Structural Analysis CHAPTER OBJECTIVES © To show how to determine the forces in the members of a truss Using the method of joints and the method of sections. * To analyze the forces acting on the members of frames and machines composed of pin-connected members. 1 Simple Trusses A tmuss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end points. The members commonly used in construction consist of ‘wooden struts or metal bars. In particular, planar trusses lie in a single plane and are often used to support roofs and bridges. The truss shown in Fig.6-1aisan example of atypical roof-supporting truss. In this figure, the oof load is transmitted to the truss at the joints by means of a series of ppurlins. Since this loading acts in the same plane as the truss, Fig. 6-1b, the analysis of the forces developed in the truss members will be ‘two-dimensional, Fig. 6-1 CO)264 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS o Fig 6-8 Bridge truss o Fig. 6-2 In the case of a bridge, such as shown in Fig. 6-2a, the load on the deck is first transmitted to stringers, then to floor beams, and finally to the joints of the two supporting side trusses. Like the roof truss, the bridge truss loading is also coplanar, Fig. 6-2. ‘When bridge or roof trusses extend over large distances, a rocker or roller is commonly used for supporting one end, for example, joint A in Figs. 6-Ia and 6-2a. This type of support allows freedom for expansion or contraction of the members due to a change in temperature or application of loads, Assumptions for Design. To design both the members and the connections of a truss, it is necessary first to determine the force developed in each member when the truss is subjected to a given loading. To do this we will make two important assumptions: © All Ioadings are applied at the joints. In most situations, such as for bridge and roof trusses, this assumption is true. Frequently the ‘weight of the members is neglected because the force supported by ‘each member is usually much larger than its weight. However, ifthe ‘weight is to be included in the analysis itis generally satisfactory to apply it as a vertical force, with half ofits magnitude applied at each ‘end of the member. © The members are joined together by smooth pins. The joint connections are usually formed by bolting or welding the ends of the members to a common plate, called a gusset plate, as shown in Fig. 63a, or by simply passing a large bolt or pin through each of the members, Fig, 6-3b. We can assume these connections act as pins provided the center lines of the joining members are concurrent, as in Fig. 6-3.a fe 1 © Tension Compression @ cy Fig. 6-4 Because of these two assumptions, each truss member will act asa two- force member, and therefore the force acting at each end of the member will be directed along the axis of the member. If the force tends to clongate the member, itis a tensile force (T), Fig. 64a: whereas if it tends to shorten the member, it is a compressive force (C), Fig. 6-4b. In the actual design of a truss itis important to state whether the nature of the force is tensile or compressive. Often, compression members must be ‘made rhicker than tension members because of the buckling or column effect that occurs when a member isin compression. Simple Truss. _1fthree members are pin connected at their ends they form a triangular truss that will be rigid, Fig. 6-5. Attaching two more ‘members and connecting these members toa new joint D forms a larger ‘russ, Fig. 6-6. This procedure can be repeated as many times as desired to form an even larger truss Ifa truss ean be constructed by expanding the basic triangular truss in this way, tis called a simple rss. Fig. 6-5 Fig. 6-6 6.1 Sre Trusses 265 “The use of metal gusset plates in the construction ofthese Warten trusses is clearly evident.266 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS 6.2 The Method of Joints In order to analyze or design a truss itis necessary to determine the force in each ofits members. One way to do this isto use the method of joints. ‘This method is based on the fact that ifthe entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints is also in equilibrium. Therefore, if the free-body diagram of each joint is drawn, the force equilibrium equations can then be used to obtain the member forces (on each joint, Since the members of a plane truss are straight two-force members lying in a single plane, each joint is subjected to a force system that is coplanar and ‘concurrent.As aresult,only SF, = Oand 2F, = Onced to be satisfied for ‘equilibrium. For example, consider the pin at joint B of the truss Fig. 67a. Three forces act on the pin, namely, the 500-N force and the forces exerted by members BA and BC. The free-body diagram of the pin is member BA is in tension; whereas Fac consequently member BC is in compression. These effects are clearly ‘demonstrated