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Cesarean Birth
Cesarean birth is an alternative to vaginal birth only when the safety of the mother and/or
fetus is compromised.

CLIENT ASSESSMENT DATA BASE

Activity/Rest
Fatigue may be present.

Circulation
Hypertension (escalating PIH)
Hypotension, ashen color, cool/clammy skin (uterine rupture)

Ego Integrity
May view anticipated procedure as a sign of failure and/or as a negative reflection on abilities
as a female
May actually fear intervention/view surgery as life-threatening
Irritable/emotional tension, (emotional response to prolonged labor; physiological response to
PIH)

Food/Fluid
Excessive weight gain, nausea/vomiting, generalized edema (PIH)

Pain/Discomfort
Prolonged/dysfunctional contractile pattern (dystocia).
Uterine tenderness may be present; severe abdominal pain (uterine rupture).
Right upper quadrant (RUQ)/epigastric pain (PIH).
Headache (PIH).

Neurosensory
Visual disturbance/scotomata (spots in visual field) (PIH)
Seizure activity (eclampsia)
Hyperreflexia, clonus (PIH)

Safety
Elevated temperature (infectious process/dehydration).
Active STD (e.g., herpes).
Severe Rh incompatibility.
Prolapsed cord.
Fetal distress.
Impending delivery of premature fetus.
Fetal macrosomia (estimated >4000 g).
Unsuccessful external cephalic version to rotate breech presentation, or transverse lie.
Membranes may have been ruptured for 24 hr or longer.

Sexuality
CPD; tumor/neoplasm obstructing the pelvis/birth canal
Multiple pregnancies or gestations (overdistended uterus)
Substantial vaginal bleeding (placenta previa/abruptio placentae)
 Previous cesarean delivery with classical incision; previous uterine or cervical surgery

Teaching/Learning
Presence of maternal complication/risk factors, such as severe PIH, diabetes, renal or cardiac
disease, or ascending infection; prenatal abdominal trauma; maternal age >35 yr.
Procedure may or may not be planned, affecting client’s preparation and understanding of
procedure.
Failed induction.
Maternal age.

DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
Complete Blood Count (CBC), Blood Typing (ABO) and Cross-match, Coombs’ test:
Preoperative screening tests.
Urinalysis: Determines albumin/glucose levels.
Cultures: Identify presence of herpes simplex virus type II.
X-ray Pelvimetry: Determines CPD, flexion of head in breech position.
Amniocentesis: Assesses fetal lung maturity.
Ultrasonography: Locates placenta; determines fetal growth, lie, and presentation, as well as
fetal anomalies/malformations favoring cesarean delivery.
Nonstress Test (NST) or Contraction Stress Test (CST): Assesses fetal response to
movement/stress of uterine contractions.
Continuous Electronic Monitoring: Validates fetal status/uterine activity.

NURSING PRIORITIES
1. Promote maternal/fetal well-being.
2. Provide client/couple with necessary information.
3. Support client’s/couple’s desires to participate actively in birth experience.
4. Prepare client for surgical procedure.
5. Prevent complications.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Knowledge deficit [Learning Need], regarding

surgical procedure, expectations, postoperative
regimen
May Be Related To: Lack of exposure/unfamiliarity with information,
misinterpretation
Possibly Evidenced By: Request for information, statement of misconcep-tion,
exaggerated behaviors
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Verbalize understanding of indications for
CRITERIA—CLIENT WILL: cesarean birth.
Recognize this as an alternative childbirth method to
obtain healthiest outcome possible.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Assess learning needs. This birth method is discussed in prepared childbirth
classes, but many clients fail to retain the information
because it has no personal significance at the time.
Clients having a repeat cesarean delivery may not
clearly remember or understand the details of their
previous delivery. Note: Some facilities provide
cesarean preparation classes for those undergoing
planned procedure.
Note stress level and whether procedure was Identifies client’s/couple’s readiness to
planned or unplanned. incorporate information.
Provide accurate information in simple terms, clarify Stress of the situation can interfere with client’s
misconceptions. Encourage couple to ask questions ability to take in/comprehend information needed
and verbalize their understanding. to make informed decisions. Provides an opportunity
to evaluate client’s/couple’s understanding of
situation. Note: Native Americans may fear
procedure based on history of unwanted sterilization
associated with consent for surgery.

