Plant Protection II

PLANT PROTECTION
For Second Year Agriculture Plant Protection Course
AJI C. S.
PLANT PROTECTION
For Second Year Agriculture Plant Protection Course
AJI C. S.
PLANT PROTECTION - II
For Second Year Agriculture Plant Protection
Prepared by,
AJI C. S.
Vocational Teacher in Agriculture
Govt. VHSS, Pallarimangalam, Ernakulam
[email protected], (9446805972)
If a country is to be corruption free and become a nation of beautiful

minds, I strongly feel there are three key societal members who can
make a difference. They are the Father, the Mother and the Teacher
- Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
Who said cant ?............

Someone is always doing something
someone else said, was impossible
Try trying..
CONTENTS
Unit No.
Name of the unit
Page No
Importance of Plant Protection
1-3
Introduction to pests
4-5
General characters of insect pests
6 - 11
Insect pest control
12 - 21
Biological control of insect pests
22 - 25
Environmental aspects of pesticides
26 - 32
Insect pests of major crops of Kerala
33 - 56
Non-insect pests of major crops
57 - 65
Pests of stored products
66 - 70
10
Introduction to plant diseases
71 - 76
11
Plant disease control
77 - 81
12
Diseases of major crops of Kerala
82 - 98
13
Weeds
99 - 107
14
Plant protection equipments
108 - 116
15
Compatibility of plant protection chemicals and fertilizers
117 - 118
Model question papers
119 - 124
Unit - 1
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT PROTECTION
Cultivation of plants for food began in the Neolithic period (latest period of Stone Age)
sometimes between 12,000 and 10,000 BC. Until then, man finds their subsistence from hunting and
food gathering. The genesis of agriculture lay better germination and greater yields. Dependence of
man on plants increased with complexity of civilization.
Plants are economically important in other ways such as checking soil erosion, improvement
of soil fertility, provision of food and shelter to many animals. Plants are also grown for beautification
and aesthetic purposes. Whenever plants are grown whether for subsistence or for meeting other
necessities, the growers are keenly interested in having an assured yield or return. Accordingly,
constant attention is paid to ensure proper growth and production. Successful Cultivation of plants
necessitates cultivation of suitable varieties, supply of inputs and efficient management of the same
and constant care and protection from pest and disease, which may cause yield reduction. Here in
comes the importance of plant protection.
Pests have been known to cause damage to plants from ancient times; though the exact
causes might not then be known. They are considered to appear due to the wrath of gods. Late
blight to potato caused by the fungus Phytophthora infestans in Ireland in the 1840s resulted in a
potato famine and the consequent migration of a million people from Ireland to U.S.A. Bengal
famine of 1943 caused death of a very large number of people which was due to the failure of rice
crop due to brown spot disease. In SriLanka Coffee Cultivation is abandoned and they adopted tea
cultivation towards the end of 19th century, due to the disease Coffee rust. Diseases like Bunchy top
and Panama wilt disease are serious threats to Banana crop. From studying all these instances, it is
shown that pests are potential threats to the successful cultivation of crops and they can pose
serious problems if adequate steps are not taken to protect the crops. To feed the increasing
population man started intensive farming, which lead to an increase in pest and disease incidence.
Approximately the loss due to pest is 30- 50% of the total production. To stabilize production and to
avoid famine, various plant protection measures are to be adopted.
Plant protection may be defined as safeguarding of crops against attack of pest, disease
and other harmful physiological conditions
Assessment of Losses Caused by Pests and Diseases
Assessment of pests and the effect they produce on host plants is important as it constitutes
a base for decision on pest control measures. In pest management the major consideration is
economic threshold, which is based on the relation between yield and infestation of pests.
Assessment methods can be divided into two
1. Direct Counts - On plants or in the environment
2. Indirect Counts - Of some effects caused by the pests such as injury or damage. Both can be
assessed as an index, score or on a rating scale.
Pest has been defined as any organism detrimental to man and his property in causing damages
significant of economic importance.
Classification of pest based on the extent of damage

1. Major Pest - cause a yield loss of more than 10% (>10%)
2. Minor Pest - 5 - 10% yield loss
3. Negligible Pest - a loss of less than 5% of yield (<5%)
Percentage of loss caused by different groups of pests
Weeds
45%
Insects
30%
Disease
20%
Other factors
5%
Total
100%
Economic Threshold Level (ETL)

E.T.L is the level of pest incidence beyond which significant damage of the crops and yield loss
occur, if no control measures are adopted. Pest control measures are to be adopted only if the pest
population exceeds the economic threshold levels.
Damages caused by pests may be quantitative or qualitative or both. Quantitative loss is
recorded when there is an overall reduction in yield. In case of qualitative damages, the gross yield
may not be affected but the presence of markings, blemishes, wart or offensive odour may fetch
much less price and the net income from unit area is reduced. Eg:- Potato Scab (blemishes appear on
potato and storage quality will be low). Red rot of Sugar Cane (Quality of Juice affected).
Damage caused to plants due to pest attack may again be either direct or indirect depending
on the parts affected and the resultant effect.
Direct damage - eg:- Vascular wilt, Rice ear head bug, Rice Stem borer
Indirect damage - eg:- Leaf Spot, Banana aphid transmitting Bunchy top virus.
Classification of insect pests based on occurrence
1. Regular pests - Certain insects occur most frequently on a crop and such insects closely
associated with a particular crop are called as regular pests. E.g. Thrips on chillies.
2. Occasional Pests - Insects which occur in close association with a particular crop become
serious in certain period irregularly. Eg. Case worm of rice, mango stem borer.
3. Seasonal Pests - Insects which occur mostly during a particular part of the year are called
seasonal pests. eg. Red hairy caterpillar or ground nut.
4. Sporadic Pests - Insects which occur in a few isolated localities are known as sporadic pests.
E.g. Rice swarming caterpillar.
5. Persistent Pests - Insects which occur on a crop almost through out the year is called
persistent pests. Eg. Scales and mealy bugs on a number of crops.
INSECT INFESTATION IS CLASSIFIED AS EPIDEMIC AND ENDEMIC
Epidemic if the infestation is not a regular feature to a particular locality but when the
infestation occur it become serous in that area.
Endemic - If the infestation is a regular feature and confined mostly to a particular area or
locality it is referred as Endemic.
Pandemic occure world over such as across a country or continent eg- locusts
PEST OUTBREAK
If the natural forces controlling the pest population are upset or disturbed there will be a
sudden increase in pest population and consequent damage to crops which is termed as pest
outbreak.
Pest outbreak means the sudden and enormous increase in the biotic potential of certain
species which occur as a result of upsetting the equilibrium in nature. When the action of the forces
of the environmental resistance is suddenly decreased that result in a population explosion or post
outbreak. One of the major causes of pest problem is the unlimited supply of food for the pests due
to the intensified growing of crops.
Causes of Pest outbreak
1. Destruction of natural enemies -The natural enemies namely parasites and predators keep the
insects under check. Destruction of these natural enemies will lead to the increase of pest
population. Insecticides may affect natural enemy more than the host insects.
2. Destruction of forest or brining forest area under cultivation - In this case insects migrate to
nearby cultivated field in search of their food.
3. Intensive and extensive cultivation of crops - Cultivation of one particular variety over large area
makes more favourable conditions for pest. There is no competition for food and shelter for the
insects since their host plants are cultivated in large areas.
4. Introduction of new crops and improved strains - They usually have succulent growth so they
become more agreeable to pest for their food. Sometimes the insects which are considered of
minor importance become of major importance with the introduction of new varieties.
5. Improved agronomic practices - timely irrigation and application of chemical fertilizers (especially
nitrogenous fertilizers) improve the growth of crops and pest attacks.
6. Introduction of a new pest in new area - When introduced, no natural enemies are present so pest
multiplies rapidly and become more abundant.
7. Accidental introduction of a foreign pest - Accidental introduction of some pests a long with their
host plants.
8. Resurgence of sucking pests - When same types of chemical is continuously applied against sucking
pests, they develop some degree of resistance against that particular chemical and their
population come back in more severe form.
9. Large scale storage of food grains also lead to pest problems
10. Mutation a sudden change in the genetical make up of an organism
Locust out break
Unit - 2
INTRODUCTION TO PESTS
Insects and disease producing organisms are normally recognized as pest. Pest has been
defined as any organism detrimental to man and his property in causing damages significant of
economic importance. Pest can be controlled by suitable protective methods. The pest in general
means enemy. It includes organisms which are harmful to man. It causes significant damages of
economic importance. Different groups of pests like insects, nematodes, rodents, weeds, snails and
slugs attack crop plants. Their morphological features, nature of damage and control measures are
to be studied in detail.
Different Pest Groups
Insects, arachnids (Mites), nematodes, rodents, weeds, birds and other animals, slugs and
snails, angiospermic parasites, disease producing pathogens including fungus bacteria, viruses,
mycoplasma etc are the important group of pests.
Classification of different pest groups
a) Vertebrates
Phylum
Class
Characters
Examples
1) Chordata
Mammalia
Hairy, four footed,

milk secreting
Rats, squirrel,
rabbit, monkey etc
2) Chordata
Aves
Wings, feathers and

beak
Sparrow, parrot,
pigeon, crow etc
Characters
Examples
Nature of damage
Eat plant parts,
flowers, seeds and
fruits etc
They eat grains,
seeds, fruits etc
b) Invertebrates
Phylum
1) Arthropoda
2) Arthropoda
Class
Hexapoda
Body divided in to head,

thorax and abdomen. Three
pair of legs and wings.
Beetles,
butterflies,
moths, bugs,
flies etc
Arachnida
Minute creatures with an

oval or elongate oval body,
head and thorax fused to
form cephalothorax,
abdomen distinct, four
pairs of walking legs and no
antennae.
Red spider
mites, tea
mites,
eryophyid
mites
Nature of damage
Adults or immature stages
damage plants by chewing
of external parts or sucking
plant sap. They also bore in
to fruit, seed, and bud or
feed on plant stem or mine
leaf surface.
They pierce through the
plant tissue with their
sharp mouth parts for
sucking the sap and
destroying chlorophyll. As
a result of feeding,
discolouration of leaves or
galls appears.
3) Arthropoda
4) Mollusca
5) Nemata
Crustacea
Gastropoda
Nematoda
Hard limy chitinous

exoskeleton, two pairs of
antennae.
Soft bodied, nonsegmented, no jointed
appendages. Body enclosed
in calcareous shell.
Tiny cylindrical, elongated
un-segmented body with
tough cuticle. Some forms
are microscopic. size
generally less than 2mm.
Insects
Crabs
Cut basal portions of rice

seedlings, make holes on
field bunds thus cause
water to drain off.
Slugs and
snails
They feed on foliage of

plants mainly ornamentals
like orchids and anthurium.
Root knot
nematode,
burrowing
nematode
They posess a protruding

stylet for feeding. They
form knots or galls.
Mite
Crab
Nematode
Slug
Pigeon
Snail
House Rat
Unit - 3
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF INSECT PESTS
The science of Entomology deals with the study of insects. The word entomology is derived
from two Greek words entoma (Insects) and logos (to study). About 80% of the known species of the
animal kingdom consists of insects. Both beneficial and harmful insects are present around us. To
study such a large number it is necessary to classify them into distinct groups. Insect are tracheate
arthropods with distinct head, thorax and abdomen, single pair of antennae, a pair of compound
eyes, three pairs of walking legs confined to the thorax and two pair of wings. The integument is
hardened to an exoskeleton covering the body muscles with striated fibres arranged segmentaly. The
head is usually composed of 6 segments fused immovably together. Thorax is composed of 3
segments prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. Abdomen is usually composed of 11 segments.
Classification of Insects
Insects are found in all parts of the earth where life can exist. Their food includes every kind
of living or dead organic material from plant tissues to the blood of mammals. The study of insects in
their various aspects is known as the science of Entomology. Class Hexapoda of phylum Arthropoda
to which the insects belong includes 29 orders. Out of which important orders containing insects of
economical importance are listed below
1. Coleoptera - (Beetles and Weevils)
Minute or large, hard bodied insects with forewings modified into elytra which is not fitted
for flight but adapted to support body during flight and protecting the membranous hind wings when
at rest. Mouth parts biting (Cutting) and chewing type. Young ones are called grubs. eg:- Rhinoceros
beetle, Red palm Weevil, Pseudo stem weevil of banana etc.
Beetle
Weevil
2. Lepidoptera - (Moths and Butterflies)

Adults with four membranous wings usually covered by overlapping flat scales forming
coloured patterns. Mouth parts modified into a coiled sucking proboscis called siphoning type mouth
parts. Larvae called caterpillars and have chewing mouth parts. Larvae only cause damage to plants.
eg: Moths, Butterflies, silkworm, Rice stem borer, rice case worm. Butterflies are diurnal in habit and
brightly coloured. Moths are nocturnal in habit.
Butterfly
Moth
3. Diptera - (True flies)

Adults with only two wings, hind wings modified into a knob like halters which help to
balance during flight. Mouth parts sponging and sucking type. Larvae called maggots.
Eg;- House fly, Fruit fly, Melon fly, Galls fly of rice.
House fly
4. Hymenoptera - (Bees and Wasps)
Minute to medium sized insects with four membranous wings, hind wings always smaller than
forewings. Venation few or absent. Ovipositor conspicuous and often modified as sting. Larvae
chewing type mouth parts and adults have got chewing and lapping mouthparts. Eg: Bees, ants, saw
flies, Wasp, hornet etc.
Bee
Wasp
5. Hemiptera - (Bugs)
a) Heteroptera
Minute to large sized, phytophagous or predacious insects with piercing and sucking mouth
parts. Forewing modified into hemelytra, hind wings membranous.
Eg: True bugs, rice bug, cowpea pod bug.
b) Homoptera
Small sized bugs with suctorial mouth parts. Active forms with four wings. Sedentary forms
are also present. eg: Aphids, Scale insects, leaf hoppers etc.
Bug
Aphid - Homoptera
6. Thysanoptera (Thrips)
Minute, mostly phytophagous, mouth parts rasping and sucking type. Wings when present
with long marginal fringes of hairs (fringed wing). eg. Marginal gall thrips of pepper.
Thrip
Types of Mouth parts and feeding habits

The appendages found on the head capsule around the mouth are collectively called mouth
parts of insects. The following are the important types of mouth parts
1. Chewing type of mouth parts - This type of mouth parts permits the insects to bite off and chew on
into external parts of a plant or tunnel its way into some parts of the plants. Crop pests having this
type of mouth parts defoliate plants or bore into plants including fruits. They can be controlled by
application of stomach poison.
2. Piercing and Sucking Type - The insects with this type of mouth parts cause discolouration, curling
of leaves and their eventual weakening and death of plant parts. They may also attack young twigs
and other parts of plant and cause them to dry up. Contact poison or systemic chemicals are
effective.
3. Rasping and sucking type - Thrips are characterized by this type of mouth parts. Due to the
mechanism of action in rasping the tissues, exudation of juice from inside the plant takes place
which is sucked up by thrips. Parts damaged present a whitish mottled appearance. Thrips can be
controlled by stomach and contact poisons.
4. Siphoning or Sucking Type - Mouth part is a long coiled tube which acts as simple sucking or
siphoning system which help in sucking honey or sweet exudates. eg: Moths and Butterflies.
5. Sponging type of mouth parts - The mouth parts consist of a hinged fleshy proboscis party
concealed in a cavity in the head with a sponge like organ at the end for sucking the liquid. These
insects fist let out Saliva for pre-digesting or dissolving the food and then suck the same up.
Controlled by stomach and contact poison. eg: House flies.
6. Chewing Lapping Type - In this case mandibles retain their original function of chewing but
maxillSae and labium are modified into slim lapping organ for taking up liquids. eg: Honey bees.
Classification of insect as solid feeders and liquid feeders.
a) Solid feeders They have biting and chewing types of mouths parts. eg. Beetles, Caterpillars
of butterflies, grasshoppers, termites, cockroaches etc.
b) Liquid feeders - they have sucking type of mouthparts
1. Butterflies and moths - adults Sucking/Siphoning type & have a coiled proboscis.
2. Bugs (Adults and Nymphs) - Piercing and sucking Type and have a stylet.
3. Thrips - Rasping and sucking type
4. Flies - Spongy type of mouth part with a hinged proboscis
Chewing type
Chewing mouth parts
Piercing & Sucking
10
Siphoning
Sponging
Chewing & Lapping
Important Stages in Insect Development

The development of insect is often attended with pronounced metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis refers to any change in form, structure and appearance of an insect between birth
and maturity. Insects may be divided into three groups with reference to metamorphosis.
1. Insects without metamorphosis (Ametabola) - These insects on emerging from egg are essentially
like the adults except for size. They undergo a series of moults till attaining maturity. E.g. - Silver
fish, spring tails.
Ametabolous development
2. Insects with Partial or Incomplete Metamorphosis - These insects on hatching out from the eggs
show a resemblance to adults but do not possess any wings. The immature once are known as
nymphs. Nymphs grow through a series of moults each time becoming larger in size. The period
between two moulting is known as instar. The number of moults and instars remain constant for
the species but varies in different species. eg. - Grass hoppers, plant bugs, aphids, thrips etc. These
insects can be easily controlled in the nymphal stages. Adults are more resistant or they fly away
on application of pesticide.
3. Insects with Complete metamorphosis - The young stage of insects of this group do not show
resemblance to adults. They look worm like and are known as larvae. Larvae do not show any
traces of wings and differ greatly from the adults in habit. Larvae also undergo moults and pass
through instars. These insects cause maximum damage at the larval stage, when feeding and
growth takes place. When larva attains full growth it sheds its skin and enter pupal stage. The
pupa is concealed in the soil or bundled up in a silken case known as cocoon. During this stage
11
change over into adult organs takes place. When the change over is complete insects come out of
the pupal case and fly away. Pupal stage is most resistant to insecticides. Some types of larvae are
known by definite names. Larvae of moths and butterflies Caterpillar, larvae of flies Maggots
and larvae of beetles - grubs.
Incomplete Metamorphosis
Complete Metamorphosis
Insects with Incomplete Metamorphosis
Insects with Complete Metamorphosis
1. Hemiptera - Bugs
1. Coleoptera Beetles & Weevils
2. Orthoptera Grass hoppers & crickets
2. Lepidoptera Moths & Butterflies
3. Thysanoptera - Thrips
3. Diptera House flies, Mosquito
4. Isoptera - Termites
4. Hymenoptera Bees & Wasps
Destructive stages of insect pest

1. Beetle
2. Butterflies and moths
3. Flies
4. Bugs
5. Thrips
Adults and grubs

Caterpillars
Maggots
Adults and nymphs
Adults and nymphs
Consolidation
Sl.
No
Order
Insects
Wing
Mouth
parts
Biting &
Chewing
Siphoning
type
CPChewing
Metamorphosis
Young ones
Damaging
stage
Complete
Grubs
Adults &
Grubs
Complete
Caterpillars
Caterpillars
Coleoptera
Beetles &
Weevils
Elytra
Lepidoptera
Moths &
Butterflies
Scaly wing
Diptera
Flies
Hind wing
Halters
Sponging
Sucking
Complete
Maggots
Maggots
Hemiptera
Bugs
Hemelytra
Piercing &
sucking
Incomplete
Nymphs
Nymphs &
Adults
Thysanoptera
Thrips
Fringed
Rasping &
sucking
Incomplete
Nymphs
Nymphs &
Adults
12
Unit - 4
INSECT PEST CONTROL
Insects appeared on earth very long before descend of man. They depend upon the same
sources on which man depend for his food, shelter, clothing and other needs. The fight between man
and insect will continue till human race endures on earth. Pest Control may be defined as any method
or procedure employed to reduce the pest population and prevent damages caused by them. Pest
control signifies any action taken by man to prevent losses caused by pests. Regulation of population
in nature without any manipulation by man normally does not come under the purview of pest
control measures.
There are two methods of insect control,
1. Natural Control
2. Artificial / Applied Control
Natural Control - Control of insects without intervention of man is called natural control. Insect
population is kept in a check by the natural factors like climatic factors, topographic factors and
natural enemies. Climatic factors include temperature, atmospheric pressure, rainfall, light intensity,
wind and relative humidity. Temperature affects growth of the insects. Small insect seen on leaves
are washed out and killed by heavy rainfall. Strong winds will affect the flying insects. Topographic
factors Mountain Ranges and Oceans act as physical barrier for the spread of insects. Natural
enemies include parasites, predators and pathogens. They kill insects and check the insect
population.
Artificial / Applied Control Methods - The controlling methods adopted by human agencies are
called artificial control measures. There are several methods. In general these control measures are
divided in to two.
i. Prophylactic control (Preventive methods)
ii. Curative Control Methods (Direct methods)
Prophylactic Method is the preventive measure taken before the actual occurrence of the
insect pests. Curative methods are the measures taken to eliminate the insects after the actual
occurrence of the pest.
a) Prophylactic measures - are adopted in the case of insects which occur in certain season. They
include
1. Field and Plant Sanitation - That is the removal of affected plant parts and removal of weeds in the
field. Many insects lay their eggs on weeds, by removing weeds we can control such insects.
2. Proper Cultural Methods - Seeds are to be soaked before planting. If paddy seeds are kept in hot
water at 50 0C for 15 minutes it will kill white tip nematode. By ploughing the field after harvest
rice stem borer can be controlled because it lays eggs on stubbles. Growing of Resist ant Variety Certain crops are less damaged by insects; such varieties are called resistant varieties, treat the
seed with insecticides before planting, raking manure pits to control Rhinoceros beetles,
periodical drying of stored produce prevent pest attack, application of oil on stagnant water will
prevent mosquitoes etc.
b) Curative Control Measures: The methods include
1. Cultural methods
13
2. Physical methods
3. Mechanical methods
4. Biological methods
5. Legal methods
6. Chemical methods.
1. CULTURAL METHODS
Some of the ordinary farm practices which are done to keep the insect infestation under
check are called cultural methods. They are adjusting the time of sowing or planting, using resistant
variety, crop rotation, flooding, mulching, trap cropping, cover cropping, Digging and ploughing etc.
a) Crop rotation - Cultivation of one crop after another belonging to different botanical
groups. e.g:- Rice + Pulses + Vegetables.
b) Trap Cropping - Susceptible crop is cropped near the major crop and when the insects are
drawn to the susceptible crop they are destroyed. eg: Bhindi is often cultivated in a small area near
the cotton crop to attract cotton jassids. Then the pest is destroyed along with the bhindi crop before
the pest start attacking cotton crop.
c) Mixed Cropping - Growing more crops in the same area. By this we get additional profit
from the area.
d) Tillage Operations like summer Ploughing / deep ploughing - During ploughing the
organisms below soil are get exposed and killed by sunlight, birds etc.
e) Trimming and Plastering of bunds - Grass hoppers lay their eggs in the holes of the bunds.
If we plaster the bunds the eggs are killed.
f) Clipping of leaf tip of Rice Seedlings - Rice stem borer lays eggs on the tip of rice plant leaf
before transplanting. By clipping the leaf tip at the time of transplanting the egg mass can be
destroyed.
g) Flooding of Rice Nursery - will eliminate army worm attack.
2. MECHANICAL CONTROL
It is a control method by using mechanical devices or by manual operation. These methods
include.
a) Collection and destruction - Handpicking and destruction of egg masses of insects,
caterpillars etc.
b) Provision of preventive barriers and traps - Tin bands are provided around tree trunk of
coconut palm so that rats cannot climb the tree. Provision of polythene or paper cover to
protect fruits from melon flies attack. Ant pans are kept on the base of table legs to prevent
ants. Light traps are kept in fields to attract and kill nocturnal insects.
3. PHYSICAL CONTROL
Controlling insects by using physical forces - Activated Kaolinic clay is mixed with stored
products to prevent attack of storage pest. This clay gets adsorbed to cuticle of insects and it breaks.
There by losing water from the body. The insect will die due to de-hydration.
a) Artificial Heating or Cooling - The storage pests are killed if they are exposed at 55 0C for three
hours. Soil can be steam sterilized to kill soil borne insects.
b) Male sterilization Technique - Male insects can be sterilized by gamma radiation or by certain
chemicals. When these sterile males are released in field reproductive capacity of the
population will be lowered.
14
c) Irradiation with UV light generally followed to control pests in canned and preserved food
items
4. LEGAL CONTROL MEASURES
Some dangerous exotic pests introduced to our country from foreign countries such as
Cottony cushion scale of citrus, Wooly aphid of apple, San Jose scale of apple, Golden cyst nematode
of potato etc. Government of India has passed an act called Destructive insect and pest act, in the
year 1914 to prevent entry of any insect pest or disease causing agents to our country. Legislative
measures are taken to prevent introduction of new pest, disease etc and to prevent spread of
already established pest and disease from one part to another. The laws enforced by government are
called quarantine laws. (Foreign quarantine & Domestic quarantine laws) To import a plant or plant
material is done through quarantine stations. Quarantine stations are situated at various air parts
and seaports Bombay, Chennai, Calcutta, Kochi and Vishakhapattanam are the seaports. Air ports
Bombay, Chennai, Calcutta, New Delhi and Amrutsar. A phytosanitary certificate is to be issued by
the agriculture department of the exporting country stating that the particular consignment is free of
pest, weeds or disease. Only along with this certificate, the plant is received in the quarantine
station.
5. BIOLOGICAL CONTROL (BIO CONTROL or BIOTIC CONTROL)
It is the pest control by using living organisms. Bio control can be classified in to two.
1. Macrobial Control
2. Microbial Control
1. Macrobial control - is by using parasites and predators. Predators include insects, mites,
spiders, birds, reptiles etc.
2. Microbial Control - is by using pathogens. Pathogens include disease producing virus, fungus,
bacteria, protozoa and Nematodes.
Study and utilization of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of pest
population comprises the field of biological control.
6. CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS
It is the control of insects by using chemicals. Pesticides are substances used to control pest
and they include insecticides, fungicides, nematicides, rodenticides, acaricides, weedicides or
herbicides, molluscicides etc. The chemical used to control insects are called as insecticides.
Insecticide can be defined as a substance or a mixture of substances intended for killing, repelling or
otherwise preventing insects from attacking crops.
Classification of Pesticides
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Insecticides used for killing insects. eg - Ekalux

Fungicides used for killing insects. eg - Mancozeb
Acaricides used for killing mites. eg - Dicofol
Weedicides/ Herbicides used for destroying weeds eg- Paraquat
Nematicides used for killing nematodes eg:- Carbofuran
Molluscides used for killing slugs and snails, eg. Metaldehide
Rodenticides used for killing rodents. eg:- zink phosphide
Antibiotics
These are substances which are produced by micro organisms and
which act against micro organisms. eg:- Streptomycin.
15
Naturally occurring insecticides like nicotine were used in the earlier period. Use of modern
insecticides commenced in the year 1867. That is Paris green was used against Colorado potato
beetle. D.D.T. was discovered in 1939. It marked a milestone in the history of insect control.
Insecticidal property of B.H.C. was discovered in 1943. These two are chlorinated hydrocarbons with
stomach and contact action. These two were widely used but now use restricted due to residue
effects.
Classification of Insecticides
For easier and meaningful study, insecticides are classified into certain groups.
1. Classification based on mode of entry of insecticide in to insect body.
2. Classification based on mode of action.
3. Classification based on chemical nature.
I). Classification based on the Mode of Entry.
Based on mode of entry into insect system, there are four types of insecticides.
1.
Stomach poison
2.
Systemic poison
3.
Contact poison
4.
Fumigants.
1. Stomach Poison - It is a toxicant which is ingested by insect and kills the insects by action on
digestive system. It is used mainly on chewing insects. These are to be applied on plant parts which
provide food to insects. Eg - Arsenicals, Fluorides
2. Systemic Poison - These are capable of being absorbed to various plant parts like leaf, root etc.
Systemic insecticide is one in which the toxicant penetrates into the plant tissue and get transported
in insecticidal quantities from the point of application and making the plant insecticidal. Most of
these chemicals are transformed to highly toxic compounds inside plants. In essence a systemic
poison is a stomach poison because poison enters into stomach of the insects. Systemic insecticides
are used for control of sucking, insects, leaf miners, tissue borers etc. Eg: - Organo-phosphorus
compounds like Phorate, Quinalphos.
Advantages of a systemic insecticide are,
Not subjected to weathering.
Since the toxicant is translocated in the apical direction, the fresh plant growths do
not require application of pesticide for a long time.
It is comparatively safer to natural enemies.
Disadvantages of systemic Insecticides are,
Insect has to feed sufficiently longer period to get lethal dose
Some of the systemic insecticides are highly toxic to higher animals and it causes pest
resurgence. (After giving protection initially, pest may develop resistance to this
chemical and pest number may increase considerably)
3. Contact Poison - It is a chemical which kills insect by means of contact to the body wall and getting
absorbed and penetrated in to body to certain vulnerable sites such as sutures, base of setae etc.
These chemical enter body through mere contact. It lacks selectivity. All the insects which get contact
of these chemicals get killed. Chemical have lipophyllic nature eg:- Carbaryl (Sevin)
4. Fumigants - These are chemicals which in its gaseous form enter tracheal system of insects
16
through spiracles and kill the insects. Fumigants are applied to control pest in storage and
nematodes which are seen in soil. eg :- Aluminium phosphide (celphos trablets)
II). Classification based on mode of action
1)
2)
3)
4)
There are four types,

1. Physical poison
2. Protoplasmic poison
3. Respiratory poison
4. Nerve poison or Neuro toxicant
Physical poison - It is toxicant which brings about lethargy and kills insect by exerting physical
effect. The insect will die due to the lack of air or due to the dehydration caused by breaking of
cuticle. eg.:- heavy oils, tar oils, Silica Gel, Aluminium powder etc.
Protoplasmic poison - It is the chemical which causes precipitation of protoplasm, especially
destroys the cellular protoplasm of midgut epithelium. eg.:- heavy metals like mercury and fatty
acids.
Respiratory poison - These chemicals block cellular respiration and also inactivates enzymes
involve in respiration. eg:- HCN, carbon monoxide, phosphine gas etc.
Nerve poison - It is a toxicant which inhibits the nervous system. These chemicals inhibit the
enzyme acetyl cholinesterase, which cause continuous stimulation and death of insects. Eg.
Nicotine, O. P. compounds.
III). Classification based on chemical nature

Insecticides
Inorganic
Organic
1. Arsenic compounds
1. Plant origin -- eg. Neem, Pyrethrin, Nicotine, Rotenone
2. Sulphur compound
2. Animal origin -- eg. Neries Toxin
3. Fluorine compounds
3. Hydrocarbon oils -- eg. Mineral oil, tar oils
4. Borax
4. Synthetic Organic Chemicals
5. Zinc
( Modern synthetic chemicals)
a) INORGANIC INSECTICIDES - are those which do not contain carbon. Arsenicals are stomach
poisons. They are used as poison baits. Sulphur compounds are prepared as dust. It is contact poison.
eg - Flourides, Arsenicals, Zinc phosphide, Sulphur, lime sulphur etc.
b) ORGANIC INSECTICIDES - are those which contain carbon in their structure.
1. Organic insecticides of plant origin (Botanical insecticides)
Nicotine - Tobacco was used as an insecticide from 1763. The alkaloid nicotine contained in
tobacco leaves is having insecticidal property. Nicotine is extracted from the leaves of
tobacco plant and Nicotin is a nerve poison. Tobacco decoction is used to control aphids.
Pyrethroids Chief source of pyrethroids is the plant Chrysanthemum. Insecticidal properties
are due to the presence of esters pyrethrum and cinerin.
Rotinoids - Toxic substance contained is rotenone. This is extracted from the roots of a
plant Derris. It is stomach and contact poison.
17
Azadirachtin Neem plant is the chief source. Insecticidal properties are due to the
presence of alkaloid azadirachtine. Neem seed kernel suspension is sprayed to control
locusts. It causes a repellent action. Neem oil and neem oil cake are also having insecticidal
properties.
2. Organic insecticides of animal origin - Neries toxin is separated from marine annelid
Lumbrineries heteropoda
3. Hydrocarbon oils heavy oils are used as a physical poison to control scale insects.
4. Synthetic Organic Chemicals (Modern synthetic chemicals)
Synthetic Insecticide:1. Organochlorines eg. D.D.T., B.H.C., Dicofol

2. Organophosphorus compound eg. Ekalux, Malathion, Rogor
3. Carbmates eg. Carbaryl, carbofuran
4. Organic Sulphur Compounds eg- Endosulphan
5. Dinitrophenol eg. Binapacryl
6. Thiocynate eg. Thanite
7. Synthetic pyrethroids Eg. Permithrin, cypermithrin etc.
8. Fixed soaps and oils eg. Fish oil soap
9. Fumigants eg. Aluminium phosphide, Carbon monoxide
10. Other miscellaneous organic compounds.
1. Organic Chlorine insecticides - Main constituents of these insecticides are carbon hydrogen
and chlorine. eg. D.D.T., B.H.C. D.D.T is a stomach and contact poison. It has longer persistence and
residue effect. It affects sensory organs and nervous system of vertebrates and invertebrates. D.D.T.
has got affinity towards fatty tissues and lipid tissue. If animals are fed with foliage on which D.D.T. is
sprayed it accumulates in the fatty tissues and secreted through milk. D.D.T. cannot be used on
cucurbits because it causes phytotoxicity. Use of D.D.T. is banned now. Endosulphan is an organic
sulphite as well as chlorinated hydro carbon. Stomach and contact poison. It controls aphids,
caterpillars, plant bugs and borers. It is not much harmful to honeybees.
2. Organophosphorus Compounds (OPs) - Many of organic phosphorus compounds are
contact and stomach poison. Some got fumigant action also. Most of the o. p. compounds have got
broad spectrum action. i.e, their action is towards a number of pests, not specific. Some the o.p.
compounds are highly toxic to mammals also. eg Quinalphos, Phorate
3. Carbamates contact and stomach poisons, neurotoxins action similar to O. P.
compounds. eg. Carbaryl, Carbofuran etc.
FORMULATIONS
Insecticide manufactured in pure form is called technical grade material or active ingredient
(a.i ). We require a very small amount of technical grade insecticide for a large area. But to apply
over a large area it is to be diluted. There fore the pure form is formulated. What we get in the
market is the formulated products. Formulation is the processing of a pesticide compound by any
method which will improve the properties of storage handling and safety of the pesticide. A pesticide
may be available in more than one or several formulations. The best formulation to use should be
determined by a consideration of such factors as the nature of the target pests, the type of crop,
where the pesticide is to be applied, the equipment available for application, the environmental and
18
human hazards involved and the relative costs.