by isolating the joint with small segments of the member connected to the pin, Fig. 6-7c. The pushing or pulling on these small ‘segments indicates the effect of the member being either in compression ortension. ‘When using the method of joints always start at a joint having at least ‘one known force and at most two unknown forces, as in Fig. 6-7b. inthis way, application of ZF, =0 and EFy=0 yields two algebraic ‘equations which can be solved for the two unknowns. When applying these equations, the correct sense of an unknown member force can be determined using one of two possible methods, SOON S008 rn (compression) Fea(tension) oo © Fig. 6-7‘The correct sense of direction of an unknown member force can, many cases, be determined “by inspection.” For example, Fgc in Fig, 6-7b must push on the pin (compression) since its horizontal ‘component, Fc sin 45°, must balance the S00-N force (=F, = 0), ikewise. Fy, is a tensile force since it balances the vertical smponent, Fyc €08 45° (EF, = 0). In more complicated cases, the sense of an unknown member force can be assumed: then, after applying the equilibrium equations, the assumed sense can be vetified from the numerical results. A positive answer indicates that the sense is correct, whereas a negative answer indicates that the sense shown on the free-body diagram must be reversed, Always assume the unknown member forces acting on the joint’s the forces “pull” an the pin. hen numerical solution of the equilibrium equations will yield positive scalars for members in tension and negative scalars for members in compression. Once an unknown member force found, use its correct magnitude and sense (T or C) on subsequent ee Ree ‘The following procedure provides a means for analyzing a truss using the method of ‘+ Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known force and at most two unknown forces (If this joint is at one of the supports, then it may be necessary first to calculate the extemal reactions at the support.) Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of an unknown force. Orient the x and y axes such that the forces on the free-body diagram can be easily resolved into their x and y components and then apply the two force equilibrium equations EF, = 0 and XF, = 0, Solve for the two unknown member forces and verify their correct sense. Using the calculated results, continue to analyze each of the other joints Remember that a member in compression “pushes” on the joint and a member in fension “pulls” on the joint. Also, be sure to choose a joint having at most two unknowns and at least one known force. 62 ‘Tne Mersoo oF Jonts 267 ‘The forces in the members of this simple roof truss can he determined ‘using the method of joints268 Charter 6 SreucTuRaL ANALYSIS Determine the force in each member of the truss shown in Fig. 6-8a and indicate whether the members are in tension or compression. SOLUTION ‘Since we should have no more than two unknown forces at the joint and at least one known force acting there, we will begin our analysis at joint B. Joint B. The free-body diagram of the joint at B isshown in Fig. 6-8b, Applying the equations of equilibrium, we have BEF,=0; SOON Fycsin dS? =0 Fagg = 707.1N (C) Ans +1EF,=0: Fac cos45*— Fp, =0 Fay = S00N(T) Ans Since the force in member BC has been calculated, we ean proceed to analyze joint C to determine the force in member CA and the support, reaction at the rocker, Joint C. From the free-body diagram of joint C, Fig. 6-8, we have 0; Fey + 107.1 cos 45°N = 0 Fea = SOON (T) Ans +13F,=0; Cy-7071sina5*N=0 C,=S0ON Ans Joint A. Although it is not necessary, we can determine the components of the support reactions at joint A using the results of Feaand F g4.From the free-body diagram, Fig, -Sd, we have SOON-A,=0 A, = 500N 0: SOON Ay=0 A, = 500 NOTE: The results of the analysis are summarized in Fig. 6-8e, Note that the free-body diagram of each joint (or pin) shows the effects of all the connected members and external forces applied to the joint, ‘whereas the free-body diagram of each member shows only the effects of the end joints on the member.E 6.2 Determine the force in each member of the truss in Fig. 6-9a and indicate if the members are in tension or compression. SOLUTION Since joint € has one known and only two unknown forces acting on it, itis possible to start at this joint, then analyze joint D, and finally joint A. This way the support reactions will not have to be determined prior to starting the analysis, Joint C. By inspection of the force equilibrium, Fig. 6-9, it ean be seen that both members BC and CD must be in compression. Fac sin 45° ~ 400N = 0 Fgc = 565.69 N = S66N(C) Ans. Fep ~ (565.69 N) cos 45° = 0 Feo = 400N(C) Ans Joint D. Using the result Fep = 400N (C). the foree in members BD and AD can be found by analyzing the equilibrium of joint D. We will assume Fyp and np are both tensile forces, Fig. 