ANL/EVS/TM/08-1

Overview of the Design, Construction,

and Operation of Interstate Liquid
Petroleum Pipelines

Environmental Science Division

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ANL/EVS/TM/08-1

Overview of the Design, Construction,

and Operation of Interstate Liquid
Petroleum Pipelines

by
T.C. Pharris1 and R.L. Kolpa2
1
Decision and Information Sciences Division
2
Environmental Science Division
Argonne National Laboratory
November 2007

CONTENTS
NOTATION..............................................................................................................................
1

vii

INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................

1.1 U.S. Pipeline Network ............................................................................................

1.2 Fluids Handled ........................................................................................................
1.3 Types of Line Pipe ..................................................................................................
1.4 System Components................................................................................................
1.4.1 Tankage.......................................................................................................
1.4.2 Piping Types ...............................................................................................
1.4.3 Pumping Stations ........................................................................................
1.4.4 Metering Stations ........................................................................................
1.4.5 Valve Manifolds..........................................................................................
1.4.6 Piping Manifolds.........................................................................................
1.4.7 Pigging Stations ..........................................................................................
1.4.8 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition Systems...................................
1.4.9 Telecommunication Towers........................................................................
1.4.10 Mass Flow Meters.......................................................................................
1.4.11 Valves .........................................................................................................
1.4.12 Corrosion Control Systems .........................................................................

1
2
4
5
5
6
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
10

PIPELINE DESIGN ........................................................................................................

13

2.1

13
13
13
14
17
19
19
20
24
29
31
31
32
34
34
34
38
38
39
39
39

Factors Influencing Pipeline Design.......................................................................

2.1.1 General Pipeline Design Considerations ....................................................
2.1.2 Safety ..........................................................................................................
2.1.3 Industry Codes and Standards.....................................................................
2.1.4 Pipeline Coating..........................................................................................
2.1.5 Sizing ..........................................................................................................
2.1.6 Pressure .......................................................................................................
2.1.7 Product Qualities.........................................................................................
2.1.8 Other Design Considerations ......................................................................
2.1.9 Leak Detection ............................................................................................
2.1.10 Overpressure Protection..............................................................................
2.1.11 Valve Spacing and Rapid Shutdown...........................................................
2.1.12 Pumps and Pumping Stations......................................................................
2.1.13 Pigging Devices and Pig Launching/Receiving Facilities ..........................
2.1.14 Distribution Terminals ................................................................................
2.1.15 Measurement and Flow Control..................................................................
2.1.16 Risk of Natural Hazards and Human Threats .............................................
2.2 Colocation Issues in Corridors................................................................................
2.2.1 Fire Hazards ................................................................................................
2.2.2 Coincident Construction .............................................................................
2.2.3 Electrical Interference.................................................................................
iii

CONTENTS (Cont.)
3

PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................

45

3.1
3.2

Scheduling...............................................................................................................
Preconstruction Activities.......................................................................................
3.2.1 Survey and Mapping ...................................................................................
3.2.2 Staging Areas ..............................................................................................
3.2.3 Soil and Geology Studies............................................................................
3.3 Construction............................................................................................................
3.3.1 Movement and Staging of Pipeline Components
and Construction Equipment.......................................................................
3.3.2 Clearing and Grading..................................................................................
3.3.3 Stringing Pipe Joints along the ROW .........................................................
3.3.4 Ditching.......................................................................................................
3.3.5 Pipe Bedding Material ................................................................................
3.3.6 Welding.......................................................................................................
3.3.7 Pipe Bending...............................................................................................
3.3.8 Pipe Coating................................................................................................
3.3.9 Lowering the Pipeline into the Ditch ..........................................................
3.3.10 Backfilling the Ditch...................................................................................
3.3.11 Hydrostatic Testing.....................................................................................
3.3.12 Final Grading and Reclamation ..................................................................
3.3.13 Special Conditions ......................................................................................

46
46
46
48
48
48

PIPELINE OPERATIONS ..............................................................................................

79

4.1

79
79
79
80
80
80
81
81
81
82
82
82
83
84
85
86
86
86

4.2

4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

Inspections and Markers .........................................................................................

4.1.1 Inspections during Excavation....................................................................
4.1.2 ROW Inspections ........................................................................................
4.1.3 Pipeline Markers and Aboveground Facilities............................................
4.1.4 Change in Operating Rate...........................................................................
Pipeline Repairs ......................................................................................................
4.2.1 Moving and Lowering Hazardous Liquid Pipelines ...................................
4.2.2 Remedial Action for Corrosion Deficiencies..............................................
Pigging Activities....................................................................................................
Chemical Additives.................................................................................................
Pipeline Security .....................................................................................................
Waste Management.................................................................................................
Cathodic Corrosion Protection................................................................................
Leak Detection ........................................................................................................
Integrity Assesments...............................................................................................
4.9.1 Metal-Loss Tools ........................................................................................
4.9.2 Crack-Detection Tools ................................................................................
4.9.3 Geometry Tools ..........................................................................................

iv

51
51
53
55
56
57
60
60
61
61
62
64
65

CONTENTS (Cont.)

4.9.4 Mapping Tools ............................................................................................

4.10 Pipeline Repair Techniques ....................................................................................

87
87

Decommission and Demolition .......................................................................................

89

Emergencies and Off-Normal Events ..............................................................................

91

References........................................................................................................................

93

FIGURES
2.1-1

Coating Newly Installed Pipe for Corrosion Control .............................................

18

2.1-2

Examples of the Types of Pigs in Use Today .........................................................

35

2.1-3

Pig Launcher/Receiver............................................................................................

36

3.3-1

Typical ROW with Topsoil Segregation.................................................................

49

3.3-2

Typical ROW with Adjacent Pipeline ....................................................................

50

3.3-3

Typical ROW Maintenance in Forested Areas .......................................................

51

3.3-4

Pipe Segments Arriving at Rail Off-loading Area..................................................

52

3.3-5

Pipe Segments in a Material Laydown Area...........................................................

52

3.3-6

Sample Road Entrance to a Pipeline ROW.............................................................

54

3.3-7

Stringing Pipe along the ROW ...............................................................................

54

3.3-8

Delivering Pipe Segments to the Construction Site in Rugged Terrain

May Require Special Equipment ............................................................................

55

3.3-9

Pipeline Ditching ....................................................................................................

56

3.3-10

Welding Pipe...........................................................................................................

58

3.3-11

Pipe Bending Machine............................................................................................

60

3.3-12

Applying Coating to Pipeline..................................................................................

61

3.3-13

Lowering Pipe into Trench .....................................................................................

62

3.3-14

Backfilling Pipeline ................................................................................................

63

3.3-15

Final Contouring of Pipeline ROW ........................................................................

64

FIGURES (Cont.)
3.3-16

Revegetated Pipeline ROW ....................................................................................

65

3.3-17

Trenched Road Crossing.........................................................................................

66

3.3-18

Bored Road/Railroad Crossing ...............................................................................

67

3.3-19

Typical Waterbody Crossing ..................................................................................

68

3.3-20

Dam-and-Pump River Crossing with Two Pipelines..............................................

69

3.3-21

Flume Water Crossing with Two Pipelines ............................................................

70

3.3-22

Typical Directional Drilling under Waterway ........................................................

71

3.3-23

Waterbody Crossing Containing a Second Pipeline ...............................................

72

3.3-24

Saturated Wetland Crossing....................................................................................

73

3.3-25

Concrete-Coated Pipe in a Wetland........................................................................

75

3.3-26

Crude Oil Pipeline Pump Station............................................................................

78

3.3-27

Typical Pipeline Breakout Station at a Petroleum Terminal ..................................

78

TABLES
1.2-1

Characteristics of Liquid Hydrocarbons .................................................................

2.1-1

Live Loads ..............................................................................................................

26

2.1-2

Impact Factors for Highways and Railroads Versus Depth of Cover.....................

26

2.1-3

Degree of Component Vulnerability to Damage or Disruption

from Natural Hazards and Human Threats .............................................................

40

vi

NOTATION

The following is a list of the acronyms, initialisms, and abbreviations (including units of
measure) used in this document. Acronyms and abbreviations used only in tables and figures are
defined in the respective tables and figures.

ACRONYMS, INITIALISMS, AND ABBREVIATIONS

AASHTO
AC
ACEC
ALA
ANSI
AOPL
API
AREA
AREMA
ASCF
ASME
ASTM
AWS

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

alternating current
areas of critical environmental concern
American Lifelines Alliance
American National Standards Institute
Association of Oil Pipe Lines
American Petroleum Institute
American Railway Engineering Association
American Railway Engineering Maintenance-of-Way Association
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
American Society for Testing and Materials
American Welding Society

BTEX

benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene

CDPD
CFR
CPS

Cellular Digital Packet Data

Code of Federal Regulaions
cathodic protection system

DOE
DOT

U.S. Department of Energy

U.S. Department of Transportation

EIA
EPA

Energy Information Administration (DOE)

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

FEMA
FERC

Federal Energy Management Agency

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

GPS

global positioning system

HDD

horizontal directional drilling

IAPMO
IEEE

International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials

Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc.

vii

LNG
LPG

liquefied natural gas

liquefied petroleum gas

MAOP
MFL
MOP
MTU

maximum allowable operating pressure

magnetic flux leakage
maximum operating pressure
master terminal unit

NACE
NDT
NORM

National Association of Corrosion Engineers

nondestructive testing
naturally occurring radioactive materials

OPS
OSHA

Office of Pipeline Safety (DOT)

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

RCRA
ROW(s)
RP
RTU

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

right(s)-of-way
Recommended Practice
remote thermal unit

SCADA

supervisory control and data acquisition

TAPS

Trans-Alaska Pipeline System

UHF

ultrahigh frequency

VHF

very high frequency

UNITS OF MEASURE
cSt
F
lb
ppm
psi
psia
psig

centistoke
degree(s) Fahrenheit
pound(s)
part(s) per million
pound(s) per square inch
pound(s) per square inch absolute
pound(s) per square inch gauge

viii

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 U.S. PIPELINE NETWORK

The U.S. liquid petroleum pipeline industry is large, diverse, and vital to the nations
economy. Comprised of approximately 200,000 miles of pipe in all fifty states, liquid petroleum
pipelines carried more than 40 million barrels per day, or 4 trillion barrel-miles, of crude oil and
refined products during 2001. That represents about 17% of all freight transported in the United
States, yet the cost of doing so amounted to only 2% of the nations freight bill. Approximately
66% of domestic petroleum transport (by ton-mile) occurs by pipeline, with marine movements
accounting for 28% and rail and truck transport making up the balance. In 2004, the movement
of crude petroleum by domestic federally regulated pipelines amounted to 599.6 billion tonmiles, while that of petroleum products amounted to 315.9 billion ton-miles (AOPL 2006). As an
illustration of the low cost of pipeline transportation, the cost to move a barrel of gasoline from
Houston, Texas, to New York Harbor is only 3 per gallon, which is a small fraction of the cost
of gasoline to consumers.
Pipelines may be small or large, up to 48 inches in diameter. Nearly all of the mainline
pipe is buried, but other pipeline components such as pump stations are above ground. Some
lines are as short as a mile, while others may extend 1,000 miles or more. Some are very simple,
connecting a single source to a single destination, while others are very complex, having many
sources, destinations, and interconnections. Many pipelines cross one or more state boundaries
(interstate), while some are located within a single state (intrastate), and still others operate on
the Outer Continental Shelf and may or may not extend into one or more states. U.S. pipelines
are located in coastal plains, deserts, Arctic tundra, mountains, and more than a mile beneath the
waters surface of the Gulf of Mexico (Rabinow 2004; AOPL 2006).
The network of crude oil pipelines in the United States is extensive. There are
approximately 55,000 miles of crude oil trunk lines (usually 8 to 24 inches in diameter) in the
United States that connect regional markets. The United States also has an estimated 30,000 to
40,000 miles of small gathering lines (usually 2 to 6 inches in diameter) located primarily in
Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Wyoming, with small systems in a number of other oil
producing states. These small lines gather the oil from many wells, both onshore and offshore,
and connect to larger trunk lines measuring 8 to 24 inches in diameter.
There are approximately 95,000 miles of refined products pipelines nationwide. Refined
products pipelines are found in almost every state in the United States, with the exception of
some New England states. These refined product pipelines vary in size from relatively small,
8- to 12-inch-diameter lines, to up to 42 inches in diameter.
The overview of pipeline design, installation, and operation provided in the following
sections is only a cursory treatment. Readers interested in more detailed discussions are invited
to consult the myriad engineering publications available that provide such details. The two
primary publications on which the following discussions are based are: Oil and Gas Pipeline
Fundamentals (Kennedy 1993) and the Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook (McAllister 2002).