Review indications necessitating alternative birth Currently approximately one in five or six
method. deliveries is a cesarean birth; and although one of
CDC’s goals for Healthy America 2000 is to reduce
the rate to 15% or less, the procedure should be
viewed as an alternative, not an abnormal situation,
to enhance maternal/fetal safety and well-being.

Describe preoperative procedures in advance, and Information allows client to anticipate events and
provide rationale as appropriate. understand reasons for interventions/actions.

Provide postoperative teaching; including demon- Provides techniques to prevent complications

stration of leg exercises, coughing/deep breathing; related to venous stasis and hypostatic
splinting technique; and abdominal tightening pneumonia, and to decrease stress on operative
exercises. site. Abdominal tightening decreases discomfort
associated with gas formation and abdominal
distension.

Discuss anticipated sensations during delivery and Knowing what to expect and what is “normal”
recovery period. helps prevent unnecessary concern.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Anxiety [specify level]

May Be Related To: Situational crisis, threat to self-concept,
perceived/actual threat of maternal and fetal well-
being, interpersonal transmission
Possibly Evidenced By: Increased tension, distress, apprehension, feelings of
inadequacy, sympathetic stimulation, restlessness
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Verbalize fears for the safety of client and infant.
CRITERIA—CLIENT/COUPLE WILL:
Discuss feelings about cesarean birth.
Appear appropriately relaxed.
 Use resources/support system effectively.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Assess psychological response to event and avail- The greater the client perceives the threat, the
ability of support system(s). greater the level of her anxiety.
Note cultural influences/expectations. Some cultures (e.g., Latin, Mexican/Arab-American)
may view surgical intervention as detrimental to the
client’s well-being or may believe client will be
stigmatized as a “weak woman” (e.g., Puerto Rican).
Ascertain whether procedure is planned or With unplanned cesarean birth, the client/couple
unplanned. usually has no time for physiological or
psychological preparation. Even when planned,
cesarean birth can create apprehension in the
client/couple owing to an actual or perceived
physical threat to the mother and infant related to the
condition necessitating the procedure and to the
surgery itself.

Stay with client, and remain calm. Speak slowly. Helps to limit interpersonal transmission of
Convey empathy. anxiety, and demonstrates caring for the
client/couple.

Reinforce positive aspects of maternal and fetal Focuses on likelihood of successful outcome and
condition. helps to bring perceived/actual threat into
perspective.

Encourage client/couple to verbalize and/or Helps to identify negative feelings/concerns and

express feelings (cry). provides opportunity to cope with ambivalent or
unresolved feelings/grief. The client may also feel an
emotional threat to her self-esteem, owing to her
feelings that she has failed, that she is weak as a
woman, and that her expectations have not been met.
Partner may question own abilities in assisting client
and providing needed support.

Support/redirect expressed coping mechanisms. Enhances basic and automatic coping mechanisms,
increases self-confidence and acceptance, and reduces
anxiety. Note: Some client actions may be viewed as
ineffective (e.g., screaming and throwing things) and
need to be redirected to enhance client’s sense of
control.

Discuss past childbirth experience/expectations, Client may have distorted memories of past
as appropriate. delivery or unrealistic perceptions of abnormality of
cesarean birth that will increase anxiety.