6-9e. The x’, y” coordinate system will be established so that the x” axis is directed along Fp. This way, we will eliminate the need to solve two equations simultaneously. Now Eyp ean be obtained directly by applying =e Fy = ~TR.IAN = TIBN(C) Ans. ates that E,p is a compressive force. Using this Fan + (~772.74.c08 15°) — 400 cos 30° = 0 Fyp = 1092.82N = 1.09 KN (T) Ans Joint A. ‘The force in member AB can be found by analyzing the equilibrium of joint A, Fig. 6-9d. We have BEF, = 0: (772.74 N) 0s 45° ~ Fy = 0 Fag = 546.41 N (C) = S46N (C) Ans. 6.2 Tne Memon oF Jows © Fen= 400 269272 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS +38, ORF, 6.3 Zero-Force Members ‘Truss analysis using the method of joints is greatly simplified if we can first identify those members which support no loading. These zero-force ‘members are used to inerease the stability ofthe truss during construction and to provide added support if the loading is changed. ‘The zero-force members of a truss can generally be found by inspection of each of the joints. For example, consider the truss shown Fig. 6-1la. If a free-body diagram of the pin at joint A is drawn, Fig. 6-116, itis seen that members AB and AF are zero-force members, (We could not have come to this conclusion if we had considered the free-body diagrams of joints F or B simply because there are five tunknowns at each of these joints) In a similar manner, consider the free- body diagram of joint D, Fig. 6-11c, Here again itis seen that DC and DE are zero-force members. From these observations, we can conelude that if only two members form a truss joint and no external load or support reaction is applied to the join the two members must be zero- {force members. The load on the truss in Fig. 6-I1a is therefore supported by only five members as shown in Fig. 611d. I Le % SER, =0; Fae=0 $EF, <0 Faro » > r tas * Y c trey 3 Fogtint «8, Foe =Osiccesind #0 OFoe +0=0: Fon 0 r © Fig.63° Zer0-Foace Mowers 273 Now consider the truss shown in Fig. 6-12a. The free-body diagram of the pin at joint D is shown in Fig. 6-12. By orienting the y axis along ‘members DC and DE and the x axis along member DA, itis seen that DA is a zero-force member. Note that this is also the case for member CA, Fig. 6-12c. In general then, if three menibers form a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear, the third member is a zero-force ‘member provided no extemal force or support reaction is applied 10 the joint. The truss shown in Fig. 6-12d is therefore suitable for supporting the load P. Foe Ye +23 =0 Fou =0 AMER = 0. Foe™ Foe » @ Fig. 6-12274 Charter 6 StRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Baie a Pow @ For ® Using the method of joints, determine all the zero-force members of the Fink roof truss shown in Fig. 6-134. Assume all joints are pin connected. a a i) Fig, 613 SOLUTION Look for joint geometries that have three members for which two are collinear. We have Joint G. (Fig.6-13b). +12R, =0; Foc=0 Ans, Realize that we could not conclude that GC is a zero-foree member by considering joint C, where there are five unknowns, The fact that GC is a zero-force member means that the 5-KN load at C must be supported by members CB, CH, CF,and CD. Joint D. (Fig 6-130). HER, =; Fop=0 Ans oint F. (Fig.6-18d). IDF, =0 Frceoso=0 Since #90", Fee 0 Ans. NOTE: If joint B is analyzed. Fig. 6-13e, +NEF, 2KN — Fey =0 Fey =2kN — (C) Also, Fye must satisty 2F, = 0, Fig. 6-13f, and therefore HC is nora zero-force member.280 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS t icrnat tensile foes Y “Tension } € ¢ intemal emresie ones ¢ ‘Compression € Fig. 4 6.4 The Method of Sections When we need to find the force in only a few members of a truss, we can analyze the truss using the method of sections. It is based on the principle that if the truss is in equilibrium then any segment of the truss is also in equilibrium. For example, consider the two truss members shown on the left in Fig.6-14. IF the forces within the members are to be determined, then an imaginary section, indicated by the blue line, can be used to cut each member into two parts and thereby “expose” each internal force as “external” to the free-body diagrams shown on the right. Clearly it ean be seen that equilibrium requires that the member in tension (T) be subjected toa“pall”’ whereas the member in compression (C) is subjected toa push.” ‘The method of sections can also be used to “cut” or section the members ‘of an entire truss Ifthe section passes through the truss and the free-body diagram of either ofits two partsis drawn, we can then apply the equations ‘of equilibrium to that part to determine the member forces at the “cut section.” Since only three independent equilibrium equations (SF, = 0, ZF, = 0, Mo = 0) can be applied to the free-body diagram of any segment, then we should try to select a section that, in general, passes