Both are recommended references for additional reading for those requiring additional details.
Websites maintained by various pipeline operators also can provide much useful information,
as well as links to other sources of information. In particular, the website maintained
by the U.S. Department of Energys Energy Information Administration (EIA)
(http://www.eia.doe.gov) is recommended. An excellent bibliography on pipeline standards and
practices, including special considerations for pipelines in Arctic climates, has been published
jointly by librarians for the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company (operators of the Trans-Alaska
Pipeline System [TAPS]) and the Geophysical Institute/International Arctic Research Center,
both located in Fairbanks (Barboza and Trebelhorn 2001), available electronically at
http://www.gi.alaska.edu/services/library/pipeline.html#codes. The Association of Oil Pipe Lines
(AOPL) and the American Petroleum Institute (API) jointly provide an overview covering the
life cycle of design, construction, operations, maintenance, economic regulation, and
deactivation of liquid pipelines (AOPL/API 2007).

1.2 FLUIDS HANDLED

The products carried in liquid pipelines include a wide range of materials. Crude oil
systems gather production from onshore and offshore fields, while transmission lines transport
crude to terminals, interconnection points, and refineries. The crude oil may be of domestic
origin or imported. Refined petroleum product, including gasoline, aviation fuels, kerosene,
diesel fuel, heating oil, and various fuel oils, are sizable portions of the pipelines business,
whether produced in domestic refineries or imported to coastal terminals. Other materials include
petrochemical feedstocks (also known as secondary feedstocks) such as benzene, styrene,
propylene, and aromatics such as xylene, toluene, and cumene that are delivered by pipeline
from refineries to petrochemical production plants or to other refineries. Also carried by pipeline
are liquefied petroleum fuels such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) (albeit over relatively short
distances), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and propane, all of which are gases at standard
temperature and pressure but easily liquefied with the application of pressure.1 Still other
materials transported by pipelines include carbon dioxide and anhydrous ammonia, both
transported as liquids under their own pressure.2 In recent years, long-distance pipelines have
been constructed to carry distillate fractions from the distillation of crude oils from refineries to
production facilities for crude feedstocks such as bitumen recovered from tar sands and heavy
oils. Such feedstocks are too viscous to be transported by pipeline. However, the distillate
fractions are used to dilute these feedstocks, with the resulting mixture being suitable for
delivery back to the refinery by pipeline for further processing. Also in recent years, longdistance pipelines have been constructed to carry produced water3 from oil and gas fields to
refineries and other industrial facilities that use copious amounts of water, but are located in arid
areas or areas where water availability is limited. Hydrogen is also delivered by pipeline, albeit
over relatively short distances, typically connecting hydrogen production facilities with refineries
and other industries that use hydrogen as a starting material in their processes. Table 1.2-1
1 However, the majority of natural gas transported by pipeline over long distances is transported as a gas.
2 Carbon dioxide is also transported by pipeline as a gas.
3 As used here, produced water includes water recovered at the well head or crude oil and/or natural gas
production wells.

3
TABLE 1.2-1 Characteristics of Liquid Hydrocarbons
Type 1(a): liquefied gases (liquefied petroleum gas, ethylene, propylene)
Highly volatile
Gas at ambient conditions; maintained at high pressures

Type 1(b): very light grade oils (gasoline)

Highly volatile
Evaporates quickly, often completely within 1 to 2 days

Type 2: light grade oils (jet fuels, diesel, No. 2 fuel oil, light crude)
Moderately volatile
Will leave residue (up to one-third of spill amount) after a few days
Moderately soluble, especially distilled products

Type 3: medium grade oils (most crude oils)

About one-third will evaporate within 24 hours
Typical water-soluble fraction 10100 ppm
May penetrate substrate and persist
May pose significant cleanup-related impacts

Type 4: heavy grade oil (heavy crudes, No. 6 fuel oil, bunker C)
Heavy oils with little or no evaporation
Water-soluble fraction typically less than 10 ppm
Heavy surface contamination likely
Highly persistent; long-term contamination possible
Weathers very slowly; may form tar balls
May sink in water, depending on product density
May pose significant cleanup-related impacts
Low acute toxicity relative to other oil types

Type 5 low API fuel grade oils (heavy industrial fuel oils)
Neutrally buoyant or may sink
Weathers slowly; sunken oil has little potential for evaporation
May accumulate on bottom under calm conditions and smother subtidal resources
Sunken oil may be resuspended during storms, providing a chronic source of
shoreline oiling
Highly variable and often blended with oils
Blends may be unstable, and the oil may separate when spilled
Low acute toxicity relative to other oil types

provides an overview of the physical characteristics of the more common liquid hydrocarbons
transported via pipeline. Typically, more than one product is transported through the same
interstate pipeline. In those instances, the line pipe meets the most rigorous product-specific
standards among all of the materials being transported. Increased numbers of products carried on
a pipeline increase the support facilities, such as tankage, required to receive and segregate the
different products.

1.3 TYPES OF LINE PIPE

Steel pipe is used in most pipelines transporting hydrocarbons. It is manufactured
according to the specifications of the American Petroleum Institute (API 1994, 2000), the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), and the American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM).
Various grades of line pipe are specified, based on yield strength.4 Grade A line pipe has
a minimum yield strength of 30,000 pounds per square inch (psi), with Grade B having a
minimum yield strength of 35,000 psi. Other grade categories may indicate special fabrication
methods. For example, Grade X42 indicates a pipe made of steel with a 42,000 psi minimum
yield strength; X60 pipe has a minimum yield strength of 60,000 psi, etc. Newer pipe grades X70
and X805 are available, but are typically used in offshore or high-pressure gas pipelines for
large-diameter or high-pressure applications.6 Additional information on line pipe grades can be
obtained from the EUROPIPE and U.S. Steel Tubular Products websites http://www.europipe.de/
www/download/EP_TP47_02en.pdf and http://www.usstubular.com/products/seamslp.htm,
respectively. A more detailed discussion of pipe fabrication can be found in Kennedy (1993).
Line pipe is manufactured as either seamless or welded. These designations refer to how
each length, or joint, of pipe is manufactured, not how the joints are connected in the field to
form a continuous pipeline. Seamless steel pipe is made without a longitudinal weld by hotworking lengths of steel to produce pipe of the desired size and properties. Welded pipe is made
using several manufacturing processes. The two types of pipe differ both by the number of
longitudinal weld seams in the pipe and the type of welding equipment used. Welded pipe is the
most common pipe used in petroleum pipeline service.
The individual lengths of pipe are normally joined by welding sections of pipe together
(20 or more feet in length). Pipe made of materials other than steel, including fiberglass, various
plastics, and cement asbestos, has been used for special applications involving corrosive liquids,
such as saltwater disposal or the transport of highly corrosive crude oils.
Most pipe used in the United States is manufactured as seamless, or longitudinally
welded, pipe. However, other parts of the world use spiral-welded pipe, which has a spiral weld
along its length.

4 Yield strength is the amount of tensile force that must be applied to cause a permanent deformation (elongation)
in a test sample. The force is typically expressed in units of pounds per square inch.
5 X80 line pipe is for large-diameter high-strength pipelines. See http://www.europipe.de/www/download/
EP_TP47_02en.pdf. (Accessed July 12, 2006.)
6 See General Description of Seamless Standard and Line Pipe Grades at http://www.usstubular.com/products/
seamslp.htm. (Accessed July 14, 2006.)

1.4 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1.4.1 Tankage
Most pipeline systems have the ability to temporarily store and/or receive shipped
product on each end of the pipeline, to facilitate product movements and, in some cases, to
accommodate product blending. The size and nature of the storage depend on the business of the
pipeline and the product(s) it carries. API and ASME standards have been promulgated to
address the design and construction of these facilities.7 In addition, each facility needs to have
waste handling and environmental control capabilities. Again, the nature and capacity of the
storage depend on the business of the pipeline and the product(s) it carries. Since many pipelines
originate or terminate at coastal facilities to enable marine movements, dock facilities are also
often included in a comprehensive definition of a pipeline system.
Along with meeting all of the tankage requirements mentioned above, most facilities
have the ability to handle pipeline waste materials and/or interface materials when the pipeline
handles multiple products. Transmix, which is the mixture of two hydrocarbons shipped
together, must be segregated and either downgraded to an appropriate specification or
reprocessed. Crude oil delivered through pipelines also often contains small amounts of
produced water.8 If the crude is at a storage field, this is collected and trucked to wastewater
treatment. As a first step in the refining process, refineries will process crude oils in a desalter
to remove all water. Waters recovered in the desalter are typically combined with other refinery
wastewaters and treated in on-site facilities before being used (recycled) or to meet the
requirements and pollutant limitations of discharge permits.
Nearly all pipeline terminal facilities have pumps, pig launching/recovery facilities
(see Section 2.1.13), and the capability of handling pipeline sludge that can accumulate on
pipeline walls and is removed during pigging activities. All pipeline terminals need to handle the
drainage of lubricants and pipeline products, sampling dump stations, contaminated condensates,
etc. Terminals are also required to develop spill prevention, control, and countermeasure plans
for responses to accidental releases of products. Some materials recovered in responses to
accidental releases, as well as waste materials generated through routine pipeline and terminal

7 Over 51 API standards have been promulgated relating to storage tanks, dealing with such topics as design
criteria, cathodic protection, and operational procedures. A catalogue of all storage tank-related API standards,
as well as all other API publications, is available at the API website: http://www.api.org/Publications. (Accessed
January 11, 2007.) API standards can be purchased electronically from a number of vendors. See, for example:
http://global.ihs.com/search_res.cfm?currency_code=USD&customer_id=2125452C2E0A&shopping_cart_id=
2825285B244A403C415B5D58250A&rid=Z56&mid=Z56&country_code=US&lang_code=ENGL&input_doc_
title=storage%20tanks&org_code=API. (Accessed January 11, 2007.)
8 However, when the produced water recovered at the production well contains naturally occurring radioactive
material (NORM), additional controls are typically employed to exclude this water from the pipeline to the
greatest extent possible so as to prevent NORM contamination of the pipeline and its associated components.
Produced water containing NORM is typically reintroduced into the oil-bearing formation through injection
wells.

operation, qualify as hazardous waste under federal or state environmental laws,9 so terminals
typically also include facilities to temporarily store such materials before transport to permitted
treatment and disposal facilities. A number of facilities have on-site waste water treatment
facilities, which is more cost effective. Depending on the amount of production water that is
allowed to be introduced into the pipeline and the source, pipelines that carry certain crude oils,
as well as the terminals and refineries that receive them, may also generate waste from pigging
operations or tank and equipment cleaning operations that contain naturally occurring radioactive
materials (NORM). Such wastes require segregation and treatment or disposal in specially
permitted facilities.
The primary shipping and receiving terminals are adjacent to, but not necessarily within
pipeline rights-of-way (ROWs) or designated energy corridors. However, interconnecting
pipelines and surge or pressure-relief tanks or breakout tanks are integral to interstate pipeline
transport and can be expected to be located close to, if not within, the pipelines ROW or within
the designated energy corridor. Also, at changes in elevation, small tanks that serve as pressure
stabilizing elements of overall pipeline operations will also be located close to the pipeline.
In accordance with federal or state environmental regulations and to provide for safe
operation, typical design and operational considerations that have been incorporated into industry
standards are reflected at facilities where storage is occurring. Adherence to relevant standards
results in features such as tank dikes, enclosed drainage systems, double seals on floating roof
tanks, leak detection, corrosion monitoring and protection, requirements for periodic inspection
and monitoring programs, procedures for purging tank vapor spaces and vapor
recovery/treatment, and specification of minimum corrosion allowances. All storage locations
with capacities above prescribed volumes are also required to develop and periodically exercise
emergency response plans for accidental releases of stored product. Some of the API standards
and recommended procedures described above address these requirements. Although storage
could occur in both aboveground and underground tanks, aboveground tanks generally
predominate. Various tank designs are employed, some specifically suited for particular products
or conditions. These include cone roof tanks, open-top floating roof tanks, covered floating roof
tanks, spherical tanks (typically used for gases stored at high pressure), or bullet-style tanks
(typically used to store gases at high pressures, often in a liquefied state).