Provide period of privacy, if possible. Reduce Allows client/couple opportunity to internalize

environmental stimuli, such as the number of people information, marshal resources, and cope effectively.
present, as indicated by client’s desires.
 NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Self Esteem, risk for situational low

Risk Factors May Include: Perceived “failure” at a life event

Possibly Evidenced By: [Not applicable; presence of signs/symptoms

establishes an actual diagnosis]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Identify and discuss negative feelings.
CRITERIA—CLIENT WILL:
Verbalize confidence in herself and in her abilities.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Determine client’s usual feelings about self and Diagnosis of a change in self-concept is based on
pregnancy. Note cultural influences. knowledge of past perceptions and experiences.
Cesarean birth, whether planned or unplanned, has
the potential to alter the way the client feels about
herself. The client sees that the birth plan has been
altered and that surgical intervention is needed to
deliver the infant, whereas most women are able to
deliver without any such intervention.
Encourage verbalization of feelings. Identifies areas to be addressed. Clients’ reactions
vary and may be difficult to diagnose in the
preoperative period. Feelings of negative self-image
related to disappointment in the birth experience
may interfere with postpartal activities related to
successful breastfeeding and infant care.

Encourage questions and provide information/ Enhances understanding and clarifies

reinforce previous learning. misconceptions.

Refer to cesarean birth as an alternative method Terms such as “C-section” and “normal delivery”
of childbirth. may reinforce client’s perception that the cesarean
birth is different and unnatural, and client may view
self as inadequate/flawed or weak.

Provide verbal communication of assessment and When a problem of self-esteem arises for the client,
interventions. Written information can be provided it may become more severe in the postpartal
at a later time. period. During the preoperative period, client is
focusing on the here and now and may not be ready
to read or deal with additional information.

Identify other couples/resources to be referred At this crucial time, the nature of the situation
to after delivery. usually does not allow opportunity to talk with
others who have shared the same experience.
However, these activities may be beneficial in the
future to help with resolution of feelings/
perceptions.
Collaborative
Encourage partner’s presence at the delivery Provides support for the client, promotes parental
as desired. bonding, and provides additional input to the client’s
recall of the birth experience, because memory lapses
are more common during periods of crisis. Note:
Cultural expectations may prevent participation of
father in birth process, necessitating attendance by a
female family member.

Encourage the client/couple to participate in Provides reinforcement of the birth experience and
delivery-room bonding activities (e.g., breastfeeding deemphasizes the surgical nature of the delivery.
and holding the infant) as able.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Powerlessness

May Be Related To: Interpersonal interaction, perception of illness-related

regimen, lifestyle of helplessness

Possibly Evidenced By: Verbalization of lack of control, lack of participation in

care or decision making, passivity

DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Verbalize fears and feelings of vulnerability.

CRITERIA—CLIENT/COUPLE WILL:
Express individual needs/desires.

Participate in decision-making process whenever

possible.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Assess factors contributing to sense of powerlessness. Unplanned (and sometimes planned) cesarean birth
may be characterized by the client’s/couple’s sense
of loss of control over the birth experience. The client
becomes subjected to the procedures and equipment
used in illness. For those clients experiencing their
first hospitalization, which involves fear of the
unknown, powerlessness becomes a major stress
factor.

Present options in care when possible (e.g., choice Allows the client/couple to have some sense of
of anesthesia, IV placement, and use of mirror). input/control over the situation.

Identify client’s/couple’s expectations and desires Provides opportunity to accommodate needs and
regarding the delivery experience. promote positive experience.
Provide personal space and time alone for the couple Creates sense of control and lets couple have time
prior to surgery, if possible. Remain with client to talk about their situation. Leaving client alone
if partner is absent. may result in feelings of abandonment and increased
level of anxiety.

Provide information, and discuss client’s/couple’s Reduces stress caused by misconceptions/

perceptions. unfounded fears as well as fear of the unknown.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Pain [acute], risk for

Risk Factors May Include: Increased/prolonged muscle contractions,
psychological reactions
Possibly Evidenced By: [Not applicable; presence of signs/symptoms
establishes an actual diagnosis]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Verbalize reduced discomfort/pain.
CRITERIA—CLIENT WILL:

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Assess location, nature, and duration of pain, Indicates the appropriate choice of treatment. The
especially as it relates to the indication for cesarean client awaiting imminent cesarean birth may
birth. experience varying degrees of discomfort, depending
on the indication for the procedure, e.g., failed
induction, dystocia.

