Module

2
Stresses in machine
elements
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Lesson
3
Strain analysis
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Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the student should learn

Normal and shear strains.

3-D strain matrix.
Constitutive equation; generalized Hookes law
Relation between elastic, shear and bulk moduli ( E, G, K).
Stress- strain relation considering thermal effects.

2.3.1 Introduction
No matter what stresses are imposed on an elastic body, provided the material
does not rupture, displacement at any point can have only one value. Therefore
the displacement at any point can be completely given by the three single valued
components u, v and w along the three co-ordinate axes x, y and z respectively.
The normal and shear strains may be derived in terms of these displacements.

2.3.2 Normal strains

Consider an element AB of length x ( figure-2.3.2.1). If displacement of end A is
u, that of end B is u +

u
u
x . This gives an increase in length of ( u + x -u) and
x
x

therefore the strain in x-direction is

u
.Similarly, strains in y and z directions are
x

v
w
and
.Therefore, we may write the three normal strain components as
y
z
x =

u
v
w
, y =
and z =
.
x
y
z

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u+

u
x
x

A'

B'

2.3.2.1F- Change in length of an infinitesimal element.

2.3.3 Shear strain

In the same way we may define the shear strains. For this purpose consider an
element ABCD in x-y plane and let the displaced position of the element be
ABCD ( Figure-2.3.3.1). This gives shear strain in xy plane as xy = + where
is the angle made by the displaced line BC with the vertical and is the angle
made by the displaced line AD with the horizontal. This gives
u
y
u
y
and
=
=
y
y

v
x
v

x
=
=
x
x

y
u+

u
y
y

u
y
y
v+

v
y
y

C'

B'
C

A'

D'

v
A u

v
x
x

D
u+

v+

u
x
x

2.3.3.1F- Shear strain associated with the distortion of an infinitesimal element.

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We may therefore write the three shear strain components as

xy =

u v
v w
w u
, yz =
and zx =
+
+
+
y x
z y
x z

Therefore, the complete strain matrix can be written as

x
y

z
xy

yz

zx

v
w

2.3.4 Constitutive equation

The state of strain at a point can be completely described by the six strain
components and the strain components in their turns can be completely defined
by the displacement components u, v, and w. The constitutive equations relate
stresses and strains and in linear elasticity we simply have =E where E is
modulus of elasticity. It is also known that x produces a strain of
direction,

in y-direction and

in z-direction

in x-

. Therefore we may

write the generalized Hookes law as

x =

1
1
1
x ( y + z ) , y = y ( z + x ) and z = z ( x + y )
E
E
E

It is also known that the shear stress = G , where G is the shear modulus and
is shear strain. We may thus write the three strain components as

xy =

xy
G

, yz =

yz
G

and zx =

zx
G

In general each strain is dependent on each stress and we may write

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 x K11
K
y 21
z K 31
=
xy K 41
yz K 51

zx K 61

K12

K13

K14

K15

K 22
K 32

K 23
K 33

K 24
K 34

K 25
K 35

K 42

K 43

K 44

K 45

K 52
K 62

K 53
K 63

K 54
K 64

K 55
K 65

K16 x
K 26 y
K 36 z

K 46 xy
K 56 yz

K 66 zx

For isotropic material

K11 = K 22 = K 33 =

1
E

K12 = K13 = K 21 = K 23 = K 31 = K 32 =
K 44 = K 55 = K 66 =

1
G

Rest of the elements in K matrix are zero.

On substitution, this reduces the general constitutive equation to equations for
isotropic materials as given by the generalized Hookes law. Since the principal
stress and strains axes coincide, we may write the principal strains in terms of
principal stresses as

1
[ 1 (2 + 3 )]
E
1
2 = [ 2 (3 + 1 ) ]
E
1
3 = [ 3 (1 + 2 ) ]
E
1 =

From the point of view of volume change or dilatation resulting from hydrostatic
pressure we also have

= K
where =

1
1
x + y + z ) = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) and = ( x + y + z ) = (1 + 2 + 3 )
(
3
3

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These equations allow the principal strain components to be defined in terms of

principal stresses. For isotropic and homogeneous materials only two constants
viz. E and are sufficient to relate the stresses and strains.
The strain transformation follows the same set of rules as those used in stress
transformation except that the shear strains are halved wherever they appear.

