaft angles. Then vector forces S (Fig. 7 . 7 ~
shows forces S,, at cpla = 390° and S 2 , a t (P13 = 690') are laid off
from point 0'in the directions of the connecting rod axis to a certain
scale M p with taking into account the signs of the vectors of forces S.
and the vector ends are connected with a smooth line. The obtained
curve is known as a polar diagram of forces S having its pole a t point
0'.
i n order to find resulting force R C mpole
p 0' must be displaced ver-
tically by the value of force K, , ( K R , is constant in value and
direction) taken to the same scale M p . The obtained point 0, is
known as the pole of polar diagram of resulting forces R,,,act,ing
upon the crankpin.
To vectorially add forces S and K R ,to each other for any position
of the crank (position 23, for example), we have only to-
- -
draw vect,or
0,23- from pole 0,.This vector being the sum of vectors 0,O' = 8, ,
and 0'23 = S,, corresponds in value and direction to the searched
- ~
force I?,., 2 3 .
Therefore, the vectors connecting t,he origin point of coordinates
(pole 0,) to the points on the outline of the polar diagram of forces S
express in value and direction the forces acting on the crankpin at
certain angles of crankshaft. - -
To obtain resulting force R r h = R,., + K , , (see Fig. 7.6b)
acting on the crankshaft throw and bending the crankpin, pole 0,
must be displaced vertically (see Fig. 5.7) by the value of the inertial
centrifugal force of crank rotating masses K R e = --mcRu2 t o
point O,,. Figure 5.7b, c shows the plotting of resulting forces R t h
for angle cp,, = 390". Analytically the force (Fig. 7.6b)
CH. 7. DYNADIICS OF CRANK MECHANISBI 15f
where K p . t h = P c f K R , = K + K R ,.,+
K,, =K + K R is
the force acting upon the crankshaft throw along t,lle crank (Fig. 7.7b
shows the plotting of force R t h l at cpl = 30').
To determine the mean resulting force per cycle R,.,., and also
its maximum R e a pm a s and minimum nlln values, the polar
diagram is reconstructed into Cartesian coordinates as a fllnct,ion
Fig. 7.8. Diagram of crankpin load in Cartesian coordinates
of the crailkshaft revolution (Fig. 7.8). To this end, crank angles are
laid off 011 the axis of abscissas for each position of the crankshaft,
and the values of resulting force R,., taken from the polar diagram,
on the axis of ordinates. When plotting the diagram, all values of
are taken as positive. The mean value of resulting Re.,., is
found by computing the area under curve RceP= f (cp).
Vee engines. When determining resulting forces acting on a crank-
pin of a 'iree engine, due consideration should be given for the manner
in which the connecting rods are jointed to the crankshaft.
For Vee engines having articulated connecting rods (only one con-
necting rod being jointed to the crankpin) resulting force Re.P=
acting on the crankpin is determined by vectorial addition of total
, ,
forces T and P C transmitted from the left t'o the right connecting
rod (Fig. 7.9):
,
Forces T and P C , are determined by the table method with
allowance for the firing order of the engine
.j.52 P.IET TWO. KINE3111TICS AND DYNAMICS
Crankshaft angles in Vee engines are counted off from the position
of the first crank corresponding to T.D.C. in the left-hand cylinder
as viewed from the crankshaft nose when the crankshaft rotates in
the clockwise direction.
If the intervals between power strokes in the right- and left-hand
cylinders on different cranks are equal, then the total forces deter-
mined for the first crank may be used for the other cranks.
Fig. 7.9. Forces acting on

crankpin of the crankshaft
in a Vee-engine
For Vee engines with similar connecting rods located alongside

on one crankpin, resulting forces R,,,,and I?,.,., acting on the cor-
responding portions of the crankpin are determined separately in
the same way as the case is with a row-type engine. However, for
rough determination of resulting force R t h acting on t,he crankshaft
,
throw, we first compute conventional force R,., acting on the crank-
pin of an articulated crank mechanism. Force is determined,
neglecting the displacement of the connecting rods, in a similar way
as with an engine having articulated connectXingrods. If that is the
case
-
Eth 2 = Re.p z 4- c (7.30)
Polar diagrams of loads on the crankpin ancl crankshaft throw of
Vee engines are plotted in the same way as for row engines.
7.7. FORCES ACTING ON MAIN JOURNALS

Resulting force R j acting on the main bearing journal
(Fig. 7.10a, 6 ) is determined by vectorial addition of forces equal,
but opposite in direction to the forces transmitted from two adjacent
throws:
-
R,.] = Eh, i f Gn(i+i, (7.31)
CH. 7. DYNAMICS OF CRANK BTECHANIS~I 153
where R;h, t = -Rth, 112,'Land R;,, ,i+ 1, = -R l h (i+l,ll/Lare the

forces transmitted from the ith and (i +
l ) t h thron-s, respectively,
to the main journal located between these throws; 1, and I., are the
crankshaft axial distances between the centers of the nlain
journal and crankpin; L is the distance between the centers of adja-
cent main bearing journals.
Fig. 7.10. Main bearing journal

(a) crankshaft diagram; (5)diagram of forces loading a main hearing journal
With symmetrical throws Rib, t = -0.5Rf h , i, f?; (i+ =

-
- -0.5.R (i+ 1 ), t,hen.
A polar diagram of forces I?,. is plotted by nieans of two polar

diagrams of the loads on the adjacent cra~lkpinswhose poles O,,
are brought into coincidence a t one point (Fig. 7.11). Graphically
the points of the polar diagram r;howing the load on the main journal
for certain angles of the crankshaft are determined by vectorial
addition of forces R t l , in pairs of hot11 diagrams concurrently acting
on the crankshaft throw in compliance with the engine firing order.
Each of the resultant ~ e c t o r srepresents double force with
a reverse sign. Connecting the ends of resulting vectors wit11 a smooth
curve, as the crankshaft angles grow, g i ~ e sus the polar diagram.
To determine resulting force R m e japplied to the main jonr~iala t
a given crank angle of the it11 cylinder by means of this diagram, the
diagram scale must be reduced to half the scale of the polar diagrams
showing the load on the crankpins, and the ~ ~ e c t omust
r s be directed
from the curve towards pole O,,.
Figure 7.11 illustrates the construction of a polar diagram of the
load on the second main journal of a n in-line six-cylinder, four-stroke
engine having firing order 1-5-3-6-2-4.
The resulting force acting on the main journal may be computed

analytically
R m . j = ~ / T E +Kr (7.33)
where T,and K c are the sums of force projections Rib, and Rib (i+ !),
respectively. on axes T and K of the it,h crank.
Fig. 7.11. Polar diagram of

load on the second journal
of an in-line six-cylinder
four-stroke engine
T t , and K t , are determined as follows (see Fig. 7.10b). The pro-

jections of force Rib, = -0.5R t h , t,o axes T and K of the ith crank
will be
Similarly the projections of force R; (i+l) to ares T and K of the

(i +
l ) t h crank are
CH. 7. DYNAMICS OF CRANK PtlECHANISPIi 155
Next, determine projections Ti+I and Kb, t n (1+1) on axes T and K

of the ith crank:
T [ i + l )=
~ Ti+i cos yc = - 0.5Tr+lcos Ye
T i i + i ) K = Ti+* sin y, = --0.5Ti+, sin y,
K;, t h ( f + i ) ~= - K;, f h ( i + l ) sin p, = 0 . 5 K P ,t h ( i + l ) sin y,
where y , is the angle between the cranks of the ith and (i 1)th +
cylinders.
Summing up all project,ions on axes T and K of the ith crank, res-
pectively, we obtain:
= -0.5 (Tif Ti+, cos y c - K p ,t h ( i + l ) sin 7,)

Kc=K;, th, i f T l i + l ) ~ $ . K ;th(i+l)K
,
Table 7.6
ith crank (i + i ) t h crank Main journal
0
3.
+0
2 >
U
--
C
m
C
0
II?
-+
3
--
C
rZ: 4 I*
'$I0 .U C
0
.-G +
.e **
+
.#4
.cf r/: Y
3
U
r( rl * U
.-+ 5 % e
.*
k
-
L9
8
5 4
4-
&-
'?
k
In
+
k
rr,
6
kl k
k N
In
6
'?
0 + 0 C C Lr) L2 S E
;G'
0
G 1 I &- I I I C 0 1 !hQ c:
0
30
360
720
156 PART TWO. KINEnIATICS AND DYNAMICS
Fig. 7.12. Diagram of load on main journal

(u) without allowance for counterweights;(b) crankshaft with corlriterweigl~ts
When determining T, and K c for different angles of crankshaft,

i t is convenient to make the table form (Table 7.6).
Table 5.6 is composed against the crank angle of cylinder 1 from
the beginning of the cycle.
Rotation angles Ti and v i+, and their associated forces are de-
termined with taking into account the angular displacement of the
firing order. With the angle between cranks y , = 0, 90, 180°, etc.
the table becomes much simpler (see Table 9.6).
Val~lesof T, and K c taken for different angles of crankshaft are
then used to plot a polar diagram of resultant forces Rm.j acting
on the main bearing journal in coordinates T and K of the it11 cylin-
der. The diagram is plotted in the same way as the polar diagram of
the load on the crankpin.
Determination of resultant forces R m a acting
j on the main bearing
journals of Vee engines and plotting of polar diagrams for these
forces are accomplished in the same way as for in-line engines, but
with allowance for the fact that each throw is acted upon by total
forces from two cylinders (see Sec. '7.6). Reconstruction of the polar
diagram of forces R m a(Fig.
j 7.11) into Cartesian coordinates R , . ~:=
-
- - cp (Fig. i.12a) and determination of R,, j . m r Rm,j . n l R x 7 and
Bm.. j. rn~n against the diagram are carried out in the same way as
the case is with reconstruction of t'he diagram for forces K c * , .
CH. 7 . DYN+kMICS OF CRANK MECHANISM 157
7.8. CRASIiSHAFT JOURNALS AND PINS WEAR

Polar diagrams of loads on the cranksllaft pills and journals may
be used to plot diagrams of wear suffered by the crankpills and jour-
nals. These diagrams make it possible to determine m o ~ tand least
loaded portions of the crankpins and main jour~lals in order to pro-
perly locate a lnbricating hole. More than that. t h e diagrams form
a pictorial notation of wear over the entire circumference. supposing
loud
Fig. 7.13. Diagram of crankpin wear

t h a t wear is in proportion to the forces acting on the crankpin or
journal.
A wear diagram of a crankpin (Fig. 7.13) is plotted, using the
polar diagram shown in Fig. 7.7b, as follows. A circle is drawn to
illustrate the crankpin to any scale. Then, the circle is divided by
rays O,1, 0 , 2 , etc. into 12 or 18 equal segments. Further plotting is
performed, proceeding on the assumption that the effect of each vec-
tor of force covers 60 degrees in both directions over the crank-
pin circumference from the point a t which the force is applied.
Therefore, to determine the amount of force (wear) acting along each
ray (rap O,II, for example) take the following steps:
(a) t,ransfer the ray from the wear diagram t o the polar diagram,
in parallel to itself;
(b) referring to the polar diagram, determine the segment on the
crankpin (60" on each side of ray O J I ) within which the acting forces
Rc.p,iproduce 'load (wear) in the direction of ray O,II;
(c) determine the value of each force acting within the seg-
ment of ray O,II (three forces altogether are acting within the seg-
158 PART TWO. KINEnIATICS AND DYNABIICS
ment of ray 0 , I I : R,.,,,, R,.p14and and compute the result-

ing
OclI;
of +
(Rc,p Zi = R c . j 9 1 3 -k Rc.pl& R C . ~ ~for
S)
(d) lay off the resultant value of R,., z i t,o the chosen scale on the
wear diagram along ray 021,proceeding from the circle towards the
center;
(e) determine in the same way the resultant values of the forces
acting within the segments of each ray (for example, all forces
R c , p , i ,except R,.,,, are acting within the segment of ray O J ,
there is no acting force in the segments of rays O,# and 0 , 5 ) ;
(f) lay off on each ray lengths corresponding in the scale chosen
to the resultant values of forces R,.,,i and connect the ends of t h e
lengths with a smooth curve characteristic of crankpin wear;
(g) transfer to the wear diagram the limiting tangents to t h e
polar diagram O,A and O,B and, drawing rays 0 , A ' and 0,B' a t 60°,
from these tangents, determine the boundary points (A" and B")
of the crankpin wear curve. The axis of a lubricating hole uslially
is located between these points.
To make computations of resultant values of Re., easier, a table
is worked out (see Table 9.5) which covers the values of forces Rcmp,i
acting along each ray and their sum.
A wear diagram for a main hearing journal is constructed in a
similar way.
Chapter 8
ENGINE BALANCING
8.1. GENERAL
The forces and moments acting in the crank mechanism continu-

ously vary and, if not balanced, cause engine vibration and shocks
transmitted to the automobile or tractor frame.
Unbalanced forces and moments include:
(a) inertial forces of reciprocating masses P = PI, P * +
and centrifugal inertial forces of rotating masses K R ;
(b) longitudinal moments M j = M j I +
M j I I and M , occurring
in multicylinder engines due to unbalanced forces P j and K R in
individual cylinders;
, - M t equal to but oppos-
(c) torque M t and stalling torque &.I=
ing the former and absorbed by the engine supports.
* In balancing engines an analysis is usually made only of inertial primary

and secondary forces.
CH. 8. EXGINE BALANCING 159
An engine is recognized as balanced, if iu steady operation the

forces and couples (moments) acting on its supports are coilstant in
value and direction.
Piston engines, however, cannot be completely balanced, insofar
as torque M t is always a periodical function of the crankshaft angle
and, therefore, the value of stalling torque fif, is a variable a t all
times.
The requirements for balancing an engine having any number of
cylinders (provided the masses of moving parts are in balance and
the working processes flow identically in all. the cylinders, and also
when the crankshaft is in static and dynamic balance) are as follows:
(a) resultant inertial primary forces and their conples are equal
to zero: Z P j I = 0 and Zll.ij1 = 0;
(b) resultant inertial secondary forces and their couples are equal
to zero: Z P j I I = 0 and Z M j I I = 0;
(c) resultant centrifugal inertial forces and their couples are
equal to zero: Z K , = 0 and E M R = 0.
Thus, the solution of engine balancing problem consists in balane-
ing the most appreciable forces and their couples.
Balancing primary and secondary inertial forces is achieved by
selecting a certain number of cylinders, t'heir arrangement and choos-
ing a proper crank scheme of the crankshaft. Thus, for example, the
primary and secondary inertial forces and couples are completely
balanced in six- and eight-cylinder in-line engines.
If inertial forces in an engine under design cannot be fully balanced
by choosing a proper number of cylinders and their arrangement,
then they can be balanced by counterweights fitted on auxiliary
shafts mechanically coupled to the crankshaft.
In in-line engines the primary and secondary inertial forces can-
not be balanced by fitting counterweights on the crankshaft. By
properly choosing the mass of a counterweight the effect of the
primary inertial force can be partially transferred from one plane
to another, thus reducing a maximum unbalance in one plane.
Centrifugal inertial forces of rotating masses can be in practice
balanced in an engine with any number of cylinders by fitting counter-
weights on the crankshaft.
In most of multicylinder engines the resultant inertial forces are
balanced without any counterweights on account of a proper number
and arrangement of crankshaft throws. However, even balanced
crankshafts are often furnished with counterweights with a A-iewt o
reducing and distributing more evenly load 8,. on the main journals
and bearings, and also to reducing the moments bending the crank-
shaft.
When counterweights are fitted on the extensions of the crankshaft
webs, the resultant force acting on the main journal
160 P-LRT T W O . KINENATICS AND DYNAnIICS
where R,, is the inertial force of a counterweight.

To obtain a polar diagram of force RcU' m..i pole O,, of the polar dia-
gram of f0rc.e R,. (see Fig. 7.11) must be moved over the angle bise-
c t r i r a t R,,, '- = RCwci+,, behveen t,he cranks by the value Rcw
= Kc,, ,+ +,,
R,, ( i taken t,o the diagram scale. The obtained point
0 1-11 be the pole of the polar diagram for force figj
A decrease in the mean load on a main journal due to the use of
counterweight.^ can be seen in the developed diagram of the result.ant
forces acting upon t,l~emain journal (see Fig. 7.12b).
8.2. BIZLANCING EKGINES OF DIFFERENT TYPES
Single-cylinder engines (Types Yn-I, A-20, YHA-5). In a single-

cylinder engine unbalanced forces are P P I and K (Figs. 8.1
and 8.2).
There are no unbalanced moments, e.g. X M j I = 0, Z M l l r = 0
and 2 M , = 0.
To balance the centrifugal inertial forces of rotating masses K R
(Fig. 8.i), two similar counterweights are fitted on the web exten-
Fig, 8.1, Diagram of balancing cent- Fig. 8.2. Diagram of transferring

rifugal inertial forces in a single-cy- the action of the primary inertial
linder engine force in a single-cylinder engine
from a vertical to a horizontal
plane
sions. Their centers of gravity are a t distance p from the crankshaft

axis. Force K R is fully balanced, provided
2rn,,,Rpw2 = m,RoZ
on accou.nt of selecting m,, ,
and p.
Because of structural reasons, in single-cylinder engines the second-
ary inertial force is not balanced as a rule and the effect of unbalanced
CH. 8. ENGINE BALANCING 161
primary inertial force is partially (usuall\~0.5P!,) transferred from

a vertical t o a horizontal plane (Fig. 8.2) i v fittlng counterweights.
Referring to the figure, the vertical comporkn t of the counterweight
inertial force R,, decreases force P j I , but additional horizontal
force R,,, I, occurs in the engine.
The mass of counterweights (kg) is
2m,,,, = 0.5mjR/p (8.2)
Thus, the total mass of each co~nt~erweight in a single-cylinder
engine will be
B
mew= ~ +m~w,~=-(m~+0*5mj)
C W R
2~ (8.3)
Double-cylinder engines (Types A-16, Ya-2, YHA-7 and Y HA- 10).
Now we shall consider a double-cylinder in-line engine having its
Fig. 8.3. Diagram of inertial for- Fig. 8.4. Diagram of inertial for-
ces acting in a double-cylinder ces acting in a double-cylinder
in-line engine with cranks direc- in-line engine with cranks at 180'
ted similarly
cranks directed similarly (Fig. 8.3). The engine firing order is 1-2.
Intervals between the ignition flashes are equal to 360'. The engine
crankshaft has its cranks directed t o the same side.
With the adopted arrangement of the cranks, forces P j I , P j I I
and K R will be similar in each cylinder. The resultants of these forces
for cylinder 1 and 2 are, respectively:
X P j z = 2 P , , = 2mjRo2cos (r;
Z P j r r = 2 P l r z = 2mlRosh cos 2 ~ Z; K R = 2 K R = 2m,Ro2
There are no unbalanced couples, as the acting forces and t,heir
arms are similar: ZMi! = 0, Z M t , , = 0 and Z M R = 0.
A double-cylinder englne is balanced in the same way as the single-
cylinder engine.
A double-cylinder engine with cranks at 180' (Fig. 8.4). The engine

firing order is 1-2. Firing intervals alternate a t 180 and 540 degrees.
With the cranlr arrangement adopted, the primary inertial forces
are balanced a t any position of the crankshaft: Z P j , = 0.
I n the plane of t'he axes of the cylinders these forces produce an
unbalanced pair with a moment
Z M j I = Pl,a
where a is the distance between the axes of cylinders.
By means of counterweights t,he mass of which
the effect of moment Zil.ljI may be transferred into a horizontal plane

(b is the distance between the counterweights).
Fig. 8.5. Diagram of inertial

forces acting in a four-cylin-
der in-line engine
Therefore, counterweights transfer the primary inertial moment
from a vertical to a horizontal plane, rather than balance it.
Secondary inertial forces P j I , for cylinder 1 and 2 are equal and
unidirectional. The resultant of these forces
Z P j I I = 2mlRo2h cos 2 q
Force Z P j I I may be balanced by counterweights fitted on auxiliary
shafts. The moment of the secondary inertial forces is equal to zero:
B M j I = 0. The centrifugal inertial forces from the first and second
cylinders are mutually cancelled: B K R = 0.
A free moment produced by the centrifugal inertial forces Z ~ l l ,
= K,a. This moment is balanced by counterweights, the mass of
which is
m c u , = m.Ra/(p,b)
Four-eylinder in-line engine with cranks at 180'. The firing order

is 1-2-4-3 or 1-3-4-2. Firing is a t intervals of 180". The crankshaft
has its cranks arranged at 180'. This arrangement of cranks (Fig. 8.5)
CH. 8. ENCIYE BALANCING 163
is used in engines: hI-24, BA3-2101, UA3-2103, 313hIA-412, hI3AI.I-

407, 1\40, A-35, A-37, fl-48, a-54. ChIH-14, KAM-46, etc.
With this arrangement of cranks, the primary inertial forces and
their moments are mutually balanced: 3 P j , = 0 i111d Z . l l j , = 0.
For all the cylinders the secondary inertial forces are equal and
unidirectional. Their resultant
X P j II = 4PjI I = 4mjRw2hcos 2cp
The secondary inert,ial forces can be balanced only by means of
auxiliary shafts. The total moment of these forces is equal to zero:
Fig. 8.6. Diagram of inertial forces acting in a six-cylinder in-line engine
ZATlj,, = 0. The centrifugal inertial forces for all the cylinders are.
equal and opposite in pairs. The resultant of these forces and the
moment are equal to zero: Z K R = 0 and Z M R = 0.
Certain engines (an example is M3MA-407) have crankshafts fur-
nished with counterweights t o reduce the centrifugal
- - forces affecting-
the main bearings.
Six-cylinder engines. A six-cy linder in-line engine (Fig. 8.6).
The firing order is 1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-4-2-6-3-5.Firing is a t intervals of
120". The cranks are arranged a t 120". This arrangement is used in
engines: 3HA-164, 3HA-120, 3A3-51, 3A3-12, URAL-5hI, A-6,
6K,ZI,M-50.
The six-cylinder in-line engine is completely balanced:
Z P j I = 0 and 2 1 % ~= 0
Z p j I I = 0 and ZIWjII
=0
E K , = O and ZlW, = O
Six-cylinder in-line engines are built up with seven- and four-
bearing crankshafts.
164 PART TWO. ICINElITATICS AND DYNAMICS
The diagram of a seven-bearing crankshaft of a 31.1;1-164 engine

without counterweights is s h o \ ~ n in Fig. 8.6. Some engines
( 3 - 2 3 , 3.23-51. for example) hare crankshafts furnished with
counterweights to eliminate the load on the main bearings caused
by the centrifugal forces.
A T7ee six-cylinder engine with 903 V-angle and three paired cranks
at 120" (Fig. 8.7). The firing order of the engine is 11-Ir-21-Zr-31-3r.
Firing intervals are of 90 and 150'. The crankshaft has its cranks a t
120". This arrangement of cranks is utilized in HM3-236 engines.
Left ~ight
bank I bank ,
Fig. 8.7. Diagram of inertial forces acting in a six-cylinder Vee-type engine
For each engine section which includes two cylinders (left-hand

and right-hand), the resultant of the primary inertial forces is a con-
stant value always directed along the crank radius. The resultant of
the primary inertial forces for the entire engine is equal to zero:
Z P j , r = 0. The total moment of the primary inertial forces acts
in a rotating plane a t 30' with regard t,o the first crank plane and is
The resultant of the secondary inertial forces for each section is

always directed horizontally perpendicular to the crankshaft axis
(see Fig. 8.7). The sum of these equal forces is zero:
The total moment of the secondary inertial forces acts in a hori-

zontal plane:
+
ZMjrrz =1/Z mjRw21a(1.5 cos 2~p 0.866 sin 2 ~ )
The centrifugal inerb.ia1 forces are mutually balanced: Z K , = 0.
The t,otal moment from the centrifugal forces acts in the same plane
as moment Z M I I r does:
CH. 8. ENGINE BALANCING 165
Moments Z A f j , 2 and CJf, ,

are balanced by means of counter-
weights fitted on the extensions of the crankshaft webs. while mo-
ment Z M j I I is balanced by fitting counterweights on two auxiliary
shafts.
A Vee-type six-cylinder engine with 60" V-angle of cylinders and s t x
cranks arranged a t 60' (Fig. 8.8). The engine firing order is II-lr-22-
2r-31-3r. The firing is a t uniform intervals of 120'. This arrangement
of cylinders is utilized in the rA3-24-16 engine.
2i 3i
Left bank Right 6a.qk
Fig. 8.8. Diagram of a six-cylinder Vee-type engine having a Vee-angle of 60'
For each engine section which includes two cylinders (left-hand

and right-hand) the resultants of the primary and secondary inertial
forces are equal in value and the resultants of the primary and second-
ary inertial forces for the entire engine are equal to zero: Z P j r = 0
and Z P j , , = 0. The resultant of the centrifugal forces is also equal
to zero: X K , = 0.
The t.otal moment of the primary inertial forces acts in a rotating
plane coincident wit.h the plane of the first left and third right cranks:
The t)ot\almoment of the secondary inertial forces acts in the plane

rotating a t angular velocity 2 0 in the direction opposit,e t,o the crank-
shaft rotmation:
i = 1.5mjRw2ha
The total moment of the centrifugal forces acts in the same plane
as moment X M j l does:
Balancing moments Z i l f j I and ZilfR is accomplished by means of

counterweights fitted on the extensions of two outer webs of the
crankshaft, while moment Z l M j , , is balanced by counterweights
on an auxiliary shaft rotating a t a speed of 201.
166 PART TWO. KINEMATICS i l N D DYiYdRIICS
Eight-cylinder engine. An eight-cylirzdrr in-line engine (Fig. 8.9).

The engine firing order is 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4. Firing is a t 90' intervals.
The crankshaft has eight cranks arranged in two planes square with
each other. This arrangement is utilized in the 31111-110 engines.
The engine is completely balanced:
ZPj, = 0 and Z*lfjI = 0; X P j , , =0 and BJij,, = 0;
ZKR = O and ZAfR = 0
Counterm-eights are used in some engines to eliminate loads of the
crankshaft due to 1ocal centrifugal forces.
Fig. 8.9. Diagram of inertial forces acting in an eight-cylinder in-line engine
An eight-cylinder Vee-type engine. The engine firing order is

11-lr-41-21-2r-31-3r-4r.The firing intervals are 90". The V-angle of
the cylinders is 90". The crankshaft has its cranks arranged in two
planes square with each other (Fig. 8.10). This arrangement is utilized
in engines HM3-238, 3HA-111, 3IIh-130, 3I.IA-375, 3A3-13,
3A3-41,3A3-66.
In the engines of the type under consideration the primary inertial
forces are mutually balanced: B P!, = 0. The tot,al moment of t,hese
forces acts in a rotating plane which is a t 18'26' to the plane of the
first crank:
The resultants of the secondary inertial forces for each engine

section are always directed horizontally normal to the crankshaft
axis (see Fig. 8.10).The sum of these resultants is zero: ZP I , , = 0.
The total moment of the secondary inertial forces is also equal
to zero: Z L l l j , , = 0. The centrifugal inertial forces for all sections
CH. 8. EKGINE BALANCING 167
are equal and oppose in pairs each other. The result.ant, of these
forces ZKR = 0.
The tot,al moment &IfR of the cent1:ifugal forces acts in t.he same
plane as the resultant rnomeilt of primary inertial forces E M j , :
XAf, = 1/mKRa =1rn (l?zc+ 2rn,,..,) Rw2a
Balanc,ing the moments Z MI', and ZilcT, is by means of counter-
weights fitt,ed on the extensions of the crankshaft webs (see Fig. 8.10)
Left bank hght bank
Fig. 8.10. Diagram of inertial forces acting in an eight-cylinder Vee-type engine

at the ends of t.he crankshaft in the
or by fitting two ~ount~erweights
plane of moment actmion,e.g. a t 18"26' (see Fig. 9.15).
I t is obvious that
-+ + +
Z M j I ZMR = aRo2i / f i ( m j m, 2mc.,.,)
The mass of each common count.er\veight mounted at the crank-
shaft end
where p is the distance from the center of gravity of the common

counterweight to the axis of the crankshaft; b is the distance between
the centers of gravity of the counterweights.
8.3. TJ'MIFORMITY OF ENGINE TORQUE AND RUN
When determining summary forces acting in an engine, i t has been
found out that t,he torque M t represents a periodic function of the
crankshaft angle. Nonuniforrnity of total torque variation is due to
specific features of the working process in the engine and kinematic
features of its cranli mechanism.
The uniformity of the i n d i ~ a t ~ etorque
d of an engine is usually
assessed through the use of the torque nonuniformity ratdo:
168 PART T W O . KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
where 44 t max Mt mln and A f t a m are the maximum, minimum and

mean indicated torques, respectively.
With one and the same engine the value of p is dependent on its
performance. Therefore, for comparative assessment of various engines
the torque nonuniformity ratio is determined for the rated power
operation.
For engines having cylinders of t,he same size, ratio p decreases
wit.h an increase in the number of cylinders. This is well shown by
curve = f (cp) (Fig. 8.11).
Fig. 8.11, Curves of torques

in four-stro ke engines having
different number of similar
cylinders (ignition intervals
are 0 = 7201i)
fa) single-cylinder, i -
-. 1; ( b }
double-cylinder, i = 2; (c)' four-
cylinder, i -- 4;id) six-cylinder
i ---- 6; ( e ) eight-cylinder, Z = 8
The indicated torque of an engine, M t (N m), a t all times is balan-

ced by the total resisting torque M , and inertial forces moment J ,
of all moving masses of the engine referred to the crankshaft axis.
This relationship is expressed by the expression
where dwldt is the angular acceleration of the crankshaft, rad/s2.

For steady-state engine operation M , = M i e m . Graphically this
means that line M t . , plotted on the total torque diagram (Fig. 8.12)
determines also the resisting torque value. Referring to t'he figure,
CH. 8. ENGINE BALANCISG 4 69
Mtm,crosses the torque curve, forming positive ( F , ) and negative

(27,) plateaus. The plateaus above the resisting torque line are pro-
portional t o the torque surplus work absorbed by the mo\-ing parts
of the engine. The excess of work is used for increasing t h e killetic
energy and thus the speed of
moving masses. I n the case of M
work lack energy is given off
by the moving parts causing
crankshaft deceleration.
The quantity of torque surp-
lus work L, is determined by
area F,:
L, = FIAIMiVIQ (8.6)
where F, is the area above
straight line ,I1 t:, obtained
by area computation or other
method, mm" A$lS1 is the tor-
que scale, N m per mm; M , =
4 ~ r / (*ia c ) is the scale of the
crankshaft angle, rad per mm cp@
(segment ac in mm; is the Fig. 8.12. Change in the torque and an-
number of cylinders). gular velocity of crankshaft in steady-
The torque surplus work can operation of engine
be obtained analytically from
equation (8.5) in the form of an increment in the kinetic energy of ro-
tating masses because of a change in the angular velocity of the
crankshaft from w,, t o co,,,:
It can be seen that the changes in the crankshaft angular velocity

are caused by a deviation of the instantaneous value of from the
torque mean value M,., = d.2,. At > Jf, the angular accelernt-
ion of the crankshaft is positive and its angular velocity increases.
If M t < M,, then the opposite takes place, the angular velocity
of the crankshaft decreases. With ilf = A l , equation (8.:) takes the
form:
If that is the case d o l d t = 0 and the shaft angular velocity clr.

-
- a m a x 01: O == O m i n -
A variation in the angular velocity under steady-state operating
conditions of the engine due to the nonuniformity of torque is eva-
170 P-\RT TWO. KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
luated in t'er~nsof the run nonuniformity ratio
If we assume, that the mean angular velocit,y (radis)

I
[I), = co = (urnaxT omin)/2 (8.9)
then equation (8.7) may be written in the form
Substituting the value of mean angular velocity om = o = nn130

in equation (8.10), we obtain
The run nonuniformit,y ratio 6 is

Automobile engines.............. r 0.01-0.02
Tractor engines ................. 0 .IK13-0.010
I t follows from equation (8.11), that at L, = const an increase

i n the engine speed and moment of inertia of rotating massesleads
t o a decrease in the run nonuniformity ratio.
When the run nonuniformity ratio w-as determined, it was supposed
that the crankshaft was absolutely rigid. In fact, the crankshaft and
the mechanisms coupled to i t feature flexibility and are affected by
torsional vibrations. I n that connection, the computed value of run
nonuniformity ratio will be somewhat different from the actual value.
When computing a newly designed engine, the moment of inertia
(kg m2) of the engine moving masses can be determined from for-
mula (8.10), if the value of 6 is assumed:
J , = Lg/(8~02) (8.12)
Actual values of inertia moment for ccrt,ain automobile and trac-
tor engines are as follom-s:
Type
of engine.. .MeM3-965 M3MA-407 M-21 3BJI-130 flbf3-236 A-35 A-54
:ilEornent of
inertia J,, kg m' 0.076 0.147 0.274 0,6101 2.450 2.260 2.260
S,4. DESIGX OF FLYWHEEL
The primary purpose of a flywheel is to provide uniform engine

speed and t o provide for a source of energy when the vehicle starts off.
For automobile engines geilerally operatirlg fiir underloaded,
typical is easy speeding-up of t h car.
~ 111 vie\\- of this. the flywheel
of a n arriolnohile e~igincis: as 3 rule, of ;I ~ ~ ~ i n j l n t lsize.
-rtl
In tractor engines the kinebic energy of the flywheel must provide
for starting off and overcoming short-t,ime overloads, for which reason
the flywheels of tractor engines are lnrgcr and heavier as compared
with automobile engine flywheels.
Designing a flywheel consist,^ in dc-iermining inertia moment J t
of t,he flywheel, flywheel moment rnfD:n, basic dimensions and maxi-
mum peripheral velocity.
It may be assumed the inertia moment of the flywheel together
with the clutch is from 80 to 90 percent of engine moment of iner-
tia J , for an automobile engine and from 75 to 90 percent of i t , for
a tractor engine.
The flywheel moment (kg m2) is
where mi is the flywheel mass, kg; Dm is t.he flywheel mean dia-

meter: m.
The value of the flywheel moment is used to make the choice of
the main dimensions of the flywheel, following mainly t,he ~ t ~ r u c t u r a l
reasons. Thus, the flywheel diamet.er is chosen taking into account
the engine overall dimensions, arrangement of the clutch unit, etc.
For rough computations we may assume D m = (2 t,o 3) S, where S
is t,he piston st,roke, m.
As dictated by strength, the outer diameter of t.he flywheel Df
must be chosen t,o provide permissible peripheral veToci t ies.
The peripheral velocity a t the flywheel out.line
where 12 is the engine speed, rpm.

The peripheral velocity is:
For cast-iron flywheels . . .. . ..... c-f< 25 t,o 30 m/a
For steel flyn~heels . . . . ........ rt <40 t o 45 m/s
Chapter 9
ANALI7SIS OF ESGIBE KINEMATICS
AND DYKARIlCS
9.1. DESIGS OF AX IK-LIXE CARBURETTOR ENGINE
Examples of liine~liaiicand dynamic analysis set forth below are
given for tpheengine used in Chapter 4 for the heat a ~ ~ a l y sand
i s in
Chapter 5, for t h e speed characteristic analysis. I n view of this all
source data for coinputirrg the kii~elnaticsand dyna~nicsof an in-line
carburettor engine a1.e accordii~glj-take11 from Sections 4.2 and 5.3.
172 P-4RT TWO. KINEM-4TICS -4ND DYNAMICS
Kinematics
The choice of ratio h and length of connecting rod LC.,. I11 order
to reduce the engine height without considerably increasing inertial
and normal forces, the ratio of the crank radius t o the connec-
ting-rod length has been preliminary assumed in the heat ailalysis
as h = 0.285. Under these conditions L C . ,= R, h = 39/0.285
= 136.8 mm.
Having constructed a kinematic diagram of the crank mechanism
(see Fig. 6.2), ascertain that the values of L C . ,and h previously adopt-
ed allow the connecting rod to move without striking the bottom
edge of the cylinder. Therefore, the values of L C . , and h require
no recomputations.
The piston travel
= 39 [(I - eos cp) + 0.285 (1- cos ~ p ) ]mm

The computation of s, is carried out analytically every 10 degrees
of the crankshaft angle. The values for [(I - cos v) $ rJ.285 (1 -
- cos 2cp)I a t different (p are taken from Table 6.1 as mean quantities
bet,wcen the values a t A = 0.28 and 0.29 and entered into column 2
of computation Table 0.1 (t,o reduce the size of the table, t'he values
are given a t intervals of 30'')..
Table $.I
- cosrp)-l-
[(I
v 0.285
+- 'PT m/s (cos cc +
'CO O. 285( - coe 2q)]
s , ~ , (sin
mrn
- x 3-0.285 j, m/sz
+ 4 x sin 2 q ) cos 2 9 )
0 0.0000 0.0 0.0000 0.0 +1.2850 ( t17209

30 3-0.1697 6.6 +0.6234 3-44.2 4-1.0085 +I3506
60 +O. 6069 23.7 +0.9894 +22.6 j--0.3575 +4 788
90 +1 .I425 44.6 +1.0000 4-22.9 --0.2850 -3 817
120 $1.6069 62.7 j-0.7426 +17.0 -0.6425 -8 605
150 + 1.9017 74.2 +0.3766 +8.6 -0.7235 -9689
fS0 + 2.0000 '78.0 0.0000 0.0 -0.7150 -9 576
2 10 $-1.9017 74.2 -0.3766 8 . 6 -0.7235 -9tj89
240 +1.6069 62.7 -0.7426 -17.0 -0.6425 -8 605
270 + I . 1425 44.6 -1.0000 -22.9 -0.2850 -3 817
300 +O .6069 23.7 -0.9894 -22.6 +0.3575 +C 758
330 +O. 1697 6.6 -0.6234 -14.2 -1-1.0085 +I3506
360 0000 0.0 0.0000 0.0 +f.2850 +-I7 209
GET. 9. _\KA1LYSISOF ESGIXE I<ISED1,4TICS AND DYNAMICS
The angular velocity of cranlishaft revolution

(1) = n11.'30= 3.14 X 5600!30 = 586 rad:'s
The pis tor) speed
3,
u p = wII sin cp
( ;
L
-
)
, 0.285
sin 2cp = 586 1: 0.039 (sinvT- - 2
sin 2cp m:s 1
The values for [sin (F + 1 taken from Table 6.2
(0.2852) sin 2 ~ are
and entered into colulnn 4 of Table 9.1. Column 5 of this table inclu-
des the computed values of c,.
The piston acceleration
j = 0 2 R (COSq + h cos 2cp)
58G2 x 0.039 (cos
= +
0.285 eos 2 ~ m!s2
)
Values for (cos c~ + 0.285 cos 2 ~ are
) taken from Table 6.3 and
entered into column 6, the computed values of j are entered into
column 7.
The data in Table 9.1 are used to plot the curves (Fig. 9.1) of s,
to scale M , = 2 mrn per mm, up to scale A I u = 1 mis per mm, and
j to scale M j = 500 m/s2 per mm. The crankshaft angle scale is
M , = 3" per mm.
At j = 0, v , = f umax and on the curve s, i t is the point of in-
flection.
Gas pressure force. The indicator diagram obtained in the heat

analysis (see Fig. 3.14) is developed by the crank angle (Fig. 9.2a)
following the Brix method. The Bris correction is
RS/(ZM,)39 x 0.285/(2 x 1) = 5.56 mm
=
where ATs is the piston travel scale on the indicator diagram.
The scales of the developed diagram: pressures and specific forces
Mp = 0.05 MPa per mm; full forces M p = M p F p = 0.05 x
x 0.004776 = 0.000239 MN per mm, or Af, = 239 N per mm;
crank angle M , = 3' per mm, or
IIf; = 4n/OB = 4 x 3.141240 = 0.0523 rad per mm
where OB is the length of the developed indicator diagram, mm.
Values of Ap, are determined against the developed diagram every
10 degrees of the crank angle and entered in column 2 of summary
Table 9.2 of the dynamic analysis (in the table values are given
every 30' and the point a t cp = 370').
Masses of the parts of the crank mechanism. By Table 7.1 and
taking into account the cylinder bore, SIB ratio, in-line arrangement
Fig. 9.1. Piston path, speed and acceleration of a carburettor engine
of cylinders and fairly high value of p , , we determine:

mass of the piston group (for a piston of aluminum alloy we assum-
ed rn; = 100 kg/m2)
mass of the connecting rod (for a steel forged connecting rod w e

assumed mi., = 150 kg/mz)
m,, = mf,,F, = 150 x 0.004776 = 0.716 kg
mass of unbalanced parts of one crankshaft throw without counter-
weight,~(for a cast-iron crankshaft we assumed mih = 140 kgim2)
The mass of a connecting sod concentrated a t the axis of the

pist.0~1pin
rn, ., = 0.275rnC., = 0.275 x 0.716 = 0.197 kg
The mass of a connecting rod concentrated a t the crank axis
m ,,,., = 0.725mC., = 0.725 x 0.716 = 0.519 kg
-:I76 P A R T TIT7O. KINEJI-ITICS b K D DYNAMICS
Reciprocating masses
Rotating masses
Specific and full forces of inertia. Transfer values of j from

Table 9.1 into colurni~3 of Table 9.2 and determine the values of
specific inertial forces of reciprocating masses (column 4):
The centrifugal inertial force of rot.ating masses
The centrifugal inertial forces of connecting rod rotating masses

K R ,,,-
- -m ,,,,, Rw2 = -0.519 x 0.039 x 5862 x
-
- -6.950 kN
The centrifugal inertial force of the crank rotating masses
Specif ie total forces. The specific force (in MPa) concentrated on

t h e axis of t'he piston pin (column 5): p = Ap, pj. +
The specific rated force (in MPa) p, = p tan /3. The values of
tan f.3 are determined for h = 0.285 against Table 7.2 and entered
in column 6, while the values of p , in column 7.
The specific force (MPa) acting along the connecting rod (co-
lumn 9): p , = p (llcos (3).
The specific force (MPa) acting along the crank radius (column 11):
P C = P COS ((P f P)/COS $ 0
The specific (column 13) and full (column 14) tangential forces
(MPa and kN)
.pT = p sin (q +
e)/cos B and T = p,P, = ~ ~ 0 . 0 0 4 7 7x6 lo3
Using data in Table 9.2, plot curves of specific forces pt, p, p,,
. p N , pc, p~ versus the crankshaft angle cp (Fig. 9.2).
The mean value of the tangential force per cycle:
according to the data of heat analysis
2 X 106
T, =
nT piFp= 3.14~4
1.0675 x 0.004776 = 812 N
according to the area enclosed between curve p~ and axis of abscis-
sas (Fig. 9.2d)
Z F x -Z F 2 -1160
PT, = OB M , = 1980240 0.05=0.171 MPa, and
CH. 9. ANALYSIS OF ENGINE KINEMATICS AND DmAI\.ITCS 177
Fig. 9.2. Dynamic analysis of a carburettor engine

( a ) development of the indicator diagram and plotting curves of specific forces p f and p;
(b)ploWig curves of specific forces p~ and p N ; (c) the same for specific forces p,; (dl the same
for specific forces pT; (e) plotting Mt
T m =: pTmFp = 0.171 x 0.004776 x i06 = 816 N

An error A =C (812-816)100/812=0.5% .
12-0946
Torques. The torque of a cylinder (column 15)

= TB = T x 0.039 x lo3 N m
The t,orque variat,ion period of a four-st,roke engine with equal
firing intervals
0 = 72Oli = 720/4 = 180"
The values of torques of all four cylinders of the engine are sum-
med up by the table method (Table 9.3) for every 10" of the crankshaft
Table 9 . 3
Cylinders
1 '3
Y 3 4
cP"
Crank
angle
vo
' I t .cl
Nm
crank
ansip
cp O
1 Mf-c*
Xrn
crank
angle
cP O I Mt.c'
h m
crank
angle
cPO
Mt.cj
N rn
M i , ?u' rn
0
10
0
10
0
-132.4
180
190
0
--28.0
360
370
0
-+125.5
1 510
550
0
-29.8
0
-64.7
20 20 -203.2 200 -65.2 380 $161.3 560 --67.1 -174.2
30 30 -223.3 210 -94.6 390 +176.6 570 -97.4 -238.7
40 40 -209.7 220 -123.0 400 +156.6 580 -226.8 -302.9
50 50 -174.3 230 -154.7 410 +128.6 590 -155.7 -356.1
60 60 -127.6 240 -165.2 420 --k124.8 600 -169.7 -337.7
70 70 -65.2 250 -159.4 430 t142.6 610 -165.9 -247.9
80 80 +19.6 260 -139.8 440 4-185.5 620 -446.3 -1.0
90 90 4-97.4 270 -003.9 450 +234.3 630 -103.5 tl24.3
I00 100 3-140.7 280 -36.3 460 3-248.9 640 -39.1 +314.2
110 110 +160.3 290 +32.6 470 +244.2 650 3-64.5 j-498.6
120 420 Jr165.2 300 +97.0 480 +229.3 660 +121.4 +612.9
130 130 +i52.9 310 +123.0 490 -+190.1 670 +183.6 +649.6
140 140 +127.7 320 -1138.0 500 t147.3 680 j-208.8 +621.8
150 150 +94.6 330 +137.8 ,510 +115.3 690 -+219.6 +567.3
160 160 +63.4 340 4-120.2 520 +7G.4 700 i-201.3 +461.3
170 170 +29.8 350 +71.8 530 +30.8 710 +139.8 +272.2
180 180 0 360 0 540 0 720 0 0
angle, and the data thus obt.ained are used to plot a curve M i
(Fig. 9.2e) t o scale M M = 10 N m per mm.
The mean torque of an engine:
according to the data of heat analysis
Mi.,= M i= M J q , = 103.110.8141 = 126.6 N rn

CH, 9. ANALYSIS OF ENGINE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
according to the area enclosed under curve M t (Fig. 9.2e)
126.6- 127.3
An error A = 126.6
100 =0.671.
The maximum and minimum torques (Fig. 9.2e)
Forces acting on crankpin. To compute the resultant force ac,ting

on the crankpin of an in-line engine, Table 9.4 is compiled into ~ v h i c h
the values of force T are transferred from Table .2.
Table 9.4
Full forces, kN
To
1 Pc I R c . ~ I K~ Ih I 'th
0 0 -11.501 -18.451 18.451. -27 -411 27.411

30 --5.726 -7.279 -14.229 15.250 -23.189 . 23.820
60 --3.272 -0.927 1 -7.877 8.550 -16.837 17.050
90 4-2.498 -0.736 -7.686 8.050 -16.646 16.830
120 +4.236 -4.112 -11.062 11.850 -20.022 20.490
150 j-2.426 -6.051 -13.001 13.240 -21 .961 22.080
180 0 -6.376 -13.326 13.326 -22.286 22.286
210 -2.426 -6.051 -13.001 13.240 -21.961 22.080
240 -4.236 --4.112 -11.062 11.820 -20.022 20.460
270 -2.665 -0.788 -7,738 8.180 -16.698 16.920
300 t2.488 -0.707 -7.657 8.040 -16.617 16.860
330 +3.534 -4.489 -11.439 11.910 -20.399 20.610
360 0 -2.402 -9.352 9.352 -18.312 18.312
370 +3.219 3-24.256 +7.206 0.645 -1.754 3.660
390 +4.528 +5.75O -1.200 4.650 -10.160 11.140
420 +3.200 t0.907 -6.043 6.880 -15.003 15.370
450 +6.008 -1.772 -8.722 f0.720 -17.682 18.710
480 +5.879 -5.712 -12.662 13.890 -21 .622 22.420
510 +2.956 -7.374 -14.324 14.590 -23.284 23.460
540 0 -7.164 -14,114 14.114 -23.074 23.312
570 . -2.498 -6.233 -13.483 13.430 -22.143 22.230
600 -4.351 -4.227 -11.177 11.960 -20.137 20.560
630 -2.655 -0.783 -7.733 7.850 -16.693 16.880
660 +3.114 -0.884 -7.834 8.280 -16.794 17.090
690 +5.631 -7.150 -14.100 15.350 -23.060 23.740
720 0 -1 2 ,501 -18.451 18.451 -27.411 27.411
480 PART TWO. ICINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
Fig. 9.3. Forces loading the crankpin

(a) polar diagram; ( b ) diagram of load on a crankpin in Cartesian coordinates
The total force acting on the crankpin along the crank radius
where K = pcFp = p,*0.004776 x i03 kN.

The resultant force R C mloading
p the crankpin is computed gra-
phically by summing up the vectors of forces T and P C in plotting
a polar diagram (Fig. 9.3a). The scale of forces in the polar diagram
for summary forces M p is 0.1 kN per mm. The values of R,., for
various values of cp are entered in Table 9.4 and then they are used
t o plot an Reap diagram in Cartesian coordinates (Fig. 9.3b).
By the developed diagram of R,, we determine
where OB is the length of the diagram, mrn; F is the area under

curve R,,, mm2.
A diagram of crankpin wear (Fig. 9.4) is plotted against the polar
diagram (Fig. 9 . 3 4 . The sum of forces R ,, acting along each ray
CH. 9. ANALYSIS OF ENGINE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS 181
(1 to 12) of the wear diagram is determined against Table 9.5 (values

of Reap, i in the Table are in kN). Using t,he data in Table 9.5, lay
off values of total forces ZRc.,, i along each ray, inward from the
circumference, to the scale dl, = 50 kN per mm (Fig. 9.4). Forces
have
x f l ~ .i ~ , no effect along rays 4 and 5, and exert load along rays
6 , 7 and 8 only witrhin the interval 360" < cp (390".
Fig. 9.4. Diagram of crankpin

wear in a carburettor &engine
The location of an oil hole (cp, = 68") is determined against the

wear diagram.
Forces loading the crankshaft throw. The total force acting on
the crankshaft throw along the crank radius
-
The resultant force loading the crankshaft throw, sth =
+ rpth is determined against diagram R e e p(Fig. 9-34. The vectors
drawn from pole 0, towards the corresponding points on the polar
diagram to scale M p = 0.1 kN per mm express forces R,, whose
values versus cp are entered in Table 9.4.
Forces loading main journals. The crankshaft of the engine under
design is fully supported with its cranks a t lSOO ( y c = i80°)
(Fig. 9 . 5 ~ ) .The crank order is 1-3-4-2. Therefore, when the first
crank is a t angle q, = 0" the third crank is in the position q,
= 0 (720) - 180 = 540°, the fourth crank, a t cpk = 0 (720) - 360
= 360" and the second crank, a t cp, = 0 (720) - 540 = 180".
The force loading the first main journal is R m a j l= -0-5fithl
(see Table 9.6, columns 2 and 4). Force versus cp is shown in the
polar diagram R t h (see Fig. 9.3a), that is turned through 180" and
is to scale M , = 0.5Mp = 0.5 x 0.1 = 0.05 kN per mm. For the
polar diagram R,. j1 thus replotted, see Fig. 9.5b.
Table 9.5
Values of R,.p, i , kN, for rays
I
2 I 2 1 4 / 5 1 6 1 1 1 8 ( 9 1 1 0 I 11 I 12
CH. 9. ANALYSIS OF ENGINE IiIKEhlATICS AND DYNAMICS
Fig. 9.5. Forces loading the main journals

(a)diagram of crankshaft and crank order of the mginc-; ( b ) forces loading the 1 s t (5th) jour-
nal; (c) forces loading the 2nd (4th) journal; ( d ) forces loading the 3rd jolxrilnl
The force loading the second main journal
+
where TthZ= - 0.5 (TI T zcos y ~ ( i - 2- ) K P ,t112 sin yci 1-21 ) = - 0 -5 (TI
$- T 2cos 180 - K p , fh2 sin 180)= -0.5(T,-T,).
Kt112 = - 0.5 ( K p ,lhi +
T 2sin y e ( ! - 2 ) $. K p , t h 2 cos yc(i-2))
=-0.5 ( K p , t h l +T2 sin 180+Kp, l h 2 COS 180)= -0.5 (Kp,thi-Kp, t h 2 )
For the computation of force R m S j 2see , Table 9.6 (columns 5
through 12).
Main Crank 1 Main journal 2

journal 1
-
cp'
1
"rn+jv
kX
1 k 1 I , k 1 K i ~ . t h ~ y Tlhl.
kN *x K m l . IIY R m - j ~ ~
kN
0 13.706 0 27.411 0 -27.411 0 +2.563 2.563

YO 11.910 30 23.820 -5.726 -23.189 +1.650 +0.614 1.761
60 8.525 60 17.050 -3.272 -16.837 -0.482 -1.593 1.664
90 8.415 90 16.830 3-2.498 -16.646 -2.582 -0.026 2.583
120 10.245 120 20.490 +4.236 -20.022 --0.874 +1.703 1.914
150 11.040 150 20.080 32.426 -21.961 $0.554 j-0.781 0.957
180 11.I43 180 22.286 0 -22.286 0 +1.987 1.987
190 11.110 190 22.220 -0.780 --22.260 +2.000 +10.253 10.UO
210 11.040 210 22.080 -2.426 -21.961 +3.477 3-5.901 6.849
240 10.230 240 20.460 -4.236 -20.022 +3.'718 4-2.510 4.485
270 8.460 270 16.920 -2.665 -16.698 +4.337 --0.492 4,364
300 8.430 300 16.860 42.488 -66.67 +1.696 -2.503 3.023
330 10.305 330 20.610 4-3.534 -20.399 -0.289 -1.443 1.708
360 9.156 360 18.312 0 -18.312 0 -2.381 2.381
370 1.830 370 3.660 -+3.219 -1.754 -2.050 -10.533 10.720
390 5.570 390 1j.140 +4.528 -10.160 -3.513 -5.992 6.947
420 7.685 420 15.370 3.3.200 -15.003 -3.776 -2.567 4.567
450 9.355 450 18.710 t6.008 -17.682 -4.332 +0-495 4.360
480 11.210 480 22.420 3-5.879 -21.622 -1.340 +2-414 2.761
510 11.730 510 23.460 +2.956 -23.284 +1.338 3-0.112 1.343
540 11.656 540 23.312 0 -23.074 0 -2.i69 2.169
550 11.480 550 22.760 -0.880 -22.820 -0.720 -2.030 2.154
570 11.125 570 22.230 -2.498 -22.143 -1.614 -0.523 1,696
600 10.280 600 20.560 -4.351 -20.137 +0.540 +1.650 1.736
630 8.&0 630 16.880 -2.655 -16.693 j-2.577 t0.024 2.577
660 8.545 660 17.090 +3.200 -16.794 t0.518 -1.614 1.695
690 11.870 690 23.740 -t5.632 -23.1360 -1.603 +O.550 1.695
720 13.706 720 27.411 0 -27.411 0 +2.563 2.563
L
The force loading the third main journal

B m , j3 = V~k3 $~ t ? h 3
where
-
T fha = - O-5 ( T 2
- -0.5 (T, T 3 cos 0 + + Kp,
-
T 3 CoS Y e ( z - 3 ) - K P ,
ths
i h 3 sin
sin 0 ) cos 180 =
yc(2-3))
0.5 (T,
cos Y c ( ~ - ~ )
+ T,);
Ktha =
-
- -Om5
- O m 5 (KP.
1h2
f
+sinT~Osin+ yccz-3) + KP, l h 3 COS V C ( ~ - 3 ) )CoS y c (1-2)
cos 0 ) GOS 180 = 0.5 (K,,,,,
+ K,, (Kp,th2
th3).
T3 Kp,th,
Fig. 9.6. Diagrams .of loads on the main journals of a carburettor engine in
Cartesian coordinates
2nd and 1st journals, but are turned through 360' (Fig. 9.5b, c with
cp given in parentheses).
Diagrams of RmVjl,R , , j , , and R m a j ,are replotted in Cartesian
coordinates and shown in Fig. 9.6. Determined against these dia-
grams are:
for the 1st (5th) main journal
where F, is the area under curve R,, ,,,mrn" OB is the diagram length
mm.
Rm.j 1 = 13.706 kN; Rm.jImin= 1.83 kN
for the 2nd (4t,h) main journal
where F , is the area under curve R,.,,, mm2.

R m a jmdx
r = 10.77 kN; Rm.j2mio = 0.90 kN
CH. 9. ANALYSIS OF ENGINE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
for t,he 3rd main journal

R7n.j~meal? F3MR/OB = 70 380 x 0.1/360 = 19.55 kN
=;
where F , is the area under curve R,. j , , mm2.

