High School Chemistry PDF

High School Chemistry Review
I.
Atomic Theory
A. Atomic Theory has Changed over the Past 200 Years
Greek model of matter: Four elementsearth, air, water, and fire.

Democritusatoms (indivisible particles) make up matter.
Aristotleopposed atomic ideas.
Daltons model
Thomsons model
Rutherfords model
Modern Atomic Theory
B. Daltons Model of the Atom
Elements are composed of atoms.

Atoms of the same element are alike (mass and size).
Atoms of different elements are different in mass and size.
Compounds form by the union of two or more atoms of different elements.
Atoms form compounds in simple numerical ratios.
Atoms of different elements may combine in different ratios to form different
compounds.
C. The Bohr Atom
Electrons are found in quantized energy levels in an atom.

Energy is released when an electron moves from a higher energy level down
to a lower energy level.
The chemical properties of an element and its position on the periodic table
depend on its electrons.
Electrons are located in orbitals, or regions of probability, around the nucleus
of an atom.
D. Composition of Compounds
The LDC states that a compound always contains two or more elements
combined in a definite proportion by mass.
The LMP states that atoms of two or more elements may combine in different
ratios to form more than one compound
E. The Nature of Electric Charge
Charges are one of two typespositive or negative.

Unlike charges attract, same charges repel.
F. Ions
Conductivity results from the dissociation of compounds into ions.

Cationpositive chargeattracted to negative electrode (cathode).
Anionnegative chargeattracted to positive electrode (anode).
G. Subatomic Parts of the Atom
Electronnegatively charged.
Protonpositively charged.
Neutronneutral.
Thomsons model of the atom: negative electrons are embedded in a positive
atomic sphere.
Number of electrons = number of protons in a neutral atom.
Ions are formed by losing or gaining electrons
H. The Nuclear Atom
I.
Rutherfords gold foil experiment modified Thomsons model to a nuclear

model of the atom:
o Atoms are composed of a nucleus containing protons and/or neutrons
surrounded by electrons, which occupy mostly empty space.
o Neutral atoms contain equal number of protons and electrons.
Isotopes
An isotope is an atom of an element that has the same atomic number but
different atomic mass.
The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.
J. Atomic Mass
The average atomic mass is a weighted average of the masses of all the
isotopes present in the sample.
The number of neutrons in an atom is determined by
K. Energy Levels
Electrons are found in discrete principal energy levels (n = 1, 2, 3,)

The number of electrons in an energy level n is 2n2.
Energy levels contain sublevels.
Two electrons fit in an orbital but must have opposite spins to do so.
L. Atomic Structures of the First 18 Elements
Guidelines for writing electron configurations

o Not more than two electrons per orbital
o Electrons fill lowest energy levels first: s < p < d < f for a given value of n
o Orbitals on a given sublevel are each filled with a single electron before
pairing of electrons begin.
For the representative elements, only electrons in the outermost energy level
(valence electrons) are involved in bonding.
M. Electron Structures and the Periodic Table
Elements in horizontal rows on the periodic table contain elements whose

valence electrons (s and p) are generally on the same energy level as the
number of the row.
Elements that are chemically similar are arranged in columns (groups) in the
periodic table.
II.
The valence electron configurations of elements in a group or family are the

same, but they are located in different energy levels.
The Periodic Table

A. Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties
Atomic radius increases down a group, decreases across a row.

Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
o It decreases down a group, increases across a row.
Electron affinity is the amount of energy released when an electron is added to
a gaseous atom. The EA and IE are related; however, one is not simply the
reverse of the other. It decreases down a group, increases across a row
(excluding the noble gases).
Electronegativity is the attractive force an atom has for shared electrons in a
molecule or polyatomic ion.
o It decreases down a group, increases across a row.
The metallic property of an element refers to the looseness of the outermost
electrons. It increases down a group, decreases across a row.
III. The Language of Chemistry

A. Elements and Ions
Diatomic elementsH2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

Polyatomic elementsP4, S8
Ions form through the addition or loss of electrons from neutral atoms.
The charge on ions can often be predicted from the periodic table.
B. Writing Formulas from Names of Ionic Compounds
Compounds must have a net charge of zero