1.4.2 Piping Types

1.4.2.1 Flowlines
Flowlines are used as part of a crude gathering system in production areas to move
produced oil from individual wells to a central point in the field for treating and storage.
Flowlines are generally small-diameter pipelines operating at relatively low pressure. Typical in
the United States flowlines are between 2 and 4 inches in diameters. The size required varies
9 This is especially true of pipelines that transport secondary feedstocks containing listed chemicals or distillate
products that demonstrate flammability characteristics specified in hazardous waste regulations.

according to the capacity of the well being served, the length of the line, and the pressure
available at the producing well to force the oil through the line. Some wells are not pressurized
and require pumping to collection systems. Flowlines typically operate at pressures below
100 psi.
Flowlines are normally made of steel, although various types of plastic have been used in
a limited number of applications. Pipelines used for oil flowlines typically operate at low
pressures, and therefore could be made of materials other than steel. Flowline pipe wall
thicknesses of 0.216 inch for a 3-inch-diameter pipe are not uncommon, corresponding to a
weight of 7.58 lb/lineal foot for a 3-inch-diameter pipe (Kennedy 1993).

1.4.2.2 Crude Trunk Lines

Crude is moved from central storage facilities over long-distance trunk lines to refineries
or other storage facilities. Crude trunk lines operate at higher pressures than flowlines and could
vary in size from 6 inches in diameter to as large as 4 feet, as in the TAPS in Alaska.10

1.4.2.3 Product Pipelines

Pipelines carrying products that are liquid at ambient temperatures and pressures do not
have to operate at excessive pressures in order to maintain the product in a liquid state. However,
liquids that vaporize at ambient temperatures must be shipped at higher pressures. For instance,
ethane pipelines can operate at pressures up to 1,440 psi. Product pipelines usually are 12 to
24 inches in diameter, but can be as large as 40 inches in the case of the Colonial Pipeline, which
carries gasoline and distillate from the Gulf Coast to northeast markets.
Product pipelines are unique, since they are typically used to transport a variety of
petroleum distillate products concurrently in a batch-wise manner. The petroleum products
jointly carried in the same pipeline are always chemically compatible with each other, but may
differ in physical properties such as density. Some intermixing occurs at the interface of two
products sequentially introduced into the pipeline. Operating methods allow for minimizing the
interface between products. Regardless of how the commodities are separated while in the
pipeline, any mixtures of two commodities are segregated from the rest of the flow at terminals
and handled by downgrading (i.e., marketing them as product mixtures of lower quality than the
original individual products) or by recovering and refractionating each mixture into the two
original petroleum products. In some instances, a sphere or a specially designed pig can be
inserted between batches to reduce the amount of mixing.

10 The TAPS is currently the largest operational crude oil pipeline in the United States. More typically, 42-inchdiameter pipe is the maximum size used, since it is the maximum size that is currently manufactured within the
United States. Pipe used in TAPS was manufactured in Japan.

1.4.3 Pumping Stations

As with storage tanks, pump stations require an infrastructure of their own. They require
waste handling, such as nearby sewer facilities or holding facilities for transfer in batches to an
off-site waste-handling facility.11 Also, the handling and injection of additives, such as for
viscosity reduction, often occurs at pump stations. Pumps are typically driven by electric motors;
however, engines operating on a variety of fuels (but typically obtained from sources other than
the pipeline itself) can also be used to drive the pumps. Depending on location, power may be an
issue. In the event of power failures or other significant upset conditions, pump stations are
typically equipped with sufficient emergency power generation to support monitoring and
control systems to accomplish an immediate safe shutdown.12

1.4.4 Metering Stations

Although primarily utilized to measure the volume, quality, and consistency of product
for billing purposes and delivery receipts, storage tank monitoring and product metering can be
used with line pressure monitors to verify that pipeline integrity has not been compromised. Any
discrepancy could indicate some sort of system leak. Typically there is some shrinkage in
volume when products are transferred from pipeline to tanks to pipeline. Systems and processes
are in place to determine when the shrinkage observed is outside expected values.

1.4.5 Valve Manifolds

Valves are installed at strategic locations along the mainline pipe to control flows and
pressures within the pipe and to isolate pipe segments in the event of upset or emergency
conditions. Regardless of design, all valves require regular monitoring and maintenance. Along
with pump seals that require continuous leak detection and repair, valve manifolds must be
closely monitored and periodically overhauled based on schedules established by the
manufacturer (preventative maintenance), reduced performance, and/or observed deterioration
and wear.

1.4.6 Piping Manifolds

Depending on the facility, the presence of piping manifolds can result in a very
significant and complex operation at either the origin or destination of a pipeline. Since many
interstate pipelines have blending facilities on one end or the other, the manifolds in which such
11 For small-scale operations, wastes generated at pump stations are temporarily stored and then removed by
vacuum tanker to off-site treatment or disposal facilities.
12 Shutting down a pipeline is a complex operation. Pumps must be shut down and valves closed in a specific
sequence to prevent overpressurization of some segments of the pipeline. Check valves that would prevent
product within the pipeline from reversing flow and running downhill when pumps are stopped must also be
closed in a specific sequence.

blending is accomplished can be elaborate and have much more piping than what would
normally be required for simple movements from one location to another. Such blending
facilities may also be present within a pipeline ROW in a centralized corridor.

1.4.7 Pigging Stations

Pipeline operators may incorporate the use of pigs, depending on the nature and quality
(purity) of the materials being transported. Pigs can be designed to clean accumulated sludge and
debris off the inside walls of a pipe, or to monitor the pipe for conditions such as corrosion
(known as smart pigs). Pigs are introduced at launching facilities located along the mainline
pipe ROW, often in conjunction with a pump station. The pigs outer diameter is the same as, or
slightly larger than the internal diameter of the pipe, so that a portion of the pig is compressed
when placed inside. In most instances, the pig itself has no power source to propel it along the
pipe, but instead is carried along the pipe by the flow of the liquid in the pipe. Obviously, pigs
must be removed before reaching the next pump station. Such pig recovery stations are typically
immediately upstream of the next downstream pump station. Depending on the product and the
age of the pipeline, cleaning and monitoring pigs are routinely introduced into and recovered
from the pipeline without any interruption of pipeline operations. Data recorded by smart pigs
are typically integrated with the data from the pipelines supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) system (see below) and are used to control inspection, maintenance, and repair
activities. See Section 2.1.13 for an additional discussion of the various types and applications of
pigs.

1.4.8 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems

Pipelines are monitored and operated using sophisticated SCADA systems. SCADA
systems regulate pressure and flow by monitoring and controlling pump operation and the
positions of valves. SCADA systems also perform a variety of additional functions including
alarm processing, leak detection, hydraulic analysis, pump station monitoring, throughput
analysis, and other functions deemed critical to the safe operation of the pipeline.
Section 2.1.15.1 provides an expanded discussion on how SCADA systems are used to monitor
and control the operations of a pipeline.

1.4.9 Telecommunication Towers

SCADA systems, regardless of their degree of sophistication, are only as good as the
communication system that transmits data and commands throughout the pipeline system. A
communication system includes equipment, such as telecommunication towers, and cabling to
provide voice and/or data communications to the various facilities along the pipeline as well as
to the SCADA system components. Real-time data communications are necessary between the
control center, the various pump stations, storage/distribution terminals, delivery facilities, and
mainline block valve sites.

10

Real-time operational data communications can be supported through a combination of the

following approaches: telephone company circuits, satellite terminals, microwave, point-to-point
radio pairs, and fiber optic cable. Often, pipeline systems employ redundant communication
links to ensure that critical data are communicated in the event of a failure in one of the systems.

1.4.10 Mass Flow Meters

There are two types of flow meters used in liquid pipeline systems. The first type is
referred to as a volumetric flow meter. In the oil industry, the majority of transfers and sales are
measured in volumetric units such as barrels or gallons, so this type of meter is usually applied.
In other instances such as for petrochemicals, flow rates are measured in units of pounds by a
mass meter. With both types of flow meters, the accuracy of the measurements is periodically
checked by a meter prover. This process is conducted to insure the accuracy of the measured
flow quantities. Flow meters are commonly used where custody transfers or sales are involved.
Flow meters also offer the pipeline operator the opportunity to monitor for any leaks by
performing volume or mass balance checks around specified sections of the pipeline network.
These balance checks would typically be performed via the SCADA computer system.

1.4.11 Valves
Valve types and locations comprise an important facet of liquid pipeline design and
operation. Valves located in the mainline must be compatible with pigging equipment. Valve
location is a critical design issue to insure that discrete portions of the line can be isolated in the
event of a line leak or when maintenance is required.13 Check valves that would prevent
backflows of product down grades in the event of loss of power to pipeline pumps are also
essential to prevent overpressurization of pipe segments at the base of grade changes.

1.4.12 Corrosion Control Systems

Corrosion control of pipeline systems primarily composed of steel and other metals is
critical to system integrity. Buried metallic objects will corrode (chemically oxidize) through
participation in electrochemical reactions if not adequately protected. Corrosion control is
accomplished through a variety of means. In most instances, paints and protective coatings are
applied followed by wrapping and taping sections of mainline pipe prior to burial to isolate the
metallic pipe and prevent its participation in electrochemical reactions. In addition, cathodic
protection is provided through the use of an impressed current or sacrificial anodes to counteract

13 In some instances, valve placement is dictated by environmental factors. For example, mainline valves for TAPS
are spaced such that no more than a prescribed amount of product would exist in the segment of pipe between
any two valves or a valve and a pump station. Thus, valve spacing limits the amount of product that can be
released to the environment in the event of catastrophic failure (relying on the SCADA system to identify the
failure as a precipitous drop in system pressure and to automatically shut valves to isolate the apparent problem).