Rm+j3 = 23-20 kPZ; R m S jrnln 3 = 14.33 kN
Comparing diagrams R m . j l ,R m . j 2and R,. j 3 we see that the 3rd
main journal is under a maximum load. nliile t,he 2nd and 4th jour-
nals bear a minimum load.
Referring t,o the polar diagram (see Fig. 9.5d), plot a wear dia-
gram for the most loaded journal 3 (Fig. 9 . 7 4 . The sum of forces
Fig. 9.7. Main journal wear diagrams

(a) uncountprweighted; ( b ) counterw~ightcd
ZRm.j3iacting along each ray of the wear diagram (1 through 12)

is determined by means of Table 9.7 (the values of Z R m . j 3 iin the
Table are in kN). Using the data of this table, plot a wear curve t-o
scale M , = 50 kN per mm.
Balancing
The centrifugal inertial forces of the engine under design and
their moments (couples) are completely balanced: Z K R = 0;
EMR = 0.
The primary inertial forces and their moments are also balanced:
Z P j I = 0 ; E M j I = 0.
The secondary inertial forces for all cylinders are directed uni-
f ormly :
Z P j I I = 4 P j 1 1 = 4rnjRo2hcos 2~
Balancing the secondary inertial forces in the engine under design
is not expeditious, as the use of a two-shaft system with counter-
Table 9.7
Values of Rm.jg in kN for rzys

TO
1 I 1 I I 1 d 1 5 1 6 7 ( 6 1 9 1 1 0 1
1
11 1 2
0 -22.68 22.68 22.68 - - - - -- - - 22.68 22.68

30 22.19 22.19 22.19 - - - - - - - - - 22.19
60 20.53 20.53 20.53 - - - - - - - - 20.53
90 16.90 16.90 16.90 -- - - - - - - -*
16.90
120 16.95 16.95 - _ _ _ - _ - - 16.95 16.95
150 22.20 22.20 _ - - - - - 22.20 22.20
180 22.86 22.86 22.86 - - - - - - - - 22.86 22.86
210 16.68 16.68 16.68 - - - - - - - - 16.68
240 15.93 15.93 15.93 - -- -
- - - - - 15.93
270 17.68 17.68 - - - . - - - - - 17.68 17.68
300 21.48 21.48 - _ - - - - - - 21.48 21.48
330 22.78 22.78 _ - _ _ _ _ - 22.78 22.78
360 22.68 22.68 22.68 - - - -. - - - 22.68 22.68
390 22.19 22.19 22.19 - -- - - - -- - - 22.19
420 20.53 20.53 20.53 -- - - - -- - - - 20.53
450 16.90 16.90 16.90 - - - - - - - -- 16.90
480 16.95 16.95 - _ _ - _ - _ _ _ 16.95 16.95
510 22.20 22.20 - 22.20 22.20
540 22.86 22.86 22.86 - - - - - - - 22.86 22.86
570 16.68 16.68 16.68 - - - - - - - - - 16.68
600 15.93 15.93 15.93 - - - - - a - - 15.93
630 17.68 17.68 - - - - - - - - 17.68 17.68
660 21.48 21.48 -- - - - - - - - 21.48 21.48
690 22.78 22.78 - - - - - - - - 22.78 22.18
1
I
=Am.
I477.72 477.72 275.54 1 - - - I - - 1 - ) - 1 2 9 3 . 2 6 147'7.72
weights to balance 2 P j I I would make the engine construction too

complicated.
Because of the "mirror" arrangement of the cylinders, the moments
of the secondary inertial forces are completely balanced: Z M iI I = 0.
In order t o relief the 3rd main journal of local inertial forces, it
is advisable to fit counterweights on the extensions of the webs
adjacent t o it. The center of gravity and mass of the counterweight
may be determined as follows:
(a) i t is advisable to move pole O,, of the polar diagram of R m S j s
(Fig. 9.5d) to the center of the diagram a t the expense of the counter-
weights inertial force. Therefore, the counterweights should load
CH. 9. ANALYSIS O F ENGINE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS 189
the journal with a force
where h, is the distance from pole O,, of the polar diagram R,. j 3
to center O,,, of diagram R K ~mm; ~ ,
(b) the counterweights should not increase the overall dimensions
of the engine. I t is advisable to assume p = 20 mm;
(c) since each counterweight is mounted only oh one web of the
throw, the dimensions of the crank have to be found to determine
the inertial force and mass of the c,ounterweight. First, we assume
that 1 = 94 mrn and 2, = 70 mm (see Fig. 9.5a). Then, the inertial
force of one counterweight
(d) mass of each counterweight
Figure 9.7b shows a wear diagram of the 3rd main journal after
fitting counterweights. The wear diagram is plotted against the data
of Table 9.8 to scale M , = 10 kN per mm. This diagram is used to '
determine the direction of the oil hole axis (cp, = 35').

In order t o balance the centrifugal forces PC, of the counterweights
arranged on the extensions of the webs adjacent to the 3rd main
journal and to mitigate loadings on the 1st and 5th journals, it is
advisable to arrange counterweights also on the extensions of the
webs adjacent to the 1st and 5th journals, PC,, = PC,, = 0.5P .,
For the displacement of the centers of polar diagrams due to the
arrangement of counterweights in proportion to the reaction of coun-
terweights P;,,(,,= 0.5PAW, = -9.75 kN, see Fig. 9.5b (h1(51
= 97.5 m'm).
-cw
The developed
- diagrams
- of forces -cw +
Rm.j3= Frnaj: PC,, and
R,.jics, = R,.n(,, $ PC,,(,, are represented in Fig. 9.6. The dia-
grams are used to determine:
for the Ist (5th) main bearing journ
REj 1=,~ , )
Ba
f i G f l R / O ~ =8490 x 0.1/360= 2.36 kN
for the 3rd main bearing journal

B E j 3 mean = G w ~ , /=O15~010 x 0.1/360 = 4.17 kN
R E j 3 max = 5 . 6 0 k N ; RC, j3a,in=0.40kN
where fiT5,and are the areas under curves RC;f.j i ( s , and
RT, j , mm2, respectively.
190 PART TWO. KINEPUIATICS AND DYNI\MICS
Table 9.8
-
Values of ~g~~
in LN for rays
(Po
1 1 1 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 1 1 6 / 9 ( 1 0 1 1 J I 1 2
0 3.20 3.20 3.20 - - - - - - - 3.20 3.20

30 5.55 5.55 5.55 5.55 - - - - - - - -
60 4.35 4:35 4.35 4.35 - - - - - - -
90 - - - 3.90 3.90 3.90 3.90 - -- - - -
120 - - - - - - 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 - -
150 - - -- - - - - 5 . 0 5 5.05 5.05 5.05
180 3.35 3.35 3.35 - - - - - - 3.35 3.35
210 -- - -. - 2.90 2.90 2.90 2 . 9 0 - - -
240 - - - -. 3.65 3.65 3.65 3.65 -- - -- -
270 - - - - - - 4.90 4.90 4.90 - -
300 - - - - - - 5.20 5.20 5.20 5.20
330 4.05 - - - - - - - - 4.05 4.05 4.05
360 3.20 3.20 3.20 - - - - - - 3.20 3.20
390 5.55 5 . 5 5 5.55 5.55 - - - - -- A - -
420 - 4.35 4.35 4.35 4 . 3 5 - - - - - -
450 - - - 3.90 3.90 3.90 3.90 - - - -
480 - - - - - 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 - -
5 10 - - -. 7 - 5.05 5.05 5.05 5.05
540 3.35 3.35 3.35 - - - -- - 3.35 3.35
570 - - -- - 2.90 2.90 2.90 2.90 - - - ,-
600 -- -- - - 3 . 6 5 3.65 3.65 3.65 :- -- - -

630 - - - - - -- - 4.90 4.90 4.90 - -
660 - - -- - - - - -- 5.20 5 . 2 0 5.20 5.20
690 4.05 -. - - -- - - - - 4.05 4 . 0 5 4.05
Uniformity of Torque and Engine Run

The torque uniformity is
= (ATtmar - M r m i n ) / M r , m= [650 - (-360)]/127.3 = 7.93
The surplus work of torque
where F a b eis the area under the straight line of the mean torque (see
Fig. 9.2e), rnm2;M , = 4n/(iOA) = 4 x 3.14/(4 x 60) = 0.0523 rad
per mm, which is the scale of the crankshaft angle in diagram M t .
The engine run uniformity is assumed as 6 = 0.01.
CP. 0. ANALYSIS OF ENGINE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS 19 1
The inertial moment of the engine niovillg masses referred to the

crankshaft axis
J , = L,l(6w2) = 439.3/(0.01 X 586') = 0.128 kg rn2
9.2. DESIGN OF V-TYPE FOUR-STROKE DIESE,L ENGINE
The examples of kinematic and dynamic computation set forth
below are given for the same diesel engine, for which an example of
heat analysis is given in Chapter 4, and a speed characteri~ticcorn-
putation is quoted in Chapter 5. In view of this all source data for
the kinematic and dynamic analyses of a Vee-type four-stroke super-
charged diesel engine are taken from Sect.ions 4.39and 5.4, respecti-
vely.
Kinematics
The choice of IL and connecting rod length LC.,. With a view to
reduce the engine height and taking into account the experience of
the diesel engine engineering in this country, let h remain equal to
0.270 as the case was in the heat analysis. According t o this
LC., = Rlh = 6010.270 = 222 mm
The piston travel. The piston motion versus the crankshaft angle
) scale M , = 2 mrn per mrn and
is plotted graphically (Fig. 9 . 8 ~ to
M , = 2" per mm for every 30'. The correction of Brix is
The angular velocity of the crankshaft revolution

o = nn/30 = 3.14 x 2600130 = 272.1 rad/s
The piston speed. The piston speed versus the crankshaft angle
is plotted graphically (Fig. 9.8b) t o scale M , = 0.4 m/s, rnm:
o R I M , = 272.1 x 0.0610.4 = 40.8 mrn
f upmar is about o ~ v + ~ h Z =l 2 7 2 . 1 ~ 0 . 0 6 1 / 1 + 0 . 2 7 ~
= 46.9 m/s
The piston acceleration. The piston acceleration versus the crank-
shaft angle is plotted graphically (Fig. 9 . 8 ~ to ) scale M j = 100 m/s2
per mm:
0 2 R / M j= 272.1' x 0.06/100 = 44.4 mrn
A92 PART TWO. KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
T.D. C.
(a1 R
-I i TD.C. B. D.C. T.D.C.
0 30 60 90 120 155 180 23 249 270 300 320 360 cpO
-.-
Fig. 9.8. Diesel engine piston path (a), speed (b) and acceleration (c) versus
crank angle
-
jmin - - - u 2 R ( h + & ) =272.I2x0.06 (0.27f 8 X 0 .27
=3256 m/s2
Values of s,, v, and j versus cp obtained on the basis of the plotted
curves are entered in Table 9.9.
At j = 0, up = +up , ,, = f16.9 m/s, while inflection point s
corresponds to the crank turn through 76 and 284".
Dynamics
Gas pressure forces. The indicator diagram (see Fig. 3.15) obtained
in the heat analysis is developed by the crank angle (Fig. 9.9) in
compliance with the Brix method.
Fig. 9.9. Ueveloping a diesel engine indicator diagram against crank angle,
and plotting total specific force p
Table 9.9
The scales of the developed diagram are as follolvs: piston stroke

M , = 1.3 lnm per mm, pressures lWP = 0.08 AIPa per mm; forces
M p = iWpl.:, = 0.08 x 0.0113 = 0.0009 9IN per mrn or M, =
= 0.9 kN per mm, and crank revolution angle M, = 3" per mrn, or
Af; = 4niOB = 4 X 3.14/240 = 0.0523 rad per mm
wllere OB is the length of the developed indicator diagram, mm.
The Brix correction
Rhi(2MJ = 60 x 0.270/(2 x 1.5) = 5.4 mm
The ~ a l u e sof A p g = p, - p , are then determined against the
developed indicator diagram for every 30" and entered in Table 9.10.
194 P A R T TWO. KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS
Table 9.10
Masses of the parts of the crank mechanism. Referring t o Table '7.1

and taking into account the cylinder bore, stroke-bore ratio, Vee-
type arrangement of the cylinders and a fairly high value of p,.
we determine:
mass of the p i ~ t o ngroup (with a piston of alurninun; alloy mi
= 260 kg/n12)
m, = mkF, = 260 x 0.0113 = 2.94 lig
mass of the connecting rod (mi,, = 300 kg/m2)
mass of unbalanced parts of one crankshaft throw with uo counter-

weights (mih = 320 kg/m2 for a steel forged crankshaft)
mass of connecting rod conc,entrated on the piston pin asis
mass of connecting rod concentrated on t,he crank a x i ~
reciprocat.ing masses
AND DYNAMICS
CH, 9 . -ANALYSIS O F EKGINE I<ISE~I-L\TICS
Full and specific forces of inertia. Inertial forces of reciprocating

masses are det,ermined by the acc,eleration c u r r e (see Fig. 9 . 8 ~and
Table 9.9):
full forces P j = -jmj X low3= - j X 3.872 x kN
specific forces pj = PjIFp = P j X 10-310.0113 BlPa
The values of p j are entered in Table 9.10.
The cent,rifugal inertial force of rotating masses of one connecting
rod used. in a cylinder
The centrifugal inertial force of crank rotating masses
The centrifugal inertial force of rotating masses which loads the

crank
KR,=KR, +-
2 K R ,., -
- -16.1 +2 (-10.9) = -37.9kN
Specific total forces. The specific total force (in MPa) concentrated
on the piston pin axis (Fig. 9.8 and Table 9.10)
Specific forces p,, p,, p , and p , are determined analytically.

The computations of the \-alues of these forces for various angles cp
are tabulated (Table 9.11).
Curves showing specific forces p ,, p,, p , and p , versus cp are
represented in Fig. 9.10, where &JP = 0.08 hlPa per mrn and M , = 3"
per mm.
The mean value of specific tangential force per cycle:
according to the heat analysis
according to the area under curve PT

PT, =( Z F 1 - ZF,) M,IOB = (1350 - 770) 0.08/240 = 0.193 MPa
an error A = (0.193 - 0.192) 10010.192 = 0.52 %.
Torques. The torque of one cylinder
Table 9.11
tan0 P N ~ M P ~L pg,MPa cos (v + p,, MPa B, k~

I sin +
( c ~ P) P ~ 9
T. BN Mt.cl Rc.~l
P, MPa cos p cos p cos fi MPa N hN
.-
0 -1.871 0 0 I -1.871 1-1 -1.871 -21.14 0 0 0 0 32.0

30 -1.466 -+-0.136 --0.199 1.009-1.479 -0.798 --1.170 -13.22 -1-0.618 --0.906--10.24 -630 26.1
60 -0.496 -1-0.239 --0.119 1.028 -0.510 --1-0.293 -0.145 --I. 64 ~j-0.985 --0.489 ---5.53 --330 43.8
90 +0.470 j-0.278 +0.131 1.038+0.488 -0.278 -0.131 ---1.48 -1- 1 -1--0.470 -1-5.31 --1-315 13.5
120 -1-1.025 --1-6.239 -1-0.245 1.028 +1.054 -0.707 -0.725 -8.19 -10.747 -!0.766 f 8 . t i 6 -1.520 21.0
150 +1.173 --1-0.136 --tO.I6O 1.009t1.184 -0.934 -1.096 -12.38 -1-0.382 --1-0.448 --1-5.06 - ; 3 0 0 23.9
I80 +1.169 0 0 1 $-1.169 -1 -1.169 -13.21 0 0 0 0 24.1
210 +1.194 --0.136 -0.162 1.009 --1-1.205 --0.934 -1.115 -12.60 -0.382 -0.456 -5.15 -310 24.3
240 +1.096 -0.239 --0.262 1.028 $1.127 -0.707 -0.775 -8.76 ---0.747 -0.819 --$3.25 --555 21.7
270 -1--.0.651 -0.278 -0.181 1.038 -1-0.676 --0.278 -0.181 --2.05 --I - .--Om651 --7.36 .---,440 15.0
300 +-8.135 -0.239 --0.032 1.028 4--0.139 -1 0.293 f0.040 -1-0.45 .--0.985 --0.133 --1.50 ---.no l o . 8
330 +O.785 -0,136 -0.107 1.009-t--0.792 -1-0.798 .-tO.626 -1--7.07 -0.618 --0.485 - 8 -330 6.7
360 +6.636 0 0 1 atG.636 --/-I -t6 .G36 -,-I-74 .!El 0 0 0 0 64.1
370 -1-9.346 -1-0.847 -1-0.439 1.001 --1-9.355 -1-0.957 -1.9.1.31 -1-103.18 - 1 0.220 -1-2.056 I--23.23 1.4390 95.2
380 +6.153 -1-0.093 -1-0.572 1.004 -i--6.178 -1---0.908 -1-5.557 -1-63.13 -1.42 -1---2.6110-+2!).83 1-1790 60.2
390 +4.535 +0.136 +0.6/7 1.009 -1-4.576 -1-0.79s -k3.619 -1-40.89 ---f-0.618 1-2.803 -+31 .li7 - / -1900 33.5
420 f1.475 $-0.239 $0.353 1.028 +,516I -1-0.293 $0.432 -4-4.88 -{-0.985 1-1.453 i--16.42 -1-985 17.5
450 3-1.341 +0.278 -f--0.373 ,1.038 f-1..392 --0.278 -0.373 -4.21 4-1 1-1.341 -11.5.15 --1-910 21.5
480 3-1.526 +0.239 $,0.365 1.0284--1.569 -0.707 --1.079 -12.19 --10.747 -1--1.140-1-12.88 ( - 7 7 0 26.4
510 +1.504 -+().I36 +0.205 1.009--11.518 --0.934 -1.405 -15.88 4--0.382 -10.575 1 6 . 5 0 -1-390 27.5
540 -1-1.330 0 0 1 4-1.330 -1 -1.330 ---15.03 0 0 () 0 25.5)
570 --t1.254 -0.136 -0.171 1.009 -1-4.265 -0.934 --1.171 -13.23 --0.382 ---0.479 ---5.41 -325 24.7
600 4-1.028 -0.239 -0.246 1.028+1.057 --0.707 -0.727 -8.22 ----0.747 .--0.768 -8.68 -520 22.0
630 +0.473 -0.278 --().I31 ?..038+0.491 -.0.278 -0.131 --1.48 -1 --0.473 -5.34 -.320 13.5
660 -0.493 -0,239 +0.118 1.028 -0.507 +0.293 --0.144 -1.63 -0.985 -1-0.486 -1-5.49 -1-330 13.7
690 -1.463 --0.136 -1--0.109 1.009 --1.476 -$-0.708 -1.167 ---13.19 --0.618 -{-0.9C4 -1--1.0.22 --I615 26.1
720 -1.871 0 0 1 -1.871 -1-1 -1.871 --21.14 0 0 0 0 32.0
-
Fig. 9.10, Curves of change in specific forces p N , p s , p c , PT
The cylinder torque versus cp is expressed by curve p (Fig. 9.10

and Table 9.11), but to the scale
M , = MpFpR = 0.08 x 0.0113 x 0.06 x lo3
= 0.0542 kN m per mm, or M , = 54.2 S m per mm
The torque variation period of a four-stroke diesel engine-with A
equal firing intervals

0 = 720/i = 72018 = 90"
The values of torques of all the eight engine cylinders are summed
up by the table method (Table 9.12) for every 10' of the crankshaft.
Using the data obtained, we plot curve M t (Fig. 9.11) to scale il.PM
= 25 N m per mm and M , = 1' per mm.
The mean torque of an engine:
according to the data obtained from the heat analysis
by the area F M located under curve M t (Fig. 9-11);
an error A = (1040 - 1039) 100/1023 = 0.10 % .

198 PART TWO. KINEMATICS AND DYN-lhIICS
Table 9.12
Table 9.12 (continued)
.w Cyl lnders
c
a$
d
C
5 th 6th 7 th 8th
z 0 0 0 0
Aft,
0
C
0
x
8
fi E
x
4
G YE
-
3
U
c YE
4
x
c
*
U
T\: m
0
e
m
5 s-z 2
0 dz
5
L
0 $z 2C) zG zE
0 360 0 450 +910 540 0 630 -320 465
10 370 +I390 460 +890 550 -120 640 -170 1660
20 380 $-I790 470 +860 560 -260 650 +lo0 2050
30 390 +I900 480 +770 570 -325 660 +330 2185
40 400 +I420 490 +680 580 -380 670 +480 1495
50 410 -j-1130 500 +535 590 -450 680 +580 885
60 420 -kg85 510 +390 600 -520 690 +615 555
70 430 +890 520 +260 610 -515 700 +515 255
80 440 $880 530 -t110 620 -445 710 -1-27'0 170
90 450 +910 540 0 630 -320 720 0 465
t
CH. 9. -%NALYSIS OF ENGINE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS 199
The masirnum and minimum values of engine torque (Fig. 9.11):
Forces loading crankpins (one connecting rod). The polar diagram

of force S (Fig. 9.12) loading the crankpin is plotted by adding the
vectors of forces K and T (see Table 9.11). The scale of the polar
diagram J f p is 0.5 kN per mm.
The d i a ~ r a mof force S with its
U
9NR
center a t point0, (00, = KRcIM,
= -10.910.5 = -21.8 mm) is a
polar diagram of load R,., exer-
ted to a crankpin due to the ac-
tion of one connecting rod.
The values of force R for
various cp are takenfrom the po-
lar diagram (Fig. 9.12) and en-
tered in Table 9.11 to be used
then in plotting diagram of R,.,
in Cartesian coordinates (Fig.
9.13). The scales of the developed
diagram are: M p = 1 kN per mm
and M , = 3 degrees per mm. Fig. 9.11. Total torque of a diesel en-
According to the developed gine
diagram of R,,, we determine
Using the polar diagram (see Fig. 9.12), a crankpin wear diagram
(Fig. 9.14) is plotted. The sum of forces R , , , i acting along each ray
of the wear diagram (from 1 through 12) is determined by means of
Table 9.13 (the values of R,.,, i in the table are in kN). Then, we
determine the position of the oil hole axis (cp, = 90') against the
wear diagram (M, = 40 kN per mm).
Conventional forces loading crankpins (two adjacent connecting
rods). The crankshaft of the engine under design is fully supported
and has its cranks arranged in vertical and horizontal planes
(Fig. 9.15). The crank order of the engine is 11-Ir-41-21-2r-31-3r-k
Firing intervals are uniform, every 720/8 = 90".
Because of the firing order, the i s t , 2nd and 3rd crankpins are
simultaneously loaded by the forces from the left and right connecting
rods, the forces being shifted through 90" with regard to each other.
The 4th crankpin is under effect of the forces produced by the left
and right connecting rods, the forces being shifted through 450°.
The total tax~gential forces

loading the crankpins that are
produced by t ~ v o adjacent
connecting rods
T s = T&T,
The total forces acting on
the crankpins along the crank
radius from tlvo adjacent con-
necting rods
Kr=Kl+K,
The conventional total for-
ces loading the crankpins are
plotted on condition that t h e
angles in all cylinders are
counted starting with 0". For-
ces T , and K , are compu-
ted by tlie table method
(Table 9.14). The data thus
obtained are used to plot con-
ventional polar diagrams of
,
total forces S = S l + S,
loading the 1st (Znd, 3rd) (Fig.
9 . 1 6 ~ )and 4th (Fig. 9.166)
crankpins, the forces being
produced by each pair of ad-
jacent connecting rods. The
diagrams are l o scale M , =
-- 0.5 kn' per rnm.
T11e diagrams of forces
XI( 2,s) and S ,, with t h e
centers a t points UC,(,,,, and
c ' 2 , c = O ~ O-
-C~
= 2 K , ,iM, = 2 (-10.9)/0.5
= -43.6 mm) are polar diag-
rams of conventional loads on
the 1st. 2nd and 3rd crank-
pins --I?,.,, ,,c,,,,and on t h e
4th crankpln R , &,.
Fig. 9.12. Polar diagram of loading a The values of RC., XI(,,,,
crankpin of a diesel engine and R e S r4 p for various cp read
on the polar diagrams (Fig.
9.16) are then entered in Table 9.14 (columns 12 and 16). \They are
then used to plot diagrams Reap z1(2,3, and R,.,=, in Cartesian coor-
CH. 9. 21N.-lLYSIS O F ESGINE KIKEJIdTTCS AND DYNAMICS 201'
Table 9.13
Va1uf.s of Rc.p, i, k S , f o r rays

tF"
1 1 2 1 3 1 4 l 5 l b l 7 ) 8 1 1 I I O ( I I / 12
i
0 32.0 32.0 32.0 - - - - - __ I _ 32.0 32.0.
30 26.1 26.1 26.2 - - - - -- .- - - 26. ,1
60 13.5 13.8 13.8 -- - - - - - - - 13.8-
90 13.5 13.5 - - -- 13.5 13.5
120 21.0 21.0 - - - - - - + - 21.0 2i.o
150 23.9 23.9 - - - - - - - - - 23.9 23.9
180 24.1 24.1 24.1 - - - - - - - 24.1 24.1
210 24.3 24.3 24.3 - - -- - - - - - 24.3
240 2.1.7 21.7 21.7 -- - - - - - -- - 21.7
270 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 - - - - - - - 15.0.
300 10.8 10.8 19.8 - - - -- - - -- - 10.8.
330 6.7 6.7 6.7 6.7 - - - - - -- - -
360 - -- 64.1 - 64.1 64.1 64.1 64.1 64.1 -- - -
390 - - - - - - 33.833.8 33.8 33.8 - -
420 - - - - - - - _ 17.5 17.5 17.5 1'7.5,
450 21.5 - - - - - - - - -- 21.5 21.5 21.5
480 26.4 26.4 - -- -- - -. -- - - 26.4 26.4
510 27.5 27.5 - - - -- - - - - 27.5 27.5-
540 25.9 25.9 25.9 -- - - - -. - - 25.9 25.9
570 24.7 24.7 24.7 - - - - - - - -- 24.7
600 21.0 21.0 21.0 - - - - - -- - - 21 .o
630 13.5 13.5 13.5 - - - - - - -. - 13.5
660 13.7 13.7 - - -- 13.7 13.7
690 26.1 26.1 - - - 26.1 26.1
I
Z R C . 1133.2
~, 4 . 1323.7 121.i~64.1/6d.1/9i.9197,9(11554
/i2.81213.1 1444.0
dinates (Fig. 9 . l i ) . The scales of the developed diagram are: =-

=1 kN per mm and M , = 3' per mm.
Determined against the developed diagrams are:
p 1 j ( ? , 3 ) m r m ~ F i ( 2 . 3/TI,,
) OB = 9390 x 1 1 2 4 0 39.
~ IkS
R c . p ~ i ( ? , 3 ) ~ . ~ = 8 4 * 5 ~ X T Rc.
; pZ1(2,3)m i n = 3.6 k N
Rc. p ~ rapon
4 = , = 9600 x 1/240= 40.0 kK
F I M P OB
Rc-r1z4man=83.5kN; Rc.p~4min=8*O~~
202 PART TWO. KINEMATICS AND DYKAMICS
Forees loading crankshaft throws. The total forees acting on the

crankshaft throws along the crank radius
K p ,th.=KxJ;2KRe$ K~~h=K~-+21.8+16.I=(K~+37 kN.9)
The polar diagrams of forces Rc-PZ1(2,3) and Reap ,, with the
cent,ers a t points Olh1(2,3)and O t h r ("e1(?,3) x O t h 1 ( 2 , 3 ) = O e k O t h r
Fig. 9.13. Diagram of loading a crankpin of a diesel engine in Cartesian coor-

dinates
= K , ,,,IMP = -16.110.5 = -32.2 mm) are polar dia,grams of

the loads on the crankshaft throws R t h ~ 1 ( 2 , 3 )and I? Z4 (see
Fig. 9.16), respectively. The values of R t h x1(2,3) and R t h r4 for
7
Fig. 9.14. Diagram of diesel engine

crankpin wear
vario-cls cp are entered in Table 9.15 (columns 4, 19, 22).

Forces loading main bearing journals. The forces acting on the
1st and 5th journals
-
Rm.i21 - -0.5fithZl and R,.j2s - - -0.5RthZI
Forces R m a j and Rm.* 25 versus cp show the polar diagrams of
R t h and R t h r4 (see Fig. 9 . 1 6 ~and b), respectively, the diagrams
CH. 9. ,2N,-1LYSIS O F ENGINE KINEMATICS 4 N D DYNAMICS 203
being turned througll 180" and made to scale M , = 0.23 kN per mm.
The values of these forces for various angles cp are tabulated (see
Table 9.15, columns 2 and 23).
Pig. 9.15. Diagram of the crankshaft of a Vee-type diesel engine
The forces loading the 2nd and 3rd journals are oriented with
regard to the first crank
R m .j P 2 = v T : h E 2 = ~ : h 2 2 and R r n . j Z 3 = ~ ~ : h L 3 i ~ ~ h Z 3
where
T t h ~ 2 . Tki
2 + T i 2 f~ K6, f h ~= ~ 0 - 5 (Tri
2 - + Tm2 cos 90"
-K p thazsin 90")= - O . 5 T ~ f i 0. 5 K p , t h ~ z ;K f h ~ 2 =Kb, t h : ~
tT i 2 $ ~ Kb, t h ~ 2 ~ -0.5= +
( K p , thZ1 A-I T z z sin 90" K p t h z Z cos QOG)
= - 0. 5 K p , t h ~ - i 0 5 T ~ 2 ;T t h 2 3 = T g 2 +Khy~ t h 2 2f~ T;~T
+Ri,t h Z 3 T E - O .5 (TZ2COS go3 - Kpyt h 2 2 sin goc+ Tx3 COS 270'
- K p , i h B 3 sin 270') = 0 .5Kpythm2 -0 - 5 K p ,f h 2 3 ; K t h ~ = 3 K i , thZ2IC
+ +
T i Z K Kb, t h Z 3 K + = - 0.5 (KP, t h Z 2 COS go0 -k Tp2sin 901
+ +
K,, lhZ3 cos 270" T r 3 sin 270') = - 0.5Tz2 $ 0 . 5 T r 3 ; K p , L ~ Z B
+
= K B 2 K R =(Krz ~ -37.9) kN; K p , thP3 = K z ~fKRE
=(KZ3-37.9) k N .
According to the engine firing order, the forces loading the 2nd
crank are shifted relative t,o the forces loading the 1st crank for 270"
~f the crankshaft angle, and the forces acting on the 3rd crank,
for 450".
For computed forces T t h r 2 , K t h ~ 2 ?T t h z3 and K t h ~ 3 7 see
Table 9.15, while the polar diagrams of R,. r, and Rm.j 23 plotted
by vectorial addit.ion of corresponding vectors T t h 2 and x t h 2
are shown in Figs. 9.18 and 9.19. The diagram scale is M R
= 0.5 kN per mm.
Left cylinders I 1st (2nd, 3rd) right cylinder I 1st (2nd, 3rd)
Table 9.14
crankpins 4 t h right cylinder 4tl; cran1;pin
2
*
h
Cr,
X Z
02 $ *
-
z
3
Y
4
W
z&4
-
2V
\
-
W -
z., 7.
Y
--
w
4
'rl 1
F5
0 C
.-
-
h
2, %
'.e
L
?d
e
L
R
cU
0
-P
u
s -\
-
i4
.-
i1
* -E,
U
U
b h
-5.3 44.7 270 -42.1 -7.4 15.0 0 -23.2 - 4 45.5

-4.7 36.8 300 3-0.5 -1.5 10.8 30 -12.7 - 7 36.4
4 . 7 36.8 330 I -5.5 G.7 60 +5.5 -11.0 19.6
t5.3 44.8 360 t75.O 0 64.1 90 -1-73.5 j-5.3 51.7
j1.4 45.5 370 -i-103.2 5-23.2 95.2 100 f-99.6 t30.9 b3.4
-1.2 45.1 380 t 6 3 . 1 +29.8 60.2 110 t57.1 +38.5 53.0
-1.5 43.1 390 f-40.9 t 3 1 . 7 33.8 120 -+32.7 -1-40.4 41.7
-0.4 35.8 420 t 4 . 9 -36.4 17.5 150 -7.5 t21.5 36.4
f5.3 36.8 450 -4.2 3-15.2 21.5 180 -17.4 +15.2 41.S
t 3 . 5 42.8 480 -12.2 3-12.9 26.4 210 -24.8 4-7.7 47.0
-4.2 43.1 510 -15.9 t6.5 27.5 240 -24.7 -2.8 46.5
-7.4 37.7 540 -55.0 0 25.9 270 -17.1 -7.4 39.5
-6.7 34.5 570 -13.2 -5.4 24.7 300 -12.7 -6.9 35.0
-14.8 27.9 600 -82 -8.7 21.0 330 -1.1 -14.2 26.9
-7.4 51.5 630 -f5 -5.3 13.5 360 -573.5 - 5 . 3 51.7
+19.0 82.8 640 -0.2 -2.5 11.4 370 1-103.0 -120.7 83.5
+27.4 49.5 650 -0.2 t2.O 11.3 : 350 -+62.9 t 3 1 . 8 51.C;
4-30.2 35.8 660 -1.6 i5.5 13.7 / 390 -139.3 +-37.2 41.0
+10.9 114.5 690 -13.2 +IC).2 26.1 1 420 -8.3 j-26.6 40.3
+15.2 51.1 720 -21.1 0 32.0 450 -25.3 f15.2 49.5
-/-38.2 84.5 10 -20.1 -6.3 31.6 460 -25.9 +8.7 50.0
4-43.3 53.4 20 -17.3 -9.9 29.9 470 -27.1 -1-3.6 48.6
j-44.6 45.0 30 -13.2 -10.2 26.1 480 -25.4 -72.7 47.0
+22.9 40.0 60 -1.6 -5.5 13.8 510 -17.5 +1.0 39.0
+15.2 43.7 90 -1.5 +5.3 13.5 540 --16.5 T 5 . 3 38.5
4-7.5 47.6 120 -8.2 t8.7 21.0 570 -21.4 + 3 . 3 43.1
2 46.0 150 -12.4 -+5.1 23.9 600 -20.6 -3-6 42.4
-55.3 38.5 180 -13.2 0 24.1 630 -14.7 -5.3 36.8
+0.3 36.4 210 -12.6 -5.2 24.3 660 -14.2 +0.3 35.9
-1.5 43.0 240 -8.8 -9.3 21.7 690 -22.0 +0.9 43.6
-5.3 44.7 270 -2.1 -7.4 15.0 '720 -23.2 -7.4 45.5
I I 1st throlV I 2nd main journal I 2nd throw I
T a b l e 9.15
-.-
4th maln j thmain

3rd main journal 31 d throw journal 4th throw journal
-I-
+
f
, I
h
N C3
m -t
I W II fC:
-
\
-
x b W N W
m
zy 32
2
-5
W r?,
0 ?C
1I
+
* CSw
u
R
U
A -3
11
--
4
'
4
F;
?c;"
5
- 4
II :A
.-Z--
I -2
II ,"6 IIm m R-
m II 5 4 11
- ln l C '
32
2 .% ~h
w
-
..; s
4 u3 W z r U
W L?
.?= -F-l
ii
W La
b
.;- T '- 0
'1% -2 <
A
,
-.
52 '1;
5" d
h l I I
2.?
Ns; ?Xk s I I I
I L1
2: tz + .pGE 11 + " tc + ?= li
3-43.25-11.30 44.8 270+26.80 -3.70 54.0 43.0 540 5 . 27.60

+55.80--22.70 60.2 280,26.05 --3.60 53.0 43.0 550 57.0 28.50
+33.55-25.15 42.0 290+25.55 -3.50 52.0 43.0 560 59.1:) 29.50
-+20.4-25.65 32.6 300T25.00 -3.35 50.9 43.0 5'70 60.0 30.00
-4.65-18.85 19.3 330-+19.80 -7.40 42.6 41.3 600 59.0 29.50
-46.05-11.30 47.5 360-1'7.50 -3.70 35.3 36.0 630 53.4 26.70
-62.00 3-3.20 62.1 3'70-32.30 <9.50 66.7 37.4 640 51.4 25.70
-43.35 +&.YO 44.2 380-12.60+13.70 36.6 18.0 650 51.0 25.00
-33.40+11.35 35.2 390 -1.75+15.10 30.4 13.1 66G 52.5 26.25
-18.05 -j-6.55 19.3 420+12.95 -+5.45 28.5 28.3 690 60.3 30.15
-43.65+.10.25 44.8 450-16.45 j-5.60 35.7 29.9 720 61.9 30.95
-56.35+21.65 60.1 460-29.75;-19.70 70.0 35.5 10 59.0 29.50
-34.10 +22.65 41.0 470 -7.70 4-21.65 45.8 14.1. 20 56.5 28.25
-21.75+22.25 31.0 480 -1-4.60+22.30 45.7 3.5 30 52.4 26.20
-5.20 +10.70 11.9 510'24.45 4-11.45 54.4 19.8 60 34.5 1 17.25
-1.70+10.25 10.3
+5.30 4--6.10 9 . 5
540428.55 T7.F0
570-;-31.65 -i 3.751
59.4
64.2
/ 40.1
52.1
90
120
35.3
40.8
17.65
20.40
I
-54.65 -3.45 5.8 600 - , 32 .CO --I .I01 62.5 50.0 150 50.7 25.35
-3.05 -5.30 6.0 ? ~ 3 0 - ~ 2 7 . 2 -2.65
0 55.0 4G.5 180 5'7.8 28.90
-4.20 -2.65 5.0 640 { 26.60 -1.05 53.7 45.5 $90 60.5 30.25
-4.20 -0.40 4.0 650-:-26.40 --1.00 53.0 44.5 200 62.0 31.00
-3.30 - ~ 0 . 8 0 3 . 2 660 -1-26.35 4 0.05 53.1 43.5 210 63.7 31.85
3-3-70 +0.95 3.9 6 9 0 1 29.65 -I 0.75 59.7 42.0 240 63.2 31.55
-1-3.95 -5.30 6.5 $20+30.25 -2.65 61.2 40.6 270 56.0 28.00
7.0 10+29.20 -3.60 59.0 39.5 280 54.5 27.25
6.5 20 +27.45 -3.45 55.7 38.0 290 53.2 26.60
5.0 30+26.35 --2.35 53.2 36.4 300 51.5 ) 25.75
5.4 60+26.35 +2.35 53.3 26.1 330 42.0 / 21.00
+3-45 +6.35 7.3 90-i-30.25 t 2 . 6 5 61.2 34.4 360 35.3 17.65
+4.65 +L.W 5.5 il.29.65 -0.75 59.5 48.4 390 3i.i i8.65
7!-6-15 +7.20 9.5 150f25.95 -0.20 52.3 46.0 420 54.0 27.00
$43.80 +6.35 44.4 150+26.30 1 2 . 6 5 53.2 44.8 450 65.5 32.75
$59.50 -6.50 59.8 190T27.20 $-3.00 55.0 44.4 460 67.0 33.50
+41-05-10.90 42.4 200+28.45 +2.&0 55.8 43.2 470 66.8 33.40
$31.10-13.35 33.8 210$-29.35 +1.75 59.3 43.3 480 63.8 31.90
4-16.60 -7.55 15.8 2403-29.55 -2.10 59.6 42.9 510 55.9 27.95
$43.25 -11 -30 44.8 270 +26.80 -3.70 54.0 43.0 540 55.2 27.60
Fig. 9.16. Conventional polar diagrams of loading the crankpins and crankshaft
throw of - a Vee-type engine
The force loading the 4th main journal
-
R m .jx4 = - 0 5 (&ZS + 2th.m)
The polar diagram of the load on the 4th main journal (Fig. 9.20)
is plotted by taking the graphical sum of polar diagrams of R t h 53
-and Rti, x i turned through 180". The diagram scale is R,. ,, -
- LW,= 0.23 1;X per mm.
Diagrams of 8, j 21, R m a j ~ 2 R, m , j 23, R m , j x i and E m . j z, replot-
ted in Cartesian coordinates are shown in Fig. 9.21. The diagrams
are to scales .M, = 1 kN per m m and M , , = 3" per mm. Determined
'against these diagrams are:
for the 1st main journal
Rnz. jri max - 35 -0 kN; R m . jximin -2.6

- kN
CH. 9. ANALYSIS OF EKGINE I.;INET(T-ITICS A S D Dy?J~\31TCS 209
Fig. 9.1'7. Conventional diagrams of loading the crankpins of a Vee-type engine

in Cartesian coordinat,es
for the 2nd main journal

Rm.,jzz mpnn F2MR/OB= 8860 x 1.0/240 = 37 O kN
Rm.,;P?m a r -- 57 2 kN; R m . jZ?mi,, 4 . 7 kN
z.z
Fig- 9.18. Polar diagram of loading the 2nd main journal of a diesel engine
14-0946
CH. 9. ANALYSIS OF ENGINE KINEllATICS AND DYNAMICS
Fig. 9.20. Plotting a polar diagram of loading the 4th main journal of a diesel
engine
for the 3rd main journal
for the 4th main journal

Rmj ,,,,an = FLMR/OB= 9000 X 1.01240 = 35.3 kX
Rm.jrpmar =58*2 kN; Rmejz4rnin = 3.5 kN
for the 5th main bearing journal
Rm. xsmenn = F 5 M R / O B= 6340 x 1.01240 = 26.4 k N
R,., 2, ,,, = 34.1 kN; R,. 2 5 ,in = 2.3 kN
14'
212 P-1RT T W O . ICINEMSTICS AND DYNABIICS
Fig. 9.21. Diagrams of loading the main journals of a diesel engine in Cartesian
coordinates
(a) 1st journal: ( b ) 211d journal; ( c ) 3 1 4 journal; ( d ) 4 th journal; (e) 5th journal
Comparing diagrams Rm-jzl, Rm.j x2, Km.j 2 3 7 R m . j 2 4 , and

R m m,,,
j we see that the maximum load is on the 4th main journal
and minimum, on the 3rd journal.
Balancing
The centrifugal inertial forces of the engine under design are com-
pletely balanced: Z K , = 0.
The tot'al monielit of the centrifllgal forces acts in a rot,ating plane
that is a t 18'26' with regard to the plane of tlie first, crallli (see
Fig. 9.15), it,s value being
The primary irrertial forces are matoally balanced: \'PI, = 0.

The total moment of the prin~aryinertial forces acts in same
plane as the resultant moment of the centrifugal force5 (see
Fig. 9.i5), its ~ a l u ebeing
The secondary inertial forces and their monlents are complet,ely

balanced: B P j I I = 0; X M j r r = 0.
Moments Zfifj I and Z M , are balanced by arranging two count.er-
weights a t the crankshaft ends in the plane in which the moments
act, i.e. a t 18'26' (see Fig. 9.15).
The total moments E M j I and E M , act in one plane, therefore
The mass of each counterweight is determined from the equality

of the moments
The distance between the center of g r a ~ - i t yof the common counter-

weight to the cranksl~aftaxis is assumed as p = 125 mm.
The distance between the centers of g r a ~ i t yof common counter-
weights is b = 720 mm.
The crankpin center-to-center distance is u =: 160 mm.
The mass of the common counterweight
mCwr=aR l/m (m,$. mth- - 2rn ,.,., );(pb)

=160 ~ 6 0 x l / n
( 3 . 8 7 2 $ 3 . 6 2 + 2 ~ 2 . 4 5 8 ) ! ( 1 2 5 ~720)
=4.185 kg
Arrangement of counterweights a t the ends of the engine crank-
shaft with a ~ i e wto balancing total moments E M j I and ZIWR
results in additional centrifugal forces of inertia due to the masses
of counterweights that load the 1 s t and 5th journals of the crank-
shaft.
The resultant forces affecting the 1st and 5th Iliain journals of
the crankshaft are determined by plotting a polar diagram in a way
similar to that assumed in determining the load on the 2nd. 3rd
and 4th main journals.
214 PART TWO. KIKEAl-%TICS AND DYNAMICS
Uniformity of Torque and Engine Run

The torque uniforniity
The surplus work of the torque
where F;., is t,he area under the straight line of mean torque (see
Fig. 9.11), mm2;M& = 4n/(iOA) = 4 x 3.14/(8 x 90) = 0.0174 rad
per rnm is the crankshaft angle scale in the diagram of iMt.
The engine run uniformity is assumed as 6 = 0.01.
The inertial moment of the engine moving masses referred to the
c1ranksllaft axis
Part Three
DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
Chapter 10
PREREQUISITE FOR DESIGN
AiSD DESIGIV COXDITIONS
10.1. GENERAL
The computations of engine parts \\-it11 a view to determining

stresses and strains occurring in an operating engine are performed
by formulas dealing with strength of materials and machine parts.
Until ilow most of the computation expressions utilized give us
only rough values of stresses.
The discrepancy between the computed and actual data is ac-
counted for by various causes. The main causes are: absence of an
actual pattern of stresses in the material of the part under design;
use of approximate design diagrams showing action of forces and
points of their application; presence of alternating loads difficult to
take into account and impossibility of determining their actual
values; difficulty in determining the operating conditions for many
engine parts and their heat stresses; effects of elastic vibrations that
not lend thernselve to accurate analysis; and the impossibility of
accurately determining the influence of surface condition, quality
of finish (machining and thermal treatment), part size and the
like on the intensity of stresses arising.
In view of this the utilized techniques of surveying allow us to
obtain stresses and strains that are nothing more than conventional
values characteristic only of relative stress level of the part under
design.
Forces caused by gas pressure in the cylinders and inertia of
reciprocating and rotating masses, and also loading produced by
elastic vibrations and heat stresses are the main loads on the engine
parts.
The loading caused by gas pressure continuously varies during
the working cycle and reaches its maximum within a cornparatirely
small portion of the piston stroke. Loading due t o inertial forces
varies periodically and sometimes reaches in high-speed engines
the values exceeding the load due to gas pressure. The above loads
are sources of various elastic oscillations dangerous during reso-
nance.
216 F - \ R T THREE. DESIGN O F PRINCIP;1L P,IRTS
Forces because of heat stresses resulting from heat liberation due

t o combustion of t i ~ i s t u r eand friction affect the strength of mate-
rials and cause extra stresses in mating parts when tliey are diffe-
rent,ly heated and have differe~itlinear (or 1-oll~nietric)expansion.
10.2. DESIGS COSDITIOSS
Changes in the basic loads acting on the errgiiie parts are depen-
dent on the operating conditio~isof the engine. Generally. the en-
gine parts are rlesigr~edfor most severe operating conditio~zs.
Fig. 10.4. Choice of design operating conditions

(a) carburettor engine: (6) supercharged diesel engine
With carburettor engines (Fig. 1 0 . l ~ )the basic designed operat-

ing conditions include the following data:
(1) m a s i ~ n u mtorque M e ,
,, a t the engine speed n,=(0.4 to 0.6) X
x n,, when tlze gas pressure reaches its maximum p,,,,, while
the inertial forces are con~parativelysmall;
(2) nominal output power N , , a t speed n,, when all analyses of
parts are made wit11 taking into account the joint effect of gas and
inertia loadings;
(3) masinluni speed in idling n,,,, ,, -- (1.05 t o 1.20) n,, when
inertial forces reach their maximum, while the gas pressure is small
or even equal t o zero*.
MTit h high-speed diesel engine (Fig. 10.1b), we take the following
desigri operating conditions:
(1) n o ~ n i ~ i apower
l output S e xa t engine speed rz,, when t h e
pressure reaches i t s maximum p,,,,, while the parts are clesigned
to challenge the joint effect of gas and inertial loads;
* When the engine is operating with the use of a speed control or an idling
speed control stop screw.
CH. 10. PREREQUISITE FOR DESIGN .IND DESTGN CONDITIONS 2 17
(2) maximum speed in idling - (1.04 t o 1.07) n , a t

whicZi inertial forces reach their maximum*.
When designing the parts of a carburettor engine niasilnlln~gas
pressure P Z m a x is determined by the heat analysis made for t h e
torque operation, or is assumed as approsinlately equal
t o the designed (without considering the diagram r o ~ n d i n g - ~ fae-
ff
tor) maximum combustiorl pressure p , obtained from the heat ;tna-
lysis for the nominal pom7eroperation. Inertial forces in the maximum
torque compntations are neglected.
When making nominal power operatioil computations. we assunle
t h a t gas force P, acts together with the maximum inertial force a t
T.D.C. The value of a masirnum gas force is determined by the heat
analysis for t h e nominal power operation taking into acco~lntt h e
rounding-off factor of the intlicator diagram.
The gas pressure is neglected in making the maximum speed com-
putations for idling operation.
10.3. OESIGS OF PARTS WORKING USDER ALTERSATING LOADS
I n practice all parts of a~xtomohile and tractor engines, even

under steady-state conditions, operate a t alternating loads. The
infl~lenceof rnasimllm loads, and also their variations in time on
the service life of automobile and tractor engine parts materially
increases with an increase in the engine speed and compression
ratio, In this connection a number of engine parts of importance are
designed to meet the requirements for the static strength against
the action of maximum force ant1 fatigue strength due t o the effect
of continnonsly varying loads.
The fatigue strength of parts is dependent on variation of a load
causing symmetric, asymmetric or pulsating slresses in the part
under design; on fatigue limits o-,. q,,, and t-, (for bellding. push-
pull and torsional stresses, respectively) and yield strength 0, and
7, of the part material; on part shape, size, machining ancl thermal
treatment. and case-hardening.
Depending upon the variation of the acting load, the strepses
occurring i n the part vary following a symmetric, asymmetric or
pulsating cycles. Each cycle is characterized hy maximum om,, and
minimum ominstresses. mean stress om,cycle amplitude 0 , . ant1 cyc-
le asymmetry coefficient r. For the relationship between the above-
mentioned characteristics for the cycles, see Table 10.1.
Under static loads ultimate strength o, or yield strength G , is
assumed to be t h e limit stress. The ultimate strength is ~lkilizeci
i n design of parts made of brittle material. \Vith p l a ~ l i cmaterials
the dangerous stress is indicated by the yield strength.
* When the engine is operating with a governor.
GH. 10. PREREQUISITE FOR DESIGN ;iXD DIQjlGN CONDITIOT\'S 2 19
Under alternating loads the tlaligcrous stress is indicated by fati-

gue limit 0, (0,= 0-, for a symmetric cycle and o , = cr, for a pul-
s t i n g cycle), or yield strength 0,. In design parts the associated
limit is dependent on the stress cycle aq-lnmetry.
WBell a part is subjected t o normal or tangential stresses that
~ n e e t the conditioil
Q,/(T, > ip - a,)!(l
0 - P G) or 7,/%2 > (PT - a T ) " ( l - pT)
(10.1)
the computations are made by llre fatigue limit.
When a part is under stresses satisfying the condition
oa/a, < (P 0 - ao)!(l - 0) or T ~ I <
T ~ (Pr - ar)'(l - PT)
(-1 0.2)
the cornputatioils are made by the yield limit.
Where p, and P, is the ratio of the fatigue limit due t o bending
or torsional stress to the yield limit:
p, = a-,/o, and p, = T - ~/ :T~
where a , and a, are the coefficients of reduc,ing an asymmetric

cycle t o t h e aquidangerous symmetric cycle under normal and tan-
gential stresses, respectirely.
For the values of a , a n d a, in steels having different ultimate
strengths, see Table 10.2. W i t h cast iron a,= (0.3 to 0.7); at=
= (0.5 t o 0.7).
Table 10.2
Ultimate strength Bending a , Push-pull .

a Torsion a,
(I, MPa
350 -450 0.06-0.10 0.06-0.08 0

450-600 0.08-0.13 0.07-0.10 0
600-800 0.12-0.18 0.09-0.14 0-0.08
800- 1000 0.16-0.22 0.12-0.17 0.06-0.10
1000-1200 0.20-0.24 0.16-0.20 0.08-0.16
1200-1400 0.22-0.25 0.16-0.23 0.10-0.18
1400-1600 0.25-0.30 0.23-0.25 0.18-0.20
When there are no data t,o solre equations (10.1) and (10.2) the
part safety factor is determined either by t.he fatigue limit or b y
t h e yield limit. Of the two values thus obt,ained t,he part strength
is evaluated i n terms of a smaller coefficient,.
TO roughly evaluate the fat,igue limits under an alternating load,
use is made of empirical relationships:
for steels o-, = 0.400,; o-,, = 0 . 2 8 ~ ~r-,
: = 0 . 2 2 ~ ~o-,,=
;
= (0.7-0.8) 0-,;L, = (0.4-0.7) G-,;
220 P.\HT THl-;EL. DESIGN OF F R l N C I P . \ L P:lKTS
for cast iron cr-,

= (0.3-0.5)o,,: 0 -,,.,
= (0.6-0.7)o-,; t-,=
= (0.7-0.9) o-,; r,(0.2-0.6) 0,;
=
for norlferroi~s metals = (0.24-0.50) 0,.
For t,he basic rnechanic,al properties of st,eel and cast iron, see
Tables 10.3, 10.4 and 10.5.
Table 10.3
Mechanical properties of alloyed steels, RlPa
Slecbl zrade
Ou / Oy 1 0-1 I G-lr. I 1
I
!
, T-I
20X 650-850 400 - 600 310-380 230 360 230

30s 700 -900 600-800 360 260 420 220
3 0 s h1,4 950 750 470 - - -
35X 950 730 - - - -
35XhIA 050 SO0 - - - -
38XA 950 800 - - - -

40X 750-1050 650-950 320-480 240-340 - 210-260
40XH 1000 -1450 800 - 1300 460-600 320 -420 390 240
45X 850- 1050 700-950 400 - 500 - - -
50XH 1300 850 550 - - -

12XFI3A 950-1400 500-1100 420-640 2'70-320 400 220-300
2 8X I324A l100 850 - - -- -
18XHI3A 1150-1400 850-1200 540 -620 360-400 550 300-360
25XHMA 1150 - - - - -
20SH3A 950-1450 850-1100 430-650 310 - 240-310
25XHEA4 1100-1150 950-1050 460-540 310-360 600 280-310
30XI'CA 1100 850 510-540 500-530 - 2'79-245
37XH3A 1150-1600 1000-1400 520 - 700 - - 320 -400
40XHlI1X 1150- 1700 850-1600 550 - 700 - TOO 300-400
Seglecting the part shape, size and surface finish, the safety fac-
tor of engine parts is determined from the expressions:
when computi~lgby the fatigue limit
when cornputiilg by the yield limit

nu +
o y / ( ~ a om)
+
nu= = T ~ / ( T , rm)
The effect of the part shape, size and surface finish on the fatigue
strength is allowed for as follo\~s:
CH. 10. PKEREQL~TSTTEF O R D K S I G S -1SD D E S l G S COXT)[TI@XS 22 1
- 11rc3pc'rt ies o t c : ],on

Dlrclr~c~~icnl ~
-
steels, ~ 1 . l f ) ~
Table 10.4
Steel
grade OU 1 1 /-I 1 u-ll 1 T,, 1 T-L
10 320-420 180 160 120-150 140 80-120

15 350 -450 200 170 120-160 140 85-130
20 400-500 240 170-220 120-160 160 100-130
20r 480 -580 480 250 l80 I70 00
25 430 - 550 240 190 - - -
30 480 - 600 280 200-250 170-210 1TO 110-140

35 520 - 650 300 220-300 170-220 190 130-180
35r2 680 -830 370 260 190 240 160
40 570 - $00 310-400 230 - 320 180-240 - 140-190
40I' 640-760 360 250 180 210 150
45 600 - 750 340 250 - 340 190- 250 220 150-200
45r2 '700-920 420 310-400 210 260 180-220
50 630 -800 350 270-350 200-260 - 160-210
50I' 650-850 370 290 - 360 -- - -
60r 670-870 340 250-320 210 250 1SO
65 750-1000 380 270-360 220-260 260 170-210
65r 820 -920 400 300 220 260 180
(1) by stress concentra.l;ion factors: tl~eoreticala,, and effective

I t , (k,) accounting for local stress increases due to changes in the
part shape (holes, grooves, fillets, threads, etc.);
(2) by scale coefficient r, accounting for the influence of the ab-
solute dimensions of a body on the fatigue limit;
(3) by coefficient of surface sensitivity e,., accounting for the
effect of the surface condition of the part on the yield limit.
By the theoretical stress concentration factor is meant the ratio
of the highest local stress to the rlomirlal st,ress under static loading,
neglecting the effect of concentration
The values of a,, for a number of most often encountered stress

concentrators are given in Table 10.6.
The influence of the specimen material as well as the geometry
of the stress concentrator on the ultimate strength is accounted
for by effective stress concentration fact,or k,. Under variable stres-
ses
k , = G-~/oc, (10.9)
222 PART THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
Table 70.5
(oon-
grade ventional)
Mechanical properties of grey cast irons, M P a

150 650 320 240 70 50
210 750 400 280 2@0 80
240 850 440 300 120 100
280 1000 480 350 140 110
320 1100 520 390 140 110
350 1200 560 400 150 115
380 1300 600 460 150 115
Mechanical properties of high-duty cast irons, MPa
Mechanical properties of ma11eable cast irons, M P a

KY30-6 300 - 490
K433-8 330 - 530
KY35-10 350 - 570
KY37-12 370 - 580
K945-6 450 - 700
KY 50-4 50 - 800
K960-3 60 - 950
where 0-, and OC1 stand for the fatigue limit of a smooth specimen
in a symmetric cycle and with a stress concentrator, respectively.
The relationship between factors a,, and k , is expressed by the
following approximate relationship:
+
k , = 1 q (a,,- 1)
where g is the coefficient of material ~ e n s i t ~ i v i t yo stress concen-
tration (it varies within the limits O< q 1). <
The value of q is dependent mainly on the material properties:
Grey cast iron . . . . . . . . . ... ....... 0
High-duty and malIeable cast iron ... ....... 0.2-0.4
Structural steels . . . . . . . . . ... ....... 0.6-0.8
High-dut,y alloyed steels . . . . . ... ....... about I
Besides, coefficient q may be determined against the correspond-
ing curves in Fig. 10.2.
CH. 10. PREREQUISITE FOR DESIGN DESIGN CONDITIONS 223
Type of stress concentrator

I %cCJ
semicircular groove having the following ratio of the radius

to the diameter of the rod
0 -1
0.5
1.o
2 .o
Fillet having the following ratio of the radius to the dia-
meter of the rod
0.0625
0 .I25
0.25
0.5
Square shoulder
Cute V-shape groove (thread)
Holes having the ratio of the hole diameter to the rod dia-
meter from 0.1 to 0.33
Machining marks on the part surface
When a part has no abrupt dimensional changes and is properly

finished in machining, the only facd,or causing stress concentra-
a - r I
Fig. 10.2. Coefficient of steel stress

eoncentration semitivity 0440 600 1
800 7000 1
1200Gb, Mpa
tions is the quality of the material internal structure. Then, the

effective concentration factor
k , = 1.2 +
1.8 x lo-& (0,- 400) (10.11)
where 0, is the ultimate strength, MPa.
CH. 10. PREREQUISITE FOR DESIGN AND DESIGN CONDITIONS 225
By the surface sensitivity factor ess is meant the ratio of the fatigue
limit of a specimen having a prescribed surface finish to the fatigue
limit of a similar specimen having a polished surface. For the values
Of factor e,,, % sS,, for various surface finishes, see Table 10.8.
To increase the fatigue strength, a high surface finish is recom-
mended, especially near the concentrators. The parts of importance
operating under severe conditions of cyclic stresses are usually
ground and polished and sometimes mechanically hardened or heat
treated.
With consideration for the effect of stress concentrations, dimen-
sions and quality of surface finish, the cycle maximum stress (MPa)
and the safety factor:

when computing by the fatigue limit
when computing by the yield limit
where o,*, = a,k,l(e,s,,) and raIe = T,~J(B,E,,).

When in a complicated stress state the total safety factor of the
part jointly affected by tangential and normal stresses
where n, and n, are particular safety factors.

To determine a minimum tot,al safety factor, the minimum values
of n, and n, should be substituted in formula (10.19). Temperature
increase affects the fatigue strength in that the yield limit usually
drops in smooth specimens and specimens with concentrators.
The value of a permissible safety factor is dependent on the mate-
rial quality, strain type, operating conditions, construction, acting
loads, and other factors. The strength and safety of a structure under
design and amount of material used are dependent on proper defin-
ing of the permissible stress.
22tj P;\nT TEIRI<L':. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
Chapter 11
DIi:SIGN OF 1'ISTOX ASSEMBLY
11.1. PISTOS
Of all compolle~ltsof the piston assembly the most stressed ele-

ment is the pistol1 (Fig. 11.1) upon which the highest gas, inertial
and heat loads are exerted, the requirements imposed on
its material are high. Pist,ons of automobile and tractor engines are
mainly fabricaled of aluminium alloys and seldom of cast iron.
Fig. .11..1. Piston diagram
For tile basic constructional relations of the piston element di-

mensions, see Table 11.1.
The value of tlre piston top portion h, is chosen with a view to
providing a uniform pressure of t h e piston bearing surface along
the cylinder height and the strength of the bosses affected b y the
oil holes. This condition is satisfied a t
where h , is the piston crown height.