To write a formula from a name:
o Identify and write the symbols for the elements in the compound.
o Combine the smallest number of ions required to produce a net charge of
zero.
C. Naming Binary Compounds
D. Naming Acids and Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
IV.
Chemical Bonding
A. Lewis Structures of Atoms
A Lewis structure is a representation of the atom where the symbol represents

the element and dots around the symbol represent the valence electrons.
To determine a Lewis structure for representative elements, use the group
number as the number of electrons to place around the symbol for the element.
B. The Ionic Bond: Transfer of Electrons from One Atom to Another
The goal of bonding is to achieve stability:

o For representative elements, this stability can be achieved by attaining
a valence electron structure of a noble gas.
In an ionic bond, stability is attained by transferring an electron from one atom
to another.
o The atom that loses an electron becomes a cation.
o Positive ions are smaller than their parent atoms.
o Metals tend to form cations.
o The atom that gains an electron becomes an anion.
o Negative ions are larger than their parent atoms.
o Nonmetals tend to form anions.
o Ionic compounds do not exist as molecules: Ions are attracted by
multiple ions of the opposite charge to form a crystalline structure.
C. The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons
D.
Covalent bonds are formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons between
them:
o This is the predominant type of bonding in compounds.
o True molecules exist in covalent compounds.
o Overlap of orbitals forms a covalent compound.
Unequal sharing of electron results in a polar covalent bond.
E. Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ion
Polyatomic ions behave like a single unit in many chemical reactions.

The bonds within a polyatomic ion are covalent.
F. Molecular Shape
Lewis structures do not indicate the shape of a molecule.
G.
V.
Chemical Reactions
A. The Chemical Equation
A chemical equation is shorthand for expressing a chemical change or

reaction.
In a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
All atoms in the reactants must be present in the products.
B. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Identify the reaction.

Write the unbalanced (skeleton) equation.
Balance the equation.
o Count the number of atoms of each element on each side and determine
which need to be balanced.
o Balance each element (one at a time) by placing whole numbers
(coefficients) in front of the formulas containing the unbalanced element:
Begin with metals, then nonmetals, then H and O.
o Check other elements to see if they have become unbalanced in the
process of balancing the chosen element.
o Do a final check to make sure all the elements are balanced.
C. Types of Chemical Equations
Combination reactions +
Decomposition reactions +
Single-displacement reactions
VI.
o In which A is a metal + +
o In which A is a nonmetal + +
Double-displacement reactions + +
Stoichiometry
A. Short Review
The molar mass is the sum of all the atomic masses of all the atoms in an
element or a compound.
When you use chemical equations for chemical reactions, the equation must
be balanced first.
B. Introduction to Stoichiometry
To solve a stoichiometry problem:

o Convert the quantity of starting substance to moles.
o Convert the moles of the starting substance to moles of desired substance.
o Convert the moles of the desired substance to the appropriate unit.
VII. Gas Laws

A. General Properties
Particles are relatively far apart.

Particle are very mobile.
Gases take the shape and volume of the container.
Gases are easily compressible.
B. The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
Assumptions:
o Gases have tiny particles with no attraction for each other.
o The distance between particles is great compared to their sizes.
o Gas particles move in straight lines.
o No energy is lost in particle collisions.
o The average kinetic energy for particles is the same for all gases at the
same temperature and pressure.
o A gas that follows the KMT is an ideal gas.
o Gases will diffuse to mix spontaneously.

Boyles Law: At constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure of the gas.
Charles Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional

to the temperature of the gas.
Gay-Lussacs Law: At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly

proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas
Combined Gas Laws:
Daltons Law of Partial Pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of gases

is the sum of the partial pressure of the component gases in the mixture.
Avogadros Law: Avogadros Law states that equal volumes of different gases
at the same T and P contain the same number of particles.
The Ideal Gas Law:
VIII. Solutions
A. General Properties of Solutions
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances:

o Consists of solventsthe dissolving agentsand the solutethe
component(s) dissolved in the solvent.
o Contains molecular or ionic particles
o Can be colored or colorless
o Can be separated by a physical separation process
B. Solubility
Solubility describes the amount of solute that will dissolve in a specified amount
of solvent.
General guidelines for ionic solubility:
Liquids can be classified as miscible (soluble in each other) or immiscible