Pesticide Adjuvants - A pesticide adjuvant may be defined as any substance that when combined
with a pesticide increases its sticking, spreading or wetting qualities, makes it safer; aids in its dilution
or uniform dispersion or increases its toxicity to the target pests.
Pesticide adjuvants may be divided into the following.
a) Sticking Agents - These substances have the function of increasing the retention of spray or
dust deposits on plants. eg - milk products, blood albumin and gelatin.
b) Spreaders and Wetters - These are substances that lower the surface tension of a spray and
therefore increase its spreading and penetrating power.
c) Emulsifying Agents - Many pesticides are not soluble in water. Since these organic solvents
will not normally mix and stay dispersed in water substances known as emulsifiers must be
used with them to form stable, milky suspensions of the pesticide. Such a spray is called an
emulsion. Emulsifying agents reduce the tendency of an emulsion to break up into its
component parts.
d) Safeners or Correctives - These are substances that are added to sprays to prevent loss of
effectiveness or to reduce the danger of foliage injury.
e) Synergists - These are compounds when used in conjunction with a pesticide; increase the
toxicity of the mixture over the sum of the toxicities of its components. Some synergists in
use are piperonyl butoxide, and sulfoxide.
f) Diluents or Carriers - A carrier may be any material used to dilute or decrease the amount of
active ingredient in any spray or dust. Sulphur is valuable both as a diluent and as a fungicide
in many dust formulations.
Important formulations are,
1) Dust (D or DP- Dustable Powder) - Dust is prepared by mechanical mixing of technical grade
material and carrier compound or by impregnation of the technical grade by very fine powdered
carrier. The inert compound with which the technical grade is mixed with is called the carrier or
diluent. Carrier materials usually used are wood bark, sawdust, talc, gypsum, kaolin, Clay etc.
Concentration of a.i. in a dust varies from 1% to 25%. eg. Sevin 10% Dust
Disadvantage of dust formulations - it causes drift problem (may be carried away by wind). So
it is better to apply in the morning when plants are wet with dew drops.
2) Granules (G) - are prepared by applying carrier materials and technical grade material on surface
of granules. eg:- Furadan 3%, G., Thimet 10% G.
Advantages of granules are,
No problem of drift, granules can be broadcasted so water is not required,
No residue problem so it is less harmful to natural enemies.
Disadvantages are,
granular formulations are not as effective as others to crawling insects
If the concentration is more scorching on burning of leaf occur.
3) Wettable Powder (W.P.) - It is prepared by blending technical grade material and carrier with a
wetting agent. If the wetting agent is not there, the powder does not mix with water.
4) Water Dispersible Powder (W.D.P) - It is like wettable powder. But during spraying agitation is
required, otherwise it settle down to bottom.
19
5) Water soluble Powder (S.P) - Here technical grade material is finely powdered and the
formulation is water soluble.
6) Oil Solution - It is an oil concentrate which diluted with water before application.
7) Ultra low Volume concentrates (U.L.V) - The technical grade material is dissolved in minimum
quantity of solvent so that there is no need of further dilution.
8) Emulsifiable Concentrate (E.C) - It contains toxicant + solvent + emulsifying agent. When E.C is
sprayed, solvent evaporates leaving deposits of toxicant.
9) Aerosols - Minute particles suspended in air, as a fog or mist. Toxicant is dissolved in liquefied gas
and released through small hole. So toxicant particles float in air with evaporation of released gas.
10) Fumigants - Insecticides in gaseous state. Usually formulated liquid under pressure, sometimes
available in the form tablets. eg:- Celphos tablets, used in godowns.
11) Insecticide Cum Fertilizer Mixture - This is formulated by mixing granules with chemical
fertilizers. It gives nutrients as well as protects plant.
12) En-Capsulated Materials - Insecticides are wrapped in tiny beads made up of poly vinyl or plastic
covering when applied insecticides are released at a slow rate for a long time.
Sl.
No
Formulation
Physical state
Texture
Appearance after
mixing with water
Solubility in water
WP
Solid
Dust
Soluble
Suspension
EC
Liquid
Oily Fluid
Mixes with water
Emulsion
SL
Liquid
Fluid
Soluble
Solution
SC/AF
Liquid
Fluid
Mixes withwater
Suspension
SP
Solid
Powder
Soluble
Solution
Some common Insecticides

Chemical Name
Trade Name & Formulation
Remarks
Organo-phosphorus compounds
1) Mercaptothion
Malathion 25% WP
2) Quinalphos
Ekalux 25% EC/AF
3) Dimethoate
4) Monocrotophose
Rogor 30 EC
Nuvacron 40 EC
5) Phorate
Thimet 10G
6) Methyl parathion
Metacid 50 EC
7) DDVP
Nuvan 100% EC/AF
Carbamates
Stomach and contact action safe

insecticide for controlling pests of
vegetables
Broad spectrum toxicity; particularly
effective against mealy bugs and scale
insects
Systemic insecticide Cum nematicide
Systemic, persistent, Long residual action
Systemic granular insecticide cum
nematicides.
Rapid knockdown action
Contact and fumigant, less residual;
toxicity lasts for only 24 hours; safer to be
applied on vegetables.
1) Carbaryl
Sevin 5% DP
Effective against a wide range of pests. Not

recommended for control of mites. Should not
be sprayed in crops at flowering.
2) Carbofuran
Furadan 3 G
Systemic, insecticide com nematicide
20
Calculation of quantity of commercial formulation required for given area

a) For all formulations except granules
Quantity of commercial formulation
=
Quantity of spray fluid x Concentration of spray fluid

Concentration of commercial formulation
1. Calculate the Quantity of Ekalux 25EC required to spray rice cultivated in an area of 2Ha at a
concentration of 0.025%?
Volume of spray fluid for 2Ha of rice = 2x500=1000 L, Concentration of spray fluid = 0.025%
Concentration of commercial formulation =25%.

Ans;
Quantity of commercial formulation =
Quantity of SF x Concentration of SF
Concentration of comm. Formulation
= 1000 x 0.025
= 1 litre
25
b) For granular formulation

Quantity of commercial Formulation
=
Rate of Application per Ha x Area in Ha x 100

Concentration of Comm. Formulation
2. Calculate the quantity of Thimet 10G required for 1Ha rice when applied at the rate of 1.25 Kg ai
per Ha?
Ans:
Quantity of Thimet 10G
= 1.25 x 1 x 100
=
12.5 kg
10
BOTANICAL INSECTICIDES
Botanical pesticides are those pesticides, which are derived from plants. Such pesticides are
cheap and easy to make. They are ecofriendly compared to synthetic chemical insecticide.
Preparation of some safer insecticidal materials for common use are described here,
1) Kerosene emulsion - This is a contact insecticide useful against many sucking insects. For
preparing this, slice 500 g of ordinary bar soap and dissolve in 4.5 litres of water by boiling. Cool and
add 9 litres of kerosene under violent agitation till the oil is fully emulsified. The stock solution may
be diluted with 15-20 times of water before spraying.
2) Tobacco decoction - This is very effective for controlling aphids and other soft-bodied insects
infesting vegetable crops. Tobacco decoction can be prepared by steeping 500 g of tobacco waste in
4.5 litres of water for 24 hours. Dissolve 120 g of ordinary bar soap separately in another vessel. The
soap solution is added to tobacco decoction under violent agitation. Dilute this stock solution 6-7
times before spraying.
3) Neem kernel suspension (NKS) - This is very effective as a repellent/deterrent against
locusts, grasshoppers and other chewing insects particularly lepidopterans larvae. The kernel should
be ground into a coarse powder. The effective concentration of NKS ranges from 0.1 to 0.3%. For
obtaining 0.1% concentration, 1g of powered neem seed is required per litre of water. The required
quantity of the coarse powder should be put in a small muslin cloth bag and dipped in water for
21
about 12 hours. Thereafter, squeeze the cloth bag repeatedly so that the out-flowing fluid turns light
brownish. The NKS is now ready to be sprayedoasosuchoonocrops.
4) Neem Oil Garlic emulsion (2%) - To prepare 10 litres of 2% neem oil + garlic emulsion, 200 ml
neem oil, 200 g garlic and 50 g ordinary bar soap are required. Slice the bar soap and dissolve in 500
ml lukewarm water. Grind 200 g of garlic and take the extract in 300 ml water. Pour the 500 ml soap
solution in 200 ml neem oil slowly and stir vigorously to get a good emulsion. Mix the garlic extract in
the neem oil + soap emulsion. Dilute this one litre stock solution by adding 9 litres of water to get 10
litres of 2% neem oil + garlic.
5) Preparation of Kandhari nulaku (Hot Chilli) Cows Urine mixture: The preparation is used
for the control of soft bodied insects especially caterpillars. Add one litre cows urine in 10 lit of
water. Add extract of Hot Chilli taken from 30 g of Hot Chilli. Mix well and spray
6) Preparation of Nattapoochedi (Hyptis Suaveolens) Soap Solution: Effective for controlling
aphids. Take one litre Nattapoochedi extract by crushing leaves and tender items. Add 500ml soap
solution (60g ordinary soap in 500ml of water) to the extract under violent agitation. Dilute in 15
litres of water to get 16.5 litres of spray solution.
7) Preparation of Kiriyathu - Garlic solution: Effective against sucking pests, especially for the
management of Thrips, Aphids, White flies and Chilli virus. Crush Kiriyathu leaves and tender items
to get one litre of extract. Dissolve 60 g ordinary soap (Bar soap) in 500 ml of water. Add soap
solution to Kiriyath extract under violent agitation. Dilute in 15 lit of water and add garlic. Filter
and spray on the lower and upper surface of leaves
8. Preparation of Turmeric powder Baking soda Solution: Turmeric is a traditionally used
botanical pesticide. Turmeric powder Baking soda Solution is effectively used against amaranthus
leaf blight. Prepare solution of Turmeric powder Baking soda mixture in 10 litres of water under
violent agitations. Filter and spray.
22
Unit - 5
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF INSECTS
Nowadays due to ill effects caused by chemical pesticides on eco system and environment,
biological control of pest has gained a significant attention. The idea of biological control came up in
the 16th to 18th centauries. During this period various observations and descriptions of parasites and
predators among insects were noted. Various bio agents were introduced and were successfully used
for the control of pests.
Biological control - When a particular species of insect is controlled by a living organism
(Natural enemy), which is introduced, encouraged and disseminated by man. Biological control
involves human interference. Study and utilization of parasites, predators and pathogens for the
regulation of pest population comprises the field of biological control.
Natural control - A natural enemy under natural conditions controls insect pests.
Eg. Spider feeds on stem borer larvae in paddy field.
Principles of biological control
1. Collection of a natural enemy from an area where it is available in plenty (Introduction).
2. Multiply the natural enemy under lab conditions (Augmentation).
3. Disseminate the natural enemy when and where it is needed (Inundation).
a) Parasites - Parasitism is a relationship between two species in which one form parasitise
and obtains its nutritional requirements from the body materials of the other. A parasite is an
individual which depends on another individual for its food requirement. A host is one, from where
the parasite takes its nutrients.
Two Types of Parasites
1. Ectoparasite: is one which develop externally on the host eg - Head louse.
2. Endo parasite: is one which develops internally with in the host. eg - worms.
Based on stage of the host individual there are,
1.
Egg Parasite - is one which feeds on egg stage of the host.
2.
Larval Parasite - is one which feeds on larval stage of the host.
3.
Pupal parasite - is one which feeds on pupal stage of the host.
4.
Adult parasite - is one which feeds on adult stage of the host.
Eg,
1. Bracon brevicornis - Larval parasite of coconut caterpillar
2. Elasmis nephantidis Larval parasite of coconut caterpillar.
3. Xanthopimpla punctata Pupal parasite of coconut caterpillar.
b) Predators - Consume a large number of host individuals. They are larger in size, stronger
and more intelligent also. The host of predator is called prey. Predator is an organism which
consumes several host individuals to attain its maturity.
Examples are,
1. Coccinella arcuata - predaceous on Brown Plant hopper of Rice
2. Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Predaceous on BPH
3. Platimeris laevicolis - Predaceous on Rhinoceros beetle
4. Chelisoches moris - Predaceous on eggs of Redpalm weevil
23
5. Rodolia Cardinalis - Predaceous on Cottony cushion scale of citrus

6. Coccinella septumpunctata predaceous on insects like mealy bugs, aphids .
Coccinella septumpunctata
Rodolia
Chelisoches
Difference between parasites and predators

1. Parasites are smaller, weaker and less intelligent than its host. A predator is larger, stronger
and more intelligent than its host.
2. Parasites live only on a single host individual where as predator consumes large number of host
individuals.
3. Death of host of a parasite is slow, while a predator directly kills the prey and feed it.
QUALITIES OF A SUCCESSFUL NATURAL ENEMY
(Factors Regulating the Efficiency of a Parasite)
1. Searching Ability - A natural enemy should have high ability to search and find out its host
individual.
2. Oligophagy - An oligophagous parasite is preferred because an oligophagous parasite feed on a
main host and one or two related other species.
3. Broad habitat Coverage - Natural enemy should be able to survive in all habitats occupied by the
host individual.
4. Amenability for Lab rearing - A natural enemy should be able to be reared in lab. The mass
multiplication of natural enemy under laboratory condition is known as augmentation.
5. Spreading Capacity - Natural enemy should be able to spread quickly in the field.
6. High fecundity and Short life cycle - Natural enemy should have high egg-laying capacity and very
short life cycle. The life development of natural enemy should coincide with the development of
host individual.
Agents of Biological control
1. Parasitic insects - Living organisms remaining in close association with their hosts and
gradually derive their food from the host. They live and feed internally or externally on the host e.g.
Trichogramma chilonis , Epiricania Melanoleuca
Trichogramma
24
2. Predatory insects - Insects which catch, kill & devour prey

e.g.Chrysoperla carnea , Cryptolaemus montrouzieri
Chrysoperla
Cryptolaemus
3. Pathogens - Micro-organisms causing diseases in pests & inhibiting the harmful fungi.
Bacteria - Bacillus thuringensis
Fungi - Trichoderma, Nomuraea, Paecilomyces, Verticilium, Metarrhizium
Viruses N.P.V.(Nuclear polyhedrosis virus)
Field application of Trichogramma Egg cards
There are approximately 100,000 Trichogramma parasitized eggs per card. Each card can be
broken into 30 squares with 4,000 parasites per square inch -- this permits even distribution in fields
and orchards. Loose eggs can be divided into paper cups; there are approximately 20,000 eggs in a
cubic centimeter. Trichogramma wasps emerge from cards in two to five days, depending on
temperature, which should ideally be 80 to 90 F. Emergence can be delayed by holding parasitized
moth eggs at cooler temperatures (not less than 40 F). Emerging wasps are usually seen in the
morning. To maximize pest fighting time, don't delay release after adult wasps emerge. Keep
Trichogramma cards in the shade, out of the hot sun.
Trichogramma egg card
Microbial Control
It is a phase of biological control in which pest management is brought about by the artificial
release and colonization of disease causing micro-organisms like bacteria, fungi, virus, nematode and
protozoa.The various microorganisms, which cause diseases in insects, are called Entomopathogens.
Entomopathogens can be used as bio control agents. Formulations
containing such entomopathogens are called Bio-insecticides (Biopesticides).
Group of Pathogen
Bacteria
Fungi
Virus
Name
Bacillus thuringiensis
Green Muscardine fungus
Fusarium pallidoroseum
Baculovirus
NPV &CPV
Effective against
Lepidopteran Larvae
Rhinoceros Beetle Grub
Cowpea aphids
Rhinoceros beetle adult
Lepidopteron larvae
25
Example for commercial bioinsecticides (microbial insecticides) containing formulations of

bacteria (BT) are Thuricide, Bacillin, Larvetrol, Endo bacterin etc.
Advantages of Biological Control
1. Biological control has no side effects like residue hazards, environmental pollution, pest
resurgence etc.
2. Biological control is permanent
3. Biological control is more economic in long run, cost of chemicals and labour charges are
very low in biological control.
4. Biological control is successful against concealed pests like tissue borers, stem borers etc.
Disadvantages of biological control
1. Biological Control is unpredictable - We cannot predict the success of this method because
the success depends on climatic conditions.
2. Biological control is slow in action - It will take one or two years for complete control
3. Phenomena of hyper parasitism and multiple parasitisms reduce the efficiency of natural
enemy. (Multiple parasitism means secondary or tertiary parasites parasitise on a primary
parasite. That means parasite of a parasite.)
26
Unit 6
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF PESTICIDES
Invention of DDT and its extensive possibilities in agriculture was a milestone in plant
protection. It equipped the farmers for effective pest control. Years of indiscriminate use of
pesticides ended up with many problems like environmental pollution, pest resurgence, biomagnification, health hazards and destruction of natural enemy complex. At this juncture man
started to think about other methods of pest control and judicious use of pesticides.
TOXICITY HAZARDS
Chemical methods of control have been found to be extremely effective in controlling pests.
But unfortunately the use of chemical pesticides has created a number of problems, which have
indicated their limitation for pest control. The major problems pertinent to the use of chemicals are
the development of species resistant to various pesticides and the toxicity hazards resulting in
environmental pollution and affecting the health of human beings and livestock. The toxicity of a
chemical is its innate ability to cause injury to living beings. Hazard is defined as the probability that
a substance of given toxicity is likely to cause damage or injury in a particular set of conditions.
RESIDUAL TOXICITY
It is the amount of pesticide residue remaining for a long period in plant parts after its
application. Many of the chemical pesticides leave their residue in plant parts after its application.
This is mainly due to their ability to resist degradation for a reasonable period of time. This character
of pesticide is somewhat essential in effective pest control. The chemical is said to have residual
toxicity, if the chemical remain on the plant part for a longer period of time after completing its
function.
The quantity of residue left on the plant part depends on the,
1. Nature of chemical
2. Crop and its variety
3. Climatic conditions
4. The dosage of application
5. Method of application
6. Treatment of the produce
7. Soil conditions such as pH and texture etc.
Residual toxicity will lead to environmental pollution and bio-magnification. Toxic residues
left on food and fodder cause serious health hazards in man and other higher animals. There are two
types of toxicity,
Acute toxicity - refers to the toxic effect produced by a single dose of the chemical.
Chronic toxicity - It means the effects produced by the accumulation of small amounts of
toxicant. Chlorinated hydrocarbons like D.D.T and B.H.C have got longer persistence and
residue effect. They accumulate in the fatty tissues of higher animals and produce chronic
effects. They will not degrade for a longer period.
BIOMAGNIFICATION - an accumulation of toxicant in living tissues (in fatty tissues) and is the
phenomenon in which pesticide residue gets accumulated at higher concentration with each tier or
trophic level in the food chain.
27
Long ago DDT was used for pest control in the forests of American continent. The residues of
this chemical washed down to the Clear Lake through rainwater. The phytoplankton and
zooplanktons became contaminated with the chemicals. Concentration of the chemical further
increased in the body of fishes, which consumed the zooplankton. Birds, which consumed the fishes
of clear lake, were killed in large numbers. On examination, it was found that the pesticide residue
concentration increased 10,000 times when it reached the birds body through the food chain. The
silent spring - written by Raechel Curson an American journalist to create awareness among people
about the ill effects of indiscriminate use of pesticides. In this book the author narrates her painful
experience, when the spring was silent due to the mass killing of birds.
Biomagnification of chemicals through the food chain
Organo-phosphorus insecticides are more toxic but they do not persist in the environment.
Systemic organo-phosphorus compounds do not leave any toxic residues. Hazard is caused by
consumption of treated grains or by exposure of man to chemicals during manufacturing, formulating
and application stages. The chemical dust or vapour may be inhaled by workers or it might penetrate
their skin or get in to their eyes or accidentally ingested. Workers also may be contaminated when
carrying out pesticide treatment. Some chemicals damage body surface by direct contact. Some
others cause damage to genetic structures (mutagens and carcinogens). Other type of injury include
dermatitis, asthma etc. which are generally grouped are allergic sensation.
Maximum Residual limit (MRL) is the maximum quantity of a pesticide residue permitted in a
foodstuff. It is based on the assumption that good agricultural practice has been employed for the
use of pesticides in farming. It is also assumed that the product has been used in an appropriate
manner and suitable waiting periods have been permitted.
Insecticide
Furadan
Carbaryl
Crop
Cereals
Vegetable
MRL
0.2 p.p.m (milligram in1Kg)
5 milligram/kg
Waiting period - is the time gap between the application of a pesticide and harvest of a produce to
reduce its toxicity to a safe level. It is the period of time given for a pesticide to degrade and reduce
its level of toxicity to a safer level after its application. Waiting period depends on the chemical, crop
treated, dose and method of application.
28
Insecticide
Malathion
Carbaryl
Quinalphos
Crop
Waiting Period
Brinjal
Bhindi
Bitterguard
Brinjal
Bhindi
Bitterguard
Brinjal
Bhindi
Bitterguard
3 days
3 days
4 days
5 days
5 days
11 days
3 days
3 days
5 days
LABELS AND LABELING OF INSECTICIDES - According to the Insecticide act 1968, Insecticide rules
1971 and its amendments in 1977, no person is permitted to stock, exhibit for sale or distributes any
insecticide unless it is packed and labeled in accordance with the provisions of the act.
Label - means any printed, written or graphic matter on the immediate package or any such material
accompanying the insecticide.
Manner of labeling - The label should contain information like,
1. Name of manufacturer
2. Name of insecticide (both generic/chemical name and trade name),
3. Registration Number
4. Kind and name of active ingredient and its percentage contents
5. Net content/Volume
6. Batch No.
7. Expiry date
8. Antidote statement etc.
Toxicity label should occupy not less than 1/16th of the total area of the face of the label. It is
a square set at 45 degrees divided into two equal triangles. The upper triangle shows symbol and
signal word and the lower triangle shows the colour specified for the toxicity of the insecticide.
Symbol and Signal word
Specified Colour
Classification of insecticides based on toxicity
Sl
No
Classification of
insecticide
Extremely toxic
2
3
4
Highly Toxic
Moderately Toxic
Slightly toxic
Oral LD50
Mg/Kg
Dermal LD50
Mg/Kg
Colour band
on label
1-50
1-200
Bright Red
51-500
501-5000
>5000
201-2000
2001-20000
>20000
BrightYellow
Bright blue
Bright green
Symbol/signal
word
Skull and cross bones
POISON in red
POISON in red
DANGER
CAUTION
Warning
1,2
1,2
1
1
29
Warnings should appear in an appropriate place outside the triangle.

1.
2.
KEEP OUT OF THE REACH OF CHILDREN

IF SWALLOWED OR IF SYMPTOMS OF POISONING OCCUR CALL PHYSICIAN IMMEDIATELY
Label of an Insecticide
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN WHILE HANDLING PLANT PROTECTION CHEMICALS
Most of the poisoning results from careless handling of pesticides. Accidents can be avoided if
safety measures are strictly followed.
1. Keep the insecticide in closed and properly labeled container in a dry and cool place, away
from food, fodder etc. and in a place where children and animals cannot reach.
2. Use insecticide according to the instructions given on the container or leaflet and adhere to
the dosages recommended.
3. Children or domestic pets should not be allowed near the mixing place and do not mix the
chemicals near open wells used for drinking purposes.
4. Persons handling insecticide should avoid contact of the insecticide with their skin and
inhalation of dust, vapours or mist. The minimum precaution of wearing rubber gloves and
covering the eyes and nose should be taken.
5. The operators must not smoke, eat or drink anything while applying the chemical.
6. Empty bottles should be destroyed immediately after use by burying in soil.
7. After finishing the work they should take a bath or wash their hands and face with soap and
water thoroughly and change their cloths.
8. The cloths worn by them during spraying operations should be washed properly and
seperately.
9. Spraying or dusting must not be done when the wind is high.
10. Clogged nozzles or hoses must not be blown out with mouth for clearing.
11. Workers regularly engaged in spraying oprations must under go frequent medical checkups.
12. If any symptoms of poisoning is noticed immediately contact doctor.
30
Protective clothing
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (I.P.M.)

IPM is the use of various control measures like physical, chemical, biological, legal, cultural,
mechanical and modern plant protection methods in an integrated and compatible manner so as to
reduce the pest population below economic injury level without much disturbance to the ecosystem.
1) Economic Threshold Level (ETL) - is the level of pest population at which suitable control
measures have to be taken to prevent the pest population from reaching EIL.
2) Economic Injury Level (EIL) - is the level of pest population at which the damage caused by the
pest is no longer economically tolerated.
Legal
Modern
techniques
Physical
IPM
Mechanical
Chemical
Cultural
Biological
Integrated Pest management (IPM)

The various cultural methods such as use of disease free seeds and planting material,
agronomic practices, proper management practices are advocated to control pest and disease attack.
But these methods alone have not been found to be adequate for the control of sudden outbreak of
pest and disease particularly in severe form. The uses of resistant variety and biological methods
have their own limitations. Undesirable consequences of indiscriminate pesticide application have
31
resulted in the development of resistant strains of insect pest. The situation has evidently created
environmental hazards apart from toxic effect on man and animals. Agricultural ecosystem has been
upset with the use of more homogeneous, narrow genetically based varieties and pesticides. Hence a
combination or integration of practices; namely the use of resistant varieties, judicious use of
mixtures of pesticides and biological pest suppression has been considered necessary for effective
pest management.
I.P.M is a methodology of keeping pests below injurious levels. It is really a system of
approach towards the suppression of pest by an integration of several methods. IPM methods
include phenomena like host resistance, biological suppression and use of pesticides and cultural
methods together with other compatible methods.
Growing resistant or tolerant cultivars are of course major part of I.P.M. Another method is
by limiting of reducing the source of pest inoculum and pest in the multiplication stages. Adjusting
the time of planting, crop rotation, destruction of crop residues, clean cultivation, destruction of
alternate host etc help to reduce pest inoculum.
Chemical methods are to be adopted in the most judicious manner. Extreme care should be
taken to use pesticides only to supplement the natural methods of control.
The general principles to be observed when adopting chemical methods are,
1. Need based application
2. Use of selective insecticide
3. Adopting selective method of application. Eg. Seed treatment, seedling and root
dip method etc.
4. Use of pesticides which are harmless to the natural enemies.
5. Avoid broad spectrum pesticides
6. Avoid excess doses of pesticides
Use of 3rd generation pesticide (Autocidal methods) such as
1. Juvenile hormones (JHs)
2. Pheromones
3. Attractants
4. Repellants etc
Where ever possible, these materials also may be attempted to. Attractants are chemicals
which will induce movement towards their source. When insects come they may be killed by
insecticides. Eg. Methyl euginol for male Daccus dorsalis (Oriental fruit flies)
Repellants are chemicals which cause insects move away from the source. Action is opposite
to attractants. Eg. Naphthalene, Neem oil etc.
CONTROLLING RICE STEM BORER UNDER IPM APPROACH
1. Cultural Methods
a) Destruction of stubbles of previous crop
b) Use of resistant varieties like IR-20, Kanchana.
c) Destruction of collateral hosts
2) Mechanical methods
a) Collection and destruction of egg masses
32
b) Light traps
3) Legal methods
a) Restriction on the transport of infested planting materials.
4) Biological method
b) Trichogramma
c) Xanthopimpla
5) Chemical
a) Insecticides like Carbaryl, Quinalphos
6) Modern plant protection methods
Pheromone Traps, male sterile technique, use of hormones.
Importance of Integrated Pets Management
1. Eco-friendly
2. Cheaper and more effective
3. Reduces pollution
4. Chances of pest resurgence minimum
5. Preserves natural enemies
ETL of major pests of Rice
Crop stage and pest
1. Green leaf hopper
2. Gall midge
3. Stem borer
1. Leaf folder
2. Yellow stem borer
Economic threshold levels

A. Nursery
1-2 insects/m2
1 silver shoot (gall)/m2
1 moth or 1 egg mass/m2
B. Planting to pre-tillering
2 freshly damaged leaves/hill
5% dead hearts or one egg mass or one moth/m2
1 gall/m2 in endemic areas or 5% affected tillers in non-endemic areas.

