Chapter 1

Introduction and basic concepts

Newtons second law
F = Ma (N)
Weight
W = mg (N) 1J = 1Nm
Density
= m V kg m3
Specic volume
v=
Vm
=
1
Specic weight
s =g N m3
Kelvin to Celcius
T(K) = T(C)+273.15T(K) =T(C)
Rankine to Fahrenheit
T(R) = T(F)+459.67T(R) =T(F)
(R) = 1.8T(K) T(F) = 1.8T(C)+32 1Pa = 1 N m2 1bar = 105Pa = 0.1MPa = 100kPa
Absolute, gage and vacuum pressure
Pgage = PabsPatm Pvac = PatmPabs
1
The pressure at depth h from the free surface is
P = Patm+gh or Pgage =gh
Relation for the variation of pressure with elevation
dP dz =g P = P2P1 =
2R1
gdz
The atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer and is given by

Patm =gh
Chapter 2
Energy, Energy Transfer and General Energy Analysis
The total energy of a system on a unit mass basis
e=
E m kJ kg
Kinetic Energy
KE = m
V2 2
(kJ)
Kinetic Energy on a unit mass basis
ke =
V2 2 kJ kg
Potentional Energy
PE = mgz (kJ) Potentional Energy on a unit mass basis pe = gz kJ kg Total Energy of
a system E =U +KE+PE =U +m V2 2
+mgz
Total Energy of a system on a unit mass basis
e = u+ke+pe = u+
V2 2
+gz
Mass ow rate
m = V =AcVavg kg s
Energy ow rate
E = me kJ s
or kW
3
Mechanical Energy of a owing uid on a unit mass basis
emech =
P+

V2 2
+gz
Mechanical Energy of a owing uid expressed in rate form
Emech = memech = mP +
V2 2
+gz Mechanical Energy change of a uid during incompressible ow
emech = P2P1 +
V2 2V2 1 2 +g(z2z1) kJ kgAnd Emech = memech = mP2P1 + V2 2V2
1 2 +g(z2z1) (kW) Heat transfer per unit mass of a system
q=
Q m kJ kg
Amount of heat transfer during a process
Q=
t2 R t1
Qdt (kJ)
When Q remains constant
Q = Qt (kJ)
Work done per unit mass of a system
w=
W m kJ kg The total volume change during a process between states 1 and 2 2Z 1
dV =V2V1 =V The total work done during process 1-2 2Z 1 W =W12 (NotW)
Electrical work (where N is the amount of coulombs andV V V is a potentional
difference)
We =V V VN
Electrical work expressed in rate form (Electrical Power) We =V V VI (W) Electrical
work done during time intervalt
We =
2Z 1
V V VIdt (kJ)
Work done by a constant force
W = Fs (kJ)
Work done by a not constant force

W=
2Z 1
Fds (kJ)
Torque
T = FrF =
T r This force acts through a distance s, which is related to the radius r by
s = (2r)n
Shaft Work
Wsh = Fs =T r(2rn) = 2nT (kJ) Power transmitted through the shaft Wsh =
2nT (kW)
Spring Work
Wspring = Fdx
Total spring work
Wspring =
12
k(x2 2x2 1) (kJ) Work associated with the expansion or contraction of a solid bar
Welastic =
2Z 1
Fdx =
2Z 1
nAdx (kJ)
Work associated with the stretching of a lm (also called surface tension work)
Wsurface =
2Z 1
sAdx (kJ)
Energy balance
EinEout =Esystem The change in the total energy of a system during a process
(in the absence of electric, magnetic and surface tension effects)
E =U +KE+PE
Where
U = m(u2u1) KE = 1 2m(V2 2 V2 1 ) PE = mg(z2z1)