through not more than three members in which the forces are unknown. For example, consider the truss in Fig, 6-1Sa. Ifthe forces in members BC, GC, and GF are to be determined, then section aa would be appropriate. ‘The free-body diagrams of the two segments are shown in Figs. 6-15b and, 6-15e, Note that the line of action of each member force is specified from the geometry ofthe truss since the force in a member is along its axis Also, the member forces acting on one part ofthe truss are equal but opposite to those acting on the other part—Newton’s third law. Members BC andl GC are assumed to be in tension since they are subjected to a“ pull,” whereas GFin compression since itis subjected to a push.” ‘The three unknown member forees Fy, Foc, and Fay can be obtained by applying the three equilibrium equations to the free-body diagram in Fig. 6-156. I however, the free-body diagram in Fig. 6-15c is considered, the three support reaetions Dy, Dy and E, will have to be known, because only three equations of equilibrium are available. (This, of course, is done in the usual manner by considering a free-body of the entire truss.)64 When applying the equilibrium equations, we should carefully consider ways of writing the equations s0 as to yield a direct solution for each of the unknowns, rather than having to solve_ simultaneous equations. For example, using the truss segment in Fig. 6-156 and summing moments about C would yield a diect solution for Far since Fyc and Foc create zero moment about C. Likewise. Fae can be directly obtained by summing moments about G. Finally, Foe can be found direcily from a force summation in the vertical direction since For and Fc have no vertical components. This ability to determine directly the force ina particular truss member is one of the main advantages of using the method of sections.* ‘As in the method of joints, there are two ways in which we can determine the correet sense of an unknown member force: ‘+ The correct sense of an unknown member force can in many cases be determined “by inspection.” For example, Fyc isa tensile force as represented in Fig. 6-1Sh since moment equilibrium about G requires that Fyc create a moment opposite to that of the 1000-N force. Also, Foc is tensile since its vertical component must balance the 1000-N force which acts downward. In more complicated cases, the sense of an unknown member force may be assumed. If the solution yields a negative scalar, it indicates that the force's sense is opposite to that shown on the free-body diagram, ¢Abways assume that the unknown member forces at the cut section are rensile forces, Le, “pulling” on the member. By doing this, the numerical solution of the equilibrium equations will yield positive sealars for memibers in tension and negative sealars for members in ‘compression. ‘Notice that if the method of joints were used ro dtcemine, say, the force in member G4 would be necessary to analyze joins A.B, ad G in sequence. Tue Metso OF SECTIONS. 281 “The forces in selected members of this Pratt truss cam readily be determined using J msthod of sections,282 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS Simple trusses ae often used in the construction of large cranes in order to reduce the weight of the boom and tower. Procedure for Analysis ‘The forces in the members of a truss may be determined by the method of sections using the following procedure. Free-Body Diagram. '* Make a decision on how to “cut” or section the truss through the ‘members whe Before isolating the appropriate section, it may first be necessary to determine the truss’s support reactions If this is done then the three equilibrium equations will be available to solve for member forces at the section. Draw the free-body diagram of that segment of the sectioned truss which has the least number of forces acting on it Use one of the two methods described above for establishing the sense of the unknown member forces. Ecatione of Eel '* Moments should be summed about a point that lies at the terseetion of the lines of action of two unknown forces, so that the third unknown force can be determined directly from the moment equation, Iftwo of the unknown forces are parallel, forces may be summed perpendicular to the direction of these unknowns to determine direcity the third unknown force.6.4 Tae MetHo0 oF Sections EXAMPLI Determine the force in members GE, GC, and BC of the truss shown in Fig. 6-160, Indicate whether the members are in tension or compression. SOLUTION Section aa in Fig, 6-16a has been chosen since it cuts through the three members whose forces are to be determined, In order to use the method of sections, however, itis first necessary to determine the external reactions at A or D, Why? A free-body diagram of the entire truss is shown in Fig. 6-166. Applying the equations of equilibrium, we have ASP, =0; 400N - A, =0 A, = 400N G+2M4=0; -1200N(8m)—400 