3. Gall midge
4. Brown plant hopper
5 to 10 insects/hill
C. Mid-tillering
1. Leaf folder
2. Stem borer
10% dead heart or 1 moth or 1 egg mass/m2
3. Gall midge
5% silver shoots
10 insect/hill
D. Panicle initiation to booting
1. Stem borer
1 egg mass or 1 moth/m2
2. Leaf folder
3. Green leaf hopper
20 insects/hill
E. Flowering and after
2. Climbing cutworm
4-5 larvae/m2
3. Rice bug
1 or 2 bugs/hill
33
Unit 7
INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS OF KERALA
A large number of major and minor pests are infesting our crop plants. Every year we are
loosing major part of our agricultural products due to pest attacks. For increasing yield and to attain
self-sufficiency in agriculture production, it is necessary to control these pests. For successful pest
control thorough scientific understanding of pest, its destructive stage and suitable control
measures are necessary.
1. PESTS OF RICE
Major Pests
1. Rice Stem borer or Yellow Stem Borer
Sc: Name : Scirpophaga incertulas
(Lepidoptera)
Pest is the caterpillar of a yellowish moth. Adult female have a prominent black spot in the
middle of the forewing. Forewing is orange yellow in colour. Hind wings are slightly brownish. Males
are smaller in size than females. In males the spot is not very clear and there is a marginal row of
spots on the fore wings.
Nature of damage - Adult female lays eggs in masses of 15 to 80 on the upper leaf surface. Eggs are
buff coloured and covered by hairs. One female lays up to 150 eggs. The hatched larvae carry on to
rice plants by hanging on silken threads or move to other plants. They bore into the stem and feed on
the internal contents of stem. So that translocation of food to the upper part is stopped. In the young
stage the typical symptom caused is dead hearts. That is central leaf dies and turn yellow in colour. In
the panicle initiation stage translocation of food to the panicle is stopped and grains turn to chaff and
are white in colour called white ear head. Larvae pupate at the base of the stem. Total life cycle 5 to
6 weeks. It is a pest that occurs through out the season. Two to 3 generations are completed in one
cropping season.
Control measures
An integrated approach is necessary as it lives with in the plants.
1. Collection and destruction of adult moth by light traps.
2. Collection and destruction of egg masses in the nursery. That is clipping of leaf tip of rice
seedlings.
3. Removal and destruction of plants showing dead hearts during transplantation.
4. If infestation is endemic use some insecticide as spary.
eg. Quinalphos, monocrotophos, fenthion.
5. After harvest fields are flooded or stubbles burnt to destroy remaining larvae.
6. Use of tolerant variety like IR-20 where ever possible.
7. Egg parasites used are Trichogramma and Telenomus.
Sex pheromones are also tried.
2. Rice ear head bug or Rice bug.
Sc. Name : Leptocorisa acuta (Hemiptera)
Also known as gundhi bug since it produce an offensive smell when disturbed. Adult bug is 1.8
cm long, olive brown above and green beneath. Nymphs are elongated greenish or yellowish green.
Adults feed on milk of grains, as a result become chaffy. Chaffy grains become brown in colour and
34
dry up. Nymphs feed on juice of stem and leaves. Pest infested crop show the presence of many
chaffy grains and such infested ear heads stands erect unlike normal bend ones. Various types of
grasses are alternate host for the rice bug.
Control Measures
1. Clean the fields and bunds of grassy weeds
2. Since the insect is stage specific, avoid overlapping cultivation providing milky stage
continuously in an ela.
3. In small holdings bugs can be controlled by net sweeping.
4. When the bug is seen in large numbers apply one of the following insecticides, Malathion,
Carbaryl, Methyl Parathion.
5. Strict vigilance is necessary at milky stage, since the occurrence of bug coincides with
the flowering stage. Application of insecticide may be done either before 9 PM or after 3
PM so that fertilization of the flowers is not adversely affected.
Rice Stem borer
Rice Bug
3. Brown Plant Hopper (B.P.H.)

Belongs to the order
SC Name : Nilaparvata lugens
(Hemiptera)
This is a sucking pest, very serious in Kuttanad and Kole area. Adults are greyish brown
dorsally and deep brown ventrally. Eggs are pressed within leaf sheath and lamina. The larvae move
to the base of plant and start feeding on plant sap. Usually summer crop is the most affected. All
stages of rice crop is susceptible to this pest. As a result of sap sucking, plants turn yellow in colour
and later dry up. Yellowish circular patches appear here and there in the field. The plants in these
areas dry up very soon and yellowing and drying extend very rapidly. This symptom is called hopper
burn symptom.
Control measures
1. Use resistant or tolerant varieties such as Jyothi, Pavizham, Aiswaraya, Nila etc.
2. Apply one of the following insecticides soon as the yellowing symptom is observed, covering
35
the infested patches and area surrounding the patches. While spraying and dusting care has
to be taken to see that the insecticide reaches the base of the plant. Carbaryl, Quinalphos,
Fenthion, Carbofuran, Monocrotophos etc.
3. Drain away water from the field and keep it in that condition until the pest population is
decreased.
4. Predators of B.P.H. - Coccinella arcuata, Cyrtorrhinus lividipennis
4. Paddy Gall fly (Gall midge)

S.N. : Orseolia oryzae (Diptera)
Adult is a small fly with brown body and semitransparent wings. Eggs are laid at the base of
each leaves, singly or in clusters. Larvae move towards growing point and start feeding there. As a
result of continuous feeding and irritation caused by its feeding an oval chamber is formed
surrounding the larvae. Gradually this chamber grows up as an elongated cylindrical gall. This is
called silver shoot - presence of silver shoot in the place of centre leaf is the prominent symptom.
The symptoms appear from the nursery to the flowering stage. In very young seedlings instead of
silver shoot a swelling at the basal portion and excessive tillering are noticed. Maximum infestation is
seen in rainy season.
Control measures
1. Avoid late transplantation during 1st crop season. In areas where the pest is of regular
occurrence apply Phorate or Carbofuran.
2. In gall midge endemic areas, roots of seedling may be dipped in 0.02% suspension of
chlorpyriphos for 12 hours prior to transplanting.
3. In the main field apply any one of the following insecticide.
Carbaryl, Quinalphos, Phorate, Carbofuran.
36
5. Rice Case Worm

Sc. Name : Nymphula depunctalis (Lepidoptera)
Paraponis stagnalis (New name)
This is the larva of a small delicate moth, snowy white with pale white markings. Insect is
present in all rice tracts. Eggs are laid on surface of leaf and leaf sheath. Larvae move to tip of leaves
and make cuts 1 to 2 cm from the tip and it folds. They make tubular cases and make it loose from
the plant. By remaining in the cases larvae feed on green matter. Pest infestation is seen only in illdrained fields because larvae require water for respiration. (Larvae are gill breathing). Dispersal of
larva is by floating cases on water surfaces.
Control measures
a) Drain away water from field.
b) If infestation is severe apply carbaryl dust or spray.
6. Leaf Roller (Leaf Webber or Folder)
Sc. Name : Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Lepidoptera)
Straw coloured moth with greyish brown border and two transverse marking. Eggs are laid on
leaves. Caterpillar is causing damage. All stages of rice plant are attacked by this pest. In seedlings
and young plants 3 to 4 leaves are webbed together to make a composite fold. In grown up plants
larvae make folds on single leaves either longitudinally or transversely. Infested portion is white in
colour due to scraping of green matter by the caterpillar. Attacked leaves dry up weakening the
plant.
Control measures
a) Open up the leaf folds with a thorny twig.
b) Insecticide Quinalphos, Carbaryl, Methyl parathion, Fenthion etc can be sprayed. In the
initial stages restrict spraying to infested patches only. The field may be sprayed
completely in case the infestation occurs uniformly.
7. Army Worm (Rice swarming caterpillar)
Sc. Name : Spodoptera mauritia (Lepidoptera)
They are called army worm because they come in large numbers. That is in a sporadic nature.
It is the caterpillar of a stout moth. Eggs are laid on tender leaves. Larvae feed by cutting bits of leaf
blades. Occur sporadically in large swarms and eat away the whole crop. Then it moves to other
fields. Plants are reduced to mere stumps which may die or if they revive they will not bear ear heads
uniformly.
Control measures
1. Spraying insecticide Carbaryl, Methyl parathion etc.
2. Ducks and other birds feed on caterpillar.
8. Rice Hispa
Sc. Name : Dicladispa armigera (Coleoptera)
Adult is a small beetle, steel blue to black in colour and body is spiny. Eggs are pressed singly
with in leaf tissues towards leaf tip. The adults feed on green tissues of the leaves and feeding scars
appear as short white lines on the leaf surface. The grubs mine the leaves causing formation of white
blotches. Early stages of the crop are more susceptible to this pest.
37
Control measures
1. Collecting and destruction by net sweeping
2. Clipping of leaf tip of seedlings during transplantation.
3. Spray any contact insecticides like Carbaryl
Rice Leaf roller
Rice swarming caterpillar
Rice case worm
Rice Hispa
Minor pests of Rice

1. Rice thrips - The crop is highly susceptible in the nursery stage. The tips of leaves get rolled
longitudinally into needle like out growth and turn whitish.
2. Whorl maggot - Serious in nursery, yellowing of leaves and deformed
3. Rice mealy bug - Weak yellowish stunted plants are seen in patches white waxy fluff is seen on leaf
sheaths.
4. Green leaf hoppers - General yellowing of plants, vectors of yellow dwarf virus
5. Grass hopper - Nymphs and adults feed on leaves and stem; cut the panicle during later stages.
6. Blue beetles - The adults feed on green tissues of the leaves, feeding scars appear as short white
lines on the leaf surface. The grubs mine the leaves causing formation of white blotches
38
2. PESTS OF COCONUT
I. Rhinoceros Beetle
Sc.Name : Oryctes rhinoceros (Coleoptera)
The adult is a large stout - built, brownish black beetle. Male is larger than female. The
beetles have a conspicuous upward curved blunt horn on its head. The horn is shorter in females.
The beetles breed mainly in cattle dung or in other decaying organic materials.
Nature of Damage - The food for the adult is the tender sweet tissues of the coconut shoot. The
adult beetle bores into the central unopened spindle, spathe and leaf petioles. When the central
spindle is attacked it breaks at the point of attack and the functional leaf area of the frond when fully
opened shows characteristic triangular / geometrical cuts. Injury caused by the beetle may lead to
secondary infestation by red palm weevil and other pathogenic microbes. Seedlings when attacked
are killed outright.
Control measures
1. Hook out the beetles from attacked palms by using beetle hooks .
2. Fill up topmost three leaf axils around the spindle with any of the following mixtures. (a)
Sevidol 25 gms + 200 grams fine sand. (b) 10.5gm of naphthalene balls
covered with fine sand (3 balls). The leaf axil filling is to be done thrice in a year. In April May, September - October and December - January as a prophylactic measure.
3. Treat manure pits and other possible breeding sites with Carbaryl 0.01%. This treatment has
to be repeated every 3 months.
4. Adults and grubs of this major pest could effectively be controlled by using the virus,
Baculovirus oryctes and grubs by the fungus Metarrhizium anisopliae
5. Using pheromone traps @ 1 trap per 4 ha.
II. Red Palm Weevil

Sc. Name : Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera)
The adult is a large sized brown weevil. The mother weevil scoops out small holes on healthy
tender parts of young palms and lays eggs in these holes. In grown up trees eggs are laid in leaf axils
and in wounds in the stem or leaf stalk. The plant sap oozing out of wounds and cuts attract weevils
for oviposition. Injury caused by rhinoceros beetle or by disease also attract weevil for egg laying.
39
The grub is the destructive stage of the pest. It tunnels into the tissues of the palm trunk and feed on
the succulent tissues. The diagnostic symptoms of attack are presence of holes on the stem, oozing
out of a viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibres through the holes, longitudinal
splitting of leaf base and wilting of central shoot. Some times the gnawing sound produced by the
feeding grubs inside will also be audible. Symptoms of the pest infestation usually become clear at an
advanced stage when the crown topples down.
Control measures
1. Field sanitation should be given prime importance.
2. Avoid making steps or any other injury on the tree trunk to reduce the point of infestation.
3. Leaf axil filling as suggested under rhinoceros beetle will be useful against red palm weevil also.
4. When green leaves are cut from the palm, stumps of not less than 120 cm may be left on the
trees in order to prevent inward movement of grubs through the cut ends.
5. Inject attacked palms with pyrecone - E 2/20 or Carbaryl 1% concentration. Pyrecone 10 ml or
Carbaryl 50wp-20gm in 1 ltr. water per palm using a funnel.
6. Apply 1% DDVP or Aluminium phosphide tables (1-2 tablets per tree) as a curative measure.
7. When the pest infestation is through the crown, cleaan the crown and pours the insecticidal
suspension.
8. Coconut log traps with fermenting toddy and pine apple or sugarcane activated with yeast or
molasses can be set in coconut garden to attract and trap free floating populations of adult
red palm weevil. Incorporate any of the insecticide to each trap to kill the weevils trapped.
Damaged palm
III. Black headed Caterpillar

Sc Name = Opisina arinosella (Lepidoptera)
The pest is a caterpillar of a moth. A female moth lays about 130 eggs in several groups on
the older palm leaves. The larva grows feeding on the surface tissue of the under surface of the
leaflets. It makes elongated galleries of silk and frass on the underside of leaflets and remains within
the galleries. It become full grown in about 40 days and pupates with in a tough silken tissues have
larval gallery. The areas from which surface tissues has been eaten, turn brownish and dry up. Later
the dried areas may break-up and drop away. The attack is generally confined to the lower leaves.
The severity of attack will be marked during summer months from January-May.
Control measures
1. As a prophylactic measure the first affected leaves may be cut and burnt during the beginning
of summer season.
40
2. Arrange for liberation of Braconid or Bethilid or Elasmid parasite as soon as infestation is noted.
3. When infestation is very severe and if the biocontrol is not likely to effect spray the under
surface of leaves with Dichlorvos 0.02% and Quinalphos 0.05%. After the application of
insecticide follow up by liberation of larval and pupal parasite from the 21st day.
IV. Cockchafer beetle or Root grub

Sc.Name : Leucopholis coneophora (Coleoptera)
The soil inhabiting white grubs cause damages to roots of coconut palm. The attacked palms
turn pale yellow, immature nuts shed and there will be considerable reduction in yield.
Control measures
1. Plough or dig the infested soil coinciding with pre-monsoon showers.
2. Apply Thimet 100g / palm
3. Where ever possible light traps may be set up to attract and trap adult beetle.
V. Nut Crinkler (Coreid bug)
Sc:Name : Paradasynus rostratus (Hemiptera)
The attacked buttons do not develop and tender nuts become barren. Feeding injury can be
seen on fallen nuts which show cracks and gummosis also.
Control measures
1. Apply Carbaryl 0.1% on the newly opened inflorescence after the receptive phase of the
flowers and spray the entire crown excluding the leaves and the older bunches. The
insecticides may be applied according to the severity of infestation in a need based manner.
2. Setting traps in coconut garden to trap adult bugs.
Root grub
Nut Crinkler
41
VI. Mealy bug

Sc. Name : Pseudococous longispinus (Hemiptera)
Mealy bugs infest unopened heart leaves and inflorescence, leaf become highly stunted,
suppressed, deformed and present a crinkled appearance. The affected inflorescence is malformed
and do not open. Even if they open they don't bear nuts.
Control
1. Rogor 0.05%
VII. Coconut Scale
Sc. Name : Aspidiotus destructor (Hemiptera)
This is a circular hard scale insect. It is a dry season pest of coconut. The circular scales cluster
on the underside of leaflets in large numbers feeding on the plant sap. The leaf lets as a result turn
yellowish and in severe cases leaves may dry up.
Control
1. Cutting and burning of infested leaf lets.
3. PESTS OF PEPPER
1. Pollu beetle
Sc. Name : Longitarsus nigripennis (Coleoptera)
The adult is a shiny flea beetle about 2.5 mm in length. The female beetle scoop out holes on
berries and lays 1 or 2 eggs on the berries. Up to 100 eggs are laid by a female beetle. The grub bores
in to the berries and feeds on its internal tissues. When the content of one berry is completed, it
moves to another berry. 3 to 4 berries are fed up on by a single grub. The grub when full grown drops
to soil and pupates in soil in an earthen cell. The injury caused to the pepper berries by the grub is
often serious. Infested berries dry up and turn dark in colour. They are hollow and crumble when
pressed. Such hollow berries are called pollu berries. The grub may sometimes eat into the spike
stalks so that the entire spike beyond it dry up. The adults feed holes on tender leaves.
Control measures
1. Shade management
2. Raking soil around the plant to expose pupae
3. Spray Quinalphos or Monocrotopphos - 0.05 %
4. The sprayings are to be given at the time of spike emergence (June-July), at berry formation
(September-October) and once again at berry maturing stage if needed.
2. Marginal Gall Thrips
Sc. Name : Liothrips karnyi (Thysanoptera)
This is a black thrips about 2.8 mm in length. The infestation by the thrips on the leaves result
in formation of marginal folded galls on them within which the insect lives in colonies comprising its
all stages. The marginal gall is formed as a result of feeding activity of the thrips. The galled leaves
are malformed also.
42
Control measures
1. Spraying Monocrotophos 0.05% or Dimethoate 0.05% or Phosphamidon 0.05 %
Pollu beetle
Marginal gall thrip
3. Pepper scale
Sc. Name : Lepidosaphes piperis (Hemiptera)
The mature scale is elongated and oval and dark grey in colour. It infest in large numbers on
stems, leaves and petioles of pepper plant. The infested vines fade wither and dry up. The cuttings
when affected cause severe damage. Soft scale infestation is seen on foliage and vines at higher
elevations (Idukki, Waynad etc.)
Control measures
1. Spray Quinalphos. Rogor etc.
This treatment will be adequate for the control of mealy bug also.
4. Shoot Borer
Sc. Name : Laspeyresia hemidoxa (Lepidoptera)
It is the Caterpillar of a tiny moth. Caterpillar bores into terminal shoot of pepper plants killing
shoot. The attacked shoot dies and dries up.
Control measures
1. Use any systemic insecticide.
5. Root grub
Damaging roots of live standards and teak poles can be controlled by application of Phorate
at the rate of 2 g a.i. per standard in to the soil around the base of the plant through slanting holes.
4. PESTS OF BANANA
1. Pseudo Stem Weevil
Sc. Name : Odoiporous longicollis (Coleoptera)
The weevil resembling the rhizome weevil of banana is becoming a serious pest in recent
days. Adult female weevil punctures and inserts eggs into the psuedostem. Grubs emerging out feed
extensively on the pseudo stem and there by the entire plant droops.
Control measure
1. Field sanitation is the most important factor in the prophylactic and curative control of this pest.
43
2.
Remove such plants along with rhizome in full and destroy them by burning the life stages of
the insect using kerosene or by burying the material in deep pits in soil.
3. Destroy parts of rhizome and psuedostem of harvested plants in the field and destroy them
as described above.
4. Remove the dry outer sheaths of psuedostem of all infested and un infested plants in
endemic areas and spray any of the following insecticide.
Quinalphos 0.05 %, Carbaryl 0.2%, Chlorpyriphos 0.03%
5. Repeat the treatment after 3 weeks if infestation persists. Drenching all the leaf axils, rhizome
and surrounding soil and all round the entire psuedostem inserting the nozzle through the
bore holes made by the larva and also within the outer sheaths by slightly raising the same at
different spots is also effective.
2. Banana Rhizome weevil
Sc. Name : Cosmopolitus sordidus (Coleoptera)
The attack by the pest is reported to be serious in all localities where banana is cultivated.
Female adults puncture healthy rhizomes and insert eggs through it. The adult is a small weevil dark
brown in colour 1 to 2 cm length. Grubs tunnel within rhizomes and feeds resulting in stunting of
rhizome development. If the infestation is to occur on a mature rhizome, symptoms appear as
reduction in leaf number, reduction in bunch size and fruit number. The young suckers when
attacked wither and die soon. The corms of attacked plants have extensive tunnels plugged with
excreta, such a rhizome show black patches of rotten tissues resulting from the weevil attack. Roots
are also damaged.
Control measures
1. Adopt strict field sanitation
2. Select only healthy planting material
3. Deep plough the land so as to expose the inner soil layer to sun.
4. Cut and remove the outer layer of rhizome and sundry for 3 - 4 days after smearing it with
slurry of cow dung and wood ash.
5. Set traps using psuedostems of approximately half meter length which are split lengthwise
and laid in the field. Adult weevils attracted to it during nights may be collected and
destroyed.
Psuedostem weevil
Rhizome weevil
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3. Banana Aphid
Sc. Name : Pentalonia nigronervosa (Hemiptera)
This is not a direct pest and no symptoms of attack. The importance of this pest is that it acts
as a vector for the transmission of the dreadful bunchy top disease of banana. The aphid lives in
colonies at the base of the psuedostem and top region and leaf axils.
Control measures
1. Apply 25g of Phorate 10G, 20 days after planting around the rhizomes in the soil.
2. Apply 12.5g Phorate in the leaf axils or 25g Phorate in soil 75 days after planting and 165
days after planting or Carbofuran 3G, 20gm / plant at the time of planting in soil, again
20g Carbofuran / plant for leaf axil filling 75 days after planting and 165 days after
planting. When granules are applied around the base of the plant there should be
sufficient soil moisture.
5. PESTS OF MANGO
1. Mango Hopper
Sc. Name : Amritodus atkinsoni ( Hemiptera)
Idioscopus clipealis
The adult is a wedge shaped hopper with broad head and tapering body. 30 to 4mm length,
greenish brown colour. Damage is caused by the adults and nymphs feeding on different plant parts.
During flowering season population of hopper increases rapidly when the hoppers feed from shoots
and flower stalks, flowers and buds dry up and drop. When the inflorescence is not available hoppers
feed on leaves. Then leaves turn crinkled and undersized. Sooty mould develops on the plant parts of
the hopper infested trees due to the honey dew secretion of hoppers.
Control measures
1. Spray Carbaryl 0.1% or Malathion 0.1% at the time of flowering.
2. Leaf Hoppers
Sc. Name : Amrasca splendens ( Hemiptera)
Nymphs and adults cluster on lower side of leaves sucking sap from mid ribs or side-ribs. The
veins turn brown and leaves become stunted and curled.
3. Stem Borer
Sc. Name : Batocera rufomaculata (Coleoptera)
Adult is a large longicorn beetle. Eggs are laid on slits in bark of tree. The grubs make zig-zag
burrows under the bark. The stem and branches dry and leaves shed. Bore holes with sap and frass
coming out through them can be seen. The grubs become full fed in about 6 moths.
Control measures
1. field sanitation
2. Apply paste made of crude carbolic acid 130 ml + soft soap 1 kg and hot water 3.7 ltrs to holes
in the bark and plug the holes
Inject aluminium phosphide tablets into the burrows after chiseling the opening and widening the
burrows with an auger.
4. Mango Fruitfly
Sc. Name : Dacus dorsalis (Diptera)
45
Adult is a fly, brown to dark brown with hyaline wings. Eggs are laid in clusters under the skin
of ripening fruits. The maggots grow feeding on the pulp and become full grown in about a week.
Damage to the fruit is caused by both adult and maggots. The oviposition punctures made by adults
serve as entry point for fermenting organisms. The maggot converts the pulp into a bad smelling
semi-fluid mass unfit for use. Brown rotten patches appear on the attacked fruits and they drop.
Control measures
1. Collect and destroy attacked fruits that rot and drop down.
2. Spray trees with Malathion 0.1% emulsion containing 2% sugar.
3. pheromone traps
5. Stone weevil Sternochaetus mangifera Coleoptera
Adult weevils insert eggs under the rind of ripening fruit. On hatching, the grubs eat its way
through the pulp (making it tasteless and dirty) until it bores into the stone, where grubs pupates
inside a cell. The wound heals up leaving no external sign of attack. The adult weevil on emergence
acts its way through stone and pulp to come out before or after the fruit is eaten and thrown away.
Control
Collection and destruction of fallen fruits
Malathion 0.1% may be effective to control ovipositing weevils, sprayed 1 month after
fruit set.
6. Shoot Webber (Lepidoptera)
It is the larva of a moth. Damage is caused by the larvae webbing together clusters of leaves
and feeding inside. The webbed up leaves dry. In severe cases of attack, the tree shows many
webbed nests of leaves and tree shows a sickly appearance.
Control measures
Spray any contact insecticide.
7. Shoot midge (Diptera)
The adult is a minute yellowish midge. Terminal shoots show swelling and dry up. Young
plants when attacked are often prevented from growing due to continuous killing of new shoots. The
damage is caused by the yellowish maggots tunneling with tender shoot, leaf petiole, flower buds
etc. Grafted varieties of mango are more susceptible to the attack of midge.
Control measures 1. Carbaryl 0.1% or Dimethoate 0.05%
8. Leaf Cutting Weevil
They cut down the tender leaves at base and make feeding holes on standing leaves. Young
plants often suffer much as all the tender leaves are cut down each time new flushes appear.
Control measures
1. Carbaryl 0.1% at the time of appearance of new flushes.
46
Leaf hopper
Stem borer
Fruit fly
Stone weevil
6. PESTS OF CUCURBITS
1. Fruit fly or melon fly
Sc. Name : Dacus cucurbitae (Diptera)
The adult is a reddish brown fruit fly. Eggs are laid in cavities, 2 to 4 mm deep and sealed with
a gummy secretion. The maggots bore into the fruits and feeds on internal contents. The damage is
caused by the larvae tunneling and feeding within fruits and such fruits rot and drop.
Control measures
1. Apply Carbaryl 10% DP in pits before sowing of seeds.
2. Cover the fruits with polythene, cloth or paper bags.
3. Spray 0.2% Malathion or 0.2% suspension containing sugar @ 10gm / ltr at fortnightly
intervals after fruit set initiation.
4. Remove and destroy all decayed fruits.
5. Banana fruit traps may be prepared by applying Furadan granules at the cut end of ripe
banana fruits (Palayamkodan variety). These traps are kept in garden at 2m distance.
2. Epilachna beetle
Adults and larva feed on leaves and defoliate leaves, leaves dry and fall.
Control measures
Remove and destroy eggmass, grubs and adults occuring on leaves and spray carbaryl.
3. Pumpkin Beetle
3 species of pumpkin beetles are usually occurring on cucurbits - Red, blue and grey. Of these
47
the Red pumpkin beetle is more commonly occurring one. Adults eat the leaves, make holes on
foliage and cause damage on fruits and roots. The grubs bore into roots and fruits which lay on
ground.
Control measures
Incorporate Carbaryl 10%DP in pits before sowing seeds to destroy grubs and pupae.
4. Snake gourd Caterpillar (Lepidoptera)
Hiding in a leaf fold caterpillar feeds on leaf blade. Large scale defoliation is caused by this
caterpillar. Sometimes flowers and young fruits may also be eaten up.
Control measures
Collection and destruction of Caterpillar and apply any contact insecticide.
5. American Serpentine Leaf Miner (Diptera)
This is a recently introduced polyphagous pest infesting crops like cucurbits, brinjal, bhindi,
cowpea etc. Larvae mine the leaves and exhibit irregular serpentine like lines. As a result of attack
leaves dry up and cause extensive damage.
Control measures
1. Spray neem oil emulsion.
Other pests of cucurbits include aphids, shield bug, pumpkin caterpillar, flower beetle etc.
Snake gourd caterpillar
Pumpkin Beetles
Melon fly
Epilachna Beetle
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7. PESTS OF COW PEA

1. Cow pea Aphid
Sc. Name : Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera)
The adults and nymphs suck sap from the under side of leaves and terminal shoots of stem
and branches, flower stalks and pods. Infested leaves turn yellow, plants become stunted. Pods are
malformed.
Control Measures
1. Use of Psuedomonas flurescence as biocontrol agent
2. Spray Malathion 0.01% Quinalphos 0.03%
2. Flower and Pod Borer (Lepidoptera)
This is the caterpillar of a small moth. Eggs are laid at the base of the pods or on tender pods.
The larvae bore into flower buds, flowers, pods and seeds, feeding on their internal contents. Several
flowers may be webbed together.
Control Measures - Spray Carbaryl 0.2%. Apply the insecticide after harvesting mature pods and pick
the pods only 10 days after application of insecticide.
3. Pod bug
Adults and nymphs suck juice from the seeds of pods. Attacked seeds shrivel up within the
pods and become discoloured.
4. American Serpentine Leaf Miner (Diptera)
This is a recently introduced polyphagous pest. Larvae mine the leaves and exhibit irregular
serpentine like lines. As a result of attack leaves dry up and cause extensive damage.
Control measures - Spray neem oil emulsion.
Aphid
Pod Bug
Pod Borer
Leaf Miner
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8. PESTS OF BHINDI
1. Fruit and Shoot borer
Sc. Name : Erias vitella (Lepidoptera)
Pest is the caterpillar of a moth. Larva bore into terminal shoot or into the fruit and feed on
internal contents. The damaged shoots droop, wither and dry up. Infested fruits present a deformed
appearance and holes on them plugged with excreta.
Control Measures
1. Collection and destruction of affected plant parts.
2. Spray Carbaryl 0.15%
2. Leaf Hoppers (Hemiptera)
The adult is a greenish leaf hopper. Nymphs feed on leaf sap from the flower and leaf surface.
Injury is caused by the saliva. Infested leaves crinkle, turn yellow and brick red in colour called hopper
burn symptom.
Control Measures
Spray Quinalphos or Fenthion at 0.05%
3. Aphids
Infest underside of leaves. Leaves become crinkled and plant stunted. Sooty mould develops
on leaves.
4. Flower beetle - It feed on flowers.
Shoot and fruit borer
9. PESTS OF BRINJAL
1. Shoot and fruit borer
Sc. Name : Leucinodes orbonalis (Lepidoptera)
Pest is the caterpillar of a moth. Eggs are laid on fruits and shoots. A female lays up to 250
eggs. The larvae bore into shoots and fruits. Attacked shoots droop, wither and dry up. Attacked
fruits show holes on them plugged with excreta.
Control Measures
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1. Collection and destruction of attacked fruits.