Distance b between the boss end faces is dependent on the method
of fining the piston pin and is usually 2-3 mm longer than the length
of the connecting rod small end I,.,. The real values of the piston
elements designed are taken by prototypes with regard t o t h e rela-
tionships given in Table 11.1.
The checking computations of t h e piston elements are accompli-
died with neglecting varying loads which are accounted for in
CH. 11. DESIGN OF PISTON XSSEnIBLY 227
TnSle 22.1
Description
Carburettor
~nginrs
I Diesel engines
piston crown thickness 6 (0.05-0.10) D (0.12-0.20) D

Piston height H (0.8-1.3) 0 (1 .O-1.7) 0
Height. of piston top part hl (0.45-0.75) D (0.6-1 .O) 0
Piston skirt height hs (0.6-0.8) D 10.6-1.1) D
BOSS diameter do (0.3-0.5) 0 (0.3-0.5) D
Distance between boss end faces b (0.3-0.5) D (0.3-0.5) D
Thickness of skirt wall a,, m m 1.5-4.5 2 -0-5.O
~hickness'of piston crown wall s (0.05-0.10) D (0.05-0.10) D
Distance to the first piston groove e (0.06-0.12) D (0.11-0.20) D
Thickness of the first piston ring (0.03-0.05) 0 (0.04-0.07) D
land hl
Radial thickness of piston ring t
compression ring (0.040-0.045) 0 (0.040-0.045) D
oil control ring (0.038-0.043)D (0.038-0.043)D
Piston ring width a , rnm 2 -4 3 -5
Difference between free gap and
compressed gap of piston ring A, (2.5-4.0) t (3.2-4.0) t
Radial clearance of ring i n piston
groove At, mm
compression ring 0.70-0.95 0.70-0.95
oil control ring 0.9-1.1 0.9-1.1
Piston inner diameter di D-2 ( s + t + A t )
Number of oil holes in piston ni 6-12 6-12
Oil passage diameter do (0.3-0.5) a (0.3-0.5) a
Pin outer diameter d p (0.22-0.28) D (0.30-0.38) D
Pin inner diameter d i (0.65-0.75) d p (0.50-0.70) d p
Pin length l p
retained pin (0.88-0.93) 0 (0.88-O.?.,) !I
floating pin (0.78-0.88) 0 (0.80-0.9b) D
Connecting rod bushing length I,.,
retained pin (0.28-0.32) D (0.28-0.32) 0
floating pin (0.33-0.45) 0 (0.33-0.45) Dt
defining the appropriate permissible stresses. Designed are the

piston head, crown wall, top ring land, bearing surface and piston
skirt.
The piston crown is designed for bending by maximum gas forces
P r m s r as uniformly loaded round plate freely supported by a CY-
linder. With carburettor engines a maximum gas pressure occurs
when operating at the maximum torque. In diesel engines a maxi-
l5*
mum gas pressure takes place usually when operating at maximum

power.
The bending stress in MPa in the piston crown
where M b = (1/3) p,,,, rf is the bending moment, MN m; W b=

= (1/3) ris2 is the moment of resistance to bending of a flat crown,
mS;p =, p, is the maximum combustion pressure, MPa; ri =
= [ 0 / 2 - (s+ + t At)] is the crown inner radius, m.
When the piston crown has no stiffening ribs, permissible values
of bending stresses Lob]in MPa lie within the limits:
Pistons of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-25
Cast iron pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-50
With stiffening ribs values of Lob]rise:
Piston of aluminum alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-150
Cast iron pistons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . 80-200
In addition to the gas pressure the piston crown is subjected to
heat stresses due to the difference between the temperatures of the
internal and external surfaces. The heat stresses of cooled cast
iron pistons (MPa)
oh = ccEq6/(200Lh) (11.2)
where a = 11 x is the coefficient of linear expansion of cast

iron, 1/deg; E = (1.0 to 1.2) l o 5 is the cast iron modulus of elasti-
city, MPa; q is the specific heat load, W/m2; 6 is the crown thick-
ness, cm; hh is equal to 58 and stands for the thermal conductivity
oficast iron, W/(m K).
With four-stroke engines it approximates
where n is the engine speed, rpm (for carburettor engines n = nt

and for diesel engines n = nN);pi is the mean indicated pressure,
MPa (with carburettor engines a t nt and with diesel engines a t n,).
The total stress (in MPa) in a cooled crown of cast iron
It follows from equation (11.4) that with a decrease in the piston

crown thickness the heat stresses decrease and gas pressure stresses
increase. The permissible total stresses in cast-iron piston crowns
of automobile and tractor engines lie within the limits [a ,I = 150
t o 25.0 MPa.
CH. ji. DESIGN O F PISTON ASSEMBLY 229
Heat stresses in cooled aluminum pistons are usually determined

by temperature measurements during experimental surveys. The
piston crown weakened in the section x-x (Fig. 11.1) by oil return
holes is tested for compression and rupture.
The compression stress (in hIPa)
where P zmar = p r F p is the maximum gas pressure exerted on the,

piston crown, MN; FxWx is the X-x cross-sectional area, m2:
where d, = D - 2 (t +
At) is the piston diameter as measured by
the groove bottom, rn; F' = [(d8 - d i ) / 2 ] do is the area of the
longitudinal section of the oil passage, m2.
The permissible compression stresses [crc,,l = 30 to 40 MPa for
pistons of aluminum alloys and [o,,,] = 60 to 80 MPa for east
iron pistons.
The rupture stress in section x-x (in MPa)
The inertial force of reciprocating masses (in MN) is determined

for the maximum engine speed in idling
where mX-, is the piston crown mass with rings located above section
plane x-x (Fig. 11.1) as determined by the dimensions or m, is
about (0.4 t o 0.6) m,, kg; m, is the mass of the piston group, kg;
R is the crank radius, m; a i d mar = nnid m a r I30 is the maximum
angular velocity in engine idling, rad/s; = R/L,,, is the ratio of
the crank radius to thk connecting rod length.
Permissible rupture stresses [G,]= 4 to 10 MPa for pistons of
aluminum alloys and [cr,] = 8 to 2 0 MPa for cast iron pistons.
With hopped-up engines having a high compression ratio the
thickness of the top ring land (h, in Fig. 11.1) is computed t o pre-
vent shear and bending damage due to maximum gas forces p, ma,-
The land is designed as a circular strip clamped along the circum-
ference of the base of a groove having diameter d, = D - 2 (t
and uniformly loaded over the area of the circular strip Fc,, =
+ At)
= n (D2 - dz)/)/4 by force P g x O.Spzmax X FC.,-

The shear stress of the ring land (in MPa)
where D and hl are the cylinder diameter and thickness of the top
ring land, mm.
230 PART THREE. DESIGN OF P R I N C I P A L P,iRTS
The bending stress of the ring land
The combined stress by the third theory of strength
Permissible stresses o x (in hIPa) in the top ring lands including

material heat stresses are within the limits
Pistons of aluminum alloys ........... 30-40
Pistons of cast iron ............... 60-80
Maximum specific pressures (in MPa) exerted by the piston skirt

over its height h, and entire piston height H on the cylinder wall
are determined from the equations, respectively:
where N,,, is the maximum normal force acting on the cylinder

wall, when the engine is operating at maximum power, and is de-
termined by the data of dynamic analysis.
For modern automobile and tractor engines q, = 0.3 to 1.0 and
- - = 0.2 to 0.7 MPa.
q,
To prevent piston seizure during the engine operation, the di-
mensions of crown D, and skirt D, diameters are determined pro-
ceeding from t,he presence of required clearances Ac and A, between
the cylinder walls and the piston in a cold state. According to sta-
tistic data A, = (0.006 to 0.008) D and A, = (0.001 to 0.002) D
for aluminum pistons with slotted skirts and A, = (0.004 to 0.006) D
and A, = (0.001 to 0.002) 0 for cast iron pistons. With A, and As
defined, determine D c = D - A, and D s= D - A,.
Whether D, and D, are correct is checked by the formulae
and
+
A; = D [f 3-a,,l ( T c g l- T o ) ]- D s11 a, (T,- T o ) ] (11.15)
where AI, and A: are the diameter clearances in a hot state between
the cylinder wall and piston crown and between the cylinder wall
and piston skirt, respectively, mm; a C uand
l a, are the coefficients
of linear expansion of the cylinder and piston materials. For cast
iron a,, l = a, = 11 X 1/K and for aluminum alloys a,, L=
- a, = 22 x 1/K; T,,[, T, and T, are the temperatures of
the cylinder walls, piston crown and skirt, respectively, in the
operating state.
CH. 11. DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY 231
In the case of water cooling T C K = L 383 t8o388, T, = 473 t,o 52:;

and T, = 403 to 4'73 K, while with air-cooled engines T , , ! = 443
to 463, T, = 573 t o 873 and T, = 483 to 613 K ; T o = 293 K is the
initial temperature of the cylinder and piston.
In case of negative values of A; and A; (interference) t,he piston
must be rejected. If that is the case, increase A, and A, and decrease
D , and D, respectively, or provide skirt slotting. In normal piston
*peration Af = (0.002 to 0.0025) D and A; = (0.0005 to 0.0015) D.
Design of carburettor engine piston. The following has been ob-
tained on the basis of data of heat, speed characteristic and dynamic
analyses: cylinder D = 78 mm, piston stroke S = 78 mm, actual
maximum pressure of combustion p,, = 6.195 MPa at n , = 3200
rpm, piston area F , = 47.76 cm2, maximum rated force N,,,=
= 0.0044 MN a t (p = 370°, mass of piston group m, = 0.478 kg,
engine speed in idling n i d - 6000 rpm and h = 0.285.
-
In compliance with similar existing engines, bearing in mind the
associated relations given in Table i1.1-we assume:-piston crown
thickness 6 = 7.5 mm, piston height H = 88 mm, -piston skirt
height h, = 58 mm, ring radial thickness t = 3.5 mm, ring radial
clearance in the piston groove At = 0.8 mm, piston crown wall
thickness s = 5 mm, top ring land height hl = 3.5 mm, number
and diameter of oil passages in the piston ni = 10 and do = 1 mm
(Fig. 11.1). The piston is of aluminum alloy, a, = 22 x 1/K;
t h e cylinder liner is of cast iron, a,,, = 11 x 1/K.
The bending stress in the piston crown
Oa = P (ri/6)2= 6.195 (29.7/7.5)' = 97.1 MPa
where ri = 0 / 2 - (s +
t $ At) = 78/2 - (5 3.5 0.8) = + +
= 29.7 mm.
The piston crown must be reinforced by stiffening ribs.
The compression stress a t section x-x
where P,, = pz,Fp = 6.195 x 47.76 x lo-& = 0.0296 MN; F x - , x =

= (n/4) (d2, - d$ - &F' = [(3.14/4) (69A2 - 59.47 - 10 x 51 x
X 10v6 = 0.00096 m2;d g = D - 2 (t +
At) = 78 - 2 (3.5+0.8)=
= 69.4 m m ; F' = (d, - di)d,/2 = (69.4 - 59.4) 1/2 = 5 mmz.
The rupture st,ress at section x-x is:
the maximum angular velocity in idling
I t ) i d max
-
- 3.14 x 6000/30 = 628 radls
a f 2 i d ma=/30 =
the mass of the piston crown with rings arranged above section
3-x
m,-, = 0.5mp = 0.5 x 0.478 = 0.239 kg
the maximum rupture force

P j = mx-,Rwfd ,,(I 4 A) = 0.239 X 0.039 X 628' (1+0.285)10-'
= 0.0047 bIN
the rupture stress
0, = P j/Fwx = 0.0047/0.00096 = 4.9 MPa
The stress in the top ring land:
shear stress
z = 0.0314p,,D/hl = 0.0314 x 6.195 x 7813.5 = 4.34 MPa
bending stress
combined stress
-- -
oz=I/crgf 4r2=1/13.882+4 x 4.342=16.4 MPa
Piston specific pressure exerted on the cylinder wall:
q1 = Nmax/(hsD)= 0.0044/(0.058 X 0.078) = 0.97 MPa
q2 = Nm,,/(HD) = 0.0044/(0.088 x 0.078) = 0.64 MPa.
The piston crown and skirt diameters
D, = D - A, = 78 - 0.55 = 77.45 mm
where A, = 0.0070 = 0.007 X 78 = 0.55 mm; A, = 0.0020=

= 0.002 x 78 = 0.156 mm.
Diameter clearances in a hot state
78 11
= +
11 x 10d6 (383 - 293)] - 77.45 11 22 +
x 10m6 (593 - 293)l = 0.116 mm
A; = D I1 +
ac,l ( T , - T o ) ]- D, 4- orp (T,- TO)]
= 78 [I + 11 x 10-6(383 - 293)l - 77.844 11 22 +
x (413 - 293)1 = 0.035 mm
where T C v =1 383 K , T, = 593 K, and T, = 413 K are t,aken for
a water-cooled engine.
Design of diesel engine piston. On the basis of obtained data
(heat, speed characteristic and dynamic analyses) cylinder dia-
meter D = 120 mm, piston stroke S = 120 mm, maximum pressure
of combustion p , = 11.307 MPa a t nh. = 2600 rpm, pist,on area
F p = 113 cm2, maximum rated force Nmax = 0.00697 M N a t (o=
CH. I f . DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY 233
= 390°, piston group mass n2, = 2.94 kg, engine speed nid
= 2700 rpm, and h = 0.270.
In compliance wit,h similar existing engines and the relations
given in Table 11.1, we assume: piston height H = 120 mm. piston
skirt height h, = 80 mm, ring radial thickness t = 5.2 m k , ring
radial clearance in the piston groove A t = 0.8 mm, piston crown
wall thickness s = 12 mm, thickness of the top ring land h , = 6 mm,
number and diameter of the oil passages in the piston nb = 10
and do = 2 mm (Fig. 11.1). The piston is of aluminum alloy, a,
= 22 x 1/K; the cylinder liner is of cast iron, a , , ~= it
x 1/K.
The compression stress in section x-x:
section area x-x
F,, = (n/4) (dag - d$ - niF' = [(3.14/4) (1M2- 842)-10~201
X = 0.0034 m2
di = D - 2 (S t + +
+
where d, = D - 2 (t At) = 120 - 2 (5.2
At) = 120 - 2 (12 5.2 + ++
0.8) = 108 mm;
0.8) = 84 mm;
F' = do (d, - di)/2 = 2 (108 - 88)/2 = 20 mmz.
the maximum compression force
P,,,, = p z F p = 11.307 X 113 x iO-' = 0.128 MN
the compression stress
u,, = P ,,,, IF,-, = 0.128/0.0034 = 37.6 MPa
The rupture stress a t section x-x:
the maximum angular velocity in idling
the mass of the piston crown with the rings arranged above see-
tion x-x
m, = 0.6m, = 0.6 x 2.94 = 1.764 kg
the maximum rupture force
the rupture stress

0, = P j F S x = 0.0108J0.0034 = 3.18 MPa
The stress in the t,op ring land:

shear stress
T = 0.0314p,D/hl = 0.0314 x 11.307 x 120/6= 7.1 MPa
23.4 PART THREE. DESIGN O F PRINCIPAL PARTS
bending stress
combined stress
02= I/o;+ 4~~= v 2 0 . 4 ~f4 X 7.12 = 24.9
hlPa
Specific piston pressures exerted on the cylinder wall:
.The piston crown and skirt diameters
where A , = 0.006D = 0.006 X 120 = 0.72 mm; A, =0.0020 =

= 0.002 x 120 = 0.24 mm.
The diameter clearances in a hot state:
where T C y l= 388, T , = 493 and T, = 428 K are taken for a water-

cooled engine.
11.2. PISTON RINGS
Piston rings operate a t high temperatures and considerable vary-

ing loads. They are fabricated from cast iron or alloy cast iron.
Hopped-up engines employ compression rings made of alloyed
steels.
The basic constructional parameters of piston rings are: the ratio
of the cylinder diameter to the ring radial thickness, D / t ; the ratio
-of the difference between the ring lock gaps in free and working state
t o the ring thickness A o / t ;ring width a. For the constructional para-
meters of piston rings utilized in carburettor and diesel engines,
see Table 11.1.
The design of piston rings includes: (a) determining the average
ring pressure on the cylinder wall, which should properly seal the
combustion chamber without materially increasing the engine power
+consumed to overcome the wall friction of the rings; (b) plotting
;a curve of piston ring circumferential pressure; (c) determining
GH, i t . DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY 235
t h e bending stresses occurring in the section plane opposite to the

-piston-ring lock when fitting the ring over the piston and in the
state; (d) defining mounting clearances in t h e ring lock.
The average wall pressure of a ring (in hlPa)
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the ring material (E = 1

x lo5 MPa for grey cast iron, E = 1.2 x l o 5 hlPa for alloy cast
iron and E = (2 t,o 2.3) lo6 MPa for sbeel)
Fig. 11.2. Compression ring pressure

diagram of a carburettor engine
The average radial pressure pa, (in MPa) is:

For compression rings ............... 0.11 -0.37
For oil control rings................ 0.2-0.4
When we reduce the engine speed and increase the cylinder dia-
meter, the value of pa, must be closer to the lower limit. To provide
good running-in of a ring and reliable seal, wall pressure p of a
ring must follow the curve (Fig. 11.2) plotted against t,he following
data:
Angle 9, degrees ........ O 30 60 90' 120 150 180
Ratiop/pao=pI ........ 1.05 1.051.140.900.45 0.67 2.85
A considerable increase in the pressure near the ring joint gap

(Fig. 11.2) makes for uniform circumferential wear of the ring.
The ring bending stress in MPa is:
in the operating state
when slipping it over a piston
where rn is a factor dependent on the method used to slip a ring

over a piston (in the design it is taken equal to 1.5'7).
The ring bending permissible stresses are within [ B ~ = ] 220 to
450 MPa. The lower limit is for engines having cylinders of large
diameters. Generally, oh, > obi by 10 to 30 %.
The butting clearance (in mm) between the ring ends in a cold
state
A , = A: +
nD [ a , (T,- To) - a,Yl(T,,l - T o ) ] (11.19)
where A; is the minimum permissible ring joint gap i n operation of
the engine (A:= 0.06 t o 0.10 mm); a, and aCglare the coefficients
of linear expansion of the ring and cylinder linear materials; T,,T c p l
and Toare the ring and cylinder wall temperatures in the operating
state, respectively, and the initial temperature To = 293 K; in
the case of water cooling T c u l = 383 to 388; T, = 473 to 573 K;
with air-cooled engines T c y 2= 443 to 463 and T, = 523 to 723 K.
Design of a piston ring for earburettor engine. The data required
for the design are given in Sec. 11.1. The ring material is grey cast
iron, E = 1.0 x lo5 MPa.
he average wall pressure of the ring
where A , ---- 3t = 3 x 3.5 = 10.5 mm,

The ring circumferential pressure against the cylinder walls (in
MPa)
The values of p, for various angles 9 are given above.

The results of computing p and also p, for various angles 9 are
given below:
$, degrees .., . 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
. , .,
pr . * . e * o o . 1.05 1.05 1.14 0.90 0.45 0.67 2.85
p, MPa 0.223 0.223 0,242 0.191 0.0955 0.142 0.604
These data are used to plot wall pressures of the ring (Fig. 11.2).
The ring bending stress in the operating condition
~ ~ -
- 2 . 6 1 (Dlt
Qbl - ~ 1)2= 2.61 x 0.212 (78/3.5 - = 251 hfPa
The bending stress when slipping a ring over a piston
CH. i f . DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY
The butting clearance between t.he ring ends
where A:=0.08 mm, T c u l =

383,T, = 493, and To=293K.
Design of a piston ring for diesel
engine. For the data necessary to
the design, see Sec. 11.1. The ring
is of castiron, E = 1 X i05MPa.
The average wall pressure of the
ring
A,/t =
pa, = 0.152E
( D l t - 1)s ( D / t )
= 0.152 x 1x i05
15.6/5.2 -
-
(12015.2 - (120f5.2)
=0.186 MPa
where Ao= 3t = 3 ~ 5 . =
2 15.6 rnm.
Fig. 11.3. Compression ring pres-
sure diagram of a diesel engine
The circumferential wall ring pressure (in MPa)
The results of computing p and also p, for various angles 9 are

listed below
....
I#,degrees 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
p, .. . . . . . . 1.05 1.05 1.14 0.90 0.45 0.67 2.85
p, MPa . . . . . 0.195 0.195 0.2120.1670.0837 0.125 0.53
These data are used to plot a curve of the ring pressure against the
cylinder wall (Fig. 11.3).
The bending stress of the ring in operation
= 235 MPa
The bending stress in slipping the ring over a piston
238 PLlRT THREE. DESIGN OF PHISCIP;\L PARTS
The butting clearance between the ring ends
x (388 - 293)l = 0.536 rnm

where A: = 0.08 mm, T c y l= 388, T, = 498 and T o = 293 K.
11.3. PISTON PIN
During the engine operation the piston pin is subjected to the

effect of alternating loads resulting in stresses of bending, shear,
bearing and ovalization. Because of this high strength and toughness
requirements are imposed on the materials used to fabricate pistol1
pins. These requirement,^ are satisfied by case-hardened loa-carbon
and alloyed steels.
The basic dimensions of piston pins (see Fig. 11.1) are taken by
the statistical data in Table 11.1, or by the data of prototypes with
subsequent check computations.
The piston pin analysis includes determination of the pin specific
pressures on the small end bushing and on bosses, and also the
stresses caused by bending, shear and ovalization.
Maximum stresses in the piston pins of carburettor engines occur
when engines are operating a t a maximum torque. With diesel
engines maximum stresses in the piston pins take place when operat-
ing under rated conditions.
The computed force (in MN) acting on the piston pin
For carburettor engines: p , ,,,is the maximum gas pressure when

operating a t the maximum torque (in MPa); k = 0.76 to 0.86 is the
factor accounting for the mass of a piston pin; P j = -m,o?R (fI h)
x is the inertial force of the piston assembly a t n = nt, MN.
For diesel engines: p , ,,, is the-maximum gas pressure in rated
condition, MPa; k = 0.68 to 0.81 is the factor accounting for the
mass of the piston pin; Pj = -m,o~R (1 +
h)10-6 is the inertial
force of the piston assembly a t n -- n N , MN.
The specific pressure exerted by the piston pin (in MPa) on the
small end bushing
4 c . r - P/(dplb) (11.21)
where d, is the outer diameter of the pin, m; 1 is the length of the
pin bearing surface a t the small end, m.
The specific pressure exerted by a floating piston pin on the bosses
Qb = Pi[dp ( l p - b ) ]
CH. i i . DESIGN O F PISTON i ~ S S E 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ 239
where 1, is the overall length of the pin, m; b is t,he distance between

the boss end faces, m; (1, - b ) is the length of the pin bearing surface-
in the bosses, m.
In modern automobile and tractor engines q,,,. = 20 to 60 and
q b = 15 to 50 MPa. The lower limits are for trac.t,or engines. The
bending stress (in MPa) in the piston pin, provided the loading is
distributed over the pin length according to the curve shown in
Fig. 11.1, is
where a = di,,/d, is the ratio of the pin inner diameter to pin outer
diameter.
In automobile and tractor engines [ o b ]= 100 t,o 250 MPa.
I 3' "
90 "
Fig. 11.4. Piston pin design diagram
(a) load distribution; ( b ) graphic representation of stresses
Tangential stresses (in MPa) due to the pin shear in the section
planes between the bosses and the connecting rod small end a r e
With automobile and tractor engines [ r ]= 60 to 250 MPa. The

lower limits refer to tractor engines and the upper limits are for,
piston pins made of alloyed steel.
Because of the nonuniform distribution of forces applied to the
piston pin (the loading is taken as sinusoidally distributed over
the pin surface, Fig. 11.4a), the piston pin is strained in operation
in its cross section (ovalisation). The stresses occurring in this dif-
fer in value and with the pin length and section.
The maximum ovalization of the piston pin (a maximum increase
in its horizontal diameter Ad,,,,, mm) -takes place in its middle,
\most strained portion:
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the pin material ( E p

= (2.0 to 2.3) lo5 MPa for steel).
The value of Adp , ,, should not exceed 0.02 to 0.05 mm.
The stresses occurring during pin ovalization on the external and
internal surfaces (Fig. 11.4b) are to be determined for a horizontal
(points I and 2 a t 9 = 0') and a vertical (points 3 and 4 a t 9 = 90')
planes by the formulae:
the stresses on the pin external surface in a horizontal plane
(point I a t 9 = 0")
the stresses on the pin external surface in a vertical plane (point 3

at 9 = 90")
the stresses on the pin internal surface in a horizontal plane

(point 2, 9 = 0')
the stresses on the pin internal surface in a vertical plane (point 4

a t $ = 90")
X LO. 1 - (a- 0.4)3] MPa (11.29)

The maximum ovalization stress occurs on the pin internal surface
in a horizontal plane. This stress computed by formula (11.28)
must not exceed 300-350 MPa.
Design of a piston pin for carburettor engine. The basic data for
the design are given in Sec. 11.1. Besides, we assume: actual maxi-
mum pressure of combustion p , , ,, = p ,, - 6.195 MPa a t nf =
= 3200 rpm (from the computation of the speed characteristic),
pin external diameter d, = 22 mm, pin internal diameter dl,
= 45 mm, pin length I , = 68 mm, small end bushing length l b
CH. i l . DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY 241
= 28 lnm, distance between the boss end faces b = 32 mm. The

*iston pin is of steel, grade 15X, E = 2 x lo5 MPa. The piston
pin is a floating type.
The design force loading the piston pin is:
gas force
Pz max =Pzmax F p = 6.195 X 47.76 X 10-4 = 0.0296 1\IN
inertial force
Pj =-1 +
~ 2 ~ ~(1t R A) = -0.478 x 3352 0.039
+
, .
X (1 0.285) = -0.00269 MN
where of= nnt/30 = 3.14 x 3200/30 = 335 rad/s;
design force
The specific pressure exerted by the piston pin on the small end
bushing
P 0.0274
qc.r= -- - = 44.5 MPa
dplb 0.022~0.028
The specific pressure exerted by the pin on the bosses
The bending stress in the pin middle section p1an.e
where a = di,/d, = 15/22 = 0.682.

The tangential shear stresses in the section planes between the
bosses and the small end
The maximum increase in the pin horizontal diameter in ovali-

zation
=0.0313 rnm
The ovalization stress on the pin external surface :
in a horizontal plane (points I, $ = 0'
)
in a vertical plane (points 3, $=90°)
The ovalization stresses on the pin internal surface :

in a horizontal plane ( p o i n t , ~2, + = 0')
in a vertical plane (points 4, $J - 90")
Design of a piston pin for diesel engine. The hasic data for t h e
design are given i n Sec. 11.1. Besides. we assume: pin external
diameter d, = 45 mm, pin internal diameter di,, = 27 mm, pin
length I , = 100 mm, small end bushing length E b = 46 mm. distance
between the boss end faces b = 51 mm. The piston pin is of steel,
grade 12XH3A, E = 2.2 x 10; MPa. The pin is a floating type.
The design force loading the piston pin is:
gas force
-
cH. i i . DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY
inertial force
p, = -mpw2R (1 A) + = -2.94 x 272' x 0.06 (1 + 0.27)
= -0.0166 M N
where o = nn,/30 = 3.14 X 2600130 = 272 rad/s;
design force
The specific pressure exerted by the pist,on pin on the small ens
bushing is
Qc.r -
- Pl d,l,.,) = 0.116/(0.045 x 0.046) = 56 MPa
The specific pressure exerted by the piston pin on the bosses
The bending stress in the pin middle section plane
where a = di,/dp = 27145 = 0.6.

Tangential shear stresses in the section planes between the bosses
and the connecting rod small end
2=
0.85P (1+a+a2)
(-a4}
I d;
- 0.85 x(10.116 (1f-0.6+0.62)
-0.64) 0.045' =I09 MPa
The maximum ovalization increase in the pin diameter
The ovalization stress on the pin external surface:

in a horizontal plane (points I, 9 = 0')
oaOo
= 15'-
ZP~P
[0.19 @+a) ( 1 + w
(1 -a)'
-- 1
l-a
] lO.1- (a - 0.4)31
- 15 x 0.116
0.1 X0.045
r0.19 (2+0.6) j1+0.6) -
(1-0.6)2
x [0.1- (0.6- 0.4)3] = 87 MPa
1-0.6 I
16*
in a verticd plane (points 3 , $ = 90')
The ovalization stress on the pin internal surface:

i n a horizontal plane (points 2, + = 0')
X [0.1- (0.6 - 0.4)3] = - 337 MPa

in a vertical plane (points 4, 9 = 90')
15P
0i9,o =- [0.174 (1- I - 2 ~ )(1+ a )
lpdp (i--a)za I-a
X I0.l- (0.6 - 0.4)3) = 170.5 MPa
Chapter 12
DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY
12.1. CONNECTING ROD SMALL END
Autbmobile and tractor engines employ a variety of connecting
rods depending mostly on the type of the engine and arrangement
of the cylinders. The design elements of the connecting rod assembly
are: the big and small ends, connecting rod shank, and connecting
rod bolts. For the design diagram of a connecting rod, see Fig. 12.1.
During the engine operation the connecting rod is subject to the
effect of alternating- gas
- and inertial forces and sometimes these
forces *produce impact loads. Therefore, connecting rods are fabri-
cated of carbon or alloyed steels highly resistant to fatigue. Con-
necting rods of carburettor engines are made of steel, grades 40,
45, 45r2 and those of diesel engines of a steel having higher limits
of strength and yield, grades 40X, 18XHBA and 49XHMA. For the
ca. i2. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY
Fig. 12.1. Design diagram of connecting-rod assembly
mechanical characteristics of steels see Tables 10.3 and 10.4. In

order to increase the fatigue strength, connecting rods, after press
forming, undergo machining and thermal treatment such as polish-
ing, shot blasting, normalizing, hardening and tempering.
The values of basic constructional parameters of the connecting
rod small end are given in Table 12.1.
The small end (Fig. 12.1) is designed:
(a) to provide enough fatigue strength a t section I-I when loaded
by inertial forces (neglecting a bushing pressed in) attaining their
maximum with the engine operating a t maximum speed under no
load;
(b) to stand to stresses occurring in the small end because of a
bushing pressed in;
(c) to provide enough fatigue strength a t section A-A (where the
shank terminates in the small end) to withstand the gas and inertial
forces and the bushing pressed in. The computations are made for
engine operation in which the amplitude of the total force varia-
tions is maximum.
Section 1-1 of the small end is loaded in operation a t n = nta
with the alternating inertial force due to the masses of piston as-
246 PART THREE. DESIGN O F PRINCIPAL PARTS
T a b l e 12.1
Description Carburettor engines

I Diesel engines
Inner diameter of small end d

W/O bushing d x dp d w dp
with bushing (1.10-1.25) d , (1.10-1.25) dp
Outer diameter of end d, (1.25-1.65) d p (1.3-1.7) d p
Length of small end I,.,
retained pin (0.28-0.32) B (0.28-0.32)
floating pin (0.33-0.45) B (0.33-0.451 B
Minimum radial thickness of end
wall he (0.16-0.27) d p (0.16-0.27) d p
Radial thickness of bushing wall sb (0.055-0.085) d p (0.070-0.085) d p
sembly rn, and top part of the small end, m,., (above section I-I)
P j = -(m, f m,. ,) O:d m a x R (COS(P +
h cos 2 ~ ) (12.1)
The value of m,., is determined by the dimensions of the top
portion of the small end and specific gravity of the connecting rod
material or roughly is taken as lying within 6 to 9 % of the con-
necting rod weight.
Force P j loads section 1-1 to maximum om,, = (m, m,.,) +
+
x w& ,,R (1 h)l(2hel,,.) and minimum om,, = 0 stress, as
a t P j > 0 the inertial force is directed towards the crankshaft axis
and does not load section I-I. Therefore, stresses in section 1-1
vary following a pulsing cycb.
The safety factor is determined by the formulae given in section
10.3 and is 2.5 to 5 for automobile and tractor engines.
Stresses in the small end caused by a pressed-in bushing and due
t o different coefficients of expansion pertaining to the bushing and
small end materials are given in terrns of a total interference (in mm)
where A is the interference of a bronze bushing in mm.

The maximum value is used in the computations in compliance
with the fit of the bushing; A t is a temperature-caused interference
in mm:
A t = d (ab- a,) AT (12.3)
where d is the inner diameter of the small end in mm; as = 1.8
X 1/K is the thermal coefficient of expansion of a bronze bush-
ing; a , = 1.0 x 10-5 1/K is the thermal coefficient of expansion
of the steel small end; AT = 100 to 120 K is an average temperature
cH. 12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD A S S E ~ ~ B L Y 247
to which the small end and bushing are heated during the engine
opera tion-
The specific pressure (in MPa) on the joint surface between the
bushing and small end caused by the tot,al interference
where d,, d and d p are the outer and inner diameters of the small
end and the inner diameter of the bushing, respectively, mm; = 0.3
is Poisson's ratio; E,,, == 2.2 X lo5 is the elasticity modulus of
the steel connecting rod, M a ; E b = 1.15 x lo5 is the elasticity
rnodulu~ of the bronze bushing, MPa.
The stresses caused by the total interference on the external and
internal surfaces of the small end are determined by the Lame
equations:
The values of oE, and af may reach 100-150 MPa. Note that in
the case of a floating bushing stresses due to the total interference
are equal t,o zero.
In operation a t /2 = 1 2 ~ or FL == n N , section A-A is loaded by
alternating forces I' = P , -1 P j and a constant force due to t,he
effect of a driven-in bushing.
The small-end extending total force attains its maximum with
the piston a t T.D.C. a t the beginning of induct,ion.This force is
determined, neglecting t,he gas forces that are minute a t this moment
of time
Pj,,, = -m,Ro2 (1 h) + (12.7)
where in, is the mass of the piston assembly, kg; 0 is t,he angular
velocity (w = nrz,/30 radls when computed for the operatmiona t
n = n, and o = nn,/3O rad/s when operating a t n = n,).
On the basis of experimental and computation data i t is assumed
that the radial pressure caused by force Pi, is uniformly d i ~ t ~ r i b u t e d
over the internal surface of the t,op half of the small end (Fig. 12.2a).
I n compliance wit,h the design diagram (Fig. 12.2a) i t is assumed
that the bottom half of the small end supported by a rigid shank
suffers no strain and the action of the right-hand part (not shown)
of the small end is replaced with normal foree ATj, (in N ) and bend-
ing moment M j , (N m).
Roughly
Njo = - Pi,,(0.572 - O.OOOScp,,) (12.8)
' 5 0 = --Plgprm (0.00033~em- 0.0297) (12.9)
where ,cp, is an embedding angle, degrees; r , = (de 4- d ) / 4 is the
mean radius of the small end, m.
Fig. 12.2. Distribution of loads

on the connecting-rod small
end
( a ) in pull; ( b ) in push
I n segment I lying within the range of connec,ting rod angle change

rp,,, from 0 t o 90'
In segment 2 lying within the range of connecting rod angle change

from 90" t o embedding angle cp,,
Ni2 = Nto cos ve-r - 0.e51'l,p (sin ( p e a r - cos (12.12)
M j 2 = Mj0 + Njorm(1 - CQS v,,,) + O.SPj,prm (sin vC.,)

i ~ c m T - ~ ~ ~
(12.13)
For dangerous section A-A a t cp,. ,= (re, the values of normal force
and bending moment are computed by formulae (12.12) and ci2.13).
Stresses i n the small end on the external and internal fibers are
determined by t h e values of N . Tern and iVIjT,.
J
Neglecting the stress caused by the press-fitted bushing, the

stresses (in MPa) in section A-A of the small end are:
on the external fiber
cH.12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY 249
0. the internal fiber
where he = (de - d ) / 2 is the thickness of the small end wall, m:

lsmeis the length of the smallsend, m.
When there is a bushing driven in the small end, they are strained
together. As a result, part of normal force .Vj, em in proportion to
coefficient K is transferred to the small end rather than all the force.
The effect of the bushing. that decreases the bending moment i q V e n 2 ,
is neglected.
The coefficient
K = Ec.rFeI(Ec.rF, $- E b F b ) (12.16)
where F , = (de - d ) I,., and F b = (d - d,) 1,. , are wall cross-
sectional areas of the small end and bushing, respectively.
Including coefficient K, the stresses are
The total force (in N) compressing the small end attains its ma-
ximum value after T.D.C. (10-20" of the crank angle) a t the beginn-
ing of expansion
x (cos cp -+h cos 2q2) (12.19)

where p,, is the nlaximum co~nbust~ionpressure defined against
the rounded-off indicat,or diagram; P , is the inertial force of the
piston assembly mass a t rp corresponding to the crank angle at p ,.
Neglecting the displacement of the maximum gas force relative
to T.D.C., we roughly find
The radial pressure due to compression force P C , , against t,he

internal surface of the small end lower half is taken as cosine, as
is shown in t,he design diagram (Fig. 12.26).
In any section over segments I and 2
Ncorno
Neomi =Pcom COS CPc. r
Pcom
MCom1=P r
r Mcomo
P,,,r, 4- NcomO
Pcom
(1- cos cp,, ,)I (12.22)
250 PART TIjREE. DESIGN OF P R I N C I P A L PARTS
In equations (12.23) and (12.24) the values of angle cp,., are sub-
stituted in the ratio cp,. ,in in radians,while the values of Nc,,o/P,,,
and ,11fc0, o/(P,,mr,), depending on the angle qeml are determined
from Table 12.2.
Table 12.2
---
Angle of cnibedding ip,,, degrecs

Parameters
1001 105 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 5 1 1 2 0 1125 1 130
A - c o ~ Lo/Pcom
. 0.0001 0.0005 0.0009 0.0018 0.0030 0.0060 0.0083
Jfcorn.o/(Pcomrrn) 0 0.000100.000250.000600.001100.001800.00300
To make the computations of a bending moment and normal force

easier, given in Table 12.3 are the values of trigonometrical rela-
tions as a function of angle q c . r .
T a b l e 12.3
Anglt'm of crnbcdding v., degrees

f ((Tern)
100 1 105 I LIO I 115 1 120 1 121 1 13"
Ccs rO em -0.1736 -0.2588 -0.3420 -0.4226 -0.5000 -0.5736 -0,6428

1- cos Tent 1 .I736 1.2588 1.3420 1.4226 1.5001! 1.5736 1.6428
sillvem-
I 0x3 Vern 1.1584 1.2247 1.2817 1.3289 1.3660 1.3928 1.4088
--,
sin v,
2
-(Pem sin X
3-c
Tent -
\ :
d,.
1
-- 0.0011 0.0020 0.0047 0.0086 0.0130 0.0235 0.03Ct4
n cos~,,
ca. 12. DESIGN OF CONNECTIKG ROD ASSEMBLY 251
The values of normal. force N ,,, and bending moment M,,,

for critical section A-A (v,. , = ),p,c are determined by formu-
lae (12.23) and (12.24).
The stresses of the total c~ompressionforce at sect,ioll A - A :
on t,he external fiber
on the internal fiber
where K is the coefficient accourlting for the use of a driven-in

bronze bushing [see formula (12-16)].
The safety factor of the small end in section A-A is determined by
the equations given in Sec. 10.3. The total stresses caused in this
section by gas and inertial forces and a driven-in bushing vary
asymmetrically, and the minimum safety factor is possessed by
the external fiber, for which
The safety factor of the small ends varies within 2.5 to 5.0. An
increase in the safety factor and decrease in the stresses of external
fiber are obtained on account of decreasing the embedding angle
to cpem = 90' and increasing the radius of the shank-to-small end
joining.
Design of a small end of carburettor engine. Referring to the
thermal and dynamic analyses gives us combustion pressure p,,
= 5.502 hIPa a t n = n, = 5600 rpm with cp = 370"; mass of the
piston assembly m, = 0.478 kg; mass of the connecting rod assembly
m,., = 0.716 kg; maximum engine speed in idling nid , ,, --
= 6000 rpm; piston strolie S = 78 mm; piston area F , = 47.76 cm2;
h. = 0.285. From the design of the piston assembly, we have piston
pin diameter d, = 22 rnm; length of the small end I,., = 28 mm.
From data in Table 12.1 we assume: the outer diameter of the small
end is d , = 30.4 mrn; tthe inner diameter of the small end d =
= 24.4 mm; the radial thickness of the small end h , = (d, - d ) i 2
= (30.4 - 24.4)12 = 3 mm; the radial thickness of the bushing
wall sb = (d - d p ) / 2 = (24.4 - 22)/2 = 1 . 2 mm.
The connecting rod is of carbon steel, grade 4 5 r 2 ; E,., = 2.2
X lob MPa, a, = 1 x 10-5 l / K . The bushing is of bronze; E b
= 1.15 X l o 5 MPa; a , = 1.8 x 1/K.
According to Tables 10.2 and 10.4, the properties of carbon steel,
grade 45r2, are:
ultimate strength o, = 800 MPa;
fatigue limit in bending a_, = 350 MPa and in push-pull o,,,
= 210 MPa;
yield limit a, = 420 MPa;
cycle reduction coefficients are a , = 0.17 for bending and a,
= 0.12 for push-pull.
From formulae ( 1 . 1 ) (10.2-), (10.3) we determine:
in bending
in push-pull
0-IP
pa=---=0.5
- 210 and
Po -a. -
- 0.5-0.12 =0.'76
420 1-Po 11-0.5
Forkdesign of section I-I (see Fig. 12.1):
pulsating cycle maximum stress
= 60.91MPa
where m,, = 0.06rn,, = 0.06 x 0.716 = 0.043 kg is the mass
of the small end part above section I-I;
-
Oldmar - nnidmar 130 = 3.14 X 6000/30 = 628 radis
average stress and amplitude of stresses
CJmO = (Jag= Gmax /2 = 60.91/2 = 30.455 MPa
oat, = oa,I z , / ( e , ~ , , )= 30.455 x 1.272/(0.86 x 0.9) = 50 MPa
where k , = 1.2+1.8 x 10-4 (ob- 400) = 1.2+1.8 x 1 0 ~ ~
x (800 - 400) = 1.272 is the effective factor of stress concentra-
tion (the small end has no abrupt dimensional changes and stress
concentration mainly depends on the qualitative structure of the
metal); E, = 0.86 is a scale factor determined from Table 10.7 (the
maximum dimension of section 1-1 is 28 mm); E,, = 0.9 is a surface
sensitivity factor determined from Table 10.8 (the final burning
finish of the small end internal surface).
AS 0,,,, /orno= 50/30.455 = 1.64 > (pa - a ,)/(l - /3 ), = 0.76
then the safety factor a t section I-I is determined by the fatigue
limit:
cE.12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY
.
: The stresses due to a pressed-in bushing are:
the total interference
A =A + A t = 0.04 +
0.0215 = 0.0615 mm
where A = 0.04 mm is the f i t interference of a bronze bush-
ing; A t = d (ab- a,) AT = 24.4 (1.8 x 10-5 - 1.0 x 40-5) $10
= 0.0215 mm is the temperature interference; AT = 110 Ii is
the average heating of the small end and bushing;
the specific pressure on the cont'act surface between the bushing
and the small end
A,
=24.2 MPa
where p = 0.3 is Poisson's ratio;
the stress from the total interference on the small end internal
surface
0: = p (d: +
d2)/(dE - d 2 )
= +
24.2 (30.42 24.4a)/(30.42- 24.42) = 111.8 MPa
the stress due to the total interference on the external surface
of the small end
0,'= p2dZ/(d: - d2) = 24.2 x 2 x 24.42/(30.42- 24.42)
= 87.6 MPa
The design for bending of section A-A (see Figs. 12.1 and 12.2)
includes :
the maximum force extending the small end at n = n,:
+
PI,,= -mPRo2 (1 h) = -0.478 x 0.039 x 58G2
x (1 + 0.285) = -8230 N
where w = nnN/30 = 3.14 x 5600/30 = 586 radis;
the normal force and bending moment a t section 0-0:
NjO = - PI,,(0.572 - 0.0008~,,)
= -(-8230) (0.572 - 0.0008 x 105) = 4016 N
Mt0 = - P j m p r , (0.00033cp,, - 0.0297) = -(-8230)
X 0.0137 (0.00033 x 105 - 0.0297) = 0.56 N m
where cp,, = 105' is the embedding angle; r , = (d, -I- 414
= (30.4 +
24.4)/4 = 13.7 mm is the mean radius of the small end;
the normal force and bending moment in the designed section

caused by the tension force:
1% Q
, = N j , cos ,,pc - 0.5Pj,p (sin cp,,, - cos cp,,)
= 4016 cos 105" - 0.5 (-8230) (sin 105" - cos 105")
= 4000 N
Mj Tern = M j o + Njorm(1 - cos qe,) 0.5Pj,pr, +
x (sin cp,, - cos),,pc = 0.56 4016 x 0.0137 +
x (1 - cos 105") + 0.5 (-8230) 0.0137 (sin 105"-cos 105*).
= 0.75 N m
the stress on the external fiber caused by the extension force
10-6
+ OaB2' 4000] 0.028 x 0.003
=56.2 MPa
where K = Ec,,F,I(E,,,Fe +
E b F b )= 2.2 x lo5 x
+
x 168/(2.2 x lo5 x 168 1.15 x lo5 x 67.2) = 0.827; F,
= (d, - d ) 1,. = (30.4 - 24.4) 28 = 168 mrn2; F b = (d-dp)lSse
= (24.4 - 22) 28 = 67.2 mmz;
the total force compressing the small end
PC,, = (p,, - po) F , - m,Ro2 (cos cp cos 2 ~ ) +
= (5.502 - 0.1) 0.004776 x 106 - 0.478 x 0.039
x 586%(cos 370% 0.2885 cos 740') = 17 780 N
the normal force and bending moment i n the design section caused
by the compressing force
N.:on,,pnl = pcom [ l':;;O + ( sin Ten7
(
--
cFpm
n sin Tern
-- Tern. cp,,-
sin
1
cos q,,) ] = 1 7 580 x 0.0137
(
- sin
7
n n
where iVcom0i I
P C , , = 0.0005 and M,,, oi(P,,,r,rn) = 0.0001 are
determined from Table 4.2.2, and
1
f ('{;em) sin 2Tern -- Tern.
n sin ,pc, - - COS Tern
n
=0.002 and f (rp,) = 1-cos rpe,= 1.2588, from Table 12.3;
CR. 12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY 255
the stress on the external fiber caused by t,he compressing force
the maximum and minimum stresses of an asymmetric cycle
the mean stress and the stress amplitude

0, = +
(om,, +
0,,,)i2 = (143.8 81.15)12 = 112.48 MPA
0, = ( o,, - a,,,)/2 = (143.8 - 81.15)/2 = 31.33 MPa
, ) 31.33 x 1.272/(0.86 x 0.9) = 51.5 MPa
~ U , C= ( J ~ ~ , / ( E , E ,=
As IJ,,~/(J, = 51.51112.48 = 0.458 < (p, - a,)/(l - 8 ,)=3.97,

the safet,y factor a t section A-A is determined by the yield limit
Design of a small end of a diesel engine connecting rod. The heat

and dynamic analyses give us: masiinuln cornbus t ion pressure
p,, = 11.307 MPa at n, = 2600 rpm with rp = 370'; mass of
piston assembly m,, = 2.94 kg; mass of connecting rod assembly
mc.,= 3.39 kg; maximum speed in idling ni d max - 2'700 rpm;
piston stroke S = 120 mm; piston area F j , = 113 cm2; 1, = 0.270.
The design of the piston assembly gives us: diameter of pistoti pin
d , = 45 mm; length of connecting rod small end L,., = 46 mm.
Referring to Table 12.1 we assume: outer diameter of small end d ,
= 64 rnm; internal diameter of small end d = 50 rnm; radial t,hickI
ness of small end wall he = (d, - d)/2 = (64 - 50)/2 = 7 mrn;
radial thickness of bushing wall st, = (d - d,)/2 = (50 - 45ii2
= 2.5 mm. The connectil~grod is of steel. grade 40X; E , , , -I 2.2
x 10"RIPa.; ae = 1 >: 1 0 - V i h ' . The bushing is of bronze: E b
= 1.15 x l o 5 MPa; a b = 1.8 x l/K.
strength o b = 980 MPa, fatigue limits o-, -
From Tables 10.2, 10.4 for steel, grade 40X. we have: ultimate
350 MPa in bending
and 0-,,= 300 hlPa in push-pull, yield limit a, = 800 hIPa,
factor of cycle reduction a , -- 0.21 in bending and a , = 0.17 in
extension.
By formulae (10.1, 10.2, 10.3) we have:
in bending
Po = o-,/a, 3501800 = 0.438 and (Po - a,)/(l
- =
(0.438 - 0.21)i(l - 0.438) = 0.406
- Pi,)
in push-pull
pu = ~ - ~ ~ =
/ a300/800
, = 0.375 and (Po - a,)/(l - Do)
(0.375 - 0.17)/(1 - 0.375) = 0.328
=
Design of section 1-1 (see Fig. 12.1):
the maximum stress in pulsating cycle
where m,., = 0.8mZ,., = 0.08 x 3.39 = 0.27 kg is the mass of

the small end part above section 1-1.
-
@id max - flni d max/30= 3.i4 x 2700130 = 283 rad/s
the mean stress and stress amplitude
omo = 0 , o - omax /2 = 30.3/2 = 15.r15 MPa
'Ja,c~= ~ , ~ k , / ( e , ~=, ~ 15.15
) x 1.3/(0.77 x 0.72) = 35.5 MPa
where k , = 1.2 + 1.8 x 10-4(ob - 400) = 1.2 + 1.8 X
x (980 - 400) = 1.3 is the effective factor of stress concentration
{the small end has no abrupt dimensional changes); 8 , = 0.77 is
the scale factor as per Table 10.7 (the maximum dimension of sec-
tion 1-1 is 46 mm); E,, = 0.72 is the factor surface sensitivity as per
Table 10.8 (rough turning).
o 35.5/15.15 = 2.34 > (Po - C L , ) / ( ~ - 8,)=0.328,
AS ~ a , , O / ~ , =
the safety factor at section 1-1 is determined by the fatigue limit
+ +
~ , ~ ~ = 300/(35.5 0.17 x 15.15) = 7.9
,to = ( T _ ~ ~ / ( ( sa0omo)
The stress caused by a driven-in bushing is:
the total interference
Az =A + A t = 0.04 +0.044 = 0.084 mm
where A = 0.04 rnm is the fit interference of a bronze BusL-
ing; At=d(ab--a,)AT=50(1.8~10-5-1.0~10-5)110
= 0.044 mrn; AT = 110 K is the average temperature of heating
the small end and bushing;
the specific pressure on the contact surface between the bushing
and small end
A"
where p = 0.3 is Poisson's ratio;

ca. i z . DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY 257
the stress caused by the total interference on the small end exter-
nal surface
0L = p2dz/(di - d2) = 16,73 X 2 X 502/(642- 502) = 52.4 MPa
the stress caused by the total interference on the small end inter-
nal surface
of = p (d: + +
d2)/(d: - d2) = 16.73 x (642 502)/(6h2- 502)
,-- 69.1 MPa
The bending computation of section A-A (see Figs. 12.1 and 12.2):
the maximum force extending the end a t n = n ,
-
P j n P= m p ~ 0(1
= -16 580 N
+
2 h) = -2.94 x 0.06 x 2722 (1 0.27) +
where o = nnN/30= 3.14 x 2600/30 = 272 rad/s;
the normal force and bending moment a t section 0-0
where cp,, = 110" is the embedding angle;

r , = (d, + +
d)/4= (64 50)/4 = 28.5 mm
the normal force and bending moment in the design section cau-
sed by the extension force
Nj,pe, = N j o cos vem -- 0.5Pj,p (sin qem - cos vem)
= 8025 cos 110" - 0.5 (-16 580) (sin 110" - cos 110")
= 7880 N
Mtve, = M j , +Nj,rm (1 - cos qe,) +
0*5Pt,prem
+
x (sin cp,, - cos cp,,) = 3.12 8025 x 0.0285
+
x (1 - cos 110") 0.5 (-16 580) x 0.0285
x (sin 110° - cos 110") = 7.12 N m
the stress on the est'ernal fiber caused by an extension force
10-6
+ + 7880] 0.046 X 0.007 ==38.2MPa
where K = Ec.,F,/(Ec.,Fe +E,F,) = 2.2 x lo5 x
+
x 644/(2.2 x 105 x 644 1.15 x 10" 230) = 0.842.
F , = (d, - d ) I,,, = (64 - 50) 46 = 644 m m 2
F b = (d - d p ) I s m e = (50 - 45) 46 = 230 mm2
the t,otal force compressing the small end

P C , , = @,a - PO) F, - m,Ro2 (cos rF cos 2 ~ ) +
= (11.307 - 0.1) 0.0113 x 106 - 2.94 0.06 x 2722 +
+
x (cos 370" 0.27 cos 740") = 110 470 N
the normal force and bending moment a t t,he design sect,ion c,aused
by the compressing force
- - cos),cp,
1
3-c
] = 110 470 (0.OC09$- O.CO45) = 619 N
i ~ c w mW P -
~ ~ c o m r m[:comrO
corn m
+ ~ c * ,
pcom
0
(1 -- COS
\
Temi
-0.0047)= -10.2 Nm
where N c o m J P c o r n = 0.0009 and ilf,,, ,/(P,,,r,) = 0.00025 are
determined from Table 12.2, and f (rp,,) = sin $em _em
2 n
1
X sin o m - ; 4 7 f (qem)= 1 - cos (pem=1.342,
;cos ( ~ ~ ~ = 0 . 0 0and
from Table 12.3;
the stress on the external fiber caused by a compressing force
+
0,* corn =[ 2 ~ c o m
6rm h.e
Tern he ( 2 r m + h e ) 4- K N c o m Q,, I
10-6
- - 23.5 MPa
0.046~0.007
the maximum and minimum stress of an asymmetric cycle
om,, = o, I
+ oail = 52.4 + 38.2 = 90.6 MPa
omln - + a,,,,,
I
-
I
= 52.4 - 23.5 = 28.9 hjlPa
the mean stress and stress amplitude
Om = (omax TI
umln)J2 = (90.6 $ 28.9)/2 = 59.75 MPa
u a = (omax - o,,,)i2 = (90.6 - 28.9)i2 = 30.85 MPa
s s30.85
oa, c = % k o / ( ~ s ~= ) x 1.3/(0.77 x 0.72) = 72.3 MPa
S ince o,, ,/om = 72.3159.75 = 1.21 > (p, - a,)l(l - 8,)
= U.406, the safety factor in section A-A is determined by the
fatigue limit
+
n , = o-,/(oa,, a,o,) = 3E0/(72.3 0.21 x 59.75) = 4.12 +
CR. 12. DESIGN O F CONIWGL'ING ROD ASSEMBLY 259
42.2. CONNECTING ROD BIG EKD

The table below gives the designed dimensions of the connecting
rod big end.
Tabie 12.6
I
Dimensions of big end
I Variation limits
Crank pin diameter d C s p

Shell wall thickness t,h
thin-walled
thick-walled
Distance between connec ting-rod bolts cb
Big end length Zb.
The precise computation of a big end is rather difficult because

constructional factors cannot be fully taken into account. The
rough design of a big end consists in determining the bending stress
at middle section II-II of the big end bearing cap caused by inertial
forces P j , , (in hlN) which attain their maximum a t the beginning
of induction (cp = 0") when the engine is operating a t the maximum
speed under no load:
where m, is the mass of the pist,on assembly, kg; rn,,,, and m c r ,

are the masses of connecting rod assembly that are reciprocating
and rotating, respectively, kg; m , =
(0.20 to 0.28) m,, is t h e
mass of the big end, kg; m,, is the mass of the connecting rod assem -
hly, kg.
The bending stress of the big end bearing cover (in MPa) including
the joined strain of the bearing shells
where c b is the distance between the connecting rod bolts, m; J ,

= I,t: and J = 1, ( 0 . 5 ~ -~T - , is
) ~the design section inertial moment
of the shell and cap, respe~t~ively, m4; W b = I , ( 0 . 5 ~-~ r J 2 / 6 is
the resisting moment of the cap design section neglecting the stiffen-
ing ribs, m3, r, = 0.5 (d,, +
2t,) is the inner radius of the big end,
m; d C misp the crank pin diameter, m; t , is the shell wall thickness, m ;
F t = 2, x 0.5 ( c b - dca,) is the total area of the cap and shell
in the design section, m2.
The value of crb varies within the limits of 100-300 MPa.
i 7'
260 P-lRT THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
Design of a ,big end of connecting rod for carburettor engine.

Referring to t.he dynamic analysis and design of a c.onnecting rod
small end, we have the following: cranlc radius R = 0.039 rn; mass
of the piston assembly m, = 0.478 kg; mass of the connecting rod
+
assembly m,., = mc,,p m,,,, = 0.197 +
0.519 = 0.716 kg; an-
gular velocity O i d m a x = 628 radls; h = 0.285. From Table 12.4
we assume: crank pin diameter d,., = 48 mm; shell wall thickness
t , = 2 mm; distance between the connecting rod bolts c b = 62 mm;
big end length 1, = 26 mm.
The maximum inertial force
Pj,r = - u i d
2
max +
R [ (mp m e r V p )(1 f A) S ( m e r , c - mc)] lom6
= -(628)2 x 0.039 i(0.478 + +
0.107) (1 0.285)
+ (0.519 - 0.179)l = -0.0186 M N
where m, = 0.25mc., = 0.25 x 0.716 = 0.179 kg.
The resisting moment of the design section
where r, = 0.5 (d,., +

2t,) = 0.5 (48 +
2 x 2) = 26 mm is the
inner radius of the connecting rod big end.
The shell and cap inertia moments
The bending stress of the cap and shell
where F t = 1,0.5 ( c b - d,.,) = 26 x 0.5 (62 - 48 x 10-7

= 0.000182 m2.
Design of a connecting rod big end of diesel engine. From the
dynamic analysis and design of the connecting rod small end we
have: crank radius R=0.06 m; mass of the piston assembly m,=
= 2.04 kg; mass of the connecting rod assembly m,, ,= 0.932f
+ 2.458 = 3.39 kg; m i d m a X - 283 radis; h = 0.27. Referring t o
Table 12.4, we assume: crank pin diameter dC., = 80 mm; shell
wall thickness t , = 3.0 mm; distance between connecting rod bolts
~b = 106 mm; big end length 1, = 33 mm.
ca. 12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY 26 1
The maximum inertial force
where rn, = 0.25mc., = 0.25 X 3.39 = 0.848 kg.