2.3.5 Relations between E, G and K

The largest maximum shear strain and shear stress can be given by

max = 2 3 and max =

2 3
and since max = max we have
2
G

1
1
1 3
2 ( 1 + 3 ) 3 ( 1 + 2 ) = 2
and this gives

E
E
G 2

G=E

2(1 + )

Considering now the hydrostatic state of stress and strain we may write
1
( 1 +2 + 3 ) = K(1 + 2 + 3 ) . Substituting 1, 2 and 3 in terms of 1 , 2 and 3
3

we may write
1
( 1 +2 + 3 ) = K [(1 + 2 + 3 ) 2 (1 + 2 + 3 )] and this gives
3

K=E

3(1 2)

2.3.6 Elementary thermoelasticity

So far the state of strain at a point was considered entirely due to applied forces.
Changes in temperature may also cause stresses if a thermal gradient or some
external constraints exist. Provided that the materials remain linearly elastic,
stress pattern due to thermal effect may be superimposed upon that due to
applied forces and we may write

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1
x = x ( y + z ) + T
E
1
y = y ( z + x ) + T
E
1
z = z ( x + y ) + T
E

xy =

xy
G
yz

and yz = G

zx =

zx
G

It is important to note that the shear strains are not affected directly by
temperature changes. It is sometimes convenient to express stresses in terms of
strains. This may be done using the relation = x + y + z . Substituting the
above expressions for x, y and z we have,
=

1
(1 2 ) ( x + y + z ) + 3T
E

and substituting K = E
=

Combining

3(1 2)

we have

1
( x + y + z ) + 3T .
3K

this
x =

with

x =

1
x ( y + z ) + T
E

we

have

E x 3K( 3T) ET
+

1+
1+
1+

Substituting G = E

2(1 + )

and =

3K
1+

we may write the normal and shear

stresses as

x = 2G x + 3KT
y = 2G y + 3KT
z = 2G z + 3KT
xy = G xy
yz = G yz
zx = G zx
These equations are considered to be suitable in thermoelastic situations.

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2.3.7 Problems with Answers

Q.1:

A rectangular plate of 10mm thickness is subjected to uniformly distributed

load along its edges as shown in figure-2.3.7.1. Find the change in
thickness due to the loading. E=200 GPa, = 0.3

1 KN /mm

50mm

4 KN/mm

100mm

2.3.7.1F

A.1:

Here x = 400 MPa, y = 100 MPa and z = 0

This gives z =
Now, z =

x + y = 7.5x104
E

t
where, t is the thickness and t is the change in thickness.
t

Therefore, the change in thickness = 7.5 m.

Q.2:

At a point in a loaded member, a state of plane stress exists and the

strains are

x= -90x10-6, y= -30x10-6 and xy=120x10-6. If the elastic

constants E , and G are 200 GPa , 0.3 and 84 GPa respectively,

determine the normal stresses x and y and the shear stress xy at the
point.

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A.2:
x =

1
x y
E

y =

1
y x
E

xy =

xy
G

This gives x =
y =

E
x + y
1 2

E
y + x
1 2

Substituting values, we get

x = -21.75 MPa, y = -12.53 MPa and xy = 9.23 MPa.

Q.3:

A rod 50 mm in diameter and 150 mm long is compressed axially by an

uniformly distributed load of 250 KN. Find the change in diameter of the
rod if E = 200 GPa and =0.3.

A.3:
Axial stress x =

250

2
( 0.05 )
4

= 127.3MPa

Axial strain, x = 0.636x103

Lateral strain = x = 1.9x104
Now, lateral strain, L =

and this gives

D

= 9.5 m.

Q.4:

If a steel rod of 50 mm diameter and 1m long is constrained at the ends

and heated to 200oC from an initial temperature of 20oC, what would be
the axial load developed? Will the rod buckle? Take the coefficient of
thermal expansion, =12x10-6 per oC and E=200 GPa.

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A.4:
Thermal strain, t = T = 2.16x103
In the absence of any applied load, the force developed due to thermal
expansion, F = E t A = 848KN
For buckling to occur the critical load is given by
2 EI
Fcr = 2 = 605.59 KN .
l

Therefore, the rod will buckle when heated to 200oC.

2.3.8 Summary of this Lesson

Normal and shear strains along with the 3-D strain matrix have been
defined. Generalized Hookes law and elementary thermo-elasticity are
discussed.

2.3.9 Reference for Module-2

1) Mechanics of materials by E.P.Popov, Prentice hall of India, 1989.
2) Mechanics of materials by Ferdinand P. Boer, E. Russel Johnson, J.T
Dewolf, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004.
3) Advanced strength and applied stress analysis by Richard G. Budyens,
McGraw Hill, 1999.
4) Mechanical engineering design by Joseph E. Shigley, McGraw Hill,
1986.

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