2. Spray Carbaryl 0.15 % at 15-20 days intervals.
2. Epilachna beetle
It is a small beetle, hemispherical in shape. Both adults and grubs cause damage to leaves by
scraping the surface tissue. Damaged leaves dry up.
Control Measures
1. Collection and destruction of adults and immature stages from plants.
2. In severe cases spray Carbaryl.
Other pests include green grass hoppers, aphids, mealy bugs, lacewing bugs, leaf webber,
sphingid moth, leaf eating caterpillars etc.
Epilachna Beetle
10. PESTS OF RUBBER

1. Scale Insects - Hard scales and soft scales infest twigs and leaves of rubber tree. Severe infestation
causes dropping of leaves. Sooty mould appears on leaves when there is attack of soft scale.
2. Bark Caterpillar - Caterpillar of a small moth. It constructs galleries of silk on the bark surface of
rubber tree and feeds on surface tissue. Application of tar on the bark surface prevents the attack.
The caterpillar can also be brushed away by using stiff brushes.
3. Root grub - The nursery plants are damaged and killed by the grub feeding on their roots.
4. Stem borer (Same as mango stem borer) - The grub bores into the branches of rubber occasionally
killing them.
5. Bark borer - The minute shot hole borer beetle bores into the bark and interferes with latex flow.
Termites, snails and rats are also causing damage to nursery plants.
11. PESTS OF CASHEW

1. Tea mosquito bug or cashew mirid
Sc. Name : Helopeltis antonii (Hemiptera)
The adult bug is reddish brown with black head, red thorax and black and white abdomen.
This is the most serious pest affecting cashew. The pest usually appears with the emergence of new
flushes and panicles. Drying of the inflorescence and dieback symptom of the shoot is the result of
51
attack. Injury is caused due to the saliva induced by the adults and nymphs. The area around the
feeding point becomes necrotised. The insects feed from tender shoots, inflorescence, developing
nuts and apples. The shoot show die back symptoms and the inflorescence show blossom blight
(inflorescence blight). Loss in yield is as high as 30%
Control Measures
For control of tea mosquito spray
1. Carbaryl - 0.1 %
2. Quinalphos - 0.05 %
3. Phosphamidon - 0.03%. A rational rotation of insecticides would be desirable to counteract
the tendency of pest to develop field resistance. Spraying may be done thrice as follows.
1st spraying - coinciding with the emergence of new vegetative flushes (Oct- Nov)
2nd spraying - Coinciding with the commencement of panicle emergence (Dec-Jan)
3rd spraying - At fruit set initiation or complete flowering (Jan-Feg.) Avoid spraying with
Phosphamidon at the time of flowering as it is highly toxic to honey bees.
2. Cashew Stem borer
Sc. Name : Plocoderus ferugenius (Coleoptera)
The adult is a brown longicon beetle, size 2.5 to 4 cm. Eggs are deposited in the crevices on
the trunk or exposed root. The grubs bore into the bark and sapwood making tunnels within them.
Symptoms of attack include presence of bore holes with gum and frass emerging out of them at the
collar region, yellowing and shedding of leaves, and drying up of twigs. As a result of large number of
grubs tunneling within the stem and roots the tree completely dries up.
Control Measures
1. Swab the tree trunk and exposed root with Carbaryl.
2. Remove the dried twigs and dead trees and burn them.
3. Prophylactic treatment by swabbing the tree trunk up to 1 meter height from the ground with
a suspension of Carbaryl 0.2% or coal tar and kerosene (1:2 ratio) can be given during March April and Nov- Dec.
4. Injection of contact insecticide emulsion into the boreholes may also be done.
Other pests include brown aphid, Nut bug, Leaf and flower thrips, Shoot borer etc.
Tea mosquito bug
Stem borer
52
12. PESTS OF ARECANUT

1. Spindle bug
Sc. Name : Carvalhoia arecae (Hemiptera)
The adult is a red and black bug. 6 mm long. Eggs are thrust with in the tissues of tender
unopened spindle. Nymphs are greenish with reddish brown patches. They live in colony within the
leaf axils close to the spindle. The adults and nymphs suck sap from the spindle and young fronds.
The feeding scars appear as elongated brown lesions, which dry and drop leaving holes on the
leaflets. In severe cases complete shredding and drying of leaves occur.
Control Measures
1. Spray crown with Carbaryl 50% W.P. Spray should reach the leaf axils.
2. Repeat spraying after 30 days if pest incidence continues.
2. Inflorescence Caterpillar
The larva feeds on the floral parts of newly opened inflorescence.
Control Measures
1. Force open the inflorescence out of the enclosing spathe and spray Malathion 50EC.
2. Control slugs which predispose inflorescence to the attack of caterpillar by using baits
of Metaldehide.
3. Root grub
The grubs feed on roots and damage them. The infested palm shows yellowing of leaves,
tapering of stem and suppression in yield.
Control Measures
1. Loosen soil around the base of palm to a depth of 10-15 cm and drench with Chlorpyriphos
0.04% or Phorate - 10G.
Termites are also damaging seedlings and young palms feeding at their base.
13. PESTS OF CARDAMOM

1. Cardamom Thrips
Sc. Name : Sciothrips cardamomi (Thysanoptera)
The insect is a serious pest of cardamom. Thrips are seen in all concealed parts that is
beneath leaves or leaf sheath or floral parts. Damage is caused by lacerating and feeding on the
exuding sap from the aerial parts. Infestation on the panicle and flower buds result in stunted growth
53
of panicles, shedding of flower buds and warty growth on the surviving capsules. The infested
capsules are light in weight, inferior in quality and fetch very low price in the market.
Control Measures
For the control of this pest insecticide application is the only method. Since the pest
population is high during the dry moths during December to April pesticide application during this
period is important. Four sprayings of insecticide is recommended during the period. During rainy
months insecticide application is not necessary. During August to November 3 more sprayings are to
be given. Any of the following insecticides can be used.
E.C. Formulations - Quinalphos = 0.03%, Monocrotophos = 0.03%, Dimethoate = 0.05%, Fenthion =
0.03%
Dust formulations - Carbaryl 10% D, Quinalphos 1.5% D, Each at 25 kg / ha
2. Leaf Eating Caterpillars - There are 10 sps. of caterpillars feeding on cardamom leaves. Out of this
7 spp. are hairy and appear in large numbers during certain season causing extensive defoliation.
Control Measures - Mechanical collection and destruction spraying of any contact insecticide.
3. Rhizome Weevil - This is a serious pest in the secondary nursery especially where seedlings are
raised continuously year after year. The grubs feed on the Rhizome and basal portion of the stem.
This results in the drying of leaves and breaking of stem at the base.
Control Measures
1. Drench the nursery beds with Chlorpyriphos 0.04%
4. Aphids - Pentalonia nigronervosa
These aphids are seen on cardamom plants. It is known to be the vector of the virus causing
the major disease of cardamom called Katte disease.
5. Shoot Fly - Seen in the nursery during January to May. Dead hearts or decay of the central shoot is
the external symptom.
6. Shoot Borer - The caterpillar bores in to the stem and feeds on the internal contents. This results
in the decay of the central spindle and the production of dead hearts. Faecal matter of the caterpillar
can be seen coming out through the holes.
14. PESTS OF GINGER

1. Rhizome Scale - The circular sales infest the rhizomes. Infested rhizomes when stored dry up.
Control Measures - Dip the rhizomes in Quinalphos before storage. (Seed purpose)
2. Shoot borer - The caterpillar bore into the shoot, as a result dead hearts are produced.
3. Rhizome maggots - This is seen associated with rhizome rot. Maggots of Calobata sp. bore into
and feed within the rhizomes which as a result rot.
Control Measures
1. Organo-mercuric fungicide and Quinalphos
15. PESTS OF TAPIOCA

1. Tapioca Scales
This is a hard scale infesting the stem. The leaves of the attacked stem become discoloured
and dry up. Gradually plants become stunted. The scales get distributed with the infested stem.
54
Control Measures
1. Burn the infested stem.
2. Use pest free setts for planting.
3. Dimethoate 0.025 may be sprayed on setts before storing.
2. Red Spider Mites - Infest the under surface of leaf. Damage is severe during dry months. Infested
region turn yellowish in colour and curl and dry up.
3. Termites - They damage planted setts.
Control Measures
1. Sprinkle a little of Carbaryl 10% D.P or Chlorpyriphos in the mounts prior to planting.
16. PESTS OF SWEET POTATO

1. Sweet potato weevil (Coleoptera)
The adult is a small weevil, black in colour. Eggs are laid on tuber or lower parts of stem. The
grub bore within tuber and vines making tunnels within them and feeding on the internal tissues. The
attacked vines fade and gradually dry up. The infested tubers both in the field and in the store show
dirty patches and holes on their surface. The weevil and its immature stages are seen within such
tubers in large numbers.
Control Measures
1. Remove and destroy crop residues of previous crop.
2. Use healthy and weevil free setts.
3. Drench with Endosulfan, Fenthion or Fenitrothion 0.05% (Repeat two or three times)
4. Trap adults using sweet potato cut tubers.
2. Tortoise beetles - Grubs and adults cause damage by feeding on leaves. Damage is often extensive
and can be controlled by using a contact insecticide.
Other pests include hairy caterpillar, leaf caterpillar, sphingid caterpillar, leaf miner.
55
17. PEST OF AMRANTHUS

1. Amaranthus Leaf Webber
Caterpillar webs together leaves of amaranthus and feeds from within skeletanising the
leaves completely. Several larvae are seen within the webbed up leaves (The adult is a black moth)
Control
1. Collection and destruction of larvae.
2. In severe cases spray Malathion 0.1% or Malathion dust 1%.
2. Amaranthus Weevil
Weevils lay eggs on stem, petioles etc. The grub bores into the tissues making tunnels within
stunting and twisting of plant, swelling of branches and stem, suppression of shoot production are
symptoms of attack.
Control
1. Destruction of wild amaranthus host and affected plant parts.
18. PESTS OF CHILLY

1. Chilly thrips : Cirtothrips dorsalis ( Thysanoptera)
Adults and nymph suck sap from leaves, stunting of leaves and plants
Control
1. apply contact insecticide
2. Aphid - Aphis gossippi (Hemiptera) - Greenish brown small insects, suck sap from under surface of
plants, stunting of leaves and plants
19. PESTS OF ROSE

1. White flies - The nymphs and adults are seen on the leaves which become discoloured.
2. Red Scale - Infest leaves, shoots and buds. Attacked shoots fade and dry up. Spray systemic
insecticides for control.
3. Leaf thrips and flower thrips - Leaf thrips colonies on leaves and become crinkled. Flower thrips
infest on rose bud and flowers. As a result flowers become smaller and petals shrink showing feeding
scars. The bud may even fail to blossom due to the thrips attack. Spray any systemic insecticide for its
control.
4. Flower beetle - Feed on flowers and leaves.
5. Bees and wasp - Pith of pruned branches of rose is bored by certain nest making bees and wasp.
The bored branches die and dry up.
Leaf caterpillars, leaf rollers and mites are also infesting leaves of rose.
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Scale
Aphid
thrips
20. PESTS OF ORCHIDS

The common pests attacking orchids are thrips, aphids, spider mite, soft scale, mealy bugs,
orchid weevil, ants etc. Insecticides at suitable concentration can control all the insects. Other very
serious pests of orchids are snails and slugs. They feed on the tender young shoots, roots and buds.
Hand-picking is effective, if the number of plants is less. They move out during late night and hide
before early morning. Damage is caused during this period. All the pests can be controlled by
application of contact and systemic insecticides at appropriate concentration
21. PESTS OF ANTHURIUM

The major pests are scales and bugs, which are controlled by spraying Malathion @ 2 ml per
litre of water. Snails also cause damage to young shoots and roots. Use of Metaldehyde can prevent
the attack of snails.
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Unit 8
NON-INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS
Considerable losses to the agricultural crops due to the attack of pest takes place every year.
Besides the insect pest there are large numbers of non-insect pest attacking crop plants. This
includes rats, mites, nematodes, snails & slugs, birds etc. In certain cases these pests seriously infect
crop plants causing severe losses. It is very important to study the different non-insect pest attacking
crop plants, their nature of damage and the measures adopted to control them.
1. RODENTS
Study of rodents is called rodentology. Rats belong to phylum Chordata, Subphylum
vertibrata, class mammalia, order rodentia and family muridae. Rodents cause much damage to
crops and stored products. Their high reproductive ability is notable. They attain puberty within 7 to
8 weeks. They can breed through out the year. Average gestation period is 21-30 days. They are very
sensitive feelers. Many species are good swimmers also. Various rats sustain on a variety of food
substance. They cause enormous loss of grains by direct feeding. They contaminate food by dropping
their body hairs, urine, etc. They also cause damage to living crops. The rats can be brought under
two different groups.
1. Domestic rats
2. Field rats
Domestic rats are found near human dwellings.
I. Domestic Rats
1. House Rats - Rattus rattus wroughtoni
There are 2 sub-sps. one with white belly and the other with grey belly. (They are found in
houses and buildings). Tail length is more than the length of head and the body. They eat anything
that man eats. They also cause qualitative damage due to deposits of faecal matter, urine and it
hairs. It damages gunny bags, plastic containers, cloths, electric wires etc. The tender coconuts and
cocoa pods are damaged by these rats in the fields. They also act as carriers of several animal and
human diseases. Diseases like Bubonic plague and weil's diseases are which the country suffers on
account of rats. Weil's disease is caused by contamination of food by urine of rats.
2. House Mouse - Mus musculus
Fur is short with out spines. Tail is almost naked and larger than head and the body. It is very
active and found in houses and garden. It can climb up walls. It damages clothes, plastic containers
and food materials.
3. Large Bandicoot Rat - Bandicota indica
This is the largest domestic rat. Fur is coarse. Tail length is almost equal to body length. Body
weight ranges from 750 gm to 1 kg. It damages all tuber crops. It also damages even concrete
buildings by making burrows under the basement. These rats are also seen in field. So they are
considered as both domestic and field rats.
II. Field Rats.
1. Large Bandicoot Rat - Bandicota indica
2. Lesser Bandicoot Rat - Bandicota bengalensis
It is a short tailed mole rat. Tail length is only 70% of the body length. Fur is short and coarse.
58
It is seen making burrows in the paddy fields, bunds and also in areas where crops like tuber crops,
vegetables, coconut, and young rubber plantations are cultivated. Their burrows are 1 to 1.5 meters
deep, 4-5 openings are seen which are closed with loose excavated soil. Only one rat is found in a
burrow. Grass, grains, tubers etc. are seen heaped up is burrow. They cause damage to rice crop.
3. Field rat / Norway rat - Rattus norvegicus
These rats are found in water logged areas. They damage paddy crop.
House Rat
Mouse
Large bandicoot
Integrated control of field Rats

Rats cause considerable damage to agricultural crops and other human possessions in
addition to acting as carriers of diseases. It is necessary that all citizens understand the importance of
rat control. An integrated approach to control rats involves the joint utilization of all feasible control
measures in a complementary manner to maintain the rat population at a very low level. Integrated
control of rats involves the following:1. Prevent their entry in to a region or building by putting up mechanical barriers or treating
with repellents.
2. Encouraging predators such as snakes, cats, dogs, mongooses etc.
3. Causing death by a variety of methods
Different control measures include environmental control, mechanical control or trapping,
biological control, chemical control or poisoning and integrated control methods.
1. Environmental Control
In this method rats are rendered into a hostile environment in which they cannot survive. In
rice fields the height or thickness of the bunds should be just adequate. Otherwise they will pave way
for nest building by rats. Mud walls in villages may be replaced by thorny hedges there by preventing
the rats from making burrows. Proper sanitation should be maintained in houses by keeping food
materials inaccessible to rats, in rat proof containers. The heap of garbage and sweepings in streets
and towns should not be kept for a long period. Designing rat proof godowns and buildings is another
step to ensure environmental control.
2. Biological Control
Both field and domestic rats are subjected to attack by a range of predators, parasites and
pathogens. The predators include cats, dogs, snakes, owls, mongooses etc. The practice of rearing
cats in house has been found to adversely affect rat density.
3. Trapping / Mechanical method
Trapping is the oldest method of controlling rodents. Almost any trap will catch some rats.
59
The response varies with different species. The rats are easily caught in cage or box trap. But a rat
trapped in such a trap will be exposed to other rats. So the rats develop trap shyness and they avoid
such type of traps. The most effective rat traps are those which can completely conceal the rats
trapped in it. Trapping is the preferred method of control in the houses and office building, because
animals killed can be easily removed. Traps can be used profitably to deal with poison-shy and
scattered survivors of poison campaign.
Eg:- Moncompu trap, wonder trap etc.
The rat traps can be grouped as follows.
1. Automatic traps - These are indented to catch more than one rat in a setting. When an animal
enters this type of traps its weight makes it fall into a cage below. Eg: wonder trap.
2. Remote triggered trap - These work by upsetting a delicate balance when the bait stick is
disturbed or when the bait is put on at treadle. eg: Box trap or Cage trap.
3. Pot traps - These traps are extensively used for catching rice field rats. This trap consists of a
wooden plank, a mud pot of 10 inch diameter, a metal strip which carry bait and a Y shaped
wooden peg to which needle is tied. eg: Moncompu trap
4. Snap trap - These kill the rats instantly by snapping when the rat nibbles the bait placed in the
middle of the open trap. These are variously called as "break back traps, 'spring traps' Saw
toothed traps" and 'bamboo traps' depending up on the material used in making them.
5. Glues - A form of trapping in which a sticky substance entangles the animal
6. Kerosene tin trap - It is made by cutting the top of the tin and filling it with water up to 15 cm
from the top. Chaff is floated on the water surface so that the rat cannot see water. Attractive
and strong smelling bait like dry fish, fried coconut etc is pinned on to a piece of cork or
lightwood and floated on the chaff. A plank is leaned against the side to enable the rat to
climb to the top. Seeing no water and eager to get the bait the rat jumps on to the chaff and
gets drowned.
Success or failure of trapping is dependent up on the following factors
1. Placement - Trap must be placed where rats visit frequently.
2. Concealment - New shining traps should not be used. To overcome shyness of trap cover the
trap by paper that does not interfere with the trigger action.
3. Size and Design - Traps should be neither too small nor too large.
4. Mechanical conditions - Putting out traps that are in poor working conditions is a waste of
time and effort.
5. Number of traps - Large number of traps relative to the expected size of the rodent
population should be used.
6. Bait used - Use fresh aromatic baits every time. Maintain the trap efficiently and operate
perfectly. Don't use any trap continuously.
4. Poisoning or Chemical Control
Three types of poisoning are usually employed to control rats.
1. Acute poisons - are those that can kill rats with a single dose. Eg. Zinc phosphide.
2. Multiple Dose or Chronic Poison - which require repeated ingestions over several successive
days. Eg.: Anti Coagulants like Warfarin, Rodafarin etc.
3. Fumigants - Are gases and are usually pumped or released from tablets put in through burrow
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entrances. Eg: Aluminium phosphide.

4. Repellants neem products like neem oil, naphthalene
1. Acute Poisons
Most popular acute poisons are used in solid form as fine powder. Eg: zinc phosphide. It is a
dark grey power and its toxic action is due to release of phosphine gas. When it is ingested
phosphine gas is released causing injury to the kidneys, liver and lungs followed by death after a few
hours. Dosage is 2%. Pre-baiting for 3-4 days in sequence is necessary to overcome bait shyness. For
pre-baiting and baiting the same carrier material has to be used. Crushed wheat, maize, Bajra, puffed
rice etc. when mixed with a little jaggery and oil will be excellent carriers. The stations may be
selected in areas where rats are frequent, such as areas around kitchen, store and homestead.
Expose baits in the evenings and collect them on the following morning. Conduct baiting for 3
successive days. Prawn powder is found as very effective bait for poisoning. Dry prawn available in
the market is heated and powdered. Few drops of vegetable oil is added and zinc phosphide 1-2% is
mixed with bait.
Drawbacks - Rats develop bait shyness against acute poison. Some rodents take sub-lethal doses and
are recovered after sometimes.
2. Chronic or Anticoagulant Poison
They interfere with the mechanism of blood clotting. Even in the absence of external
wounding, animals which have ingested them develop internal bleeding and die from this cause. The
anticoagulants are not very dangerous to man and domestic animals. Pre-baiting is not essential for
anticoagulant. For preparing the poison bait, mix 90 gm of bait carrier with 3 gram of jaggery and 2
gm of groundnut oil. Add 5 gm of a 0.5% concentrate of warfarin or rodafarin to this mixture. Expose
25 gm of poison bait in each station continue for 3-4 days in succession.
2nd Generation Anti-Coagulants - They are used as single dose poison
eg: Moosh - Moosh. Chemical Name: bromo diolone.
3. Fumigation
It is practiced where baiting and poisoning are not practicable. Fumigants have been quite
widely used against rodents. The most effective fumigant is Aluminium phosphide which is available
both as tablets and pellets as Celphos tablets or Aluminium phosphide tablets. Aluminium phosphide
on contact with ambient moisture produces toxic vapour of phosphine. For fumigation, locate
burrows which contain live rats. For this seal all burrow openings with mud in the evenings and
examine the closed burrows next day. If the mud seal is open such burrows are marked as live ones.
In such live burrows introduce Aluminium phosphide tablets at the rate of 1-2 tablets per burrow and
seal the burrow opening immediately.
4. Repellents - Chemical repellents include Malathion and Cyclohexamide which are repellents to
house rats.
Control of important species of rats - Lesser bandicoot rat attacking tuber crops can be easily
controlled by poison baiting in rodent burrows. Firstly, locate the burrows in the field. Open the
burrows to a length of 30 to 45 cm. The rats will come and close the burrows with soil within 30
minutes. Then it can be again opened and poison bait can be inserted into the burrow. Norway rat
causes serious damage to paddy crop. The most effective method of control is using Moncompu trap.
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Firstly we have to locate fresh rat-damages in the field. These rats cut the paddy plants at the base
above the water level in patches. The rats have a habit of coming to the same area on subsequent
days. So the traps should be placed in such spots.
2. MITES
Study of mites and ticks is termed as Acarology. Mites belong to phylum Arthropoda calss Arachnida. Important phytophagous mites belong to family tetranichidae and Eriophyidae. Mites are
common and destructive pests of many plant species. They pierce the plant tissue with their sharp
mouth parts sucking up the sap and destroying the chlorophyll. The injury on the foliage may result
in grey brown mottling on the foliage or in the formation of galls.
Many species of mites are predatory or parasitic on insects and some are saprophytic. Body
of mites is divided into anterior and posterior parts. Mites have four pairs of legs. Their mouth part is
chelicerate, palps modified into grassing or piercing type. A continuous heavy infestation of mite
usually results in plants becoming greatly stunted or killed out right. Mites live in colonies and usually
prefer the under side of foliage. But may be found on both sides under conditions of heavy
infestation. They flourish during warm dry weather and are not generally trouble some during cool
wet seasons.
Red Spider mite
Eriopyid mite
Important mite pests

1. Two spotted red spider mite - Family Tetranichidae. Attack rose, bhindi, citrus, tapioca etc. Usually
seen on under surface of leaves. In case of heavy infestation can be seen all over leaf. They suck
sap and as a result blotching of leaves occur and reduce photosynthetic efficiency.
2. Coconut calyx mites - Attack under surface of leaves, flower mites attack inside calyx region and
cause button shedding.
3. Tapioca mites Red spider mites infest under surface of leaves resulting in copper brown colour of leaves.
4. Arecanut mite - Infest under surface of leaves causing bronzing.
5. Calyx mite - Cause falling of tender nuts, they attack calyx when flower sets fruits.
6. Rose mites - Infest under side of leaves and flowers. Leaves turn yellowish and fall down.
7. Vegetable mite - infest crops crops like Bhindi, Brinjal tomato etc. leaves become dry up and fall off.
Eriophyid mites are minute, yellowish and worm like. They usually form galls and other
malformations in plants.
8. Coconut Eriophyid mites its become serious pest of coconut. They are very minute, microscopic
in size and they spread through wind from one palm to another. They attack just set nuts and
immature nuts up to 2 months. They live in colonies inside the calyx region of nut and suck sap. As
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a result of infestation surface of tender fruits show yellowing near the attacked region which
extend later and cracking of surface also seen. Infested nuts fall prematurely. Even if they survive
their shape will be deformed and weight of 'Corpa' will be less.
Control
1. Spray neem oil garlic emulsion
2. Wettable Sulphur 80% WP 4gm in 1 ltr. water.
The spraying should cover all the immature bunches and inflorescence after fertilization. For
this 1.5 litre Spray solution is sufficient.
Preparation of Neem oil bar soap garlic emulsion - Take 200 gm of garlic and made into a paste in 300
ml water. To this 200 ml neem oil is added. In another vessel 50 gm of ordinary bar soap is dissolved
in 500 ml of water. Add the soap solution to the garlic neem oil mixture and stirred well. The
prepared 1 litre of concentrated solution is diluted to 10 litres with water.
Acaricides - are used for controlling mites. Most of the insecticides we are using have
acaricidal properties also. Eg. Dimethoate (Rogor), Phorate (Thimet), Quinalphose (Ecalux). The
following are some of the specific acaricides.
1. Dicofol - Commercially available as kelthane, hexakel, dicofol 18.5% EC, this is a specific acaricide
with outstandingly long residual action. It is effective against all stages of mites at the suggested
application rate of 1 ml of 18.5 EC / litre
2. Tetradifon - This is available as Teedion 20% EC and 8% DP. It is effective against Tetranychid
mites. For mite control in vegetables and other crops rate is 0.1% - 0.2%.
3. Chlorobenzilate - Available as Akar - 25% EC. This is effective against all stages or red spider mites
infesting vegetable crops. Recommended dose is 0.05%. This chemical is safe to honeybees.
4. Sulphur - This is used either as fine dust or as wettable forms for the control of mites. Wettable
sulphur preparations are recommended at the dose of 1 g per litre.
3. NEMATODES
Nematology is the study of thread worms, round worms or eel worms or commonly called as
nemas. Plant parasitic nematodes belong to Phylum- Nemata, Class Nematoda. Nematodes are
small unsegmented invertebrate animals. Generally they are spindle shaped or cylindrical in nature.
They are transparent in nature. They lack colour. Body is covered with a cuticular lining. Plant
parasitic nematodes have sharp stylets which they use to penetrate tissues of their host. Some
nematodes live completely inside the plant, others only half inside, on the plant surface or free in the
soil. Wide spread damage is done by root knot nematode and burrowing nematode.
Those nematodes present in vertebrates are large in size and are visible to naked eyes. Those
present in plants are microscopic in size. More than 90% plant parasitic nematodes are less than 1
mm in size. Nematodes are soil inhabiting organism and live in rhizosphere region in soil. It will be
parasitic on roots or other parts. Those infecting foliar part is called foliar nematode. Nematodes are
having world wide distribution. Because of their high multiplication rate and short life cycle (3-4
weeks) it is very difficult to eradicate them, once the soil is infested. Several disease complexes are
made by them; other pathogens like fungi bacteria etc. are also exist with them and produce
complex symptoms.
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Anatomy of a nematode
Important Nematodes commonly seen in Kerala are,

1. Root Knot Nematode - Melodogyne Spp. About 32 sps. are reported. Mainly seen on tomato,
bhindi, brinjal etc.
2. Cyst Nematode - Heterodera spp.
3. Burrowing Nematode - Radopholus similes . It is a problem in banana and pepper.
4. Rice Root Nematode - Hirschmaniella oryzae
Other species are Lesion nematode, Stunt nematode, Wheat gall nematode, Spiral
nematode, Reniform nematode etc.
Important Nematode pests and their control
1. Rice Root Nematode - Infest paddy roots and make them partially hollow. Feeding adversely affect
absorption of water and nutrients. Plants show stunted growth in patches. Tiller production is
affected.
Control
1. Treat the nursery with Carbofuran @ 0.75% kg. ai/ha.
2. Dip the roots of seedling in 0.2% Dimethoate for 6 hours before transplanting in tracts
where nematode attack is detected.
2. Rice Cyst Nematode - Occurs in various proportions in certain areas of the state. Symptoms include
leaf chlorosis, stunting and reduction in the number of leaves ear head length etc. In seriously
affected patches yield is reduced substantially.
Control
1. Soak paddy seeds in 0.02% solution of Carbofuran or Aldicarb for 6 hours
2. Dip paddy seedlings in the same solution for 6 hours before transplanting. These controls are
to be adopted in the areas where the nematodes occur at very heavy populations causing
severe damage.
3. Nematodes Attacking Banana (Burrowing and Root knot nematodes)
In cases of severe infestation there will be a high reduction in leaf number, total bunch weight
and number of fruits and plant health will be badly affected.
Control
1. Dip the suckers in Carbofuran 0.1% suspension for 30 minutes before planting
2. Apply Carbofuran granules @ 1g. a.i./plant at planting time around the basins.
3. If infestation is severe apply neem cake @ 1 kg./ plant and Carbofuran 1 g ai/plant.
4. In pepper Burrowing nematode and Root knot nematode usually infest pepper and produce
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complex symptoms along with fungus. Symptoms are yellowing of leaves stunted growth and slow
decline of vines.
Control
1. Use nematode free rooted cuttings for raising new plantations.
2. For the infested vines apply Phorate or Carbofuran @ 1g a.i. / vine, twice in a year. The 1st
dose is to be given during May-June at the onset of monsoon and 2nd dose in last week of
October or early November. The chemicals are to be applied around the vines in shallow
basins and incorporated into the soil.
3. Root knot nematode can be effectively managed by the application of bacterial suspension
of Bacillus macerans and Bacillus circulans prior to planting of vines or just before monsoon
period in established plants.
5. Nematodes are infesting vegetables like brinjal, bhindi
The root knot nematode of brinjal and bhindi can be managed by the application of Bacillus
macerans and Bacillus circulans in nursery beds two days before sowing. For controlling nematodes
in bhindi apply neem leaves or Eupatorium leaves @ 250 gm/plant in the basin 1 week prior to
planting and water daily. The effect of this treatment persists up to 75 days after sowing in summer
season.
4. SLUGS AND SNAILS

These creatures belong to the group of shelled animals (Mollusca). Though the great majority
of these shelled animals are aquatic forms, snails and slugs live on land are often found feeding on
vegetation. Snails have an external spiral shell covering their soft body while slugs do not generally
possess such a conspicuous shell. Though these are not regular pests, garden plants of different kinds
are occasionally attacked by these creatures. Orchids and Anthuriums are often found attacked by
snails and holes are found bored on the succulent leaves. These creatures are evident during wet
weather and in damp areas and are generally active during the night. They can be controlled by
metaldehyde bait.
Eg Giant African snail (Achatina fullica)
Slug
Snail
5. BIRDS
Birds like parrot, sparrow, pigeons, etc cut and feed on cereal grains and pulses. Birds also
cause damage to fruit crops like guava, papaya, mango, grapes, cherries etc. Fruits damaged by birds
rot due to entry of fermenting micro-organisms through the point of attack. Birds are spreading a
number of diseases of animals. Birds act as carriers of disease. But they dont show symptoms. Birds
causing damage to crops include sparrow, parrot, crow, pigeon, bee-eater etc. Bee eater eats honey
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bees from hives.