N(3 m) + D,(12m) = 0 D, = 900N +TEF)=0; Ay— 1200N + 900N=0 300N \y Free-Body Diagram. For the analysis the free-body diagram of the left portion of the sectioned truss will be used, since it involves the least number of forces, Fig. 6-16e, Equations of Equilibrium. Summing moments about point G eliminates Fog and Foc and yields a direct solution for Fsc. C+EMg 0; -300N(4m) ~ 400N(3 m) + Fyc(3m) = 0 =800N (T) An In the same manner, by summing moments about point Cwe obtain a direct solution for Fie. C+3Me 0-300 N(8m) + Foe(3 m} Fox = 800N (C) Ans. Since Eye and Fox have no vertical components, summing forces in the y direction directly yields Fgc, i +T2F,=0; 300N - iF oc Foc = SOON (T) Ans. NOTE: Here itis possible to tell, by inspection, the proper direction for each unknown member force. For example, ¥Mc = 0 requires Foe to be compressive because it must balance the moment of the 300N force about C. 283284 Charter 6 AMPLE |6.6 SreucTuRaL ANALYSIS Determine the force in member CF of the truss shown in Fig. 6-17a, Indicate whether the member is in tension or compression. Assume ‘each member is pin connected. Fig. 617 SOLUTION Free-Body Diagram. Section aa in Fig. 6-17a will be used since this section will “expose” the internal force in member CF as “external” fon the free-body diagram of either the right or left portion of the {russ I s first necessary, however, to determine the support reactions ‘on either the left or right side. Verify the results shown on the free- bbody diagram in Fig. 6-17. ‘The free-body diagram of the right portion of the truss, which is the «easiest to analyze, is shown in Fig, 6-17¢, There are three unknowns, Frcs Fer and Fep. Equations of Equilibrium. We will apply the moment equation about point O in order to eliminate the two unknowns Fra and Fp. ‘The location of point O measured from E can be determined from proportional triangles, ie. 4/(4 + x) = 6/(8 +x), x= 4m. Or, stated in another manner, the slope of member GF has a drop of 2 m toa horizontal distance of 4 m. Since FD is 4 m, Fig, 6-17c, then from Do 0 the distance must be 8m. ‘An easy way to determine the moment of Fp about point O is to use the principle of transmissibility and slide Fer to point C, and then resolve Fey into its two rectangular components. We have C+EMo = 0; —Fep sin 45°(12. m) + (3KN)(8 m) ~ (4.75 KN)(4m) = 0 Fee =0589KN (C) Ans.290 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS A Fig. 6-19 a Typical rook supporting space truss Notice the use of ball and- socket joint forthe eonncetions Be ‘wansmision towers ae offen constructed sing space trues *6.5 Space Trusses A space truss consists of members joined together at their ends to form a stable three-cimensional structure. The simplest form of a space truss isa tetrahedron, formed by connecting six members together, as shown in Fig, 6-19, Any additional members added to this basic element would be redundant in supporting the force P. A simple space truss ean be built from this basic tetrahedral element by adding three additional members and a joint, and continuing in this manner to form a system of multiconnected tetrahedron. Assumptions for Design The members of a space truss may be treated as two-force members provided the external loading is applied at the joints and the joints consist of ball-and-socket connections. These assumptions are justified if the welded or bolted connections of the joined members intersect at a common point and the weight of the members can be neglected. In cases where the weight of member is to be included in the analysis, itis generally satisfactory to apply it as a vertical foree, half ofits magnitude applied at each end of the member. ee caer Either the method of joints or the method of sections can be used to determine the forces developed in the members ofa simple space truss. Method of Joints. Ifthe forces in allthe members of the truss are to be determined, then the method of joints is most suitable for the analysis Here it is necessary to apply the three equilibrium equations SF, ZF, = 0, SP; = Oto the forces acting at each joint. Remember that the solution of many simultaneous equations can be avoided if the force analysis begins ata joint having atleast one known force and at ‘most three unknown forces. Also, ifthe three-dimensional geometry of the force system at the joint is hard to visualize, itis recommended that a Cartesian vector analysis be used for the solution. Method of Sections If only a few member forces are to be determined, the method of sections can be used, When an imaginary section is passed through a truss and the truss is separated into two parts the force system acting fon one of the segments must satisfy the six equilibrium equations: EF, =0, 2F,=0, 3F,=0, 2M,=0, 2M,=0, 2M,=0 (Eqs 5-6). By proper choice ofthe section and axes for summing forees ‘and moments many of the unknown member forces