The resisting moment of t,he design sect,ion
W b = ZC ( 0 . 5 ~ - rl)?-/6 = 33 (0.5 x 106 - 4312 x 10-9/6
= 5.50 x iO-' mS
where r , = 0.5 (d,, +
2t,) = 0.5 (80 +
2 X 3) = 43 rnm is the
inner radius of the connecting rod big end.
The inertia moments of the shell and cap
The bending stress of the cap and shell
where F , = 18.5 (cb - d,.,) = 33 x 0.5 (106 - 80)

= 0.000429 m2.
12.3. CONNECTING ROD SHANK

In addition to length LC., = Rlh, the basic designed parameters
of the connecting rod shank include the dimensions of its middle
section B-B (see Fig. 12.1). For the values of these parameters used
in Soviet-made automobile and tractor engines, see Table 12.5.
Table 12.5
~ -
Dimensions of con-
necting rod section Carburettor engines Diesel engines
hsh rn in (0.50-0.55) d , (0.50-0.55) d ,

hsh (1-2-1- 4 ) hsh min (i 02-1 4) hsh min
bsh (0.50 -0.60) hsh (0.55-0.75) h,
ash % fsh (2.5-4.0) mm (4.0-7.5) mm
2 62 PXRT THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL P A R T S
The connecting rod shank is designed for fatigue strength a t

middle section B-B under the effect of sign alternating total forces
(gas and inertial forces) occurring when the engine is operating a t
n = n , or n = nt. Generally, the computat.ions are made for
operation at a maximum power. The safety factor for the section
i s determined in the plane in which the connecting rod is rocking
and in a perpendicular plane. The connecting rod is equally strong
in both planes if n , = n,.
The force compressing the connecting rod attains its maximum at
t,he beginning of power st,roke a t p , , and is defined by the results
of the dynamic analysis or by the formula
+
where m, = m, 0.2i5mc., is the mass of reciprocating parts of
the crank gear (it is conventionally t,aken t'hat the middle section
B-B is in the connect,ing rod center of gravity).
The tension force act)ing on the connecting rod attains its masi-
mum a t the beginning of induction (at T.D.C.) and is also defined
by t,he results of the dynamic analysis or by t,he formula
P t = P, +
P j = [p,F, - mjRo2(1 + h)] (12.32)
where pg is t,he pressure of residual gases.
Compressing forces PC,, in section B-B produce maximum stres-
ses of compression and longitudinal bending (in MPa):
in the plane of connecting rod rocking
where K x = 1 -+---r - -
L:.r
0.e
Jx
Fm is the coefficient accounting
for the effect of longihdinal bending of the connecting rod in it.s
rocking plane; a, = ob is the connecting rod limit of elasticitmy,
MPa; L,.,=R/h is the connect,ing rod length, m; J , = [bshh:h-
- (bsh - ash)(hsh- 2tsh)31/12is the inertia moment a t section
B-B relative to axis x-x perpendicular to the connecting rod rocking
plane, m'; F m i d = hshbs - (bsh - a s h ) (hsh- atsh) is the area of
the connecting rod middle section, m2;
in t,he plane perpendicular to the rocking plane
(Jmax y = KyPcom/Frnici (12.34)
-+
where K , = 1 -.oe L ; F m i j is the coefficient accounting for
- n 2 E f l F 4J,,
the effect of the connecting ;od bowing (longit,udinal bending) in
a plane perpendicular to the rod rocking plane; L, = LC.,- (d $- d,)/2
is the rod shank length between the small and big ends, m; J , =
= [h,hb!h - (hsh- 2 t s h ) (bs - as h)3]!12 is the inertia moment at
section B-B relative to axis y-y.
cH. 12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING R O D ASSEMBLY 263
With modern automobile and tractor engines stresses

,
and om,, (MPa) must not exceed:
.
Carbon steels .................... 263-250
Alloyed steels ................... 209-350
A minimum stress occurring a t section B-B due to t,ension force
pt is defined in the rod rocking plane and in a perpendicular plane:
urnin = P t l F m i d (12.35)
Safety factors of the connecting rod shank in the rocking plane
n, and in a perpendicular plane n, are defined by the equations
given in Sec. 10.3. When defining ri, and n,, we assume t h a t stress
factors k, are dependent only on the connecting rod
material. With connecting rods for automobile and tractor engines
the values of n, and n, must not be below 1.5.
Design of a connecting rod shank for carburettor engine. From
the dynamic analysis we have: PC,, = P, +
P j = 14 505 N
mO.0145 MN a t rp = 370'; P , = P,
-
- -0.0115
+
P j = -11 500 N
MN a t cp = 0"; LC..= 136.8 mm. According to
Table 12.5 (see Fig. 12.1) we assume: h,, = 23 mm; bsh = 16 mm;
a s h - 3.2 mm; f S h = 3.4 mm. From the design of the small and big
ends we have: d = 24.4 mm, d, = 52 mm; the strength characte-
ristics of the connecting rod material are those of steel, grade 4 5 r 2 .
The area and inertia moments of design section B-B are:
The maximum stress due to a compressing force:

in the connecting rod rocking plane
am,,!, = K,P,,,/Fmid = 1.095 x 0.0145/(160.0 x
= 99 MPa
2
where K,=l+ oe Lc.r
Fmid'l$ 3 , 1 4 a X 2 . 800
2 x 10:
n2E,.r JX
x e11.687
1 6 0 . 6 = 1.095, oe = ob =BOO MPa;
in a plane perpendicular to the rod rocking plane

umax y = K,PcomIFmid= 1.029 x 0.0145/(160.6 x 10-6)=93 MPa
800 98. 62
where K , = 1+ ( ~ e *- L?
naEc.r 4 J ~F m f n = 1 + 3 . 1 4 z ~ 2 . 2 X 1 0 5 X 4 X 5 0 2 0
The minimum stress caused by a tension force
The mean stress and cycle amplitudes

urnx = (omax x + ~ , ~ , ) / 2= (99 - 71.6)/2 = 13.7 MPa
omy
-
- ((Jmax p + ami,)/2 = (93 - 71.6)/2 = 10.7 MPa
(Jax = (a,, x - umin)/2 = (99 + 71.6)/2 = 85.3 MPa
cay = (omax y - 0,,,)/2 = (93 + 71.6)/2 = 82.3 MPa
a,,,,, -
- ( ~ ~ , , k , / ( ~ , ~ ~ , ) = 8x5 1.272/(0.88
.3 x 1.3) =94.8 MPa
, ) 82.3 x 1.272/(0.88 x 1.3) = 91.5 MPa
Ua,c ,Y = ( J , , ~ ~ ~ / ( E , E ~ =
where k , = 1.2 + 1.8 x (ab - 400) = 1.2 +
1.8 x lob4x
x (800 - 400) = 1.272; e, = 0.88 is determined against
Table 10.7 (the maximum section dimension of the connecting rod
shank is 23 mm); E,, = 1.3 is determined against Table 10.8 with
consideration for the surface hardening of the connecting rod shank
by shot blasting.
--
0a.c.x - 94.8 $,-a,
omx 13.7 3 l-fia = 0.76 (see the design of the
small end of a carburettor engine connecting rod) and cr,,,,,/o,
= 91.5110.7 > 0.76, the safety factors a t section B-B are determineB
by the fatigue limit:
Design of a connecting rod shank for diesel engine. From the dy-
namic analysis we have: PC,, = P, +
P j = 105.6 kN = 0.1056 MN
at cp = 370"; P t = P , +
P , = -21.14 kN = -0.02114 M N a t
cp = 0"; connecting rod length L C , ,= 222 mm. According to Tab-
le 12.5 we assume (see Fig. 12.1): h,, = 40 mm; b S h = 30 mm;
a s h - 7 mm; t S h= 7 mm.
From the design of small and big ends we have: d = 50 mm; d,
= 86 mm; the strength characteristics of the connecting rod mate-
rial is as for steel, grade 40X.
The area and inertia moment,~of design section B-B are:
CH. 12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY
The maximum stresses caused by a compression force are:

in the connecting rod rocking plane
om,, = K,PC,,/Fmid = 1.108 x 0.1056/(60.2 x = 194 hlPa.
~e 980 2222
where K,= 4 f n2Ec.r .-~c?.r
J x Fmid=1+3.14"X.2~105 123800
in a plane perpendicular to the connecting rod rocking plane

omax y = K,PC,,/Fmid = 1.025 x 0.1056/(60.2 x = 180 MPa
IJe L? 980 1542
where K,=1+-0- + 3. 142 x 2.2 x 105 4 x 63 700
n2Ec., 4 J ,
- (d -+
x 602 = 1.025; L, = LC., d,)/2 = 222 - (50 $86)/2 = 154 mm.
The minimum stress caused by a tension force
oml, = P I / F m i d= -0.02114/(60.2 x = -35 MPa
The mean stresses and cycle amplitudes:
om, = (om,, ,+ (r,,,)i2 = (194 - 35)/2 = 79.5 MPa
-
o w - + a,)/2 = (180 - 35)/2 = 72.5 MPa
(Tax = +
(omaxl. - C T ~ ~ =~ (194) / ~ 35)/2 = 114.5 MPa
Oay = (omax p - 0,,,)/2 +
= (180 35)/2 = 107.3 MPa
-
' ~ z , c , x - 0a.x k o /(e,~,,) = 114.5 x 1.3/(0.8 X 1.3) = 143 MPa
Oa,c, - O ~ . k u ,/(e,ess) = 107.5- x 1.3/(0.8 x 1.3) = 134 hIPa
where k , = 1.2 -1- 1.8 x 10-4 (0, - 400) = 1.2+ 1.8 x 10-' x
X (980 - 400) = 1.3; E, = 0.8 as determined from Table 10.7
(the maximum section dimension of the connecting rod is 40 nim);
eSs = 1.3 as determined against Table 10.8 including the surface-
hardening of the rod shank by shot blasting.
A~ a a l ~ = 4 ~ 143 = 1.8 > B o - - ~ ~ =0.328 (see the design
omx 79.5 1-Bu
of the connecting rod small end for diesel engine) and O ~ , c , y / ~ n ~ . g =
E 4 7 2 . 5 > 0.328, the safety factors a t sectjon B-B are determined.
by the fatigue limit:
12.4. CONNECTIKG ROD BOLTS
In four-stroke engines the big end bo1t.s are subject to stret,ching

.due t o the inertial forces of the t r a n ~ l a t ~ i o n a l lmoving
y masses of
the piston and connecting rod and rot,at,ing masses located above
the big end parting plane. The values of these inertial forces are
determined by formula (12.29). Besides, the bolts are ~ t ~ r e t c h edue
d
to tightening.
The connecting rod bolts must feature high strength and reliabi-
lity. They are made of steel, grades 3SX, 4 0 X , 35Xi\lA, and 37XH3*%.
If bolts are to be tightened with heavy efforts, they are made of
alloyed steel, grades 18XHB-4, 20XH3.4, 4 0 X H , and 40XHMA, of
higher
- yield limits.
In thk engine operation, inertial forces P j , , tend to ruptura t h e
bolt's. I n view of this the bolts must be tightened t o such a n e x t e n t
that the tight joint is not disturbed by these forces.
The tightening load (in MN)
where i b is the number of connecting rod bolts.

The total force stretching the bolt
where x is the coefficient of the principal load of a thraaded joint:

It -
K,.J(Kh +
Kc.,) (12.38)
-where K c . , is the yielding of the connsztinz raii part-, tightenjd
-together; K b is the yielding of the bolt.
According t o experimental data, cosfficient x varie; within the
limits of 0.15 t o 0.25. The value. of x gan3rally decrasse; with a d3-
crease in the diameter of the connecting rod bolt.
The maximum and minimum stresses o ~ u r r i n gin the bolt are
,determined in the section by the thread bottom diameter:
where d b = d - 1.4t is the bolt thread bottom d i a m ter, mm; d is

the nominal diameter of the bolt, mm; t is the thread pitch, mrn.
The safety factors of the bolt are determined by the formula
given in Sec. 10.3, stress concentration factor k,, by formula (10.10)
with allowance for the type of concentrator and material proper-
ties. For connecting rod bolts the safety factors must not be less
than 2.
Desidn
9
of a connecting r o l b d t for c a r b l r j t t 3 r e x ~ i 1 3 . F r ~ u
:the design of the cona3;ting r a l big e , z i W J hlvz: th3 m l u i m z n
inertial force tending to rupturz t h s big e l l a n 1 ~ 3 3 1 3 : i i 3 ; P J ~
cH. 12. DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD ASSEMBLY 267
bolts: P i e r = 0.0186 hfN. We assume: bolt nominal diameter

d = 11 mm; thread pitch t = 1 mm; number of bolts i b = 2. The
is steel, grade 40X.
Referring to Tables 10.2 and 10.3, we determine the following
properties of the alloyed steel, grade 40X:
ultimate st.rength ob = 980 MPa; yield limit o, = 800 MPa
and fatigue limit due to push-pull 0-,, = 300 IIPa;
cycle reduction factor a t push-pull a , = 0.17.
According to formulae ( 0 . 1 ) (10.2), (10.3) we have
1
PCT= 0-lp a, = 3001800 0.375; (Po - a o ) / ( l- Po)
=
= (0.375 - 0.17)!(1 - 0.375) = 0.328
The tight.ening load
P t , , = (2 t , 3~) P j V r / i =
b 2 X 0.018612 = 0.0186 M N
The total force ~ t ~ r e t c h i nthe
g bolt
+
P b = P i e l x P j , , / i b = 0.0186 +
0.2 x 0.018612 = 0.0205 M N
where 3~ = 0.2.
The maximum and minimum stresses occurring in t,he bolt'
a m ax = 4Pb!/(ndE)= 4 x 0.0205/(3.14 x 0.00962) = 283 MPa
(Jmin - 4 P t .J(nd:) = 4 X 0.0186/(3.14 x 0.0096*) = 257 MPa
-
where d b = d - 1.4t = 11 - 1.4 X 1.0 = 9.6 mm = 0.0096 rn.
a, = (cr,, $ omin)/'2 = (283 +
257)/2 = 270 MPa
c a = ((Jmax - o m i n )/2 = (283 - 257)12 = 13 MPa
cr, = o,k,/(e,e,,) = 13 x 3.43/(0.99 X 0.82) = 54.9 MPa
wherek, = 1 + q (a,,- 1) = 1 +
0.81 (4 - 1 ) = 3.43; a,, = 4.0
is dedermined from Table 10.6; q = 0.81 is det,ermined by Fig. 10.2
at (I,= 980 MPa and a,, = 4.0; E, = 0.99 is determined from
Table 10.7 a t d = 11 mm; E,, = 0.82 is determined from Table 10.8
(rough turning).
Since -
a
,
54*9 - 0.203 <
o a =-
,c
270 - 1-PO
= 0.328, the safety factor of
the bolt is determined by the yield limit:
o = +
oV/(~a,c 0,) = +
800/(54.9 270) = 2.46
Design of a connecting rod bolt for diesel engine. From the design
of the connecting rod big end we have: maximum inertial force
rupturing the big end and connecting rod bolts PI,, = 0 . ~ 2 8 6MN.
Then we assume: bolt nominal diameter d = 14 mm, thread pitch
= 1.5 rum, number of bolts i b = 2. The material is steel, grade
40Xfi.
Using Tables 10.2 and 10.3, we determine the following properties

of the steel, grade 40XH:
ultimate strength o b = 1300 MPa, yield limit o, = 1150 MPa
and fatigue limit a t push-pull o-,, = 380 hlPa;
cycle reduction factor a t push-pull a, = 0.2.
By formulae (10.1), (10.2), (10.3) we determine
The tightening load
The total force stretching the bolt

P b = PL.1 + xPj,,/ia = 0.03575 + 0.2 x 0.0286/2 = 0.0386 MN
where x = 0.2.
The maximum and minimum stresses occurring in the bolt:
om,, = 4pb/(nd:) = 4 x 0.0386/(3.14 x 0.011g2) = 347 MPa
a,,, = 4Pt. ,/(ndi) = 4 x 0.03575/(3.14 x 0.01192) = 322 MPa
where d b = d - 1.4t = 14 - 1.4 x 1.5 = 11.9 mrn = 0.0119 m.
+
Om = (oman omin)/2 = (347 + 322}/2 = 334.5 MPa
o a = (omax - (~,~,)/2 = (347 - 322)/2 = 12.5 MPa
oaee= ( T ~ ~ ~ / ( = E ~ ~X ) 4.2/(0.96 X 0.82) = 66.7 MPa
E ~ 12.5
+ +
where k , = 1 q (a,, - 1) = 1 i ( 4 . 2 - 1) = 4 . 2 ; a,, = 4.2
is determined from Table 10.6; q = l is determined by Fig. 10.2
at ub = 1300 MPa and a,, = 4.2; E , = 0.96 is determined from
Table 10.7 a t d = 14 mm; F , , = 0.82 is determined against Talile 10.8
(rough turning).
o , - 66.7 Bo - acr
Since - - -- 0.109 > = 0.194, the safety factor
a, 334.5 1-Po
of the bolt is determined by the f ~ t i g i l elimit
Chapter 13
DESIGN OF CRANICSHAFT
13.1. GENERAL
The crankshaft is a most complicated and strained engine part
subjected to cyclic loads due to gas pressure, inertial forces and
their couples. The effect of these forces and their moments cause
considerable stresses of torsion, bending and tension-compression
CH. 13. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT 269
Fig. 13.1. Design diagrams of crankshaft

61,( b ) single-span and (c?, ( d ) two-span
in the crankshaft material. Apart of this, periodically varying

moments cause torsional vibration of the shaft with resultant addi-
tional torsional stresses.
Therefore, for the most complicated and severe operating condi-
tions of the crankshaft, high and diverse requirements are imposed
on the materials utilized for fabricating crankshafts. The crankshaft
material has to feature high strength and toughness, high resistance
to wear and fatigue stresses, resistance to impact loads, and hard-
ness. Such properties are possessed by properly machined carbon
and alloyed steels and also high-duty cast iron. Crankshafts of the
Soviet-made automobile and tractor engines are made of steels
40,454 45I'2,50, of special cast iron, and those for augmented engines,
of high-alloy steels, grades IBXHBA, 40XHMA and others.
The intricate shape of the crankshaft, a variety of forces and mo-
ments loading it, changes in which are dependent on the rigidity
of the crankshaft and its bearings, and some other causes do not
allow the crankshaft strength to be computed precisely. I n view
of this, various approximate methods are used which allow US to
obtain conventional stresses and safety factors for individual elem-
ents of a crankshaft. The most popular design diagram of a crank-
shaft is a diagram of a simply support,ed beam wit,h one (Fig. 13.1 a
and b) and two (Fig. 13.1 c and d) spans between t.he supports.
When designing a crankshaft, we assume t,hat:
a crank (or two cranks) are freely supported by supports;
the supports and force point,s are in the center planes of t,he crank-
- .
pins and journals;
the entire span (one or two) between the supports represents an
ideally rigid beam.
The crankshaft is generally designed for the nominal operation
(n = n,), taking into account the action of the following forces
and moments (Fig. 13.1 b):
(1) Kp,th= K + KR=K + KR + K R e are the forces act-
ing on the crankshaft throw by the crank, neglecting counterweights,
where (see Secs. 7.4, 7.5, 7.6) K = P cos (cp + p)/cos is the total
force directed along the crank radius; K , =--m,Ro2 is the centri-
fugal inertial force of rotating masses; K e, r - - -mC.r. CR02is
the inertial force of rotating masses of the connecting rod; K,,=
= -rn,Rw2 is the inertial force of rotating masses of the crank;
+
(2) Z r = K p , t h 2Pew and is the total force acting in the
crank plane, where (see Chapter 9) P C , = +rnc,po2 is the centr-
ifugal inertial force of the counterweight located on the web exten-
sion;
(3) T is the tangential force acting perpendicularly with the
crank plane;
(4) 2;: = Kk,th + Piw are the support reactions to bhe total
forces acting in the crank plane, where Kb. - . t h = -0.5Kp.- .t h and
-
P1.w - -PC,;
(5) T' = -0.5T are the support reactions to the tangential force
acting in a plane -perpendicular
- to the crank;
(6)-M,. j , i s the accumulated (running on) torque t r a n ~ m i t t ~ e d
to the design throw from the crankshaft nose;
(7) M,., = TR is the torque produced by the tangential force;
+
(g)fwm. j ( i + l ) = Mm.j , i M t . ,is the diminishing (running off)
torque transmitted by the design throw to the next throw.
The basic design relations of the crankshaft elements ~leeded
for checking are given in Table 13.1.
The dimensions of the crankpins and main journals are chosen,
bearing in mind the required shaft strength and -rigidity and permis-
sible values of unit area pressures exerted on the bearings. Reducing
the lengt,h of crankpins and journals and increasing their diameter
add t,o the crankshaft rigidity and decrease the overall dimensions
and weight of the engine. Crankpin-and-journal overlapping
(dm. + d,., > 2R) also adds t,o the rigidity of the crankshaft and
strength of t,he webs.
I n order to avoid heavy concentrations of stresses, the crankshaft
fillet radius should not be less than 2 to 3 mm. I n practical design
cH.13. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT 271:
Table 13.1
-
Engines
1 118 I dr.~iB 1 'c.plB* I dm.j / B / lm. j/B**
Carburet tor engi-

nes
0.45-0.60
in-line 1.20-1.28 0.60-0.70 0.45-0.65 0.60-0.80
0.74-0.84
~ e e - t y p e with
connecting
rods attached
to one crank-
0.50-0. '70
pin 1.25-1.35 0.56-0.66 0.8-1.0 0.63-0.75
0.70 -0,88
Diesel engines
0.45-0.60
in-line 1.25-1.30 0.64-0.75 0.7-1 .O 0.70-0.90
0.75-0.8s
Vee-type with
connecting
rods attached
to one crank-
0.50-0.65
pin 1.47-1.55 0.65-0.72 0.8-1.0 0.70-0.75
.65- o.86r
I
* B ( D ) is the engine cylinder bore (diameter); I c , p is the full length of a crank-.

pin including fillets.
** The data are f o r the interrn~diateand outer (or center) main journals.
i t is taken from 0.035 to 0.080 of the journal of crankpin diameter,

respectively. Maximum stress concentrations occur when the fillets
of crankpins and journals are in one plane.
According to the ~ t a t ~ i s t i c data,
al the web width of crankshafts in
automobile and tractor engines varies within (1.0-1.25) B for car-
buret tor engines; and (1.05-1.30) B for diesel engines, while the web
thickness, within (0.20-0.22) B and (0.24-0.27) B, respectively.
13.2. UNIT AREA PRESSURES OX CR.4KKPINS AND JOURS-ALS
The value of unit area pressure on the working surface of a crankpin

Or amain journal det.errnines the conditions under which the bearing'
OPerabes and its service life in the long run. With t,he bearings in
:272 PART THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
%operatmion measures are taken to prevent the lubricating oil film

from being squeezed out., damage to t,he whitemetal and premature
wear of the crankshaft journals and crankpins. The design of crank-
shaft journals and crankpins is made on the basis of the action of aver-
age and maximum resultants of all forces loading the crankpins and
,journals.
The maximum (I?,.
RE-I).
,,. ~ ) and mean (R,.
and R c . ma, and
m ) values of resulting forces are determined from the developed
diagrams of the loads on the crankpins and journals. For the con-
struction of such diagrams, see Sees. 7.6, 7.7, and Sec. 7.9 when use
is made of counterweights.
The mean unit area pressure (in MPa) is:
on the crankpin
kc.p.rn = Re.p.rn/(dc.pG.p) (13.1)
on the main journal
where I?,.,.,, Rm,j,, are the resultant forces acting on the crankpin
and journal, respectively, MN; Re,Wmj,,is the resaltant force acting
on the main journal when use is made of counterweights, MN; d C a p
and dm. are the diameters of the crankpin and main journal, respec-
t-ively, m; l;., and Zhmjare the working width of the crankpin and
main journal shells, respectively, m.
The value of the mean unit area pressure attains the following
values:
................
Carburettor engines 4-12 MPa
Diesel engines ................... 6-16 MPa
The maximum pressure on the crankpins and journals is deter-
mined by the similar formulae due to the action of maximum resultant
forces R C. p maxr R m . j max or R z . .,, The values of maximum unit
.area pressures on crankpins and journals k,,, (in MPa) vary within
-the following limits:
In-line carburet t,or engines .............. 7-20
Vee-type carburettor engines .............. 18-28
Diesel engines ..................... 20-42
23.3. DESIGN OF JOURNALS AND CRANKPINS

Design of main journals. The main bearing journals are com-
puted only for torsion. The maximum and minimum twisting moments
are determined by plotting diagrams (see Fig. 13.4) or compiling
CE, 13. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT 273
tables (Table 13.2) of accumulated moments reaching in sequence

Table 13.2
v 1 Mm. j , 1 Mm. j3 / 'In,. j i I Mm.j(i+i)
0
*
I 1 I I
10 (or 30)
I I
and so on
I 1 I I
individual journals. To compile such a table use is made of the dyn-
amic analysis data.
The order of det.ermining accumulated (running-on) moments for
in-line and Vee engines is shown in Fig. 13.2a and b.
The running-on moments and torques of individual cylinders are
algebraically summed up following the engine firing order starting
with the first cylinder.
Figrn13.2. Determination of torques accumulated on main journals

(a) in-line engine; (b) Vee-type engine
18-0946
The maximum and minimum tangential stresses (in MPa) of the

journal alternating cycle are:
where WTm,-
n
- is d X . [I (=) '1
- 6m.j is t,he journal moment resist-
ing to torsion, m3; d m a j and 6,,, are the journal outer and inner
diameters, respectively, m.
With ,,,t and hi,known, we determine the safety factor of the
main bearing journal by the formulae given in Sec. 10.3. An effective
factor of stress concentration for the design is t'aken with allowance
for an oil hole in the main journal. For rough computations mTemay
assume k,/(~,,e,,,) = 2.5.
The safety factors of the main bearing journals have the following
values:
Carburet tor engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Unsuperchasged diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Supercharged diesel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Design of crankpins. Crankpins are computed to determine their

bending and torsion stresses. Torsion of a crankpin occurs under the
effect of a running-on moment l14,.p,i.Its bending is caused by bend-
ing moments acting in the crank plane M , and in a perpendicular
plane hi!,. Since the maximum values of twisting and bending mo-
ments do not coincide in time, the crankpin safety factors to met
twisting and bending stresses are determined separately and then
added together to define the total safety margin.
The twisting moment acting on the ith crankpin is:
for one-span crankshaft (see Fig. 1 3 . 1 ~and b)
for two-span crankshaft (see Fig. 1 3 . 1 ~and d)
To determine the most loaded crankpin, a diagram is plotted

(see Fig. 13.5) or a table is compiled (Table 13.3) showing accum-
ulated moments for each crankpin.
The associated values of M m m j qare
i transferred into Table 13.3
from Table 13.2 covering accumulated moments , while values of
T,:or Tii are determined against Table 9.6 or 9.15 involved in
the dynamic analysis.
The values of maximum M , and minimum M,.p, min
twisting moments for the most loaded crankpin are determined from
CH. 13. DESIGN O F CRANKSHAFT 275
Table 13.3
2
- cpa
1st crank-
pin
-
2nd crankpin
Mc. P 2 =
i i h crankpin
%a p, i -
-
2
Mc. P l -
-
= X ~ R Mm. j 2 TiR -
- M,. j 2 - ~ ; Mrn.
~
j, i T;R = nfrneii,1 -
- TiR
0
30
and so on
data of Table 13.3. The extremum of the cycle t(angentia1 stresses

(in MPa) are
rrnax = M c . p , i r n a n l w r c . p (13.5)
where W,,,, = - 16
TC
d:., 1 - ~ C . P [ (-)6 c . P '1
is the moment resisting to
crankpin torsion, rn3; d,., and S,., are the outer and inner diameters
of the crankpin, respectively, m.
The safety f a c t o r n , is determined in the same way as in the
case of the main journal, bearing in mind the presence of stress con-
centration due to a n oil hole.
Crankpin bending moments are usually determined by a table
method (Table 13.4).
Table 13.4
. .. 4
rpO T'
2
0
30
and so
on
The bending moment (N m) act,ing on the crankpin in a plane per-

pendicular to the crank plane
M , = T'l/2 (13.7)
where 1 = ( Z m n j + + 2h) is the center-to-center distance of the
main journals, m.
18*
The bending moment (N m) acting on t h e crankpin in the crank

plane
M , = ZL112 Pcwa + (13.8)
where a = 0.5 (I,., +
h ) , m; 2;: = K;,,,+ PEW, Pa.
The values of T' and Kk,t, are determined against Table 9.6 of
the dynamic analysis and entered in Table 13.4.
The total bending moment
Since the most severe stresses in a crankpin occur a t the lip of

oil hole, the general practice is to determine the bending moment.
acting in the oil hole axis plane:
1 7
Po
= &IT sin cp, - cos To (13.10)
where cp, is the angle between the axes of the crank and oil hole
usually located in the center of the least loaded surface of the crankpin.
Angle cp, is usually determined against wear diagrams.
Positive moment generally causes compression a t the lip
of an oil hole. Tension is caused in this case by negative moment M V n -
The maximum and minimum values of iWVn are determined again&
Table 13.4 or by a graphical method directly aiainst the polar diagram
of the load on the crankpin (see Fig. 7.7b) as follows. From point
0,draw O,C parallel with the oil hole axis. Two perpendiculars
to segment O,C that are tangent -to extreme
- points a' and a" of the
polar diagram cut off segments O,D and OcE which to the diagram force
scale are equal to the extremum values of the projections- -
of resultant
.
forces it?,, - OcD =T a px

and I?,,,. to the line 0,C. Therefore,
x sin cp,- K,,#, , ,cos cp, =X ,,,r = R , , ,, and OcE= T,..sin cp, --
- K p ,e,a" cos cp, = R e ,on = RcwominThe moments bending t,he
crankpin (neglecting inertial forces of the counterweights) are
R crp~rnin 1
f i f q o min =- -
2 2
J cp,-M,,ae
= M f i p sin cos cp, (13.12)
CH. 13. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT
where -2 a
M ~ a r(au)--
2 ,
#a ) = (- a m ) and oat?)
illc, =
When use is made of counterweights, moment lTf,, must be added

to the moment occurring due to counterweight i&rt,ial force PC,
and due to its reaction P:,.
By the values of Mpfimaxand M,,i~l thus obtained det.ermine
the extremum values of the bending stxesses in the crankpin:
where W,,,, = 0.5WT,.,.

Bending safety factor n o and total safety factor n,, of the crankpin
are determined by the formulae given in See. iO.3.
Safety factor n,,,
Automobile engines ................. 2 .O-3.0
Tractor engines ................... 3 .O-3.5
The methods of designing the crankpin for a Vee-type engine with,
two connecting rods attached near each other to one crankpin (see
Fig. 13.ld) are similar to the above methods. I n some cases the crank-
pin computations are made for three sections, i.e. by oil holes and by
center section of the crankpin (see Sec. 13.6).
13.4. DESIGN OF CRANKWEBS

The crankshaft webs are loaded by complex alternating stresses:
tangential due to torsion and normal due to bending and push-pull.
Maximum stresses occur where the crankpin fillet joins a crankweb
(section A-A, Fig. 13.lb).
Tangential torsion stresses are caused by a twisting moment
The values of TA,, and Tkin are determined in Table 13.4 or by

curve 2" (see Fig. 7.4). The maximum and minimum tangential st,res-
ses are determined by the formulae:;
where W,, = fibha is the moment resisting to twist.ing the rectan-

gular section of the web. The value of factor fi is chosen, depending
0x1 the ratio of width b of the web design section to its thickness h:
278 P-ART THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
The torsion safety factor n, of t.he web and factors k,, e , and E,,
are determined by the formulae given in Sec. 10.3. I n rough computa-
=
t,ions h . , / ( ~ , e , ~ , ) 2 a t the fil1et.s may be taken for section A-A.
Normal bending and push-pull stresses are caused by bending
moment M b . , , N m (neglecting the bending causing minute stresses
in a plane perpendicular to the crank
ka plane) and push or pull force P,, N :
Mb.w = 0.25 (K + KR + 2 P C w ) LSj
(13.16)
P, = 0.5 ( K K R )+ (13.17)
Extreme values of K are deter-
I
0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 rfil/h mined from the dynamic analysis table
(K and Pew are const,ant), and ma-
Fig- 13-30 160/(~~~,,)versus rfil/h
.~
ximum and minimum normal stresses
are determined by the equations
zmax = M b . m m a r /Wow + P w max/Fw (13.18)
0 ,,in = M b . w rnlnlwow + Pu: rninif'u, (13.19)
where W,, = bh2!6 is the moment of web resistance t,o the bending
effect; F, = bh is the area of design section A-A of the web.
When determining the web safety factor a t normal stresses n ,
the factor of stress concentration in the fillets is defined from the t,a--
bles and graphs given in Chapter X or is taken depending on the ratio
of the radius of the crankpin-t,o-web fillet to t,he web thickness.
Figure 13.3 shows ( versus rjil/h. The total safety margi~i
n, is determined by formula (19.19):
Automobile engines . . . . . . . . . . not less than 2 .O-3.0
Tractor engines . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. .. 3 .O-3.5
13.5. DESIGN OF IX-LINE ENGINE CRANKSHAFT
Referring t o the data of the dynamic analysis, we have: a fully

supported crankshaft (see Fig. 9.5a) with symmetrical throws and
asymmetrically arranged counterweights (see Fig. 13.l a ) ; inertial
force of the counterweight located on the web extension PC, =;
= 13.09 kX; reaction on the support left t80the counterweight Pi,, =
-= -9.75 kN; centrifugal inertial force of rotating masses
K , = -15.91 kX; crank radius R = 39 mm. With allowance for
the relationships set forth in Sec. 13.1 and survey of existing engines,
we assume the following basic dimensions of the crankshaft (see
Fig. 13.ln and b): (1) the main bearing journal has outer diameter
d m j = 50 mm, length E m m j = 28 mm; (2) the crankpin has outer
diameter d,., = 45 mm, length l,., = 28 mm; (3) web design section
279
crankshaft'
A-A has width b = 76 mm, thickness h = 18 mm. The
is of cast iron, grade BZI 40-10. c. 10.3, we
From Table 10.5 and the relationships given in SQ
determine: nventional)
ultimate strength ob = 400 MPa and yield limit (eq
= 300 MPa and r, = 160 MPa; k t push-pull
fatigue limits (endurance) at bending o-, = 150 MPa;
stresses odlp= 120 MPa and a t twisting 7-, = 115 111IC twisting
cycle reductmion factor a t bending a , = 0.4 and ;
a, = 0.6.
By formulae ( 11 , (10.2), (10.3) we determine:
at bending
0-1 150
- 0.5 and 00-a, , - 0.5-0.4 -
- 0.2
Bo=.y=--- 300 1-Po 1-0.5
at twisting
pT=-=--
7-1 115 -0.719
160
and BT--aT -
- 0.719-0.6 - 0.42
Z~ 1- ST 1--0.719
The unit area pressure on the surface

of crankpins
4 0 . 5 MPa
kc.p.m = Rc.p.m/(d,.p16.p)= 11100 x 10-6/(48x 22 x 10-6~F17.5 MPa
kc.pmax= Rc.amaxi(dc,pZ;.I,) = 18 451 x 10-6/(48~ 2 x 210-6)
where R,,., = 11 100 N and R,, , ,, = 18 451 N are -heSet.medium
9.11;
l,.,
'
-
and maximum loads on t'he crankpin, respectively, (seking width
N
Z,, - 2 r i i l= 28 - 2 x 3 = 22 mm is the woraken equal
of the crankpin bearing shell; r t i l is the fillet radius 'l
to 3 mm;
of main bearing- -journals
-
- - 3.8 MPa
k,.,., - R,. ,.,!(d,.,l~. ,) = 4170 x 10-6/(50 x 22 x
4 X =
k m . j max - jlz,j)
- R m amari(dm.
j = 10 770 x 10-6/(50 x 2rl
where - on the 3rd

- R z j , , = 4170 N is the mean load -
journal which is maximum (see Sec. 9.1); R,. j m a x e- p mch. j ais max -
maxi-
= 10 770 N is the maximum load on the 2nd journal whi3 - 22 mm
mum (see Sec. 9.1); E&mj m E m S j - 273, = 28 - 2 X
is the working width of the main bearing shell.
ted torques
The design of a main bearing journal. The acc~mulaj,,~method
twisting the main journals are computed by the graph! 9.2, those
(Fig. 13.4). The values of Mt.,, are taken from TablLgine firing
of - M t . , , i are t,aken with due consideration for the el
order 1-3-4-2.
The moment resisting to main journal twisting

W T m n=j nd&.j/16 = 3.14 x 503 x 10-9/16 = 24.5 x m3
The maximum and minimum tangential stresses of sign-alternat-
ing cycle for the most loaded main journal (No. 4) (Fig. 13.4) which
is act'ed upon by the torque having maximum swing Anlm.l,,,
are as follows:
TmaX -
- M,,3 ma,I/W,,,3 = 527 x 10v6/(24.5 x = 21.5 MPa
T
, = M m a j,I W,,., = -485 x 10b6/(24.5 x = -19.8 MPa
The mean stress and stress amplitudes
7 , = (%ax + 7rnln)/2= (21.5 - 19.8)i2 = 0.85 MPa
T a = (Tmax - Tmin)/2= (21.5+ 19.8)/2 = 20.65 MPa
z,,, = T , ~ ~ / ( E ~ ~ E ~=, , 20.65
) X l.il(0.72 X 1.2) = 26.3 MPa
+ +
where k , = 0.6 [I q (a,, - 1)1 = 0.6 11 0.4 (3.0 - 1)l = 1.1
is the stress concentration factor determined by formulae (10.10)
and (10.12); q = 0.4 is the coefficient of material sensitivity bo the
stress concentration taken by the data in Sec. 10.3; a,, = 3.0 is
the theoretical stress concentration factor determined from Table 10.6
with consideration for an oil hole in the journal; e,, = 0.72 is the
scale factor determined against Table 10.7 a t dm.j=50 mm; E,,,=
= 1.2 is the surface sensitivity factor determined from Table 10.8
with allowance for induction case-hardening to a depth of 2-3 mm.
7, c
Since -
,z
= -
26.3 = 30.9 >
0.85 1-BT
= 0.42, the safety factor of
the main bearing journal is determined by the fatigue limit:

+ +
n~ = T - ~ / ( T , , ~ a,~,) = 115/(26.3 0.6 X 0.85) = 4.3
The design of a crankpin. The accumulated torques of crankpin
torsion are determined graphically (Fig. 13.5). The values of Mc,p,i
are taken against the graphs (see Fig. 13.4) and T'R = $0.5 iWt. c, i
for a one-span symmetrical shaft.
The moment resisting to the crankpin torsion
W,,, = (n/16)d:,* = (3.14116) 483 x 10-O = 21.7 x m3
The maximum and minimum tangential stresses of sign-alternating
cycle for the most loaded 4th crankpin (Fig. 13.5)
%ax = L ~ c . pm,,/WTc~, = 588 x 10-6/(21.7 x 1 0 3 = 27.1 MPa
Tmin = M,, ,In/WTc.p= -420 x 10-6/(21.7 x 10-6) = -19.4MPa
7rnin)/2 = (27.1 - 19.4)/2 = 3.85 MPa
7 , = ( ~ m a x$
7, = h,, - ~,,,)/2= (27.1 +
19.4)/2 = 23.25 MPa
= ~,k,/(~,,e,,,) = 23.25 X 1.1/(0.73 x 1.2) = 29.2 MPa
raqe
ca. i3. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT 281
where k, = 1.1 and E s S , = 1.2 are determined in t,he design of t,he

main journal; EST = 0.73 is the scale factor determined from Table
10.7 at d,., = 48 mm.
Since za.
z,
-c 29.2 = 7.6 >
=-
3.85 1-BT
= 0.42, t-he tangential stress
safety factor is determined by the fatigue limit:
The computation of the moments bending the crankpin is given

in Table 13.5 in which the value of Kbl,,,= -0.5KPl,,, and =
Table 13.5
0
0 s E
8- rn
cpO Ti, N JfT

Nm
9 c
'"
Cn
I
K p , tlil 9
~ 5 N, 0.0462&, MZ,
N m s m
g z
0
fig
$ z f; ;
e
0 0 0 0 +13 706 3-3956 +182.0 +483 -181 -181

30 +2863 +131.7 +I22 +I1595 +I845 +84.9 +386 -145 -23
60 +1636 +75.3 +70 +8419 -1331 -61.2 +240 -90 -20
90 -2249 -57.5 -53 +8323 -1427 -65.6 +235 -88 -141
120 -2118 -97.4 -90 +.10011 -261 3-12.0 +313 -117 -207
150 -1213 -55.8 -52 +I0981 3-1231 +56.6 +358 -134 -186
180 0 0 0 +11 143 +I393 +64.1 3-365 -137 - 137
210 +390 +17.0 +17 +I0981 +1231 +56.6 +358 -134 -117
240 +2118 +97.4 +90 +lo011 +261 +12.0 4 313 -117 -27
270 +I333 +61.3 +57 +8349 -1401 -64.4 +237 -89 1 -32
300 -1244 -57.2 -53 +a309 -1441 -66.3 +235 -88 -141
330 -1767 -81.3 -75 +I0200 3-450 +20.7 +322 -121 -196
360 0 0 0 +.9 156 -594 -27.3 +274 -103 -103
390 -2264 -104.1 -97 -k5080 -4670 -214.8 3-86 -32 -129
420 -1600 -73.6 -68 +7 502 -2248 -103.4 +I98 -74 -142
450 -3004 -138.2 -128 +8841 -909 -41.8 +259 -97 -225
480 -2940 -135.2 -125 $-10811 +I061 +-48.8 $350 -131 -256
510 -1478 -68.0 -63 +11642 +I892 +87.0 j-388 -145 -208
540 0 0 0 3-11537 +I787 +82.2 +383 -143 -143
570 +1249 +57,5 -+53 +11072 $-I322 +60.8 3-362 -136 -83
600 +2176 +100.1 $93 +10 069 $3.19 C14.7 3-316 -118 -25
630 +I328 +61.1 +57 +8347 -1403 -64.5 +237 -89 -22
660 -1600 -73.6 -68 +8397 -1353 -62.2 +239 -90 -158
690 -2816 -129.5 -120 + I 1 530 +I780 +81.9 +383 -143 -263
720 0 0 0 +13 706 3-3956 182.0 + +483 - 181 - 181
-
- -0.5T, are taken from Table 9.6:
M T = Ti112 = Ti0.5 (Z,. + I,, + 2h)
= TiO.5 (28 + +
28 2 x 18) = 0.046 Ti N m
+
q, = 680 (see Fig. 9.10); 26 = KbVc P:, = Kb,, - 9750 N
t.ll, = 2;112 f P,,a = 0.0462; + 13 090 X 0.023
= 0.046 Z t+ 301 X m
a = 0.5 (Z,., +h) = 0.5 (28+ 18) i O - 3 = 0.023 m
MT0 = MT sin cp, - Mz cos cpo
The maximum and minimum normal stresses of asymmetric cycle
on the c,rankpin
max!Woc.p -
omar = ~ u q o - -20 x 10-6/(10.85 x = -1.8 MPa
where W,,, = 0.5WT,., = 0.5 x 21.7 x 10d6= 10.85 x m3

The mean stress and stress amplit.ude
T
(, = (urnaxf om1,)/2 = (-1.8 - 23.6)12 = -12.7 MPa
0, = (omax - am,,)/2 = (-1.8 +
23.6)/2 = 10.9 MPa
1.8
0.76 x 1.2 2 2 1 . 5 MPa
where k , = 1 +- +
q (ac, - 1) = 1 0.4 (3.0 - 1) = 1.8; q = 0.4;
a,, = 3.0 and e,,, = E,,, = 1.2 are det,ermined in the design of
t.he nlain bearing journal; E , , = 0.76 is the scale factor determined
from Table 10.7 a t d,., = 48 mm.
The normal stress safety factor of crankpin is determined by the
fatigue limit (at 0, < 0):
The total safety factor of the crankpin
The design of a crankweb. The maximum and minimum moments

twisting the crankweb
where Tk,, = 2863 N and TLin = -3004 N as det,ermined against

Table 13.5.
CH. 13. DESIGN OF CRAKKSHAFT
Fig. 13.4. Curves of torques accumulated on main bearing journals of a carbu-

rettor engine
M , Nm
Fig. 13.5. Plotting curves of accumulated torques twisting crankpins in a car-

burettor engine
The maximum and minimum tangential stresses of the sign-

alternating cycle of the crankweb
-
- maX/WTw= 65.8
iWtmW. X 10-'/(6.99 x 10-6) = 9.41 MPa
xmin = M t - w . min /W,, = -69.1 x 10d/(6.99 x = -9.89 MPa
ca. 13. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT 285
where W,, = pbh2 0.284 X 76 X 18' x 10-9 = 6.99 x $0-6 m3

=
is the resistance moment of design section A-A (see Fig. 13.1b)
of the crankweb ( y = 0.284 is determined a t blh = 76/18 = 4.2).
zm -
-,,z,( +
zmi,)/2 = (9.41 - 9.89)/2 = -0.48 MPa
70 = ma x - ' h in)/2 = (9.41 + 9.89)/2 = 9.65 MPa
Taic = z,k,/(e,,~,,,) = 9.65 X 0.70/(0.64 X 0.75) = 14.1 MPa
where 12, = 0.6 +
q (a,, - 1)l = 0.6 11 +
0.4 (1.4 - 1)) = 0.70
is the stress concentration factor determined by formulae (10.10)
and (10.12); q = 0.4 is the coefficient of material sensitivity to stress
concentration, as taken by the data in Sec. 10.3; a,, = 1.4 is the
theoretical concentration factor determined against Table 10.6 includ-
ing the stress concentration a t the fillet (the fillet radius is 3 mm)
at rli,lh= 3/18 = 0.17; - 0.64 is the scale factor determined
-
against Table 10.7 a t b = 76 mm; E,, = 0.75 is the surface sensit-
ivity factor determined against Table 10.8 for a not finished crankweb.
The tangential stress safety factor of the crankweb is determined by
the fatigue limit (at T~ < 0):
The maximum and minimum normal stresses of the crankweb
= 0.5 (K,,, + K,) 0.5 (-11 501 - 15 910) = -13 705 N. The
=
values of K,,, and Kml, are taken from Table 9.4.
286 PART THREE. DESIGN O F PRINCIPAL PARTS

om = (om,, f 0,,,)/2 = (28.8 - 23.2)/2 = 2.8 MPa
= (omax - 0,,,)/2 =(28.8 $- 23.2)/2 = 26.0 MPa
%.c = (cr,k,/(~,,e,,,) = 26.0 x 1.16/(0.7 x 0.75) = 57.4 AlPa
+
where k, = 1 q (a,, - 1) = 1 +0.4 (1.4 - 1 ) = 1.16; oc,=
= 1.4; q = 0.4 and E,,, = E,,, - - 0.75 are determined in comput-
ing tangential stresses; e, ,-- 0.70 against Table 10.7 a t b = 76 mm.
Since o,,,/o,=57.4/2.8=20.5 > po-aG/l - pG= 0.2, t,he normal
stress safety factor of the crankweb is determined by the fatigue limit:
The tot'al safety factor of the crankweb
13.6. DESIGN OF V-TYPE ENGINE CRANKSHAFT
On the basis of the dynamic analysis data we have: a crankshaft
of rotating masses K ,
-
.= +
(see Fig. 9.15) with symmetrical throws (see Fig. 13.l d ) and counter-
weights fitted only at the shaft ends; the centrifugal inertial force
K , , 2 K , ,.,=-16.l-l-2
- -37.9 kN; the crank radius R = 60.0 mm.
(-10.9) =
Bearing in mind the relationships given in Sec. 13.1 and the analy-
sis of existing engines, we assume the following basic dimensions
of the crankshaft (see Fig. 13.1b and d): ( I ) the main journal has outer
diameter d m m = j 90 mm, length l m . j = 37 mm; (2) the c,rankpin
has outer diameter d,., = 80 mm, inner diameter a, = 30 mm,
length l,., = 68 mm; (3) the design section ( A - A ) of crankweb
has width b = 130 mm, thickness h = 26 mm; (4) the radius of
fillets rtil = 4 mm.
The crankshaft is of steel, grade 50r.
From Tables 10.2 and 10.4 for the 5 0 r carbon steel we determine:
ultimate strength o b = 800 MPa and yield limit o, = 370 MPa
and T~ = 250 MPa;
fatigue limit (endurance) a t bending o-, = 340 MPa, push-pull
0 - 1 p - 0 . 7 5 ~ - , = 0.75 x 340 = 255 MPa, and at twisbing T - ~=
= 0.53 cr-, = 0.53 x 340 = 180 MPa;
cycle reduction factor a t bending a, = 0.18, torsion a , = 0.08
and push-pull a, = 0.14.
By formulae (10.1), (10.2), (10.3) we determine:
at bending
340
pa =%--=0.919 and
- - 0.919 -0.18
- 9.1
- 370 1-$0 1-0.949 -
at push-pull
p0 = --==0.689
0-1P
- 370 and Po-a, - 0.689-0.14
1-0.689
=1.8
OY 1-Po
a t torsion
T - ~- 180
pT=---=0.72 and pz -a, -
-
0.72 - 0.08
=2.3
T~ 250 I-PT
1- 0.72
The unit area pressure on:
the crankpin
kc.p.rn = Re.p.ml(de.p l;.*)
= 22.9 X 10-3/(80 X 29 X = 9.9 MPa
-
k e . p max - maa/(dc.plf. p )
= 95.2 X 10d3/(80 x 29 x 10-6) = 41.0 MPa
where R,.,., - 22.9 kN and R c o p,,, = 95.2 kK are the mean
and maximum loads on the crankpin, respectively (see Sec. 9.2);
%., = (1/2) Z{,. +
- [2rfil (2-3) mml) = (112) 168 - (2 ~ 4 + 2 ) 1 =
= 29 mm is the working width of one crankpin bearing shell;
the main journal
km2.j.m = R m . j.mi(dm. j)
= 37.5 x 10-3/(90 x 27 x = 15.4 MPa
-
km.j max - Rm.j max/(dm. b. j)
= 58.2 x 10d3/(90 x 27 x = 24.0 MPa
where R m . j . , -
- R,. j 24, = 37.5 kX and R,.
-
ma,-R,. j Elmax =
= 58.2 kN are the mean and maximum loads on the 4th most loaded
journal, respectively (see Sec. 9.2); Lh,j x. ,2 - [ 2 r j i (2-3) mml= ,+
= 37 - (2 X 4
journal bearing shell.
+
2) = 27 mm is the working width of the main
The design of a main journal. Running-on (accumulated) torques
twisting the main bearing journals are given in Table 13.6 i n which
the values of tangential force T are taken from Table 9.11
Fig- 9.10, M,. = 0, the values of M t . e .I , ( and M t m C , , ,being i
taken with consideration for the engine firing order l l - l r - 4 1 - l l -
2r-31-3r-4r and M m S j v i= - h f n l . j ( i - i l
The main journal moment resisting to torsion
+
Mt,c.l(i-1) t J f t . c . r ( i - ~ ) -
WZm, = n d L T j / l 6= 3.14 x SO3 x 10-'/16 = 143 X m3

The maximum and minimum tangential stresses of sign-alter~latillg
cycle for the most loaded 3d journal (see Table 13.6) are as follo\vs:
Tmax = M,. ,,,/W,,. = 2960 x 10-Qi(143 x loy6) = 20.7
'mln = Ilf,.jminiWTmmj = -1180 x 10-'/(I43 x = - 8.3hlPa

T~ = ( ' b a x 4- 7 m l n ) / 2 = (20.7 - 8.3)12 = 6.2 MPa
2nd main journal 3rd main IournaI
E E E E
E E
z z z 2 2
z
. . * W
+ 4
-
CU
u h El Y L
.-,m
.
-
I
0
4
L 6
*-
z G E! o
a
s
-----
0 U
s- 2?
0 o
s. $ i 4 ?z
0 U
0 U
9- f I
0 0 0 630 -320 450 +910

-320 360 0+590
10 10 -400 640 -170 460 +890
-570 370 +I390 +IT10
20 20 -560 650 +I00 470 +860
-460 380 j-1790 q-2190
30 30 -610 660 +-330 480 +770
-280 390 +1900 +2390
40 40 -610 670 -+480 490 f-680
-130 400 +I420 +I970
50 50 -510 680 i-580 500 3-535
+70 410 -11130 +I735
60 60 -330 690 +615 510 -+390
+285 420 -kg85 +I660
70 70 -145 700 +515 520 +260
+370 430 -+890 t i 5 2 0
80 So -+IIO 710 2,70 530 5 1 1 0
+380 440 A880 1-1370
90 90 +315 720 0 540
+315 0 450 f910 $-1225
120 120 --i-520 30 -610 570 -325
-90 480 +710 f-355
150 150 f300 60 -330 600
-30 -520 510 +390 -160
180 480 0 90 +315 630
+315 -320 540 0 -5 I
210 210 -310 120 +520 660 +330
4-210 570 -325 +215
240 240 -555 150 +300 -255
690 f 615 600 -520 -160
270 270 -440 180 0 720
-440 0 630 -320 - 760
300 300 -90 210 -310 -400 30 -610 660 -+330 -680 1
1
330 330 -330 240 -555 -885 GO -330 690 T615
340 340 -320 250 -605 -985 70 4 700 4-515 -555
360 360 0 270 -440 -440 90 +315 720 0 -125
370 370 $-I390 280 -270 +1120 100 -+-445 10 -400 +1165
380 380 -f1790 290 -190 +I600 110 +525 20 -560 -:-I565
390 390 +lgoo 300 -90-+I810 120 +520 30 -610 +I720
420 420 +985 330 -330 $655 150 +300 60 -330 +625
450 450 +glo 360 0+910 180 0 90 +315 4-1225
470 470 -kt360 380 f1790 $2650 200 -215 110 +525 +2960
480 480 +770 390 +I900 +2670 210 -310 120 +520 +2880
510 510 +390 420 +985 f 1375 240 -555 150 +300 +I120
540 540 0 450 -1-910 +910 270 -440 180 0 +470
570 570 -325 480 +770 +445 300 -90 210 -310 4-45
600 600 -520 510 -+go -130 330 -330 240 -555 -1015
610 610 -515 520 +260 -255 340 -320 250 -605 -1180
630 630 -320 540 0 -320 360 0 270 -440 - 760
660 660 +330 570 -325 +5 390 +I900 300 -90 +I815
690 G90 4-615 600 -520 +95 420 +985 330 -330 +750
720 720 0 630 -320 -320 450 +910 3601 0 +59U
4
Table 13.6
4th main journal 5 th main journal
E E E E E
z &
z- . z z
- Z
-* z
m
m
CI.
L d dr
.y
L ;a
m 4
'?
2 0
* .I
2 U b C. 0
0 U
e $ 0 f)
s s' 2 0 U
a Zri 0 U
s $ 2
i
270 -440 180 0 +1!X 540 0 90 +315 3-465

zm -270 190 -105 +I335 550 -120 100 +445 +I660
290 -190 200 -215 +I785 560 -260 110 +525 +2050
300 -90 210 -310 +1990 570 -325 120 3-520 +2185
310 -150 220 -395 3-1425 580 -380 130 +450 +I495
320 -275 230 -485 4-975 590 -450 140 -t360 +885
330 -330 240 -555 +775 600 -520 150 +300 4-555
340 -320 250 -605 +595 610 -515 160 +I75 +255
350 -255 260 -580 4-535 620 -445 170 -t80 +I70
360 2700 -440 +785 630 -320 180 0 +465
390 +I900 300 -90 +2165 660 -+330 210 -310 +2185
420 +985 330 -330 4-495 690 +615 240 -555 3-555
450 +910 360 0 +go5 720 0 270 -440 +465
480 +770 390 +1900 3-2885 30 -610 300 -90 +2185
510 +390 420 +985 3-1215 60 -330 330 -330 3-555
540 0 450 +910 3-150 90 +315 360 0 +465
570 -325 480 +770 -235 120 +520 390 +I900 +2185
600 -520 510 +390 -730 150 +300 420 +985 +555
610 -515 520 +260 -810 160 +I75 430 3-890 +255
630 -320 540 0 -445 180 0 450 +910 1-465
640 -170 550 -120 +875 190 -105 460 -k890 +1660
650 $100 560 -260 +I405 200 -215 470 f860 +2050
€160 $330 570 -325 f1725 220 -310 480 +710 +2185
690 +615 600 -520 +720 240 -555 510 +380 +555
720 0 630 -320 +905 270 -440 540 0 +465
20 -560 650 4-100 +2500 290 -190 560 -260 +2050
30 -610 660 +330 3-2600 300 -90 570 -325 t2185
60 -330 690 +615 +1405 330 -330 600 -520 +555
90 +315 720 0 -+785 360 0 630 -320 +465
IU,+520 30 -610 -45 390 - + i g o ~ 660 +330 $2185
f300 60 -330 -1045 420 +985 690 +615 +555
j60 +I75 70 -145 -1150 430 +890 700 +515 +255
180 0 90 +315 -445 450 3-910 720 0 +465
2 10 -310 120 $520 $2025 4% +770 30 -610 +2185
240 -555 150 +300 +495 510 +390 60 -330 +555
270 -440 180 0 +150 540 0 +315 +465
-
T, = (tmax rm1,)/2 = (20.7 + 8.3)/2 = 14.5 MPa
ta,c 4 . 5 ~1.45/(0.62 X 1.2) = 28.3 MPa
= takr '(esressr ) = 1
where +
k , = 0.6 [1 q (a,, - I)] = 0.6 [+O.'il (3 - l)]= 1.45 is
the stress corlcentration factor determined by formulae (10.10) and
(10.12); q = 0.71 is the coefficient of material sensitivity to stress
concentration, that is determined by the curve of Fig. 10.2 a t ub==
= 800 MPa and a,, = 3; a,, = 3 is the theoretical stress concentra-
tion factor determined from Table 10.6, taking into account an oil
hole in the journal; r,, = 0.62 is the scale factor determined from
Table 10.7 at d m e j = 90 mm; EssT = 1.2 is the surface sensitivity
factor determined from Table 10.8, taking into account induction
hardening of the journals.
7 0 . c - 28.3=4.6>
Since - - =2.3, t h e safety factor of
Zrn 6.2 1-PT
the main journal is determined by the fatigue limit:
The design of a crankpin. The running-on (accumulated) moments

twisting the crankpins are given in Table 13.7 in which the values
of Mna./,i. i l . f j . c . l , i and Mt.e.r,i are taken from Table 13.6, and
Mc.p:i = Mm.j,i
metric shaft .
+ +
0.5 ( J ' f t . c . l , i M i )for a two-span sym-
The moment resisting to twisting the crankpin
The maximum and minimum tangent,ial stresses of a sign-alternat-

ing cycle for t.he most loaded 3d csankpin (see Table 13.7) are as
follows:
Tmaa = 2740 X 10-'/(98.5 x lo-') = 27.8 MPa
Mc.pm,xI W , , , =
= -1165 X 10-6/(98.5 x 10+) = -11.8
rmln= Mc.pnltn/WTe.p MPa
The mean st,ress and stress amplitudes
,
T = (?Gmar + Tm,,)/2 = (27.8 - 11.8)/2 = 8.0 MPa
- ~ , ~ , ) / 2=
7, = (GII~X (27.8+ 11.8)/2 = 19.8 MPa
T,#, = tak,/(~,,e,,,) = 19.8 X 1.45/(0.65 x 0.87) = 50.8 MPa
where k, = 1.45 is determined in the design of the main bearing
journal; E,, = 0.65 is the scale factor determined from Table 10.7
at d,,, = 80 mm; E,,, = 0.87 is the factor of material surface sensi-
tivity to stress concentration as determined from Table 10.8 for
Table 33.7
-
crank-
pin
2nd crankpin 3d crankpin
I 4th crankpin
292 PART THREE. DESIGN OF P R I N C I P A L PXRTS
%heinner surface of the journal (drilling) to which an oil hole is

arought.
- 50*8 -6.3>
since LE--- "-"'=2.6, the tangential stress
Trn 8.0 1-BT
safety factor of the crankpin is determined by the fatigue limit:
The moments bending a crankpin of a two-span crankshaft (see