Eliminate anxiety-producing factors (e.g., loss of Levels of pain tolerance are individual and are
control), provide accurate information, and affected by various factors. Excessive anxiety in
encourage presence of partner. response to the emergency situation may enhance
discomfort because fear, tension, and pain are
interrelated and impact client’s ability to cope.

Instruct in relaxation techniques; position for May assist in reduction of anxiety and tension,
comfort as possible. Use Therapeutic Touch, as promote comfort and enhance sense of well-being.
appropriate.

Collaborative
Administer sedative, narcotics, or preoperative Promotes comfort by blocking pain impulses.
medication as indicated. Potentiates the action of anesthetic agents.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Infection, risk for

Risk Factors May Include: Invasive procedures, rupture of amniotic membranes,
break in the skin, decreased Hb, exposure to
pathogens
 Possibly Evidenced By: [Not applicable; presence of signs/symptoms
establishes an actual diagnosis]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Be free of infection.
CRITERIA—CLIENT WILL:
Achieve timely wound healing without complications.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Review history for preexisting conditions/risk Underlying maternal conditions, such as diabetes
factors. Note time of rupture of membranes. or hemorrhage, potentiate the risk of infection or
poor wound healing. Risk of chorioamnionitis
increases with the passage of time, placing mother
and fetus at risk. Presence of infectious process may
increase fetal risk of contamination.
Assess for signs/symptoms of infection (e.g., Rupture of membranes occurring 24 hr prior to
elevated temperature, pulse, WBC; abnormal odor/ surgery may result in chorioamnionitis prior to
color of vaginal discharge, or fetal tachycardia). surgical intervention and may impair wound healing.
Provide perineal care per protocol, especially once Reduces risk of ascending infection.
membranes have ruptured.

Collaborative
Carry out preoperative skin preparation; scrub Reduces risk of skin contaminants entering the
according to protocol. incision, reducing risk of postoperative infection.
Obtain blood, vaginal, and placental cultures, as Identifies infecting organism and degree of
indicated. involvement.
Note Hb and Hct, and estimated blood loss during Risk of postdelivery infection and poor healing is
surgical procedure. increased if Hb levels are low and blood loss is
excessive. Note: Greater blood loss is associated with
classic incision than with lower uterine segment
incision.
Administer parenteral broad-spectrum antibiotic Prophylactic antibiotic may be ordered to prevent
preoperatively. development of an infectious process, or as
treatment for an identified infection, especially if
the client has had prolonged rupture of membranes.
Note: Research suggests administration of antibiotic
up to 2 hr before start of procedure provides the most
protection from infection.
(Refer to CP: Labor: Stage I—Latent Phase; ND: Infection, risk for maternal.)

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Gas Exchange, risk for impaired fetal

Risk Factors May Include: Altered blood flow to placenta and/or through umbilical
cord
 Possibly Evidenced By: [Not applicable; presence of signs/symptoms
establishes an actual diagnosis]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Display optimal FHR.
CRITERIA—FETUS WILL:
Manifest normal variability on monitor strip.
Reduce frequency of late or prolonged variable
decelerations.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Note presence of maternal factors that negatively Reduced circulating volume or vasospasms within
affect placental circulation and fetal oxygenation. the placenta reduce oxygen available for fetal uptake.

Continue monitoring FHR, noting beat-to-beat Owing to hypoxia, fetal distress may occur; may
changes or decelerations during and following be manifested by reduced variability, late
contractions. decelerations, and tachycardia followed by
bradycardia. Note: Infection from prolonged rupture
of membranes also increases FHR.