in a space truss can be computed directly using a single equilibrium equation.E 6.8 Determine the forces acting in the members of the space truss shown in Fig. 6-200. Indicate whether the members are in tension or compression. SOLUTION Since there are one known force and three unknown forees acting at joint A, the foree analysis of the truss will begin at this joint. Joint A. (Fig. 6-206). Expressing each force acting on the free-body diagram of joint A as.a Cartesian vector, we have P= {-4} kN, Bus = Fash Bsc ck, Far = Faa( 2) = Fxg (0577 + 0577} — 0.5778) For equilibrium, 2F= oO, P+Ept Bact Fu =0 4] + Fyaj — Fack + OSTIEygi + 0.S77F ye] ~ OST7IF ek = 0 3A = 0; O577Far = 0 ER = 0: W4+ Fay + OSTIF ae = 0 BF= 6 “Fic ~ OS71Fae Fac = Far = 0 Ans, Fyp=4KkN (1) Ans. Since Fyis known, joint B can be analyzed next. Joint B. (Fig. 6-206). 2E,= 0 Rp cos 45° + 0.707F sx = 0 BF, = 0; 4+ Rysin 45° = 0 2h = 0 2 + Fap ~ 0.707Fae = 0 Ry = Fe = S66KN (1), Fap =2KN (C) Ans ‘The scalar equations of equilibrium may also be applied directly to the forces acting on the free-body diagrams of joints D and C since the force components are easily determined, Show that Foe = Foc = Fer =0 Ans. 65. Seace Trusses 291 ® Fig. 6-20294 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS 6.6 Frames and Machines Frames and machines are two types of structures which are often composed of pin-connected multiforce members, ie. members that are subjected to more than two forces. Fraumes are used to support loads, whereas machines contain moving parts and are designed to transmit and alter the effect of forces. Provided a frame or machine contains no more supports or members than are necessary to prevent its collapse, the forces acting at the joints and supports can be determined by applying the equations of equilibrium to each of its members. Once these forces are obtained, itis then possible to design the size of the members, connections, and Supports using the theory of mechanics of materials and an ‘appropriate engineering design code. Free-Body Diagrams. _ In orderto determine the forees acting at the joints and supports of a frame or machine, the structure must be disassembled and the free-body diagrams ofits parts must be drawn. The following important points must be observed + Isolate each part by drawing its outined shape Then show all the “Tis large crane isa ypical forees and/or couple moments that act on the part. Make sure to Sage EAN label or identify each known and unknown force and couple moment with reference to an established x, y coordinate system. Also, indicate any dimensions used for taking moments. Most often the equations of equilibrium are easier to apply if the forces are represented by their rectangular components. As usual, the sense of an unknown force or couple moment ean be assumed. + Identify all the two-force members in the structure and represent their free-body diagrams as having two equal but opposite collinear forces acting at their points of application. (Sce Sec. 54.) By recognizing the two-force members, we can avoid solving an unnecessary number of equilibrium equations. wees common {0 any two contacting members act with equal ‘magnitudes but opposite sense on the respective members If the two members are treated as a “system” of connected members, then these forces are “internal” and are not shown on the free-body diagram of the system: however, if the free-body diagram of each ‘member is drawn, the forces are “external” and must be shown on each of the free-body diagrams. Goma tol ach as these lice act 8 ‘The following examples graphically illustrate how to draw the fi c machines Here the applied force ody diagrams of a dismembered frame or machine, In all cases, the handles creates much larger force atthe jaws, . \weight of the members is neglected.6.6 Frames ano Macianes 295 2 6.9 For the frame shown in Fig. 6-2a, draw the free-body diagram of (a) cach member, (b) the pin at B, and (c) the two members connected together. « Ettect of member BC con the pit ” SOLUTION Part (a). By inspection, members BA and BC are not two-force A steast ‘members Instead, as shown onthe free-body diagrams Fig. 6-21, BC ae is subjected toa force irom the pins at B and C and the external force quiriam “onthe pin P. Likewise, AB is subjected toa force Irom the pins at A and B and the external couple moment M. The pin forces are represented by their x and y components © Part (b). The pin at B is subjected to only two forces, ie., the force of member BC and the force of member AB. For equilibrium these forces or their respective components must be equal but opposite, Fig. 6-21c. Realize that Newton's third law is applied between the pin and its connected members, ie., the effect of the pin on the two members, Fig. 6-216, and the equal but opposite effect of the two members on the pin, Fig. 6-21c. Part (c). The free-body diagram of both members