Pig. 1 3 . l d ) :
in the plane perpendicular to the throw plane for section 1-1
along the oil hole axis
MT(1-11 = Ti (0.51 - c ) = Ti (0.5 x 157 - 17) 10-3
= Ti.0.0615 N m
For center sect ion B-B
0.5X157+17 ,
where Ti --- - (T,Om5:+
0.5 X 1 5 7 - 7 ) 103 +Tr 0'5i-c)= - ( T l 157 t
-3Tr 157 = - (608Tl + 392T,) N; 2 : Zm, j + lc* -+

- $ - 2 h = 3 7 + 6 8 + 2 ~ 2 6 = 1 5 7 mm; ~ = 1 , . ~ / 4 = 6 8 / 4 = 1 7mm.
Since according to the analysis of the polar diagram (see Fig. 9.12)
:and wear diagram (see Fi;. 9.14) it is advisable to make an oil hole
a n the crankpin in a horizontal plane (yo = 90°), and therefore no
computations are made in the throw plane for section I-I and hence
.n!IT0= JfT(p 1 ) ;
.for cell t er sect ion B-B
where AT,, ,-,

M t n ca-sj = M t f B-B) 4- A I t , ,
= Kh-0.51 = K$ x 0.5 x 157 x =
.,
B-B)
- Kkr.O.Eil + K R ,., c = 18.95 x

= 0.0785KH N m; h f t hR( B-B) -
-
x 0.5 x 157 - 10.9 x 1'7 1302 3 m; k-k2 = -0.5KR
- -0.5 (-37.9) = 18.95 kN;
-
-
-
for the computation

moments f i i V o and M
of -
- M+(B-B) +
Mk(B-B), see Table 13.8 in which the values
of gl,
T,, K , and K, are taken from Table 9.14.
The maximum and minimum normal stresses in the crankpin are:
in section 1-1
*max -
- x 10-V(49.2 x
~ ~ o m a x ~ w ~=c . 430
p 8.7 MPa
=
c . p- 1247 x 10-6/(49.2 x
= MQo~ln/Wo= = -25.3 MPa
Table 13.8
where W,,., = 0.5WTC.,= 0.5 x 98.5 x = 49.2 x m3;

in section B-B
The mean stress and stress amplitudes are:

section 1-1
+
where k, = 1 q (a,, - 1) = 1 + 0.71 (3 - 1) = 2.42; the val-
ues of q = 0.71 and a,, = 3 are determined in the design of the main
bearing journal; E , , = 0.69 is the scale factor determined from
Table 10.7 a t d,., = 80 mm; E,,, = 0.87 is the surface sensitivity
factor determined from Table 10.8 for the journal inner surface (dril-
,ling) on which there is an oil hole;
section B-B
o m = (omax T
l
omln)/2= (75.9 +
21.3)/2 = 48.6 MPa
oa = (omax- omin)/2= (75.9 - 21.3)/2 = 27.3 MPa
o,,,= o,k,/(e,,e,,,) = 27.3 x 2.42/(0.69 X 1.2) = 79.8 MPa
where k , = 2.42; E,, = 0.69 (as the case is with section I-I);
E,,, = 1.2 (as the case is wit,h the main journal).
The normal stress safety factor of the crankpin is determined
as follows:
for section 1-1 by the fatigue limit (at T(, (0)
for section B-B by the yield limit, as
The total minimum safety factor of the crankpin for most loaded
section B-B
n,, = n,,n,/vni,+n: =2.88 x 3.50/1/2.88~+3.502= 2.22
CH. i3. DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT 295
The design of a crankweb. The maximum and minimum moments

twisting the crankweb
The maximum and minimum tangential stresses of crankweb sign-

alternating cycle
- Mt.w max /W,, = 220 x 1OP6/(25.66 x
Tmax - = 8.6 MPa
zmln= M t S wmln/Wrm-- -639 X 10-6/(25.66 x 10-6) = -24.9 MPa
where WT, = 6bh2 = 0.292 x 130 x 262 x 10-9 = 25.66 x 10-"is
the crankweb moment of resistance, rn" 8 = 0.292 is determined by
the data in Sec. 13.4 a t blh = 130/26 = 5.0.
The mean stress and stress arnplit,udes
T, = (T
, +
tmln)/2= (8.6 - 24.9)12 = -8.15 MPa
7, -
- ( T -~7cmin)/2
~ = ~ (8.6+ 24.9)/2 = 16.75 MPa
T,,, = T,~~/(E,,E,,,) = 16.75 x 0.75/(0.57 x 0.7) = 31.5 MPa
+- +
where k, = 0.6 [1 q (a,, - I ) ] = 0.6 [1 0.6 (1.4 - 1)l =0.75
is the stress concentration factor det,ermined by formulae (10.10)
and (10.12); q = 0.60 is the factor of material sensitivity to stress
concentration as determined from the curve (see Fig. 10.2) at ob =
= 800 MPa and a,, = 1.4; a,, = 1.4 is the theoretical concentra-
tion factor determined from Table 10.6 a t r f i , / h = 4/26 = 0.15;
e,, = 0.57 is the scale factor determined from Table 10.7 a t b =
= 130 mm; E,,, = 0.7 is the surface sensitivity factor determined
from Table 10.8 for unfinished web where it transforms into the fillet.
The tangential stress safety factor of the crankweb is determined
by the fatigue limit (at 7, < 0 )
The maximum and minimum normal stresses of the crankweb

0 Xmas = M b . w m a s l w o w +Pw maJFw
= 602 x 10-6/(14.6 x +(32 550 x 10-6)/(3380 X lo-')
= 50.9 MPa
where fi1b.u-msx = 0-25 ( K =mar +K R 2) 1rnol = 0.25 (103 000 -

- 37 900) x 37 x lom3= 602 N m; fLfhaw ,in - 0*25 ( K x ,in $
+ K , ), l,,, = 0.25 (-2'7 100 - 37 900) x 37 X loe3 =
-
- -601 N nl; P, ,ax = 0.5 ( K x,, + K R E) = 0.5 (103 000 -
- 37 900) = 32 550 N; Pu. mlo - 0.5 ( K , ni, + K R z )=
,
= 0.5 (-27 100 - 37 900) = -32 500 K; K ma, - 103 kN =
= 103 000 N and K ,,
-
- - 27.1 kN = -27 100 N are taken
from Table 9.14; W,, = bh2/6 = 130 x 262 x 10mg/6= 14.6 x
x m3 F , = bh = 130 x 26 x = 3380 x m2.
0, = (o,,, +
0,,,)12 = (50.9 - 50.8)/2 = 0.05 MPa
0, = (omax - amin)/2= (50.9 + 50.8)/2 = 50.85 MPa
+
wherek, = 1 q (a,, - 1) = 1 +0.6 (1.4 - 1) = 1.24; q = 0.6;
a,, = 1.4 and E,,, = css, = 0.7 are determined in computing tan-
gential stresses; ,&, = 0.62 is determined from Table 10.7 a t b =
= 130 mm.
Since - 0, c
om
- 145 =2900> Po-aa 1 9 . 1 , the normal stress
-- 0.05 1-Po
safety factor is determined by the fatigue l i m i t
The total safety factor of the crankweb
Chapter 14
DESIGN O F ENGINE STRUCTURE
14.1. CYLINDER BLOCK AND UPPER CRANKCASE
In most modern automobile and tractor engines the cylinder

block and crankcase are combined into a single unit, this generally
being termed monoblock unit. The monoblock is the basic part, every
other engine part is arranged inside the monoblock or attached to i t .
When the engine is operating the monoblock resists to corlsiderable
dynamic and heat loads. The method of transmitting gas pressure
forces through the cylinder block elements determines the power
CH. 14, DESIGN OF ENGINE STRUCTURE 297
scheme of the monoblock unit. Most popular with modern automobile

and tractor engines are the following power schemes: a construction
with a load-carrying cylinder block, with a load-carrying wat,er-
jacket block and with load-carrying studs.
With a load-carrying cylinder block the gas pressure forces are
transferred via the cylinder head to the cylinders and water jacket?
which comprise a single casting. The cylinder head is claniped to
the monoblock structure by means of studs or setbolts screwed into
the cylinder block.
With a load-carrying water-jacket block the gas pressure forces
extend axially only the water jacket, and the cylinder liners stand
up only to the radial pressure of gasses. The cylinder heads are attached
to the monoblock unit with the aid of studs screwed into the water-
jacket block body.
With an engine block structure having load-carrying studs, the
gas pressure is t'ransferred to the studs which tighten the cylinder
head and the cylinder together. Generally, long studs are passed
through the cylinder head and cylinder block and sc.rewed into the
upper crankcase.
In air-cooled engines, use is made generally of two load-carrying
structures comprising a cylinder head, cylinder and crankcase. These
are structures with load-carrying st,uds and load-carrying cylinder.
In the former structure the load-carrying studs clamp together
the cylinder head and the cylinder, the studs being screwed int.0 the
crankcase. I n the latter case, the cylinder is secured to the crankcase
by means of short studs or bolts, Ghile the cylinder head is screwed
onto the cylinder or attached to i t with the a a of short load-carrying
studs.
The monoblock structure must be of high strength and rigidity.
The monoblock rigidity is improved on account of ribbing its bulk-
heads, use of a tunnel crankcase, positioning the plane of the joint
between the crankcase upper and lower parts below t,he parting plane
of the main bearings, and other measures of this kind.
The monoblock structure is generally made of cast iron, grade.
C944, CY40, C915-32 and CY32 and also of aluminum alloys ACJ4
and C3-26 (silumin).
The structural features and dimensions of a monoblock u n i t
are usually dictated by the engine application, operating conditions
and output power. The bulkheads of a cast-iron cylinder blocli and
walls of water jacket are generally not more than 4-7 mm thick, whilst
the thickness of the bulkheads in t,he upper part of the crankcase lies
within 5-8 mm. I n an aluminum monoblock structure the wall thick-
ness is 1-3 mm greater.
One of the most important structural figures of the monoblock
unit is the ratio of distance Lo between the axes of adjacent cylinders
to cylinder bore B. The value of L,/B is characteristic of the engine
298 P A R T THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
conlpactness in length. I t is dependent on the engine arrangement,

construct.ion and t,he length of main bearings, and also on the dimen-
sions of crankpins,type of cylinder liners and other structural factors.
Ratios of L,/B for monoblock structures of various water- and air-
engines are given in Table 14.1.
Table 14.1
Engine design I Carburettor

engine / Diesel engine
In-line engine with dry liners, the main sliding 1.20-1.24 -

bearings being arranged every other two cylin-
ders (two-span crankshaft)
In-line engine with one-span crankshaft and sli- 1.20-1.28 1.25-1.30
ding bearings
Vee-engine with connecting rods subsequently 1.33 1.47-1.55
arranged on a crankpin and with sliding bea-
rings
Engines with roller bearings used as the main 1.30 1.30
bearings
Air-cooled engines 1.15-1.36 -
The strength computation of the monoblock structure is very diff-

icult with regard to determining acting forces due to i t s intricate
configuration and is not given herein.
14.2. CYLINDER LINERS
The cylinder liners are the most loaded parts of an engine., They
resist to the stresses due to the action of gas pressures, side pressure
of the piston, and heat stresses. The severe conditions under which
cylinder liners operate necessitate utilization of high-duty alloyed
cast iron, grades CY 28-48 and Cr3: 35-56 or nitrated steel, grade
38XMK)A for their production.
The basic design dimensions of cylinder liners are defined, b,earing
in mind the necessity of obtaining the required strength and ri.gidity
preventing cylinder ovalization during engine assembly and opera-
tion. Thickness lSl of a cast iron liner wall is generally defined by
experimental data.
The thickness of a liner wall chosen during the design is checked
by the formula used for computing cylindrical vessels:
where B is the cylinder bore (diameter), mm; cr, is the perrr~issible

extension stress (o, = 50-60 MPa for cast iron bushings, o, = 80-100
CH. f4. DESIGN O F ENGINE STRUCTURE 299
MPa for steel bushings); p , is the gas pressure at the end of combus-
tian, MPa.
In strength
- computations we define stresses only due to basic loads
such as maximum gas pressure, and temperature gradient in the
liner wall.
The most dangerous load is the maximum combustion pressure
P z max causing extension stress along the cylinder element and its
circular section (Fig. 14.1).
The extension stress o,,
caused by gas pressure is
determined by an appro-
ximate relationship which
does not include nonunifor-
mity of stress distribut,ion
in the liner thickness:
oex = P z m a x ~ i ( 2 ,)6 (14.2)
where p , ,,, is the maxi-
mum gas pressure conyen- Fig. 14.1. Design diagram of a cylinder
tionally referred to the liner
piston a t B.D.C., MPa;
B is the cylinder bore, mm; 6 l is the cylinder liner wall thick-
ness, mm.
The permissible stresses (T, for cast iron liners of cylinders vary
from 30 to 60 MPa and for steel liners from 80 to 120 MPa.
The extension stress a t the liner circular section
f
oex = Pz max B446 I ) (14.3)
The value of oix is determined mainly for load-carrying liners
of air-cooled engines in which cylinder element ruptures are less
probable because of the walls reinforced by ribs.
The stresses caused by normal force Nma, acting on the load-
carrying liner (see Fig. 14.1) are usually determined in engines with
separate cylinders applied a t the center of the piston pin
The bending moment of force N,,,
where N,,, is the maximum value of the normal force determined

from the dynamic analysis, MN; a is the distance from the piston
pin axis to T.D.C., mm; b is the distance from the piston pin axis
t o B.D.C., mm.
The bending stress
~b = iWbiW (14.5)
where W is the resistance moment of the liner transverse section, m3:
300 PzlRT THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
D,and D are the outer and inner diameters of the cylinder liner, m.
The total stress due to extension and bending in the walls of a load-
carrying cylinder
,
With cast-iron liners the value of CJ should not exc.eed 60 hIPa,
and with steel liners 110 MPa.
During engine opera tion, there occurs a substantial temperature
difference between the outer and inner surfaces of the liner, that,
causes heat stresses
where E is the modulus of material elasticity, hlPa (E = 2.2 x lo5

for steel and E = 1.0 x lo5 for cast iron); a , is the coefficient of
linear expansion ( a , = 11 x 1/IC for cast iron); AT is the
temperature difference, I< (according to experimental data AT = 100
t o 150 for the top portion of the liner); p is Poisson's ratio (p = 0.25
to 0.33 for steel, y = 0.23 to 0.27 for cast iron).
The extension stresses on the liner outer surface are associated
with the plus sign and the compression stress on the inner surface,
with the minus sign.
The total stresses due to the gas pressure and temperature dif-
ference are:
on the outer surface of the cylinder liner
on the inner surface

W
Ox = Dex 6t
The total stress 0;: in a cast iron liner should not exceed 100
to 130 blPa, and 180 to 200 hIPa in a steel liner.
The design of a cylinder liner for earburettor engine. On the basis
of heat analysis we have: cylinder bore B = 78 mm, maximum corn-
bustion pressure p , ,
,, -- p,, = 6.195 MPa at n = nt = 3200 rpm.
The cylinder liner is made of cast iron: a , = II x f/K:
E = 1.0 x i05 MPa and y = 0.25.
The thickness of cylinder liner wall is taken 6 l = 6 mm.
The design thickness of the liner wall
where o , = 60 MPa is the permissible extension stress for cast iron.

The liner wall thickness is chosen with certain safety margin,
as 61 > 6 1 . d .
CH. 14. DESIGN OF ENGINE STRUCTURE 301
The extension stress in the liner due t o the maximum gas pressure
O ~ =
X PzmarB/(261)= 6.195 X 78/(2 X 6) = 40.3 MPa
The temperature stresses in the liner
= ( E a , A T ) / [ 2 (1 - p)I = (1.0 X i05 x 11 x 10-6 x 12011
x [2 (1 - 0.25)l = 88 MPa
where AT = 120 K is a temperature difference between the outer
and inner surfaces of the liner.
The total stresses in the liner caused by the gaspressure and
temperature difference are:
on the outer surface
(5; = a,, + a t = 40.3 + 88 = 128.3 MPa
on the inner surface
05 = oex- ut = 40.3 - 88 = -47.7 MPa
The design of a cylinder liner for diesel engine. From the heat
analysis made we have: cylinder bore B = 120 mm, maximum
pressure a t the end of combustion p , = p , , ,, - 11.307 MPa a t
n = n N = 2600 rpm, the cylinder liner is made of cast iron, a , = 11
x 1/K, E = 1.0 X lo5 MPa and p = 0.25.
The cylinder liner wall thickness is chosen 6 l = 14 mm.
The design thickness of the liner wall
+- ~ )I ]
( J1~ . 3 ~ -
6,. d = 0 . 5 ~ ; [ 1 / ( 0 ~O . ~ J I ~ ) / (-
+
= 0.5 x 120 [1/(60 0.4~11.307)/(60- 1.3 x 11.307) - 11= 11.4 mm
where a, = 60 MPa is the permissible extension stress for cast iron.
The liner wall thickness is chosen with certain safety margin,
a s 61 > 6 1 . d .
The extension stress in the liner due to maximum gas pressure
G e x = P ~ ~ ~ ~= B 11.307
I ( X~ 120/(2~ ~ x) 14) = 48.5 MPa
The temperature stresses in the liner
o g = (Ea,AT)/[2(1 - p)] = (1.0 X 105 X 11 X
x 110)/[2 (1 - 0.25)l = 80.7 MPa
where AT = 110 K is the temperature difference between the inner
and outer surfaces of the liner.
The total stresses in the liner caused by gas pressure and tempera-
ture difference are:
on the outer surface
oi = a,, + a t = 48.5 + 80.7 = 129.2 MPa
, on the inner surface
on = T,(, - ot = 48.5 - 80.7 = - 32.2 MPa
14.3. CYLIKDER BLOCK HEAD
The cylinder bloc,k head is a part of complicate configuration
whose const,ruction and principal dimensions are dependent on t,he
size of the inlet and exhaust valves, spark plugs, fuel injectors, cyl-
inders and shape of t.he combust:ion chamber. I n the liquid-cooled
automobile and tract,or engines t.he cylinder heads are usually cast.
in one piece for one cylinder bank. In the air-cooled engines use is
made of individual cylinder heads or heads joining two adjacent
cylinders.
The cylinder heads are operating under the effect of severe altem-
ating loads and high temperatures causing drastic stresses. As a re-
sult of int,ricate structural shapes dependent on various factors, and
also because of the fact that not all the
forces acting upon the cylinder head can
be exactly taken into account, the design
of the head is to a certain extent arbi-
trary. In this connection, experimental
data are widely utilized in the practice
X X of t,he engine building industries for
designing cylinder heads and defining
their principal dimensions.
The material for manufact,uring cylin-
der heads must be of a high st,rengt,h to
stand eit,her mechanical or heat loads.
Fig. 14.2. Design diagram of These requirements are better met by
the cylinder head of an air- aluminum alloys A 0 5 and grey cast
cooled engine irons CY 15-32 and C428-48 with alloy-
ing additives. I n air-cooled engines
t,he cylinder heads are fabricated from alloys AC9, AJI5 and AK4.
The cylinder block head must be rigid enough to prevent distortion
of t,he valve seat,s and other parts of the cylinder head in the engine
operat'ion. The cylinder head rigidity is ensured on account of proper
selec,tion of the head basic dimensions.
Thickness 6 h of the head lower support wall and thickness 61
of water jacket walls for engines with a cylinder bore B to 150 mrn
can be det.ermined by the following rough ratios:
.........
Carburettor engines Sh=0.09 B mrn
Diesel engines............ 6 h= (1.5+0.09 B ) mm
A11 engines .............. S j = ( 2 . 2 + 0 . 0 3 B ) mm
When use is made of aluminum alloys, the wall t,hickness is accord-

ingly increased by 2-3 mm.
I n air-cooled engines individual cylinder heads are computed to
prevent rupture a t section x-z (Fig. 14.2).
cH.14. DESIGN OF ENGINE STRUCTURE 303.
The rupture stress

or P r mar/FJr-x
where P, ma, = p , ,,,nB:/4 is the design rupture force, hlN; Fay-,.
= n (g:- B:)J4 is the design sectional area, m2.
Rupture stress a, varies within t,he limits 10 to 15 MPa. The
low values of permissible stresses are because of high heat loads ap-
pearing during t'he engine operation, which are not included in for-
mula (14.11).
14.4. CYLINDER READ STUDS

The purpose of the stmudsis to join the head to the monoblock struc-
ture (Fig. 14.3). They resist to the action of preloading forces, gas
pressure and loads arising due to temperature differences and coeffi-
cients of linear expansion of the cylinder
head, monoblock and stud materials. The
number of studs, their dimensions and
preloading must provide reliable sealing of
the joint between the cylinder head and the
cylinder block under all operating condi-
t ions.
The material for fabricating studs in car-
burettor and diesel engines is carbon steels
of high limit of elasticity and high alloy I
steels (18XHMA, 18XHBA, IOXHBA, Fig. 14.3. Design dia-

40XHMA and others). The use of materials gram of a stud
with a high limit of elasticity makes for
reduction of permanent set arising in engine operation, which ensu-
res good seal of the cylinder head-to-cylinder block joint.
In the nonworking state and in a cold engine the cylinder head
studs are loaded by the force of preloading P,, which by experimental
data is taken in the form of the following approximate relationship:
where n is the stud tight.ening coefficient; x

is t,he coefficient of
main load of a t,hreaded joint; Pi,,, is the combustion gas force
per stud, MN.
The value of m varies wit,hin the limits of 1.5 t,o 2.0 and in-
creases to 5 and more in a joint with gaskets.
The main load coefficient of a threaded joint*
* This is for monoblock structures with a load-carrying cylinder block and.

load-carrying water-jacke t block.
where K g , K , and K h stand for pliability of the gasket, stud and

cylinder head, respectively.
I n automobile and tractor engines the value of x
varies within
the limits of 0.15 to 0.25.
When the engine is operating, in addition t,o the preloading force
the cylinder head studs resist the estension force of gas pressures
.attaining their maximum in combustion.
The combustion gas pressure per stud
man = P z rnarpc/is
where p , , ,, is the maximum pressure of combustion, MPa;
PC is the projection of the combustion chamber surface to a plane
perpendicular to the cylinder axis, mZ; is is the number of studs
per cylinder.
For bottom valves F,IF, = 1.7 to 2.2; for overhead valves
F c / F p = 1.1 to 1.3, where F p is the piston area.
Preloading forces expand the studs and compress the parts being
clamped together. During the engine operation the gas pressure
force resulting from combustion adds to the expansion of the
studs and compression of the cylinder head.
With consideration for force AP, the total force expanding the
stud
Using the values of pliability of the stud and the parts being
joined. equation (14.15) may be transformed to the form:
p,, -Ppl
ma, - + xP: max
The minimum force expanding the stud

Pe2 rnln = P p l
P e x min = m (1 X) Pi m a r
With a cylinder head and a monoblock structure made of allurni-
num alloys, additional heat stresses appear in the steel studs when
the engine is operating. These-stresses occur with an increase in the
temperature because of the difference in the coefficients of linear es-
pansion in the materials of studs and parts being clamped together.
Heat strain of the parts adds to the pressure in t,he joint and to the
stud load.
The force expanding the stud
P t = (a,AThh - % A T J , ) f ( K h K,) + (14.18)
where a h and a, is the coefficient of linear expansion of the head
a n d stud materials, a, = 11 x l1K for steel and ah = 22
x 40-6 1/K for aluminum alleys; A T h and ATs is an increase in
the head and stud temperature, K (in liquid-cooled engine with
steady heat condition, we may assume A T h = AT, = 70 t o 80 K);
l h is the cylinder head height, rnP; l a is the design length of the stud (it
is assumed to be equal to the tlistance from the bottom face of the
nut to the last thread turn screwed into the cylinder block), a m ;
K n and K , is the pliability ~f the cylinder head and stud.
With a stud having a unifdrm cross-sectional area
K s z~ ls/(EFo) (14.19)
where I s is the design length of the stud, mm; E is the modulus of
elasticity of the stud rnateriql ( E = 2-2 X lo5 MPa for steel);
Po is the cross sectional area of the stud, mm2.
With the cylinder head
Kh 2 ld(EFh) (14.20)
where l h is the cylinderhead height, mm; E is the modulus of elastic-
ity of the head material ( E = 7.3 X fO4 MPa for aluminum alloys);
F , is the head cross-sectional area Per stud, mma.
For the case under consideration the stud expanding force
P,, ,ax = P,, + X ~ maxI f Pt
PC, ma, = m (1 --X);'2 ma, + ma. + Pt } (14.21)
The minimum expanding fo fee
Because of complex computations of force Pi, it may be neglected

in the preliminary analysis.
The and minimuro stresses in the stud are determined
by the smallest section of the s$em and by the thread bottom diam-
eter (&$Pa):
where F , is the smallest cross~sectionalarea of the stud, m2;Fob

is the stud cross-sectional area taken by the thread bottom diarne-
ter, m2.
The amplitudes and mean s$~essesof the cycle (MPa)
The stud safety factor is determined by the equations given in

Set. 10.3. The stress factor (k,) is determined by for-
20-0946
mula (10.10), taking into account the type of concentrator a n d ma-

terial properties. The permissible safety factors vary within t9he
limits: n , = 2.5 to 4.0 and n,, = 2.5 to 2.5.
The design of a cylinder head stud for carburettor engine. On the
basis of the heat analysis we have: cylinder bore B = 78 mm. piston
area F , = 0.004776 m2, maximum combustion pressure p , , ,,
-
- p,, = 6.195 MPa at n = n , = 3200 rpm. The number of studs
per cylinder is = 4, stud nominal diameter d = 12 mm, thread pitch
t = 1 mm, stud thread bottom diameter d b = d - 1.4t = 12 - 1.4
x 1 = 10.6 mm. The stud material is steel, grade 305.
Determined from Tables 10.2 and 10.3 for 30X alloy steel are:
ultimate strength o b = 850 MPa, yield limit cry = 700 MPa
and fatigue limit a t push-pull o, = 260 MPa;
cycle reduction factor a t push-pull a , = 0.14. By formulae (10.1),
(10.2), (10.3) we determine:
The projection of the combustmionchamber surface to a plane perpen-

dicular to the cylinder axis with overhead valves:
The gas pressure force per stud
The preloading force
where m = 3 is the stud tightening coefficient for joints with gaskets;

x = 0.2 is the main load coefficient of the threaded joint.
The t.otal force expanding the stud, regardless force P t
P e x max = Ppl + +
xP:mgx - 0.0213 0.2 x 0.00887 = 0.02307 M N
The minimum force expanding the stud
The maximum and minimum stresses occurring in the stud

omax
-
-
P e x rnax - P,ze xd$/4
,
- 3.140.02307
max -
x 0.01062/4= 2'61 MPa
Fob
Omin - P e x rnin
Fob
-
- Pex min
nd 3 4
-
-
0.0213
3.14 X 0.01062j4
=24i &:Pa
where F o b = n d i / 4 is the stud cross-sectional area by the t,hrea.d
bottom diameter, ma.
CH. 14. DESIGN OF ENGINE STRUCTURE
The mean stress and cycle amplitude
om = (omas + +
omin)/2= (261 241)/2 = 251 MPa
0, = (om,, - 0min)/2 = (261 - 241)/2 = 10 MPa
The value of o,,, = ~ , k , / ( ~ , ~ , ,=) 10 x 3.22/(0.98 x 0.82)

-- 40 MPa
+ +
= 4.0 is determined from Table 10.6; q -
where k, = 1 q (a,, - 1) = 1 0.74 (4.0 - 1) = 3.22; a,,
0.74 is taken fromFig. 10.2
a t o b = 850 MPa and a,, = 4.0; 8, = 0.98 as found in Table 10.7
at d = 12 mrn; e,, = 0.82 as per Table 10.8 (rough turning).
(Ja,c - -=0.159
40
< 1-Pa =0.369 the stud safety factor
Since - c,r - 251
is determined by the yield limit:
The design of a cylinder head stud for diesel engine. On the basis
of the heat analysis we have: cylinder bore R = 120 mm, piston
area F, = 0.0113 m2, maximum pressure at the end of combustion
p, = p,,,= 11.307 MPa at n , = 2600 rpm, number of studs per cyl-
inder is = 4, stud nominal diameter d = 20 m m ; thread pitch
~ d - 1.4t = 20 - 1.4
t = 1.5rnm, stud thread b ~ t t o m d i a m e t e r d=
x 1.5 = 17.9 mm, the stud is made of 18XHBA steel.
Determined against Tables 10.2 and 10.3 for 18XHBA alloy steel
are:
ultimate strengt,h a, = 1200 MPa, yield limit o, = 1000 MPa,
fatigue limit a t push-pull o-,, = 380 MPa;
the cycle reduction factor a t push-pull a , = 0.22.
By formulae (10. I ) , (10.2), (10.3) we determine:
The projection of the combustion chamber surface to the plane

perpendicular to the cylinder axis with overhead valves
The gas pressure force per stud

pi,,, = p,,,,F,li, = 11.307 x 0.0141314 = 0.0399 MN
The preloading force
where m = 3.5 is the stud tightening coefficient for joints with

gaskets; x = 0.22 is the main load coefficient of the threaded joint.
'I'he total force expanding the stud regardless force P t
P,,,,, = P,, + xP:,,, = 0.109 + 0.22 x 0.0399 = 0.1178MN
20 *
308 P-.lRT THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
The minimum force expanding the studs

Pexmin = P P r = 0.109 MN
The maximum and minimum stresses occurring in the stud
omin
P e x min -
- P e x min -
-
0.109
-433.3 MPa
Fob nd;/4 3.14 x 0.01792/4
where F o b = ndEi'4 is the s t ~ dcross-sect.iona1 area by the thread

bot.t,om diameter, m2.
The mean stress and cycle amplitude
%I = (CJD~X + (r,,,)/2 = +
(468.3 433.3)/2 = 450.8 MPa
(5, = (omax - (rm1,)12 = (468.3 - 433.3)/2 = 17.5 MPa
The value
0a.c = 17.5 x 3.85/(0.9 x 0.82) = 91.3 MPa
o,k,/(e,e,,) =:
where -+
le, = 1 + q (a,,- 1) = 1 0.95 (4.0 - 1 ) = 3.85; a,,
= 4.0 is determined from Table 10.6; q = 0.95 as per Fig. 10.2
a t crt, = 1200 hlPa and a,, = 4.0; E, = 0.9 as taken from Table 10.7
a t d = 20 mm; E , ~ , = 0.82 is determined from Table 10.8 (rough
turning).
.
Since cr,,,/o, = 91.3/450.8=0.2025 < (P - a ,)/(I - P ), =0.258,
the stud safety factor is determined by the yield limit
Chapter 15
DESIGN OF VALVE GEAR
In the existing automobile and tractor engines the air-fuel mixture

is let into the cylinder and the burned gases are let out by the valve
gears available rnairlly in two types: a bottom valve gear and an
overhead valve gear. Most of the modern engines are an overhead
valve type.
When designing a valve gear our best must be done to fully satisfy
two opposing requirements: (1) to obtain maximum passages pro-
viding good filling and cleaning the cylinder, and (2)to minimize the
mass of the valve gear moving parts to reduce inertial stresses.
CH. 15. DESIGN OF VALVE GEAR 309
The design of a valve gear is started with determining passages in

valve seat F , and t'hroat F t , , (Fig. $5.1).The passage area in a valve
is determined, provided the inc,ompressible gas flow is continuous, bu
a conventional average velocity in the
seat section a t the maximum valve ---- dc
lift a t the nominal engine speed:
>
F = v P F pw i n ) (15.1) c,
where v
p';"vis the pis t,on average t 4i
. i
speed, m s F p is the piston area, crn2; 4 di5 -

i, is the number of similar valves; roi,L
is the gas velocity in the valve passage Fig. 15.1. Design diagram of a
section (with an intake valve it, must valve flow section
be equal to or less than the velocity
taken in the heat analysis, when determining pressure losses a t
the inlet A ) , m/s.
The passage section in the throat should not limit the intake
(exhaust) passage route capacity. Since the valve stem is t.hreaded
through the valve throat, its area is generally taken as F t h r = (1.1
to 1.2) F,. The throat diameter (in mm) is
The maximum throat diameter is limited by the possibility of arran-

ging the valves in the cylinder block head with cylinder bore B pre-
scribed, design scheme of valve timing and type of combustion cham-
ber. In view of this, the value of d t h r of the intake valve obtained by
formula (15.2) should not exceed:
d t h , = (0.38 to 0.42.) B with bottom valve engines;
d t h r = (0.35 to 0.52) B with overhead valve engines, including:
d t h , = (0.35 to 0.40) B for swirl-chamber and antechamber diesel
engines;
d t h , = (0.38 to 0.42) B for direct-injection diesel engines;
,,
d t = (0.42 to 0.46) B for wedge-section and lozenge-cornbust,ion
chambers;
d t h r = (0.46 t o 0.52) B for engines with hemispherical combustion
chambers.
The diameters of exhaust valves are generally 10 to 20% less t,han
dthr 0f intake valves.
The passage section of a valve with conical seat (see Fig. 15.1)
at current valve lift h, is
F , = ah, (dfh r cos + h, sin a C O S ~U ) (15.3)
where d t h r = d l is the throat diameter equal to the small diameter
of the valve seat cone (at d t h r > dl, area F , is determined by the
340 P21RT THREE. DESIGN O F PRINCIPAL PARTS
formulae for two sect,ions of valve lift), cm; a is the valve conical
seat angle. I n modern engines a = 45' for exhaust valres, or = 45'
and sometimes a = 30" for inlet valves:
F , = 2.72dth,h, + 1.18h: c~n%t, a = 30' (15.4)
F , = 2.22dt,,,h, +l . l l h t cm%t a = 45' (5.5)
I
The maximum valve lift (in cm) wit,h known values of F , and a is
determined from equations (15.4) and (15.5):
The maximum valve lift varies within h, , ,, = (0.18 to 0.30) d t h r

in automobile engines and h, , ,, -- (0.16 t o 0.24) d t h r in tractor
engines. W i t h angle a = 45" use is made of a higher value of h,.,,,
The defined values of throat diameter and amount of valve lift,
are finally checked, as also the timing phases chosen i n the heat anal-
ysis, by conventional veloc,it.y mi', of flow determined by the integral
passage area in t,he valve seat,.
t2
As integral area (time-section)
5
ti
F , dt is determined against the
valve l i f t diagram F, = F (t)within t'he time t'he valve takes t o move
from T.D.C. (or B.D.C.) to B.D.C. (or T.D.C.), o;, is found after
the cam profile has been defined and the valve lift curve plotted.
13.2. C.AM PROFILE CONSTRUCTION
Instantaneous opening and closing of a valve allow us to obtain

a maximum time-section. However, even small masses of the valve
gear parts lead to heavy inertial forces. I n view of this, during the
design of the valve gear, choic,e is made of such a cam profile t h a t the
cylinder can be properly filled, while the inertial forces involved are
tolerable.
The cam profile is usually constructed in compliance with the chosen
law of profile formation in order t o obtain cams relatively simple t o
manufacture.
Riodern tractor and automobile engines employ the following types
of cams: convex, tangential, concave and harmonic.
Figure 15.2 shou-s the most popular cams.These are a convex cam
(Fig. 13.2a), the profile being formed by two arcs having radii r, and
r, and a tangential carn (Fig. f 5.2b) whose profile is formed by means
of two straight lines tangential to the base circle of r,, a t points
A and A' and an arc having radius r,.
The conves profile cam mag be used for lifting a flat, convex or
roller follower. The tangential profile cam is mainly used for roller
followers.
The cam profile is constructed starting with a base circle. Its
radius ro is chosen to meet the requirement of providing ellollgh
Fig. 15.2. Constructing a c,am profile
rigidity of the valve gear within the limit,s r, = (1.5 to 2.5) h, , ,,

and up to r , = (3 to 4) h, ,,, for supercharged engines.
The value of camshaft angle cpcsh0 is determined according t o select.-
ed valve timing. For four-stroke engines
where cp, is the advance angle; rp,, is the angle of retarded closing.
Points A and A' are the points at which the valve starts its opening
and completes its closing. Point B is found by the value of maximum
follower lift hf.,, Neglecting lost motion, if any, hf, ,, = h, ,,,
for bottom valve engines, while with overhead valve engines and the
use of a finger or rocker himas -- h, ,,, l f / l , , where i f and 1, are the
length of rocker arms adjacent to the follower and valve, respec-
tively. The ratio lt/l, is chosen proceeding from design and varies
within 0.50 to 0.96.
To plot the cam profile (see Fig. 15.2) by chosen or specified values
of hfmar and r,, a value of r, (or r,) is prescribed and the value of
r2 (or r,) are determined to provide the coincidence of the arcs.
With a tangential cam profile r, = oo, and the cam nose radius
(mm) is
With a convex cam profile

rg+a2- rg-2r0a cos cpCsho
rl =
2 (ro -
r , - a cos ~ c s h o )
where a = r , hf + ,,,
- r,, mm; b = r, - r, - hf mazy mm.
When det,ermining r, the value of r , is taken for manufacturing
considerations as r, >
1.5 mm, and when computing r, we assume
r1 = (8 to 20) h*,,,. Choosing too a small value of r, may result in
obtaining by formula (15.11) a negative value of r,. If t,hat is the
case, the computation must be repeated with a greater value of r,.
To provide a clearance in the valve gear the cam heel is made
to radius r , less than radius r, by the value of clearance As : r ,
- r , - As. The value of A s includes an expansion clearance and
-
elastic deformation of the valve gear. The value of A s = (0.25
to 0.35) mm for intake valves and As = (0.35 to 0.50) mm for exhaust
valves. Conjugating the circle of radius r , to arcs having radius r,
or straight li,nes (r, = oo) is by a parabola or arcs having certain
radii.
The follower and valve lift, velocity and acceleration are determ-
ined as dictated by t.he cam profile and follower type chosen.
For a convex cam with a flat follower we have:
U ? j l = ('1 - ro)acsin q c s h l j w f 2= w,a sin cp,,, } (15.12)
where hjl, w*, and if, are the lift (m), velocity (rnls) and acceleration
(m/sZ) of the follower, respectively, when i t moves over the arc of
radius r, from point A to point C; hi,, w j , and jf2 are the lift (m),
velocity (rn/s) and acceleration (m/s2) of the follower, respectively,
when it moves over the arc of radius r, from point C to point B;
a = r, + hf, ,, - r,, m; o, is the angular velocity of the camshaft,
radis; rpCsh, and cpcshl are current values of the angles when the fol-
l o w r moves over arcs r, and r,, respectively.
The value of angle qoh, is counted off from radius OA and that
of angle q , , h 2 , from radius OB. Their maximum values are deter-
mined, proceeding from the assumption that at point C lift htl = h,,,
as follows
CH. 15. DESIGN OF VALVE GEAR
Lv
Fig, 15.3. Diagrams of valve gear

( a ) finger-rocker system; ( b ) push-rod system
For a tangential cam wit,h a roller follower:
where r is the roller radius, m; al = a/(r2+r).

The maximum value of angle ,pr, ,,, is determined from equa-
tion (15.14) and that of (Pcshlmar from the relat,ionship
tan ~~cs,I~~,, = a sin + r)
rpCsh,/(r, (15.16).
For cams of symmetrical profile the law of changes in hf, wp
and if, when lifting and lowering, remains unchanged.
,314 PART THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
JF; d t , mm2s
'Fig. 15.4. Diagrams of tapped (follower) lift, velocity and acceleration; full
time-section of a valve
The lift, velocity and acceleration of the valve for the valve gear
of a bottom-valve engine are determined by equations (15.12) through
(15.15), since h, = hf, w, = wi and j , = if, and those for a valve
gear with overhead valves and rockers or fingers, by the relationships
(Fig. 15.3 a and b ) h, = hilv/l,; w, = w f l v / l f ; .j, = jjl,/lf.
Given in Fig. 15.4 are diagrams of hi, w i and if for a flat follower.
when sliding over a convex cam versus v,, h . The same diagrams shox\-ll
to a scale changed by the value of Zv/li are the diagrams of lift, ve-
locity and acceleration of the valve.
15.3. SHAPING HARMONIC CAMS
Unlike the a bove-considered cams, the so-called harmonic c a m

used now for high-speed engines are formed to shape in complianc,~
-wit,ha preselected and computed manner of valve motion. The valve
CH. 15. DESIGN OF X-ALVE GEAR 315
motion manner is 'hosen SO as t : obt,ain

~ a masimuln possible time-
section of the 17alve a t minimum possible accelerations. A smooth
and continuous change in the curve of valve and follol\--er ac.celera-
tion (Fig. 15.5) is a prerequisite
for obtaining a harmonic cam pro- jy, f~,m/s2
file.
Unlike the cams formed to shape
by arcs of circles (see Sec. 15.2),
shaping a harmonic cam is started
with plotting a valve acceleration
diagram. Following the choser;
manner of changing acceleration, 6
determine the manners of changes
in velocitmy and lift of the valve.
In order to obt.ain t>hese manners
and plot diagrams of valve and Fig. 15.5. Valve accelerations when
follower velocit,y and l i f t , use use is made of harmonic cams
is made of various graphical and
analytical methods, techniques of graphical integration and differen-
tiation, and a l l computations as a rule are carried out on computers.
Harmonic cams are designed
approximately as follows:
1. Define the valve timing pha-
ses (Cod, m r e , and (pcsh0, maximum
valve lift h, Max and maximum
follower lift h .,,,
2. Define the manner of c,hange
in the follower acceleration, pro-
viding posit,ive ac,celerat,ions not
in excess of 1500-3500 and nega-
tive - not above 500-1500 m/s2.
3. Draw a base circle (Fig. 15.6)
wit,h radius r , and a cam heel
circle to radius r , = r, - As, where
A s is a clearance between the
valve and the follower (for rec,om-
1 mendations on the values of r , , r ,
Fig. 15.6. Profiling a harmonic and As, see Sec. 15.2).
cam 4. Determine t,he positions of
the points a t which the valve starts
t,o open A and complet,es its closing A' in compliance with t-he taken
angle ,,,cp, [see formula (15.8)l.
5. Lay off angles cp,, corresponding t,o taking-up the lash in
moving to bhe high part and from i t (the leaving-off section @,-, rad):
Fig. 15.7. Diagram of follouyer lift, velocity and acceleration; full time-section
of a valve when use is made of a harmonic cam
xhere C O ; ~=, 0.008 to 0.022 is the follower velocity at the end of

moving from the high part (points A and A'), rnm/deg.
6. Dram radial lines 00, 01, 02 and so on from point 0 a t every 0.S
(or 1-2", depending on the accuracy of plotting).
7. Lay off the values of follower lift (taking-up clearance As must
be taken into account) a,b,, a&,, . . ., aibi, ai+,bi+,, . . ., etc. on
the drawn lines moving from the circle of radius r,.
8. Construct perpendiculars to the radial lines from points bl,
b,, . , b i , b i + , , . . . towards the cam axis of symmetry.
CH. 15. DESIGN O F VALVE GEAR 317
9. Dram an envelope to the constructed perpendiculars, which will

be the searched profile of the harmonic cam.
Depending upon the requirements imposed on the valve gear,
harmonic cams may be designed either with or \~--ithouttaking into
account the elasticity of t'he valve actuating parts. The cams designed
with the elasticity of valve gear partrsnot taken into account include
a cam designed on the basis of the law of acceleration variation shown
in Fig. 13.7 (Kurtz's cam). The acceleration curves of this cam con-
sist of four portions: (1) tapering @,, a cosine curve; (2) positive
accelerations @, half the sine wave; (3) first section of negative
accelerations a)*,114 sine wave; (4) second section of negative accele-
rations D3,a segment of parabola.
It is good practice to choose the angular extent of cD,, a,and @,
of various sections of the follower acceleration from the relationships
The shorter the section of positive accelerations, the larger the

area under the follower lift curve. I n this case positive accelerations
increase and negative accelerations decrease.
The expressions for the follower lift, velocity and acceleration
with a harmonic cam for various sections of the cam profile are
given below.
The cam section of tapering (O< cpc = cp,& 0,):
-n
h, = A4(1- cos
O AS%
71,
- zm,
2@0
qco)
3t
sin -cpCo
i
i
O ~=
2%
jro = As a: (=) X
cos
2 X
TCO 1
The section of positive accelerations (O<cp,=cpc1<@~):

318 P;IRT THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
The first section of negat.ive accelerations (0 < q, = vcP< a2):

h,, = As -+ c,,CD,
The second <

section of negative accelerations (0 q, = cp,, GO,):
h3 = h ) ~C32 (@3 - ( P C ~ -k
e I C31 [as - ( ~ c 3- ) ~ C33 I
The following designations are used in formulae (15.19) through

(15.22),, . in Figs. 15.6, 15.7 and in the computations that follow:
h, = angular-velocity of the camshaft, radk; cpc = current value
of the ctam rotation angle, deg.; cp, cpm, Pea, qe3= current value of
the cam rotation angle from a certain portion of the cam profile
( ' P c ,b~ ,= 0 0 ) to the end of that portion ( ~ ~ , = ~ , @!);
e in equa-
tions (15.19) through (15.22) the values of cpCni that are not under
the sign of trigonometiical funct'ions are expressed in radians, and in
the other cases, in degrees; D o , Dl, a,,(3, = angular intervals of
the certain follower acceleration sections (in the formulae, angular
intervals are expressed in radians and in the figures, in degrees);
h, , ,, and hf,,, = maximum lifts of the valve and follower, mm;
+
h = hf As = follower lift with the lash taken up, mm; h,, h,, F,,,
h, - current follower lift on the corresponding sections of -the- cam
profile, mm; wj,, of,, of,,of,= veloiities of the follom-er on the
corresponding sections, mm/s o r mis; a;,, = follower velocity at
the end of coming off the cam high part, mmlrad; jro, jrl, j j z , jf3 - -
= follower accelerations on the corresponding sections, mm/s2 or
m/s2; hi,a , ~ f , ~ , bj ,f l i , ( ~ ~ , =~ lift,
, b velocity, acceleration of
the follower and rotation angle of the cam a t the beginning of the
corresponding section; ell, c,,, c,,, c,,, c,,, ~ 3 c,,~ 7= coefficients of
the follower lift law that are determined from the equalities of lifts,
velocities and accelerations a t the section boundaries:
CB. 15. DESIGN OF VALVE GEAR 319'
Since we have only six equations, while there are seven coefficients,
we add one more relationship characterizing the forln of the negative,
part of acceleration curve:
jj&Se = (15.24).
For the Kurtz cam i t is recommended that Z = 5/8.
Adopting the following abbreviated not a t,ion
we obtain the final set of equat.ions t o define t,he seven coefficients.

of the follower motion law
The values of all coefficient,^ are then computed by formulae (15.24)

through (15.26) accurat,e up to six or seven places, the results being.
next checked by formulae (15.23). The values of lifts and velocities
a t pointls where profile sections merge one into another should not
be over 0.0001, and those of accelerations, over 0.001.
After the coefficients have been computed, formulae (15.19)
through (15.22) are used to cornpute lifts, velocit,ies and accelerations,
and also other values characteristic of the follower kinematics and.
the cam profile.
The follower maximum velocity (in mm/s)
The maximum and minimum acceleration of t,he follower (mm/s2)
Wit,h a flat follower, the minimum radius (mm) of the cam pro-.
file nose
Pmtn = rc +h - 2 ~ 3 2 (15.30)
W i t h a flat follow-er, the maximum radius (mm) of the cam pro--
file curvature
Pmax = r, + A s + c,,@,/2 + c,, [(n/@,)" --I (15.31),.
The values of p,, and, , ,p are utilized in defining the contacting

loads between the cam and the follower, and the value of p,, is
used to roughly determine the cam profile flank and ramp.
Figure 15.7 illustrates the diagrams of the lift, velocity and acce-
leration of a flat follower when moving over a harmonic cam versus
the angle of camshaft rotation. The same diagrams taken to a scale
varied by the value of ldlf are used as diagrams of the lift, velocity
and acceleration of the valve.
15.4. TIME-SECTION OF VALVE
By the diagram of valve lift (Figs. 15.4 and 15.7) we graphically
determine the valve time-section

'S
ti
F,dt (mm2 s) and mean area
F,,, (mm2) of the valve passage section per intake stroke:
where = M,,/6n, is the abscissa axis time scale in the valve lift
d i a g r a m , - ~ / m m ; ~ ~ is
f , ;the scale of the camshaft rotation angle,
deg/mm; n,is theicamshaft rotation speed, rpm; MF = MhlTdthr
cos a is the valve passage section area scale on the axis of ordinates,
mm2/mm; M h is the valve lift scale, mrn/mm; d t h r is the throat dia-
meter, mm; a is the angle of the conical seat surface of the valve
( M , = M ; 2.72 dthl. at-a = 30°, MF = M~ 2.22 d t h r a t a = 45');
P a b c dis the area under the curve of valve lift per intake stroke, mm2;
Lad
-~
is the duration of the intake stroke by the diagram, mm.
The full time-section of the valve from its opening to its closing
where t a dand t,, is opening and closing time of the intake valve, s;
Fin = IIIFFAbcB/ZRB is the area under the entire valve lift curve,
mm2.
The time-section and the mean area of passage section of an exhaust
valve per exhaust stroke is determined in the same way by the
exhaust valve lift curve.
CH. 15. DESIGN O F 1-ALVE GEAR 32 1
The mean flow' velocity in t,he valve seat

win = l:f. mFj/F,. ,
Win = 90 to 150 ~ n / for
s carburett,or engines and o);, = 80 to 120 rn/,s
for diesel engines.
15.5. DESIGN OF THE VALVE GEAR FOR A CARBURETTOR ENGINE

From the heat analysis we have: cylinder bore B = 78 mm,
piston area F p = 47.76 cm2, engine speed a t the nominal power
n~ -- 5600 rpm, angular velocity of the crankshaft o = 586 rad/s,
mean piston speed s,. ,= 14.56 m/s, mixture velocity in the seat
passage section at the maximuin lift of intake valve oi,= 95 m/s,
angle of advance opening of the intake valve ( p a d = lBO, angle of the
intake valve closing ret,ardation rp, = GO0. The valve gear is an
overhead type with a11 overhead camshaft.
The design computations are made for cams of two types: a convex
cam whose profile is formed by two circle arcs and a harmonic
(Kurtz cam) cam having a symmetrical profile.
1. Main dimensions of passage sections in. the throat and valve:
the valve passage section a t the maximum lift
the valve throat diameter
where F t , , = 1.12 F , = 1.12 x 7.32 = 8.20 cm2.

