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Samantha Paula Ramos Lara

Professor Lynda Haas
Writing 39C
30 August 2015
A Path to End the Health and Welfare Issues Associated with Selective Breeding in Dogs
Introduction
Over 400 dog breeds exist today, exhibiting a wide array of traits that suit many different
preferences and tasks. For example, working dogs assist humans by pulling sleds, herding dogs
corral livestock to their pens, and hounds use their keen sense of smell to track down prey. The
bulldog, for instance, is a currently popular breed characterized by a heavy, thick-set, lowswung body, massive short-faced head, wide shoulders and sturdy limbs (Bulldog Club of
America). These features are endearing to humans and play a large role in explaining the
bulldogs surge of popularity across America.
However, the health of the bulldog, as well as many other purebred dogs, is negatively
affected by the very traits humans find endearing. In other words, the traits that humans attempt
to accentuate by breeding purebred dogs can severely handicap the whole breed. The bulldogs
characteristic flat face makes it prone to brachycephalic airway syndrome, which comprises a
series of respiratory abnormalities affecting the throat, nose and mouth (Denizet-Lewis). Their
stocky build also has the capacity to cause suffering. Bulldogs are susceptible to a variety of
health issues, including cardiac and respiratory disease, hip dysplasia, cherry eye...and require
daily cleaning of their skin folds to avoid problems (Wilkes). Even former bulldog breeder
Diane Judy, who bred the current Yale mascot, does not feel comfortable breeding them
anymore. In a fairly recent New York Times article, Judy expresses her concern: They arent

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athletic or especially healthy. Most cant have sex without help theyre too short and stocky.
Most cant give birth on their own their heads are too big. A breed that has trouble doing
those two things is, by definition, in trouble (Denizet-Lewis). By deliberately selecting and
breeding for certain physical characteristics, from the flat face of the bulldog to the small stature
of toy breeds, these dogs are at risk for a number of health problems and are predisposed to
genetic diseases that may be fatal. Over 500 genetic defects exist in purebred dogs, a number that
is so large in scope that we must consider intervention (Arman 1).
Review of Scientific Literature
Humans and dogs have been closely linked for a very long time, sharing a meaningful
connection that has developed over thousands of years. That connection is clearly demonstrated
through the domestication from wolf to dog. One of the earliest theories to account for the
method of canine domestication was based on Charles Darwins The Origin of the Species,
suggesting that humans utilized artificial selection, or breeding for desired characteristics. There
has been continuous research in the past century that attempts to elaborate on or add to Darwins
theory. For instance, Louis Bolk (1926), a Dutch theorist, proposed that canine artificial selection
was initially based on juvenile features. Dmitri Belyaevs famous experiment on silver foxes
(1959) suggest that the morphological features of dogs accompanied the intended selection to
propagate a behavioral trait. More recently, James Serpell (1995), Director of the Center for the
Interaction of Animals and Society at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary
Medicine, proposed events that may have occurred prior to artificial selection for certain traits. A
scientific review on the evolution of canine domestication suggests that humans and canines are
inextricably linked. Through artificial selection, humans have interrupted the natural progression
of the canine species and are responsible for the species as a result of their own desire. This

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sentiment remains true even in modern society, where humans select traits to replicate in certain
breeds. At the same time, selective breeding eventually results in a smaller breeding pool, which
can result in genetic predisposition to diseases.
James Serpell (1995) suggests that the interaction between wolves and humans began
about 300,000 years ago when hunting sites overlapped (Serpell 8). Hunter-gatherers would kill
wolves and use their fur as a source of clothing to protect them from the weather; they also
occasionally took wolf pups back to the village in order to be tamed. Serpell argues that the
domestication process began through caring for orphaned wolf pups. In the wild, survival
required high alertness and quick reactions to stress. However, the wolves were no longer in the
wild and had a place in human society; survival in the new environment actually required an
opposite set of characteristics. Humans altered the perceptual world of the wolves, and doing
so required a selection of traits that were suitable for the new settlement (15). The traits that
indicated a domesticated animal - docility, lack of fear, and tolerance of stress - were specifically
chosen and duplicated by humans. As a new personality developed in the tamed wolves, so too
did a new morphology develop. Specifically, the tamed wolves had a reduced head and body
size, quicker maturation, larger litter sizes, and increased fecundity (16). Once canine
domestication started, humans began the stage of artificial selection for certain traits - fur color,
coat length, leg length, tail structure, and ear structure. Eventually, generations of artificial
selection altered the natural path of wolves and led to the breeds of dogs seen today. However,
this stage of selecting dogs for a certain appearance leads back to the historically unpopular
concept of eugenics, or advocating the selection for desired traits. Most people would be
outraged at idea of breeding humans for specific traits. What makes dogs different? Why is it
acceptable to breed dogs in a way that humans would not do for themselves? By looking at