Note presence of variable decelerations; change Compression of cord between birth canal and
client’s position from side to side. presenting part may be relieved by position changes.

Note color and amount of amniotic fluid when Fetal distress in vertex presentation is manifested
membranes rupture. by meconium staining, which is the result of a vagal
response to hypoxia.

Auscultate FHR when membranes rupture. In the absence of full cervical dilation, occult or
visible prolapse of the umbilical cord may necessitate
cesarean birth.

Monitor fetal heart response to preoperative Narcotics usually reduce FHR variability and may
medications or regional anesthesia. require administration of naloxone (Narcan)
following delivery to reverse narcotic-induced
respiratory depression. Maternal hypotension in
response to anesthesia commonly causes transient
fetal bradycardia, reduced variability, and sleep.

Collaborative
Apply internal lead, and monitor fetus electronically Provides more accurate measurement of fetal
as indicated. response and condition.

Provide supplemental oxygen to mother via mask. Maximizes oxygen available for placental uptake.

Administer IV fluid bolus prior to initiation Optimizes uteroplacental perfusion, helps prevent
of epidural/spinal anesthesia. hypotensive response.

Assist physician with elevation of vertex, if required. Position changes may relieve pressure on cord.
Arrange for presence of pediatrician and neonatal Owing to underlying maternal condition(s) and/or
intensive care nurse in delivery room for both alternative birth process, infant may be preterm or
scheduled and emergency cesarean births. may experience altered responses, necessitating
immediate care/resuscitation.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Injury, risk for maternal

Risk Factors May Include: Traumatized tissue, delayed gastric motility, altered
mobility, effects of medication/decreased sensation
Possibly Evidenced By: [Not applicable; presence of signs/symptoms
establishes an actual diagnosis]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Be free of injury.
CRITERIA—CLIENT WILL:

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Remove prosthetic devices (e.g., contact lenses, Reduces risk of accidental injury.
dentures/bridges) and jewelry.
Determine time and content of last meal. Report If client has eaten just before surgical procedure,
information to anesthesiologist. Ensure availability risks of vomiting and aspiration increase,
and functioning of resuscitation equipment. and general anesthesia may be contraindicated.
Restrict oral intake once decision for cesarean Reduces possibility of aspiration from vomiting.
birth is made.
Review labor record, noting voiding frequency, May indicate urine retention or reflect fluid
output, appearance, and time of last voiding. imbalance or dehydration in client who has been in
prolonged labor.
Monitor urine output and color following insertion Reflects hydration level, circulatory status, and
of indwelling catheter. Note any blood-tinged urine. possible bladder trauma associated with surgical
procedure.
Assist with positioning for anesthesia; support legs Essential for placement of anesthesia. Client
in postoperative transfer to stretcher. Note client’s with epidural or spinal anesthesia may incur
response during and after anesthesia. (Refer to CP: weakness/decreased sensation of lower
Care Following Cesarean Birth [4 Hours to 4 Days].) extremities. Idiosyncratic responses to anesthesia
can occur, such as anaphylaxis or respiratory
paralysis if anesthetic block rises too high.
Keep accurate instrument and sponge counts at Ensures that all equipment and sponges are
critical times during closure, according to hospital accounted for and not accidentally left in client’s
protocol. body.

Collaborative
Obtain urine specimen for routine analysis, protein, Client is at increased risk if infectious process or
and specific gravity. Ensure that laboratory results hypertensive state is present.
are available before surgery is started.
Insert indwelling catheter to continuous gravity Reduces risk of bladder injury during surgical
drainage system either just before surgical procedure procedure.
or in the operating room, as indicated.
Administer preprocedural medication (e.g., atropine). Reduces oral secretions, limiting risk of aspiration.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Cardiac Output, risk for decreased