11

those electrochemical reactions. Various polyethylene- or epoxy-based paints, some also

including asphalt and/or coal tar, are used for buried pipe and valves.
Cathodic protection involves either the use of an impressed current or sacrificial
(or galvanic) anodes. For impressed-current systems, anodes are buried in the soil proximate to
the section of buried pipe being protected. A current is applied to the anodes equivalent to the
current that would result from the electrochemical oxidation of the pipe. This current is allowed
to flow through the soil to the pipe which then completes the circuit. This impressed current
counterbalances the flow of electrons from the pipe to the soil that would otherwise have resulted
from the pipes oxidation, thereby canceling that reaction.. Impressed-current systems can be
monitored from the ground as a demonstration of their continued proper performance. Unless
malfunctions occur, impressed-current system components that are buried with the pipe will
typically not need replacement for 20 to 25 years, and many last over the lifetime of the pipe.
SCADA systems can be configured to monitor the performance of impressed-current systems.
Alternatively, individuals using monitoring devices can check their performance (i.e., measure
the voltage being applied to the pipe) at ground-level monitoring points installed along the length
of the pipeline.
An alternative to impressed-current systems is the use of galvanic electrodes. Electrodes
composed of magnesium or zinc, both of which corrode more easily than the iron in the pipe, are
electrically bonded to and buried along side of the pipe. Current is allowed to naturally flow
from the pipe to the ground; however, it is the zinc or magnesium in the electrodes that looses
electrons in the process. Thus, the electrodes are sacrificed to protect the iron pipe. Galvanic
electrodes must be replaced periodically. Site-specific conditions of soil moisture and electrical
conductivity determine the proper anode replacement intervals. Typically, such site-specific
conditions are determined using a test electrode placed in virtually the identical electrochemical
environment, but not connected in any way to the pipeline and easily recoverable, so that the
extent of its degradation can be observed and replacement intervals established for the electrodes
attached to the pipe, and excavations to expose those electrodes for replacement can be done
only as necessary.

12

13

2 PIPELINE DESIGN

2.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING PIPELINE DESIGN

2.1.1 General Pipeline Design Considerations

The major steps in pipeline system design involve establishment of critical pipeline
performance objectives and critical engineering design parameters such as:

Required throughput (volume per unit time for most petroleum products;
pounds per unit time for petrochemical feedstocks);
Origin and destination points;
Product properties such as viscosity and specific gravity;
Topography of pipeline route;
Maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP); and
Hydraulic calculations to determine:
Pipeline diameter, wall thickness, and required yield strengths;
Number of, and distance between, pump stations; and
Pump station horsepower required.14

2.1.2 Safety
Safety in pipeline design and construction is achieved by the proper design and
application of the appropriate codes and system hardware components, as detailed above. Design
codes as set forth in U.S. Department of Transportations (DOTs) Office of Pipeline Safety
(OPS) regulations provide appropriate safety factors and quality control issues during
construction. Metering stations and SCADA systems provide continuous monitoring oversight of
pipeline operations. Training of pipeline operating and maintenance personnel is also a key
ingredient in the ongoing efforts to insure system integrity and safety. Safe operations result
from developing and strictly adhering to standard procedures and providing the workforce with
14 As a practical matter, equipment selection and operating parameters are determined based on such factors as the
density of the commodity to be transported, the desired throughput, delivery schedules committed to by the
pipeline operator, and overall costs associated with ROW acquisition and construction and operating costs of
sample components.

14

adequate training, safety devices, and appropriate personal protective equipment. Standard
operating procedures typically are developed with reference to government and standard industry
practices, as well as corporate safety policies, experience, philosophy, and business practices.
Regulations promulgated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and by
counterpart agencies at the state level specify the procedures and controls required to ensure
workplace safety, including, in some instances, the performance of process safety analyses and
the development of very specific procedures for activities thought to represent potentially
significant hazards to workers and the public.

2.1.3 Industry Codes and Standards

The ASME has a long history of developing standards for use in the oil and gas pipeline
industry. The scope of the first draft of the ASME Code for Pressure Piping, which was approved
by the American Standards Association in 1935, included the design, manufacture, installation,
and testing of oil and gas pipelines (ASME B31.4). As the needs of the industry evolved over the
years, rules for new construction have been enhanced, and rules for operation, inspection,
corrosion control, and maintenance have been added. In addition to ASME, several other
organizations, including the API and the National Association of Corrosion Engineers
(now known as NACE International), also develop standards used by the pipeline industry.15
The industry adheres to the following summary of standards:16

Tank operation and construction (15 standards maintained by a committee

operated by API)

Underground storage caverns (2 API standards)

Manufacture of line pipe (4 API standards)

Cathodic protection against corrosion (8 NACE standards and guides)

Welding (15 American Welding Society [AWS] and 1 API standards)

Pipeline awareness (2 API standards)

15 ASME codes can be purchased for electronic download from the ASME website at http://store.asme.org/
category.asp?catalog_name=Codes+and+Standards&category_name=&Page=1&cookie%5Ftest=1. (Accessed
December 6, 2006.)
A catalogue of all API publications, including national consensus standards, is available for download at
http://www.api.org/Publications/. (Accessed December 6, 2006). Ordering information for standards may also be
found there.
NACE International standards can be purchased for electronic download at http://www.nace.org/
nacestore/dept.asp?Cat%5FID=2905. (Accessed December 6, 2006.)
16 Association of Oil Pipelines Regulations and Standards. Available at https://www.piersystem.com/external/
index.cfm?cid=888&fuseaction=EXTERNAL.docview&documentID=57733. (Accessed February 2, 2007.)

15

Pipeline integrity (API Recommended Practice 1129, Assurance of

Hazardous Liquid Pipeline System Integrity)

Pipeline wall thickness (API Standard B31.G)

The following is a list of some of the primary standards governing pipeline design,
manufacturing, construction, and operation:

API standards (including standards issued jointly by ANSI):

Pipeline Maintenance Welding Practices, 3rd edition, API
Recommended Practice (RP) 1107
Specification for Pipeline Valves (Gate, Plug, and Check Valves),
21st edition, API 6D1, June 1998 Supplement 2
Welding of Pipelines and Related Facilities, ANSI/API Std. 1104,
September 1999
Specification for Line Pipe, API 5L, March 2004
Specification for Line Pipe, API 5L Errata 1, January 2005
Steel Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways, API 1102 (1993)
Marking Liquid Petroleum Pipeline Facilities, 3rd edition, API 1109,
July 2003
Developing a Pipeline Supervisory Control Center, API 1113,
February 2000
Movement of In-Service Pipelines, ANSI/API 1117, August 1996
Computational Pipeline Monitoring for Liquids Pipelines, API 1130,
November 2002
Pipeline Variable Uncertainties and Their Effects on Leak Detectability,
API 1149, November 1993
Evaluation Methodology for Software-Based Leak Detection Systems,
API 1155, February 1996
Hydrostatic Test Water Treatment and Disposal, API 1157, October
1998

16

Managing System Integrity for Hazardous Liquid Pipelines, API 1160,

November 2001
In-Line Inspection Systems Qualification Standard, 1st edition,
API 1163, August 2005
Pressure Testing of Liquid Petroleum Pipelines, ANSI/API RP 1110,
March 1997
Repairing Crude Oil, Liquid Petroleum Gas, and Product Pipelines,
3rd edition, API RP 2200, May 1994
Steel Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways, API RP 1102,
January 1993

ASTM standards17

ASME standards18
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 2004 (triennial updates)
Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems, ASME B31.8, 1999
Refrigeration Piping, ASME B31.5 and Addenda B31.5A, 1994
Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other
Liquids, ASME B31.4, 1998
Power Piping, ASME B31.1, 1998; Addenda B31.1A, 1999;
Addenda B31.1B, 2000
Process Piping, ASME B31.1, 1999; Addenda B31.3A, 1999
Slurry Transportation Piping Systems, ASME B31.11, 1989;
Addenda B31.11A, 1991
Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other
Liquids, ASME B31.4, 2002
Gas Transmission and Distribution Systems, ASME 31.8, 2003

17 Numerous ASTM standards apply. ASTM standards can be purchased for electronic download at the ASTM
website: http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/astm.asp. (Accessed December 5, 2006.)
18 ASME standards are available for electronic purchase at http://store.asme.org/category.asp?catalog_name=
Codes+and+Standards&category_name=&Page=1. (Accessed December 6, 2006.)

17

Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 6: Paints, Related Coatings,

and Aromatics; Section 6.02: Paint Products & Applications; Protective
Coatings; Pipeline Coatings

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE), National

Electrical Safety Code, 200719

International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO),

Uniform Plumbing Code, 2003 (an American National Standards Institute
national consensus standard)20

International Conference of Building Officials, Uniform Building Codes

(13 codes in all), 200721

International Conference on Building Officials, Uniform Fire Code,

2006 edition22

National Fire Protection Association, National Electrical Code Handbook,

2005 edition23

A December 2001 report for the APIs Pipeline Committee contains an interesting
discussion on the evolution of pipeline technologies and standards, covering milestones from the
first United States cast iron pipe in 1834 to the publication of API Standard 1160 in November
2001 (Kiefner 2001).

2.1.4 Pipeline Coating

Corrosion-resistant coatings are applied to the exteriors of most pipes to inhibit corrosion.
These may be applied at the manufacturing plant or a pipe coating plant located separately.
However, coatings are also sometimes applied at the construction site. Even for precoated pipe,
field dressings of joints and connections are also performed at the construction site just prior to
burial. For particularly corrosive products (including some crude oils with high total acid
numbers), pipes are also sometimes coated on the inside for corrosion resistance. In addition to
the resistance to corrosion they provide, some interior coatings are also designed to reduce
19 IEEE standards are available for electronic download at http://standards.ieee.org/nesc/. (Accessed
December 6, 2006.)
20 The IAPMO Uniform Plumbing Code is available for electronic purchase at http://www.nfpa.org/catalog/
product.asp?pid=res10703&src=catalog&cookie%5Ftest=1. (Accessed December 6, 2006.)
21 Uniform Building Codes, published by the International Conference of Building Officials, are available for
electronic purchase at http://www.techstreet.com/cgi-bin/browsePublisher?publisher=ICBO&orderBy=doc_no.
(Accessed December 5, 2006.)
22 The Uniform Fire Code is available for electronic purchase at http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/
AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=1. (Accessed December 6, 2006.)
23 The National Electric Code Handbook is available for electronic purchase at http://www.nfpa.org/catalog/
product.asp?pid=70HB05&order_src=A291. (Accessed December 6, 2006.)

18

frictional losses between the product and the interior walls of the pipe, thereby reducing the total
amount of energy required to move the materials along the pipeline.24. Protective wrappings,
followed by the application of tape to the edges of the spirally applied overlapping wrapping, are
often installed on the exterior of the pipe to further assist in corrosion control, but also to
primarily protect the pipe from mechanical damage at installation. Wraps and tape often are
impregnated with tar or other asphalt-based materials and heated in place once applied, to ensure
uniform coverage. Once cured, the exterior coatings are chemically stable and environmentally
inert, resisting degradation by soil moisture and bacteria, yet remaining sufficiently flexible that
they continue to provide a protective coating on the pipe throughout a wide temperature range.
Likewise, wrapping materials and tape are stable and inert (including toward the material being
transported in the pipeline) and do not pose a potential for adverse environmental impacts.
Figure 2.1-1 illustrates installation of an exterior pipe tape wrap prior to the pipes installation in
its trench. Other coatings, such as thin-film epoxy and extruded polymers are also used as
alternative to wraps and asphaltic coatings.
Depending on local soil conditions, material of uniform size is sometimes imported to the
construction site to form a bed on which the pipe is placed. The same material may also be
installed around the sides and top of the pipe before the trench is filled with indigenous soils.
Such bedding material serves two principal functions: protection of the pipe from mechanical

FIGURE 2.1-1 Coating Newly Installed Pipe for Corrosion

Control (Source: Photo courtesy of Corrosion Control
Products Co. Reproduced with permission.)

24 Even with noncorrosive commodities, interior coatings are sometimes applied for the reduction of frictional
losses they provide. Such interior coatings may also be used in conjunction with chemical additives that are
sometimes added to especially viscous petroleum commodities such as crude oils with API gravities of 10 or less
to reduce frictional losses.

19

damage during installation and trench filling, and stabilization of the pipe in the event of seismic
shifts or frost heaves. Sands and gravels are typical bedding materials and are tamped in lifts of
12 to 18 inches per lift to ensure adequate compaction and avoid future subsidence. Bedding
materials also assist in draining accumulated water from the vicinity of the pipe.
All newly coated pipe used to transport hazardous liquids must be electrically inspected
prior to backfilling to check for faults not observable by visual examination. Material faults such
as microcracks demonstrate a characteristic response to applied current when the detector is
operated in accordance with the manufacturers instructions and at the voltage level appropriate
for the electrical characteristics of the coating system being tested.