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selective breeding in dogs from another perspective, many of the core beliefs - preserving
pedigree bloodlines and a certain appearance - retain a tinge of the appalling concept that makes
some superior and others inferior.
Louis Bolk (1926), a Dutch anatomist and theorist, originally proposed the idea that dogs
were domesticated neotenically on the basis of morphology (Serpell 39). In other words, humans
selected dogs that seemed to retain juvenile features. Raymond Coppinger, Professor Emeritus of
Biology, and Charles Kay Smith, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Massachusetts,
extend Bolks theory to include behavior. In 1983, Coppinger and Smith explain that it is likely
that prehistoric humans would have preferred...animals that had retained one or more youthful
behavioral complexes such as tameness, docility, or adaptive flexibility, in different interspecific
habitats (7). Even at an early stage, humans were selecting for traits based on what they found
appealing, in contrast to the welfare of the animal. Adult dogs maintain the same features as a
juvenile, so they will remain dependent on human care. Eventually, the problem escalates to the
point where some breeds are completely dependent upon human care. Generations of artificial
selection begs the question: Have humans gone too far? As humans select for certain traits and
alter the morphology of dogs into different kinds of breeds, health issues are developing within
many breeds. Is it ethically acceptable to transform a once-independent species into a species
that cannot live without human care because we find their childish features appealing? As
humans have bred the dachshund to develop short legs - ideal for small spaces, like an apartment,
and as a lap dog - their health is severely impacted. The abnormally short legs of the dachshund
makes the whole breed prone to patellar luxation, intervertebral disk disease, and
chondrodyplasia, also known as leg deformities.

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The famous silver fox farm experiments, originally started by evolutionary biologist
Dmitri Belyaev, illustrates how selective pressure for certain traits affect the morphology and
behavior of a species. Over a span of 50 years, researchers simulated selection pressure in which
foxes were selected for tameness - less aggression and fear. Researchers selected foxes who
exhibited behaviors that indicated an eager[ness] to establish human contact; such behaviors
included whimpering to attract attention, sniffing, and licking experimenters (Trut 163). Despite
the initial premise of selecting foxes based on one trait, the researchers received foxes that were
not only tame, but also different in morphology. After about 30 generations of breeding, the
morphological changes became obvious. The characteristics seen in the foxes reflect what is seen
in many domestic dogs today. Many tamed foxes had floppy ears, short tails, coiled tails similar
to dogs. It becomes clear from this experiment that selecting for certain traits also led to
unforeseen results. Belyaev wanted only tame foxes and did not expect to receive foxes that
exhibited doglike characteristics that are actually structural deformities. The same logic follows
for the selection of traits seen in modern breeding practices. Is it right for humans to select
certain traits to accentuate knowing that those traits may cause suffering to the dog?
Detrimental Health and Welfare Issues Associated with Selective Breeding
The modern breeding practice of selecting certain traits to represent a breed began with
the inception of the dog show. The introduction of dog shows, officially known as
conformation, emerged in the nineteenth century as a hobby. According to The Kennel Club,
an organization in the United Kingdom for pedigree and crossbred dogs, the first dog show was
held in 1859. These competitions require participants to conform to human-directed breed
standards, observable traits that include appearance and behavior. In other words, breeders
compete with each other to see how well they can reproduce phenotypes that conform to a