From the condition of a possible arrangement of overhead valves
in the head (a wedge or lozenge combustion chamber), the throat dia-
meter may reach d i h r 0.45B = 0.45 x 78 = 35 mrn. We as-
sume d,,, = 32.5 mm.
The maximum valve lift a t valve cone seal angle or = 45'
2. The mairt dimensions of the intake cum:

The base circle radius
r , = (1.3 to 2.0) h, ,,, -- (1.3 t'o 2.0) 8.92 = (11.6 to 17.8) mrn
we take r, = 15 mm.
The maximum follower lift
hfmax = h, m,,l,/l, = 8.92 X 33.5152.6 = 5.68 mm
where it = 33.5 mm and 1, = 52.6 mrn are the distances from the
support (see Fig. 15.3a) to the cam and valve (in this valve gear the
follower function is performed by a rocker contacting directly the

cam) taken from the design considerat ions.
3. Shaping a conr.ex cam with a flat follower. The arc radius of the
cam convex profile r , >
1.5 mm and we take r , = 8.5 mm, then
where a =r,, $ hf,,, - r , = 15 $ 5.68 - 8.5 = 12.18 mm; cpCsh,)

= (mad +180" 4-cpre)/4= (18 +
180 $ 60)/4 = 64030'.
The maximum angle when the follower rises along the arc having
radius r ,
a sin qcsho - 12.18 sin 64°30' 0.226, cp
sin c,p, ma, = - 57.2-8.5 C S ~ Imax - 13'03'
rl -r2
The l n n x i ~ n u rangle ~ ~ when the follower rises along the arc having
radius r ,
-
( P c s ? ! ~m a s -- q > c s h o CFcshl max --- 64'30' - 13'03' = 51'27'
-
The follower 1.ift hy the camshaft rotation angle

h1 1 -- (r*,- r,) (1 - cos veshl)= (57.2-15) (1- cos vcshl)
= 42.7 (1 - cos tp,,,,)
mm
+ +
h f 2= n c~scp,,~,, r , - r , = 1 2 . 1 8 ~ o s c p , , ~ , 8.5- 15
= (112.18cos cp,,,, - 6.5) mm
The follower velocit-y and acceleration
wfi = (TI - T O ) "C sin ( P c s h l = (57.2-15) x 293 sin cpCshl
= 12.36 sin gCsl,, m/s
w r 2= o,a sin c p C s h 2 = 293 X 12.18 x sin ~r,,,
=3.57 sin cpcshB m / ~ .
jil = (r, - rO)W E cos geshl = (57.2 - 15) 10-3 x 293' cos Vesnl
= 3623 cos cpCsh, m/s2
jf2 = - o ; a cos ( r c S I J Z-
- -2932 x 12.18 x cos cpcsh2
-
- - 1046 cos Tcsh2 m/s2
where w , = 0.5 f i ~ = 0.5 x 586 = 293 radis is the angular velocity
of camshaft rotation.
The values of hf,o fand jf computed by the above formulae versus
the camshaft rotation angle (and crankshaft angle) are given in
Table 15.1.
~ ~ + N ~ ~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ ? C ~ C ?L3~ F a
- 0C0 I X X !
- 4c C
. ~c. ) sk.c o*. ~. 4[. t b.0 f l 3 3 G X c e
u * c 3 b r -
3 ~ ~ . .~ ,0 .3 .- ..
~ T Cca)c?3m
L c 2 . . , .
~
-
3
tt 3 0 0 0 0 C ~ C + ~ - ? . 3 3 1 3 J ~mNf l w m
m
c.l ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ OC W Pa M O m ~ 5
---tn f l ~ b M m 0 3 C O M * @ 3 C 0 0 0
~ ~ m m ~ c o m ~
~9
c
cPL-ON
uo c 5~ ~ ~x ~ ~u
E COMmT I I I 1 - e d
I I I I +-f'+
MCOCrSEr3
i l l
a-
h -L-L+?-
-
w m e + m f i e c 2 * ~ Q m ~ 9 *H ~ M
m
t b c 0 r n O G ~ W N C d NmCQN5.O o m b
E ~ o ? r - c - m r - ~~. D
~ .r n. b .C m
. r. - . . . L . . .
\ ~ C
o + ~ N + N - - o o o * + N ~ ~ NN
- T - ' C - L, & , ++$- i I I 1 1 1
+ ~ O
- sf-
~ r n M 0 0 c 0 9 L f LQQMrnSrn
I
mLom
l l
E +
a m a m. m
o ,~ mn ou o~ qa a8 ~c y n.c u.mv. ~n. c n oam ?
5 . . . . . . . . . .
%
c C 3 . + - ? 4 x ~ \ - L 9 L T m * * m m w w o o 0
2
-2-
3
G
N + W G G O C C O
t-0mmwomcG
*L9Nco+O*r-
Q3COdCQC
M N O O N N
r - * 0 0 * a 3
W+LOJ
mat--
N m m
s 5"C . r, n .+
q y q + . a m . ~ . o. .m . ~ 3 ~c u
+ y .o
.-F .-
.
-
m
ey
O O O C Q . 0 3 S O 0 3 0 C 8 C ~ C O O 0
~ m ~ C S O m O C ~ m c m c o0c n0c a
OmL9M3L-~-Y'O+U3L--t--OM
o & ~ ~ c , r n ~ ~ o c O m ~ N ~ *rCn m o
Q. O* C. m. m. G
. *. ~ . + .c .* -. $ . L .3 O q ~ 0 0 0
O O C G L - - - ~ C ~ - C ~ - + ~ COCOQC ~O
. . .
* & * e + - d * *
tf
cd
p, 3 *I
5u d 5u c
O
Q
t
b
-
- $
+
q
C
-
Q
O
~
L ~
~
~ W
~+ G
b O d
+9 C D - - Y a O 2
O + + P - N
W b W
s p 8 c 0 b N i D 0 C Q ~ Z c 0 M O 6 l a W b a a
tn m . . . . .
G 2 C D 6 C D b 0 2 C E m C 2 C 2 W a h a
c
U
o
U
~ d o d o d d ~ d e ~ o d c0z0 o
0 -
m
I
.
b
. .c-
3
c
0 U
+?
l i l I ~F C O = 0 0
z
3
51
~
0
0
I ~l i 3 l ~
4 L 9 q m N d e N M M * m
. .
-
"C
=G
C L ~ ' ~1 R
M
0
I j I i j 112 Q ~ O
o u - I
4
w u
I
z c o h bbbbbbbb
- .
(S
a cG tn
- 3
3 F FFFPFFP
m m L 5 L ~ m m m m ~ ma + m o
0
- 2 ac
0
- 3 0 %
m u3 + m m + m a c - c o m n o-+-+m
4 WJ m e-d-4-
$6 .2 .
*
-'c
:a - Lr)
u4
-5
s;
w
x33Ch
c *
b r-
w - " e + e + e w - * c -
mL9L---aemmt~ma + m m +
-.--
eeeec1-
A - Lac0
C\1C*1N00
'Jvr 0
=-- m-
C Y 0
rn
--
cC
'I
5 z
-+
L
y C; Il
Q1
-
C
a % &
Shown in Fig. 15.4 against the data in Table 15.1 are diagrams of
follower lift, velocity and acceleration.
4. Shaping a harmonic earn ~ i t ak flat follower. The cslearance bet-
ween the cam and the follower is taken as A s = 0.25 I:irn. Nest we
determine t h e radius of the cam heel circle (see Fig. 15.6):
The length of taper
where w j o , = 0.02 mmP is the follower velocity a t the end of taper

taken within the limits recommended for harmonic cams (see
Sec. 15.3).
The length of other sections of follower acceleration @, = 23'30'
= 0.410152 rad, (23, = 4" = 0.069813 rad, rD, = 37" = 0.645771 rad
satisfies the recommended rela tionships (15.18):
The auxiliary values [see (15.25)l and the coefficients of the follo-
wer movement law [see (15.26)l:
where Z = 5/8 is taken by the recommendations for the Ynrtz

cam (see Sec. 15.3).
where ojo, is the follower v e l o c i t , ~a t the end of running from the

cam nose (taper), mm/rad:
Checking the computed values of the coefficients by formulae (15.23):
The results obtained are within the permissible limits, as the values
of lifts and velocities a t the points where one section merges into
another lie within 0.0001, and those of accelerations, within 0.001.
326 P A K T T1IRk:K. D E S I G N OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
The follower lift versus the cam angle (camshaft angle) v, is

n
h,= A s 1 - C O S - 0" - 1g038'
( 2a0v c 0 ) ; 'Pco
-
--
3.14159
h, = 0.25 ( 1- cos x 0.342694 cpcO) = 0.25 ( 1 - cos 4.583666qC0)
3.14159
h, -- 0.25 $- 5 . 0 8 4 5 9 7 ~-~0.514217
~ sin 0.4 1015 'Pel
- 0.25 + 5.084597rpC,- 0.51421 7 sin 7.659575 q,,
At cp,, = cp,,. = 23"30' = 23.5" 0.410152 rad
=
h,, = 0.25 +
5.084597 x 0.410152 - 0.514217 sin 7.659575 x 23.5
= 2.335458 mm
+
h, = 2.335458 f8 . 6 0 0 4 8 3 ~ ~0.018790
~~
3.14159
sin 0.069 816 vf2
= 2.335458 + 8.600483cpC2+ 0.018790 sin 22.500036 cp,,
At cp,, = cp,,, = 4" = 0.069813 rad
h2e = 2.335458 + 8.600483 x 0.069813 +
0.018790
x sin 22.500036 x 4 = 2.954674 mrn
h3 = h s e +
c.31 (@3 - ( ~ c 3 -
) ~ ~ 3 (2@ 3 - (Pea)2 +
~ 3 s ;( P C ~ = 0"-37'
h , = 2.954674 x 1.140589 (0.645771 - cpc3)4
-7.610380 (0.645771 - (p,,), 2.975324 +
At cp,, = cp,,, = 35" = 0.645771 rad
h3 = 2.954674 $- 1.140589 (0.645771 - 0.645771)' - 7.610380
x (0.645771 - 0.645771)2 2.975324 +
= 5.929998 = 5.93 rnm = hhfmax -+ As
The follower lift,s oil sections @, 0,and CD3 are computed every 1'
and a t section Q,, every 30' = 0.5". The resultant values are tabula-
ted. To reduce the content, Table 15.2 covers the values of h,, h,, h,
and h, a t greater intervals
The follower veloc,ity
2-c X
of, = 10-3 AS - sin -
2mo (Pco; 'PCO- 0" ,- 19'38'
2a0
Table 25.2
Parameters
-i-
d
0 u
- - T.
W
-- --
C d
K
E
..-
e .* K
G w -
C
:
%.
+
h
a
- E
2n -E --. -
3 E - E x Ca
z
E
-
C E L
a-
E
.-
4
0
0
2 c .r,
.*
i;
II -
\
+
e -a
k
';?
B 4 =& @ 0 0
3 < .=. 3 i 8-c
c U
.
IT,.
662O44' 331'22' 3 0 0 - 0
-+451 -
Taper 672O44' 336'22' & 0.020 - +0.1307
+415 -
4 ' O22' * - +0.2408
section
in lift
6 8 ~ ~ 4 344
692O44' 346'22' 11
702" 351 19'38' (i -
0.076
0.193
0.250
3-0.3358
3 1 4
- +0.3129
+I63
0 -
-
-
1:
,
I 0.2500 +0.3358 0 0.000

$ 1 0.3710.125+0.5811+1605 0.003
360 cr3 9 1
0.5690.319+1.0749+2417 0.007
0 !I { 9 }TCI 0.569 0.319 +1.0749 +2417 0.007
1.1150.815 +1.9756 -+2349 0.031
22
29
11 20
14'30' + [23'30' 1
1
1.7931.543+2.5198+1168
2.335 2.085 +2.6438
0.073
0 0.118
29 2.335 2.085 +2.6438 0 0.118
33 2.649 2.899 +2.6075 -577 0.133
37 18"301 2.9552.705$2.5199 -817 0.168
37 2.955 2.705 $2.5199 -817 0.168
intake 47 3.667 3.417 t2.2579 -940 0.272
(180') { 57 4.297 4.047 -+I .96"1 -1046 0.398
77 5.269 5.019 4-1.2883 - 1203 0.708
97 48"30f 5.817 5.567+0.5424 -1289 1.065
111 55'30' 5.9305.680 0 - 1307 1.332
ill 5.9305.680 0 -1307 1.332
125 5.817 5.567 -0.5424 -1289 1.598
145 72'30' 5.26135.019 -1.2883 -1203 1.956
4.297 4.047 -1.9617 -1046 2.261
"- D. C. { 90
-2.2579 -940 2.387
-2.3935 -881 2.551
3.321 3.071 -2.3935 -881 2.441
92'30' 2.9552.705 -2.5199 -817 2.497
92'30' IEF" 2.955 2.705 -2.5199 -817 2.497
2.649 2.899 -2.6075 -577 2.531
2.3352.085-2.6438 -0 2.548
2.335 2.085 -2.6438 -0 2.548
1.793 1.543 -2.5198 +I168 2.591
1.1150.865 -1.9756+2349 2.632
'Pc10.5690.319 -1.0749+2417 2.656
115 0.375 0.125 -0.5841 +I605 2.662
240 0.250 0 - 0.3358 0 2.665
- - -0.3358 0 -
120 0.250
0.193 - -0.3129 +163 -
tyro0.0'76 - -0.2408 +314 -
ring 0.020 - -0.13,)7 +415 -
0 - 0 +451 -
= 0.335754 sin 4.583666 cp, m/s