connected together, yet removed from the supporting pins at A and C. is shown in Fig. 6-21dL. The foree components B, and B, are not shown on this diagram since they are internal forces (Fig, 6-215) and therefore cancel out. Also, to be consistent when later applying the equilibrium ‘equations, the unknown foree components at A and € must actin the same sense as those shown in Fig. 6-21.296 Charter 6 StRUCTURAL ANALYSIS EXAMPLE [6.10 o © ‘A constant tension in the conveyor belt is maintained by using the device shown in Fig, 6-22a, Draw the free-body diagrams of the frame and the eylinder that the belt surrounds. The suspended block has a weight of W. SOLUTION ‘The idealized model of the device is shown in Fig. 6-226. Here the angle @ is assumed to be known. From this model, the free-body ‘diagrams of the eylinder and frame are shown in Fips.6-22c and 6-224, respectively. Note thatthe force that the pin at B exerts on the cylinder ‘ean be represented by either its horizontal and vertical components B, and By, which can be determined by using the force equations of ‘equilibrium applied to the cylinder, or by the two components T, which provide equal hut opposite moments on the eylinder and thus keep it from turning, Also, realize that once the pin reactions at A have been ‘determined, half of their values act on each side of the frame since pin ‘connections occur on each side, Fig. 62a.6.6 Frames ano Macianes 297 E: an For the frame shown in Fig. 6-234, draw the free-body diagrams of (8) the entre frame including the pulleys and cords (b) the frame without the pulleys and cords, and (c) each of the pulleys. 750 © SOLUTION Part (a). When the entire frame including the pulleys and cords is ‘considered, the interactions at the points where the pulleys and cords are connected to the frame become pairs of internal forces which cancel each other and therefore are not shown on the free-body diagram, Fig. 6-236, Part (b). When the cords and pulleys are removed, their effect om the frame must be shown, Fig. 6-23. Part (c)._ The force components B,, By, Cx, Cy of the pins on the pulleys, Fig. 6-23d, are equal but opposite to the force components exerted by the pins on the frame, Fig, 6-23c, Why? e . ) © Fig. 6-23298 Cuartee 6 Structurat ANALYSIS EXAMPLE [6.12 Draw the free-body diagrams of the bucket and the vertical boom of the backhoe shown in the photo, Fig. 6-24a. The bucket and its contents have a weight W. Neglect the weight of the members. SOLUTION ‘The idealized model of the assembly is shown in Fig, 6-246. By inspection, members AB, BC, BE, and HI are all two-force members since they are pin connected at their end points and no other forces act on them. The free-body diagrams of the bucket and the boom are shown in Fig. 6-24e. Note that pin C is subjected to only two forces, whereas the pin at B is subjected to three forces, Fig. 6-24¢. These three forces are related by the two equations of force equilibrium applied to each pin. The free-body diagram of the entire assembly is shown in Fig. 6-24e, i) Fre Fre) aa © ©Ieee Ur oe ‘The joint reactions on frames or machines (structures) composed of ‘muliiforee members can be determined using the following procedure. Free-Body Diagram. ‘* Draw the free-body diagram of the entire frame or machine, a portion of it, or each ofits members. The choice should be mace so that it leads to the most direct solution of the problem. ‘© When the free-body diagram of a group of members of a frame ‘or machine is drawn, the forces between the connected parts of this group are internal forces and are not shown on the free-body diagram of the group. '* Forces common to two members which are in contact act with equal magnitude but opposite sense on the respective free-body diagrams of the members, "© ‘Two-force members, regardless of their shape, have equal but ‘opposite collinear forces acting at the ends of the member. ‘© Inmany cases itis possible to tell by inspection the proper sense of the unknown forces acting on a member; however, if this seems difficult, the sense can be assumed. ‘+ Remember that a couple moment isa free vector and ean act at any point on the free-body diagram. Also, a force is a sliding vyeetor and can aet at any point along its line of action Equations of Equilibrium. * Count the number of unknowns and compare it to the total number of equilibrium equations that are available. In two dimensions, there are three equilibrium equations that can be ‘written for each member, + Sum moments about a point that lies atthe intersection of the tines of action of as many of the unknown forees as possible. ‘+ IF the solution of a force or couple moment magnitude is found to ‘be negative, it means the sense of the force is the reverse of that shown on the free-body diagram, 6.6 Frames ano Macines 301302 Charter 6 StRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AMPLE [6.44 2000 