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written standard - including traits that have, at best, questionable welfare benefits (McGreevy &
Nicholas 330). Nonetheless, dog shows have gained worldwide recognition and a wide influence
on perceptions about certain breeds. In a 2008 survey, 27% of potential pet owners associated a
pedigree registered dog with the quality of the dog and 37% base their choice on a breeds
appearance (Rooney & Sargan 9). Thus, the influence of the dog show community and the
standards that are imposed on breeds has a major influence on the dog population and the
decisions made by breeders.
The selective breeding problem is a direct result of desire to produce an unusual,
exaggerated or spectacular conformation have often produced dogs which tend towards
abnormality, an idea perpetuated by influential kennel club associations, such as the American
Kennel Club, and careless dog breeders (Rooney & Sargan 2). Figure 1 exemplifies the problem
and indicates the massive transformation the bull terrier has undergone. 100 years after the
original image was published, the bull terrier has gained its characteristic egg-shaped head, a
thicker torso, and along with those superficial traits, some problematic health traits such as
susceptibility to heart and kidney disease. Serpell asserts that humans have a tendency toward
anthropomophic selection, which he defines as selection in favor of physical and behavioral
traits that facilitate the attribution of human mental states to animals (Denizet-Lewis). As dogs
transitioned from working animals to companion animals, traits that were initially selected for
function are now selected based on appearance. For companion animals, the selection for
morphological neoteny found favor, identical to Bolks theory of neotenic selection (McGreevy
& Nicholas 332). Although selection for neoteny has strengthened the bond between human and
dog, it is also associated with health and welfare issues. This phenomenon is especially
noticeable between old and modern lap dogs. For instance, the 'large dark round' eyes, pendant

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ears and 'compact, cushioned' feet of the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel indicates very puppylike characteristics (332). At the same time, the Cavalier King Charles Spaniels rounded dolllike head makes it extremely susceptible to develop a Chiari malformation, characterized by
disparity in size between the brain parenchyma (too big) and the skull (too small) (Knowler et
al. 1). The structural defect can cause syringomyelia (SM), a condition that affects the brain and
spine; dogs with this condition are prone to headaches, difficulty walking, and even paralysis
(Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Club).
In order to maintain standards, many breeders control the genetic process with interbreeding. Patrick Burns, a columnist for Dogs Today, divulges that In many AKC dogs, the
founding gene pool was less than 50 dogs. For some breeds, it was less than 20 dogs (Allan 18).
As a result, parent dogs that both have deletrious genes will produce an offspring that has a high
chance of inheriting a genetic defect. The likelihood of two deletrious recessive genes passed
down increases as the rate of inbreeding increases because there is little genetic diversity. The
effects will continue from generation to generation, as noted by Belyaevs experiments. But
instead of unobstructive morphological deformities, the results will have severe health and
welfare consequences. The effects of a genetic defect can be long lasting, possibly for a large
portion or the entirety of a dogs life. For instance, the brachycephalic face shape of the bulldog
makes a natural process, breathing, difficult to execute. According to Dr. John Lewis, an
assistant professor of dentistry and oral surgery at Ryan Veterinary Hospital of the University of
Pennsylvania, the human equivalent to breathing the way some bulldogs do would be if we
walked around with our mouth or nose closed and breathed through a straw (Denizet-Lewis).
Because dogs cool themselves down by breathing, breeds such as the bulldog can overheat easily

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(Denizet-Lewis). As a result, exercising or sitting out in the sun for an extended amount of time
can be hazardous.
Possible Ways Forward
Since the BBC documentary Pedigree Dogs Exposed aired, the Kennel Club an
organization in the United Kingdom for pedigree and crossbred dogs, reviewed the health plans
and breed standards for every breed. In addition, the Kennel Club has banned the registration of
puppies from closely related parents (matings of fathers and daughters, for example) (Allan 20).
However, the AKC has not publicized any plans to encourage its member clubs to update their
breed standards, and the organization continues to register puppies from the matings of closely
related dogs (21). Instead, the AKC has opened a readily accessible database for consumers and
breeders that contains information on dogs who have been screened for genetic disease. But it
still may be difficult to find proof health certification because testing is not mandatory and it is
unlikely to become required in the future . In 2000, the AKC instituted a policy that required any
male dog who bred more than seven times to have a $40 DNA test (21). Despite the efforts, the
plan backfired and breeders in Iowa and Missouri, places where puppy mills thrive, boycotted
AKC registration and registered dogs through other organizations. Although individual
communities attempt to improve the health and welfare through their own standards, many are
still reluctant to admit the common health issues that plague their breed. Overall, not much has
changed; there are many groups with an interest in preserving the characteristics of purebred
dogs, which makes the situation difficult to resolve.
As proposed by animal researchers Kolosi and Gunn, it could be possible to establish
international gene banks compromising frozen semen from different populations of the same
breed (McGreevy & Nicholas 335). These gene banks can overcome the restrictions of limited