2.1.5 Sizing
The dimensions of a pipeline both the sizes and capacities of the various
components as well as the conditions under which the pipeline system operates dictate the
systems capacity. Larger diameter pipes allow for higher mass flows of materials, provided
other components of the pipeline system, primarily pumps and pressure management devices, are
properly sized and positioned. In general, the longer the segment of mainline pipe between pump
stations, the greater the drop in line pressure. However, grade changes and the viscosity of
the materials being transported can also have major influences on line pressures. API Standard
5L provides dimensions, weights, and test pressures for plain-end line pipe in sizes up to
80 inches in diameter. Several weights are available in each line pipe diameter. The weight of the
pipe in lb/ft, in turn, varies as the wall thickness for a given outside diameter. For instance, API
Spec 5L lists 24 different weights in the 16-inch-diameter size (five weights are special weights),
ranging from 31.75 lb/foot to 196.91 lb/foot. The corresponding wall thickness ranges from
0.188 inch to 1.250 inches. As the wall thickness increases for a given outside diameter, the
inside diameter of the pipe decreases from 15.624 inches for the lightest weight pipe to
13.500 inches for line pipe weighing 196.91 lb/foot. Greater wall thicknesses are selected for
high-pressure applications or when the pipe segment might be subjected to unusual external
forces such as seismic activities and landslides.25 Also, in hard-to-reach places, such as beneath
transportation routes and at river crossings or difficult-to-access environmentally sensitive areas,
overbuilding in size or quality is sometimes chosen to accommodate future expansion
requirements.

2.1.6 Pressure
Operating pressure of a pipeline is determined by the design flow rate vapor pressure of
the liquid, the distance the material has to be transferred, and the size of line that carries the
liquid. Pipe operating pressure and pump capabilities and cost typically drive decisions on line
25 Landslides would not necessarily directly impact buried pipe unless the slide action itself were to expose the
pipe, making it subject to forces from additional landslide materials. However, even when the pipe is not
exposed, landslides may cause substantial amounts of material to end up on the ground above the buried pipe,
where the extra weight could crush or deform the buried pipe.

20

size, the number of pump stations, and the like. Grades notwithstanding, line pressure follows a
sawtooth curve between pump stations. The maximum and minimum line pressure that can be
tolerated, together with the physical properties of the materials noted earlier, dictate the spacing
of the pump stations and the motive horsepower of the pumps.

2.1.7 Product Qualities

As noted earlier, critical physical properties of the materials being transported dictate the
design and operating parameters of the pipeline. Specific gravity, compressibility, temperature,
viscosity, pour point, and vapor pressure of the material are the primary considerations. These
and other engineering design parameters are discussed in the following sections in terms of their
influence on pipeline design.

2.1.7.1 Specific Gravity/Density

The density of a liquid is its weight per unit volume. Density is usually denoted as
pounds of material per cubic foot. The specific gravity of a liquid is typically denoted as the
density of a liquid divided by the density of water at a standard temperature (commonly 60F).
By definition, the specific gravity of water is 1.00. Typical specific gravities for the distilled
petroleum products gasoline, turbine fuel, and diesel fuel are 0.73, 0.81, and 0.84, respectively.26

2.1.7.2 Compressibility
Many gases that are routinely transported by pipeline are highly compressible, some
turning into liquids as applied pressure is increased. The compressibility of such materials is
obviously critical to pipeline design and throughput capacity. On the other hand, crude oils and
most petroleum distillate products that are transported by pipeline are only slightly compressible.
Thus, application of pressure has little effect on the materials density or the volume it occupies
at a given temperature; consequently, compressibility is of only minor importance in liquid
product pipeline design. Liquids at a given temperature occupy the same volume regardless of
pressure as long as the pressure being applied is always above the liquids vapor pressure at that
temperature.

26 The density of petroleum products is more commonly expressed as API gravity, a measurement convention
independently established by the American Petroleum Institute for expressing the relative density of petroleum
liquids to water; the greater the API gravity, the less dense the material. API gravities are close to, but not
equivalent to specific gravities measured in the Baum scale, the more conventional method of representing the
density of a liquid; API gravity = (141.5/specific gravity at 60F) 131.5; thus, a petroleum liquid with an
API gravity of 10.0 at 60F has a specific gravity of 1.0 (same as water). Petroleum liquids with API gravities
greater than 10 have densities less than water and will float; those with API gravities less than 10 will sink; the
API gravity scale is calibrated such than most petroleum liquids (crude oils as well as distillate fuels) will have
API gravities between 10 and 70 API gravity degrees.

21

2.1.7.3 Temperature
Pipeline capacity is affected by temperature both directly and indirectly. In general, as
liquids are compressed for example, as they pass through a pump they will experience
slight temperature increases. Most liquids will increase in volume as the temperature increases,
provided the pressure remains constant. Thus, the operating temperature of a pipeline will affect
its throughput capacity. Lowering temperatures can also affect throughput capacity, as well as
overall system efficiency. In general, as the temperature of a liquid is lowered, its viscosity
increases, creating more frictional drag along the inner pipe walls, requiring greater amounts of
energy to be expended for a given throughput volume. Very viscous materials such as crude oils
exhibit the greatest sensitivity to the operating temperatures of their pipelines. However, in the
case of crude oils, the impacts are not only from increases to viscosity, but also due to the
solidification of some chemical fractions present in the oils. For example, crude oils with high
amounts of paraffin will begin to solidify as their temperature is lowered, and they will become
impossible to efficiently transport via a pipeline at some point.

2.1.7.4 Viscosity
From the perspective of the pipeline design engineer, viscosity is best understood as the
materials resistance to flow. It is measured in centistokes. One centistoke (cSt) is equivalent to
1.08 105 square feet per second. Resistance to flow increases as the centistoke value (and
viscosity) increases. Overcoming viscosity requires energy that must be accounted for in pump
design, since the viscosity determines the total amount of energy the pump must provide to put,
or keep, the liquid in motion at the desired flow rate. Viscosity affects not only pump selection,
but also pump station spacing. Typical viscosities for gasoline, turbine, and diesel fuels are 0.64,
7.9, and 5 to 6 cSt, respectively.

As the materials viscosity increases, so does its frictional drag against the inner walls of
the pipe. To overcome this, drag-reducing agents are added to some materials (especially some
crude oils). Such drag-reducing agents are large molecular weight (mostly synthetic) polymers
that will not react with the commodity or interfere with its ultimate function. They are typically
introduced at pump stations in very small concentrations and easily recovered once the
commodity reaches it final destination. However, often, no efforts are made to separate and
remove these agents. Drag reduction can also be accomplished by mixing the viscous commodity
with diluents. Common diluents include materials recovered from crude oil fractionation such as
raw naphtha. Diluents are used to mix with viscous crude feedstocks such as bitumen recovered
from tar sands and other very heavy crude fractions to allow their transport by pipeline from
production areas to refineries.

2.1.7.5 Pour Point

The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it ceases to pour. The pour point for
oil can be determined under protocols set forth in the ASTM Standard D-97. In general, crude

22

oils have high pour points. As with viscosity, pour points are very much a function of chemical
composition for complex mixtures such as crude oils and some distillate products, with pour
point temperatures being influenced by the precipitation (or solidification) of certain
components, such as paraffins.
Once temperatures of materials fall below their respective pour points, conventional
pipeline design and operation will no longer be effective; however, some options still exist for
keeping the pipeline functional. These include:

Heating the materials and/or insulating the pipe to keep the materials above
their pour point temperature until they reach their destination.

Introduce lightweight hydrocarbons that are miscible with the material,

thereby diluting the material and lowering both its effective viscosity and pour
point temperature.

Introduce water that will preferentially move to the inner walls of the pipe,
serving to reduce the effective coefficient of drag exhibited by the viscous
petroleum product.

Mix water with the petroleum material to form an emulsion that will exhibit
an effective lower viscosity and pour point temperature.

Modify the chemical composition before introducing the material into the
pipeline, removing those components that will be first to precipitate as the
temperature is lowered. (This tactic is effective for crude oils, but is virtually
unavailable when moving distillate products that must conform to a specific
chemical composition.)

Waxy crude can be pumped below its pour point; more pumping energy is required, but
there is no sudden change in fluid characteristics at the pour point as far as pumping
requirements are concerned. However, if pumping is stopped, more energy will be required to
put the crude in motion again than was required to keep it flowing. When flow is stopped, wax
crystals form, causing the crude to gel in the pipeline. If gelling occurs, the crude behaves as if it
had a much higher effective viscosity; consequently it may take as much as five to ten times the
energy to reestablish design flows in the pipeline than it did to support stable continuous
operation when the crudes temperature was above its pour point.
For some products such as diesel fuels that still contain some waxy components
(i.e., saturated, long-chain hydrocarbons), gelling may also occur as temperatures are lowered;
however, such gelling problems are commonplace in storage tanks and vehicle fuel tanks where
the fuel sits motionless for long period of time, but rarely materialize in pipelines where the
materials are virtually in constant motion and where their passage through pumps typically
imparts some amount of heat. Nevertheless, precipitation or gelling of products contained in
pipelines can cause significant operational difficulties and may also result in environmental

23

impacts if pipeline ruptures occur during attempts to restart the flow, when a pressure well above
design limits could result.

2.1.7.6 Vapor Pressure

The vapor pressure of a liquid represents the liquids tendency to evaporate into its
gaseous phase with temperature. Virtually all liquids exhibit a vapor pressure, which typically
increases with temperature. The vapor pressure of water increases steadily with temperature
increases, reaching its maximum of one atmosphere pressure (760 mm Hg, or 14.7 psi absolute
[psia]) at the boiling point (212F).
Vapor pressures of petroleum liquids are determined using a standardized testing
procedure and are represented as the Reid vapor pressure. Reid vapor pressures are critical to
liquid petroleum pipeline design, since the pipeline must maintain pressures greater than the Reid
vapor pressure of the material in order to keep the material in a liquid state. Blended (or
boutique) vehicle fuels, required over some periods of the year for air pollution control
purposes in some parts of the country, have unique chemical compositions and unique Reid
vapor pressures (as mixtures). Consequently, pipelines handling such fuels must constantly
monitor their vapor pressure and adjust operating conditions accordingly. Pipelines carrying
liquids with high vapor pressures can be designed to operate under a variety of flow regimes.
Single-phase flow regimes intend for the entire amount of the material in the pipeline to be in the
liquid state. Operators of single-phase liquid pipelines attempt to control pressure and flow to
maintain a full face of liquids in the pipeline, minimizing the amount of volatilization that is
allowed to occur. This maximizes system efficiency and also the longevity of system
components. Failure to maintain a full face of liquids in a single-phase liquid pipeline can result
in increased risks of fires and explosions. Single-phase liquid pipelines are the most common
designs for petroleum liquids. However, pipelines can also be designed as two-phase systems in
which both vapor and liquid phases of the material are expected to be present. The variation of
flow regimes in such two-phase systems can range from bubbles of vapor distributed in liquid to
droplets of liquid suspended in vapor. Typical vapor pressures for gasoline, turbine fuel, and
diesel fuel are 15, 2, and 2 psia, respectively.