Control
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
By trapping and enclosing

Destruction of roosting and nest
Use of non-toxic sticky materials
Use of toxic chemicals - seed dressing with Carbofuran 5 parts / 100 parts grain.
Use of resistant variety
Scaring birds using bird scares.
NON INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS OF KERALA

a) Rice
1) Nematodes infesting paddy are,
i) Rice root nematode - Heishmaniella oryzae - infest paddy roots and make them partially hollow,
adversely affects absorption of water and nutrients, show stunted growth in patches. Controlled by
Carbofuran in nursery stage and Dimethoate in seedling stage.
ii) Rice cyst nematode - Hetrodera oryzicola - Symptoms are leaf chlorosis, stunting, reduction in
number of leaves, ear head length and yield. Controlled by Carbofuran
2) Rats infesting paddy are Large bandicoot rat, Lesser bandicoot rat, Field mouse, Norway
rat, soft furred field rat, bush rat etc. Damage caused by cutting ear heads, making burrows in field,
root damage, attack on booting stage etc. controlled by traps , Warfarin blocks, Aluminium
phosphide, zinc phosphide etc.
3) Birds attacking paddy are Indian mina, pigeon, parrot etc. Damage to grains and tender
leaves. Controlled by shiny tapes, crackers, birds scarers and traps.
b) Coconut
1) Eriophyid mite : Aceria guarraronis - Yellow triangular patches on tender nuts, button fall,
distortion and stunting of nuts and reduction in copra yield. Controlled by neem oil garlic emulsion,
dicofol, nutrient management.
2) Rodents - attack tender nuts, holes on nuts and shedding nuts. Controlled by warfarin blocks, baits
c) Tapioca
1) Rodents - attack tubers, holes on tuber and damage mounds. Controlled by warfarin
blocks, traps, poisoning
2) Red spider mite - crinkling of leaves, scrapping of leaf chlorophyll, holes on leaves
defoliation and reduction in yield. Controlled by Dimethoate, Dicofol, Wettable sulfur and water
spray
d) Banana
1) Nematodes - reduction in number of leaves, bunch weight and fruit size. Controlled by the
application of neem cake 1 kg per plant and Carbofuran
e) Vegetables
1) Mites - crinkling, scraping of leaf chlorophyll, bronzing, defoliation. Controlled by Dimethoate,
Dicofol, Wettable sulfur and water spray.
2) Nematodes - yellowing in patches. Controlled by Carbofuran, Dimethoate.
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Unit 9
PESTS OF STORED PRODUCTS
Considerable losses of food grains occur due to the attack of storage pests every year. Quite a
large part of agriculture produce is lost in the field due to pest infestation. Over and above this a
huge amount of produce in storage godowns are infested by different pest. The organisms
responsible for losses in stored products are insect, mites, rodents etc. Under prevailing conditions
the food grains have to be stored for a fairly long period. It is very important to take measures to
reduce these losses.
Grain storage problems - There are heavy losses during storage of grains by a number of agents,
insects, rodents, mites, fungi, birds etc. The storage insects are one of the main causes which cause
damage to grains. Nearly 17sp infest rice grains, larvae and adults feed inside or outside the grains.
Losses may be quantitative and qualitative or losses to storage container.
There are certain factors associated with storage pest.
1) Ambient relative humidity
2) Temperature
3) Grain moisture
4) Light
5) Types of storage container
6) Storage practices
7) Period of storage
8) Presence of storage fungi
Losses caused by insects are divided into following categories,
1) Quantitative losses or weight loss - Insects during storage mainly cause weight loss by direct
feeding on grains. This varies depending upon the type of containers, period of storage and local
climatic conditions.
2) Qualitative loss - Sound and healthy grains with out visible pathogenic contamination fetch good
prize. Storage insects are the main source of deterioration of grains. Quality is degraded by
feeding on grain/kernels and destroying the germ and directly cause calory loss-chemical changes
in the grain content.
3) Contamination with body products body hairs, excreta, scales etc. contaminate grains. This will
lead to loss of palatability and bad odour. When body parts are ingested along with food it may
cause allergy in some people.
4) Contamination of grains by pathogenic and toxicogenic micro organisms - The insects infesting
stored grains carry fungi and provide good ecological conditions for their development.
Important storage fungi - Aspergillus sp, Penicillium sp., Fusarium sp.
Aflatoxin B1 is produced by Aspergillus flavus which is highly toxic to higher animals.
Tribolium sp. insects carry harmful bacteria in the gut eg. Salmonalla sp. which causes food
poisoning. rtical movement of insects facilitate multiplication and also distribution of toxins.
5. Loss of seed viability - In paddy storage, seed viability is lost by storage insects, fungus and grain
moisture. Grains fed by insects fail to germinate.
6. Damage to storage container - Rodents, cockroaches and other insects damage containers.
Rhizopertha dominica, a pest capable of destroying wooden and polythene lined containers. It
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destroys all types of containers made of materials other than cement or iron. This enhances
infestation by other insects.
PESTS OF STORED GRAINS
The important group of insects affecting stored products is beetles and moths. Of these two,
beetles are of greater importance than moths. Beetles are more destructive because both the larvae
and the adult insects attack the stored material, while among moths it is only the larvae or the
caterpillar which cause the damage. The following are the important storage pests.
1. Rice Weevil - Sitophylus oryzae (Coleoptera)
This insect is a small brownish black weevil, reddish or brown spot on elytra. This weevil is
seen in milled rice, unhusked rice, parboiled rice, maize etc. Both adult and grub not only feed on the
stored products but breed and multiply rapidly in the store. The female weevil makes a small hole on
the surface of the grain and deposit eggs. The grubs are white and fleshy and apodous. The grubs
feed on starchy materials inside the grain. The grub period is 19-30 days. Pupation takes place inside
the grains. Pupal period is on week, and the adult emerges out through the hole on the grain.
2) Lesser grain borer (paddy borer beetle) - Rhizhopertha dominica (Coleoptera)
The pest infest on rice, wheat, maize and dry fruits. Adult is small dark brown beetle around
4mm in length. It is the major pest of unhusked paddy (stored paddy). The adult beetles and grubs
bore through the husk of the grain and feed on the internal contents and turn it into chaff. The
attacked paddy grains show the round holes made by the pest. It is also sometimes found on other
grains in company with other beetles.
3. Angumois Grain moth (paddy moth) (Lepidoptera)
It is yellowish white moth, pale forewing and grey hind wing pointed with fringes of hairs.
Adult female moth lay eggs on the surface of the paddy. The larvae (caterpillar) feed on the internal
content (endosperm). The attacked grains become chaff. Pupation inside the grain. It is a serious pest
of unhusked paddy. It also attacks ripening grains of paddy, ragi, maize etc.
4) Rice moth (meal worm moths) - Corcyra cephalonica (Lepidoptera)
Adult is very small shiny moth, found flying in numbers inside infested granaries and cause
considerable damage to paddy. Also feed on cocoa beans, wheat, barley, dry fruits, cashew nuts,
ground nuts, biscuit, gingelly oil cake etc. Eggs are laid in the broken grain products. The emerging
caterpillar is creamy white found remaining inside tubular granaries made up of the powdery matter
and it result in formation of lumps. The lose grains are webbed together in a connected mass
aggregate of grain.
5) Red flour beetle - Tribolium sp. (Coleoptera)
A small elongated flatish red beetle. It feeds on wide variety of flour and grain products. Oil
cakes, beans, dry fruits, nuts, biscuits etc. and also seen in milling machinery. Slender elongate white
larvae are also found in infested material. Very bad pungent and nausative odour in the stored
product resulting in quality loss and deterioration of the food material.
6. Pulse beetle - Callosobruchus chinensis (Coleoptera)
The adult is a small active roundish beetle with brownish colour. Body is abruptly rounded. It
causes 20% damage to pulse crop. It is closely associated with pulses of all lands. Their eggs are laid
on infested seeds and grubs bore into them by cutting a neat hole. Pulse beetle cause appreciable
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loss to stored pulses like cowpea, red gram, green gram etc.
7. Coffee Beetle - It is dark brown in colour. It is a pest of storage and field. It is also known as
nutmeg beetle. It feed on coffee beans, stored spices, cured arecanut, processed tapioca chips etc.
8. Tapioca moth - It is minor pest of tapioca flour. The flour of tapioca is webbed together, make
galleries and feed within it.
9. Drug store beetle - It is a minute brown beetle. It is found boring into all kinds of dry store like
ginger, turmeric, coriander etc and vegetable, drugs of different kinds and practically all dry
vegetable and animal matter.
10. Tamarind beetle - It is a dirty grey beetle belonging to same group. The grubs of this insect
burrow into preserved tamarind fruit and spoil the same.
Rice Weevil
Pulse beetle
Rice Moth
Red flour beetle
Damaged grains by storage pests
Lesser grain Borer
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INSECT PEST MANAGEMENT IN STORED FOOD GRAINS

Almost all the storage pest insects are more or less similar in their life habits. They breed and
multiply so rapidly that all the different stages are found on the same food material. Once infested,
the material is very badly damaged in a very short time. The pest gets dispersed very easily from one
place to another with consignments of infested material in gunny bags and other containers. The
measures to control storage pest are similar in the case of all the above insects since their general
habits are more or less alike.
In the way of preventive measures there are three fundamental points to be remembered.
1) Proper condition of the storage container before the storage - Before consignment is stored in the
store house or any vessel it should be made thoroughly clean and free from any traces of loose
grains, chaff, bran etc. The corners and floor of the vessel and any cracks and crevices should be
properly cleaned.
2) Proper condition of the product to be stored - The grains, pulses or other products should be
thoroughly dried and made free from husk, chaff or any foreign matters.
3) Proper conditions of the material and container after storage - Once the material has been stored,
the granaries, bins or vessels should be completely closed up and remain insect free.
IMPORTANT CONTROL MEASURES
Various practices employed are,
1) Sanitation - Removing of dirt, debris, mud balls or any other foreign particles and insect living or
dead from healthy grains. This is a common method employed in grain markets.
2) Proper grain handling - Proper handling of grains and cleaning reduces losses. It is necessary to
disinfect all materials used for transport of grains. In FCI and CWC (Central Ware housing
Corporation) mechanical devices are used to reduce spoilage of grains. These devices save time
and labour.
3) Use of mechanical devices - In which infested grains are revolved at a speed range 3000-4000 RPM
(revolution per minutes) which will destroy insects. This device is used in rice mills and flour mills.
4) Use of dryers - In which infested grains are to be dried. Paddy is harvested at 20-28% moisture
content in grains. If grains contain more than 11-12% moisture, insect development will be faster.
So it should be reduced. So grains are dried and moisture content is brought down either by sun
drying or by using mechanical dryers can be done. Sun drying is followed at farmers level.
5) Use of improved storage structures - Storage structure is a container constructed in such a
manner so as to prevent the entry of the elements detrimental to grains. In rural area structures
made from locally available material are used. Eg. paddy straw, bamboo, mud bricks etc. Most of
these structures do not meet the requirements of efficient storage structure. Grains are stored in
bulk either below ground or above ground.
Above ground storage structures - Bins, silos, bags in godowns, jute bags or gunny bags are
used. Gunny bags do not act as barrier for pest. Polythene lined bags are also used. Impregnation of
insecticides on jute bags prevents insect entry. Bins - A number of bulk storage structures are used in
India called bins eg. Aluminium bins, Nantha bins, pusa bins, silos etc.
6) Use of synthetic insecticides for controlling storage pests - Such insecticides are very few in
number. Because they should satisfy certain requirements such as,
1. Low mammalian toxicity
70
2. Good persistency
3. Should not affect the viability of seeds
4. Economical
5. Should be easily available.
Insecticides used in storage are the following
(a) Mixing grains with dust formulation - This is done for seeds meant for seed purpose, eg.
Malathion, Pyrithroids, Cerisan. Cerisan is a fungicide.
(b) Treatment of grains with E.C. formulation of insecticide - Eg. DDVP, Fenetrothion. But when
taken in diet, health hazards occur. So direct treatment is not usually practiced.
(c) Treatment of storage structures with insecticide - Eg. Fenitrothion, DDVP
(d) Pre-harvest grain treatment with insecticides It is done to check field infestation of the
grains in the ripening stage. eg. Malathion, Fenitrothion.
7) Use of fumigants in godowns - Fumigants are chemicals which at a given temperature and
pressure exist in gaseous state in sufficient concentration to be lethal to pest organisms.
Fumigation is the process of subjecting insect infested material to the fumes of poisonous gas
which will destroy all traces of insects in the material to be stored. They are more effective. They
penetrate into the grains and cracks and crevices. This method is usually done in FCI and CWC. Eg.
Carbon bisulphide, Carbon tetrachloride, chloropicrin, DDVP, EDB (Ethylene dibromide),
Phosphine etc. This method requires trained personalities for doing the operation. Storage
structure should have provisions to make it airtight.
8) Use of inert material for pest control - Aluminium oxide, Magnesium oxide, silica etc. can be
mixed with grains. They puncture insect cuticle and parts of cuticle breaks. Insect dies due to
moisture loss from body. Eg Dry die
9) Use of plant products - Neem products such as neem leaf, neem oil, neem cake are found to
possess insecticidal property. Kharanj, garlic etc are also used.
10) Use of radiant energy - Physical methods include manipulation of storage environment in such a
way that it limits or destroys insect life in storage. Electrical energy, gamma rays, UV rays, X rays
etc. are found to be best for pest control in storage. But the drawback is the high cost of
installation of such units.
11) Use of sterility -Chemosterilants are used to reduce the inoculum potential of the pests.
12) Use of pheromone traps - Now days pheromone traps are also being used to control certain
storage pests like Indian rice meal moth, cocoa moth etc.
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Unit 10
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT DISEASES
In the history of mankind plant diseases have been connected with a number of important
events. The classic example is the late blight of potato which caused the notorious Irish famine. This
incident paved the pathway for the scientific understanding of plant diseases and which helped in
the development of plant pathology. The Irish Famine in 1845 and the Bengal famine in 1943 due to
brown leaf spot of rice took a heavy toll on human lives.
Phytopathology is the study of the diseases of plants. It is the study of the nature,
development and control of plant diseases. Disease is an interaction among the host, parasite and
environment. Diseased plants are distinguished by changes in their morphological structures or
physiological processes which are brought about by unfavourable environment or by parasitic
agencies. Disease may be defined as a series of harmful physiological processes caused by continuous
irritation of the plant by a primary agent. It is a harmful deviation from the normal functioning of
physiological processes.
Disease Any deviation from the normal physiological functioning in a plant.
Pathogen Any organism which cause disease.
Plant Pathology Study of plant diseases.
Classification of disease based on causal organism
Disease is caused by biotic (living) factors and abiotic (Non-living) factors.
Biotic factors
1. Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Virus
4. Phytoplasma
5. Algae
Abiotic factors
1. Physiological disturbances
2. Nutrient deficiency
3. Environmental pollution
4. Lack of moisture
5. Stress
Biotic factors causing disease

When a parasitic micro-organism enters into the causal complex of a disease, it is commonly
considered to be the cause of the disease. Sometimes a variation in the environment also makes a
plant liable to infection. There are mainly four types of organisms are involved in plant diseases. They
are fungi, bacteria, viruses, mycoplasma or phytoplasma and mycoplasma like organisms (MLOs)
1) Fungus - Attack plants and produce symptoms like rot, wilt, damping off, leaf spot, rust, blast,
blight and mildews. Fungi are thread like and propagated by spores. In favourable conditions, the
spores germinate and produce infection on susceptible plants.
2) Bacteria - They are small single celled organisms. They gain entry into the plants through natural
openings like stomata and wounds caused by insects, nematode and by man. They multiply inside
the plant utilizing the nutrients from the plant and due to this activity symptoms are produced.
3) Virus - Virus consists of D.N.A or R.N.A often surrounded by a thin protein coat. Reproduction
takes place inside the host plant. Usually viruses are transmitted by insects and these insects are
called vectors. The common vectors are aphids and white flies.
72
4) Mycoplasma or Phytoplasma and MLOs - These are smaller than virus and contain both DNA and
RNA. The symptoms are yellowing, greening, witches broom and stunting.
Classification of disease based on causal organism
Sl.
No
Disease causing agent
Type of disease
Bacteria
Bacterial disease
Fungus
Fungal disease
Virus
Viral disease
Phytoplasma or MLO
Phytoplasmal disease or
Mycoplasmal disease
Examples
Bacterial Leaf Blight of paddy
Bacterial leaf streak of paddy
Sheath blight of paddy, Blast of rice, Quick wilt
of pepper, Blight of paddy, Bud rot of coconut,
loose smut of wheat
Bunchy top of Banana, Cardamom Katte
Cassava mosaic
Root wilt of coconut, little leaf of Brinjal,
Phyllody in snake guord.
Classification of disease based on mode of spread of pathogen

Sl.
No
Mode of spread
Nature of spread
Examples
Air borne
Rice blast
Spread through air
Spread through water
Spread through soil
Soil borne
Spread through seed
Seed borne
Water borne
Sheath blight of paddy

Bacterial Leaf Blight of paddy
Soft rot of ginger, Quick wilt of
pepper, Damping off of seedlings
Loose smut of wheat, Blast of
rice, Blight of paddy
Symptoms of plant diseases

Symptoms are external or internal reactions or alterations as a result of a disease
Symptoms of plant diseases fall into 4 main groups,
1. Necrotic symptoms - In this drying of cells, tissues or organs is common. Symptoms in this
group are hydrosis, wilt, blight, dieback, spot, rot, canker, damping off, scorch and bleeding.
2. Chlorotic symptoms - These are characterised by loss, suppression or reduction of the
normal green colour in plants. Common symptoms in this group are chlorosis and yellowing.
3. Hypoplastic symptoms - In this the prominent character is underdevelopment or stopping
of growth of cells, tissues and organs. Common symptoms in this group are suppression,
etiolation, dwarfing or stunting and rosetting.
4. Hyperplastic symptoms - This is characterised by over development of cells, tissues and
organs. The common symptoms in this group are abscission or defoliation, galls, curling or
rolling, scab, fasciculation.
Some Common Necrotic Symptoms
a) Hydrosis - A water soaked condition of tissues caused by water leaving the cells and filling up
the intercellular spaces.
b) Wilting - The flaccid condition of leaves or shoots caused by a loss in turgidity.
c) Blight - Similar to scorch but is usually applied to foliage or blossoms killed by a disease
organism.
d) Die-Back - The dying backward from the tip of foliage, twigs or branches of plants.
73
e) Spot - A term applied to more or less discoloured circular or angular lesions on foliage, fruit,
or stems.
f) Rot - Dead tissue in a more or less advanced stage of decay.
g) Scorch (firing) - The sudden death and browning of foliage or some times fruit.
h) Canker- Localized, sharply demarked dead lesions, usually sunken or cracked, in the bark of
the trunk, stems and roots of trees and shrubs.
i) Damping-Off - The rapid rotting of seeds or seedlings before they emerge from the ground or
the rapid rotting of the bases of seedlings so that they fall over.
j) Bleeding - The continuous oozing of sap from wounds or injuries.
Some Chlorotic Symptoms
a) Chlorosis - The partial failure of the development of green colour in organs that are normally
green. Chlorosis may be diffused or patterned.
b) Yellowing - The yellowing of normally green tissue (usually foliage) is due to a breakdown of
chloroplasts or chlorophyll.
Some Common Hypoplastic Symptoms
a) Suppression - The failure of certain organs such as flowers or seeds to develop at points
where they normally develop.
b) Etiolation - Excessive spindliness accompanied by dwarfing of foliage and flowers and lack of
natural chlorophyll development.
c) Dwarfing or Stunting - A symptom characterized by the abnormal size of the whole plant or
of some of its organs.
d) Rosetting - The crowding of the foliage into a rosette formation caused by the shortening of
the internodes of stems or of branches.
Some Hyperplastic Symptoms
a) Abscission or Defoliation - The premature falling of leaves, flowers, or fruits caused by the
formation of the abscission layer at the bases of their petioles.
b) Galls - Local swellings or tumour - like growths on any part of a plant. They may be large or
small, smooth or rough, and fleshy or woody. They may bear descriptive names such as warts,
knots, tubercles, boils, blisters, and clubs.
c) Curling (Rolling) - The abnormal curling or bending of shoots or leaves because of tissue
overgrowth on one side of the affected organ.
d) Scab - Definite, slightly raised and roughened lesions on fruits, tubers, leaves etc.
e) Fasciculation - The abnormal development of twigs or roots about a common point. When
this occurs on the aerial parts of a plant, it is usually called a witches broom.
General symptoms of plant diseases
1.
2.
3.
4.
Chlorosis / yellowing - leaves and other parts of the affected plants become pale green or
yellow due to destruction of chlorophyll. eg: yellow dwarf of rice.
Mosaic - under development of chlorophyll, resulting in alternate light and green patches, eg:
Cassava mosaic disease.
Little leaf - size of leaves are affected, affected plants get reduced in size. eg: Little leaf of
brinjal.
Stunting - affected plants become under developed, internodal distance gets reduced. eg:
Grassy stunt of rice.
74
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
Galls and tumors - this refers to over growth and enlargement of plants, eg: Club root of
crucifers.
Leaf curl, blistering and puckering - caused by fungi and virus, eg: blister blight of tea
Spots - death of tissue in a limited area. eg: brown leaf spot of rice.
Blight - necrotic area is extended to a large area eg: Bacterial leaf blight of rice.
Anthracnose - characterized by limited sunken black lesions. eg: anthracnose of bean
Witches broom - abnormal and excessive development of auxillary buds. eg: witches broom in
mango
Phyllody - floral parts transformed in to green leaf like structures, eg: phyllody in sesame
Damping off - collapse and death of young seedlings. eg: damping off of vegetables
Dry rot - rotting of plant parts such as fruits, bulbs, tubers etc, no oozing of liquid from
affected parts, affected parts become shrunk and produce a powdery mass black in colour,
eg: dry rot of ground nut.
Wet rot - oozing out of liquid from affected parts. eg: soft rot of ginger.
Wilt - drying of entire plant, loose turgidity and droop, eg: fusarial wilt of cotton
Die back - twigs and young branches start drying from tip downwards. eg: die back of mango
Scab - on affected parts round or crust like lesions appear, eg: apple scab
Canker - localised death of cortical tissues of stem, leaves and fruits, eg: citrus canker
Rust - rusty appearance on plant parts, small pustules of spore break through host epidermis.
eg: black stem rust of wheat.
Smut - floral parts converted in to a black powdery mass. eg: loose smut of wheat.
Mildew - powdery or cottony growth on green plant parts, eg: downy mildew of grapes
KOCH'S POSTULATES
To prove whether a plant is affected with a particular disease, the plant pathologist usually
applies Kochs postulates. The postulates are,
1. The organism should be associated with all cases of a given disease.
2. The organism must be isolated from the diseased plant.
3. When the organism is subsequently inoculated into susceptible plant, it must reproduce the
disease.
4. The organism could be re-isolated from the experimentally infected plant.
Disease Epidemiology
Epidemiology of disease is a study of the factors affecting the outbreak of an infectious
disease. Symptoms are external or internal reactions or alterations as a result of a disease. Inoculum
is the infectious material that can cause disease and it is that portion of individual pathogens that is
brought into contact with the host.
Etiology is the science of study of the cause of diseases. It includes the study of causal factors, their
nature and their relations with the host.
Obligate Parasites - Parasites which are restricted to living tissues are called obligate
parasites. eg Viruses
Facultative parasites - They are ordinarily sprophytic but under certain conditions they may
become parasitic. Many damping off fungi such as Pythium and Rhizoctonia are good examples of
this.
75
Appearance of a disease in a large number of individuals over large areas in relatively short
time is called an epidemic. In plants the epidemic is also known as epiphytotic. Epidemiology deals
with outbreaks and spread of the disease in a plant population. Plant disease is the outcome of the
interaction between the plant, the pathogen and the environment. In this disease triangle the
environment favorably or unfavorably influences both the plant and the pathogen. When the
favorable interactions between these three components of incidence of a disease continue for long,
epidemics occur. These three factors form the most important components of a disease. These three
components should be there for a long period of time for the development of a disease. Thus time
becomes a fourth component of an epidemic. Often human activities interfere with epidemics
through management practices and the epidemics may be encouraged or halted.
The study of epidemics helps to,
1. Understand the various factors involved in the development of an epidemic.
2. To understand the interaction of these factors in the development of the disease.
3. To predict a forthcoming infection to take timely control measures and to reduce losses.
Essential condition for the development of an epidemic / disease
1) Host related factors
(a) Level of genetic resistance of the plant.
(b) Genetic uniformity of the population.
(c) Abundance and distribution of susceptible host.
(d) Presence of Collateral hosts.
2) Pathogen related factors
(a) Presence of a virulent pathogen
(b) High birth rate and low death rate of the pathogen
(c) Easy and rapid dispersal of the pathogen
(d) Adaptability of the pathogen
3) Environment related factors
(Meteoropathology deals with the study of relationship between the weather and epiphytotics.)
(a) Temperature
(b) Moisture
(c) Cultural practices that modify temperature and moisture
(d) Presence of antagonistic micro flora
4) Time related factors
(a) Season of the year suitable for disease development
(b) Time of planting
(c) Duration of favourable conditions to develop the disease
5) Human activities
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Selection of field for cultivation