00 -230301
n:
cos -'
.Z
w f l = WJO-3 (ell -- c,, ~ ~ 1; ) ' P C I -
a1
= 1.489787 - 1.I54034 cos 7 . 6 5 9 5 7 5 ~mjs

~~~
At qC1= T,, ,= 23"30' = 23.5"=0.410152 rad W j l e = ahe=fu f m a a
- 1.489787 - 1.154034 eos 7.659575 x 23.5 = 2.643821 mis
ufmax -
= 2.519942 + 0.123873 cos 22.500036~,,"Lm/s

C I I ~ . ~ O - '[2c3, (a3
= - vc3)- 4c3, (0, - V , + ~ ) ~ ITea
; = 0'-37
w,, = 293 x [2 x 7.610380 (0.645771 - cp), - 4 X 1.140589
x (0.645771 - cp3)'] = 4.459683 (0.6457'71 - cp),
- 1.336770 (0.645771 - ~p,,)~ m/s
The values of wf,, of,,w f , and o f ,computed b y the above formu-
lae versus the cam (camshaft) angle are ent.ered in Table 15.2.
The follower acceleration
= 450.921838 cos 4.583666cpco m/s2

3T,
jrl = o: 10-3c,, sin -cp;, (Pel = 0" - 23'30'
3.14159
jfl = 2932x x 0.514217 (f .) ~ ~
sin 0,410152 cpcl ~ ~
= 2589.947827 sin 7 . 6 5 9 5 7 5 ~m/sz
~~
At cp,, = rp, = 23'30' = 23.5"= 0.410152 rad j f l = jiie
jfl e = 2589.947827 sin 7.659575 x 23.5 = 0
= - 816.635846 sin 22. 500036rpc, m/s2

jrs = w:- [~ZC,, (@, - cp,,)" 2c,,]; cp,, = 0" -
, .
37'
jf3
2932 x
= [12 x 1.140589 (0.645771 - ( ~ ~ -
~ )2 s
x 7.6103801 = 4175.021101 (0.645771 - v,,)~- 1306.687025 m/sT

~t cp,, = cp,,, = 37" = 0.645771 rad ji3 = - j f min;
jiae-
jf min = 1175.021101 (0.645771 - 0.6457'71)? - 130G.fi87025
-- -1306.687025 m/s2
The values of jfo,jfl, jf2 and jr3 computed by t,he above formulae.
versus the cam (camshaft) angles are entered in Table 15.2.
The follower lift, velocity and acceleration diagrams are plotted
in Fig. 15.7 according to the data in Table 15.2.
The minimum and maximum radii of the harmonic cam profile,
with a flat follower are:
where h = -+ As = 5.68 + 0.25 5.93 mrn.

hfmax =
Pmax = r , + As + c,,CD,/2 + c,, [(n/CD,)2- 11 14.75 + 0.25

=
-j- 5.084597 x 0.410152/2 + 0.514217
x [(3.14159/0.410152)2 - 11 = 45.697155 mm
5. The time-sectior~ of ualalce. The diagrams of follower lift (see

Figs. 15.4 and i5.7) plotted to scale M,, = 1OImm on the abscissa
axis and Mhl = 0.1 mm/mm on the ordinate axis are the valve lift
diagrams, if the ordinate axis scale is changed to
The valve time-section is
where M t = M,,/(Gn,) = 1/(6 x 2800) = 5.952 x shm;

-VF= Mh,, x 2.22 d,,, = 0.157 x 2.22 x 32.5 = 11.3 mm2/mm;.
for a convex cam
where F a b c d = 3820 mmZ is the area under the follo~verlift curve

(see Fig. 15.4) per intake stroke;
for a harmonic cam
t*
I1
where F a = 3600 m m q s the area under the follower lift curve

(see Fig. 15.7) per intake st,roke regardless the area corresponding 'to
&clearanc,eAs.
Th.e mean cross-sectional area of the valve passage
where l a d = 90 rnm is t.he intake stroke length as per diagrams (see

Figs. 15.4 and 15.7):
for a convex cam
for a harmonic cam

F,. ,= 11.3 x 3600i90 = 452 mm2 = 4.52 crn2
The mixture flow velocity in the valve seat.
= P ~ . ~ F ~m ~ ' F ~ .
for a convex cam

a;, = 14.56 x 47.7614.80 = 145 mis
for a harmonic cam
The full section-time of a valve
where tad is the moment of time the intake valve begins to open;
, and F x are the current values of time and area under the follower
$
lift curve (see Figs. 15.4 and 15.7).
The full time-section of the valve versus the cam (camshaft and
crankshaft) angle is illustrated in Fig. 15.4 for a convex and in
Fig. 15.7 for a harmonic valve. The numerical values are com-
puted and entered in Tables 15.1 and 15.2, respectively.
CH. 15. DESIGN OF f;\LYE GEAR 33 1
Comparing the basic figures of valve timing with the convex and
harmonic cams, we may come to the following conclusions:
1. The initial conditions being the same ((0,. r,, h,,,,, ht mas,
(Ccs h 0 ,
the maximum positive accelerations and thus the maximum
inertial loads have reduced in the case of a harmonic cam by 33.3 per
cent (2417 t o 3623 m/s2). The negative accelerations have some~vhat
increased (from 1046 to 1307 rn/s2).
2. The time-section of a valve with a harmonic cam have decreased
by 5.8 per cent (from 2.569 to 2.421 mm") with a resultant increase
in the mixture mean flow in the valve seat from 145 to 154
3. When changing over from convex to harmonic cams, in order
to sustain and more than t h a t to improve the basic design figures of
valve timing (1F,dt, F,, ,

1,
t1
a:,), we have to illcrease the valve pas-
sage section on account of expanding timing phases and increasing
the maximum lift of the valve.
15.6. DESIGN O F VALVE SPRING

At a l l speeds the valve spring must provide: (1) tight seal between
the valve and its seat, keeping the valve closed during the entire
period of time the follower moves over the hase circle r , : (2) conti-
nuous kinematic contact between the valve, fol lower alxl can1 when
the follower moves with negative acceleration.
The tight seal of valves is ensured:
for an exhaust valve a t
Ps mil: > F t h r (P: - pa) (15.35)
where Ps ,in is the minimum pressure of the spring with the valve
closed, N; F,,, is the throat area, mZ;pi and pa are the gas pressures
in the exhaust manifold and in the cylinder during t,he int,ake, res-
pectively, MPa.
In the- carburettor engines the pressure difference ( p i - pa) reac,hes
0.05 = 0.07 MPa, and in the diesel engines, 0.02-0.03 MPa;
for an intake valve in unsupercharged engines practically at any
minimum spring pressure and in supercharged engines a t
where p , and p , are the gas pressures in the intake manifold (super-
charging pressure) and in the cylinder a t exhaust, MPa.
The kinematic cont,act between the valve gear part,s is provided at
where K is the safety margin ( K = 1.28 t,o 1.52 for diesel engines
employing mechanical centrifugal governors and K = 1.33 to 1-66
332 P A R T THREE. DESlGS OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
for carburettor engines); P j , ti,

is the valve gear inertial force referred
to the valve; when the follower moves with negative aecelern-
tion, N.
The valve spring design consists in: (1) determining .the spring
elasticity force PI,,,;(2) selection of the spring c,haracterist,ic by
force P I , ,,, taking into account safety margin K ; (3) checking the
spring minimum forc,e when t,he valve is closed; (4) selection of t,he
spring dimensions, and (5) det,ermining the safety factor and frequen-
cy of the spring surge.
The inertial force referred to the valve axis, when the follower mo-
ves with negative acceleration
-
Pj. 0 2 - - M u j ,2 - - M vjf21u/lt (15.38)
where iM, is the total mass of the valve gear referred to the valve, kg.
With bottom valves
where rn, is the mass of the valve set (the valve, spring retainer,
lock); m, is the spring mass; rnf is the follower mass.
With overhead valves
M , = A, + m,/3 + (mf+ m,,) (lj/l,)2 + rn; (15.40)
where m,, is the push rod mass; mi = J,l% m, (I, -- +
2j)2/1216
is the rocker mass referred to the valve axis with a two-arm rocker
having a support in the form of a stud; rn; = J,/Z; x m,lE (31:) is the
mass of the rocker referred to the valve axis with a finger rocker
having a support in the form of a bolt (see Fig. 15.3); J , and m, are
the rocker moment of inertia relative to the axis of rocking and ro-
cker mass, respectively.
When computing newly designed engines, masses mu, rn,, mi,
?p r .
and m, are taken by the design dimensions and statistical data of
sirntlar valve gears. With different valve arrangement and train,
the design masses ML = M J F ,, for exhaust valves have the follow-
ing values (in kg/m2):
Bottom valve engines ................ 220-250
Overhead valve engines with a bottom camshaft ... 230-300
Overhead valve engines with overhead camshaft ... 180-230
,,
Illustrated in Fig. 15.8 is the curve of inertial force P j , of the
reciprocating masses referred to the valve axis. This curve is used
then to plot curve abc (with a chosen value of K) of the required
,,
spring elastic forces P, = K P j , when the follower moves with
negative acceleration. By means of the diagram illustrating valve
lift h,, curve P, = f (cp,) is replotted to coordinates f,P, (the
spring deflectmion,i.e. the spring elastic force), as shown in Fig. 15.8.
cB. 15. DESIGN OF ~ T A L V EGEAR
Fig. 15.8. Graphical plotting of spring characteristic
The resultant curve avb"c" shows the required spring elastic force
versus the valve lift, i.e. the required charactoris tic-of the spring
(for a convex cam with a flat follower, the curve a"bWc"is a straight
line). Substituting the straight line a"c" for the curve a"bf'c" and
extending it till it crosses the vertical axis (point O n ) ,we obtain
a possible characteristic of a real spring.
The line segment cut off by straight line a"0" on the horizorltal axis
(h. = 0) corresponds to the minimum elastic force of the spring wit,h
the valve closed, i.e. to force P , ,of the spring preloading. If the
value of P, ,fails to satisfy inequalities (15.35) or (15.36)?force
P,,,, must be increased on account of K or f,,,.
Referring to the spring characteristic plotted graphically, we
determine: predeflection f,,,, complete deflection f mas = f lnin f
f hyma, and spring stiffness c = P, ,,,/f,,,.
With a convex cam having a flat follower, the spring characteris-
tic can be selected directly by the cam parameters:
334 P,4RT THREE. DESIGN O F PRTNCIP-\L P2lRTS
t h e maximum force of spring elasticity

Psma, = dl. Kal,(11:/2~
t,he minimum force of spring elasticity
Psmin = fWCK(r, - r 2 ) l v c o ~ / l j
t,he spring stiffness
c = ~%f,Ko:
the predeflection of the spring
fmln = Ps min IC = (r, - r,) Z,/Ei
t,he full deflection of t,he spring
L a x = fmin + hu mar -
- al,/lf
The basic dimensions of a spring are: mean spring diameter D,.
wire diameter S,., number of coils i, coil lead t and spring free
length Lj.
The mean coil diameter is generally taken by ~onst~ruction consi-
derations as dict,ated by the valve throat diameter, D, = (07 t o
0.9) d t h r rand wire diamet,er 6, = (3.5 to 6.0) mm. When two springs
are used on a valve, the wire diamet,er of t,he inner spring 6,
to 4.5 rnm.
7 -
'?- d .
By the taken values of D, and chosen characteristic of the spring,

we det,ermine:
the number of active coils
where G = 8.0 to 8.3 is the shear stress modulus of elas ticity, hlN/cn13:
& ,a, is the spring force of elasticity, MN; D,and f,, are the mean
coil diameter and full deflection of the spring, re~pec~tively, cm:
6, is the wire diameter, cm;
thc full number of coils
the coil lead of a free spring

t = 6, + fma,!i, 4- Am,,
where A,,, = 0.3 is the miuirnum clearance between the spring
coils with the valve fully open, mm;
the spring length with the valve fully open
the spring length ~ v i t ~the

h valve closed
the lengt,h of free spring
L j r = I'IN in + flnas
The maximum tangent'ial stress arising in the spring
where k' is a coefficient accounting for nonuniform distribution of

stresses in the spring coil transverse section. This coefficient is
dependent on the spring ratio D,i6,. The values of k t are listed below.
The maximum st.ress in high-speed engines .,T = 450 t,o 630 MPa..
The minimum stress in the sprin.g with the valve closed
Spring safety factor n, is determined by the formulae given in

Sec. 10.3. For the springs of automotive engines n, > 1.2 to 1.4 and
for spring steels the fatigue limit in twisting that is used in compu-
tations is z, = 340 to 400 &!Pa.
In the cases of large inertial forces, each valve is furnished with
two concentric springs (inner and outer). I n this case each valve.
spring is computed in the same way, but the following requirements
must be satisfied: P, , ,, = P,. ,,, +
mar and Ps m,, - --
= Ps. o min -I-Ps.i ,,in* The forces are shared between the springs
within P, i , , n e T = (0.35 to 0.45) P,.
To provide normal radial clearances between the valve guide bush-
ing and the inner spring and also hetncen the springs, t h e dimen-
sions of the springs (in mm) mast satisfy the following requirements:
where d is the diameter of the valve guide bosh; D,. and D,.,are
mean diameters of the inner and outer springs, respectively; s S a i
and S,., are wire diameters of the inner and outer springs. respec-
t ively .
In order to avoid resonance between vibration inducing ililpulses
and the natural frec-uency of the spring, we must determine the
number of natural oscillatioris of t h c spring
n,, = 2-17 x 10' Gs/(i,D~) (15.47)
The rat,io of the number of natural oscillat,io~ls(natural frequency)
of the spring to the frequency equal to the speed of the camshaft n ,
must not be an integer number (especially dangerous ~ 2 ~ / = r l 4)-
~
Besides, in the case of two springs, the following inequality must be
sat,isfied: TI r l - o # n, r 2 , i / t ~ c .
336 P-ART THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
The design of a valve spring for carburettor engine. From the

design of the valve gear (see Sec. 15.5) we have: frequency n , = 0.5 n ,
= 2800 rpm and angular velocity o, = 293 radls of the camshaft;
maximum lift of the intake valve h, , ,, - 8.92 mm; diameter of
t,he int,ake valve throat dths = 32.5 mm; dimensions of a convex
cam: r , = 15'mm, r, = 57.2 mm, r , = 8.5 mm; hf, ,, = 5.68 mm,
a = r, +hj ,,, - r, = 12.18 mm; dimensions of the rocker: 1,
= 52.6 mm, I , = 33.5 mm; the diagrams of the follower lift, velocity
and acceleration (see Fig. 15.4 and Table 15.1). The valves are of
overhead type with a cylinder-head mounted camshaft. The force
from t,he cam is directly transmitted to the rocker having a flat
surface contacting the cam. The springs are made of spring steel,
T-1 = 350 MPa, 6 b = 1500 MPa.
The maximum force of the spring elasticity
where K 1.4 is the safety factor; M , = mu 1/3m,

= + (mif +
- mPr) (E) +2
mi = 115 +75 +
40 = 180 g is the total mass
of the valve gear referred to the valve; mu = 115 g; m, = m,,,
-+ mSai= 55 +
20 = 75 g are the masses of the valve and springs
(outer and inner) respectively taken proceeding from the construc-
tion considerations; mE = m,lt/(31~)= 120 x 52.6"3 X 52.6') = 40 g
is the rocker mass referred to the valve axis; m, = 120 g is the
rocker mass.
The minimum force of the spring elasticity
P, = K M , (ro - r2) lvo~lEf
= 180 x 1.4 (15-8.5) 52.6 x 2932 x 10-6/33.5 = 221 11'
The spring stiffness

i = M,Ko: = 180 x 1.4 x 2932 x = 21.6 kN/m
The spring deflection is as follows:
predeflect,ion
fmin = (r,, - r 2 ) l,/lf = (15-8.5) 52.6/33.5 = 10.2 rnm
full deflection
fmax = fmin + hu mar - 10.2
- + 8.92 = 19.12 mm
The force distribution between the outer and inner springs:
the inner spring
P8.i max = 0.35Ps max - 0.35 x 414 = 145 N
A
P S a imi, = 0.35Ps. ,in = 0.35 x 221 = 77.4 N

the outer spring

Psmo
ma, = - Ps.i mar = 414-145
mar = 269 N
Ps. 0 min = Ps min - Ps.i min = 221-77.4
= 143.6 N
The stiffness of the outer and inner springs
c ~ . = Ps.0 maxlfmax = 269 x 106/(19.12 X lo-') = 14.06 kN/m
c L i = P,,i max/fmax = 145 X 10-'f(19.12 X lo-') = 7.58 kN/m
+
c = csa0 c , , ~ = 14.04 +
7.58 = 21.64 kN/m
The characteristic of the valve spring is then plotted (Fig. 15.9)
by the found values
Ps mar = Ps.i max p 8 . o Inax +
Ps rnin = Ps.r min Ps.o min
The dimensions of the springs (taken as to construction considera-
tions) are as follows:
wire diameter 6,., = 3.6 mm,
6wbi= 2.4 mm;
mean spring diameter D,, ,=
= 28 mm; D S e i= 19 mm.
*
+
(db S W , i f 2 = 14.1 2.4 + +
$ 2 = 18.4 m m < D s a i = 19 mm
Ds.1 + +
6w.i 6w.o 2= +
= 19 +
2.4 + +
3.6 2 = 27.0 mm
<
- -D.., = 28 mm (where the valve I
bush diameter d b = 14 mm).
The number of active coils
-- GS:. ofma= -
B P S .o m a xD3S. 0 I
0 100 200 300 400 500 N,mm
-88x.3269
x 0.36* X 1.912
x x 2.83 = 5.6
4.i ma*
+
_90
max
-
+
ia. i =
GQ.?~trna r
8Ps. i ,,,D,9. i
- r; Ps max *
Fig. 15.9. Characteristic of two

- 8.3 x 0.244 x 1.912 =6.6 springs operating together
8 xi45 xi0-6 x 1.98
where G = 8.3 is the shear stress modulus of elasticity, MNfcms;
the complete number of coils
i~,,., - + +
- i.,, 2 = 5.6 2 = 7.6; f,,,* = tam, 2 +
5=: 6.6 2 = 8.6 +
22-0948
the spring length with the valve fully open

Lomin = .i,,, ,6,., +
i,.,Am1, = 7.6 x 3 . 6 + 5.6 x 0.3
= 29.1 m a
-
Li,l, - i.,, +
iamtAm1,= 8.6 x 2.4+ 6.6 x 0.3
= 22.6 mm
L,,, = Lo ,,, = 29.1 mm
the spring length with the valve closed
+
Lo = Lm*, 4, ma, - 29.1 + 8.92 = 38.02 mrn
the free length of the springs
= Lo + = 29.1 +- 19.12 = 48.22 mm
, fmax
= Limin + fmax = 22.6 + 19.12 = 41.72 mm

The maximum and minimum stresses in the springs:
the inner spring
where kf = 1.17 is determined at Ds. i/S,,

the outer spring
,= 1912.4 = 7.9;
where ki = 1.18 is determined a t Ds.,/S,,, = 2813.6 = 7.8.

The mean stresses and stress amplitudes are as follows:
the inner spring
7, =(ha+ + .rm1,)/2= (595 + 318)/2 = 456.5 MPa
7, = ( ' h a = - 'tmln)/2= (595 - 318)/2 = 138.5 MPa
Since the stress concentration in the spring coils is accounted for
by coefficient k' and kT/(eses,) 1, then =
z,,, = z,k,/(e,e,,) = 138.5 x 1 = 138.5 MPa
the outer spring
7, = (%tax $ ~,,,)/2 = (485 + 259)/2 = 372 MPa
2
. = (7rnax - ~ ~ ~= ~(485-259)/2
) / 2 = 113 MPa
T a , c = r a - 113 MPa
The safety factors of the springs are:

the inner spring
n7 - +
- T-~/(T,,, arzm) = 350/(138.5 $. 0.2 x 456.5) = 1.52
where a, = 0.2 is determined against Table 10.2;
the outer spring
n~ = z-J(za, , f a&) = 350/(113 + 0.2 x 372) = 1-87
The resonance analysis of the springs:
nn.i -2.17
- x 1076,,i/(i,.iD~.i) =2.17 x 107 x 2.4/(6.6 x 102)
= 21 850
n,.il~c= 21 850/2800 = 7.8 # 1, 2, 3. ..
nn.o = 2.17 x 107 6,.,/(i,.,D~,,) 2.17 x 107 X 3.6/(5.6 ~ 2 8 2 )
=
= 17 790
nn.,ln, = 17 790/2800 = 6.35 # 1, 2, 3. . .
n,, iln, = 7.8 # n,.,lnc = 6.35
15.7. DESIGN OF THE CAMSHAFT

The camshafts used i n automotive engines are made of carbon
(Grade 40, 45) or alloyed ( 1 5 X , 12XH3A) steels or alloy cast iron.
When the engine is operating, the camshaft is subject to the action
of such valve gear forces as spring elasticity P, inertial forces of
valve gear parts P j , f and gas pressure force P g S t referred to the
follower. The total force acting on the cam from the valve gear
The maximum force P i ,,, is exerted on the cam by the exhaust

valve a t the h ~ g i n n i r r g of oprr~irlg (cp, = 0). With a convex cam
we have
where P, , is the spring elasticity force with the valve closed, N;

d , is the outer diameter of the exhaust valve head, m; p , is the pres-
sure in the cylinder a t the instant the exhaust valve opens (point b' in
Fig. 3.14) for the design operation, Pa; pi is the pressure in the exhaust
manifold (when gases are exhausted to the atmosphere, pi p0),
Pa; I , and it are the rocker arms, mm; o, is the angular velocity of
the camshaft, radls; ro and r, are the radii of the base circle and the
fint section of the cam profile, m; M f= (m,$ ms/3) (lollt)'
+
-k mf m,, + 6 is the mass of the moving parts of valve geaa
referred to the follower, kg: m,, m,, m,, m,,, and m; are the masses
of the sslve, springs, follou-tlr, pushrod and rocker, respectively, kg;
rn, m, (1,+ Ij\2.'t12 17) is the rocker mass referred to the follower
axis, when use is made of a two-arm rocker with a support in the form
of a stud; m; = rn,Z?,'(317) is the rocker mass referred to the follower
axis, when use is made of a finger rocker with a support in the form
of a bolt (see Fig. 15.3).
The rigidity computation is the basic mathematical analysis of the
camshaft, 11-hich consists in determining deflection y under the
Fig. 15.10. Design diagram of a camshaft
action of total force P f.,, The design diagram of a camshaft is a free

two-support beam loaded where the follower exerts pressure
(Fig. 15.10).
The deflection in mm
where a and b are the distances from the support to the point where
force Pf, ,, is applied, mm; I is the distance between the camshaft
supports, mm; d, and 6, are the outer and inner diameters of the
camshaft, mm; E is Young's modulus, MPa.
The value of deflection y must not exceed 0.02-0.05 mm. Bearing
stresses occurring on the contact surfaces of the cam and follower are
determined for a flat and a roller followers:
where b , is the cam width, m; r is the follower roller radius, m.

The acceptable bearing stresses [ube]= 400 to 1200 MPa.
In addition to determining the deflection and bearing stresses,
sometimes total stresses as occurring in the camshaft due to joint
action of bending and twisting moments are determined. The bend-
ing moment
The twisting moment produced by each cam generally attains its

maximum at the end of the first period of the follower lift, when the
point of its lcoutact with the cam is most distant from the follower
axis.
With a cam having a convex profile and a flat follower
r1- ro
where ( P j ) p c i mar = Ps.f 4- P j . f i a t 'Pel = 'PCmar; m = r1- +
rz (ro
ht mar -ra) sin fPc*
In order to determine the maximum twisting moment M t msx
caused by simultaneous action of all the cams,'curves of accumulated
torques should be plotted.
Thr twisting stress and the total stress are:
where W t = 0.5 W bis the moment resist,ing to twisting in the design

section.
The value of 02 must not exceed 100 to 150 MPa.
The design of a camshaft. From the design of the valve spring
(Sec. 15.6) and valve gear (Sec. 15.5) we have: masses of the moving
parts of valve gear m, = 115 g, rn, = 75 g, mi = 0, m,, = 0 , and
m, = 120 g; cam dimensions r, = 15 mrn, r, = 57.2 mm, r,
= 8.5 mm, hf ,,,= 5.68 mm; rocker dimensions 1, = 52.6 mm,
If = 33.5 mm; angular velocity of the camshaft o, = 293 rad/s;
minimum elasticity force of the spring P , , ,, - 221 N; diameter
of the intake valve throat d t h r = 32.5 mm.
The maximum force caused by the exhaust valve that acts on
the cam
where d, =
(
1.
1.0-4.2 1 - 35 - 33 rnm is t,he diameter of the
din - m
-
exhaust valve head; d l , = (1.06 to 1.12) d,,,, = 1.076 x 32.5
= 35 mm is the diameter of the intake valve head; p , = 0.445 MPa
is determined from the indicat,or diagram (point b' in Fig. 3.14);
I
Pr = 0.1 MPa.
&@ PART THREE. DESIGN OF PRINCIPAL PARTS
The camshaft deflection
where E = 2.2 x i 0 5 MPa is the elasticity modulus of steel; I = a

+ b = 26 +
69 = 95 mm is the length of the camshaft span
(F kg. 15.10) taken by construction considerations; d c = 2r, 2 +
= 2 x 15 +
2 = 32 mm is the outer diameter of the camshaft;
6, = 10 mm is the inner diamet<erof the camshaft taken as to be
ust?d for supply of lubricating oil to the cams and ensure sufficient
rig idity.
The bearing stress
o,1, = 0.418 v p j maxEi(bcr,)
:= 0.4181/0.002417 x 2.2 x 105/(0.025 x 0.0572) = 255 MPa
wherr. b , = 25 mm is the cam width.
Part Four
ENGINE SYSTEMS
Chapter 16
SUPERCHARGING
16.1. GENERAL
.-., The analysis of the engine effective power formula
shows us that with the cylinder swept volume and mixture composi-
tion taken invariable, N , a t n = constant will be determined by
ratio qe/a,the value of q v and the parameters of the air entering
the engine.
Since the mass air charge G, (in kg) remaining in the engine cylin-
ders
Go = v z ~ l l v (16.2)
the expression (16.1) may be written in the form:
It follows from the above equations that an increase i o the density

(supercharging) of the air entering the engine materially increases
effective power N e .
There are other possibilities of increasing power N , , which are,
however, less effective as compared with supercharging. For
example, an increase in effective power N e on account of increasing
the swept volume and number of cylinders makes mass and dimension
figures of the engine worse. An increase in the engine speed is possi-
ble, provided the quality of working process at high coefficient of
admission q, and mechanical efficiency qm, which is unpracticable.
Increasing the engine effective power by supercharging allows us
to increase the mass of air admitted into the engine cylinders and,
thus, to burn more fuel. I n supercharged engines the efficiency q,
increases somewhat on account of an increase in the cycle pressure
and a decrease in the specific losses as a result of utilizing part of the
exhaust power in the supercharging auxiliaries.
344 PART FOUR. ENGINE SYSTEMS
In compliance with the classification of supercharging in use

there are engines: (1) with low supercharging (the power output is
increased by less than 30 96); (2) with medium supercharging (the
power output is increased from 30 to 45%); (3) with high superchar-
ging (the power output is increased by more than 45 %).
At present, the low, medium and high supercharging finds wide
applications in automobile and tractor internal combustion engines,
thus providing for the required boosting of the engines.
16.2, SUPERCHARGING UNITS AND SYSTEMS

Boosting diesel engines in effective pressure by increasing the
supercharging pressure imposes a number of requirements on the
units supplying air to the diesel engine. Of especial importance are
proper choice of the supercharging unit arrangement and its design
approach.
Modern transportation internal combustion engines employ the
following supercharging systems: inertial, with a mechanically
Fig. 16.1. Supercharging diagram
driven supercharger, gas turboblower, and combined system. With

any system of supercharging, the main object of the working process
in the engine is to obtain most reliable and efficient performance.
The inertial supercharging system is most simple. This makes it
possible to use wave processes through the choice of intake and
exhaust manifolds of appropriate lengths with a view to increasing
the amount of air admitted into the engine cylinders. At present,
the inertial supercharging is used, but not often, as it calls for corn-
plieated adjustment of the intake and exhaust systems.
More often used are the systems with a mechanically driven super-
charger (Fig. 16.1~).In this system air is supplied by a supercharger
+-4
CE. i6. SUPERCHARGING 345
driven from the engine crankshaft. Centrifugal, reciprocating-piston.

and rotor-gear superchargers can be used as supercharging units.
Supercharging by this system adds to the engine output power.
his holds true, if an increase in the engine power output due t o
the supercharger exceeds the power driving the supercharger. Note,
that this excess power grows smaller with a decrease in the engine
load as the relative work utilized to drive the supercharger increases.
Since part of the engine useful work is consumed to drive the super-
charger, the engine efficiency decreases. Supercharging units are
generally volumetric type superchargers or centrifugal compressors.
The latter are compact because of their high specific speed. Their
advantages, however, are reduced by unreliability of the mechanical
drive of a centrifugal compressor and an increased noise in operation
of the unit. As a rule, driven centrifugal compressors are used for
supercharging four-stroke engines. Most popular with two-stroke
engines are volumetric type Roots blowers.
Some disadvantages pertaining to the system with driven super-
chargers are not present in turbo-supercharging units (Fig. 16.lb)
combining a gas turbine and a compressor (turbo-compressor). A t
present, this method of supercharging is most widely used in auto-
mobile and tractor internal-combustion engines.
The gas turbine operates on the engine exhaust gases, the energy
of which is utilized by the turbine to drive a compressor. The fact
that the turbine utilizes the engine exhaust gas ensures the most
acceptable configuration of the supercharging unit and most simple
construction of it.
The combined supercharging involves a supercharger mechanically
driven from the engine and the use of exhaust gases. For example, in
the diagram shown in Fig. 16.lc, the turbo-compressor performing
the first stage supercharging is not mechanically coupled with the.
engine and the second stage of the compressor is driven from the
engine crankshaft.
In the diagram shown in Fig. 16.ld the turbo-compressor shaft is
coupled to the engine crankshaft. This configuration makes it pos-
sible to convey excessive power of the gas turbine to the engine
crankshaft and receive power from the crankshaft, when the turbine
is underpowered. If the output power of the gas turbine equals the
input power of the compressor, the energy is not redistributed.
At present, the combined supercharging finds its applications
mainly in heavy-duty engines (ships, rail vehicles, etc.).
Radial and axial flow turbines and compressors find their appli-
cations in the supercharging units. Axial-flow compressors are not
widely used in supercharging automobile and tractor diesel engines.
This is attributed mainly to the fact that low consumption axial-
flow compressors are known for 'high losses due to the small height
of the nozzle vanes and working blades and relatively large axial
clearances. Besides, the pressure increase in the stage of axial-flow

compressor is n, <
1.3. Therefore, with higher values of x, the axial-
flow compressor must be of a multistage type.
The degree of pressure increase in centrifugal compressors is far
higher. I n the compressors of highly hopped-up engines the value of
n, = 3.0 to 3.5. I t is possible to obtain higher degrees of pressure
increase in one stage: 4.5 bo 5.0.
Like the compressors, the gas turbines may be radial and axial
flow. The supercharging units utilize both types of turbines. In
most cases, however, use is made of radial-flow turbines having
certain advantages over axial-flow turbines.
I n the USSR, two types of turbo-compressors are available. These
.are a TK axial-flow turbo-compressor (Fig. 16.1~)and a TKP com-
pressor with a peripheral-admission turbine (Fig. 16.lb). Diesel
engines having effective power within the range of 100 to 800 kW
.employ centrifugal compressors and peripheral-admission turbines
with wheels from 70 to 230 mm in the outer diameter.
Table 16.1 covers the basic parameters and overall dimensions of
iturbo-compressors. These are made with turbines and compressors
Table 16.1
Standard sizes
9 d
.+
4' 03 m
a
Basic parameters and dimensions I
.- 00 .
-I H
a
I I
I
d 9t
2E i4
E
W
b B
W
E-r
&
W
E
Nominal reference ciian~eterof corn-

pressor wheel, mm 70 1 8 5 140 110 480 230
Pressure ratio 1.3-1.9 1.3-2.5 1.3-3.5
Gas temperature upstream the tur-

bine in continuous operation, "C,
max 650
Maximum gas temperature upstream

the turbine permissible within 1
hour, "C, max 700 ,
Compressor efficiency in specified

operation, not less than:
with a vaned diffuser Use of vaned dif- 0.75 0.76 0.78
fuser is not recom-
mended
with an open diffuser 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.72 0.74
Turbine efficiency, rnin
I I
0.70 0.72 0.74 0.74 0.76 0.76
CH. f 6 . SUPERCHARGING 347
and used mainly for supercharging high-speed diesel engines

(Fig. 16.2), their wheels being mounted in a cantilever manner with
regard to the supports.
One of the main purposes of implementing the gas-turbine super-
charging is to obtain most f avourable conditions under which the
exhaust gas energy may be best used.
In modern automobile and tractor engines, use is made of the
following supercharging systems: (1) pulse systems with variable gas
pressure in the exhaust manifold; (2) constant-pressure systems with
Fig. 16.2. Diagrams of turbo-superchargers

(a) with axial-flow turbine, type TK; ( b ) with radial peripheraT-adrnissi~n
turbine, type TKP;
1-turbo-supercharger housmg; ,?-centrifugal compressor; 3-turbine scroll; 4-turbine
wheel; 5-turbine disk; 'i -bearings; ?'-rotor of turbo-supercharger
constant gas pressure in the exhaust manifold; (3) combined systems

with a separate exhaust manifold and a common (constant-pressure)
housing of the turbine.
Though known for a relatively low level of boosting, the pulse
supercharging sys tern is more efficient.
The efficiency of the pulse supercharging system may be improved,
for example, by reducing the volume of the manifold tube lines
run from the cylinders to the turbine. This allows the effective power
and fuel economy of a diesel engine to be increased more than in the
case of constant-pressure supercharging.
In order to provide high degree of impulse energy utilization, the
turbine exhaust-in channel is designed as comprised by many sec-
tions (two, four, etc.) and the exhaust is made i n to a multi-section
manifold, following the firing order. With this system of superchar-
ging the pressure a t the end of exhaust drops and pumping losses
become reduced.
AS compared with a constant-pressure supercharging system, the
pulse supercharging system, therefore, somewhat improves the power
and fuel economy characteristics of engines a t a relatively small vo-
lume of the manifolds and moderate supercharging. The use of the
constant-pressure supercharging system, however, makes the con-

struction of the exhaust system far more simpler. Therefore, when
choosing an actual system of supercharging we must weigh its advan-
tages against its disadvantages.
16.3. TURBO-SUPERCHARGER DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS
The efficiency figures of supercharged diesel engines are much

dependent on the choice of the geometry and construction parameters
of the flow passage elements of the turbo-superchargers. The objective
of conducting a gas dynamics analysis is in this case to determine
the dimensions of the turbine and supercharger elements and their
parameters providing the requisite capacity and head a t the speci-
fied efficiency.
Compressor
The most popular type of centrifugal compressors used at present
in turbosuperchargers is a radial-axial flow compressor of the semi-
open type with radial vanes a t the discharge from the working wheel.
Figure 16.3 shows a diagram of a centrifugal compressor channel
with a vaned diffuser. The essentials of the compressor are inlet
device I, impeller 2, diffuser 3 and air scroll 4.
I n Fig. 16.3 the letters c, w and u stand for absolute, relative and
peripheral velocities, respectively. Section ai,-ai, corresponds t o
Fig. 16.3. Diagram of centrifugal compressor channelIwith a vaned diffusor

CLI. 16. SUPERCHARGING 349
the flow paramet'ers a t the inlet to the inlet duct, section 1-1 -
upstream the leading edges of the blades, section 11-II -- downstream
the trailine edges of the blades at diameter D,, section 111-111 - a t
the outlet from the open diffuser, section IV-IV - a t the outlet from
the vaned diffuser, and section 17-V - a t the outlet of the scroll.
The absolute velocity components are designated with the letter u
for peripheral, r for radial, and a for axial.
The compressor is designed for one mode of operation whether a t
the nominal or maximum torque.
The operation of the centrifugal stage is mainly evaluated in terms
of compressor pressure ratio n, and air mass flow rate G,.
The stage efficiency is evaluated in terms of adiabatic (isoentropic)
efficiency q a d e c which is the ratio of adiabatic compression work to
the actual compression work. When designing a compressor, one
must proceeds from the requirements defining the efficiency values
versus outer diameter D,of the compressor impeller (see Table 16.1).
The compressor capacity (mass air flow rate through the engine),
kg/s, is determined by the heat analysis data.
The volumetric air flow rate (in nm3/s)
where p, is the air density, kg/m3.

To compute the compressor, we first define the environmental
parameters (see Sec. 3.1).
The inlet device and impeller. The flow temperatures a t the outlet
and inlet of the compressor duct (section 1-1 and ai,-ai,, Fig. 16.3)
are taken as equal, i.e. T,i n. = T , K . This condition is satisfied, if
the heat transfer to the ambient atmosphere, when the air flows from
the inlet t.o the outlet section, is neglected.
The flow pressure a t section ai,-at,
where Api, = 0.002 to 0.006 stands for pressure losses in overcoming

the resistance of the inlet pressure to the compressor, MPa. The value
of Apt, depends mainly on the resistance of the air cleaner and piping.
In order to decrease energy losses in the inlet device, the shape of
confuser is conferred upon it to provide continuous acceleration of
the flow along the axis of the inlet duct. The ratio between the areas
of the inlet and outlet sections Fai,/Fl = 1.3 to 2.0 fcr the axial
and elbow ducts and %,/F, = 2.0 to 3.5 for the radial-circular duct.
TO determine the pressure ratio in the compressor, n,, we must
know in addition to pressure pa,,, the value of air pressure p , a t
the outlet of the compressor: n, = pc/pai,.
Fig. 16.4, Flow characteristics of turbo-superchargers, type TK (a) and TKP ( b )
The size of the turbo-supercharger is defined by the values of Q,

and n, (Fig. 16.4). The nominal reference diameter D, of the com-
pressor impeller is determined from Table 16.1.
To evaluate t.he compressor head efficiency, use is made of head
pad, characteristic of the impeller peripheral velocity efficiency
utilized to perform the adiabatic work of compression, which is the
ratio of the compression adiabatic work Lad., (J/kg) to the square of
peripheral velocity u, (in m/s) on the impeller outer diameter:
p a d . c = L a d . cI": (16.5)
where
CH. 16. SUPERCHARGING 35P
For semiopen axial-radial impellers the head coefficient Ed.,

= 0.56 to 0.64. I t is dependent on the outer diameter D, of the impel-
ler, peripheral velocity u2 and the workmanship of the compressor.
flow channel shape. Smaller values of &.e are taken for impellers
with D 2 = 70 to 110 mm and higher values are for impellers having
D, > 110 mm. I n the compressor stages with the vaned diffuser
the value of gad.is 0.02-0.04 higher than the case is with an open
diffuser.
Peripheral velocity u, on the outer diameter of the impeller is
determined from equation (16.5)
The impeller peripheral velocity is dependent upon the air corn-

pression ratio n, in the compressor. I n h.p. compressors u, = 250 t o
500 m/s. Compressor speed n, = 60 u,l (d, )
rpm.
The air parameters in outlet section I-I (Fig. 16.3) of the duct may
be determined, if absolute velocity c, of the flow in this section is
assumed. The absolute velocity c, upstream the impeller may vary
within wide limits (c, = 60 to 150 rnls). Higher values of absolute
velocity ci are taken for compressors with high peripheral veloci-
ties (u, = 300 to 500 rn/s). With an axial flow inlet, the axial
component of absolute velocity cl, upstream the impeller is taken
equal to absolute velocity el, i.e. el, = c,.
The impeller inlet air temperature (section 1-1)
where c, is the air heat capacity a t a constant pressure, J/(kg K).

Relative losses in the air inlet nozzle of the compressor are evalua-
ted by loss factor gin, With axial inlet nozzles kin = 0.03 to 0.06 and
with elbow-like nozzles gin equals 0.10 t o 0.15. With the value of
E m defined, we determine the losses in the air inlet nozzle of the
compressor (J /kg) :
Polytropic exponent nr, in the air inlet path to the compressor is

determined from the expression
The air pressure upstream the compressor impeller

With the value of p, known, inlet cross-sectional area F, (ma) of

the impeller is determined by air flow rate G, and absolute velocity c,
.of the flow in section I-I:
Fl = G,/(~,P,)
The diameter of the impeller (m) a t the inlet to the compressor
where Do is the diameter of the impeller hub, m.

The value of D,/D, in fabricated impellers varies within 0.25
-to 0.60.
Diameter Do of the impeller hub
One of the basic design parameters of a compressor is the ratio

D,/D, known as the relative diameter of the impeller a t the inlet. In
most centrifugal compressors D,lD, = 0.5 to 0.7. Ratio DJD, is
chosen as great as practicable in order to reduce the compressor di-
mensions.
With the values of Dland Do known, we determine the mass dia-
meter of the impeller inlet
-+
D , , = ~ ( D ~ 4 ) / 2 and
%hemean relative diameter of the impeller inlet section
The work consumed to compress air in the compressor, its effici-

ency and bead are dependent upon the number of impeller vanes.
'There are no stringent recommendations on choosing the number of
impeller vanes. I n the compressors designed for supercharging in
automobile and tractor engines z, = 12 to 16. For impellers of small
diameters (D,= 70 to 100 mm) smaller values of z, are taken.
With an infinite number of vanes, the compression work (J/kg)
without swirling the flow at the inlet to the impeller
With a finite number of vanes, compression work L, differs from

work Lj. This difference is evaluated by the power factor
CH, 16. SUPERCHARGING 353
Power factor p for axial-radial impellers (in the region of design

modes of operation) can be det,ermined fairly accurately by the
formula of P. K . Kazandzhan
I t follows from (16.10) that the peripheral component of the abso-

lute velocity a t the impeller exit c,, = yu;. The radial velocity c,,
is determined from t,he prescribed ratio c2,1u,. I n designed compres-
sor c,, = (0.25 to 0 . 4 0 ) ~m/s.
~ The absolute velocity (mls) of air at
the exit of the impeller is found from the triangle - of speeds
- (see
+
-
Fig. 16.3): c, = I/c& c,:. Usually c, = (0.90 to 0.97) u, m/s.

The air temperature (K) a t the impeller exit can be determined
from the equation
+ +
T, = TI ( p at- p 2 / 2 ) ~ : l c p (16.12)
where af is a disk friction loss factor; af= 0.04 to 0.08 for semiopen
impellers.
When determining pressure p, of t,he air flow a t the impeller exit
air compression polytropic exponent n, is determined by empirical
relations or experimental data. I n compressors designed nc = 1.4
to 1.6.
The air pressure downstream the impeller
The values of p, and T, may be used to determine the air flow densi-
ty p, and find the width (in m) of the impeller working vanes a t
diameter D 2 (see Fig. 16.3):
b2 = Gal (nD2~2r~2) (16.14)
Vane relative width b, = b 2 / D 2 . The maximum efficiency of
a compressor is usually obtained at %, = 0.04 to 0.07.
Existing small-size compressors are built with relative impeller
width B = BID, = 0.25 to 0.35. Impeller width B is mainly depen-
dent on the manufacturing process and impeller size. The smaller D,,
the more difficult i t is to provide smooth turn of the flow in a meri-
dional
- section, the wider the impeller must be. Roughly we may take
B < 0.3 at D, > 110 mm and <
0.3 a t D, 110 mm. Increasing
in excess of 0.35, however, does not lead to a marked increase
in the compressor efficiency.
Diffusers and air scroll. The air flow a t the impeller exit has
a high kinetic energy. Because of flow deceleration the kinetic energy
in the diffuser is transformed into potential energy.
354 P21RT FOUR. ENGINE SYSTEfiIS
Fb'idth b, of t,he vaneless part of the diffuser is taken by the known

value of compressor vane height b, a t the esit, i.e. b3= (0.90 to
1.0) b,. If an open diffuser is followed by a vaned one, we assume
b , = b2.
Outer diameter of an open diffuser, D,, is equal to (1.05 to 1.20) 0,.
When no open diffuser is used fi3 = 1.4 to 1.8. I n a first approxima-
t,ion t.he absolute velocity (in m/s) a t the open diffuser esit is
I n compressor in which an open diffuser is followed by a vaned

diffuser, ratio c,/c, = 1.08-1.25. With one open diffuser c,ic,
= 1.65-2.2.
When performing a gas dynamic analysis of a vaned diffuser, the
defined design dimensions are used t o determine the temperature,
pressure and velocity of the air flow in between the vanes.
The use of a vaned diffuser allows us to increase the maximum valu-
es of the compressor efficiency and head coefficient compared wit.h
an open diffuser. This is due to decreased losses.
Outer diameter D4 of a vaned diffuser is determined as dictated
by the value of D,,i.e. D 4 = (1.35 to 1.70) D,.Widt,h b4 a t the exit
of a vaned diffuser is taken equal t,o b , or somewhat great,er, i.e.
b4 > b,. If friction losses are high, it is good practice to make the
diffuser with wall, diverging a t an angle v = 5 t o 6".
The esit width (in m) of a vaned diffuser
b, = b ,+ ( D , - D3) tan v / 2
The pressure downstream the vaned diffuser
To determine temperature T,, the value of diffuser compression

polytropic index l z d must be defined. I n open and vaned diffusers
nd = 1.6 to 1.8.
The temperature (K) downstream the diffuser
The air flow velocity ( d s ) a t t,he vaned diffuser e s i t is determi-

ned from the energy equation
From the vaned diffuser of a cent'rifugal compressor the air flows

to an air scroll which makes i t possible to direct the flow to the
intake manifold with minimum energy losses.
Of the air collectors in use the air scroll made in the shape of a n
asymmetric scroll has the highest efficiency.
The cross-sectional area a t the scroll esi t section is son~etimestaken
such that t-he velocity of air he equal or close to its velocit,y a t the
exit from the vaned diffuser, i.e. c, z c,.
Head losses L ,,,,(Jlkg) in t.he scroll
where e,, = 0.1 to 0.3 is the loss factor in t,he sc,roll.

In view of the fact that c, m cc,, scroll e s i t temperature T, may be
taken in certain approximation as equal to temperature T , a t the
vaned diffuser esit, i.e. T 5= T4.
The scroll exit pressure (illpa) ,
,< b u t -
The flow velocity in the scroll may be

reduced by making t,he outlet duct of the
scroll in the form of a diffuser (Fig. 16.5).
I n t,his case pressure p, somewhat in-
creases.
Basic parameters of compressor. Scroll
exit pressure p5 corresponds t'o super-
charging air pressure upstream the Fig, 16.5. Scroll
intake manifold of the engine, i.e. it is
taken as p, = p,.
Pressure p, obtained a t the compressor exit should be equal to that
taken in the engine heat analysis p , within 2-4%. Otherwise, the
compressor must be redesigned, changing the parameters determining
its head.
The actual compressor pressure ratio
The adiabatic work (Jjkg) determined by the actual pressure ratio
Lad. e
-
-
R o T a ,., ,
(n(k-l)lk- 1)
The adiabatic efficiency of the compressor
The obtained value of the compressor efficiency niust satisfy the

requirements specified in Table 16.1 for superchargers of the given
standard size.
The head coefficient
- 2
Had. c = L a d . ci"z
356 PART FOUR. ENGIXE SYSTEMS
The value of E a d . , should equal coefficient Kd.,taken in the

design within at least 2-4%.
The compressor drive power (kW)
Gas Turbine
Combined internal combustion engines employ axial- and radial-
flow turbines. I n automobile and tractor engines, use is mainly made
of small-size single-stage radial-flow turbines. Wit,h small flow ra-
tes of gases and high peripheral velocities, radial-flow turbines have
a higher efficiency comparedj with axial-f low turbines. Therefore,
according to St. Standard radial turbines are used for TKP-7 -
TKP-23 (see Table 16.1). Axial-flow turbines find application in the
-cases of turbo-compressors having impellers 180 mrn or more in
diameter.
The inlet case of small-size turbines for automobile and tractor
engines may be either vaned o r open. With an open inlet case, the
design parameters of the impeller entry gas flow are ensured by spe-
cial shaping of the scroll part of the turbine housing.
Gas turbine wheels are generally an axial-radial type (Fig. 16.6).
With this construction of the turbine wheel the energy of exhaust
gases is used most advantageously.
In Fig. 16.6 the letter v stands for absolut-e, w for relative, and u
for peripheral velocities. Section 0-0is referred to the gas para-
meters upstream the turbine, I-I - t o those a t the exit from the in-
f7 View A
Fig. 16.6. Diagram or" radial turbine channel

CH. iG. SUPERCHARGING 357
let, case (upstream the leading edges of the blades), II-11 - to the
gas parameters downstream t,he t,urbine.
-The absolute velocity components are designated as follows:
u for peripheral, r for radial and a for axial components.
Used as reference data in gas dynamic computations of turbines
are the results of previous computations (the heat analysis of the
engine and compressor).
In a free turbo-supercharger the joint operat,ion of a gas turbine
and a compressor is provided, when:
the turbine rotor speed is the same as that of the compressor
rotor:
the turbine power equals that of the compressor:
there is a cert,ain relationship among the gas flow rate in the tur-
bine G,, air flow rate in the compressor G,, and air and fuel flow
r a t e in the engine:
where G, is the amount of exhaust gases delivered to the turbine

from the engine, kgJs.
The gas temperature upstream the turbine can be determined by
the data of the engine heat analysis from the heat balance equation
by exhaust gas temperature T,,. The value of T,, is mainly depen-
dent on the gas temperature at the end of expansion, excess air
factor a, receiver pressure, heat exchange in the exhaust ducting,
and other factors. Gas temperature T,, is difficult to be determined
exactly, for which reason i t is found roughly versus the above gas
parameters, neglecting the gas work in the cylinder during the
exhaust stroke and hydraulic losses in the exhaust components:
where m = 1.3 to 1.5 is the mean polytropic exponent of the gas

expansion in the cylinder during the exhaust stroke; p,, is the gas
pressure in the exhaust connection, &!Pa.
Temperature ti, of the exhaust gases comprised by a mixture of
exhaust gases and seavanging air is determined by the successive
approximat ion method from the expression
358 P-IHT F O U R . ENGlh'E SYSTEBIS
where cz,, c,,, c,', are the molar heat capacities of combustion pro-
ducts a t temperature t,,, a i r at telilperatiire t , and mixture of com-
bustion products and air a t temperature t;,, respectively.
Gas temperature T t upstream the turbine may be taken on certain
approsilnation as equal to exhaust gas temperature T c x , i.e. T t =
= T,,. S o t e , t h a t with the engine operating for a long period of
time, the gas temperature upstream the turbine must not esceed
perniissible values specified in Table 16.1.
Back pressure p , downstream the turbine is usually taken on the
basis of experimental data. The value of p , is mainly dependent on
the length, shape of the outlet dtrcting and hydraulic losses in the
silencer.
To evaluate turbine efficiency q t we may use recommendation in
Table 16.1 in coinpliance with the taken standard size of the turbo-
supercharger (see the design of a compressor). Total efficiency q t of
the turbine includes a l l mechanical losses in the turbo-supercharger.
The effectiveness of the turbo-supercharger is evaluated by the
efficiency representing the product of the turbine and compressor
efficiencies.
Therefore. the turbo-supercharger efficiency
I n modern turbo-superchargers 11 = 0.48 t,o 0.62.

Gas pressure p t upstream the turbine is determined from the po-
wer balance on the turbo-supercharger shaft ( N , = N t ) :
where q t is the total efficiency of t.he turbine (it is taken approxi-

ma tely).
The guide case. Generally, only part of the delivered gas energy is
consumed in the guide case of turbines employed by automobile and
tractor engines, for which reason the turbines are of a react,ion type.
The heat drop redistribution in the t.urbine stage is evaluated i n terms
of reaction degree p t which is the ratio of the heat drop consumed
in the turbine wheel to the tot,al heat drop. I n radial-axial turbines
the optimum degree of react,ion p = 0.45 t o 0.55.
The cornp1et.e adiabatic work of gas expansion (in Jikg) in the
t,urhine
Lod. t = Lad. eGo/('l tllad. c G g )
The adiabatic work of expansion in the turbine guide case (no-

zzle)
CH. 16. SUPERCH-iRGING 359
Absolute velocity U, (11~'s) of gas npst ream the t,urbine wheel
where qt. is the relocity factor accounting for losses in the guide case.
For radial-axial turbines having a wheel from 80 to f80 mm in dia-
meter, cp, = 0.92 to 0.96.
After absolute velocity L., has been found, determine gas tempera-
ture T , a t the e s i t from the guide case (nozzle):
The gas flow in t.he passage of the turbine guide case is clet,erinined
by the Mach number:
where a, is the velocity of sound, m/s.

If Ml < 1, then t.he gas flow is subsonic and the turbine nozzle
must be a confuser t'ype.
To define radial u,, and peripheral ',,
components of absolute
velocity v,, we assume a value of angle a, of the gas outflow from t'he
guide case. The value of angle a, varies within wide limits (a, = 12
to 27") and is taken proceeding from obt,aining maximum efficiency
of the turbine.
The radial and peripheral component,^ of the absolute gas velocity
(in m/s) upstream the .turbine wheel (Fig. 16.6) are:
Uli- = v1 sin a i ; u,, =: 71, cos a,
Peripheral velocit,y u, a t the outer diamet,er of the wheel is nor-
mally assumed with a view to providing a most favourable value of
the turbine specific speed:
where v u d = v . 2 ~ is ~ the
~ . convendional adiabatic gas outflow
velocity, m/s.
x
The value of must lie within the range 0.65 to 0.70. The value
of u1 is usually taken as somewhat greater than velocity u,,to in-
crease t,he turbine efficiency. Under these conditions the gas inflow
encounters the t,urbine wheel vanes at an angle greater than 90":
The value of fj, must lie within the limits 75-110'. I f P 1 > 75O,
correct a, and pt.
The relative velocit,y of flow (in mls)
The outer diameter (m) of the turbine wheel

D l = 60 u,l(nnt)
The inlet diameter of the guide case is determined by the value of
D,/D,which varies in the built turbines within 1.3 to 1.5:
In the t,urbine types under consideration the number of guide vanes

z, is equal to or less than 20.
Energy losses (Jikg) in the guide case are dependent on and cp,:
AL, = (licp; - 1) u:/2 (16.30)
After the value of AL, is defined, we may find the relationship
and, thus, determine the gas pressure a t the exit from the guide case
P1 = Pt (TIIT Jn(/nn - 1)
where n, is the expansion polytropic index in the guide case.
The gas flow density (kg/m3) a t the exit from the guide case is
PI = PI 1061(RP I )
The vane width (m) of the guide case is determined from the
continuity equation:
b; = Gg/(nD,plvl
sin a,) (16.32)
The turbine wheel. The process of converting the gas flow poten-
tial energy into kinetic energy terminates in the vane passages of
the single-stage turbine wheel.
The adiabatic work of gas expansion in the turbine wheel is dicta-
ted by the degree of turbine reaction:
For the design parameters of the turbine wheel, see Table 16.2.
For radial-axial wheels having diameter D l = 70 to 140 mm, the
number of vanes 2, is 10 to 18. I t is good practice to design wheels
with an outer diameter D, = 70 to 85 mrn with the number of vanes
2, = 10 t o 12, and those having D, = 110 to 140 mm with t,he num-
ber of vanes 2, = 13 to 18.
The relative mean velocity of the gas a t the exit from the turbine
wheel
w2 = 0 1/u7: + 2Lfw- uf(1- u2,)-2
(16.34)
CH. 16, SUPERCHARGING 36 1
Table 16.2
Description Formula Variation limits
D 4
Inner diameter D2=Dl(-$) -=0.70
D1 to0.82
Dh Dh t o 0.3
Hub diameter ~ h = ~ l ( -=0.2
~ )
Dl
Root-mean-square diameter of wheel
exit ~ z m = I/'D$+ D; 2
Wheel vane width at the exit b, = bi
B B
Wheel width -=0.30 to 0.35
where J/I is the velocity factor accounting for losses in the turbine
wheel ($ = 0.80 to 0.85 for axial-radial turbines); &, = D2,iD1 is
the relative root-mean-square diameter of the wheel exit.
The peripheral velocity of the wheel (in m/s)
Treating the gas outflow 'as axial (v, = v,,), the value of absolute
velocity a t the wheel exit is found from the velocity triangle (see
Fig. 16.16)
The gas temperature (K) a t the exit from the wheel
where at = 0.04 to 0.08 is a coefficient of disk friction losses.

The adiabatic efficiency of the turbine, neglecting the losses a t the
exit velocity
Including the losses a t the exit velocity, we have
With no diffuser in use and large angles a, losses a t the esit velo-
city may be fairly considerable.
362 PART FOUR. EKGINE SYSTEnIS
The resultant efficiency of the turbine is determined taking into

account all hydraulic and mechanical losses:
where 11,,.,,,,~ is the mechanical efficiency of the turbo-supercharger

(for aut,ornobile and tractor t,urbo-s~perc~hargers 91 t s . e - 0.92
to 0.96).
The design value of 11, should equal the value previously talien in
determining the gas adiabab,ic work in t,he turbine [see formu-
la (16.25)I within 2-4 % otherwise, repeat the ~ornput~ations, having
changed the gas-dynamical and construction parameters of t,he tur-
b ine.
The power out.put from the turbine (in kW)
N = Lad.t G g t/lOOO
~~ (16.37)
must correspond to compressor input power N , , i.e. N t = A',.
16.4. APPROXIMATE COMP'UTATION OF A COMPRESSOR

AIXD \i TURBINE
Work out the basic parameters and compute a turbo-supercharger
for a four-stroke 233 kW, 2600 rpm diesel engine. For the heat
analysis of the engine (see Sec. 4.3).
The computation of compressor. The environmental parameters
and physical constants for air are assumed by the data of t,he heat
analysis (see Sec. 3.1). The compressor is a radial-axial, vaned-dif-
fuser, single-stage type.
The mass air flow rate through the engine
where (p, = 1.0 is the sc,avenging ratio.

The compressor inlet air densit,y
The volumetric air flow through the compressor
Tlze computation of the inlet device and impeller. The air temperature
a t sect.ion ai,-ai,, (see Fig. 16.3)
'sin = T o = 293 K
The air pressure a t section ai,-ai,
CH. 16. SUPERCHrlRGING 363
where Api, = 0.005 are the pressure l o s ~ e sat the colnpressor inlet,,
MPa.
The compression ratio in the compressor
z,= p C/t p a i n= O.l'ii'0.095 = 1.79
where p , = 0.17 1IPa is the supercharging air pressore (see the
diesel engine heat analysis).
By the known values of Q, and n, and using the graphical relation-
ships (see Fig. 16.4), determine the standard size of the TKP-11
turbo-supercharger, and from Table 16.1 find the reference diameter
of the compressor impeller: D, = 0.11 m = 110 mm.
The adiabatic compression work in the compressor
The peripheral velocity a t t,he compressor iinpeller outer diameter
where Pad.e= 0.6 is the head ratio.

The compressor impeller speed
n , = 60 u2/(nD,) = 60 x 298/(3.14 x 0.11) = 51. 600 rpm
The air temperature at the inlet to the compressor impeller (sec-
tion 1-1)
where vain = 40 is the air velocity at the inlet section, mis; o, = 80

is the absolute flow velocity upstream the impeller, m/s; c, = 1005
is the air thermal capacity at a constant pressure, J/(kg K).
Losses in the compressor air inflow ducting
L 'in = ,5,a:i2 = 0.04 x 80V2 = 128 J /kg
where gin = 0.04 is the loss fact>orfor axial inlet ductings.
Polytropic index ni, a t the air inlet to the c,ompressor is determi-
ned as follows:
hence n,, = 1.37.

364 PART FOUR. ENGINE SYSTEnIS
The pressure upstream the compressor impeller

P*= Pa,, (T,!T,. I n)"in / W i n - 1)
= 0.095 (290.6/293)1.37/(1.37-1)= 0.0915 MPa
The air density at. section I-1
p1 = p,+106/(RaT,) = 0.0915 x 1061(287 x 290.6) = 1.1 kg/m3
The area of section I-I
F , = Ga/(v,pl) = 3.5/(80 x 1.1) = 0.00397 ma
The diameter of the compressor inlet impeller
8 5- (D,/Di)2]J
Di = ~ [ ~ ~ / { 0 . 7 [1
=1/0.00397/[0.785 (1-0.32)] = 0.0745 m = 74.5 mrn
where Do/D, = 0.3 is the ratio of the hub diameter of the impeller
t,o its inlet diameter.
The hub diameter of the compressor impeller
Do = DID,/D, = 0.0745 x 0.3 = 0.0223 m = 22.3 rnm
The relative diameter of the impeller hub
Do = Do/D2 = 0.0223/0.11 = 0.203
The relative impeller inlet diameter
The relative mean diameter at the inlet to the impeller
The power factor for axial-radial ixnpellers
where z i = 16 and stands for the number of compressor impeller

vanes.
The peripheral component of the absolute velocity at t,he impeller
exit
v,, = pu, = 0.8: x 298 = 254 m/s
The radial component of the absolute velocity
Z i Z r = 0.3 u2 = 0.3 x 298 = 89.5 m/s
CH. 16. SUPERCHARGING 365
The absolute air velocity a t the impeller exit (see Fig. 16.3)
The ratio u2/u2= 2691298 = 0.905 lies within the permissible

limits.
The air temperature a t the impeller exit
where at = 0.05 is the coefficient of disk friction losses.

The compression polytropic index in the impeller is assumed as
n i , = 1.5.
-
The air pressure at the impeller exit
Pz = Pi (T,IT*)nim/(nim- 1)
= 0.0915 - i, = 0.146 MPa
(339.5/290.6)i*5/(i.5
The air density downstream the impeller
The height of the impeller vanes a t diameter D, (see Fig. 16.3) is
The relative height of the vanes a t the impeller exit section

-
b2 = b2/D, = 0.0076/0.11 = 0.069
The relative width of the compressor impeller
B = BID, = 0.03310.11 = 0.3
where B = 0.033 is the compressor impeller width, m.
Computation of diffusers and air scroll. The widt,h of the diffuser
open part is taken equal to the impeller vane height a t the exit (see
Fig. 16.3):
b , = b , = 0.0076 m = 7.6 mm
The outer diameter of an open diffuser
D, = D,D, = 0.11 x 1.14 = 0.125 m = 125 mm
where B, = D , / D , = 1.14 is the relative outer diameter of the open
diffuser.
The absolute velocity a t the outlet from t h e open diffuser
The ratio v,/v3 = 1.14 and does not exceed the permissible values.
The pressure downstream the vaned diffuser
p, = p n, = 0.095 x 1.79 = 0.17 MPa
The compression polyt,ropic index in the diffusers is taken as n d
= 1.7.
The air temperahre downstream the vaned diffuser
The air velocity a t the exit from the vaned diffuser

v5 = I/v; -( T , - T,) 2c,
The outer diameter of the vaned diffuser (see Fig. 16.3) D, = (1.35
to 1.70) 0,. Take the outer diameter as D, = 1.6 and D, = 1.6
x 0.11 = 0.176 m = 176 mni.
The vaned diffuser exit width
b, = b, $ (D4- D3) tan v i 2 = 0.0076
+ (0.176 - 0.125) tan 6'12 = 0.0103 m = 10.3 m m
where v = 6' is t,he flare angle of t,he vaned diffuser walls.
The air velocity a t the scroll out,let
Losses in the scroll

L f~~
= E s c rzi2/2 = 0.15 x 1642/2 = 2020 Jlkg
where E,, = 0.15 is t,he air scroll loss factor.
The scroll outlet pressure
The air pressure in t'he compressor may be raised, if the scroll

outlet duct is of a diffuser type (see Fig. 16.5).
Computation of compressor basic parameters. Terminal pressure
p, = 0.167 MPa at the compressor outlet differs from p , = 0.1 7 hIPa
assumed in the heat analysis by 1.9 % , which is tolerable.
The air temperature downstream t h e compressor (T, = 362 K)
differs from T, = 361 K obtained in the heat arlalysis by 0.028%.
The actual pressure increase in the compressor
I
n, = p5,pain= 0.167 10.095 = 1.76
The adiabatic effi~ienc~y of t,he compressor

q a d . e = To (nik-illk- l)/(T5- T o )
= 293 (1.76('.'-')1l.4 - 1)/(362 - 293) = 0.746

The adiabat,ic work determined by the actual pressure increase
Head coefficient R a d , e = Lad. = 51 900i29B2 = 0.585 dif-

fers from Rad,e= 0.6 taken in the computation by 2.596, which
is tolerable.
The power to drive the compressor
N , = L,dm,G,/lOOO~~,d.,= 51 900 X 0.35/(1000 x 0.746)
= 24.35 kW
Computation of a turbine. The quantity of engine exhaust gases

entering the t,urbine
-+
G , = Ga [1 i/ arp,l,)] = 0.35 [1
+
1/(1.7 x 1.0 x 14.452)I = 0.365 kg/s
The gas pressure in the exhaust manifold is dependent on the
supercharging system and varies in four-stroke engines within the
limits p, = (0.80 to 0.92) p,. Keeping in mind that p, must be
higher t,han p , upstream the t,urbine, we assume
p, = 0.92~1,= 0.92 x 0.167 = 0.154MPa
At cp, = 1 t.he gas krnperature upstream the turbine
where T p is the gas temperature in the exhaust manifold; m = 1.43

is the expansion polytropic index in the exhaust process.
The backpressure downstream the turhine p , ~ ~ ( 1 . 0t o2 1.05) po
MPa. I n the computation we assume p2 = 1 . 0 = ~ 1.03
~ ~ X 0.1
= 0.103 MPa.
Isoe~ltropicindex k g of exhaust gases is computed by the gas tern-

perature, fuel composition and excess air factor. I n four-stroke en-
gines k g lies within 1.33 to 1.35. I n tmhecomputation we assume
kg = 1.34.
The gas molecular mass upstream the turbine is found taking into
account the parameters determined in the heat analysis of a diesel
engine:
The gas const.ant of exhaust gases
I n compliance with the turbo-supercharger defined before (TKP-

11), we take in the c o m p ~ t a t ~ i o nans isobaric radial turbine with ef-
ficiency q t = 0.76 (see Table 16.1).
The gas pressure upstream the turbine
= 0.103/ (1-
1.34- 1 51 900 x 0.35 )
1.34/(i.31- 1)
0.76 x 0.746 x 286 x 896 x 0.365
=0.147 MPa
The ratio p,lpt = 0.167/0.147 = 1.13. With four-stroke engines
p,lpt = 1.1 to 1.2.
The computation of nozzle. The full adiabatic work of gas expansion
in the turbine
Lad. t = L a d . eGa/(q fqad. c G g ) = 51 900
x 0.35/(0.76 x 0.746 x 0.365) = 88 000 J/kg
The adiabatic expansion work in the nozzle
where pt = 0.5 is the reaction level.

The absolute gas velocity upstream the turbine wheel
where cp, = 0.94 is the velocity coefficient.

The gas t.emperature downstcream the nozzle is
T h e Mach number
i,e. the gas flo\v is subsonic and the nozzle must be tapered.
The radial and peripheral coinponents of the gas absolute velocity
upst.ream the turbine wheel (see Fig. 16.6) are
ulr = vl sin a, = 258 sin 25' = 118 mis
cl,, = L\ cos a, = 278 cos 25" = 252 mis
where a, = 25' is the angle of the outflow from the guide case.
The angle of the inflow to the turbine wheel vanes
where u, = 276 m/s is the peripheral velocity a t the wheel outer

diameter.
In order t o increase the turbine efficiency, we assume u, > v,,.
The conventional adiabatic velocity of gas out:flow
The turbine specific speed parameter

= u ~ I v , ~= 276i420 = 0.66
lies witchinthe range 0.65-0.70.
The relative flow velocity upstream the turbine wheel
p, = 118isin 101C30' = 120.5 mls
w l -- ~?~,lsin
The outer diameter of t'he turbine wheel
D l = BOuli(nnt) = 60 x 276/(3.14 x 51 600)
-
0.102 m = 102 mm
I t should be kept i n mind, that n t = n,.
Power losses i n t,he guide case (nozzle)
The inlet diameter of the guide case

Do = D, (D,/D,) = 0.102 x 1.4 = 0.143 m = 143 mm.
The expansion polytropic index in t,he guide c.asc
370 P,lRrfL' FOUR. ENGINE SYSTEnlS
The gas pressure at the guide case outlet
The gas flow density

p1 = p1 X 1O6/(RgT,) = 0.1223 x 106!(286 x 861.6)
= 0.498 kg!m3
The width of t.he guide case vanes

b' , G, -
- 0.365
nD,p,vl sin a, 3.14 x 0.102 x 0.498 x 278 sin 25"
The computation of the turbine wheel. The gas expansion adiabatic

work in the turbine wheel
L,, = p tL,d.t = 0.5 x 88 000 = 44 000 J/kg
The computation dat,a of t,he wheel design parameters are to be
entered in Table 16.3.
Table 16.3
Paramef.ers Valuc, m
Inner diameter a t D,/D, =0.75 D , -- D l( D , / D l ) = O . 0767

Hub diameter a t D h / D , = 0.25 D h = Dl (DI-,,!Dl) = O .0256
Root-mean-square diameter of wheel D,, = +
( D f DYL)/2= 0.0572
a t exit
Wheel vane width a t inlet bl=b;=U.0194
Wheel width a t B/D,=0.3 B = D l ( B I D , ) = 0.0306
The relative gas velocity at the t,urbine wheel exit
-
where $ 0.845 is the coefficient of velocity; D,, = D,,i'D,
=
= 0.0572i0.102 = 0.56 is the relative root-mean-square diameter
of the wheel a t the exit,.
The peripheral velocit,y a t diameter D,
u,, = nD,,nt/60 = 3.14 X 0.0572 x 51 600/60 = 155 m/s
CH. 16. SUPERCHARGING 37 1
Assuming that the gas out'flow is axial (u, = v,,), MTe use the
triangle of velocities (see Fig. 16.6) to define the value of the absolute
velocity at the wheel exit
The gas temperature at the wheel exit
where af= 0.08 is t.he coefficient of disk friction losses.

Neglecting the losses with the exit velocity, the adiabatic effi-
ciency of the turbine
The adiabatic efficiency of the turbine including the losses a t the

exit velocity
The total efficiency of t'he turbine
- 0.95 is the mechanical efficiency of the turbo-

where q t s . m e c h -
supercharger.
The turbo-supercharger efficiency
The turbine output power
- corresponds to the power consumed by the compressor ( N t = N , ) .

24*
To perform a worki~lgcycle of an internal combustion engine, we
need a combustible mixture-a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. During
combustion of the mixture the internal chemical energy of the fuel
is converted into heat and then into mechanical energy to propel
the vehicle or tractor.
Modern automobiles and tractors employ the following internal
combustion engines:
1. Engines with external mixture formation (carburation) and
ignition from an outside source. I n such engines, use is made of vola-
tile fuel (liquid or gaseous) and the combustible mixture is generally
prepared outside the cylinder and combustion chamber in a device
made for the purpose-a carburettor. This type of engines also inclu-
des engines having the so-called system of directly injecting light
fuel i r ~ t othe intake manifold.
2. Engines with internal mixture formation (fuel injection) and
self-ignition of the fuel. These engines utilize non-volatile fuels (diesel
oil, straw oil and their mixtures), and the combustible mixture is
formed inside the combustion chambers, for which reason the design
of combustion chambers has a direct effect on the combustible mixture
tormat ion and ignition. D e p e n d i ~ ~ong the design of combustion cham-
bers and fuel supply method, modern diesel engines employ open
combustion chambers with volumetric or film fuel injection, and
subdivided cornbustion chambers-prechamber and swirl-chamber
en gines.
Regardless of the types and kinds of internal combustion engines,
the basic requirements imposed on their fuel systems are as follows:
1. Accurate metering of fuel and oxidizer (air) for cycles and cylin-
ders.
2. Preparing n combustible m i ~ t ~ ~within rre a rigorously defined,
as a rule, very small period of time.
3 . Formation of a combustible and then a working mixture ensur-
ing complete combustion of t'he fuel and no pollutants in the products
of combustion.
4. A ~ t o r n a t ~ change
ic in the quantity and composition of the coin-
bustible mixture in compliance with changes in the speed and load
of the engine.
5. JZeliable starting of the engine a t various temperatures.
6. Stability of the fuel system adjustment within a long period of
engine service along with the possibility of changing the adjus trnent,,
depending on the service conditions and condition of the engine.
CH. 17. DESIGN O F FUEL SYSTEJL ELE3lENTS 3 73
7 . Serviceability of the fuel system: sirnple and reliable construc-

tion, easy installation, adjust'ment. maintenance and repair.
The above requirements are mainly satisfied i n t h e foel systelns
of and tractor engines as follows:
(a) for engines with external mixture formation by a carburettor
in carburettor engines and by a carburettor-miser in gas ~ n g i l l e s .
by a pump and a n injector i n direct injection enginpi;
(b) for fuel injection engines hy a high-pressure purrlp and an ;tto-
mizer or a unit injector.
f 7.2. CARBURETTOR
The basic component of the fuel system of a carburetstor engine
is a carburettor. I t is comprised by a number of systems and devices
to meet the essential reqliirementmsimposed 011 the fuel syste~rls0 f
engines. These are:
1. Main metering system with mixture colnpenration correcting
the fuel delivery to rneet the cilgine basic operating requiretnents.
2. Idling system to provide
stable operation of the engine
under small loads.
3. Mixture enrichment sys-
tem used under cor~ditiorlsof
maximum load a ~ l dspeed t o
obtain the maximum power.
4. Devices providing a good
pick-up of the engine (quick - -
-- --
mixture enrich~nent in acce- --- --- -
- - -
leration).
5. Devices providing for re-
liable starting of the engine.
6. Auxiliary devices ensur-
ing reliable and stable opera-
tion of the carburettor.
When designing a carburet-
tor, it is generally enough to
make computations of the main p
metering circuit elements, Fig. 17.1. Diagram of elcmcntary car-
defining the basic dimensions burettor
of the venturi and jets.
Design of a venturi. When venturi computations are made, we d e -
fine a i r flow velocities a t different sections and determine constru C -
tional dimensions.
When the a i r after the a i r cleaner arid intake manifold flow s
through the venturi, it creates a slight vacuum, materially increasin g
its velocity a t the venturi minimum section.
374 PART FOUR. ENGISE SYSTEMS
The relation between the velocit,y variation and the air flow pres-
sure is determined in accordance with Bernoulli's equation for an
incompressible liquid, supposing t h a t the pressure a t section 1-1
(Fig. 17.1) is equal to the atmospheric pressure, i.e. p x - x = p,.
while the air velocity u?,-,= 0. Besides, to an approsilnation of
enough accuracy the air may be treated as an incompressible liquid.
its density po being constant at every point along its intake path.
This assu~nptionproduces an error within 2% as the pressure a t va-
Fig. 17.2. Loefficient of air consumption versus vacuum in venturi
rious sections of the carhurett.or varies, hut little, and the maximurn
depression in venturi minimum section 11-I1 Ap, = p, - p , does
not exwed 15-20 kPa.
Therefore, the t,heoretical veloc$ity of air w, (niis) (neglect'ing
pressure friction losses) for any section of the venturi
where p, and Ap, are the pressure and vacuum, respectively, a t an.y
section x-x of t,he venturi, P a ; po is the air density, kg/m3.
For the minimum venturi section (sect,ion I I - I I )
The actual air velocity in the venturi

w a c = (FvacWa = P u w a (17.3)
where q, is the velocity coefficient accourlting for pressure friction
losses in the illtake manifold; a , = f l / f v = 0.97 to 0.98 and is the
equal to the ratio of air flow minimum
st,ream contract.ion ~~oefficient
cross-sectional area fi to the minimum venturi cross-sectional area f ,
at section 11-11; y, = quacis the coefficient of the venturi flo\~+
rate.
Figure 17.2 shows coefficient pv of flow rate versus decompression
Ap, in venturi tubes of various carburettors. Referring to the curves,
CH. 17. DESIGN OF FUEL SYSTEM ELEMEN!FS 375
Pv rapidly rises a t low decompression values, then varies, but little,

and sometimes slightly decreases with an increase in Ap,. The shaded
area between two curves y, is charactmeristicof changes in p, for
most of modern carburettors. When computing venturi tubes, curve
PC is determined on the basis of experimental data or is taken as
close to maximum curve p U .
Proceeding from the venturi size, the actual second flow rate of
air (in kg/s) through t,he venturi is determined by the equat,ion
where d, is the verlturi diamet,er, m; p, is air density, kg/m3.

On the other hand, the air flow rate in the venturi equals the
amount of air delivered per second to the engine cyf inders a t a given
speed of the engine. I n four-stroke engines
where D and S are the piston diameter and stroke, rn; n is the engine
speed, rpm.
From equations (17.4) and (17.5) we determine the relationship
between the depression in the vent.uri and the engine speed
and define the venturi diameter
The venturi diameter is chosen so as a t a low speed and with the

throttle closed we obtain an air velocity of not less than 40-50 m/s
and a t a high speed and with the throttle fully open, the air velocity
is not in excess of 120-130 mls. An air velocity below 40 m/s may
affect the fuel atomization and thus may cause an increase in the
specific fuel consumption, while a t an air velocities in excess of
130 m/s affects the volumetric efficiency and output power of the
engine.
Design of jets. The main component of metering circuit is an ele-
mentary carburettor which enriches the mixture as the depression
in the venturi increases, i.e. with an increase in the opening of the
throttle or engine speed. For the characteristics of elementary I
and "ideal" 2 carburettors, see Fig. 17.3. Comparing the characteris-
tics, the elementary carburettor enriches the mixture practically
continuously with a growth of depression in the venturi, whereas the
"ideal" carburettor needs to gradually lean the combustible mixture
till maximum depressions, when a certain enrichment of the mixture
is required. Therefore, to impart the elementary carburettor a cha-
3'7ij PART FOUR. ENGII\;L< SYSTE3IS
racteristic close to the "ideal" one, a device is necessary to provide

mixt.ure leaning a t all basic conditions of engine operation (AB
in Fig. 17.3). To this end, the main metering circuits of the carburet-
tors are furnished with auxiliary devices providing the so-called mistu-
re compensatioil (leaning).
For the mixture compensation. use is mainly made of two pri1:-
ciples: (1) control of the depression in the venturi and (2) control of
Fig. 17.3. Characteristics of ( 1 ) elementary and (2) "idcal" carburett.ors
the depression a t the jet. Both principles may be used simulta-

neousl y.
The mixture compensation 011 account of the depressiorl control
in the venturi in the presence of one rnain jet (Fig. 17.4) can be ef-
fected through the use of auxiliary a i r valve 3 (Fig. 17.4a) decreasing
the depression ill the venturi, or by fitting elastic (moving) leaves 5
(Fig. 17.46) varying the ven tlnri cross-sectional area.
The mixture compezlsation on accorlnt of the depression control
a t the jet may be accomplished by fitting compensating jet 8, the
fuel from which finds i t s way to sprayer 6 through compensation
well 7 open to t h e atmosphere (Fig. 1 7 . 4 ~ or
) ~by fitting fuel 10 and
air (emulsion) 9 jets (Fig. 17.4d). W i t h this mixture cornpensatiorl
circuit (the so-called pneumatic fuel deceleration), air is supplied
from sprayer I 1 together with the fuel, which has passed through
air jet 9 and compensation well 7 .
The fuel discharge frorn sprayer 2 of main jet I (Fig. 1'7.4a, b, c)
is due to depression in venturi throat 4.
The theoretical speed of the fuel flowing through the m a i n jet
where pf is the fuel specific gravity (for gasolines pi = 730 to i 5 0 ) ,

kg/m3; g = 9.81 mis2 is the free fall acceleration; Ah = (Ah, -/
+ Ahpet)is t,he conventional height (in m) of fuel opposing the fuel
discharge from the sprayer; Ah, = (0.002 to 0.005) rn is the distance
between the fuel level irz the float chamber and mouth of the sprayer
CH. 17. DESIGN OF FUEL SYSTEM ELEhIENTS
Fig. 17.4. Diagrams of carburctt.nrs 1~it.h

various mixture compensation systems
(Fig. 27.4a, b ) ; Ah,., is a c o n ~ e n t i o n n lheight of Illrl ill proportion

to the surface tension forces of the fuel whcn it flom-s o u t of t h e spray-
,
er mouth (for gasoline Ah,,. is ahont 3 x m a n d i t is nsually
neglected).
The theoretical speed of the fuel flowing through comperlsating
jet8 (Fig. 1'7.4~)is depertder~t on fuel colllmn H nt)ove the jet level
an d is determined from the expression
The t,heoretical speed of the fuel flowing through fuel jet IO

(Fig. 17.4d) is determined from the equation
where App, - .,,

-
1-t- ( f a l f s ) '
is the depression in compensation well 7;
fa and f, are orifice areas of air (emnlsior~)jet I) alrd sprayer 11.
The actual speed of fuel discharge from t'he jets differs from the
theoret,ical speed by the value of flow rate coefficient
Elj = 'Fiat (17.11)
378 PART POUR. ENGINE SYSTEMS
where cpf is t'he speed coefficient accounting for losses in fuel discharge
from;,a jet; a f is the contraction ~oeffic~ient
of the fuel stream.
Because of difficulties involved in defining coefficients rpf and a?
separately, experimental data are used to determine the value of y
The&-alue of fuel consumption coefficient is materially influenced
,.
by the shape and dimensions of the jet and, first of all, by the ratio
of jet length l j to jet diamet'er dl. Figure 17.5 shows curves of
Fig. 17.5. Coefficient of fuel

consumption versus depres-
sion
versus depression in t,he venturi for three jets having ratio l j / d j

= 2? 6 and 10.
The act,ual speed of fuel discharge from the jet 10, = p,j w f varies
with engine operat,ing conditions and lies within 0-6 m/s, while the
second flow rat.e of fuel is determined from the expressions:
for main jet,
for compensating jet

G~ ~ d :j ,
2
ndc.j
PC.j U l j . e P f = 7 -
PC. jpf l / 2 g ~ (17.13)
for fuel jet
In the mixture compensation on account of pneumatic fuel de-

celeration the sprayer discharges emulsion including in addition to