Risk Factors May Include: Decreased venous return, alteration in systemic
vascular resistance
Possibly Evidenced By: [Not applicable; presence of signs/symptoms
establishes an actual diagnosis]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Remain normotensive, with blood loss less than
CRITERIA—CLIENT WILL: 800 ml.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Note length of labor, if applicable. Assess for Decreased intake and/or increased fluid losses
dehydration or excess intrapartal fluid losses. lead to reduced circulating volume and cardiac
output.
Remove nail polish on fingernails/toenails. Allows clear visualization of nailbeds for assessing
circulatory status.
Monitor respirations, BP, and pulse before, during, Hypotension is an anticipated side effect of
and after administration of anesthesia. regional anesthesia (e.g., epidural or spinal
anesthesia) because such anesthesia relaxes smooth
muscles within vascular walls, affecting circulating
volume and reducing placental perfusion.
Place towel or wedge under client’s hip. Shifts uterus off inferior vena cava and increases
venous return. Compression caused by obstruction of
the inferior vena cava and aorta by the gravid uterus
in a supine position may cause as much as a 50%
decrease in cardiac output.
Note change in behavior or mental status, cyanosis Oxygen deficits are manifested first by changes in
of mucous membranes. mental status, later by cyanosis.

Collaborative
Administer supplemental oxygen via mask, as Increases oxygen available for maternal and fetal
indicated. uptake. Note: Nasal cannula is not recommended
because of excessive oxygen loss to environment.
Initiate IV infusion of electrolyte solution. Expands circulatory volume, especially prior to
Administer bolus, as indicated. administration of epidural/spinal anesthesia;
provides route for emergency medication in the event
of a complication.
Note alteration in vital signs; assist anesthetist as Excess fluid losses and hemorrhage during labor
needed. Estimate and record blood losses. and the intraoperative period may reduce cardiac
output and promote vasoconstriction with shunting
of blood to major organs. Diminished cardiac output
and shock are manifested by decreased BP, increased
or thready pulse, and cool/clammy skin.
Administer whole blood, plasma expanders, Replaces fluid losses, increases circulating blood
cryoprecipitate, platelets, or packed cells as indicated. volume, and increases oxygen-carrying capacity.
(Refer to CP: Postpartal Hemorrhage; ND: Fluid
Volume deficit [isotonic].)
Prepare and administer oxytocin (Pitocin) infusion. Once delivery of infant and placenta is completed,
Pitocin aids myometrium contraction and reduces
blood loss from exposed endometrial blood vessels.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Sensory/Perceptual alterations, [overload]

May Be Related To: Multiple environmental stimuli, increased number of
personnel, excessive noise level, psychological stress
Possibly Evidenced By: Exaggerated emotional response, irritability, muscle
tension
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION Verbalize understanding of need for increased
CRITERIA—CLIENT WILL: level of activity.
Appear appropriately relaxed.
Maintain focus, tuning out extraneous distractions.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE

Independent
Assess environment for factors causing sensory Identifies factors, which may or may not be
overload. controllable. Cesarean birth necessitates many
medical and nursing activities necessary to ensure
the health of mother and infant. Client tends to focus
on the procedures being performed and the
conversations going on in the room. The birth
experience may be compromised by invasive
technology, tending to shift the focus from the birth
of the infant to the surgical procedure.
Provide information about the surgical routine, Knowledge about procedures, instruments, and
including sounds, lights, dress, and instruments. alarms can help decrease anxiety, puts perceived
“chaos” in perspective.
Decrease noise levels, limit conversations, and use Client may be keenly aware of sounds.
equipment/alarms judiciously. Conversation, noise from equipment, and alarms
may confuse client/cause unnecessary anxiety.
Maintain eye contact, especially when wearing mask. Acknowledges presence of client/couple, conveys
feeling of caring.
Include client/couple in operating room conver- Ignoring the client can increase fear, which
sation or silence, using concerned communication. detracts from a positive birth experience.
Eliminate unnecessary personnel from the Avoids intrusions into personal space, which
environment. could increase anxiety. Individuals who are not
involved in care of the client may detract from the
intimacy of the birth experience.