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diversity imposed by a small breeding population. Some may argue that reproductive technology
using artificial insemination can be misused. It can easily spread the genes of a small number of
animals widely throughout a breed, possibly worsening the issue. Furthermore, there is concern
about the success rate and cost of artificial insemination. However, sharing genetic information
via gene banks can drastically reduce the rate of inbreeding among small populations and can
provide breeders with a wider array of related ancestors. A gene bank facility is able to store high
quality genetic samples from a large selection dogs at optimum breeding age. Breeders can share
resources without the donor animals leaving their home. The facilities are also low cost to
maintain - less staff, space, and equipment are needed to run a gene bank center. The Royal
Guide Dogs Associations of Australia (RGDAA), a non-profit charitable organization that breeds
and provides dogs for visually impaired people, has been using frozen semen for artificial
insemination with successful results. RGDAA had a trial run of sharing genetic information with
other associations to reduce problems associated with inbreeding. The trial received frozen
semen from Guide Dogs for the Blind, Inc. (In the US) and from the Guide Dogs For the Blind
Association (in the UK), resulting in a 100% conception rate (Kolosi & Gunn 146).
In another attempt to increase genetic diversity, opening stud books to allow the
introduction of genetic material into lineages can prevent disorders from manifesting within the
offspring (Sargan & Rooney 40). In other words, there should be a cross between two different
breeds, and then a back cross to the desired breed; the resultant offspring will be
indistinguishable from pure-bred member. This proposition can be especially difficult to achieve
because kennel clubs require breeding dogs to have pedigrees comprising only of dogs
registered in that breed (McGreevy & Nicholas 337). Thus, introducing new genetic material
through crossbreeding may be viewed as a heretical act. Critics may worry that taking actions to

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increase genetic diversity through crossbreeding will completely change or water down the
breed. The reluctance from kennel clubs and breed associations provide a financial disincentive
for backcrossing. But it is up to the breeders to take action. In fact, some breeders have felt a
strong desire to rescue breeds and created their own breeds as a result of the backcrossing plan
discussed prior. For instance, the Bob-tailed Boxer, was created by crossing a Boxer with a
Welsh Corgi, then backcrossing to a Boxer (Rooney & Sargan 41). The fourth-generation
offspring was able to be registered with the Kennel Club and won prizes.
Social media can also play a large role in addressing a change. As Clay Shirky, a
Distinguished Writer in Residence at the Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute at New York
University noted in his TED Talk, How social media can make history, social media is global,
social, ubiquitous and cheap. Shirky explains that media operates worldwide and is everywhere;
the media - namely the internet - consists of so many platforms (news, conversation groups, etc.)
that are integrated in almost every aspect of our lives. The rise of social media created an
opening for people to voice their opinion to anybody across the world, a powerful tool to incite
change. By educating the public, the use of social media creates an opportunity for a culture
shift: Change the public perspective into one that perceives dogs who are healthy and have a high
quality of life as those who are the most desireable in contrast to those who are aesthetically
pleasing.
Through the use of Twitter, advocates can quickly voice their thoughts and
simultaneously educate the public about the issues that surround the health of purebred dogs.
Activists can tweet their actions to boycott dog shows, possibly influencing others to do the
same. Posting images of dogs who are severely impaired by the disorders brought upon by
selective breeding will allow viewers to see undeniable proof that it is a serious issue. Groups