Selection of planting materials
Choosing the time of planting
Transportation of planting materials
Control measures taken to protect or manage the disease.
76
Susceptible
Host
Human
Activitie
Time
Disease or
Epidemic
Favourable
Environme
Virulent
Pathogen
Disease triangle
Plant disease forecasting
Forecasting involves all the activity in ascertaining and notifying the growers of a community
that conditions are sufficiently favourable for certain diseases.
The ultimate aim of the science of plant pathology is to have a complete understanding of
plant disease (host, pathogen, environment interactions) that enables us to control disease
economically. The most economical way to control disease is usually to obtain a thorough knowledge
of the disease epidemiology. We cannot effectively control certain diseases without some prior
indication as to how they will behave in the coming period. Prior information will help to take
preventive action. Unless we know where and when the sprays or dusts, etc. are to be applied we are
likely to waste them. For certain diseases, no effective or practicable chemical control measures are
available. Forecasting gives us an opportunity to revise our plans in order to avoid or reduce losses.
By watching the occurrence and severity of disease in areas with an earlier growing season
and applying their own previous experience, together with the weather forecasts, the key
pathologists are able to judge rather accurately whether or not the local crops are likely to be
affected and if so, how soon and how seriously and can make their forecasts accordingly.
The methods used in disease forecasting mostly fall into four main groups based on
1. Weather conditions during the intercrop months, particularly those affecting the survival of
inoculum.
2. Weather conditions during the crop season.
3. The amount of propagules of the pathogen
4. The number of propagules of the pathogen in the air, soil or planting material.
Studies show that in the case of bacterial blight of paddy, it develops readily above 25 0C and
symptoms may not appear below 20 0C. So a combination of rainy weather, strong winds and a
temperature of 22 - 26 0C favour the outbreak of the disease. In India for forecasting rust epidemics,
rain samples were collected and analyzed which gave precise data on the advent of the inoculum in a
particular locality. The air-borne inoculum has been traced by wind trajectories and weather satellite
- cloud images. With this information it was forecasted that if ground level conditions are favourable
for infection, the early arrival of inoculum can lead to severe rust epidemics.
77
Unit 11
PLANT DISEASE CONTROL
Since plant diseases are a great threat to the cultivation of crops, disease should be
controlled. In the control of plant disease, the main aim is to prevent or reduces the severity of the
disease, so as to minimize the economic losses. To achieve a satisfactory control a combination of
different control measures have to be adopted.
The control measures are divided in to two,
a) Prophylactic method - All the methods applied to prevent disease occurrence
Eg: Prophylactic spraying of Bordeaux mixture before monsoon to prevent incidence of
quick wilt disease in pepper
b) Curative methods - All the methods applied to cure a diseased plant.
Eg: Application of tridemorph for the control of stem bleeding in coconut
Different methods of control employed for the management of diseases are,
1. Physical methods
2. Cultural methods
3. Biological methods
4. Legal methods
5. Chemical methods
6. IDM Integrated Disease Management
1. Physical methods use physical energy for the control of diseases.
eg: Hot water treatment of seeds against udbatta disease of rice.
2. Cultural methods - Cultural methods include avoidance of pathogen by proper selection of field,
choice of time of sowing, by selecting disease escaping or resistant varieties and by modification of
cultural practices, exclusion of inoculum by seed treatment etc.
Eg - Rouging of infected plants and plant parts, use of resistant varieties
3. Legal methods - Legal method involves seed certification to prevent spread of seed borne
diseases, Quarantine regulations also restrict movement of agricultural commodities.
eg: Use of quarantine laws to control spread of plant disease
4. Biological control - Biological control implies control of a disease through some biological agency
like living micro-organism or macro-organism.
eg - Trichoderma against quick wilt of pepper
Some common biocontrol agents used for the management of diseases are,
a) Trichoderma - Biocontrol of soil borne plant pathogens involves mass introduction of
antagonistic microorganisms in the soil. Trichoderma spp. is a group of broad-spectrum antagonists
subjected to detailed studies for their potential as biocontrol agents. They are effective against the
quick wilt of pepper, rhizome rot of cardamom and ginger.
Application method - Dry neem cake and cow dung are to be powdered and mixed to get a
coarse texture (at the ratio of 1:10 (w/w)) and then moistened by sprinkling water. Add the
commercial preparation of Trichoderma spp. (available in polythene packets) @ 1-2 kg per 100 kg of
neemcake-cowdung mixture. After thoroughly mixing, cover it with a perforated polythene sheet or
78
ordinary newspaper and keep it in shade for 4-5 days for multiplication. Again mix well and keep for
three more days for further multiplication. This preparation0is0ready0for0incorporation0in0the0soil.
b) Fluorescent Pseudomonas - These are a group of bacteria very effective against disease
incited by species of Phytophthora, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, Ralstonia Colletotrichum and
Xanthomonas in various crop plants in the nursery as well as in the main field.
Method of application - The talc-based formulation at 1-2% level may be used for soil
drenching and spraying. Seedlings/cuttings are treated with Pseudomonas culture by dipping the
root/tip of cuttings in slurry of Pseudomonas (250 g in 750 ml for 20 minutes). For seed treatment in
paddy use 10 g talc-based Pseudomonas culture for 1 kg of seed; suspend Pseudomonas in water
used for sprouting. This helps in the control of fungal and bacterial0diseases.
For all the crops, the time of application and the frequency of application may vary depending
on the incidence and intensity of the infection. A combined application of Trichoderma and
Pseudomonas fluorescens may be resorted to at the time of planting in the nursery and/or main field
for the control of diseases of pepper, cardamom and ginger. The application may be repeated based
on the intensity of disease incidence. Chemical fertilizers and plant protection chemicals should not
be used along with biocontrol agents.
5. Chemical control - Involved use of fungicides and antibiotics. A fungicide is an agent that kills or
inhibits the development of the fungus spore or mycelium. The fungicides used on plants may be
classified as protectants, eradicants and therapeutants on the basis of their uptake by and mobility
within plant tissues.
Antibiotics - Antibiotics are substances which are produced by micro-organisms and which act
against other micro-organisms. Most antibiotics known are products of actinomycetes and some are
from fungi and bacteria. The important antibiotics for the control of plant diseases are Streptocyclin
(antibacterial), Aureofungin (antifungal) etc.
Fungicides are divided in to two,
1. Inorganic contains no carbon eg; Bordeaux mixture, Bordeaux paste, cheshunt compound,
Sulphur, copper oxychloride etc.
2. Organic compounds contains carbon. eg synthetic organic fungicides like Carbendazim,
Ziram, Mancozeb etc.
FUNGICIDES
Generic names
Formulations
Required concentration
in spray formulation
required per ha for rice
(R) or other crops (OC)
Remarks
0.3-0.4 %
For foliar spray
Thiovit 80 WP
0.2-0.5 %
For foliar spray against

powdery mildew. Also
effective against mites.
Cuman-Z 27%
JK Ziram
0.2-0.4%
Residual acting protective

fungicide for foliar
Copper based products

Copper oxychloride
Blitox 50 W
Fytolan 50 W
Sulphur based products

Sulphur
Carbamates and others
Ziram
79
application
Zineb
Dithane Z-78
0.2-0.4 % (
Thiram
Thiride 75 WP
0.2-0.3 %
Dithame M-45
Indofil M-45
Mancozeb
For foliar spray, soil and

seed treatment
0.2-0.4
Foliar fungicide
0.1% of the
formulated products
For control of blast and

sheath blight, high volume
spray recommended.
0.05% spray of 48
EC or 300 g/ha of
25 WP
For foliar spray for

powdery mildew control of
cucurbits and rose
Organophosphorus compounds
Ediphenphos
Hinosan 50% EC
Chlorinated nitrobenzene
Dinocap
Karathane 25% WP
Karathane 48% EC
Heterocyclic nitrogen compounds

Captan 75% WP
Captan
Hexacap 75% WP
0.1%
For seed treatment at 1.5

g per kg seed
Systemic fungicides
Carbendazim
Bavistin 50%WP
500 g/ha
Benomyl
Benlate 50% WP
1-2 g/litre (R)
Vitavax 80% WP
500 g of the
formulated product /
ha (R)
1 ml/litre (500 ml/ha)
(R)
2 g/kg seed
2 g/kg seed
Caboxin
Vitavax 75%
Kitazin
Kitazin-P 48 EC
Pyroquilon
Tricyclazole
Fongorene 50 WP
Beam 75 WP
Hexaconazole
Contaf 5 EC
Propeconazole
Tilt 25 EC
Potassium
phosphonate
Akomin 40%
Tridemorph
Calixin 80% EC
750 ml/ha
0.5 to 0.75 ml
0.3 %
Effective against powdery

mildew diseases in
ornamental plants; and
blast, sheath blight and
sheath rot of rice.
Foliar fungicide for blast
control in rice.
For seed treatment and for
foliar application
rice blast
For seed treatment
For seed treatment
sheath blight
sheath blight
Effective against
Phytophthora foot rot of
pepper
Coconut stem bleeding
Antibiotics
Antifungal materials
Antibacterial material
Aureofungin sol
Agrimycin-100
Plantomycin
Paushamycin
Streptocycline
Validacin 3 L
Validamycin A 3%
50 g/ha (R)
750 g in 500 l water
(R, OC)
15 g in 300 l water (R,
OC)
2 m/l
For foliar spray
For foliar spray
Control of sheath blight
80
FUNGICIDE CALCULATIONS
Quantity Commercial formulation =
Volume of spray fluid X Recommended Conc. of spay fluid in %
1. Calculate the quantity of Bavistin 50 WP require to prepare 10 L of 0.3% spray solution.
Q= 10 L X 0.3/100
= 10 X 1000 X 0.3/100
= 30 g
2. Calculate the quantity of Hinosan 50 EC required to prepare 500 l of 0.1% concentrated spray
solution
Q = 500 l x 0.1% = 500000 x 0.1/100 = 500 ml
PREPARATION OF SOME COMMON INORGANIC FUNGICIDE
1. Bordeaux mixture (1%) - Dissolve 1 kg of powdered copper sulphate crystals in 50 litres of
water. In another 50 litres of water, prepare milk of lime with 1 kg of quick lime. Pour the copper
sulphate solution into the milk of lime slowly stirring the mixture all the while. Test the mixture
before use for the presence of free copper, which is harmful to the plants, by dipping a polished knife
in it. If the blade shows a reddish colour due to the deposits of copper, add more lime till the blade is
not stained on dipping. Always use wooden, earthen or copper vessels for the preparation of
Bordeaux mixture
2.0Bordeaux0paste0(10%) - Dissolve 100 g of copper sulphate and 100 g of quick lime each in
500 ml of water separately. Mix together to make one litre of the paste.
3.0Cheshunt0compound - Weigh 60 g copper sulphate and 330 g of ammonium carbonate.
These two are well powdered and thoroughly mixed. The dry mixture is stored in an airtight glass
container for 24 hours before use. About 25 g of this mixture is dissolved in a little hot water and
solution is made up to 8 litres with cold water and used for soil drenching.
Name of fungicide
1. Bordeaux mixture
2. Cheshunt compound
3 .Bordeaux Paste
Use
Foliar application
Soil Drenching
Wound Dressing
IDM- Integrated Disease Management confined use of all the different methods of plant disease
control
SOIL SOLARIZATION
Soil solarization is a method of hydrothermal disinfection of soil. This is dome by covering the
moist soil with transparent polythene sheet and expose to direct sunlight during the hottest period
of the year.
Methods of solarization
1. Nursery Bed - The nursery bed for raising the seedlings is to be leveled and the pebbles are
removed from the surface. Incorporate sufficient quantity of organic manure and sprinkle water at
the rate of 5L/m2. Cover the area with 100-150 gauge transparent polythene sheets. Seal the ends of
the sheet with soil to keep it in position and to maintain temperature and moisture inside. Adequate
care is to be taken to see that the polythene sheet is in close contact with soil to avoid air pockets.
81
Keep the sheets in this position for 20-30 days. Protect it from stray animals and birds. After the
period of solarization remove the sheets and the bed is now ready for sowing or transplanting.
2. Potting mixture - Potting mixture is prepared as per the recommended practice. Spread
the potting mixture on a level surface to a height of 15-20 cm. Sprinkle water using rose can and
cover the soil with polythene sheet of 100-150 gauge thickness. Solarize for 20-30 days. This method
is effective for the preparation of disease free pepper cuttings.
Hints for solarization
1. Solarization should be done in open field without any shade.
2. Transparent polythene sheet of 100-150 gauge thickness should be used as it is cheap and is
more effective in conduction of heat.
3. Summer months are more suitable for solarization.
4. Soil should be moist during solarization. This increases the sensitivity of resting structures of
pathogens in soil and weed seeds.
5. Solarization may be extended to more than a month to effect disinfection to deeper layers of soil.
6. Excess seepage of water into the solarizing bed should be avoided. But summer showers
wont affect the process.
7. Potting mixture should never be heaped for solarization. It should be spread to a height of 1520cm and moistened before solarization.
8. Soil should have good tilth and should be in good contact with the polythene sheet.
Benefits of solarization
1.
2.
3.
4.
It controls fungal pathogens like Pythium, Phytophthora, Rhizoctonia, Fusarium etc.

Solarization controls plant parasitic nematodes like root knot nematode.
Solarization controls weeds like Cynadon, Cyperus etc.
Improves plant growth expressed as increased plant height, number of leaves, better root
formation etc.
82
Unit 12
DISEASES OF MAJOR CROPS OF KERALA
In Kerala our crop plants are severely affected by many diseases; which causes a major loss of
about 20% reduction in Yield. To reduce the disease incidence and to increase the yield, control of
diseases is very essential.
1. DISEASES OF RICE
Fungal diseases
1. Blast - Causal organism - Pyricularia oryzae
Symptoms - The fungus produces spindle shaped spots with grey centre and brown margin or lesions
on leaf blades, nodes and grains. As the disease advances the spots will coalesce and leaves are killed
or dried up. Nodes turn black in colour and break easily. The grains will turn black in colour and shed.
Control
1. Avoid excess nitrogenous fertilizers
2. It can be controlled by spraying Hinosan 1 ml in 1 litre of water or kitzazin 1.5 ml in 1 litre
water.
2. Blight (Brown Leaf Spot) casual organism - Helminthosporium oryzae
Symptoms - The fungus will produce oval shaped dark brown coloured spots on the leaf blade and
leaf sheath. In the later stage, spots will coalesce together and leaves killed or dried up.
Control - Spray Hinosan or Kitazin
3. Narrow brown leaf spot casual organism - Cercospora oryzae
Symptoms - Oval shaped narrow spots are found on leaf blade.
4. Sheath blight
casual organism - Rhizoctonia solani
Symptoms - On the leaf sheath greenish grey irregular spots are found. In the advanced stage this
will coalesce together and sheath will dry up.
Control
1. Destroy the stubbles after harvest
2. Avoid nitrogenous fertilizers, use fungicide hinosan or bavistin
3. The fungus is soil borne so drench the soil with 0.1% Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb)
5. Sheath rot
casual organism - Sarocladium oryzae
Symptoms - Oval shaped spots appear on sheaths. Panicles partially emerge. Whitish powdery fungal
growth seen inside rotten sheath.
Control - Spraying Hinosan or Kitazin.
6. Udbatta disease
casual organism - Ephelis oryzae
Symptoms - The panicle emerges from leaf sheath as a straight, dirty coloured, hard cylindrical spike,
reduced in size resembling an agarbathi or Udbatta. No grains are found on the affected ear heads. It
is seen in hilly areas, not a serious disease
BACTERIAL DISEASES
1. Bacterial Leaf Blight (B.L.B.) casual organism - Xanthomonas oryzae
Symptoms - The earliest symptom is the appearance of pale yellow or dull green spots on the leave
towards the tip and margins. It leads to drying from tip through both the margins down wards. When
83
the affected leaves are cut and immersed in clear water in a test tube a turbid ooze of bacteria can
be observed. This will confirm the disease. Later stage marked with severe blight termed as cresek
stage.
Control
1. The disease is seed borne. So the seeds are soaked in Agrimycin or streptocyclin solution for 8
hours followed by hot water treatment for 30 mins.
2. application of cow dung slurry through irrigation water
3. Bleaching powder is also effective.
casual organism - Xanthomonas oryzicola
2. Bacterial Leaf Streak
Symptoms - Leaves with fine narrow yellow translucent intervienal line joining to form dark dirty
white patches.
VIRAL DISEASES
1. Tungro Virus
Symptoms - Plants are stunted in all parts and the leaf turn yellow or orange in colour and the
yellowing begins from the tip. Tillering will be reduced.
Control - Virus is controlled by controlling the vectors. The vector of Tungro virus is green leaf
hoppers. It can be controlled by spraying ecalux-0.2%.
2. Grassy Stunt
Symptoms - Severe stunting with excessive tillering, erect growth habit resembling a grass bunch.
Vector is BPH. It can be controlled by spraying ekalux.
Other viral diseases are Yellow dwarf and ragged stunt.
Blast
Sheath rot
Bacterial blight
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2. DISEASES OF COCONUT
1. Bud rot: Causal organism - Fungus - Phytophthora palmivora
Symptoms - The earliest symptom is the yellowing of 1 or 2 younger leaves surrounding the spindle.
The spindle withers and droops down. The tender leaf base and soft tissues of the crown rot into a
slimy mass of decayed material emitting a foul smell. The disease proves to be fatal if not checked at
the early stages. Palms of all ages are liable to be attacked by the fungus but normally young palms
are more susceptible particularly during monsoon when the temperature is low and humidity is high.
Control
1. In early stages of diseases (when the heart leaves start withering) cut and remove all affected
tissues of the crown and apply Bordeaux paste and protect it from rain till normal shoot
emerges. Protect the bud (cover it with polythene cover or mud pot).
2. Burn all disease affected tissue removed from the palm.
3. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture on spindle leaves and crown of the diseases affected as well as
neighboring palms as a prophylactic measure.
2. Grey Blight
Causal organism - Fungus - Pestalotia palmarum
Symptoms - symptoms appear in the mature leaves of the outer whorls as yellow specks encircles by
a greyish band which later become greyish white. The spots coalesce into irregular necrotic patches
causing extensive leaf blight. In advanced stages tips and margins of leaflets dry and shrivel giving a
burnt appearance.
Control
1. Remove older disease affected leaves.
2. Spray leaves with Bordeaux mixture.
3. Leaf Rot
Causal organism - Fungus
Symptoms - blackening and shriveling up of distal ends of the leaflets in the central spindle and
younger leaves. Later the affected portions break-off in bits and carried away by wind. The tree
gradually weakens and the yield is reduced.
Control - Spray crown and leaves with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.4% Mancozeb in January, May and
September.
4. Stem Bleeding
Causal organism - Fungus - Theilaviopsis paradoxa
Symptoms - Exudation of reddish brown liquid through the growth cracks at about 5-10 cm above the
ground level and bleeding patches higher up in the trunk are characteristic symptoms. The tissues
beneath the bleeding points decay and become yellowish. The general vigour of the palm is reduced
and yield declines. Fatal instances are not uncommon.
Control
1. Remove completely affected tissues by chiseling and there after dress the wounds with hot
coal tar or Bordeaux paste.
2. Avoid any mechanical injury to the stem.
3. Improve general condition of the palm through proper manuring and other cultural practices.
4. Application of Calyxin 25ml/25 litres of water as soil drenching once in four months.
5. Thanjavoor Wilt Causal organism Fungus - Ganoderma
Symptoms - Characteristic symptom of the disease is rotting of the basal portion of stem. The bark
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turns brittle and often gets peeled off in flakes leaving open cracks and crevices. The internal tissues
are discoloured and disintegrated emitting a bad smell. Mild bleeding occurs at the basal region. The
tissues on the bleeding sprouts are soft to touch. Damage of root system following root rotting has
been observed. Ultimately the palm dies off
Management
1. Apply organic manure 50 kg/palm and neem cake 5 kg/palm
2. Isolate the affected palm from healthy one by digging a trench around the palm.
3. Avoid flood irrigation to prevent the possible spread of pathogen.
4. Drench the basins with 40 liters of 1% Bordeaux mixture.
6. Root Wilt diseases
Etiology is unknown
Symptoms - Characteristic symptom is the flaccidity of leaflets, General chlorosis, wilting of leaves,
decay of root system are also seen. Leaflets curve inwardly so that the whole frond develops a cup
like appearance. Abnormal shedding of buttons and immature nut fall is noticed.
Management
This is a non-lethal disease and the affected palm survives for a long period giving a
reasonably good yield. The root wilt affected palms are susceptible to diseases like leaf rot and pests
like rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil. Efficient management of palm affected with root wilt
help in suppression of the disease.
1. Apply fertilizers at the dose of 0.34% kg N and 0.17 kg P 2 O 5 and 0.68 kg. K 2 O
2. Apply 50 kg cattle manure or green manure and 1 kg lime/palm/year and 500 gm MgO
/palm/year.
3. Grow green manure crops like cowpea, sesbania etc in the basins.
4. Follow strictly all the prophylactic methods against leaf rot disease, rhinoceros and red palm
weevil etc.
5. Destroy coconut palms which are severely affected and produce less than10 nuts per year.
6. For replanting DXT seedlings is preferred.
7. Mahali (fruit rot and nut fall) Causal organism Fungus - Phytophthora
Symptoms - Shedding of female flowers and immature nuts are the symptoms. Lesions appear on
young fruits or buttons near the stalk end which later develop into decay of underlying tissues.
Control - Spray Bordeaux mixture 1%
8. Button shedding - The shedding of buttons in coconut is due to the following reasons.
1. Pathological conditions
2. Attack of insect pests
3. Nutritional deficiencies
4. Soil variations
5. Climatic variations
6. Genetic factors like limited capacity to bear
7. Water shortage
8. Physiological disorders
The causes of button shedding may be identified and appropriate control measures should be
adopted.
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Bud Rot
Stem bleeding
Bud rot
Root wilt
3. DISEASES OF BANANA
1. Bunchy top
Causal organism Virus transmitted by Aphid
Symptoms - Affected plant produces short narrow leaves which are chlorotic and exhibit mosaic
symptoms. Leaves arise in clusters giving a rosette appearance. They are brittle with numerous dark
green sports. The plants do not usually grow taller than 2-3 feet height. They fail to produce any fruit.
Sometimes bunches develop partially with a crinkled appearance and burst through the sides of
pseudo stem.
Control
1. Eradicate all the disease affected plants by burning
2. Use disease free suckers for planting.
3. Karpooravally, kanchikela, koombillakannan, njalipoovan are less susceptible varieties.
4. Use insecticidal treatments recommended for control of vector.
2. Panama Wilt (Banana wilt) Causal organism - Fungus - Fusarium oxysporum
Symptoms - Sudden wilting of plant or individual leaves even if there is sufficient supply of water.
Leaves turn yellow and chlorotic. Petioles longitudinally break and leaf blade hangs down. Entire
foliage may wilt within 2-3 days and finally psuedostem breaks up longitudinally into two halves.
87
Control
1. Drench the soil around the affected clumps with bavistin solution.
2. Remove and destory all affected clumps along with corms
3. Apply lime at the rate of 1kg/ pit.
4. Varieties such as Palayamkodan, Robusta and Nendran are resistant to the disease
5. Dip suckers in carbentazim 0.1-0.2% solution before planting.
3. Sigatoka Leaf Spot Causal organism - Fungus - Mycosphaerella sp.

Symptoms - Small narrow chlorotic streaks 1 cm long are present on leaves. The streaks spread, later
the leaves may become necrotic, particularly towards leaf margins giving a characteristic scorch
appearance. As a result bunch size and quality is affected.
Control
1. Cut and burn all the severely affected leaves
2. Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or Captafol 0.3% or Kavach 0.3% or spray with 1% oil emulsion.
4. Kokkan disease
Causal organism Banana bract mosaic virus
st
1 reported from Thrissur district in Kerala. Nendran is highly susceptible.
Symptoms - During young stage of banana (2 months old) pinkish and reddish streaks can be seen on
the psuedostem. Later the streaks turn to dark black. Symptoms appear on all aerial parts of affected
plant except on lamina. The affected plant produces only a small bunch. The fingers are small, curved
and with pale green to ashy green colour as compared to healthy.
Control
1. Suckers should not be taken from affected plants which show necrotic streaks or abnormal
colour of the psuedostem.
2. When the young plants show pinkish streaks, uprooted and destroy.
5. Infectious chlorosis (Cucumber mosaic virus disease)
Symptoms -The most characteristic symptoms are the loss of leaf colour in patches. appearance of
parallel chlorotic streaks on the younger leaves, giving a striped appearance on the leaves. As the
disease progresses, leaves emerge distorted, margins become irregularly wavy, often with blotches
of necrotic tissues and the leaf lamina is reduced in width. In severe cases, rotted areas are found
throughout the leaf sheath and psuedostem. The affected plants produce only small bunches. This is
a virus disease transmitted by aphids
Control
1. Use disease free suckers for plan
2. Eradicate disease affected plants.
3. Use insecticides recommended for insect vector contro
4. Avoid growing leguminous and cucurbitaceous vegetables as intercrop in banana.
Other diseases include Cordana leaf spot, Freckle leaf spot
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Bunchy top
Kokkan
Sigatoka leaf spot
Panama wilt
4. DISEASES OF PEPPER
1. Quick wilt Causal organism - Fungus - Phytophthora palmivora
Symptoms - 1st symptom is present on the leaves as rotting from the distal end. The rotting will
advance within few days and leaves turn dark in colour. The leaves along with petiole wither and fall
down. The lateral branches will also be broken into bits and falls down. At the same time roots will
also rot. Basal region of main stem (collar region) will also rot and plant will die within few days. The
fungus is present in the soil which wills germinate with south west monsoon and gain entry into the
root system. At the same time fungus present on the surface of the soil will be splashed due to the
action of raindrops and will get entry at the collar region. And this will spread to the whole plant.
Control
1. Prophylactic measures are important to control this disease
2. All infected or dead wines along with root system are to be removed and burned.
3. Effective drainage should be ensured in the field.
4. Before onset of south west monsoon spray vines with 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% copper
oxychloride.
5. The basal 50 cm of main stem from the ground level should be pasted with Bordeaux paste.
6. Soil around the pepper plant at the radius of 50cm should be drenched with BM 1% or copper
oxychloride 0.2% @ 10 1trs / plant.
7. These measures should be repeated when there is a gap in monsoon season
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2. Fungal pollu (Anthracnose) Causal organism - Fungus Colletotrichum sp.

Symptoms - The fungus will attack on the berries present on the spike, as a result berries will become
hollow with a black colour. The entire spike may be attacked leaving behind only 1 or 2 berries.
Disease is present during August at the berry formation stage.
Control
1. Minimise shade in the garden.
2. Spray with B.M.1% or Captafol 1% once before flowering and then at berry formation stage.
3. Damping off Causal organism - Fungus - Pythium sp.
This is present in nursery stage. The seedlings rot just above the ground level and damping off
will take place.
Control
1. Potting mixture should be treated with Bordeaux mixture or solarise.
2. For seedlings spray with BM 1% at weekly intervals.
4. Slow decline
This is a complex disease, fungi, bacteria and nematodes are responsible.
Symptom - wilting of leaves, rotting of few leaves and shedding of leaves here and there. These
symptoms will continue foe a longtime and the plant will die slowly with a slow reduction in yield.
Control - achieved by a combination of chemicals like fungicide, antibiotics and ematicides.
5. Phyllody
Causal organism - Phytoplasma
In certain pockets, instead of normal spike with berries, leaf-like structures are produced.
Such vines, if noticed, must be uprooted and destroyed. Planting material should not be collected
from such vines.
6. Stunted disease
Causal organism - virus.
The symptoms due to this disease include shortening of internode and narrowing of leaves
with mottling. Such leaves also become leathery and deformed. Since the disease is systemic and
transmitted through planting materials, extreme care should be taken to avoid collecting planting
materials from such vines. Once it is noticed, it is better to uproot the vines even at the cost of losing
some yield to avoid further spread.
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1. Abnormal leaf fall
5. DISEASES OF RUBBER
Causal organism - fungus - Phytophthora sp.
Symptom - During south - west monsoon season the fruits rot, later infected leaves fall in large
numbers prematurely either green or after turning coppery red, with a drop of latex often
coagulated in the centre of a black lesion on the petiole.
Control - Prophylactic spray of foliage prior to the onset of monsoon with 1% BM or oil based copper
oxychloride.
Causal organism - fungus - Oidium heveae
2. Powdery mildew
Symptoms - noticed on newly formed tender flush during the refoliation period of January to March.
Tender leaves with ashy coating curl, crinkle, edges roll inwards leaving the petioles attached to the
twigs giving a broomstick appearance. In later stages, on older leaves white patches appear. Infected
flowers and fruits shed.
Control
1. Dusting with sulphur 3-5 rounds at weekly or fortnightly intervals.
2. Surphur mixed with an inert material like talc (70:30 mixture) could also be used.
3. Pink disease
Causal organism fungus - Corticium salmonicolor
Symptoms - Trees in the age group of 3-12 years are highly susceptible. The seat of infection is
usually at the fork region. White or pink coloured cob-web like mycelial growth form on bark surface
with streaks of latex oozing out from lesions. Later rotting, cracking of bark, exudation of latex and
finally drying up of twigs and branches is noticed.
Control
1. Regular inspection of trees during July - September for detecting the disease.
2. In early stages of infection apply Bordeaux paste up to 30 cm above and below the affected region.
3. In severe cases prune off and burn the dried up branches.
4. Bark rot Causal organism fungus - Phytophthora spp.

Symptoms - During rainy season, when trees are tapped, depressions are formed in the
tapping panel due to localized rotting and drying bark. Black vertical lines running downward
into the tapping bark and upwards into the renewed bark are noticed. The bark
when0renewed0becomes0highly0uneven.
Control
1. The tapping cut and nearby bark should be washed with mancozeb (0.375%) or
phosphorous acid (0.08%) at weekly intervals.
2. The rotten bark may be scraped off and applied with fungicide and then covered with
petroleum wound-dressing compound.
Other diseases are Corynespora leaf disease, patch canker, dry rot,bird's eyespot, brown root etc.
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6. DISEASES OF GINGER
1. Soft rot / Rhizome rot
Caused by fungus - Pythium and Phytophthora
st
Symptoms The 1 visible symptom is found at the basal region of plant which become watery and
rots. The leaves become slightly pale in colour and their tips turn yellow and yellowing spread
downwards. At the same time rhizomes get rotten and are converted into a slimy mass emitting a
foul smell. The plant will die soon.
Control
1. Water logging in ginger garden should be avoided
2. Before the onset of monsoon spray with 1%. B.M. or Mancozeb 0.2% and drench the soil with
1% B.M. or Cheshunt compound.
3. When the disease is present in the field, spraying and drenching should be done as above and
channels should be made around the infected area to isolate it from healthy plants.
2. Leaf Spot
Caused by fungus
Presence of irregular brown spot on the leaf lamina and later drying up of leaves. Controlled by
Spraying 1% B.M. or 0.2% Mancozeb.
7. DISEASES OF MANGO
1. Anthracnose Causal organism fungus - Colletotrichum gleosporioides
Symptoms - seen on the leaves, flowers, fruits, stem etc. On the leaf, numerous sunken spots appear.
Later it becomes necrotic and leaves crinkled. The leaves will dry-up, on green twigs, dark brown
lesions are produced and twigs dry up showing die back symptoms. Flowers when infected wither
and shed and no fruiting will take place. On the tender fruits spots appear and they turn black. Finally
drying of the whole tree and reduction in yield occur. Neelam and its hybrids are highly susceptible.
Control
1. Crowding in orchards should be avoided.
2. Affected twigs should be pruned and apply Bordeaux paste.
3. Spray with BM 1% or Zineb or Ziram 0.2% or Captan 0.3%.
2. Pink disease
Causal organism fungus - Corticium
Symptoms - Trees in the age group of 3-12 years are highly susceptible. The seat of infection is
usually at the fork region. White or pink coloured cob-web like mycelial growth form on bark surface.
Later rotting, cracking of bark, exudation of fluid and finally drying up of twigs and branches is
noticed.
Control
1. Regular inspection of trees during July - September for detecting the disease.
2. In early stages of infection apply Bordeaux paste up to 30 cm above and below the affected region.
3. In severe cases prune off and burn the dried up branches.