2.1.7.7 Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number, named after Osborne Reynolds, the scientist who first proposed its
usefulness in studying fluid dynamics, is a dimensionless number that represents the ratio of the
inertial force to the viscous force that is, the ratio of the force moving a fluid to the force that
attempts to resist that movement. In a pipeline, the inertial force is related to the fluids velocity,
which is a function of the force applied to it by the pumps. The viscous force is a product of the
inherent viscosity of the fluid as well as the frictional drag created by interaction of the fluid with
the interior surface of the pipeline. A low value for a Reynolds number (<2100) suggests that the
fluid will be moved evenly, so-called laminar flow. Higher Reynolds numbers indicate that
forces applied to a fluid are much greater than the forces resisting its movement; consequently its
movement will be violent and turbulent. The Reynolds number representing the transition zone

24

between laminar and turbulent flows is called the critical Reynolds number (Rcrit), which is
typically assigned a value of 2320. The Reynolds number depends on the force applied by
pumps, the materials viscosity at operating temperature, and the physical size and crosssectional shape of the pipe through which the material is moving. Most pipeline designers select
these components to establish operating conditions near Rcrit while still delivering the desired
throughput.27

2.1.7.8 Darcy Friction Factor

Named after the French engineer Henry Darcy, the Darcy friction factor is a
dimensionless number that represents the linear relationship between the mean velocity of a
moving fluid and the pressure gradient. The Darcy friction factor is critical in determining the
necessary force capabilities of pumps as well as the spacing between pump stations to create the
desired flow (and thus throughput) of a liquids pipeline.

2.1.8 Other Design Considerations

2.1.8.1 Thermal Stresses

Except where local conditions prevent it, petroleum pipelines are typically buried. Burial
depths vary with geographic location, but are typically designed to ensure that the entirety of the
pipe is below the local frost line. At such depths, the ambient soil temperatures are relative
constant with season, although some minor variations can occur. Despite predictably stable
temperature environments, pipeline design also accounts for thermal stresses, both expansions
and contractions for the pipe and other components. Expansion joints are employed, and, in some
instances, trenches are made extra-wide to allow for lateral movements of the pipe with
temperature. Thermal expansion joints, or loops, are also critical in locations where conditions
require the pipe to be above ground, for example, at some river crossings.
Thermal stress on pipeline components can also come from internal forces. The vapors of
certain volatile hydrocarbon fuels will cause supercooling of the remaining liquids, if allowed to
escape from the pipeline system at significant rates. Such supercooling can result in thermal
cracking of pipes and pump housings.

27 Laminar flow represents a condition of greatest overall efficiency, while turbulent flow introduces vibration and
generally accelerates the wear on system components and increases the potential for system failure. Laminar
flow is thus the preferred operating condition. However, economic performance requirements necessitate that
pipelines be operated at a rate that induces turbulent flows for most commodities. Design and operational
accommodations including the use of drag-reducing agents are utilized to mitigate the negative effects while still
preserving the necessary economic margins.

25

2.1.8.2 Soil and Load Design Considerations

During the design and site preparation phases, soil samples are taken at many points
throughout to determine mechanical and thermal stability, corrosivity, and electrical
conductance. Soils and subsurface materials are also evaluated for their ability to support the
weight of the pipeline support facilities at sensitive areas, such as river crossings. Soil properties
such as seepage, slope stability, tensile strength, and soil structure are determined. Industry
standards published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) outline the necessary
site characterization studies (ASCE 2001). In addition to engineering considerations, site
characterizations regarding the presence of threatened or endangered plant species and soil
organisms may also need to be conducted.

2.1.8.3 Vertical External Load

Under most conditions, the internal pressures imposed on the pipe by moving fluids far
exceed the static pressures on the pipe from the weight of backfill and soil material above it.
Consequently, vertical external loading is not typically a matter of serious concern to pipeline
designers. However, there are some circumstances where vertical loading becomes critical,
including when pipelines pass beneath rivers, railroads, or highways (also see the discussion
below on dynamic vertical loads) or in areas with high snowfall or landslide potential.

2.1.8.4 Surface Live Loads

In addition to supporting dead loads imposed by earth cover, buried pipes may also be
exposed to superimposed concentrated or distributed live loads. Large concentrated loads, such
as those caused by truck-wheel loads, railway cars, and locomotive loads, are of most practical
interest.
Depending on the requirements of the design specification, the live-load effect may be
based on American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
HS-20 (AASHTO 1998) truck loads or American Railway Engineering Association (AREA)
Cooper E-80 railroad loads (AREMA 2006), as indicated in Table 2.1-1. The values of the liveload pressure, Pp, are given in psi and include an impact factor F = 1.5 to account for bumps and
irregularities in the travel surface. Other important impact factors are listed in Table 2.1-2. Note
that live loads depend on the depth of cover over the pipe and become negligible for HS-20 loads
when the earth cover exceeds 8 feet, and for E-80 loads when the cover exceeds 30 feet. Casings
can also be used to enhance the protection of the pipe.
Other impacts of loads on pipelines can be deforming the pipe (ovalizing), through-wall
bending, crushing side walls, and ring buckling. Because ovalizing the pipe will affect the
Reynolds number, the pipeline throughput capacity would also be impacted by such
deformations, and the deformed pipeline itself would be subject to accelerated wear and an

26
TABLE 2.1-1 Live Loads
Live Load Transferred to Pipe (lb/square inch)

Live Load Transferred to Pipe (lb/ square inch)

Height of
Cover (ft)

Highway H20a

Railway E80b

Height of
Cover (ft)

Highway H20a

Railway E80b

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12

12.5
5.56
4.17
2.78
1.74
1.39
1.22
0.69
d
d

c
26.39
23.61
18.40
16.67
15.63
12.15
11.11
7.64
5.56

14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
35

d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d

4.17
3.47
2.78
2.08
1.91
1.74
1.39
1.04
0.69
d

a
b
c
d

Simulates a 20-ton truck traffic load, with impact.

Simulates an 80,000 lb/foot railway load, with impact.
Dash corresponding to Railway E-80, and 1-foot height of cover is nonapplicable.
Negligible influence of live load on buried pipeline.

TABLE 2.1-2 Impact Factors

for Highways and Railroads
Versus Depth of Cover
Installation Surface Condition
Depth of
Cover (feet)

Highways

Railroads

0 to 1
1 to 2
2 to 3
Over 3

1.50
1.35
1.15
1.00

1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

Note: Data available from AREMA

27

increased potential for failure. Where buried pipe is subjected to large variations in cyclical
surface loads, as in the case of pipe crossing under railroad tracks or highways, federal, state, or
local regulations usually specify a minimum burial depth.28 These typically vary from 3 to
6 feet, depending on the type of crossing, the type of excavation (rock or normal excavation), the
pipe diameter, and the consequence of failure. For example, API RP 1102, Steel Pipeline
Crossing Railroads and Highways, specifies a minimum depth of cover of 6 feet under railroad
tracks and 4 feet under highway surfaces.
If the pipe is buried with less than 2 feet of cover, the continual flexing of the pipe may
cause a breakup of the road surface. If the pipe is mortar-lined or coated, the deflection limit due
to the cyclic live load should be limited to an amplitude of 1%.

2.1.8.5 Buoyancy
Burying pipelines beneath the natural water table creates unique problems and
challenges. During periods of saturation of the aquifer, pipeline segments may become buoyant,
even when filled with product. This results in a net upward force on the pipeline segment that
could be sufficient to compromise the pipes integrity. When such conditions are anticipated,
special construction techniques need to be employed. Anchoring devices or concrete coatings
over the corrosion coatings are installed to help the pipe resist the buoyant force. Mechanisms to
reduce the hydraulic pressure of the groundwater in the local area of the pipeline can also be
successfully applied.

2.1.8.6 Movements at Pipe Bends

When unusual internal or external forces are applied to the pipe, it is most likely to
respond to such forces by moving at the apex of sidebends, sagbends, and overbends. Forces that
can cause pipe movement can include a net outward force generated by internal pressure, thermal
expansions or contractions of the pipe due to temperature extremes, hydraulic pressures from
groundwater, or seismic activity in the vicinity of the pipe. Natural resistances to such forces
include the axial stiffness of the pipe itself, the bearing and shear resistance of backfill and
overburden materials, and the extent to which those materials were compacted during
construction.

2.1.8.7 Mine Subsidence

Areas where extensive longwall mining of coal or other resources has occurred represent
an increased potential for surface subsidence if mine reclamation activities were inadequate or
not performed. Although such mining can occur to depths greater than 1,000 feet, collapse of a
mined cavity can affect all overlying strata, causing bending and sagging of each and ultimately
forming a subsidence basin at the surface. Typically, the area covered by such subsidence basins
28 See, for example, DOT OPS regulations in Title 49, Part 195, of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).

28

is substantially larger than the collapsed mine cavity that caused it. The vertical displacement is
greatest at the center of a subsidence basin, but is typically less than the original height of the
collapsed cavity. Vertical displacement as well as tilting and shearing forces throughout the basin
are of greatest concern for surface structures that lie within the basins footprint. Forces on
buried linear features within the basins footprint are unique. The bending moments of the
sagging overburden strata result in horizontal forces that behave as tensile forces on the outer
portions of the basin and compressive forces closer to the center of the basin. Depending on its
exact location within the basin, a buried pipeline can be subjected to both forces. The strengths
of these forces may be sufficient to buckle pipe or tear pipe connections apart.

2.1.8.8 Effects of Nearby Blasting

Blasting in the vicinity of a pipeline typically occurs as a result of mining or nearby
construction activities. While normally an issue for existing pipelines, blasting effects may be
considered for new designs if future land-use plans are known to include the construction of an
adjacent pipeline or the development of mined areas. Pipeline stresses generated by nearby
blasting can vary greatly, depending on local variations in site conditions, the degree to which
the blast is confined, delays between multi-shot blasts, and the type of explosive used.
Expressions for peak radial ground velocity (of the resulting pressure wave) and peak pipe stress
are based on characterizing the blasting configuration as corresponding to either point or
parallel-line sources.

2.1.8.9 Fluid Transients

Rapid changes in the flow rates of liquid or two-phase piping systems can cause pressure
transients that generate pressure pulses and transient forces in the piping system. The magnitudes
of these pressure pulses and force transients are often difficult to predict and quantify. As a result
of water hammer, an unbalanced impulsive force called a thrust load is applied successively
along each straight segment of a buried pipe. This causes a pressure imbalance between
consecutive bends. Such hammering actions, if sufficiently strong and continued over long
periods of time, can compromise the pipes integrity or introduce fatigue stress cracks.

2.1.8.10 In-Service Relocation

It is commonplace to relocate short pipeline segments without taking the pipeline out of
service. The process involves careful excavation of the pipe, raising it out of its original trench,
and placing it into a prepared parallel trench. Obviously, the new path for the pipeline must be
located generally adjacent and proximate to the original path for this relocation to occur without
the need of adding new pipe segments. Causes for such relocations include accommodating a
new highway or rail crossing, performing over-the-ditch coating renovation, inspecting or
repairing pipe submerged in shallow water, or avoiding encroachment. Even though the physical
displacements of the pipe are minimal, the newly positioned pipe will be subjected to new
longitudinal stresses during its move and thereafter.