Energy balance more explicitly EinEout = (QinQout)+(WinWout)+

(Emass,inEmass,out) =Esystem Energy balance for any system undergoing any
kind of process EinEout =Esystem (kJ) Or in the rate form Ein Eout =
dEsystem dt (kW) For constant rates, the total quantities during a time intervalt
are related to the quantities per unit time as Q = Qt (kJ) W = Wt (kJ) E = dE
dt t (kJ) Energy balance on a unit mass basis eineout =esystem kJ kg Energy
balance in differential form EinEout = dEsystem or eineout = desystem The
Energy balance for a cycle Wnet,out = Qnet,in or Wnet,out = Qnet,in
Performance or efciency
Performance =
Desiredoutput Requiredinput
Combustion efciency combustion = Q HV
=
Amount of heat released during combustion Heating value of the fuel burned
Mechanical efciency
mech =
Emech,out Emech,in
= 1
Emech,loss Emech,in
Pump efciency
pump =
Emech,uid Wshaft,in
=
Wpump,u Wpump
Turbine efciency
turbine =
Wshaft,out | Emech,uid|
=
Wturbine Wturbine,e
Motor efciency
motor =
Wshaft,out Welect,in

Generator efciency
generator =
Welect,out Wshaft,in Combined efciency of a pump-motor combination
pumpmotor =pumpmotor =
Wpump,u Welect,in
=
Emech,uid Welect,in
Combined efciency of a turbine-generator combination
turbinegenerator =turbinegenerator =
Welect,out Wturb,in
=
Welect,out | Emech,uid|
Rate of heat conduction
Qcond = ktA
T x
In the limiting case ofx0 (Fouriers law) Qcond =ktA
dT dx
(W)
Rate of heat transfer by convection
Qconv = hA(TsTf) (W)
Maximum rate of radiation
Qemit,max =AT4 s
Radiation emitted by a real surface
Qemit =AT4 s (W)
Rate at which a surface absorbs radiation Qabs = Qincident (W)
Net rate of radiation heat transfer
Qrad =A(T4 s T4 s ) (W)
Chapter 3
Properties of Pure Substances

The quality x as the ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture (for
saturated mixtures only) x = mvapor mtotal Where mtotal = mliquid +mvapor = mf
+mg
The total volume in a tank containing a saturated liquid-vapor mixture is
V =Vf +Vg V = mvmtvavg = mfvf +mgvg mf = mtmg mtvavg = (mtmg)vf
+mgvg
Dividing my mt yields
vavg = (1x)vf +xvg Since x = mg/mt. This relation can also be expressed as vavg
= vf +xvfg m3 kg Where vfg = vgvg. Solving for quality we obtain x = vavgvf
vfg
Theanalysisgivenabovecanberepeatedforinternalenergyandenthalpywiththefollowing
results uavg = uf +xufg kJ kgh avg = hf +xhfg kJ kg All the results are of the same
format, and they can be summarized in a single equation as
yavg = yf +xyfg
Where y is v, u or h.
9
Ideal-gas Equation of State
P = RT vPv = RT The gasconstant R is determinded from
R=
Ru M kJ kgK
or
kPam3 kgK Where Ru is the universal gas constant The mass of a system
m = MN (kg)
The ideal-gas Equation of State can be written in several different forms V = mv
PV = mRT mR = (MN)R = NRu PV = NRuT V = N v P vRuT The properties of
an ideal gas at two different states are related to each other by P1V1 T1 = P2V2 T2
Compressibility factor Z = Pv RT or Pv = ZRT
Gases behave differently at a given temperature and pressure, but they behave
very much the same at temperatures and pressure normalized with respect to their
critical temperatures and pressures. The normalization is done as PR = P Pcr and TR
= T Tcr Pseudeo-reduced specic volume vR = vactual RTcr/Pcr Van der Waals
Equation of State P+ a v2(vb) = RT The determination of the two constants
appearing in this equation is based on the observation that the critical isotherm on
a Pv diagram has a horizontal inection point of the cricital point. Thus, the rst
and the second derivatives of P with respect to v at the critical point must be zero.
That is P vT=Tcr=const = 0 and 2P v2T=Tcr=const = 0

By performing the differentiations and eliminating vcr, the constants a and b are
determined to be
a=
27R2T2 cr 64Pcr
and b =
RTcr 8Pcr
Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State
P = RuT v2 1 c vT3( v+B) A v2
where
A = A01a v and B = B01b vBenedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State
P=
RuT v
+B0RuTA0C0 T21 v2 +
bRuTa v3 +
a v6 +
c
v3T21+ v2e v2
Virial Equation of State
P=
RT v
+
a(T) v2 +
b(T) v3 +
c(T) v4 +
d(T) v5 +
Vapor Pressure
Patm = Pa+Pv