3. Grey blight
Causal organism fungus - Pestalotiopsis mangiferae
Symptom and control same as in coconut
4. Sooty mould
Fungal disease caused by Meliola mangiferae
Symptoms - Black sooty mould growth can be seen in stem, leaf etc. If the whole leaves are covered
with sooty mould, photo synthesis will be reduced and so yield is reduced. When the insects attack
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on fruits there will be a honey dew secretion and that will in turn enhances the attack of sooty
mould.
Control
1. Control of insects properly
2. Spraying with dilute starch solution
5. Red Rust Caused by algae - Cephaleuros parasiticus
Symptoms - Algal growth can be seen on stems and twigs as star like growth. The tissues are
penetrated and damaged by the absorption of food from inside. On the upper surface clusters of
orange red hairy growth and be seen.
Control - Spray B.M. 1%
6. Mango malformation
This is a complex disease or disorder. Caused by Fungus, mites, virus and physiological
reasons.
Symptoms a) Vegetative malformation - It is more severe in young seedlings and grafted plants. Affected
plants develop excessive vegetative growth, producing bunches of dwarf branch giving a
broom stick or bunchy top appearance.
b) Floral malformation - Flowers on affected plants are abnormal and develop monstrosities.
The abnormal shape is due to thick fleshy and profusely branched peduncle. The flowers
bear scanty pollen and fertilization will not be effective. Later they dry up giving no yield.
Root system also may be affected. The tap root is twisted and become necrotic.
Anthracnose on fruits
Sooty mould
Anthracnose on stem
Malformation
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8. DISEASES OF ARECANUT
1. Mahali (fruit rot or Koleroga disease) Causal organism fungus - Phytophthora
Symptoms - The fungus will attack distal end of immature nuts and rotting will result. The rotting will
proceed to the stalk end, nuts will fall down. The fallen nuts and stalk end will be rotten forming a
slimy mass. If it is not controlled, all nuts fall down and yield will be completely lost.
Control
1. Spray with BM 1% before onset of south west monsoon.
2. Repeat the spraying when there is a dry spell during the monsoon and again after the
ceasation of south west monsoon just before the onset on north-east monsoon.
2. Bud rot - Same as in coconut
3. Foot rot or Anabe disease Caused by fungus Phythium
The collar region of seedlings will be affected by the fungus, as result collar region will rot and
seedlings will topple down, roots will also be rotten. For control drench the soil around the palm with
BM 1% or Captan 0.3 %
4. Yellow leaf disease Etiology is unknown
Symptoms - All the leaves in the crown of palm show general chlorosis. As a result yield is reduced.
The disease can be managed by adopting recommended manurial application, cultural, plant
protection and other management practices. Improve drainage conditions in the garden.
5. Sun scorch
The south-west of the palms will be scorched by the rays of sun leading to the drying of
seedlings. It can be protected by pasting with 'China clay' or lime or by wrapping with areca spathe or
even with plastic film.
9. DISEASES OF CASHEW
1. Anthracnose
Caused by fungus - Colletotrichum gleosporioides.
Symptoms - Fungus attack leaves, twigs, inflorescence, cashew apple and cashew nut. Reddish brown
water soaked sunken lesions followed by exudation of resin from the affected parts. Later twigs will
be dried up, nuts and apple decay and fall off. Yield is very much reduced.
Control - Spray B.M. 1% or Mancozeb.
2. Pink Disease - Same as in rubber and mango
3. Root rot
Caused by fungus - Pythium spp
Rotting of roots. During of the twigs followed by yellowing of leaves and stunted growth of
plants. Soil drenching with cheshnut compound can be practiced.
4. Decline - Affects all ages of tree. Usually in the lateritic soil. Defoliation and drying of twigs during
summer and death of the tree occur with in 2-3 years. Provide good management pactices.
5. Gummosis
Caused by fungus - Ceratocystis paradoxa
Reddish brown gummy exudation from the affected region. Later the affected region or twigs
dry up. For control chisel out the infected area and apply hot coal tar or Bordeaux paste.
6. Seedling blight - Wilting and withering of seedlings and rotting of underground portions of stem
and seedling will dry up. Spray with B.M. and drench with Mancozeb 0.3% (Dithane M45).
7. Inflorescence blight
Caused by fungus - Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
The inflorescence will be affected with sunken spots and later dry up. Spray Mancozeb 0.3%
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10. DISEASES OF CARDAMOM

1. Katte diseases (Mosaic)
Caused by Virus and Vector is banana aphid.
Symptoms - discontinuous stripes of light green colour running almost parallel to each other from the
mid rib to the margin of the leaves, which form a mosaic pattern. On young shoots such stripes are
seen on leaf sheath also. Infected clumps will be smaller in size with fewer tillers.
Control
1. Destroy infected plants by burning
2. Control vector by spraying insecticide
3. Remove all alternate hosts of the virus.
2. Azhukal or Capsule rot Caused by fungus - Phytophthora spp.
Symptoms are present during south - west monsoon season. The fungus affect leaves, shoot, panicles
and capsules. On the infected leaves water soaked lesions appear first and rotting and shedding of
leaves occur thereafter. Infected capsule become dull greenish brown and decay. This emits a foul
smell and subsequently sheds.
Control
1. Remove and destroy all infected clumps
2. Spray with B M 1% before the onset of south - west monsoon and again in the dry spell during
the monsoon or after ceasation of monsoon.
3. Drench with 1% BM @ 3 1titre / plant covering the panicle
3. Clump rot
Caused by fungus - Phythium sp.
Affected shoots becomes brittle and easily break of from the rhizome at the bulbous base.
Control
1. Drench with B.M. or cheshunt compound
2. Application of ammonium phosphate or super phosphate 100gm / plant during the last week
of may check the spread of this disease.
4. Leaf blotch Caused by fungus. This disease is characterized by the appearance of large blotches
of irregular lesions with alternating shades of light and dark brown necrotic tissues. Spray mancozeb
0.3%
5. Chenthal disease
This is a bacterial disease caused by Corynebacterium.
Symptoms - Appearance of rectangular linear reddish brown lesions mainly on the lower surface of
leaves. Lesions are clearly visible even on dried leaves. The incidence of this disease appears to be
more severe in areas which do not have proper shade.
Control - Provide adequate shade in the garden.
6. Damping off Caused by Fungus - Pythium spp.
Infection is observed at the collar region and seedlings topple down. Drenching with BM 1%
or cheshunt compound will help to reduce infestation.
11. DISEASE OF VEGETABLES
Diseases of cowpea
1. Anthracnose
Caused by fungus
Irregular spots on leaves and branches and dry up.
2. Powdery mildew
Caused by fungus
Powdery growth on the leaf surface and later blight occur
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3. Downy mildew
It is a fungal disease - Pseudopernospora
Serious during high humid periods, mycelial growth seen under the leaves, later dry up.
Application of mancozeb 0.3%
Diseases of cucurbits
1. Downy mildew - It is severe during rainy season. This can be checked by spraying mancozeb 0.2%
(waiting period of mancozeb is three days).
2. Powdery mildew -
Can be controlled by spraying nitrophenol 0.05%.
3. Mosaic - Control the vectors by spraying Dimethoate 0.05%. Uprooting and destruction of affected
plants and collateral hosts should be done.
4. Bacterial wilt
Caused by bacteria Xanthomonous spp.
The plants will wilt suddenly even when there is sufficient supply of water, leaves drop down
and fruits fall off. Ooze test should be conducted to diagnose this disease. Apply antibiotics.
5. Fruit rot
Caused by fungus - Pythium affanidermatum
A watery soft rot develops especially in the fruits touching the soil surface. The disease is
common in the field during and after rain. It also spreads among fruits during storage and transport.
Control
1. Efforts should be made to keep the fruits away from the soil surface by having some mulch
below the fruits.
2. Soil drenching with cheshunt compound
Diseases of chilly
1. Anthracnose
2. Bacterial wilt - The plants will wilt suddenly even when there is sufficient supply of water, leaves
drop down and fruits fall off. Ooze test should be conducted to diagnose this disease. Apply
antibiotics.
3. Fruit rot and dieback of chillies Caused by fungus Collectotrichum capsisi
The sign of infection is the appearance of small black circular spots and these spots will join
together and the fruit lose their normal red colour and turn straw coloured or pale white.
Dieback symptoms - The infection begin from the growing point of the flower buds and twigs of
branches. Later branches and twigs turn brown. The plants dieback and attack spreads. Spraying
Zineb 0.25% for control
4. Little leaf
viral disease
By the attack of virus, the growth of the plant is stunted and leaves become small having a
miniature shape. Eradicate infected plants and the vector white fly is controlled by Rogor 0.03%
For avoiding damping off of the seedlings in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as possible in
raised beds prepared in the open area during summer months. Spray nursery and main field with 1%
Bordeaux mixture at monthly intervals during rainy season. Uproot and destroy the plants affected
by bacterial wilt and mosaic. Cultivate resistant varieties like Manjari, Ujwala and Anugraha in
bacterial wilt prone areas.
Diseases of bhindi
1. Yellow vein mosaic disease (YVM) Viral disease, vector white fly - Bemisia tabaci
Symptoms - The symptom is the yellowing of veins followed by veinal chlorosis. The yellow network
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of veins and veinlets become thick. In severe cases the chlorosis may extend to inerveinal areas and
result in the complete yellowing of leaves. Fruits are dwarf, malformed and yellowish green in colour.
Control
1. Eradication of affected plants.
2. Controlling the vector by spraying Rogor 0.03%.
3. Use of resistant varieties like Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay and Susthira
4. destruction of host weeds
2. Anthracnose
3. Bacterial wilt
Diseases of amaranthus
1. Damping off of seedlings
2. Leaf spot disease
3. Bacterial wilt
Diseases of brinjal
1. Damping off of seedlings
2. Anthracnose
3. Bacterial wilt
4. Little leaf of brinjal - Causal organism; Mycoplasma
For avoiding damping off of the seedlings in the nursery, sow the seeds as thin as possible in
the raised beds prepared in the open area during summer months. Follow mechanical removal and
destruction of disease affected portions for control of Phomopsis fruit rot. Uproot plants affected by
little leaf and spray insecticides for further control. Cultivate resistant varieties like Surya, Swetha
and Haritha and the hybrid Neelima in bacterial wilt prone areas.
12. DISEASES OF TAPIOCA
1. Cassava mosaic (topioca mosaic) caused by virus. Transmitted by white fly Bemissia sp.
Symptoms - It is present on leaves as mosaic pattern as yellow, light green and dark green patches
intermingling each other resembling a mosaic pattern. Later leaves will be crinkled, rolled
longitudinally and perpendicularly and yield will be reduced.
Control
97
1.
2.
3.
4.
Disease affected plants should be isolated and destroyed by burning

Setts should not be taken from disease affected plants for planting.
Tolerant varieties like H-97 can be planted
Vector white flies can be controlled by spraying Ekalux 0.2%
2. Leaf Spot Causal organism - fungus - Cercospora

Presence of brown irregular spots with dark margin on leaves.Spray 0.2% Ziram or Zineb or
1% B.M for control.
3. Bacterial blight Causal organism - Bacteria - Xanthomonas spp.
Blight is present on the margins of leaves. Later the margin rolls inward and dries up. Yield is
reduced. Chemical control using antibiotics is not effective. So resistant varieties like H-97, H-226, H1687 and H-2304 can be planted.
13. DISEASES OF SWEET POTATO
1. Damping off Cause by Fungus - Pythium sp.
Collar region is affected and vines rot and dry up. Drench with BM 1% or cheshunt compound
2. Cercospora leaf spot Caused by fungus - Cercospora
Presence of irregular brown coloured spots with necrotic tisues on leaves. The spot coalesce
and leaf dry up. Spray BM 1% or Mancozeb.
14. DISEASES OF ROSE
1. Leaf spot
Caused by fungus - Colletotrichum and Cercospora.
Necrotic spots of different colour, shape and size appear on leaves which may extend to
branches and later dry up. Spray with Bordeaux mixture.
2. Blight - Sports appear on leaves and later leaves are killed suddenly giving a burnt appearance.
Spray B.M.
3. Powdery mildew
Caused by fungus - Oidium rosae
Appearance of white powdery mass on the upper surface of leaves. Leaves fall prematurely or
become yellowish and dry up. Dusting with sulphur will help to control the disease
4. Damping off - Seedlings are affected particularly after the onset of south - west monsoon. Collar
region is rot and seedlings fall down. Drenching with cheshunt compound help to reduce infestation
98
15. DISEASES OF ANTHURIUM

1. Bacterial blight - Blackening of the stem and decay of leaf axils are the symptoms of bacterial blight.
2. Anthracnose - Tiny circular black spots appear on leaf and spadix in case of anthracnose. Spraying
mancozeb 0.3% or carbendazim 0.1% can control the disease.
3. Root rot caused by fungus Pythium and Phytophthora .
Can be controlled by the application of potassium phosphonate 0.3%.
16. DISEASES OF ORCHID
The important fungal diseases are
1. Leaf spot (Colletotrichum and Gloeosporium)
2. Leaf blight (Pythium)
3. Collar blotch (Penicillium thimmi)
4. Collar rot (Sclerotium)
5. Orchid wilt (Sclerotium rolfsii)
These can be controlled by application of mancozeb, carbendazim etc. at the recommended
dose. Spraying should be done prior to the commencement of monsoon and at fortnightly intervals
during heavy monsoon.
6. Mosaic
viral disease
7. Ring spot
viral disease
Destroying the affected plants can control spread of these diseases.
99
Unit 13
WEEDS
Weeds have been a problem ever since man started cultivating crops. They successfully
compete with cultivated crops by thriving adverse conditions and are known as silent killers of crop
plants. They create difficulties in agricultural operations, increase labour cost, and create health
hazards and difficulties in aquatic systems. About 45% of total crop losses in India are reported due
to weeds. This indicates the importance of weeds and weed management in crop production.
Weed is a plant grown in a place where it is not required. Weed is a plant out of place.
Weed is an unwanted and uncultivated plant, they reduces crop yield and contaminate the produce
and act as alternate host of many pest and disease
CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS
1. Weeds require less amount of nutrients - The total nutrient requirement of a weed is very
less when compared with cultivated crop. So weeds can grow in any soil.
2. Weeds require less amount of moisture - The water requirement of weeds is very low. And
they have the advantage of drought tolerance to a greater extent. So they can survive in
adverse conditions.
3. It flowers profusely and produce large number ob seeds - If at all some seeds are not
germinated the remaining seeds will help the wed plant for successful establishment of
generation.
4. Germination percentage of weed seeds is very high - So it will result in the formation of large
number of individuals during the next generation.
5. The longevity of weed seed is very high - The period during which a seed remain viable is
called longevity. The longevity of weed seeds is high; it can thrive over unfavourable
conditions for a long period and come to germinate, whenever conditions become
favourable.
6. Possibility of vegetative propagation - Weeds are having the capacity of vegetative
propagation in addition to seed propagation. So even though the sexual propagation is failure
the weeds can survive by the vegetative propagation.
7. Weed seeds are provided with hairy and spiny appendages help in seed dispersal more
effectively.
8. Weeds have short life span - As the weeds have short lifespan, it can complete its life cycle
within a short period and hence they can survive in adverse condition. Similarly more number
of germination is possible because of shorter life cycle.
9. Evasiveness - Many weeds are capable or escaping from animal and man due to their bitter
taste, presence of spine, causing Allergies etc. eg: Mimosa, Parthenium
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
Weeds can be classified based on the following aspects,
1. Number of cotyledons (Dicot or monocot)
2. Lifespan
3. Habitat
100
1. Classification of weeds based on number of cotyledons

a) Monocotyledons (Monocot)
b) Dicotyledons (Dicots)
a) Monocots - are narrow (leaves with parallel venation) leaved weeds. Grasses and sedges
belong to this group. Monocots are coming under the family Graminae and Cyperaceae,
eg. Cynadon dactylon; Cyperus rotendus.
b) Dicots - are broad leaved weeds and with tow cotyledons and leaf with reticulate venation.
eg: Eupatorium odoratum, Lantana camara
2. Classification of weeds based on life span
a) Annuals
b) Biennials
c) Perennials
a) Annuals - They complete their life cycle in a season or in a year. After producing seeds they die.
eg. Vernonia cineria, Emilia sonchitolia.
If the life cycle is very short it is called Ephemeral. eg. Phyllanthus niruri.
b) Biennials - They have life span of two years or two seasons. In 1st year or 1st season the plant grow
vegetatively and the 2nd season they produce more seeds and they die. eg. Wild carrot, chicory.
c) Perennials - They live more than two years and they require more than 2 years for completing
their life cycle. They are again classified into two based on the herbaceousness of stem. Hard wood
perennial and woody perennials. Perennial weeds are again classified into shallow rooted perennials
and deep rooted perennials. Shallow rooted perennials - eg. Cynadon dactylon, deep rooted
perennials - eg. Lantana camara
3. Classification of weeds based on habitat
1. Dryland (Terrestrial, Upland)
2. Aquatic (Wet land, Low land)
3. Semiaquatic
1. Dryland weeds - All weeds found on the land surface or uplands are called terrestrial weeds. eg:
Lantana camara, Eupatorium, Mimosa
2. Wetland weeds - Weeds which are grown in aquatic environment like water or marshy places are
called wet land weeds. eg. Salvinia molesta.
3. Semi-aquatic weeds - Weeds which grow in both water and land are called semi aquatic weeds. eg.
Cyperus iria, Ludwigia
Common weeds of Kerala
Sl.
No
Common Name
Scientific Name
Group
Habitat
1.
Nut grass
Cyperus rotundus
Monocot
Upland
2.
Bermuda grass
Cynodon dactylon
Monocot
Upland
3.
Crow foot grass
Dactylocteniun aegyptium
Monocot
Upland
4.
Ischaemum
Ischaemum indicum
Monocot
Upland
5.
Siam weed
Chromolaena odorata
Dicot
Upland
101
6.
Sweet brown weed
Scoparia dulcis
Dicot
Upland
7.
Phyllanthus
Phyllanthus niruri
Dicot
Upland
8.
Indian penny - wort
Centella asiatica
Dicot
Upland
9.
Touch-me-not
Mimosa pudica
Dicot
Upland
10.
Biophytum
Biophytum sensitivum
Dicot
Upland
11.
Vernonia
Vernonia cineria
Dicot
Upland
12.
Wild sage
Lantana camara
Dicot
Upland
13.
Mile-a-minute
Mikania micrantha
Dicot
Upland
14.
Barnyard grass
Echinocloa crusgalli
Grass
Low land
15.
Water hyacinth
Eichhornia crassipes
Dicot
Aquatic
16.
Salvinia
Salvinia molesta
Fern
Aquatic
17.
Ludwigia
Ludwigia perrinis
Dicot
Semi -aquatic
WEED MANAGEMENT
The important aspects of weed management are prevention and control. Weed control
methods can be classified in to two,
1. Prophylactic or preventive methods - This is the method adopted to control weeds in an area
before the establishment of weeds. Weed laws prevent transport of contaminated crop seeds.
2. Control or Curative methods - This is the method adopted to control weeds in an area after the
establishment of weeds.
Eradication - All the weeds are destroyed in this method. If the weed is extended in a large area it is
not economic eradication is important only if the weed is a newly introduced one and spread over
only a limited area.
IMPORTANT PREVENTIVE METHODS
1. Use of weed free crop seeds - Some crop seeds may be contaminated with weed seeds.
Before sowing make it sure that the seed lot do not contain any weed seeds.
2. Use of weed free manures - Farmyard manure and cow dung manure may be contaminated
with weed seeds. So as far as possible use only dry cow dung and F.Y.M. after the removal of
weed seeds.
Sometimes some weed seeds may adhere to
3. Use of clean agriculture implements agriculture implements. So use only clean implements and remove weed seeds from
agriculture implements like plough, spade.
4. Use of irrigation water free from weeds Some times weed seeds and other plant parts may
contaminate the irrigation water. This can be avoided by providing screening devices at
diversion point.
5. Take appropriate measures during harvesting, threshing and storing - Care should be taken to
avoid contamination of crop seeds during harvesting, threshing, storing etc.
6. Seed certification - As far as possible use only certified seeds for sowing.
7. Legal measures - Quarantine laws to prevent movement of plant parts from one place to
another or one country to another should be enforced to prevent the spread of weed seeds.
102
CONTROL METHODS
The main control measures with respect to weeds can be divided into four,
1) Mechanical
2) cultural (Cropping and competition method)
3) Biological
4) Legal
5) Chemical
6) Integrated weed management
1. Mechanical method
a) Hand Weeding - This is the oldest method of control of weeds. It is done by pulling out of
weeds from field by hand. This is very successful against annual weeds. It is widely practiced
in rice fields.
b) Hand hoeing - It is an appropriate method to eliminate weeds between row of crops. Using a
hoe weeds are to be removed. It is effective against annuals, biennials and shallow rooted
perennials. It also increses soil aeration to a small extent.
c) Digging - It is effective method to control perennial weeds. It helps to remove the
underground portion of the weeds from the soil. Digging followed by collection and removal
of weeds is commonly practiced. Digging also helps to improve the aeration of soil. It is more
effective than hand weeding and hand hoeing.
d) Sickling - It is the removal of aerial parts of weeds by means of sickle. When the top portion
of the weed is removed, it will check the seed production. Sickling can be practiced in sloppy
area because the root system of weeds is not damaged. So it will not result in soil erosion.
e) Tillage - In this method, using ploughs, cultivators and harrow etc. weeds are incorporated to
the soil. Objective is to reduce the weeds. This can be done for annuals, biennials or
perennials. But depth of the tillage is according to the crop. Tillage operation is given after
sowing but before germination.
f) Burning or flame cultivation - It help to control undesirable weeds on road sides, fallow lands
etc. It has an added advantage of control of pest and diseases also. Flame cultivation is a
method coming under burning. Flame cultivation meaning selective control of weeds by
burning in between rows of crops. This is practiced in cotton in western countries by means
of a flame thrower.
g) Flooding - In wet land areas for controlling weeds, flood the field by water and the weeds can
be allowed to get decayed. So this has an added advantage of increasing the organic matter
content of the soil.
h) Grazing - To allow for grazing by animals like cattle will result in weed control. It can be
practiced only in uncultivated area.
i) Mowing - In this method we remove the aerial parts of the weeds to improve the unsightly
appearance of weeds. Weeds are got removed from lawns etc. by using the implements
called mowers. This is having same effect as Sickling.
2. Cultural methods
a) Crop rotation - Growing different crops (belongs to different group) in same field in
rotation is called crop rotation. This help in reduction of weed growth because some
weeds are crop specific in nature. This is effective when weeds are associated with a
103
certain crop. If we are changing the cultivated crop it will result in the control of such
weeds to some extent.
b) Mulching - It means covering the soil with different plant parts. Paddy husk, plant residue,
green leaves, thatched coconut leaves or polythene sheets can be used for mulching.
These check growth of weeds and there by result in the weed control.
c) Close planting - It means planting crops with close spacing. This will result in the control of
weeds because weeds will get only less space, sunlight etc. for their growth.
d) Crop combination - This is the cheapest method of weed control. In areas where there are
severe weed problem we are growing certain crops which have the capacity to compete
with cultivated crops to some extent. Here the crop seeds germinate and grow and
produce some yield. Seeds of such crops have good germinating capacity. Here the crop
withstands the weed growth to a greater extent. eg. Calapagonium, cowpea.
e) Minimum tillage or zero tillage - In this method we reduce the tillage operation. It is
practiced in light soils which are more erodable and crops like Maize and Sorghum. They
remove the weeds by herbicide application and sow the seeds of crops with out any
tillage.
f) Inter cropping - Fast growing short duration inter crops reduce weed growth.
g) Summer Fallowing - Just give a rough tillage and soil is in a cloddy condition. The soil is
desiccated and dry up.
h) Good crop stand - By adjusting time of sowing, depth of sowing etc. we can control the
weed growth.
i) Smother Crops - Mimosa invisa, Calapagonium, Centrocema etc can smother weeds,
especially used in rubber plantation.
3. Biological control
In this method natural enemies of the weeds are used to control weeds. Natural enemies like
insect pest, predators, pathogens, fishes, plants (competitive plants) etc. can be used for this
purpose. These organisms shouldn't be harmful to the cultivated crops.
The natural enemies (oranisms) used for biological control is called bioagent. A bioagent
should have certain characteristic for successful control of weeds. They are the following:1. Host specificity - The bioagent should be host specific that means it should not attack any crops
and it should feed only on the particular weed which should be controlled.
Starvation test is performed to know the host specificity.
2. Easiness in multiplication - The bioagent should be able to multiply in large numbers within a small
period. Then only there will be effective weed control.
3. Feeding habit of the insect - The bioagent should be a feeder that means the bioagent should feed
the weed plants in large quantities within a small period of time. It should
preferably feed on flowers, seeds or bore into the plants rather than attacking
leaves.
4. Bio-agent hardiness - The bioagent should be able to survive in new locality.
Important achievements
The first attempt on biological control of weeds was made in Hawaiian Islands in 1920 to
control Lantana camara using Crocidosema lantana (moth) and Agromyza lantanae (seed fly)
104
African payal is a serous problem in Kerala. The control of Salvinia by the release of
Cyrtobagous salvinia weevil is gaining popularity in Kerala
Eichornia is another problematic aquatic weed in Kerala. It was biologically controlled by
Neochaetina weevils in association with a mite Orthogalumna sp. A fungus named Cercospora
is also used for its bio control.
Another important dry land weed in Kerala is Eupatorium. Experiment using larva of
Parachaetus pseudoinsulatus (moth) were found effective against Eupatorium
Zygogramma bicolorata a fly found effective against the noxious weeds Parthenium.
Sl
No
Name of weed
1.
Lantana camara
2.
Salvinia
3.
Eichornia
4.
Eupatorium
5.
Parthenium
6.
Opuntia
Neochaetina
Bio control agent

Crocidosema lantana (Moth)
Agromyza lantanae (seed fly)
Cyrtobagous salviniae (Weevil)
Neochaetina (Weevil)
Orthogalumna sp (Mite)
Cercospora (Fungus)
Parachaetus pseudoinsulatus
( larvae of a moth)
Zygogramma bicolorata (Beetle)
Cactoblastis cactorum
( larvae of a moth)
Cyrtobagous
Control of Salvinia - It is controlled by a weevil called Cyrtobagus salviniae. In areas where Salvinia is
a problem the weevils are released. Even a pair of weevil is sufficient for establishment in an area but
generally 50-100 weevils are recommended in an area. If collection of weevil is not possible, 1 kg of
infested Salvinia can be used. Weevils are released to tender Salvinia for easy establishment. Within
a period of 1-1.5 years complete destruction of Salvinia is obtained.
4. Chemical control
In this method we are using chemicals for controlling weeds. These chemicals are known as
weedicides or herbicides. These chemicals kill or inhibit the growth of the weeds.
Advantage of chemical control
1. It kills the weed in the near vicinity of the crops, which cannot be controlled by intercultural
operations.
105
2.
3.
4.
5.
It kills weeds which are noxious to man and hence cannot be controlled by manual weeding.
It is easy less time consuming and more profitable, more effective and labour saving.
Effect of herbicide is longer lasting than physical methods.
When spiny weeds are there chemicals are used. For sloppy lands tillage is difficult, since
chances of soil erosion occur. Then herbicides are more useful.
6. Weeds which have mimic nature can only be destroyed herbicides.
7. It is better to use herbicide when hand weeding is impossible due to rainfall.
8. When the labour is not sufficient for hand weeding, then use of herbicide is good.
Disadvantages
1. Farmers should be educated. He should have knowledge about herbicides so that it should
not be misused.
2. Depending on crops, farmer has to stock different herbicides.
3. Residue problem- It is another problem. It may remain for many years.
4. Farmer has to use special applicators and sprayers.
i) Classification of herbicide based on point of application.
1. Soil herbicides
2. Foliar herbicides
3. Aquatic herbicides.
ii) Classification of herbicide based on mode of action
1. Contact / non-systemic
2. Systemic / Translocated
1. Contact herbicides - It does not move beyond the point of contact. Only plant parts which
come in contact with the herbicide are killed. The underground roots, rhizomes etc. may
not be damaged by the contact or herbicide. Hence these plant parts may regenerate. eg.
Paraquat, propanil
2. Systemic herbicides - These herbicides enter a plant and move within the plant and kill the
tissues at a distance from the point of entry (application). They enter the plant usually
through leaves, stems, root etc. These systemic herbicides are effective in destroying roots
of perennial weeds. The systemic herbicides move through the vascular system to the
growing point of roots and shoots.
eg: 2,4 D, Glyphosat, Dalapon
iii) Classification of herbicide based on time application
1. Pre-plant herbicides - These are applied to the soil before the crop is planted. Herbicides
which are likely to produce a toxic effect on emerging crop seedling can be applied before
the crop is planted. These chemicals should be incorporated into the soil before planting.
eg : Calcium cynamide
2. Pre-emergent herbicide - These are applied after sowing, but before the actual emergence
of the crops or weeds. Eg. Butachlor
3. Post-emergent herbicide - These are chemicals which are applied after the emergence of
the weeds. eg. Paraguat, Glyphosate
iv) Classification of herbicide based on selectivity
1. Selective herbicide - They are selective in action and kill plants of only certain species while
plants of all other species survive. eg. 2,4-D (effective on broad leaved plants)
106
2. Non-selective herbicide - They are effective against all plant weeds. eg. Paraquat
HERBICIDES
Common names
Commercial
formulations and
concentration
Recommended dose,
kg ai/ha
Product
per ha
Crops
recommended
Hints on time and

method of application
a. Selective herbicides
2,4-D sodium salt
Fernoxone 80%
WSP
0.8-1.0
1.01.2 kg
Thiobencarb
Saturn 50% EC
4.01
Butachlor
Machete 5% G
Oxyfluorfen
Goal 23.5% EC
0.15
Cyhalofop butyl
Clincher 10% EC
Diuron
Klass 80% WP
Atrazine
Atrazine 50% WP
Rice - for control of

broad leaved weeds
and sedges
Apply at 20-25
DAS / DAT
Rice dry sown

and transplanted
Pre-emergent spray at 06 DAS or at 6 DAT
Rice - wet sown

and transplanted
Broadcast evenly on soil

surface at 7 DAS or at 48 DAT
0.641
Rice dry sown

Banana
0-3 DAS
Pre-emergent spray
0.08
800 ml
Rice - for control

of Echinochloa
sp.
Spray 18-20 DAS
1.50 -3.00
1.9 3.8 kg
Banana
Pineapple
Pre-emergence spray or
directed spray when
tank-mix with paraquat
2.00
4.0 kg
Sugarcane
Pre-emergence
spray at 3 DAP
0.4-0.8
2.04.01
preparation,
Plantation crops,
pineapple and
banana
0.8
2.01
Do
b. Nonselective herbicides
Rice - land
Paraquat
Gramoxone 20% EC
Glyphosate
Roundup 41%SL
Glycel 41% SL Weed All
41%SL
For clearing weeds

before land preparation.
Directed application in
inter-row areas.
Do
Calculation of Weedicides
Quantity of herbicide required =
Rate of application in kg ai / ha x Area in ha

Strength of commercial product
X 100
1. Calculate the quantity of Fernoxone 80% WSP required to control broad leaved weeds in 2 ha of
rice field at a recommended rate of 1kg ai/ha
Q =
1x2 x 100
80
2.5 kg
COMMON WEEDS FOUND IN RICE FIELDS