Determine the horizontal and vertical components of force which the pin at C exerts on member BC of the frame in Fig. 6-260. SOLUTION 1 Free-Body Diagrams. By inspection it can be seen that AB isa two-foree member. The free-body diagrams are shown in Fig. 6-26b. Equations of Equilibrium. ‘The three unknowns can be determined ‘by applying the three equations of equilibrium to member CB. G+EMe = 0; 2000 N(2 m)— (Fp sin 60°)(4 m)=0 Fag = 1154.7 N AEF, 154.7 cos 60°N-C,=0 Cy =S77N Ans. 4128, = 0; 1154.7 sin 60° N—2000N+C, = 0G, = 1000 N Ans. SOLUTION II Free-Body Diagrams. If one does not recognize that AB is a two- force member, then more work is involved in solving this problem, ‘The free-borly diagrams are shown in Fig. 6-26. Equations of Equilibrium. ‘The six unknowns are determined by applying the three equations of equilibrium to each member. Member AB G+EM4=0; B,(3 sin 60° m) ~ B,(3 cos 60° m) = 0 ro) B3F,=0; A,- By = Q) +13F,=0; Ay By 6) Member BC G+BMe = 0; 2000 N(2m) ~ B,(4m) = 0 @ SSF, B,-C,=0 ©) +128, =0; B,~200N+C,=0 6) ‘The results for C, and C, can be determined by solving these equations inthe following sequence:4, 1,5, then 6, The results are B, = 1000N B, = STN C.=577N Ans. , = 1000N Ans, ‘By comparison, Solution 1 is simpler since the requirement that Fi Fig. 6-26 be equal, opposite, and collinear at the ends of member AB automatically satisfies Eqs. 1,2, and 3 above and therefore eliminates the need to write these equations. Asa result save yourself some time ‘and effort by always identifying the two-force members before startnng the analysis!(Chspree Revew 323 a (lst at AL ‘Simple Truss A simple truss consists of triangular ‘elements connected together by pinned joints. The forces within its members scan be determined by assuming the ‘members are all two-force members, connected concurrently at each joint. ‘The members are either in tension oF ‘compression, or carry no force: ‘Method of Joints ‘The method of joins states that ifa truss is in equilibrium then each of is joins is also in equilibrium. For a plane truss, ‘the concurrent force system at cach joint must satisfy force equilibrium. ‘To obtain a numerical solution for the forces in the members select a joint that hhas a free-body diagram with at most ‘two unknown forees and one known force. (This may require first finding the ‘reactions atthe supports) ‘Once « member foree is determined, use its value and apply itto an adjacent joint. Remember that forces that are found to. ‘pull on the joint are tensile forces. and those that push on the joint are ‘compressive forces ‘To avoid a simultaneous solution of two ‘equations set one of the coordinate axes along the line of action of one of the ‘unknown forces and sum forces perpendicular to this axis This will allow a direct solution for the other unknown, ‘The analysis ean also be simplified by first identifying all the zero-force ‘members. S00N = (tension) ac (compression)324 Charter 6 StRUCTURAL ANALYSIS “Method of Sections ‘The method of sections states that if a truss is in equilibrium, then each segment of the tus is ako in ‘equilibrium. Pass section through the truss and the member whose Force is 10 be determined. Then draw the free-body ‘diagram ofthe sectioned part having the least number of forces oni ‘Sectioned members subjected to pulling are in rension, and those that are subjected to pushing are in compression. ‘Three equations of equilibrium are available to determine the unknowns. 1 possible, sum forces in a direction that is perpendicular to two of the three unknown forces. This will yield a direct solution forthe third force. ‘Sum moments about the point where the lines of action of two of the three unknown forees intersect, so that the third unknown force can be determined directly, nen f—2m— ttm tm twos re 2m il BR=0 2Fy=0 2Mp = 0 +12R=0 1000+ Feesin = 0 Foc = 1ALKN (1) C+EMe = 0 1000 N(4 m) ~ Fee 2m) For =2KN(C)(Chspree Revew 325 ‘Space Truss. Acspace trussisathree-dimensional truss built fom tetrahedral elements, and is analyzed using the same methods as for plane trusses The joints are assumed 10 ‘be ball and socket connections. Frames and Machines ‘Frames and machines are structures that ‘contain one or more multforce members, that ig members with three or more forees or couples acting on them, Frames are designed to support loads, and machines transmit and alter the effect of forces. ‘The forees acting at the joints ofa frame for machine can be determined. by drawing th free-body diagrams of cach of its members or parts The principle of action-reaction should be carefully fobserved when indicating these forces fon the free-hody diagram of each adjacent member or pin, Fora coplanar force system, there are three equilibrium {equations avaiable for each member, ‘To simply the analysis be sure 10 recognize all two-force members. They hhave equal but opposite collinear forces at their ends