(insoluble in each other).
The concentration of solution is the quantitative measurement of the amount
of solute dissolved in the solution.
C. Factors Related to Solubility
Like tends to dissolve like is a general rule for solvents and solutes.
As temperature increases:
o Solubility of a solid in liquid tends to increase.
o Solubility of a gas in a liquid tends to decrease.
As pressure increases:
o Solubility of a solid in a liquid remains constant.
o Solubility of a gas in a liquid tends to increase.
At a specific temperature, the amount of solute that can dissolve in solvent has
a limit:
o Unsaturated solutions contain less solute than the limit.
o Saturated solutions contain dissolved solute at the limit.
o Supersaturated solutions contain more solute than the limit and therefore
are unstable. If disturbed, the excess solute will precipitate out of solution.
D. Rates of Dissolving Solids
The rate at which a solute is dissolved is determined by these factors:

o Particle size
o Temperature
o Concentration of solution
o Agitation
E. Concentration of Solutions
Concentration can be measured in many ways:
Dilution of solutions requires the addition of more solvents to an existing

solution: M1V1 = M2V2
F. Colligative Properties of Solutions
Properties of solutions that depend only on the number of solute particles are
called colligative properties:
Molality is used in working with colligative properties.
G. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
IX.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. It

occurs from dilute solution to a solution of higher concentration.
Osmosis results in osmotic pressure, which is a colligative property of
solutions.
Colloids
A colloid is a dispersion containing particles between 1 nm and 1000 nm.

Colloid particles are usually aggregates of ions or molecules.
The difference between a colloid and a true solution is the size of the particles.
The random motion of particles in a colloid is called Brownian movement.
Colloid particles cause light from an intense beam to be scattered clearly,
showing the path of the light through the colloid.
Activated charcoal can be used to adsorb impurities from liquids and gases.
Dialysis is based on the idea that a true solution will pass through a parchment
membrane but a colloid will not.
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High School Chemistry Review

Greek model of matter: Four elementsearth, air, water, and fire.

B. Daltons Model of the Atom

Elements are composed of atoms.

C. The Bohr Atom

Electrons are found in quantized energy levels in an atom.

E. The Nature of Electric Charge

Charges are one of two typespositive or negative.

Conductivity results from the dissociation of compounds into ions.

G. Subatomic Parts of the Atom

H. The Nuclear Atom

Rutherfords gold foil experiment modified Thomsons model to a nuclear

Electrons are found in discrete principal energy levels (n = 1, 2, 3,)

L. Atomic Structures of the First 18 Elements

Guidelines for writing electron configurations

M. Electron Structures and the Periodic Table

Elements in horizontal rows on the periodic table contain elements whose

The valence electron configurations of elements in a group or family are the

The Periodic Table

Atomic radius increases down a group, decreases across a row.

III. The Language of Chemistry

Diatomic elementsH2, O2, N2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

B. Writing Formulas from Names of Ionic Compounds

Compounds must have a net charge of zero

C. Naming Binary Compounds

D. Naming Acids and Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions

A Lewis structure is a representation of the atom where the symbol represents

B. The Ionic Bond: Transfer of Electrons from One Atom to Another

The goal of bonding is to achieve stability:

C. The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons

E. Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ion

Polyatomic ions behave like a single unit in many chemical reactions.

Lewis structures do not indicate the shape of a molecule.

A chemical equation is shorthand for expressing a chemical change or

B. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

Identify the reaction.

C. Types of Chemical Equations

To solve a stoichiometry problem:

VII. Gas Laws

Particles are relatively far apart.

B. The Kinetic-Molecular Theory

o Gases will diffuse to mix spontaneously.

Charles Law: At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional

Gay-Lussacs Law: At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly

Combined Gas Laws:

Daltons Law of Partial Pressures: The total pressure of a mixture of gases

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances:

Liquids can be classified as miscible (soluble in each other) or immiscible

C. Factors Related to Solubility

D. Rates of Dissolving Solids

The rate at which a solute is dissolved is determined by these factors:

Concentration can be measured in many ways:

Dilution of solutions requires the addition of more solvents to an existing

F. Colligative Properties of Solutions

Molality is used in working with colligative properties.

G. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. It

A colloid is a dispersion containing particles between 1 nm and 1000 nm.

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