29

2.1.8.11 Earthquakes and Landslides

Landslides involve the mass movement of native surface and subsurface materials in the
uppermost portions of the soil mantle at a moderate to rapid rate (generally greater than
1 feet/year). Landslides that are characterized as catastrophic in their impacts typically involve
mass movements that are many orders of magnitude more rapid. However, landslides can also
involve slow creep of materials over a relatively long period of time to a point where adverse
impacts result. In most instances, the movement is downslope as a result of gravitational forces,
often aided by water. Landslides are initiated by a variety of forces and events, both natural
(e.g., earthquakes, seismic activity, excessive saturation of surface and subsurface soils, and
volcanism) and anthropogenic (e.g., nearby use of explosives, surface disturbances on steep
slopes brought about by construction activities without appropriate mitigation, clear-cutting of
vegetative cover, improper use of herbicides, improper management and release of precipitation).
Potential earthquake and landslide impacts to buried pipelines include transitory strains caused
by differential ground displacement and permanent ground displacement from surface faulting,
lateral spread displacement, soil mass displacement, and settlement from compaction or
liquefaction.29

2.1.8.12 Scour at Stream Crossings and Suspended Rock Crossings

Pipelines buried beneath or adjacent to rivers can be compromised over time by the
erosive force of the moving water. Scouring can occur that would displace the cover materials
and expose the pipe, subjecting it to additional lateral forces and possibly even causing sufficient
displacement to break the pipe.
High velocities of water in rocky areas or watercourses with steep banks have the highest
scouring potential. Areas prone to flooding can also experience excessive water flow velocities
during those periods that can also result in scouring action. The typical response to traversing
rivers or drainage ways with high scouring potential is to bury the pipe at greater depths or to
suspend the pipe above these areas. In addition, major river crossings are required to be
inspected every 5 years for indications of scour and/or exposed pipe.
2.1.9 Leak Detection30
Beginning on July 6, 1999, under Title 49, Part 195, of the Code of Federal Regulations
(49 CFR Part 195), DOTs OPS required all controllers of hazardous liquids pipelines engaged in
29 A common consequence of earthquakes or other events involved in severe ground shaking is liquefaction of
surface materials. Typically liquefaction occurs in soils where the pore space between soil particles is saturated
with free water. The shaking of the ground causes the water in the pore spaces to exert such force on the soil
particles that they begin acting independently of one another, resulting in the entire mass of soil taking on the
properties of a liquid capable of rapid movement and displacement.
30 Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Technical Review of Leak Detection Technologies
Volume 1: Crude Oil Transmission Pipelines. Available at http://www.dec.state.ak.us/spar/ipp/docs/ldetect1.pdf.
(Accessed July 5, 2006.)

30

pipeline leak detection to conform their programs to the objectives contained in the API
document API 1130, Computational Pipeline Monitoring.
Methods used to detect product leaks along a pipeline can be divided into two categories,
externally based (direct) or internally based (inferential). Externally based methods detect
leaking product outside the pipeline, and include traditional procedures such as ROW inspection
by line patrols, as well as technologies like hydrocarbon sensing via fiber optic or dielectric
cables. Internally based methods, also known as computational pipeline monitoring, use
instruments to monitor internal pipeline parameters (i.e., pressure, flow, temperature, etc.), which
are inputs for inferring a product release by manual or electronic computation (API 1995a).
The method of leak detection selected for a pipeline depends on a variety of factors
including pipeline characteristics, product characteristics, instrumentation and communications
capabilities, and economics (Muhlbauer 1996). Pipeline systems vary widely in their physical
characteristics and operational functions, and no one external or internal method is universally
applicable or possesses all of the features and functionality required for perfect leak detection
performance. Small leaks on large pipelines are very difficult to detect through these automated
and measurement methods.
However, the chosen system should include as many of the following desirable leak
detection utilities as possible (API 1995a):

Possesses accurate product-release alarming,

Possesses high sensitivity to product release,

Allows for timely detection of product release,

Offers efficient field and control center support,

Requires minimum software configuration and tuning,

Requires minimum impact from communication outages,

Accommodates complex operating conditions,

Is available during transients,

Is configurable to a complex pipeline network,

Performs accurate imbalance calculations on flow meters,

Is redundant,

Possesses dynamic alarm thresholds,

31

Possesses dynamic line pack constant,

Accommodates product blending,

Accounts for heat transfer,

Provides the pipeline systems real-time pressure profile,

Accommodates slack-line and multiphase flow conditions,

Accommodates all types of liquids,

Identifies leak location,

Identifies leak rate,

Accommodates product measurement and inventory compensation for various

corrections (i.e., temperature, pressure, and density), and

Accounts for effects of drag-reducing agent.

An overview and evaluation of some of the various commercially available systems for
use in liquid pipeline leak detection is available from the Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation website.31

2.1.10 Overpressure Protection

A pipeline operator typically conducts a surge analysis to ensure that the surge pressure
does not exceed 110% of the maximum operating pressure (MOP). The pressure-relief system
must be designed and operated at or below the MOP except under surge conditions. In a blocked
line, thermal expansion is a concern, especially if the line is above ground.

2.1.11 Valve Spacing and Rapid Shutdown

The spacings of valves and other devices capable of isolating any given segment of a
pipeline are driven by two principal concerns: (1) maintaining the design operating conditions of
the pipeline with respect to throughput and flexibility and (2) facilitate maintenance or repairs
without undue disruption to pipeline operation and rapid shutdown of pipeline operations during
upset or abnormal conditions. Valve spacing and placement along the mainline are often selected
with the intention of limiting the maximum amount of material in jeopardy of release during
upset conditions or to isolate areas of critical environmental concern to the greatest extent
31 http://www.dec.state.ak.us/spar/ipp/docs/ldetect1.pdf. Follow the link to Leak Detection Technology
Evaluation. (Accessed December 7, 2006.)

32

possible. Valves designed to prevent the backward flow of product in the event of a pump failure
(check valves) will also be installed in critical locations. Valves may also be required on either
side of an exceptionally sensitive environmental area traversed by the pipeline. Finally, valves
will be installed to facilitate the introduction and recovery of pigs for pipeline cleaning and
monitoring. They also are required to be installed at river crossings over 100 feet wide. The
design of these must comply with regulations and industry best practices.

2.1.12 Pumps and Pumping Stations

Desired material throughput values as well as circumstantial factors along the pipeline
route are considered in designing and locating pump stations. Desired operating pressures and
grade changes dictate individual pump sizes and acceptable pressure drops (i.e., the minimum
line pressure that can be tolerated) along the mainline; grade changes also dictate the placements
of the pump stations. Pump stations are often fully automated, but can also be designed to be
manned and to include ancillary functions such as serving as pig launching or recovery facilities
or serving as the base from which inspections of mainline pipe are conducted. Because there are
a multitude of ways in which the desired operating conditions can be obtained and sustained, the
outfitting and location of pump stations are also often influenced by economics, typically
representing a compromise between few large-capacity pump stations and a greater number of
smaller-capacity stations. The overall length of the pipeline (to its terminal destination) and the
flexibility needed to add or remove materials along the course of the pipeline also dictate pump
station placement.
At a minimum, pump stations include pumps (components that actually contact the fluids
in the pipeline and provide kinetic energy) and prime movers (power sources that provide power,
typically some form of mechanical energy) to the pumps. To facilitate maintenance and to
prevent disruptions of pipeline operation as a result of equipment failure, most pump stations use
several pumps arranged in parallel fashion. Typically, all but one of the pumps is capable of
producing the desired operating pressures and throughputs, so some pump is constantly off-line
and in standby. Pump stations also represent locations where ownership or custody of the
material is transferred. For the sake of accountability, such pump stations are also equipped with
flow monitoring devices. Pump stations typically also have colocated facilities that support
pipeline operation or facilitate shutdowns or maintenance on pipeline segments. Thus, breakout
tanks for temporary storage of materials or for use in managing line pressures and controlling
product surges are also present at pump stations. Finally, pump stations are, in some instances,
colocated with terminal or breakout tankage facilities.
Although certain pump designs are preferred for certain applications, all pumps require
regular maintenance and are subject to failure from a variety of factors. Pump maintenance,
therefore, is critical to continued safe performance of pipeline systems.

33

2.1.12.1 Pump Designs

Pumps of various designs are used in crude oil and petroleum product pipelines. Selection
of pump design is based on desired efficiency as well as the physical properties of the materials
being moved, especially viscosity and specific gravity. The pumps head pressure, or the
pressure differential it can attain, is critical for selecting pumps that are capable of moving fluids
over elevation changes.
Two fundamental pump designs are in common use: centrifugal pumps and positive
displacement pumps. Centrifugal pumps are preferred for moving large volumes of material at
moderate pressure, while positive displacement pumps are selected for moving small volumes of
material at higher line pressures. Centrifugal pumps consist of two main components: the
impeller and the volute. The impeller, the only rotating component of the pump, converts the
energy it receives from the force that causes its rotation into kinetic energy in the fluid being
pumped, while the volute converts the kinetic energy of the fluid into pressure. Positive
displacement pumps can be of various designs; however, two designs predominate in pipeline
applications: reciprocating and rotating pumps. Rotating pumps are often the pump design of
choice for viscous fluids such as crude oils. Unlike a centrifugal pump where power demands
rise sharply with increasing fluid viscosity, the performance of rotating pumps is generally
unaffected by variations in either fluid viscosity or line pressure.

2.1.12.2 Driver Selection

The component that actually provides power to the pump is referred to as the prime
mover. A wide variety of primer movers are in use, including electric motors, gas turbines, and
diesel internal combustion engines. In recent years, most long-distance transmission pipelines
have begun using electric motors or gas turbines. Virtually any prime-mover pump design
combination is possible, with decisions resting primarily on the physical properties of the fluids
being pumped, the desired throughputs, operating pressures, and transport speeds for the pipeline
and for logistical needs such as meeting operating parameters, availability of power or fuel for
the prime mover, and compatibility with SCADA systems in use and the sensors they rely on.
Initial costs and maintenance demands can also influence selection. In terms of initial costs,
electric motors are far less expensive than any other option. Operating costs (measured as
$/brake horsepower/year) are generally uniform across all options; however, overall efficiencies
of electric motors are substantially better than other options. When maintenance costs are
considered, times between major overhauls of prime movers vary, with electric motors and
industrial turbines expected to require the fewest overhauls over time (Kennedy 1993).32

32 Cost data are from 1981 and may not be relevant any longer, since technologies for all of the prime movers have
advanced; however, the relative costs between prime movers are expected to be generally unchanged.

34

2.1.13 Pigging Devices and Pig Launching/Receiving Facilities

Pipeline pigs come in a wide variety of sizes and designs. Pigs are inserted into the
pipeline while it is operational and are carried along by the fluid being pumped. Because they are
solid devices constructed of various materials including metal, plastics, and rubber derivatives,
pigs must be removed before reaching the next pump. Typically, pig traps, launchers, and
recovery facilities are colocated with pump stations. Pigs are designed to perform a wide array of
functions. Their basic purpose is threefold: (1) provide a way to clean debris and scale from the
inside of the pipe, (2) inspect or monitor the condition of the pipe, (3) or act as a plug or seal to
separate products in multi-product commercial pipelines or to isolate a segment for repair
without depressurizing the remainder of the pipeline. Pigs designed to clean the pipe can use
mechanical means (often called scraper pigs) or chemicals. Pigs that monitor the condition of the
pipe are categorized as in-line inspection tools. Monitoring pigs, also sometimes called
instrument pigs or smart pigs, can perform a wide variety of functions. Geometry pigs check
for deformation of the pipe (which can greatly influence throughput efficiencies, but can also be
an early indicator of significant problems that could compromise pipeline integrity). Pipeline
curvature, temperature and pressure profiles, bend measurements, corrosion detection, crack
detection, leak detection, and product sampling represent some of the other major functions
performed by smart pigs. Magnetic flux leakage and ultrasonic technologies are employed for
some of these inspections. Another type of pig recently developed is the gel pig. As the name
implies, gel pigs consist of a series of gelled liquids that are introduced for a variety of purposes,
including serving as a separator between products in a multi-product pipeline, collecting debris
(especially after initial construction or repairs that involved opening the pipeline, and dewatering
the pipeline. Figure 2.1-2 provides examples of the various types of pigs in use today, while
Figure 2.1-3 depicts the typical configuration of a pig launching/recovery facility.

2.1.14 Distribution Terminals

Marketing and distribution terminals temporarily store products removed from the
pipeline. There also may be loading racks and transfer operations. In most instances, terminals
are proximate to, but not necessarily within the pipeline ROW, even if the terminal is owned and
operated by the pipeline operator.