Grasses
1. Echinocloa colonum - Kavada
2. Oryza rufipogen - wild rice
3. Echinocloa crusgalli - Barn - yard grass.
107
Sedges
1. Cyperus iria - Muthanga
2. Cyperus deformis - Muthanga
3. Fimbristylism mileacea - Mangu
Broad leaved weeds
1. Eichornia crassipes - Kulavazha
2. Monochoria vaginalis
Ferns
1. Salvinia molesta
2. Marsilea quadrifolia
3. Azolla pinnata
Algae
1. Spirogyra spp
WEED MANGEMENT IN RICE FIELDS
Keep rice fields free from weeds up to 45 days either by hand weeding or by use of
herbicides. The recommendation for use of herbicides in different systems of rice culture is given
below:A. Dry Seeded rice
Pre-emergent spray of thiobencarb at the rate of 1.5 kg ai/ha or butuchlor 1.25 kg. ai/ha in
300 ltrs of water on the same day of seeding or with in 6 days of seeding effectively control weeds up
o panicle initiation stage. Application of pendimethelin at the rate of 1.5 kg. ai/hector as preemergent weedicide. Applications on the same day or within 6 days after sowing.
B. Wet seeded rice. (Direct seeding with sprouted seeds under puddles condition)
Bulachlor at the rate of 1.25 kg. ai / ha or thiobencarb at the rate of 1.00 kg. a.i / hactor - is
recommended to be applied on 6-9 days after sowing. Then apply 2, 4-D at the rate of 0.5 kg. ai/ha
20 days after planting (sowing).
C. Transplanted rice
Thiobencarb EC - 2 kg. a.i./ha, Pendimethalin granules or E.C. 1.5 kg. a.i. / ha or butachlor 1.25
kg. a.i./ha may be applied on 6th day after transplanting. Where broad leaved weeds are
predominant apply 2,4-D at the rate of 1.0 Kg a.i. /ha in 400 litres of water 25 days after
transplanting.
Control of Salvinia
Trampling of african payal in situ in the wetlands a week or prior to transplantation will
control the weed and add to soil fertility. This method is also effective to prevent vegetative
regeneration of Salvinia. For control of Salvinia occuring in channels and other water bodies
Paraquate at the rate of 0.75 kg. ai/ha in 500 lts of water may be sprayed. Chemical control measures
should be applied only in areas where protected drinking water supply is assured and with caution.
108
Unit 14
PLANT PROTECTION EQUIPMENTS
Effective pest control depends on many factors such as proper selection of the pesticide, its
application at the correct dose and at the proper time and the selection of the most efficient
equipment for securing a uniform deposit of the pesticide on the target substrate with out any
wastage of material in the least time and with minimum labour. Pesticides may be applied as sprays,
mists, aerosols, fogs, smokes, vapour, dust or granules. Out of these the important methods are
spraying and dusting.
Spraying
The spray fluid may be a solution, an emulsion or a suspension of the toxicant. The liquid
phase is usually water. However water is not a good carrier for pesticide because of the hydrophobic
nature of the target surface. Pesticides may break down by hydrolysis in water and evaporate from
the target surface. Making the pesticide particle light and hence drift. The toxicant has to be well
distributed in order to achieve effective control of pest. The spray fluid is to be broken down to fine
droplets to have a well distribution of the toxicant. The droplet size varies from 30 to 400 micron in
different types of sprays. The atomization of the spray fluid under pressure which may be hydraulic
or pneumatic, through a nozzle or by emitting a jet of spray-fluid into a high velocity air stream.
Spraying can be classified on the basis of volume of the fluid used per unit area.
1. High Volume Spraying (Full Cover Spraying) - In conventional spraying the pesticide is
diluted with water and spray droplets are large enough to acquire momentum required to reach the
target surface. The large droplets coalesce on the foliage and much of the pesticide accumulates on
the edges and tips of leaves or is lost due to runoff. High volume spraying requires 50-1000 1tr / ha
of spray fluid in the case of field crops and 1500 - 2000 1tr / ha in the case of orchard crops.
A reduction in the amount of water in the spray fluid or total elimination of water would
lower the cost of application. This has lead to L.V and U.L.V sprayings.
2. Low Volume Spraying (Concentrate Spraying) - In this case concentration of the pesticide is
8-25 times than that in the high volume spraying. There is a corresponding reduction in the quantity
of spray fluid applied per unit area. The volume of spray fluid ranges from 12 - 125 litres / ha. Droplet
size 70 microns - 150 microns.
3. Semi - concentrate spraying (Semi - low volume) - Here the concentration of the pesticide is
2-4 times of that in the H.V. spraying.
4. Ultra Low Volume Spraying (U.L.V Spraying) - The pesticide is applied undiluted in small
quantities, usually at the rate of 0.5 litre - 5 litres /ha in a highly concentrated form. (U.L.V
concentrate). In concentrated spraying air is the carrier of the toxicant and not water. Droplet size
varies from 30-150 microns. The pesticide liquid is fed in to air stream flowing at high velocity. The
atomization is more with release in air volume pesticide is atomized into extremely fine droplets.
Spray deposits from U.L.V formulations persist longer than that from emulsions.
Advantages of ULV Application
1. The reduction in the volume of spray fluid decreases the time spend in traveling to recharge
the sprayer, in fetching water, in mixing the pesticide and in filling the spray fluid in the tank.
2. The infested area can be sprayed quickly as compared to the H.V. spraying. In a day of 8
hours 8 hectare can be sprayed in the case of ULV spraying 3 ha in the case of LV spraying
109
using motorised knap-sack sprayer. And 0.5 to 1ha in the case of H.V spraying employing
manually operated sprayer.
3. The mixing tanks are not needed since the pesticide is directly transferred from the
container into the tank of the sprayer.
4. Many hazards while mixing solution, preparing dilutions or transferring from mixing tanks
can be eliminated since no mixing is required.
5. Since the use of water as carrier is completely eliminated the ULV spraying holds out of a
great promise for use places where the water supply is short.
Sl.
No
Sl.
No
1
High Volume Sprayers
Volume of Spray
fluid per Ha.
500-100 lit.
Particle size
(Microns)
300-500
Low Volume Sprayers
50-200 lit
100-300
Ultra Low Volume Sprayers
< 5 lit.
60-100
Controlled Droplet Application

(CDA) Sprayers
Formulation like
aerosols are use as
such
Fogging
machine-1-15
Type of sprayer
Type of sprayer
Examples
High Volume Sprayers
Knapsack, Rocker, Hand Sprayers
Low Volume Sprayers
Power Sprayers
Ultra Low Volume Sprayers
ULV Sprayers
Controlled Droplet Application (CDA) Sprayers
Fogging machines, Smoke generators
1. PARTS OF A SPRAYER
The important parts of a sprayer are tank, pump, agitator, power source, pressure gauge,
valves, filter, pressure chamber, hose, spray lance, cut-off device, booms and nozzles.
1. Tank - the sprayer may have built-in tank as in the case of knapsack sprayer or there may be a
separate container as in the case of peddle pump for holding the spray fluid. The capacity of tank
varies from less than 1 ltr to over 2000 ltr. in large sprayers. The tank should be made of a non
corrosive metal or thick polyethylene.
2. Pump - A pump is necessary for the atomization of the spray fluid. Pump is the most vital and
expensive component of a sprayer. There are 2 types of pump.
a) Air pump or Pneumatic pump - These are used in compressive sprayers. They force the air
in to the air tight spray tank and do not pump the liquid directly. The air compressed in
the tank exerts pressure on the spray fluid which is then pushed into the discharge tube.
b) Positive displacement pump - These pumps take in a definite volume of the liquid from the
inlet and transfer into the outlet.
3. Agitator - The pesticide formulations are rarely soluble in water. The wettable powders even if
thoroughly mixed with water are susceptible to separation and may cause plugging or uneven
distribution. Most of the sprayers are provided with agitators for keeping the pesticide uniformly
dispersed in the spray fluid.
4. Filter - A strainer made of wire gauze should be fitted beneath the tank filler cap to filter the spray
110
fluid as the tank is being filled. Dirt in the fluid may cause abrasion, interfere with the function of
valves and may cause blocking of nozzles.
5. Power Source - Petrol engines coupled with the equipment or any separate engine provides power
to the power operated sprayers.
6. Pressure gauge - It is fixed on the discharge line to adjust the pressure required for spraying
7. Valves - Are important in a sprayer because they maintain the direction of flow of the spray fluid.
8. Hose - Hose is used to conduct the spray fluid from the spray tank to the lance.
9. Spray lance - It is a detachable brass tube usually 90cm long. The nozzle will be screwed on to its end.
10. Spray cut - off device (trigger) - A device in the lance to shut off the flow of the liquid.
11. Nozzle - It is an important component as it breaks up the liquid released from the equipment into
droplets and spread them as a spray. The size of the droplet varies with the design of the sprayer
and of the nozzle. Spray pattern varies with nozzle. Nozzle is attached to the lance or boom.
Hollow cone nozzles are used in weed control. Nozzles are different types according to the form
of energy used for breaking the spray fluid. There are hydrolic energy nozzles, gaseous energy
nozzles, centrifugal energy nozzles etc. Most of the field sprayers rely up on the principle of
hydraulic atomization. The nozzle breaks up the stream of liquid and spreads it out into a spray.
The hydraulic energy nozzle consists of a small chamber with a device inside it to atomize the
liquid before it comes out of the orifice. The components of nozzle are body, Cap, orifice plates,
swirl plate and seal and spacers.
12. Booms - A number of nozzles can be arranged in a horizontal tube called the boom or spray bar.
It is normally coupled with power sprayers. Booms are used for treating row crops.
TYPE OF SPRAYERS
A) Pneumatic Sprayers (Sprayers with air pump)
These are called pneumatic sprayers or compression sprayers because air pressure is
employed for forcing the liquid through nozzle for atomization. The tank of these sprayers should
not be filled completely with the spray fluid. Usually 3/4 of the tank is filled so that adequate air
pressure can be developed over the spray fluid in the tank. They dont have agitators and hence are
not used for spraying materials which settle down quickly.
1. Compression Hand Sprayer - It has a container of 0.5 - 3.5 ltr capacity. The tank is filled to
about 3/ 4 th of it and the pump is worked to force air into the space to build sufficient
pressure up on the spray fluid. The air pressure forces the liquid up the outlet and through
the nozzle in the form of fine continuous spray.
2. Compression Knapsack Sprayer - These are similar to the compression hand sprayers but
are adapted for spraying large quantities of spray fluid. It consists of a tank for holding
spray fluid with compressed air, a vertical air pump with handle, a filling hole with a
strainer, a spray lance with a nozzle and cut - off device. It is fitted with a plastic skirt that
provides a rest with the back of the operator and has shoulder straps for carrying. Used in
gardens and farms.
3. Air atomizer (mist blower) - It is a small and simple hand sprayer. It consists of a pump
barrel fitted with a plunger which is moved back and forth to produce a blast of air. It works
on the principle of air blast breaking up the spray droplets and carrying them to the target.
Used for spot treatment and in house hold spraying against flies and mosquitoes.
111
a) Hand sprayer: These are the smallest types of sprayers. Used for pest control in houses and
small kitchen gardens. They comprise of a tank (1-2 L capacity) and an air pump to develop
pressure and are provided with an air check valve at one end a delivery tube connected out
side to nozzle through a trigger control valve. The pressure developed by the pump forces the
liquid to rise in the delivery tube and then go out through the nozzle the flow being regulated
by the trigger control valve.
1. Piston Handle
2. Trigger
3. Handle
4. Pump Barrel
5. Tank
6. Piston rod
7. Piston
8. Air check valve
9. Delivery tube
10. Spray lance
11. Nozzle
Parts of Pneumatic hand sprayer

b) Knapsack sprayer: It consist of a strongly built bras cylindrical tank, a vertical air pump
passing through the top and tightly fixed to it and a delivery tube with a spray lance. Water is
filled to 2/3 rd of the tank capacity and air is pumped into the tank moving the plunger rod up
and down inside the pump barrel. Compressed air creates pressure on the surface of the
liquid. The liquid moves up the nozzle and get broken up into fine droplets.
Parts of a Knapsack sprayer
112
Nozzle
Spray lance
Filter hole
Holder
Tank
Cut off device
Lever
Pump
Stand
Parts of a Knapsack sprayer
B) Hydraulic Sprayers
1. Hand Syringe - It consists of a cylinder and a plunger or piston. Spray fluid is contained in a
separate tank.
2. Hand Sprayer - It is a small light and compact unit capacity varies from 0.5 - 1 ltr. Used in
kitchen gardens.
3. Bucket sprayer - It consists of a brass pump a foot-rest, a hose, a lance and a nozzle. The
pump is lowered into the liquid in a bucket and held in position during operation by
placing a foot on the rest.
4. Knap-Sack Sprayer - This can be fitted comfortably on the back of the operator like a knapsack. It has a flat or lean shaped tank with a capacity of 10-30 ltrs, made of galvanised
iron, brass, stainless steel or plastic. It is operated by a leaver handle. It is provided with a
built- in double barrel pump of the piston type with a leaver for operating it. This sprayer
is used for spraying low crops like vegetables, rice etc.
5. Rocker sprayer: It consist of a pump assembly, a rocking lever, pressure chamber,
suction hose with a strainer, delivery hose and spray lance with nozzle and a trigger cut
off devise. By rocking movement of the lever, pressure will be built in the pressure
chamber and this helps to force the liquid to come out through nozzle. There is no tank
and the spray liquid is kept in bucket. The rocking movement of the lever causes the
piston to move to and fro in the barrel. First few strokes create a vacuum and the liquid is
sucked in through the suction hose and build up the required pressure in the pressure
chamber. A continuous rocking movement is required to maintain steady pressure. The
pressure chamber acts as a reservoir of liquid and gives constant delivery under pressure.
It is used for spraying tall trees like coconut, cashew, pepper, mango etc.
113
Nozzle
Lever
Spray lance
Pressure chamber
Cutoff device
Pump assembly
Wooden Platform
Hose
Suction hose with Strainer
Parts of Rocker Sprayer
Bucket Sprayer
C) Power sprayer: Suitable for spraying large area of field crops. Consists of a spray tank (10-12 l
capacity), a two stroke petrol engine, fuel tank, blower assembly, pleated hose, delivery tube etc.
The fan in the blower is connected with the two stroke engine. A liquid delivery pipe from the
74tank
provides the liquid at the end of pleated hose. Another hose from the blower is connected to the
tank in such a way that a small portion of air enters the tank on the surface of the liquid. This air
provides some agitation and creates constant pressure on the top of the liquid pushing the liquid to
the end of the hose. The air blast is created by the blower and divides the liquid as micronised
droplets.
Delivery tube
Tank
Petrol engine
Power Sprayer
114
There are different types with hydraulic pumps and air pump.
1. Stretcher sprayer - The sprayer is fixed on a stretcher type frame with a pair of handles on
each end.
2. Wheel Barrow Sprayers - These sprayers are too heavy to be carried by the operator and
hence are mounted over wheel barrows.
3. Traction Sprayers (Tractor mounted) - It is attached to a tractor as a single unit and is
completely carried on the tractor all the time. The power to operate the pump is obtained
from the wheels during traction. Once the wheels stop the power gets cut off.
Crops
Sl. No
Type of sprayer
Potted plants, house hold pest control
Hand Sprayers
Rice, Vegetables
Knap sack sprayer
Arecanut, Mango
Rocker sprayer
Rubber, cashew plantations
Aerial Spraying
2. DUSTERS
a) Manually Operated Dusters
1. Package duster - It consists of a container provided with a rubber or plastic part which when
squeezed with fingers provides a puff of air that eject a quantity of dust. The capacity varies up to
500gm of dust. Plastic bottles similar to ones available for applying toiler power are also used.
2. Bellow dusters - This types of duster has a pair of bellows made of leather, rubber or plastic. The
bellow can be worked with a handle just like a black smith does. The dust is placed either in the
bellows or in a separate container made of wood, metal or plastic attached to the end of bellows.
The air current produced runs through the container and draws the dust out through the opening.
3. Rotary dusters - They are also called crank dusters and fan type dusters. They vary considerably
in design and may be shoulder, mounted back, or belly mounted. Basically a rotary duster consists
of a blower complete with gear box and a hopper with a capacity of about 4 5 kg of dust. The
duster is operated by rotating a crank and the motion is transmitted though the gear to the
blower. Generally an agitator is connected to one of the gears. An adjustable feeding mechanism
is also provided. The air current produced by the blower draws the dust from the hopper and
discharges out through the delivery tube which may have one or two nozzles.
Bellow Duster
Rotary Duster
115
b) Power duster: Operating principle is similar to that of power sprayer, the only difference
being the delivery tube is replaced with a dust outlet pipe.
Power Duster
Maintenance of plant protection equipments

Points to be taken care while handling plant protection equipments
1. Follow the instructions of manufacturers for maintenance of equipment.
2. Clean the equipments properly and store in a dry place.
3. Drain the tank of a sprayer and flush it with clean water, wash the pump, nozzles, strainers,
lances, hoses, etc, with clean water.
4. Empty the hopper and clean with a cloth in case of dusters.
5. Replace the worn out parts, grease and oil the moving parts, eg. Cylinder, piston, plungers,
washers, valves, etc. when not in use.
6. Do not bend rubber hoses at angles
7. At end of season clean sprayer thoroughly, drain all water from engine, pump and tank,
disconnect hose and run lubricating oil through pump. Drain oil from engine and pump and
replace with new oil.
8. Do not through the nozzles and delivery tubes of dusters on bare ground
9. Always keep sufficient stocks of spare parts and tool kits
10. Drain the spray solution to avoid clogging of nozzle
116
Field problems and remedies for plant protection equipments

1. Knapsack sprayer
Problem
Sl. No
Nozzle block
Pressure drops quickly
Trigger cutoff valve is leaking
Rectification
Follow procedure for cleaning blocked nozzles
Check that the filler cap or lid gasket is in good
condition and the cap is properly secured.
Ensure that all connections and washes are proper.
Dismantle the trigger cut off valve and check the ring
washer. If damaged replace.
2. Rocker Sprayer
Problem
Rectification
Nozzle block, follow procedure for cleaning
blocked nozzles
Suction do not result
If suction valve stuck, clear it
Leakage through plunger rod
Liquid not entering in to the

delivery tube
Either piston worn out or it is loose. Check the

piston if it is loose lighten the screw
Sl. No
No spray
Delivery valve gets stuck clear it.
3. Dusters
Sl. No
Problem
Dust not coming out
Rectification
Check whether the hopper is empty

Check whether the valve is open
117
Unit 15
COMPATIBILITY OF PLANT PROTECTION CHEMICALS & FERTILIZERS
In the plant protection schedule, very often it becomes necessary to combine the application
of different agrochemicals such as fungicides, insecticides, herbicides and fertilizers. In doing so, we
can save the cost of labour and time too.
Compatibility it is the ability where different plant protection chemicals and fertilizers when mixed
together will not react with each other and not lose their individual properties.
Two agro chemical are said to be compatible if their mixing together for combined application will
not result in chemical reaction leading to loss of their individual pesticidal properties or physical
properties or their mixing will not result in formation of other phytotoxic compounds. Compatible
chemicals can be mixed together and combined spraying can be done. Two or more insecticides,
fungicides or herbicides can be mixed together and can be sprayed if they are compatible. So in this
combined spraying farmer can save labour charges and save time also. Before mixing the chemicals
we must know the compatibility of selected chemicals.
Different types of fertilizers are also mixed together and applied. Some times fertilizer may be
mixed with herbicides or pesticides. In this case also only compatible fertilizers should be mixed
together. Mixing incompatible fertilizers result in loss of nutrients in the form of gases or convert
soluble nutrients in to insoluble one or induces caking,
2,4D is a herbicide which is compatible with Quinalphos(Ekalux), Phosphamidon, and
Dimethoate (Rogor). So theses can be mixed and applied if a joint application of herbicide and
insecticide is warranted. 2,4D can be mixed with urea and applied in rice. Bordeaux mixture is not
compatible with most of the most of the insecticides and fungicides. But it is compatible with urea,
Quinalphos, 2,4-D and wettable sulphur.
In the case of mixing fertilizers for combined application, never mix nitrogenous fertilizers and
organic manures with lime. Lime should be applied first, only after 2-4 weeks organic manures like
cowdung or compost or other nitrogenous fertilizers may be applied.
118
Compatibility chart for combination sprays

1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
Q
C
C
C
N
C
N
Q
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
Q
N
N
N
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
N
N
N
Brodeaux
mixture
Captan
Copper fixed
Carbaryl
Carbophenothion
Demeton
Demeton-methyl
Dicofol
Dichlorvos
Dicrotophos
group
Dinocap
Dimethoate
Dithiocarbamates
Endosulfan
Fenitrothion
Lime sulphur
Malathion group
Oxydemeton
methyl
Phosphamidon
Phosalone
Pyrethrine
Quinalphos
Sulphur wettable
Streptomycin
Toxaphene
Urea
Zinc sulphate +
lime
2,4-D
Lead arsenate
Dinitro
compounds
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Q
N
C
N
N
N
N
Q
C
C
Q
Q
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
N
N
C
N
N
N
N
Q
C
C
C
Q
N
Q
N
C
Q
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
N
C
N
C
C
Q
C
Q
C
Q
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
Q
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
Q
C
C
N
Q
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
N
C
C
N
C
N
C
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
N
Q
N
C
C
N
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
Q
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
C
C
C
C
27
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
N
N
N
N
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
N
N
C
C
C
N
C
N
C
N
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
N
C
Q
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C
28
29
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
30
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
Q
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
N
N
C
C
C
C
N
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
Q
C = Compatible, N = Not compatible and Q = Questionable. Compatibility may vary with solvents or emulsifying agents used
119
VOCATIONAL HIGHER SECONDARY EDUCATION

Model Examination
AGRICULTURE (PLANT PROTECTION II)
(For Continuous Evaluation and Grading Scheme)
VHSE II
Total score: 80
Register No:..
Time: Time : 2 hrs
Instructions:
1. Read questions carefully before answering
2. Maximum time allowed is 2 hours, 45 minutes including cool off time.
3. First 15 minutes is cool off time during which you should not answer the questions. This time is meant for
reading the questions carefully.
4. Answer all the questions
1. Choose correct answer from the following
(1)
A pest which causes 13% damage can be included in which class?

(Minor Pest, Non-insect Pest, Sporadic pest, Major pest)
2. Find the odd one out and justify your answer?
(1)
(Nicotine, Pyrethrin, Thuricide, Azadiractin, Rotenone)

3. Find the missing pair
(2)
a) Carbofuran : Systemic poison , Carbaryl : ..

b) Beetles: , Flies : maggots
4. Suggest the best formulation suitable for the following situations and justify your answer
(2)
a. To protect natural enemies.

b. Water available in plenty.
5. Using the relationship given find out the missing ones
Beetles
(4)
Biting and chewing
1) Honey bees
2) ..
3)
Thrips
Sponging type
4) ..
Siphoning type
6. Write whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
a) Bucket sprayer is an example for pneumatic sprayer.
b) Bordeaux mixture is used for the control of rice blast disease
c) In a rice field, frog feeds on insect pests. This is an example for biological control.
(3)
120
7. Drying of inflorescence and die back of shoots are observed in cashew trees of your plantation.
identify the pest and suggest suitable control measures.
(3)
8. Mention the name of plant protection method involved in each of the following
(4)
a) Trap Cropping
b) Pheromone Traps
c) Covering of bitter gourd fruits with paper bags
d) Trichogramma egg cards
9. A farmer cultivating coconut approaches you with immature nuts showing triangular yellowish
patches below the perianth region and asks for your help. As an agricultural student identify the
pest, its nature of damage and suggest suitable control measures.
(3)
10. Match the following
(4)
a)
b)
c)
d)
A
Eight legs
Six legs
Four legs
No legs
B
Insects
Nematodes
Arachnids
Rodents
Birds
C
House rats
Red spider mite
Parrot
Beetles
Slugs
Root knot
11. A pond in your locality is heavily infested with Salvinia. Analyse the suitability of the different
management methods you have studied.
(3)
12. Complete the following

Crop
Rice
Coconut
Pepper
Mango
Brinjal
Banana
(3)
Symptom of attack
Hopper Burn
Hollow berries
..
..
Holes on psuedostem
Pest
Red palm weevil

.
Fruit flies
.
13. On the eve of environmental day you are invited to school to present a talk on pest out breaks
and its major reasons. As an agricultural assistant prepare a short write up for the talk.
(3)
14. Recent studies reveal that bacterial leaf blight is a serious problem in paddy growing areas.
Suggest a method to find out the infection caused by bacteria in field condition. List out
important steps to control the disease.
(3)
121
15. Classify the following diseases based on the casual organism?
(4)
(Blast of Rice, Bunchy top of Banana, Quick wilt of Pepper, Mahali of Arecanut ,
Katte disease of Cardamom, Little leaf of Brinjal, Bud rot of Coconut, Cassava
Mosaic)
Fungal Diseases
Bacterial Diseases
Viral Diseases
Mycoplasmal Diseases
1
2
16. A farmer in your locality is complaining about high labour cost for application of plant
protection chemicals and fertilizers. As an agricultural student advise him a method to reduce
the cost of application of these chemicals and discuss its merits and problems.
(3)
17. A farmer complaints about storage pest incidence in his farm house storing paddy. Your teacher
asked you to prepare an investigatory project regarding the incidence. Prepare a write up
including possible pests that may cause damage to the stored paddy and precautions to be taken
to avoid such incidence in future.
(4)
18. Identify the sprayer given below and name the parts indicated.
(4)
2
4
3
5
6
19. A farmer asked your help to Calculate the Quantity of Quinalphose 25EC required to spray
vegetables cultivated
in an area of 175 cents at a concentration of 0.05% using high volume
spray @ 500lts/Ha. As an agricultural student help the farmer to calculate the quantity of
chemical.
(4)
20 A farmer approaches you for the effective management of rice stem borer. As an agricultural
assistant suggest the IPM methods for the control of rice stem borer.
(5)
122
21. Complete the following diagram and write a paper article on Metamorphosis in insects.
a)
(5)
b)
?
Bug
22. In an agro-clinic seminar conducted by Krishibhavan you are asked to present a class on plant
diseases. Discuss about the essential condition required for the development of disease
(epidemic) and importance of disease forecasting to minimize losses caused by pathogens.
(6)
23. You are posted as an assistant manager in agricultural firm manufacturing insecticides. The
firm is planning to produce a new insecticide with highly toxic chemical for field application.
Prepare a label for the product and prepare a leaflet showing precautions to be taken while
handling pesticides.
(6)
Answers
Qn.
Scoring Indicators
No
1 Major pest
2 Thuricide, its a biopesticide
3
4
a) Contact
b) Grubs
a) Granules
b) EC,WP Similar ones
1) Chewing &lapping
2) Diptera
3) Rasping &sucking
4) Lepidoptera
a) False, its hydraulic sprayer
b) No, BM is phytotoxic in rice
c) False, its natural control
Tea mosquito bug,
Field surveillance, removal off egg
masses,
spraying of chemicals at flushing, flowering and seed set
a) Cultural Control
b) Modern method
c) Mechanical
Score details
Total score
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
/ 2 + 1/ 2
1
/ 2 + 1/ 2
1
/ 2 + 1/ 2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
123
d) Biological
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Attack of coconut eriophyid mite

Use of neemoil garlic emulsion
Use of dicofol as chemical method
Similar points
Eight legs- mite red spider mite
Six legs- insects rice stem borer
Four legs- rodents house rats
No legs-nematodes root knot
Mechanical trampling, composting
Biological - Cyrtobagous
Chemical - Paraquat
1) BPH
2) Brown ooze from stem, holes
3) Pollu beetle
4) Decayed fruits, maggots inside
5) Holes on fruits, wilting of stem
6) Psuedostem weeevil
Uncontrolled growth of insects in a short period
Deforestation
Intensive agriculture
Mutation
Resurgence
Similar points any four
1. Ooze test
2. Cow dung supernatant
3. Use of bleaching powder
4. Similar points
1. Blast of rice- fungus
2. Bunchy top virus
3. Quikwilt fungus
4. Mahali Fungus
5. Katte virus
6. Little leaf- mycoplasma/MLO
7. Bud rot of coconut- Fungus
8. CMV- virus
Mixing and use of two compatible chemicals
Time and labour saving reduction in cost of

cultivation
Phototoxic effects is incompatible mixed

Rice weevil
Rice moths
Large grain borer
Angumoise grain moth
17
18
Management
Sanitation
Storage yard should be insect proof
Proper drying
Fumigation with chemicals
Similar points
Rocker sprayer
1 Nozzle
1
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124
1
2 Spray lance
3 Cutoff device
4 Pressure chamber
5 Pump assembly
6 Suction hose with strainer
19
20
21
22
23
Quantity = Qty of spray fluid X Concentration

-------------------------------------------Conc. Of formulation
Calculation
Answer- 700ml
Unit
IPM for Rice stem borer
IPM concept with diagram
Cultural Resistant variety IR-20
Mechanical Egg mass removal
Biological Tricho cards
Modern Pheremon traps
Legal enforcement of law
Chemical carbaryl
Similar points
a) 1 larva/Caterpillar
2 Pupa
b) Nymph
Ametabola silver fish details
Incomplete metamorphosis -details with example
Complete metamorphosis- details with examples
Factors
Host related
Pathogen Related
Weather factores
Time related
Humen activities
Disease forecasting and Prophylactic steps will
prevent the spread of diseases with examples
Drizzle with cloudy condition late blight of potato
Label
Symbol Yellow colour- warning statement-1,
Poison, Name of Chemical, Formulation similar
points, pictures etc
Precautions
Reading label before application
Storing in original container
Washing after application
Protective clothing
Avoid drinking and smoking while appln.
Regular medical check ups
Similar points any six
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Plant Protection II

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What are the different units covered in the document?

What are the different units covered in the document?

What are the different types of pests mentioned and their characteristics?

What are the different types of pests mentioned and their characteristics?

PLANT PROTECTION

For Second Year Agriculture Plant Protection Course

If a country is to be corruption free and become a nation of beautiful

Who said cant ?............

Name of the unit

Importance of Plant Protection

General characters of insect pests

Insect pest control

Biological control of insect pests

Environmental aspects of pesticides

Insect pests of major crops of Kerala

Non-insect pests of major crops

Pests of stored products

Introduction to plant diseases

Plant disease control

Diseases of major crops of Kerala

Plant protection equipments

Compatibility of plant protection chemicals and fertilizers

Model question papers

Classification of pest based on the extent of damage

Economic Threshold Level (ETL)

Locust out break

Hairy, four footed,

Wings, feathers and

Body divided in to head,

Minute creatures with an

Hard limy chitinous

Cut basal portions of rice

They feed on foliage of

They posess a protruding

2. Lepidoptera - (Moths and Butterflies)

3. Diptera - (True flies)

flies, Wasp, hornet etc.

Types of Mouth parts and feeding habits

Chewing mouth parts

Piercing & Sucking

Chewing & Lapping

Important Stages in Insect Development

Insects with Incomplete Metamorphosis

Insects with Complete Metamorphosis

1. Coleoptera Beetles & Weevils

2. Orthoptera Grass hoppers & crickets

2. Lepidoptera Moths & Butterflies

3. Diptera House flies, Mosquito

4. Hymenoptera Bees & Wasps

Destructive stages of insect pest

Adults and grubs

Insecticides used for killing insects. eg - Ekalux

II). Classification based on mode of action

There are four types,

III). Classification based on chemical nature

1. Plant origin -- eg. Neem, Pyrethrin, Nicotine, Rotenone

2. Animal origin -- eg. Neries Toxin

3. Hydrocarbon oils -- eg. Mineral oil, tar oils