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that form a social media campaign can use their homebase as a central hub for sharing
information and spreading knowledge. This year, Out of the Box Rescue Efforts, a social media
campaign dedicated to preventing animal abuse and neglect, and an online petition sparked
police investigation on a puppy mill located in Midland Michigan (Tower). The police received
complaints from local residents as well as calls from concerned people who learned of the
situation via social media. In addition more than 4,500 people signed the online petition that
demanded action should be taken against the kennel. The investigation was launched thanks to
the collective efforts of local residents and activists. Although global solutions are a crucial
component to addressing the problems associated with selective breeding, it is just as important
to acknowledge the efficacy of social media. Actions that may seem trivial on a small scale, such
as a Facebook post or an online petition, can incite change when others respond and people work
together.
Some accept selective breeding because they depend on the consistency that purebred
traits exhibit; they claim that breed standards go beyond appearance and are also bred for
function. But these traits are predictable to the point that most breeds have a list of inherited
defects. At the same time, there should not be a trade-off between health and predictable traits.
Lillian Barber, the President of the Kennel Club of Palm Springs, California, explains that some
breeds are adapted for certain jobs and responsible breeders pay close attention to the health of
their dogs. She also claims that most breeders support research regarding the genetic health of
their breeds and plan their matings carefully to insure that the offspring will be healthy. But
should we be funding research that attempts to cure the symptoms instead of research that
resolves the issue? Owners and breeders should not pay for surgery or medication for a dog to

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function like a dog. There are different alternatives that are less costly and more beneficial to the
health of dogs, noted in the proposed solutions.
Animal abuse comes in many forms. Some of the ways that humans hurt animals can
easily be seen, from outright abuse to the poor living conditions that animals are subject to in
overcrowded puppy mills. But other forms of animal abuse are more subtle and difficult to
address. As noted by Carrie Allan, the Editorial Director at the Humane Society of the United
States, dogs have become entangled in our sense of self (Allan 23). Many people regard dogs
as companions or even as a substitute to children. And there is nothing wrong with those beliefs,
as long as the health and welfare of animals is not compromised in exchange.

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Works Cited
Allan, Carrie. "The Purebred Paradox." All Animals n.d.: 16-23. Web. 30 Aug. 2015.
Arman, Koharik. "A New Direction for Kennel Club Regulations and Breed Standards."
Canadian Veterinary Journal 48 (2007): 953-65. Print.
Barber, Lillian. The Ethics of Raising Purebred Dogs. The New York Times. 12 Feb. 2013.
Debate
Bulldog Club of America. "Bulldog Standard." The Bulldog Club of America. N.p., 28 Nov.
1990. Web. 17 Aug. 2015.
Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Club. "Syringomyelia." Cavalier King Charles Spaniel Club.
N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Aug. 2015.
Denizet-Lewis, Benoit. "Can the Bulldog Be Saved?" The New York Times. The New York
Times, 26 Nov. 2011. Web. 21 Aug. 2015.
Knowler, Susan P., Angus K. Mcfadyen, Courtenay Freeman, Marc Kent, Simon R. Platt, Zoha
Kibar, and Clare Rusbridge. "Quantitative Analysis of Chiari-Like Malformation and
Syringomyelia in the Griffon Bruxellois Dog." PLoS ONE 9.2 (2014): 1-13. Web. 12
Aug. 2015.
Kolosi, J., and I. M. Gunn. "An International Gene Bank For Guide Dogs: Organisation,
Utilization, and Potential." Proc. Assoc. Advmt. Anim. Breed. Genet. 12 (1997): 145-48.
Web. 12 Aug. 2015.
McGreevy, Paul D., and Frank W. Nicholas. "Some Practical Solutions to Welfare Problems in
Dog Breeding." Animal Welfare (1999): 329-41. Web. 9 Aug. 2015.
Rooney, Nicola, and David Sargan. "Pedigree Dog Breeding in the UK: A Major Welfare
Concern?" RSPCA. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Aug. 2015.

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Serpell, James. The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behaviour, and Interactions with People.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1995. Print.
Tower, Mark. "Social Media Campaign against 'puppy Mill' in Midland County Prompts
Sheriff's Response." MLive. N.p., 4 Feb. 2015. Web. 30 Aug. 2015.
Trut, Lyudmila. "Early Canid Domestication: The Farm-Fox Experiment." American Scientist
87.2 (1999): 160-69. Web.
Wilkes, Joe. "Have We Overbred Bulldogs?" Cesar's Way. N.p., 17 June 2015. Web. 29 Aug.
2015.