fuel G j certain quantity of air:
where d,., is the diameter of the emulsion (air) jet, m; pa., and w,.,
are the air flow rate coefficient and theoretical velocity of air dis-
charge from the emulsion jet, respectively.
CH. 17. DESIGN OF FUEL SYSTEM ELEMENTS 379
The fuel jet' diameter

d j = 1f4Gii(npjwfpi) (17.16)
The diameter of the emulsion (air) jet
Carburettor characteristic. The carburet,t,orcharacteristic is known

as a curve showing changes in air-fuel ratio a versus depression in
the venturi. The air-fuel ratio is evaluated in terms of the excess air
factor a = G,/GjEo and is dependent on t.he venturi depression:
for a carburettor 1\7it!l one main jet
for a carburettor wit11 the main and compensating jets
for a carburett,or with fuel and emulsion jet's
The carburettor characteristic curve is prot,ted within the lirnit,~

from Ap, = (0.5-1.0) kPa to the value of App, at the maximum air
velocity in the venturi. The computation is usually made in t,he
table form (see Sec. 17.3).
By the above method of carburet,tor comput,ations, we roughly
determine the basic dimensions of the venturi and jets in order t,o see
whether i t is possible to obt,ain t:he value of a taken in t,he heat ana-
380 P A R T FOUR. E N G I X E SYSTEMS
lysis versus the engine speed and, thus, versus depression in the
venturi with the throttle fully open.
The dimensions of casburet tor elements determined bj7 conlputa-
tions must be checked on testing henches.
According to the heat analysis (see Sec. 4.2) we have: cylinder bore
B (D)= 78 mm, piston stroke = 78 m m , number of cylinders
i = 4, air density p, = 1.189 kg/m3, theoretical amount of air neces-
sary t,o burn 1 kg of fuel 1, = 14.957 kg of airikg of fuel; a t N , , ,,
= 60.42 kW and n , = 5600 rpm t,he coefficient, of admission w-
= 0.8784, fuel consumption per hour Gi
= 60.14 kW and n,,,
- 18.186 kg/h; a t N ,
= GOO0 rprn il,- = 0.8609 and G j =
= 19.125 kg/h.
Determine the basic dimensions of the verlturi and jet.s for a cur-
buretior having a main metering circuit with a compensating jet
and obtain a carburet,t,or c h a r a c t e r i ~ t ~ t,hat
i c would provide an, air-
fuel rat,io ( a )taken in the heat analysis (see Fig. 4.1) with t,he t,hrottle
fully open and the engine speed varied.
Computation of the venturi. The theoret,ical air velocity at,
n = 5600 rpm is t,akeil as zu, = 145 m/s.
Ilepression i n the vcnt'uri a.t w, = 145 m/'s is determined by
formula (17.2)
The ac,tual air velocit,y in the verlturi
where y, -0.840 is determined by Fig. 17.2 a t Ap, = 12.5 kPn

in suppositiorl t h a t curve p, of t h e ~ a r b u r e t ~ t ounder
r design is close
t o rnaximurn curve y, in Fig. 17.2.
The actual second air flow through the venturi
The venturi diameter

CH. 17. DESIGN OF FUEL SYSTERI ELEMENTS 381
Computation of the main jet. The theoretic,al fuel speed a t the

discharge from t,he main jet
U7f.m = 1f 2 (Ap,!pf -gAh)
=v2 (12 499i740 - 9.81 x 0.004 == 5.8054 m/s
where pf = 740 is the specific gravity of gasoline, kg/m3; Ah = 4 mm
== 0.004 m.
The actual fuel speed a t the discharge from the main jet
- j = 0-798 X 5-8054 = 4.6327
w m . j - p,m.jwm. 44. m/s
where p m . j = 0.798 is determined b y Fig. 17.5 when choosing a jet
with Zj/dl = 2.
According to the data of t,he heat analysis, the actual fuel consump-
tion by the engine is 18.186 kg/h or 0.00505 kg/s a t n = 5600 rpm.
Since the fuel is delivered through two jets-main and compensating,
their dimensions shollld be chosen so as to provide a fuel-air ratio a
versus the engine speed as in the heat analysis. Preliminary the
fuel flow rate t.hrough the main jet and compensating jet are t,aken
as G r T m= 0.00480 kg/s and Gr., = G.t - Gj., = 0.00505 - 0.00480
= 0.00025 kgls.
The m a i n jet diamet,er [see formula (17.16)l
Computation of the compensating jet. The theoretical speed of

fuel a t the discharge from the compensating jet
where H = 50 mm = 0.05 rn is the fuel level (column) in the float

chamber over the compensating jet.
The fuel discharge a t speed w f S c= 0.9905 m/s roughly corresponds
to depression
Therefore, the flow rate coefficient of the compensating jet can

be determined from Fig. 17.5 a t A p m 0.7 kPa. The choice is made
of a compensating jet having ratio l j / d j m s5, t,hen = 0.65
(Fig. 17.5).
Tbe diameter of the c~mpensat~ing jet
Computation of the carburettor characteristic. The carburettor

charact'eristic curve is plotted wit.hin the limits from A p , a t izmin
= 1000 rpm to Ap, a t nmax = 6000 rpm (see Secs. 5.1, 5.2) by t,he
formula
Determining Ap, with the throttle fully open and prescribed value
of n is accomplished by choosing I(, corresponding t o the value of
Apv to be obtained. According to the curve in Fig. 17.2 we determine
p, = 0.70 a t A p v = 0.5-0.6 kPa and p, = 0.838 a t Ap, = 12-13 kPa.
Then, a t nmin = 1000 rpm
at n,,, = 6000 rpm
where ilv = 0.8744 and q v = 0.8609 are taken from the heat ana-
lysis, and the taken values of p, = 0.70 and p, = 0.838 correspond
to the obtained values of Ap, = 569 P a and Apv = 13 860 P a (see
Fig. 17.2).
Nine computation points of characteristic curve are then taken
within the limits from Ap, = 569 Pa to A p , = 13 860 Pa (Tab-
le 17.3).
The venturi flow rate coefficient is determined from the curve
in Fig. 17.2 for the adopted design values of Ap, and is entered in
Table 17.1.
Depending upon the depression, the second air flow rate in the
venturi is determined by formula (17.4)
The flow rate coefficient of the main jet is determined from the
curve in Fig. 17.5 for t,he adopted values of Ap,.
The theoretical speed of fuel flow from t,he main jet
384 P,\RT FOUR. ENGIXE SYSTEJIS
The fuel flow rate in, the main jet
The fuel flow rate in t,he compe~~sating

jet is independent of de-
pression and has been taken before as Gj., = 0.00025 kgis.
The tot.al fuel f101.v rate
The excess air fact.or

a=-' G a
Gfio
--- dip, I/pohpo
l o [ d f n . iy,. 1/ ~j ( A P -~ - e ~ h p ~ )d:, .#c. jpfl/ ZI
- 0.0000465~ip, op,
-
0.0000485 pm+jl/ A p u -29.04-t 0.000225
A l l the design data are t,hen tabulated (Table l 7 . l ) and t,he carhn-
rettor charact,eristic curve is plott,ed (Fig. 17.6).
Fig. 17.6. Design characteristic of a carburettor

Referring t o the figure, the curve of a versus Ap, is very close t o
the values of a adopted in the heat analysis. These values are marked
in Fig. l7.G by dots. Therefore, in the first approximation t,he com-
puted carl,rlrettor satisfies the requireme11ts imposed on it, when the
engine is operated in the main operating conditions.
17.4. DESIGN O F DIESEL ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM ELEMENTS

The fuel system of a diesel engine includes t,he following essential
components: a fuel tank, low-pressure fuel transfer pump, filters,
high-pressure fuel injection pump, injectors and piping.'
Most popular with modern automobile and tractor diesel engines
are fuel syst,ems including high-pressure multi-unit injection pump
and closed-type injectors connected by fuel delivery pipes. The fuel
equipment of the unit type combines the high-pressure pump and
the injector into one unit, which has a limited application.
I n recent years, applications are also found by fuel system utiliz-
ing distributor-type fuel-injection pumps having one or two plunger-
and-barrel assemblies performing the functions of fuel metering,
delivery and distribution to t'he engine cylinders.
The computation of the diesel engine fuel system generally comes
to determining the parameters of its essential components: the fuel-
injection pump and the injectors.
Fuel Injection Pump

The high-pressure fuel injection pump is the principal design ele-
ment of the fuel system of diesel engines. I t serves to accurately meter
required amounts of fuel and deliver it a t a certain moment of time
at high pressure t o the engine cylinders, following the engine firing
order.
Modern automobile and tractor diesel engines employ ylunger-
and-barrel type fuel injection pumps with spring-loaded plungers
operated by the cams of the revolving shaft.
Computation of a pumping unit of the pump consists in determin-
ing the plunger diameter and stroke. These basic design parameters
of a pump are dependent upon the cycle fuel delivery a t the rated
power of a diesel engine.
The cycle delivery, i.e. fuel injection per cycle:
in unit mass (g/cycle)
in unit volume (mmJ/cycle)
Because of fuel compression and leaks a t loose joints and due to

the fuel delivery pipes strain, the pump capacity must be greater
than the value of V,.
The influence of the above factors on the cycle d.elivery is accoun-
ted for by the delivery ratio of the pump which is the ratio of the cycle
delivery volume to the volume described by the plunger during its

active stroke:
where V t = f P l S a e tand is the theoretical cycle delivery of the pump

in mmS/cycle ( f p l is the cross-sectional area of the plunger, mm2;
S a C t is the plunger active stroke, mm).
Therefore, the theoretical delivery of a pumping unit of the fuel
Pump
Under the nominal load, the value of q, for automobile and tractor
diesel engines varies within the limits 0.70-0.90.
The full capacity of a pumping unit (mm3/cycle), taking into ac-
count the fuel by-pass, diesel overloads, and reliable starting require-
ments a t subzero temperatures is determined by the formula
This quantity of fuel must be equal to the volume corresponding

to the complete stroke of the plunger.
The basic dimensions of the pump are determined from the ex-
pression
where d P l and SF!are the plunger diameter and complete stroke, mm.
The plunger diameter
The ratio S,,/dpl varies within 1.0-1.7. The pump plunger diameter
must be not less than 6 mm. Less plunger diameters affect machining
the plunger and its fitting to the barrel.
According to the statistics, with unsupercharged diesel engines
the plunger diameter is mainly dependent on the cylinder diameter
and independent of the fuel-injection method and nominal speed of
the engine. Ratio d p l / D = 0.065-0.08 applies to unsupercharged
diesel engines either with subdivided, or open combustion chambers
with V h = 0.61 to 1.9 1 and n = 2000 to 4000 rpm [5].
The plunger complete stroke in mrn 1
The basic design parameters of fuel injection pumps must be as

follows:
Plunger diameter dptr rnm 5, 5 . 5 , 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 10, 11, 12, @tern
Plunger stroke, S P I , rnm 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 16, 20
GH. i7. DESIGN or FUEL SYSTEM ELEMENTS 387
The values of plunger diameter and stroke obtained from the

computation must be corrected to the St. Standard requirements.
With the plunger diameter chosen, the plunger active stroke
Saet = V t l f p l
For the characteristics of some high-pressure fuel injection pumps

see Table 17.2.
Table 27.2
Engine
Description
n-20 1 CMR-I4 ( KJbT-46 I I
EY3-240 n - 1 2 A
Pump 44TH-8.5~10T KAM

1TH-8.5~10 H3TA HK-10
Speed, n, rpm 900 850 500 1050 750
Plunger diameter 8.5 8.5 10.0 9 .O 10 .O
dplr
Plunger stroke 10 .O 10 .O 8.0 10.0 10.0
Splc
Delivery, 97 .O 99.0 175 .O 115.0 150.0
mm~/cycle
Computation of the fuel-injection pump. According to the results

of the heat analysis of diesel engine (see Sec. 4.3) we determine the
plunger diameter and stroke of the fuel-injection pump.
The initial data are: effective power N , = 233 kW, engine speed
n = 2600 rpm, number of cylinders i = 8, specific effective fuel
flow rate g , = 220 g/(kW h), number of engine strokes T = 4,
fuel specific gravity pt = 0.842 g/cmJ.
The cycle delivery
The pump delivery ratio q, = 0.75.

The theoretical delivery of a pumping unit
The complete delivery of a pumping unit

V , = 3.1Vt = 3.1 x 130 = 402 mm3/cycle
The ratio of the plunger stroke to the plunger diameter is taken

as S p l / d p l = 1.
388 P A R T FOUR. E S G I N E SYSTEMS
The plunger diameter
The complete plunger stroke

Spl = dplSPlldpl= 8 x 1 = 8 mm
The plunger active stroke
SaCt= 4Vt/(ndil) = 4 x 130/(3.14 x 82) = 2.6 mm
Injector
Injectors are of the open and closed types and perform the functions
of fuel atomization and uniform dist.ribution within t,he diesel com-
bustion chambers. In the closed-type inject,ors, the spraying holes
communicate with the high-pressure delivery pipe only during t,he
fuel delivery period. I n the open-type injectors this communication is
const,ant. The injector computation comes to defining the diameter
of t'he nozzle holes.
The volume of fuel (mm3/cycle) injected by the injector per working
stroke of a four-stroke diesel engine (the cycle delivery) is as follows:
V , = g , N , x 1031(30nipj)
The fuel discharge time in s
At = Acpl(n6)
where Acp is the crankshaft revolution angle, deg.
The duration of delivery Acp is prescribed as dictated by the type
of fuel injection of the diesel engine. When use is made of a film
spray-pattern Acp = 15 to 25' of crankshaft revolution. W i t h the
volumetric spray-pattern which calls for a higher injection velocity,
Acp = 10 to 20".
The mean velocity of fuel discharge (in mls) from the nozzle holes
:is determined by the formula
W, = 1 / ( 2 / p j ) (P, - PC) . (17.24)
where p , is the fuel injection mean pressure, Pa; p , = ( p i +
p ,)/2
is the mean gas pressure in the cylinder during the injection, Pa;
pE and p , are the pressures a t the end of compression and combustion
as determined by the data of the heat analysis of a diesel engine, Pa.
I n unsupercharged diesel engines p , = 3 to 6 MPa, while in super-
charged diesel engines i t may be far higher,
Mean injection pressure p, in diesel engines of automobile and
tractor types lies within 15 to 40 MPa and is dependent upon the
injector spring compression, pressure friction loss in the nozzles,
plunger diamet'er and speed, and the like. The higher the injection
pressure p,, the higher t.he fuel discharge velocit,y and better its
atomization.
The value of mean fuel discharge velocity varies-wit,hin wide
limits wm = 150 t,o 300 mls.
The total area of injector nozzle holes is found from the expression
where p, is the fuel flow rate coefficient equal to 0.65-0.85.

The diameter of the injector nozzle hole
where m is t,he number of nozzle holes.

The number and arrangement of nozzle holes are chosen proceeding
from the shape of the combustion chamber and t,he method of fuel
injection.
In diesel engines with fuel injection, use is made of single-hole
and double-hole nozzles having a hole diameter of 0.4 to 0.6 mm.
Multihole nozzles with a hole diameter of 0.2 mm. and more (Tab-
le 17.3) are used in diesel engines with volumetric fuel injection.
Table 17.3
-
Engine
Description
a-20 I mn-ih I Hna-csI ma-?in / a-12-4
Fuel injector OU11 x 14 @Ill2x 25 KJ[M R3TA -

Number of holes rn I 1 I 4 6
Nozzle hole diameter d,, 3.6 2 .O 0.645 0.32 0.25
mm
Computation of the injector. According to t,he heat analysis of

the diesel engine (see Sec. 4.3) and the data of the fuel injection pump,
we determine the diameter of the injector nozzle holes. The initial
data are: actual pressure a t the end of compression pl: = 8.669 MPa;
the pressure a t the end of combustion p , = 11.30'7 MPa; engine speed
n = 2600 rpm; cycle fuel delivery V , = 97.5 mm3/cycle; fuel spe-
cific gravity pi = 842 kg/m3.
The duration of fuel delivery in degrees of the crankshaft angle is
taken as Acp = 18'.
The fuel discharge time
At = Acpi(6 x n) = 18/(6 x 26001 = 0.00115 3
The mean gas pressure in the cylinder during the injection

+
P C = (p: p J2 = (8.669 +
11.307)/2 = 9.988 MPs
The mean atomization pressure is taken as pa = 40 MPa.
The mean velocity of fuel discharge a t the nozzle holes
The fuel flow rate coefficient is taken as p r = 0.72.

The total area of the nozzle holes
The number of nozzle holes is taken as m = 4.

The nozzle hole diameter
d, = 1/4f ,/(am) = 1 / 4 x 0.44/(3.14 x 4) = 0.374 mm
The above computations allow the basic design parameters of
the fuel pump and injector to be defined only roughly. This is be-
cause the actual fuel delivery considerably differs from that utili-
zed in the computations due to the hydrodynamic phenomena taking
place in the fuel system.
Chapter 18
DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS
18.1. OIL PUMP
The object of the lubricating oil system is to lubricate the engine

parts with a view to reducing friction, preventing rust, removing
products of wear and partially cooling individual assemblies of
the engine. Depending upon the type and construction of engines,
use is made of system of lubrication by splashing, under pressure
and by combined methods. Most of automobile and tractor engines
have a combined lubricating system. One of the essential components
of the lubricating system is an oil pump.
The purpose of the oil p~unpis to deliver lubricating oil to the
friction surfaces of engine moving parts. Constructionally the oil
pumps fall into gear and screw types. The gear pumps are known for
simple construction, compactness, dependable operation and are
most widely used in automobile and tractor engines.
The design of the oil pump comes to defining the size of its gears.
This design computation follows the definition of the oil circulation
rate in the system.
cH.18. DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS 39 1
Oil circulation rate V , is dependent upon the amount of engine

heat QA dissipated by the oil. According to the heat analysis, the
value of Qi (kJ/s) in modern a~t~ornobileand tractor engines is from
1.5 to 3.0% of the total amount of heat admitted into the engine by
the fuel:
Qi = (0.015 to 0.030) Q, (18.1)
The amount of heat produced by the fuel per second:
where H u is in kJ/kg; Gf is in kg/h.

The circulation rate of the oil (m3/s) a t the prescribed value oEQ
where p, is the oil density. I n the comput,ations this parameter is

taken as p, = 900 kg/m3; c, = 2.094 is the mean thermal capacity
of oil, kJ/(kg K ) ; AT, = 10 to 15 is the temperature of the oil in
the engine, K,
To stabilize the oil pressure in the engine lubricating system,
the circulation rate of oil is usually increased twice:
V' = 2V, (18.3)
Because of oil leaks through the end and radial clearances in the
pump the design capacity of the pump (m3/s) is determined taking
into account the volumetric efficiency g,:
The value of q, varies within 0.6-0.8.

When designing the pump, it is assumed that the gear tooth volu-
me (ma) is equal .to the volume of the tooth space:
where D o is the diamet,er of the gear pitch circle, rn; h is the height
of tooth, m; b is the tooth face width, m.
The design capacity of the pump
where n, is the gear speed, rpm.

With the tooth height equal to two modules (h = 2m) and Do=
= zm
where z = 6 to 12 is the number of teeth of the gear used in pumps;

m = 3 to 6 mm and is the module.
The value of the gear speed

n p = uP OOl(nD)
where u p is the peripheral velocity at the gear outer diameter, m/s;

+
D = m (z 2) is the gear outer diameter, m.
The peripheral velocity a t the gear out.er diameter must not ex-
ceed 8-10 m/s. At higher peripheral velocit'ies the pump volumetric
efficiency will materially drop.
W i t h values of m, z and u p prescribed, we determine the tooth
face width (m) from equation (18.7)
For t'he basic data of gear pumps used in certain Soviet-made

engines see Table 18.1.
Table 18.1
I Engine
Description
Capacity, dm313
Speed n p , rpm
Pressure in the lubricating
system p, RlPa
Gear outer diameter D, rnm
Tooth height h, mrn
Tooth face width b, mrn
Number of teeth
The power (kW) to drive the oil pump:
where V d is the pump design capacity, m3/s; p is the oil working

pressure in the system (p = 0.3 to 0.5 MPa for carburettor engines
and p = 0.3 to 0.7 MPa for diesel engines); q m . =~ 0.85 to 0.90 and
is the mechanical efficiency of the oil pump.
Computation of the oil pump. The basic dimensions of the oil pump
gears for a carburettor engine. The total amount of heat produced by
the fuel per second is determined by the heat analysis data (see
Sec. 4.2) Q, = 221.92 kJ/s.
CH. 18. DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS 393
The amount of heat carried away by oil from the engine:

Q, = 0.021Q0 = 0.021 x 221.92 = 4.67 kJ/s
The oil thermal capacity c , = 2.094 kJ1(kg K).
The oil density p, = 900 kgim3.
The temperature of oil heating in the engine AT, = 10 I<.
The circulation rate of oil
The circulat,ion rate, taking int'o account the stabilization of the

oil pressure in the lubricating syst,ern
V' = 2V, = 2 x 0.000248 = 0.000496 m3/s
efficiency 11, = 0.7.
The ~olurnet~ric
V d = V ' ! ~ a= 0.000496/0.7 = 0.0007l m3/s
The
The
t,ooth module m -
tooth height h = 2m = 2 x 4.5 -
4.5 mm = 0.0045 m.
9.0 mrn = 0.009 m.
The number of gear t'eeth z = 7.
The pitch circle diameter of the gear
Do = zrn = 7 x 4.5 = 31.5 mm = 0.0315 m.
The gear outer diameter
The peripheral velocity a t the gear out,er diameter u p = 6.36 mls.

The pump gear speed
n p = up x 60/(nD) = 6.36 x 60/(3.14 x 0.0405) = 3000 rpm
The gear face width
The oil working pressure in the system p = 40 X lo4 Pa.

The mechanical efficiency of the oil pump q m q p= 0.87.
The power'to drive the oil pump:
N p = Vdp/(q,.p x lo3) = 0.00071 x 40 x 1041(0.87 x lo3)
-- 0.326 kW
The basic dimensions of the oil pump gears for a diesel engine. The
total amount of heat produced by the fuel per second is determined
by the heat analysis data (see Sec. 4.3) Q, = 604.3 kJ/s.
The amount of heat carried away by oil from t,he engine:
The oil thermal capacity c, = 2.094 kJ/(kg K).

The oil density p, = 900 kg/m3.
The temperature of oil h c ~ t i n gin the engine AT, = 10 K.
The oil circulation rate
V , = Q,/(p,e,AT,) = 15.7/(900 x 2.094 x 10) = 0.000833 m3/s
The circulation rat,e, taking into account the stabilization of the
oil pressure in the system
V' = 2V, = 2 x 0.000833 = 0.001666 mS/s
The volumetric efficiency q, = 0.8.
V d = V t l q p = 0.001666/0.8 = 0.00208 ma/$
The tooth module rn = 5 mm = 0.005 m.
The tooth height h = 2m = 2 x 5 = 10 mm = 0.01 m.
The number of gear teeth z = 8.
The diameter of the gear pitch circle
Do = zrn = 8 x 5 = 4 0 m m = 0.04m
The diameter of the gear outer diameter
D = m (z+ 2) = 5 (8 $ 2) = 50 mm = 0.05m
The peripheral velocity a t the gear outer diameter u p = 8 mfs.
The pump gear speed
n, = uP60/(nD)= 8 x 60/(3.14 x 0.05) = 3060 rpm
The gear tooth face width
The oil working pressure in the system p = 5 x lo5 Pa.

The mechanical efficiency of the oil pump V m a p = 0.89.
The power used to drive the oil pump
18.2. CENTRIFUGAL OIL FILTER

The oil centrifuge (Fig. 18.1) represents a centrifugal fine oil filter
used to clean the oil of solid particles.
Most widely applications in tractor and automobile engines are
found by two-nozzles hydroje t-driven centrifugal filters. The ope-
ration of the drive is based on the use of the reaction of an oil jet
discharged from the nozzles. Featuring a simple design and easy main-
CE. 18. DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS 395
tenance, the hydrojet-driven centrifuge ensures high rotor angular

velocities and thus good cleaning of oil.
The computation of a centrifuge consists in defining the required
oil pressure upstream the centrifuge and its rotor speed. I n modern
centrifugal filters an oil delivery
at 0.25 to 0.6 MPa makes the cen-
trifuge rotor to spin at 5000 to
8000 rpm.
The reaction force of an oil jet
discharged from a nozzle a t a con-
stant rotor speed is determined on
the basis of the theorem of im-
pulses of forces:
P= POVO-n(V'E~; '"" R) (i8.4

2 30
where p, is the oil density, kglm8;

V.., is the amount of oil flowing
through the centrifuge nozzles, Fig. 18.1. Centrifugal oil filter
mg/s;E is the contraction coefficient
of oil jet discharged from a nozzle; F, is the nozzle orifice area, m2;
n is the rotor speed, rpm; R is the distance from the nozzle axis to
the rotor revolution axis, m.
The contraction coefficient of an oil jet varies within the limits
E = 0.9 to 1.1 and is equal to 0.9 for the most popular shapes of
nozzles.
The torque (N m) produced by two jets
At a steady-state rotor speed, torque M t is bal.anced by the mo-

ment of resistance:
The value of M , depends mainly on the bearing friction forces

and the rotor speed:
where a is the moment of resistance a t the beginning of rotor rota-

tion, N rn; b is the rate of the moment of resistance growth
(N m)/(rpm).
According to experimental data a = (5 to 20) to-' N m; b = (0.03
0.10) iO-r(N rn)/(rpm).
Substituting M t and M , into equation (18.13), we may deter-

mine the rotor speed versus the principal design and hydraulic
parameters of t,he centrifuge
The oil is properly cleaned a t n = 4500 to 6500 rpm.

The oil flow rate (m3/s) through two nozzles
-
V,., = 2aF, 1 / 2 p ! p o
where a = 0.78 to 0.86 and is the coefficient of the oil flow rat.e
t,hrough a nozzle; F , is t,he nozzle orifice area, rn2;p is t,he oil pres-
sure upstream the nozzle, Pa; po is the oil density, kg/m3.
The value of p included in equation (18.16) may be represented
as follows:
where p, is t'he oil pressure a t the inlet to the centrifuge, Pa; Y is

the coefficient of hydraulic losses (Y = 0.2 to 0.5 for full-flow and
Y? = 0.1 to 0.2 for partial-flow centrifuges); r, is the radius of the
rotor axle, m.
Using expression (18.16), we may determine from equation (18.17)
For the principal data of the hydrojet-driven centrifuge for cer-

tain engines, see Table 18.2.
Engine
Description
3HJI- 130 I a-zn I cmn-14 I RJk13- )It o
Speed n, rpm
.
Capacity V,. , drns/s 0.125
5000
0.117
6000
0.13
6000
0.167
6000
Rotor diameter d,, lnln 105 110 I10 115
Axle diameter d,, m m 15.25 16.8 16.8 16.0
Nozzle-to-nozzle distan-
ce D, m m 56 70 76 80
-
The driving power (kW) of t,he cent'rifuge:

npf,Vo.,R n V,. nn R )
Nc= ~ O X I U ~ ~ - - ~ F
CE. 18. DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS 397
Computation of a centrifuge. Compute a two-nozzle partial-flow

hydrojet-driven centrifuge for a diesel efigine.
The oil circulation rate in the system is determined by formula
(18.7) or is defined by the data of the example (see Sec. 18.1) V ,
= 0.000833 rnS/s.
The ~ent~rifuge flow is taken as partial by 20%.
The centrifuge capacity
V,., = 0.2VC = 0.2 x 0.000833 = 0.000167 rn3/s
The oil density p, = 900 kg/m3.
The contraction coefficient of the oil jet E = 1.0.
The centrifuge nozzle diameter d,, = 2 mrn = 0.002 m.
The nozzle orifice area
The distance from the nozzle axis to the rotor rotation axis R
= 40 mm = 0.04 m.
The moment of resistance a t the beginning of rotor rotation a
=1x N m.
The rate of the moment of resistance growth b = 6 x (N m)
/(rpm) -
The centrifuge rotor speed
POV;. ,R 900 (1-67 x 10-4)2x 0.04
-Ix l V 3
2&F, - a - 2 x l.0 x 3.14 x
n= = 5080 rpm
b.+vov,.nR= - 6x -4-
3.14 X 900 X 0.000167 X 0.042
30 30
The rotor axle radius r, = 8 mm = 0.008 m.
The coefficient of oil flow through a nozzle a = 0.82.
The coefficient of hydraulic losses Y = 0.15.
The oil pressure upstream the centrifuge
18.3. OIL COOLER
An oil cooler is a heat-exchange apparatus for cooling the oil

circulating in the engine lubricating system. There are two types of
oil coolers: oil-to-air coolers for air cooling and oil-to-water coolers
398 PART FOUR. ENGINE SYSTXMS
for water cooling. Given below are the computations of an oil-to-

water cooler.
The amount of heat carried away by water from the cooler:
where K Ois the coefficient of heat transfer from oil to wat,er, W/(maK);
F , is the cooling surface of the oil-to-water cooler, m2; T o . , is the
mean temperatme of oil in the cooler, K ; T,., is the mean water
temperature in t,he cooler, K.
The c,oefficient of heat t,ransfer from oil to water [W/(m2 K)J
where a, is the coefficient of heat transfer from oil to the cooler walls,
W/(rn2 K); 6 is the thickness of the cooler wall, m; h,., is the coeffi-
cient of the wall thermal conductivity, W/(m K); a, is the coeffi-
cient of heat transfer from the cooler walls to water, W/(rn2 K).
With an increase in a,, a, and a decrease in 6, the value of
K O increases. Because analytically defining the values of a,, A h . ,
and a , is difficult, they are taken from the empirical data.
The value of a, is mainly dependent upon the oil flow speed. For
straight smooth pipes a t w, = 0.1 to 0.5 m/s the coefficient a,
= 100 to 500 W/(m2 K); when there are turbulences in the pipes
and at w o = 0.5 to 1.0 mls, thecoefficienta, = 800 to 1400 W/(m2 K).
The value of Ah.,, W/(m K) depends on the cooler material:
Aluminum alloys and brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80-125
Stai~llesssteel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20
The value of a, varies within 2300-4100 W/(m2K )
The full coefficient of heat transfer KO:
For straight smooth pipes ............. 115-350
For pipes with turbulences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815-1160
The amount of heat ( U s ) carried away by oil from the engine:
where c, is the mean heat capacity of oil, kJ/(kg K); p, is the oil
density, kg/m3; V is the circulation rate of oil, m3/s; T o m i nand
are the oil temperatures a t the cooler inlet and outlet, respec-
tively, K:
AT0 = To.in - To.out c 10 to 15 K
i8, DESIGN OP LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS 399
The oil cooler surface exposed to water:
+
where T.., = ( T o e i n To,ont)/2= 348 to 363 K and is the mean
temperature of the oil in the cooler; T,., = (Twain ,~,,,
+ 5" )/2
343 to 358 K is the mean temperature of the water in the cooler.
Computation of an oil cooler. T h e coolin,g surface of an oil-to-water
cooler of a carburettor engine is as follows. The amount of heat car-
ried away by the oil from the engine is determined by equation (18.1)
.r is taken from the data of the example (see Sec. 18.1) as Q;= 4670 J/s.
The coefficient of heat transfer from oil to the cooler wall a
= 250 W/(m2 K).
The cooler wall thickness 6 = 0.2 mrn = 0.0002 rn.
The coefficient of wall heat conductivity hhmC = 100 W/(m K).
The coefficient of heat transfer from the cooler wall to water
a, = 3200 W/(m2 K).
The coefficient of heat transfer from oil to water
The mean temperature of the oil in the cooler T o . , = 358 K.

The mean temperature of water in the cooler T W e m= 348 K.
The oil cooler surface exposed to the water:
T h e cooling surface of an oil-to-water cooler of a diesel engine is as

follows. The amount of heat carried away by the oil from the engine
is determined from equation (18.1) or is taken from the data of the
example (see Sec. 18.1) as Qi = 15 700 U s .
The coefficient of heat transfer from oil to the cooler wall a,
= 1200 Wl(m2 K).
The cooler wall thickness 6 = 0.2 mm = 0.0002 m.
The coefficient of wall thermal conductivity hh,, = 17 W/(m K).
The coefficient of heat transfer from the cooler walls to water
a, = 3400 W/(m2 K).
The coefficient of heat transfer from oil to water
The mean temperature of the oil in the cooler To., = 360 K .

The mean temperature of the water in the cooler T W s m= 350 K.
The oil cooler surface exposed to water:
18.4. DESIGN OF BEARINGS
The computation of plain bearings on the basis of the hydrodynamic

theory of lubrication consists in. defining the minimum permissible
clearance between the shaft and t.he bearing which maintains reliable
liquid friction. The computations are usually made a t the maximum
power. According to the hydrodynamic theory of lubrication, t'he
minimum film of lubricant, in t,he bearing
where p is the dynamic viscosity of oil, N s/rn2;.n is the shaft speed,

rpm; d is the shaft diameter (the crankpin or main journal diameter),
rnm; k , is the mean specific pressure exerted on the bearing surface
of the bearing, MPa; x = Aid and is the relative clearance; A is the
diametral clearance between the shaft and bearing, mm; c = l
+ dl1 and is a coefficient characteristic of the shaft geometry in the
bearing; 2 is the length of the bearing surface, mm.
The dynamic viscosity of an oil is dependent on two factors: on
the oil grade and more on the oil temperature. Table 18.3 covers the
Table 18.3
+
I
Dynamic viscosity p, N sjmz
hu
12, aut,omobile and tractor oils diesel oils
EQ
$2 AK-6 I AK3n-6 I AK-10 I AKn-I0 I AK-15 1 gn-8 ( an-11 1 nn-14
383 0.00452 0.00412 0.00657 0.00657 0.01020 0.00568 0.00725 0.00824

373 0.00520 0.00520 0.00843 0.00843 0.02360 0.00716 0.00912 0.01130
363 0.00657 0.00657 0.01160 0.011.60 0.01960 0.00912 0.01235 0.01600
viscosity figures versus temperature for certain domestic grades of

automobile, tractor and diesel oils. When selecting an oil viscosity
figure, keep in mind that the mean temperature of an oil film in bab-
bitted bearings lies within the limits T = 363 to 373 K and in bear-
ings lined with leaded bronze, within the limits T = 373 to 383 K.
The value of clearance between the bearing and the journal is de-
pendent on the journal diameter and lining material. The diametral
clearance for journals 50-100 mrn in diameter lies within the limits:
A = (0.5 to 0.7) d in babbitted bearings and A = (0.7 to 1.0)
x d for bearings - lined with leaded bronze. According to Gugin
A. M. 181 A = 0.007 1 / d C , , mm, where d,, is the diameter of a crank-
pin, mm.
The bearing safety factor
cH.is. DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS 401
where h,, is the value of the oil c,ritical fill11 in the bearing a t which
a liquid frict,ion may become a dry friction:
h,, = h, + ha + h g (18.26)
The critical oil film in a bearing is determined by the surface
irregularities of t;he shaft k , and bearing h b ,and also by Iz, accounting
for improper geometry of the mated parts. However, since surface
irregularities are first dependent only on the surface finish, t,hey di-
minish in operation (due t,o wearing in), and because the value of h ,
is very difficult to be determined, we may take for rough comput'a-
tions
+
h e r = hs hb (18.27)
Values of h, and h b (mm) resulting from various types of machin-
ing trhe surfaces lie within the follolving limits:
Diarnot~dboring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00030-0.00160
Finish grinding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0,00020-0.00080
Finish polishing or honing . . . . . . . . . . .OUOO-0.00040
Superfinishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00005-0.00025
Computation of a crankpin bearing of carburet tor engine. On the
basis of the data obtained from the crankpin computations (see
Sec. 13.5)we have: crankpin diameter d,., = 48 mm; working width
of the main bearing shell ,.:Z = 22 mm; the mean unit area pressure
on the crankpin surface kc.,,, = 10.5 XIPa; crallkshaft speed n
= 5600 rpm.
The dialnetral clearance
Relative clearance = A / d c p = 0.0486148 = 0.001.

The coefficient accounting for the crankpin geometxy:
The minimum thickness of the oil filni
where p = 0.0136 N s/mZ and is determined from Table 18.3 for

oil, grade AK-15, a t T = 373 I< (the bearing is lined with leaded
bronze).
402 PART FOUR. ENGINE SYSTEiiIS
The critical thickness of the oil film

h,, = h, + hb = 0.0007 -+ 0.00.13 = 0.002 rnm
where h, = 0.0007 is the size of cralilipin surface irregularities after
finish grinding, mm; hb = 0.0013 is the size of the shell surface
irregularities after diamond boring, mm.
The bearing safety factor
Computation of a main journal bearing for diesel engine. Referrilw

to the data obtained by the main bearing computat.ions (see Sec. 13.6;
we have: main journal diameter dm. = 90 mm; working width oi
the main bearing shell ILmj= 27 mm; mean unit area pressure on
the main journal surface k m e j . , = 15.4 MPa; crankshaft speed 1 ,
= 2600 rpm.
The diametral clearance for a bearing lined with leaded bronze
is taken as follows:
The relative clearance is
The coefficient accounting for the niain journal geometry
The minimum thickness of t,he oil film
where p = 0.0113 N s/m2 and is determined from Table 18.3 for

oil, grade &I-14, a t T = 373 K.
The critical thickness of the oil film
h,, = h, + hb = 0.0004 + 0.0007 = 0.0011 mm
where h, = 0.0004 is the size of the journal surface irregularities
after finish grinding, mm; f z b = 0.0007 is the size of the shell surface
irregularities after diamond boring, mm.
The safety factor of the bearing
CH. 19. DESIGN OF i:00LING SySTr;'>I CO;\IPOsExTS
Chapter 19
DESIGN O F COOLlSG SYSTEM COhlPOXKYTS
19.1. GENERAL
The engine cooling is used to popilih-ely carry a\\.ily heat from the
engine parts to provide the best heat state of the engine and ensure
its normal performance. Most of the heat carried away is absorbed by
.the cooling system, less by the lubricating system and directl3: by the
environment .
Depending upon the hcat-transfer rliediurn i n use, the automobile
and tractor engines ernploy a liquid- or air-cooling system. Water
or other high-boiliag liquids are used as coolaats in the liquid-cool-
ing system and air in the air-cooling system.
Each of the above cooling systems has its advantages and dis-
advantages. The advantages of a liquid cooling system may be stated
as follows:
(a) more effective heat transfer from the hot engine parts under
any heat load;
(b) quick and u~iiforlnwarnling up of the eilgille in starting;
(c) possibility of usiilg cylii~derblock structures in the engine;
(d) less liability to knocking irr gasoline engines;
(e) more stable temperature of the engine, mhen its operating con-
dition is changed;
(f) less power consumed in coolirlg and the possibility of utilizing
the heat energy transferred t o the cooling sy.item.
Disadvantages of the liquid cooling system are as follo~vs:
(a) higher costs of maintenance and repair i n service;
(b) decreased reliability of engirle operation a t subzero ambient
temperatures and higher seljsitivity to changes in thr ambient tern-
perature.
It is most desirable to use a liquid-cooling system in hopped-up
engines having a relatively large swept volunie, and an air-cooling
system, in engines with a swept volume of up to 1 litre regardless of
the engine forcing level and in engines having a small poner-to-
volume ratio.
The computation of the principal components of the cooling sy-
stem is accomplished, proceeding from the arnount of heat carried
away from the engine per unit time.
With water cooling, the amount of heat carried away ( U s )
where G,, is the amount of water circulating 1 the system, kgis;

c, = 4187 is the water specific heat, J/(kg I(); T o , t.w and T i l I . 1 "
are the engine outlet and inlet ~ i ~ a t etemperatures,
r K.
404 P-4RT FOUR. E S G I S E SYSTEMS
The value of Q,, can be cl~ieulni~~ed 1)y el-ilpirical relations (see tllc
heat balancing equations, Sec. 4.2 aild 4.3).
The heat carried an-ap by the c,ooling water is influenced by illany
service and constrnction factors. FITit!1 an increase in the engine
speed a l ~ i lcooling !vnter ieillpcrntnre. and also in the excess a i r
factor, the value of Q,,. decreases. I t illcreases wit 11 an inc.rease in t 11e
cooling surface and strolic-to-bore ratio.
The computation of the liquid-cooling system consists in deter-
mining the size of the water p w n p , radiator cooling surface and se-
lecting the fan.
In the case of air coolirlg, heat fro111 the engine cylinder wall<
and heads is carried away by the cooling air. The air-cooling inten-
sity is dependent upon t h amount
~ and temperature of the cooling
air, its relocity, size of the cooling surface and arrangement of cool-
ing ribs wit11 respect to the air £101~7.
The amonnt of heat (J/s) carried away from the engine by the air-
cooling system is determined by the empirical relationship (sec
Secs. 4.2 and 4.3) or by the equation
a-here G , is the cooling air flow rate, kgls; c, = 1000 and is the rneau
air specific heat, J/(kg Ii); T o , t., and T i , . , are the temperatures
of the air coming in between the cooling ribs and going out of the
spaces, K.
It is assumed in the computations that 25 to 4@?6 of tile total
amount of heat Q , is carried away from the cylinder walls and the
remainder part of heat, from the cylinder heads.
19.2. TVATER PUMP
The water pump is used t o provide con.tinuolxs water circulatiorl

in the cooling syst,em. fi4ost widely used in automobi1.e and tractor
engine are centrifugal single-suction pumps.
The design capacity of the pump (xn3/s) is determined with taking
int,o account the liquid return from the delivery to t,he suction space:
where q = 0.8 to 0.9 and is the volumetric efficiency.

The water c,irculation rate in the engine cooling syst,em
where p, is the wat,er density, kg/m5; A T l is the temperature diffe.-

rence of water in the radiator equal to 6-12 K .
Fig. 19.1. Diagram of constructing a water pump blade profile
The inlet opening of the pump must provide the delivery of the
design amount of wat,er. This is attainable when the following con-
ditions are satisfied:
l n (I-?I - ri)
G I . d / ~= (19.5)
where v, = 1 to 2 is the inlet water velocity, inis; r, and r, are the
radius of the inlet opening and of the impeller eye, m.
The radius of the impeller inlet is determined from equat'ion (19.5):
The peripheral velocity of water coming off
where a, and p, are the angles between the directions of velocities r,,
u, and w2 (Fig. 19.1); p l = (5 to 15)104is the head produced by the
pump, Pa; q h = 0.6 to 0.7 is the hydraulic efficiency.
When constructing the impeller blade profile, angle a, is taken 8
to 12' and angle p, - to 12 to 50'. An increase in P, increases the
head produced by the pump, for which reason this angle is sometimes
taken equal to 90" (radial blades). However, a n increase in p, leads
to a decrease in the pump efficiency.
The impeller radius a t the outlet (m)
r, = 30u,l(nn,.,) = u,/co,,.,, (19.8)
where nu:., is the impeller speed, rpm; cow/, is the peripheral velo-
city of the water pump impeller.
The peripheral reloc,ity is determined fro111 the equation
whence u,, = u2r,lr2 mls.

If angle u., between velocities z7, and zil is equal to 902,then angle
PI is found from t.he relation
The blade 1~idt.hat the inlet, b,? and at t.he outlet, b,, (Fig. 1 9 . l a j
is determined from the expressions:
where z = 3 to 8 and is the number of impeller blades; 8, and 6,

stand for the blade thickness at the inlet and outlet, m; v, is the
radial coming-off velocity, m/s:
The blade width a t the inlet, for the water pump impeller varies
within b, = 0.0W t o 0.035 m, and a t the outlet, b, = 0.004 to
0.025 m.
For the construction of the pump blade profile, see Fig. 19.4 b;
it, consists in t;he following. Draw the out,er circle from center 0
wit,h radius r, and t,he inner circle with radius r,. Construct angle p,
on the out,er circle at arbitrary point B. Angle 13 = P, +
$, is then
laid off from the diameter passed through point B. One of the sides
of this angle crosses the inner circle at point K. BK is then drawn
through points B and K until t-he inner circle is again crossed
(point A ) . A perpendicular is erected from point L which is the
mid-point of A B , until it crosses line BE a t point E. An arc is
then drawn from point E through point,s A and 3, which repre-
sents the searched outline of the blade.
The input power of the water pump
where q, = 0.7 t,o 0.9 and is the met-ha~lic~al efficiency of the water
Pump.
The value of Nu., makes up 0.5 t o 1.0% of the engine rated power.
Computation of the water pump for a carburet tor engine. Accord-
ing to t,he heat balance data (see Sec. 4.2) t.he amount of heat carried
away from the engine by water: Q,, = 60 510 J/s; mean specific
heat of wat,er c , = 4187 J/(kg I<), mean density of water p l = 1000
CH. 19, DESIGN OF COOLIISG SYSTEhI COMPONENTS 407
kg/ms; the head produced by the pump is taken as p i = 120 000 Pa;
pump speed n,., = 4600 rpm.
The water clrculat.ion rate in the cooling system
where A T l = 9.6 I i and stands for the water t'emperature difference

in forced circulation.
G l a d= Gl/ll = 0.0015110.82 = 0.00184 m 3 / 9
where q = 0.82 is the volurnet,ric efficiency of the pump.
The radius of the impeller inlet
where v, = 1.8 and stands for the water velocity a t the pump inlet,
mls; r, = 0.01 and stands for the impeller hub radius, m.
The peripheral velocity of the water flow a t the impeller outlet
= l / 1 + t a n 10" ctg 4 5 " ~ f120 000/(1000 x 0.65) = 14.7 m/s

where angle a , = 10' and angle p, = 45"; q h = 0.65 and stands
for the hydraulic coefficient of the pump.
The impeller radius at the outlet
The peripheral velocity of the flow coming in

u, = u,r,/r, = 14.7 x 0.0206/0.0304 = 9.96 rnis
The angle between velocities v, and u,, a, = 9OC, in that tan P1
= ullul= 1.8j9.96 = 0.1807, whence p1 = 10°15'.
The blade width a t the inlet
where z = 4 and stands for the number of blades on the pump im-
peller; 6, = 0.003 and stands for the blade thickness a t the inlet, m.
The flow radial velocity a t the wheel outlet
v r = PI tan a 2 - 120 000 tan 10°
- 1000 x 0.65 x 14.7 =2. m/s
Plqhu2
The blade width at. the outlet.
where 6, = 0.003 and stands for the blade thickness a t the outlet, m.
The input power to the water pump
where q, = 0.82 and stands for the mechanical efficiency of the

water pump.
Computation of the water pump for a diesel engine. According
to the heat balance (see Sec. 4.3) the amount of heat carried away
by water from the engine: Q,,= 184 520 J/s; water mean specific
heat c l = 4187 J (kg K); mean density of water p, = 1000 kg/m3.
The head produced by the pump is taken as p l = 80 000 Pa, the
,
pump speed rt,. = 2000 rprn.
The water circulation rate in the cooling system
where A T l = 10 and stands for the water temperature difference

in the case of forced circulation, K.
G I e d= Gl/q = 0.0044/0.84 = 0.0052 m/s
where 11 = 0.84 is the pump volumetric efficiency.
The radius of the impeller inlet
where u, = 1.7 and stands for the water velocity a t the pump inlet,
m/s; r, = 0.02 is the impeller hub radius, m.
The peripheral water velocity a t the wheel outlet
=1/1+ tan 8'ctg 40"1/80 000/(1000 x 0.66) = 11.9 m/s

where a, = So, and p, = 40'; q h = 0.66 is the hydraulic efficiency
of the pump.
The wheel impeller radius a t the outlet
The peripheral velocity of the flow coming in

CH. 19. DESIGN OF COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS 409
The angle between velocities v, and ul is taken as a, = 90°, in

that
tan = v,/u, = 1.7/7.7 = 0.221
whence /3, = 12'28'.
The blade width at. the inlet
where z = 6 is the number of blades on the pump impeller; 6, = 0.004

is the blade thickness a t the inlet, m.
The radial velocity of the flow a t the wheel outlet
U, = PI tan a 2 - 80 000 tan 8 O
- 100
PlThua x 0.66 x 11.9 =1.43 m/s
The blade width at the out,let
where 6, = 0.004 is the blade thickness a t t,he outlet, m.

The input power of the water pump
where 1, = 0.84 is the mechanical efficiency of the wat,er pump.
19.3. RADIATOR
The radiator is a heat-exchanger in which the water going from
engine hot parts is cooled by the air passing through the radiator.
The computation of t.he radiator consists in defining the cooling
surface required to transfer heat from the water to the ambient air.
The cooling surface of the radiator (ma)
F I Qw (19.14)
K (Tm.w -Tm. a )
where Qw is the amount of heat carried away by water, J i s ; h' is the
thermal c ~ n d u c t ~ i v i tcoefficient
y of t,he radiat-or, W/(m2 K); Tm.
is the mean temperature of water in the radiator, K ; T,., is the
mean temperature of air passing through the radiator, K.
The thermal conductivity coefficient [W/(m2 K)]
410 P A R T FOUR. ENGINE SYSTEMS
where 3, is the coefficient of heat transfer from liquid to t'he radiator!

wall, lV/(m2 K); 6, is the thickness of a radiator tube wall, m; i.,
is the thermal conductivity coefficient of the radiator tube material.
W/(m K); a, is the coefficient of heat transfer from the radiator wall.
to air, \V/(m2 K).
Because the value of K /W/(m%K)l is difficult to be determined,
analyt,ic,ally, it is generally taken by the empirical data:
Cars . . . . . . . . ................. 140-180
Trucks and tractors ................. SO-10(!
The amount of water flowing through the radiator (kg/s)

Gi = Qw/[u, ( T i n ,w - T o u t . w ) J (19.i G 1
In the case of forced water circulation in the system the temp+
rature difference AT, = Tin. - T o u t . , = 6 to 12 K. The most
favourable value of temperature Ti,.,characteristic of a liquid-
cooling system is taken within the range 353-368 K. Proceeding frorr:
the t'aken values of AT, and Ti,., the mean temperature of thl-
water in the radiator may be determined as follows:
L.rn -
- Tin. w +2T o u t . w - Tin. w + ( T i2n . w -A*,)
I n automobile and tractor engines Tw , is equal to 358 to 365 li,
In the radiator, heat Q , is transferred from the water to the cooling
air, i.e. QLE= Qa.
The amount of air passing through the radiator (kgis)
The temperature difference AT, = T o u t . , - Ti,., of air in th(:

radiator grill is 20-30 K . The temperatmureupstream the radiator
Ti,.,is taken 313 K. The mean temperature of the air passing through
the radiator
T i n . a+ T o u t . a --
Tin. a+ (Tin.a+AJ'a)
T,.,= 2
(19,17!
2
I n automobile and tract.or engines T a m ,= 323 to 328 K.
Substituting the values of Tw. ,, T,. , K and Q, into equation
( 9 , we determine the radiator cooling surface (m2):
Computation of the radiator cooling surface for a carburettor

engine. According to the heat balance (see Sec. 4.2) the amount of
heat carried away from the engine and transferred from the water to
cooling air is Qa = Q , = 60 510 J/s; mean specific heat of air c , ~
= 1000 J/(kg K); the flow rate of water passing through the radiator
is taken from the data of See. 19.2; G I = 0.00151 m3is; water mean
density p l = 1000 kg/ms.
The amount of air passing through the radiator
where AT. = 24 is the temperature difference of the air in t,he ra-

diat,or grille, K.
The mass flow rate of the water passing through the radiator
The mean temperature of the cooling air passing through the ra-
diator
Tin. a+ ( T i n . a + A T a ) - 313+(313+24) =325.0 K
Ta. m = -
. 2 2
where Ti,. = 313 and stands for the design air temperature up-
stream the radiator, 1;.
The mean temperature of the water in the radiator
where Ti,.,= 363 and stands for the water temperature upstream
the radiator, K ; AT, = 9.6 is the ternperatare difference of the
water in the radiator taken from the data of Sec. 19.2, I i .
The radiator cooling surface
where K = 160 and stands for the coefficient of heat transfer for
car radiators, W/(m2 K).
Computation of the radiator cooling surface for a diesel engine.
According to the heat balance (see Sec. 4.3), we have: the amount of
heat carried away from the engine and transferred from the water to
cooling air: Q, = Q , = 184 520 Us; mean air specific heat c,
= 1000 J/(kg K); volumetric flow rate of the water flowing through
the radiator is taken from the data in Sec. 19.2 as G I = 0.0044 m3/s;
water mean density p l = 1000 kg/mr.
The amount. of air passing through the radiator
where AT, = 28 is the temperature difference of the air in the ra-

diator grille, K.
The mass flou- rate of water passing through the radiator
The value of T,.,is determined by formula (19.17).

The mean temperature of water in the radiator
where Ti,.,= 365 is the water temperature upst.ream the radiator.

K; AT, = 10 is the temperature difference of water in the radiator
which is taken from the data in Sec. 19.2, K.
The radiator cooling surface
where K = 100 and stands for the heat transfer coefficient of truck
radiators, W/(m2 K).
19.4. COOLING FAN

The purpose of t.he c,ooling fan is to maintain an adequate air flow
to carry away heat from the radiator.
The fan capacity* (mS/s)
where Qa is the aniount of heat carried away from t.he radiator by

cooling air, Us; pa is the air density a t it,s mean temperature in the
radiator, kg/ms; c , is the air specific heat., J/(kg K); AT, is the air
temperature difference in the radiator, K.
To choose a cooling fan, in addition t,o the fan capacity, we have
t,o know the resistance to air flow a t t,he discharge side of the fan.
In the system under consideration t,his resistance includes resistanc,es
caused by friction and local losses. For the automobile and t'ractor
engines the resistance to the cooling air flow is taken a t A p j , = 600
t,o 1000 Pa.
Then the input power of t,he fan and its basic dimensions are forined
against the specified fan capacity and value of Ap!,.
The input power of t.he cooling fan (kW)
where ?if is the fan efficiency (qf = 0.32 to 0.40 for axial-flow ri-
veted fans and 11f = 0.55 t o 0.65 for cast fans).
When determining the basic design parameters of the radiator,
the tendency is to obt,ain a coefficient of forced air cooling K L equal
to 1, i-e. to satisfy the requirement
* Fan capacity G, can be also determined against the design parameters

of the cooling fan.
CH. 19. DESIGN OF COOLIKG SYSTERI CORIPONEKTS 4 13
\-&ere F , is the area fanned by the f a o hlndrs. ~n': F , is the front

area of the radiator grille, m2.
To t,his end the front area of the mdintor is 111ade square in the
shape.
The fan diameter ( ~ n )
Dian =2 VF,. 'a (19.32)
where
F,, f = Ga/wfl
where G, is the fan capacity, m3/s; LC, = (ito 24 and stands for the
air velocity upstream ihe radiator front regardless of the vehicle
speed, m/s.
The fan speed IZ~,, is taken. proceeding from the ultimate value
of the peripheral velocity u = 70 t o 100 m!s.
The peripheral veloclity is dependent on tllr fan head and design:
where Q b is the coefficient dependelit r ~ p o nthe shape of blades (9,

= 2.8 t o 3.5 for flat blades and = 2.2 to 2.9 for curved blades);
pa is the air density to be determined by l.he average parameters,
kg/m3.
With the peripheral velocity Bnown. the fan speed (rprn)
Computation of the fan for a carburettor enginr. According to the

design of the water radiator (see Sec. 19.3) we have: Inass flow rate
of air supplied by the fan GL = 2.52 kgls and its mean temperature
T,., = 325 I<. The head produced by the fa11 i n taken as A p t ,
= 800 Pa,
The density of air in the radiator a t th-e mean air temperat,ure
The fan capacity
The radiat,or front area
where w, = 20 is the air velocity in front of the radiator, regardless

of the vehicle speed, mls.
44 I'411iT FOt-1;. K X G I S E SYSTEJIS
The fan diameter

Df,,= 2 VF,.ijn = 2 1/0.118,'3.14 = 0.388 nl
The fan peripheral velocity
where (I, = 3.41 is a dimensionless coefficieilt for flat I~ladea.

The fan speed
,
Thus, we satisfy the requirement n,,, = n,,.. = 4600 rpln (the-
fan and t-he water pump are driven from a cornmoll drive).
The input power to drive an axial-flow fan
where tlf = 0.38 is the efficiency of a riveted Ian.

Computation of the fall for a diesel engine. Accordiilg to the dati4
obtained from the computation of the water radiator for a diesel
engine (see Sec. 18.3) we have: mass flow rate of s i r supplied by the
Earl G , = 6.59 kgis, and its mean temperature T a .,= 337 11;:
head produced by the fan Apf, = 900 Pa.
The density of air in the radiator a t i t s meall temperature
pa = po x 106/(RaT,.), = 0.1 X 106/(287 X 327) = 1.065 kg/'n15
The fan capacity
The frowt area of the radiator

F,. = Ga/w, = 6-19/22 = 0.281 m2
where w, = 22 is the air velocity in front of the radiator, regardless
of t,he vehicle speed, m/s.
Accordingly, the diameter and peripheral velocity of t.he fan
0t.n = 2 1 / ~ , . = 2.1/0.281!314 = 0.6 m

n = qb1 / jPo ~= 3 1f~900/1~e 0 6 5 = 85 III/S
where q b = 3 and st,ands for t,he dimensionless coefficient for flat,
blades.
CH. i 9 . DESIGN OF COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The speed of a fan with an individual drive
nfan - 60u/(nDj,,) = 60 x BV(3.24 x 0.6) = 2'750 rpm

-
The input power of an axial-flow fan
where qf,, = 0.6 and stands for the efficiency of a cast fan.
19.5. CORIPUTATION OF AIR COOLING SURFACE

The amount of oooling air supplied by a fan is det'ernlined, pro-
ceeding from bhe total amount of heat Q, carried away from the engine:
G, = ca (Tout.a-Qa T i n . a ) Pa
where Ti,.,= 293 B and T o u t . , = 353 to 3'73 K and st.and for
temperatures of the air entering the space between the cooling fins
and coming out of it,.
The surface of cylinder cooling fins
Qcy z
F c ~ =~a ( ~ c ~r - lT i. , . a)
where Q C g is
l the amount of heat carried away by air from the engine
cylinder, J/s; K , is the heat-transfer coefficient of the cylinder sur-
face, W/(m2 K); TCyl. ,is the mean temperature a t the root of cylin-
der cooling fins, K; T ia is the mean temperature of air in the fin
spacings of the cylinder, K.
According to experimental data the mean temperatme a t the
roots of cylinder fins, K:
Aluminum alloys ...........,...,.. 403-423
Cast iron ....................,. 403-453
The value of the heat-transfer coefficient,, W/(m2 K )
where T, is the arithrne tic mean of the temperatures of fins and cooling
air, K ; W, is the air velocity in the fin spacings, m/s.
The mean velocity of the air flow in the fin spacings of the cylinder
and its head is taken equal to 2 0 5 0 mis with a diameter D = 75
t o 125 mm, and 50-60 m/s with a diameter D = 125 to 150 mm.
The cooling surfaces of the fins on the cylinder head
where Q h e a d is the amount. of heat carried away from the cylinder

head by air, J/s; T,.,is the mean temperature a t the fin roots of t,he
head, Ii; Ti,.,is the mean temperature of air in fin spacings of the
cylinder head, K.
The heat-transfer coefficient of t.he head is determined from ern-
pirical reIa tion (19.28).
The mean temperature a t the fin roots of the cylinder head, Ii:
.... . .......... .. .
Aluminum alloys 423-473
Cast iron ...................... 433-503
APPENDICES
Appendix I
Relations of SI and MKFS* Units
Measured in
Quantity
SI I MKFS
Relations
Length m m -
Area n13 m2 -
Volume m3 m3 -
Mass kg kgf s2/m 1 kg€ s2/m 9.81 kg
Time s s -
Density kg/m3 1 kgf s2/m% 9.81 kg/ms
kgf s2/m*
Heat J 1 cal=4.187 J
cal
Specific gravity N/m3 1 kgf/m3=9.81 N/m3
kgf /m3
Specific heat J/o% K) 1 kcall(kgf "C) =
kcal/(kgf "C)
= 4187 J/(kg K)
Force N kg f I kgf ~ ~ 9 . 8N 1
Pressure Pa kgf/cm2 1kgf/cm2=98066.5Pas
-,0.0981 hlPa
Work J kg£ m 1 kgf rnm9.81 J
Power W h. p. 1 h. p.=735.499 W
0.7355 limT
Torque N m kg£ rn I kgf m z 9 . 8 1 N m
Specific fuel con- Ig/(h. p. h) w
sumption g/(kW h) &!/heP- h w 4 .36 g/(kW h)
Coefficient of heat 1 kcallm2 h "C s
transfer W/(m2 K) kcal/m2 h "C = 1.163 W/(m2 K )
Dynamic viscosity N s/m2= Pa s poise 1 poise = 0.1 Pa s
* MKFS stands for the meter-kilogram-force-second system of units.
27-0946
AIgori thnl of Mullivariant Conlputa t ion of Engine Open Cycles
L- C o m p u t e M I a n d MN, d e p e n d e n t a n a
a t a n y value of cc
I
o Compute M C I ) Z , M l l ~ ~ 0 , M 0depen-
2
dent. on a a t ot 8 I
C
<
Yes 1
Compute M ro, , M , M to , M R ~ AH,
, d e p e n d ~ n t on a a t <1
--
C o m p u t e M Z . p o dependent on H a t I > c u > Z
I
Compute p , Hw,, dependent on E and rc
L --" .--- -- .- - -
I Job
k
Pa I -----
I J o b T,
I
1
Snbr.outine a f c o m p r ~ t i n gthe function Tc = f ( E , Ta) by
i n t e r p o l a t i n g 2nd degree paly!torni!~als
I
Compute T, , k , , ( mc,)::, p, , p, dependent
T, = f (E, T), a n d E , T a , Pa
Compute (mc;')i,' , (rnc:):; not sa-
t i s f y i n g t h e c o r ~ d i t i o n 2800C
< Tc C I501
I Compute (rnc3;:, (rnc;);; satisfying the c o n d i t i o n 2800ST, r 1501 ]
I Compute c ;, r mc;) $
I
Subroiltine ?f c o m p u t i n g the function T, = f ( E , oc ,Tal
bv interpolating 2nd degree pol.ynorninaLs
' I
Compute T, , k2. ( r n c r f ) t 2 , ( mc:$,):,' , (mc:,)~;, ( rncYHzo) kt,

(r n , r n VNZ) o:vtt o 7 ( rnc,YO2)~ , 7i , Tb ,q dependent
on Tz = f ( ~a,, Ta)
I J
I
I Conlpute p, , p , , p, dependent
1
on E , a, p a , Ta
I3
i
N-
-0
- 4
-
Yes l
- /-
Check t o s'e'
witether- t h e cyc1.e is con~pletcd by
----a@,
= pa W-
/l-
o Kbnd t h e i,ntt,i.aL va-
LO Ta,
!,11f! = Td
I
No Hind the i n i t i a l B ~ r r t lt h e ini.tial

-
. value t o T, T, = T,
-
value t n p,,p,=p,,
tiirld the in~tial, B i n d t.he i n i t i a l Bind the initial

b a l u e t o 7,,Ta = T,
'
v a l u e t o a ,a =al
-
value t o pa, p,=pa,
4 d
I Routing of damping t h e cornputation

I
results
J
End
Basic Data of Carburet t or
Nominal pow-er Se,

k l i (11. p.)
Engine speed a t
nominal power
nx, rpm
Number and arran-
gement of cylin-
ders
Compression ra t-io
Stroke-to-bore ra-
tio S I B
Cylinder bore R ,
mrn
Piston stroke S ,
mm
Swept volume V l ,
(dm3/l)
Specific power per
1 24.6
I 30.7
dm3 N l , kW/dm3 (33.4) (41 -8)
P-/l)
Piston speed
-
up,, 9 -24-9.68 10.34
at n ~ m/s ,
Maximum torque 80.4
Mernax, N m (8.2)
(kg m)
Engine speed a t 32@0 1400-
maximum tor- 1600
que nt, rpm
Mean effective 0.78 0.73
pressure at no- (8.0) (7 -4)
minal power pe,
MPa (kg/crna)
Mean effective 0.84 0.74
pressure a t rna- (8 6) (7.5)
ximum torque
Pet, MPa
(kg/cm2)
Minimum specific 327 341
fuel consump- (240) (250)
tion g,1*,
?/kWh (glh*P h)
Va ve arrange- lead Bottom
ment
Cooling
I Air
* With a power limitel.

Note. V stands for Vestype engine:; R stands f o r in-line (row)engines.
Appendix 3
Four-Stroke Engines
I
C*)
*
m
f.l
d
3 0
2
--.
L
a
z 3 0 4
0
4
C\1
0
4
w
SJ
d
eJ
*.
DJ
I
m
N
I
?)
LC
I
c?
PI
I
t-
m
1
.-
J
e
.-,
e
1
m
I
M
I I
5
L
0 M R c c
4
PI
4
n
5
s
+
k 3
E E
m
=I
'3
!s
m
d=,
q&
cl
sc
M
&
56.5 58.7 58.7 62.3 69.7 84.4 110.0 132.0 161.4 220.0
(77) (80) (80) (85) (95) (115") (150) (180) (220) (300)
5600 5200 5800 4500 4500 3200 3200 3200 4200 4400
4-R 4-R 4-R 4-R 4-R 8-V 8-V 8-V 8-V 8-V
8.5 8.5 8.8 6.7 8.2 6.7 6.5 6.5 8.5 9.5
1.053 1.013 0.854 1 1 0.869 0.950 0.880 0.880 0.880
76 79 22 92 92 92 100 108 100 108
80 80 70 92 92 80 95 95 88 95
j.45.1 1.568 1.478 2.445 2.445 4.252 5.966 6.959 5.526 6.959
38.9 37.4 39.7 25.5 28.5 19.8 18.4 19.0 29.2 31.6
(53.1) (51.O) (54.1) (34.8) (38.9) (27 .O) (25.1) (25.8) (39.8) (43.1)
14.93 13.87 13.53 13.80 13.80 8.53 10.13 10.13 12.32 13.93
105.9 122.6 117.7 171.7 186.4 284.5 402.2 466.0 451.3 559.2
(10.8) (12.5) (12.0) (17.5) (19.0) (29.0) (41.0) (47.5j (46.0) (57.0)
3500 3400- 3000- 2200- 2200- 2000- 1800- 1800- 2500- 2700-
4000 3800 2400 2400 2200 2000 2000 2600 2900
0.83 0.86 0.82 0.68 0.76 0.74 0.69 0.71 0.83 0.86
(8.5) - (8.8) (8.4) (6.9) (7.7) (7.5) (7.0) (7.2) (8.5) (8.8)
0.92 0.98 1.00 0.88 0.96 0.84 0.85 0.84 1.03 1.01
(9.4) (10.0) (10.2) (9.0) (9.81 (8.6) (8.7) (8.6) (10.5) (10.3)
307 300 307 307 307 313 327 320 - 293

(225) (220) (225) (225) (225) (230) (240) (235) - (215)
Overhead
Liquid
Basic Data of Four-
F3
CO
xCO
m c'3
Description
C
r
t- 0 4
.
N
I
~1
I
el c? rr? M e5)
I I
;r
z
--
I Z s
r€ E < 3
b
. E
Nominal pol{-er S,, 14.7 29.4 36.8 66 132.4 161.8

kW (h. p.) (20) (40) f 50) (90) (!go)* (220)
Engine speed a t no- 1800 1600 1600 1750 2100 1700
rninal power n y ,
rpm
Number and arran- 1-R 4-R 4- R 4-R 6 -V 8-V
gement of c ylin-
ders
Compression ratio E 15.0 16.0 16.0 16.5 16.5 16.5
Stroke-to-bore ratio 1 .I213 1.143 1.137 1.077 1.077 1.077
s IB
Cylinder diameter D, 125 105 110 130 130 130
mm
Piston stroke S, mm 140 120 125 140 140 140
Swept volume V l , 1.72 4.15 4.75 7.43 11.I4 14.86
dm3
Specific power per 8.55 7.0s 7.74 8.88 1j.89 10.89
dm3 iJTl, kW/drns (11.63) (9.64) (10.53) (12 .1) (16.16) (14.80)
(h. p./dms)
Piston speed V p ,,, 8.4 6.4 6.7 8.17 9.8 7.9
m/s
Maximum torque 90 211 245 411.6 667 -
Memax,Nm(kgm) (9.2) (21.5) (25.0) (42) (68) -
Engine speed at ma- 1400 1200 1000 1100-1300 1300-1500 -
ximum torque nt,
rPm
Mean effective pres- 0.570 0.532 0.581 0.597 0.679 0.769
sure a t nominal (5.81) (5.42) (5.92) (6.09) (6.92) (7.84)
polt-er p,, MPa
jkgf /cm8)
Mean effective pres- 0.659 0.638 0.648 - 0.752 -
sure at maximum (6.72) (6.51) (6.61) - (7.67) -
torque pet, MPa
(kgfIc m2)
Minimum specitic 279 252 265 252 238 238
fuel consumption (205) (185) (195) (185) (175) (175)
ge minr g/kW h
(g/h. P* h)
Valve arrangement Overhead
Cooling Liquid
*With a speed governor.

Note. R stands for in-line cylinders, V means Veectype engines.
Appendix 4
Stroke Diesel Engines
-
REFERENCES
1. Arkhangelskiy, V. M., Vikhert, M. M., Voynov A. N. et al. Automobile

Engines, edited by Prof. Khovakh, M. S. Moscow, "Mashinostroyenie",
1977 (in Russian).
2. Lenin, I. M., Popyk, K. G., Malashkin, 0.M. e t al. Automobile and Tractor
Engines, edited by Prof. Lenin, I. M. Moscow, "Vysshaya shkola , I969
(in Russian).
3. Dekhovich, D. A., Ivanov, G. I., Kruglov, M. G. e t al. Air Supply Units
of Combined Internal Combustion Engines, edited by Prof. Kruglov, M. G.
Moscow, "Mashinostroyenie", 1973 (in Russian).
4, Artamonov, M. D., Pankratov G. P. Theory, Construction and Design of
Automotive Engines. Moscow, "Mashinostroyenie", 1963 (in Russian).
5. Vikhert, M. M., Mazing, M. V. Fuel Equipment of Automobile Diesel Engines.
6. Gavrilov, A. K. Liquid Cooling Systems of Automotive Engines. Mosco~v,
"Mashinostroyenie", 1966 (in R ussian).
7. Grigorev, M. A., Pokrovskiy, G . P. Automobile and Tractor Centrifuges.
Moscow, "Mashgiz", 1961 (in Russian).
8. Gugin, A. M. High-speed Piston Engines: Handbook. Leningrad, "Mashino-
stroyenie", 1967 (in Russian).
9. Orlin, A. S., Alekseev, V. P., Kostygov, N. I. e t al. Internal Combustion
Engines. Construction and Operation of Piston and Combined Engines, edited
by Prof. Orlin, A. S. Moscow, "Mashinostroyenie", 1970 (in Russian).
10. Orlin, A. S., Vyrubov, D. N., Ivin, V. I. et al. Internal Combustio?~Engi-
nes. Theory of Working Processes of Piston and Combined Engines. edited
by Prof. Orlin, A. S. Moscow, "Mashinostroyenie", 19'70 (in Russian).
11. Orlin, A. S., Vyrubov, D. N., Kruglov, M. G. e t al. Internal Combustion
Engines. Construction and Analysis of Piston and Combined Engines, edited
by Prof. Orlin, A. S. Moscow, '~Mashinostroyenie", 1972 (in Russian).
12. Orlin, A. S., Alekseev, V. P., Vyrubov, D. N. e t al. Internal Combustion
Engines. Systems of Piston and Combined Engines, edited by Prof. Orlin, A. S.
13. Dmitriev, V. A., Machine Parts. Leningrad, "Sudostroenie", 1970 (in Rus-
sian).
14. Vikhert, hl. Pvl., Dobrogaev, R. P., Lyakhov, M. I. e t al. Design and Ana-
lysis of Automotive Engines, edited by Prof. Stepanov, Yu. A. Rioscow,
"Mashinostroyenie", 1964 (in Russian).
15. Korchemnyi, L. V. Engine Value Gear, Moscow "Mashinostroyenie", 1964,
(in Russian).
16. Lakedomskiy, A. V., Abramenko, Yu. E., Vasilyev, E. A. e t al. Ilfaterials
f o r Carburettor Engines. Moscow. "Mashinostroyenie", 1969 (in Russian).
REFERENCES 425
17. Nigmatulin, I. N. Working Processes i n Turbopiston Engines, Moscow,

"Mashgiz", 1962 (in Russian).
18. Ponomarev, S. D., Biderman, V. L., Likharev, K. K. et al. FundanZentats
of Modern Methods of Strength Computations in Mechanicat Engineering.
Moscow, "Mashgiz", 1952 (in Russian).
19. Chernyshev, G. D., Malyshev, A. A., Khanin, N. S. e t al. Improving Relia-
bility of 19M 3 Diesel Engines and Trucks, Moscow, "Mashinostroyenie",
1974 (in Russian).
20. Popyk, K. G. Dynamics of Automobile and Tractor Engines. Moscow, "Ma-
shinostroyenie", 1970 (in Russian).
21. Rikardo, G. R. High-Speed Internal Combustion Engines. Translated from
English. Edited by Prof. Kruglov, M. G. Moscow, Mashgiz, 1960.
22. Analysis of Working Processes in Internal Combustion Engines. Edited by
Prof. Orlin, A. S. Moscow, Mashgiz, 1958 (in Russian).
23. Savelyev, G. M., Stefanovskiy, B. S. Design of Turbo-superchargers, Yaro-
slavl, 1977 (in Russian).
24. Lenin, I. M., Malashkin, 0. M., Sarnol, G. I. et al. Fuel Systems of A utomo-
bile and Tractor Engines. Moscow, "Mashinostroyenie", 1976 (in Russian).
25. Dyachenko, N. Kh., Kostin, A. K., Pugachev, G. P. et al. Theory of I n -
ternal Combustion Engines. Edited by Prof. Dyachenko, N. Kh. Leningrad,
"Mashinostroyenie"? 1974 (in Russian).
INDEX
Acceleration curve, 135 of linear expansion, 303

Adiabatic compression, 131 of material sensitivity to stress
Advance angle, 58, 81 concentration, 222, 285, 290
At~nospheric pressure and tempera- molecular change of combustible
ture, 89, 106 mixture, 16, 18, 43, 100
Atomization pressure, 390 of oil flow through nozzle, 397
Axial-flow fan, 415 of residual gases, 17, 52, 90
scavenging, 13
thermal conductivity, 409
venturi flow rate, 383
Balancing, 187, 212 Combined cycle, 36
Basic parameters of cylinder and Combined supercharging, 345
engine, 99 Cornbustjble mixture, 16, 20
Bearing safety factor, 400 Combustion pressure, actual, theore-
Bending safety factor, 277 tical, 96
Bernoulli's equation, 51, 374 Combustion process, 94, 109
Blade profile of a water pump, 405 Compression adiabatic work, 350
Blocks, load-carrying cylinder and Compression process, 92, 108
load-carrying water-jacket, 297 Compressor basic parameters, 366
Bottom valve gear, 309 Computation indicator diagram, 81
Brix center, 138 Computation,
correction, 138, 173, 193 of a ~ent~rifuge, 397
method, 132, 136 of compensating jet, 381
of compressor, 362
of a crankpin bearing of carburettor
engine, 401
.Cam profile, 311 of diffusers and air scroll, 365
Carburettor, elementary, "ideal", 376 of the fan for a carburettor engine,
Carb~ret~tor characteristics, 379 413
Centrifugal oil filter, 395 for diesel engine, 411
Cet,ane number of fuel, 10, 11 of fuel-injection pump, 387
Charge-up, 49 of injector, 389
Coefficient , of main jet, 381
act,ual molecular change of adap- of main journal bearing for diesel
tability, 120, 126 engine, 402
actual molecular change of working of nozzle, 368
mixture, 18 of oil cooler, 399
of admission, 126 of oil pump, 392
of air consumption, 374 of the radiator cooling surface for
charge-up , 90 carburettor engine, 410
flow rate, 383, 390 for diesel engine, 411
of fuel consumption, 378 of a t,urbine, 367
heat transfer, 411, 416 of turbine wheel, 370
heat utilization, 60, 63, 110 of a venturi, 380
of hydraulic losses, 397 Concentrator, 225
INDEX 427
Convex cam, 329 Effect,ive specific fuel consumption,

Cycle delivery of fuel, 385 7. 6-
Cycle with heat added at. constant Effective torque, 124
pressure, 33 Efficiency,
Cycle with heat added a t constant adiabatic of a compressor, 50, 355
volume, 31 adiabatic (isentropic), 349
Cylinder size effects, 7 7 , I 1 2 charge-up , 40
Cylinder size and piston speed, 84 effective, 71, 99
indicated, 72, 98, 112
mechanical, 75, 112
scavenge, 48, 90
Delivery ratio of the pump, 385 thermal, 26, 30, 35, 44
Design, turbo-supercharger, 358
of big end of connecting rod for volumetric, 53, 393
carburettor engine, 260 Elemental composition of fuel, 11
of ca~nshaft,341 Elementary carburett.or, 373
of carburettor engine piston, 231 Engines,
of a connecting rod big end of double-cylinder in-line, 161
diesel engine, 260 eight-cylinder in-line, 166
of a connecting rod bolt for car- eight-cylinder V-type, 166
burettor engine, 266 four-cylinder in-line, 162
for diesel engine, 26'7 horizon tal-opposed, 83
of a connecting rod shank for row, 147
carburettor engine, 263 single-cylinder, 16G
for diesel engine, 264 six-cylinder in-line, 13'3
of a crankpin, 274, 280, 290 six-cylinder V-type, 164, 165
of a crankweb, 282, 295 Engine displaccmcnt, 83
of a cylinder head stud for carbu- Engine perfornlance figures, 98, 112
rettor engine, 306 Excess air factor, 13, 17, 44, 88,
for diesel engine, 307 105, 125, 383
of a cylinder liner for carburettor Expansion adiabatic exponent, 64
engine, 300 Expansion and exhaust process, 96
for diesel engine, 301
of diesel engine piston, 232
of jets, 375
of -main bearing journal, 279 First la\\- of thermodynamics, 60
of main journal, 272 Flow rate,
of a piston pin for carburettor air in venturi, 383
engine. 240 fuel of the main jet, 383
for diesel engine, 242 total fuel, 383
of a piston ring for carburettor volumetric, 421
engine. 236 Flywheel moment, 171
for diesel engine, 237 FoZlower lift, 321, 329
of a small end of carburettor engi-
ne, 251 Follonrer velocity, 318
of diesel engine, 255 Follower velocity and acceleration,
3LA
of valve spring, 336 Forces acting on crankpin, 179, 199
of a venturi, 373 Forces loadirln the crankshaft throw,
Design characteristic of a carburet-
tor, 834 181, 202
Dynamics, 173, 192 Forces loading main journals, 181,
Dynamic viscosity, 400 202
Forces, resultant inertial primary and
secondary, 159
Fresh charge preheating temperature,
Effective factor of stress concentra- 51
tion, 256 Fuel-air mixture, 17, 33
Effective power, 76, 123 Fuel co~nbustior~ heat, 19
428 INDEX
Fuel discharge [time, 389 Mean heat capacity of a medium, 22

Fuel injection pump, 385 Mean molar heat capacity, 21-23, 61
Fuel injector, 389 Mean molar specific heat, 43, 92
Full and specific force5 of inertia, 195 Mean indicated pressure, 111, 125
Mean pressure of mechanical losses,
120-124
Mean torque, 19'7
Gas pressure forces, 192 Mechanical losses, 74
Gas turbines, 356 Mixture compensation, 377
Guide case, 358 hfolar specific heat, 58, 108
hionoblock structure, 297
Monoblock unit, 296
Motor octane number (MON), 9
Harmonic cam, 315, 317, 324, 330
Heat analysis, 86
Heat balance, 102, 115
Heat of combustion, higher, lower, 19 Normal force, ,142
Heat utilization jfactor, 60 Nozzle-to-nozzle distance, 396
Number and arrangement of engine
cylinders, 83
Impeller blade profile, 405
Indicated fuel consumption, 72
Indicated parameters of working cyc- Oil density, 393
le, 97, 111 Oil thermal capacity, 393
Indicated power, 72 Oil-to-water cooler, 399
Indicated pressure, 69, 98 Ovalization stress, 240-244
Indices, Overhead valve gear, 308
adiabatic, 32, 43, 108
expansion, 31, 65
expansion polytropic, 96
polytropic, 11, 354 Parameters of working medium, 88,
Induction process, 89, 107 105
Induction process losses, 90 Pin ovalization, 240
Inertial force curve, 141 Piston acceleration, 173, I 9 2
Injection delay angle, 81 Polar diagram of crankpin load, 148
Injection timing angle, 58 Polar diagram of forces, 150
Inlet device and impeller, 349 Pole of polar diagram, 150
Polytropic curves, compression, ex-
pansion, 100, 124
Pressure a t the end of induction, 51
Kazandzhan's formuia, 353 Pressure of residual gases, 50
Kinematics, 172, 191 Pressure variation, 59, 68
Kurtz's cam, 317, 319 Pumping unit, 387
Lame equation, 247 Radial-axial turbines, 359

Liner wall, 300 Rated power, 82
Lubricating oil system, 390 Ratio,
af terexpansion , 111
c.ompression, 29, 34, 37, 85
Poisson's, 247, 256, 300
Mach number, 359, 369 preexpansion, 111
Mass unit, 11 run nonuniformity, 170
Mean angular velocity, 170 specific heat, 34, 56, 64
Mean effect.ive pressure, 7 4 , 112, 119 st,roke-bore, 84, 98, 112, 141
INDEX
Relative diameter of impeller, 352 Temperature of residual gases, 50

Research octane number (RON), 9 Theoretical air requirement, 12
Root's blower. 345 Theoretical cycles of supercharged
Row engines. 147 engines, 40
Running-on moments and torques, 273 Time-section of valve, 329
Running-on (accurnulat~ed) t,orqnes, Torque of a cylinder, 178
287 Torque surplus work, 169
Total torque, 14G
Toxic constituents, 69
Scale factor, 224 Turbine wheel, 360
Turbosuperc.harger, 42, 347
Scroll, 355
Shaping a convex cam with flat fol-
lower, 322
Shaping of a harmonic cam mit.h flat Ultimate composition of fuel, 1 2
follower, 324 Unbalanced forces and moments, 158
Specific and full forces of inertia, 176 Uniformity of torque and engine run,
Specific fuel consumption, 98? 120 190, 214
Specific total forces, 176, 195
Speed characteristic, external, part-
load, 117
Spring characteristic, 333 Valve lift, 310
Spring elasticity, 339 Vanecl diffuser, 354
Spring force of elasticity, 334 Vane relatiye width, 353
Stress concentration factors, 221, 285, Vee engines, 151
290, 295 Velocity of flow, peripheral, radial,
Stress concentration sensitivity, 223
Stud tightening, 303 407
Supercharging, combined, 40, 343, Volume unit, 11
345
Supercharging system, pulse, constant
pressure, 347 Web safety factor, 279
Surface sensitivity factor, 285, 294
Swept volume, 49, 343 Winter grades of fuel, 10
TVorking mixture, 20
Temperature a t the end of induction, Yield limit, 220

53 Young's modulus, 340

Design of Automotive Engines, Kolchin-Demidov

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design of Automotive Engines, Kolchin-Demidov

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design of Automotive Engines, Kolchin-Demidov

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

What are the main topics covered in the book?

What are the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the key concepts discussed in Part One?

What are some of the key concepts discussed in Part One?

A.

The Greek Alphabet

The Russian Alphabet and Transliteration

WORKING PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS

Chapter 1. FUEL AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS ..........

Chapter 2. THEORETICAL CYCLES OF PISTON ENGINES . . . * .

Chapter 4. HEAT ANALYSIS AND HEAT BALANCE . . . .

Chapter 7. DYKAMICS OF CRANK MECHANISM ......... 137

Chapter 8. ENGIKE EALA4i\iCING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Chapter 9. ANALI-SIS OF EKGISE KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS . . 171

DESIGK O F PRINCIPAL PARTS

Chapter 11. DESIGN OF PISTON ASSEMBLY . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 14. DESIGN OF ENGINE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . 296

Chapter 17. DESIGN OF FUEL SYSTEM ELEMENTS . . . 372

Chapter 18. DESIGN OF LUBRICATING SYSTEM ELEMENTS . 390

Chapter 19. DESIGN OF COOLING SYSTEM COMPONENTS . . . . . 403

Nowadays the main problems in the field of development and

The physical and chemical properties of the fuels used in automo-

Ratings by gasoline grades

Except the AH-98 grade, automot,ive gasolines are divided into:

(b) Winter grades-intended for use in arctic and northeast areas

When use is made of supercharging, a fuel with a higher octane

Cetane number, min. 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 50

lstands f o r diesel fuel.

The elemental colnposition of liquid fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel)

where C. H and 0 are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen fractions of

where C,H,O, are volume fractions of each gas contained in 1 m3

Gas01ine 0.855 0.145 -

Natural gas 90.0 2.96

1.2. CHEMICAL REACTIOKS 1K FUEL COMBUSTIOX

Complete combustion of a mass or a volume unit of fuel requires

where 1, is the t,heoretical air requirement in kg needed for the

where pa = 28.96 kg/kmole which is the mass of 1 kmole of air.

where Li is the theoretical air requirement in moles or m3 required

where dl, is the quantity of c~mbust~ihlemixture (kmole of

With gas engines

where ilf' is the amount of combustible mixture (mole of com.rnix/mo-

where rn, is the mass quantity of combustible mixture, kg of com.

The amount of iildividual components of gaseous fuel combustion.

Oxygen (mole of O,,/mole of fuel)

When fuel combustion is incomplete (a< 1)the combustion~prod-

Carbon monoxide (kmole of CO/kg of fuel) I

where K is a constant value dependent on the ratio of the amount

The amount of combustible mixture (fresh charge), combustion

Fig. 1.2. Amount of combustible mixture (fresh charge), combustion products

A change in the volume during the combustion of working mixture

From Eq. 1.21 it follows that actual molecular change coefficient

gases y,, and the molecular change coefficient of combustible mixtu-

j.3. HEAT OF COMBUSTION OF FUEL AND FUEGAIR MIXTURE

where W is the amount of water vapours in the products of combus-

In order to obtain a more complete evaluation of the heating value

I n engines operating a t a ( 1, we have chemically incomplete

a combustible mixture is not in proportion to the heat of combustion

~ r o mEqs. (1.27) and (1.28) i t follows that the heat of combustion

are equal, the heat of combustion of a working mixt.ure increases with

To determine mean molar heat capacities of various gases versus