2.1.15 Measurement and Flow Control

2.1.15.1 SCADA
A typical SCADA system collects data from, and supervises control of, third-party
programmable logic controllers at each of the pipelines pumping stations, mainline valves, and
other areas where monitoring of critical conditions takes place. Along the entire length of the
pipeline, block valves are remotely monitored and controlled using advanced real-time SCADA
processors designed to support complex remote applications. The communications for the system

35

FIGURE 2.1-2 Examples of the Types of Pigs in Use Today

(Source: Photos courtesy of T.D. Williamson, Inc.
Reproduced with permission.)

36

FIGURE 2.1-3 Pig Launcher/Receiver (Source: Image courtesy of the Pigging Products and
Services Association. Reproduced with permission.)

is typically over the Ethernet and fiber optic lines as the backbone, backed up by public switched
telephone networks.
SCADA system designs vary widely, but there are elements common to all. Operational
data for liquid pipelines must be gathered from locations that are distributed widely across large
geographical areas. Measurement transducers are polled frequently. To efficiently perform basic
functions, data must be accessible by operations personnel located in the field and at a central
pipeline control center. Operations are monitored and controlled using SCADA systems that
provide thousands of data signals to pipeline controllers and operators. Some data are provided at
intervals of a few seconds, other data are provided at intervals of a few minutes, and still others
on an hourly or daily basis. As data are updated, the superseded older data are normally stored
for a period of time to support system audits, identify trends (both good and bad), and establish a
historical operating record.
SCADA systems are configured with a variety of instrumentation. Electrical signals from
measurement devices are typically converted to engineering units in computers, referred to as
remote terminal units (RTUs), which are located at measurement sites. Communication links are
provided by radio, cell phone, private microwave, leased line, or satellite. Polling frequencies
can be predetermined or on-demand.
Data from a given area of operations are often concentrated in computers at field offices,
which are distributed throughout the pipeline system. SCADA software running on these field
computers provides operational data and control to local operations personnel. Central computers
located at a companys pipeline control center, in turn, poll field computers. SCADA software
runs on the central computers to provide pipeline controllers with displays of operational data
and remote control capabilities.
With so much data available at such high frequency, the effectiveness of the SCADA
system hinges on appropriate data presentation, analysis, and alarming. A variety of data
presentations are used to transform basic data into information. Trends, schematics, and other
graphics are used to convey large amounts of data, which vary over time, in a concise and
informative format. Often operational data is superimposed on facility and pipeline schematics,
permitting presentation of the data in an operational context. Alarms are used to indicate that
operating conditions are approaching or have exceeded prescribed tolerances. Attention can then

37

be focused on problem diagnosis and appropriate actions. In addition to data collection and
display, SCADA systems also often include data validation programs that seek to validate each
piece of data before using it to support a calculation or represent a condition. Frequent and, in
some cases, continuous data validation has been shown to greatly increase the sensitivity of the
system while reducing incidents of false alarms.
SCADA systems at remote control centers provide operators with complete operational
information about the pipeline system in one location. Typical information includes:

Pipeline mimic/displays. The complete pipeline can be mimicked to provide

the operator with instantaneous visual feedback on the status of any portion of
the pipeline, including pumps, valves, tanks, etc. These visual schematics
include overviews of the entire pipeline system or systems and drill-down
screens that take the viewer to an individual location or piece of equipment.

Pump, compressor, and other equipment status. Equipment operation can be

displayed with status (on/off) and other critical parameters associated with a
piece of equipment such as flow, discharge pressure, vibration, case
temperature, etc.

Valve status. Valve information can be displayed with valve positions

(open/throttle/closed) depicted.

Alarms and alerts. Alarms and other operational indications are immediately
available for operator response where complete system status is known and, in
many cases, can be displayed. These can alert the controller to an unusual or
abnormal operating situation or remind the controller about upcoming
operating changes that need to be initiated. Often, system configurations allow
the operator to intervene to validate the alarm or to take the necessary
corrective actions. When operator intervention does not occur with a
prescribed time frame, the system will automatically initiate actions that have
been predetermined as being appropriate, given the circumstances.

Analytical tools. Trending history and other analytical tools and graphical aids
are available to assist personnel in their decision making under routine,
abnormal, and emergency conditions.

The SCADA system is the central feature of a remote control center. Because the flow of
product in the pipeline is typically a 24-hour-a-day, 7-day-a-week operation, the remote control
centers are staffed continuously in order to monitor and maintain this round-the-clock operation.
Due to the data being transmitted from potentially many miles away, the operator oftentimes
must respond to the alarm and direct a corresponding response from the remote control center
based on the information depicted on the display provided by the SCADA system; however, in
other cases, decisions are made in conjunction with personnel located in the field at the affected
location(s).

38

2.1.15.2 Telecommunication Towers

In all SCADA systems, the master terminal unit (MTU) and RTUs communicate through
a defined network of some type. The early systems utilized wired communications, either private
hard-wired systems owned by the operator (usually practical only for short distances) or the
public switched phone network. Today there are still many systems using public phone systems,
encompassing both wire and fiber optics technology. These facilities allow remote monitoring of
the pipeline and communication with valves, compressors, and personnel during operation.
Most new systems, and many retrofits, are using some form of wireless communications.
Many pipelines own their own microwave infrastructure, including dedicated towers and radio
frequencies licensed by the Federal Communications Commission. There are also systems using
frequencies in the very high frequency (VHF) and ultrahigh frequency (UHF) ranges. These
operators may own the communication towers or lease space on towers from other
communication system operators. Many newer systems make use of low-power radio
transmissions, such as spread-spectrum technology, to avoid the licensing requirements. Satellite
communications are also used for long-distance and rugged-terrain communications.
SCADA systems can also operate on cell phone technology, such as the Cellular Digital
Packet Data. This requires no dedicated lines or other infrastructure, such as an antenna tower.
Some SCADA systems operate directly through the Internet, thus eliminating certain
maintenance concerns for the operator, but also simultaneously introducing cyber security
concerns.

2.1.16 Risk of Natural Hazards and Human Threats

Natural and man-made hazards, such as shaking from earthquakes, flooding, and even
human chemical, biological, or nuclear attacks can cause harm to pipeline components, such as
pump stations, pipelines segments, and storage tanks, etc. Information in the following
paragraphs was adapted from guidance published by the American Lifelines Alliance (ALA) and
the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) (ALA and FEMA 2005). Table 2.1-3
provides a summary of the degree of vulnerability of each type of pipeline component to damage
or disruption by these natural or man-made disasters.

2.2 COLOCATION ISSUES IN CORRIDORS

Colocation of energy transmission systems within designated energy ROWs may result in
some interference between the systems or other hazards that would not exist except for the
physical proximity of the two transmission systems. The paragraphs below identify some of the
possible unique consequences of colocation of such systems within an energy ROW.

39

2.2.1 Fire Hazards

The proximity of pipelines carrying volatile materials raises the potential of a fire in one
transmission system causing heating, stress, and/or rupture in another one. The normal distance
between buried pipelines will probably prevent significant transfer of heat underground.
However, care should be taken at locations where the pipelines exit the ground, such as at pump
and compressor stations and road/river crossings, to ensure adequate separation of lines and
facilities or additional insulation and fire protection.
In the event of a fire in a petroleum pipeline, overhead electricity transmission lines could
be damaged if adequate distance is not maintained.

2.2.2 Coincident Construction

Coincident construction of two separate energy transmission systems within a designated
corridor raises some potential problems if the construction activities are not well coordinated and
well scheduled. Because of the proximity of two major construction activities, workers on one
construction project may be exposed to hazards of the other. Logistics become quite complicated
with both construction activities vying for the same transportation services and the same
equipment laydown areas and using the same access roads to approach their respective
construction sites with manpower and heavy equipment. On the other hand, with construction
activities closely coordinated, impacts could be lessened, since opportunities are created for
multiple uses of access roads, laydown areas, and other support systems that may be common to
both construction processes.

2.2.3 Electrical Interference

The question of the impact of the colocation of metallic pipelines and high-voltage
transmission lines can be framed by three broad concepts: (a) influence, (b) coupling, and
(c) susceptibility. Other issues that add to the overall impact are identified and discussed below.
Influence can be thought of as the sum total of the magnetic induction and ground-return
currents. Coupling can be thought of as the distance between the source of the magnetic
induction (power line) and the objects being affected (pipelines). Susceptibility relates to the
vulnerability of the induction element (i.e., the metallic pipeline) to induced and ground-return
currents.
Colocation may mean that the pipelines are located on an electric utility ROW directly
underneath the power lines, usually buried in earth. This is the worse case for the coupling of
magnetic induction currents, since the separation between the power line and the pipeline is very
small. Thus, the full effect of the magnetic induction from the power line into the pipeline takes
place.

TABLE 2.1-3 Degree of Component Vulnerability to Damage or Disruption from Natural Hazards and Human Threats
Degree of Vulnerability

Hazards

Human Threats
Physical attack (biological,
chemical, radiological and
blast)
Cyber attack

Pump
Stations

Compressor
Stations

Processing
Facilities

Storage
Tanks

Control
Systems

L
H

H
L

L
L

L
H (Buried)

M
M

H (Buried)

L (Aerial)
L
M
L

H
H

H
H

H
H

H
M

M
H

L
H

L
H

L
L
L

M
M

Pressure
Regulating/
Metering
Stations

Distribution
Pipelines

Service
Lines or
Connectors

Note: Degrees of Vulnerability: H-High, M-Moderate, L-Low, and (dash) for not applicable. Comments such as (Buried) or (Aerial) apply to location of the component listed
as the column heading.

40

Natural Hazards
Earthquake shaking
Earthquake permanent ground
deformation (fault rupture,
liquefaction, landslide and
settlement)
Ground movements (landslide,
frost heave, settlement)
Flooding (riverine, storm
surge, tsunami and seiche)
Wind (hurricane, tornado)
Icing
Collateral hazard: blast or fire
Collateral hazard: dam
inundation
Collateral hazard: nearby
collapse

Transmission
Pipelines

Maintenance
and
Operations
Buildings
and
Equipment

41

Alternating current (AC) induction will be reduced for power lines that parallel pipelines
but are located to the right or left of the pipelines, rather than directly above. For example, the
magnitude of the induced currents and voltages will be reduced by a factor that is inversely
proportional to the distance from the centerline. As the separation between the power line and the
pipeline increases, radically smaller values of current and voltage will be induced. In many
cases, especially under ideal conditions, the induced currents and voltages would be minimal
beyond 300 to 500 feet.
Each of the three broad concepts of influence, coupling, and susceptibility is highly
variable for every situation, and each power-line and pipeline scenario must be considered
separately. The system design, materials, and construction methods can themselves go a long
way toward minimizing overall susceptibility of pipeline systems to magnetic induction and
damage due to electrolysis and lightning.
The pipeline industry has devoted considerable attention to the potential problem of
interferences presented by nearby electricity transmission systems. The mechanisms of
electromagnetic interferences between power systems and nearby buried pipelines have been
generally placed in one of three categories: inductive coupling, conductive coupling, and
capacitive coupling (Li and Dawalibi 2006). Computer models have been developed to
approximate the contributions of each type of interference on pipelines existing within various
ROW scenarios and to predict the effectiveness of mitigative techniques (Dawalibi et al. 2006;
Christoforidis et al. 2001; Borts et al. 2006). During normal operating conditions of the
electricity transmission system, only inductive voltages are imparted to the pipeline as a result of
the magnetic field around the electric current conductors. Interferences increase with decreasing
physical separation and the angle between the power conductors and the pipeline, with the
greatest interference levels being observed when the pipeline is parallel to and directly below the
conductors. Interference also increases with increasing soil resistivity and with the increasing
magnitude and frequency of the electric power being transmitted. The effects of abnormal
conditions in the electrical system such as faults have also been investigated
(Christoforidis et al. 2005). Faulted conditions can impart conductive interference to the pipeline.
The magnitude of this conductive interference is influenced by such factors as soil resistivity, the
electrical transmission lines grounding system, and the separation distance between the ground
fault and the pipeline. During faults, both inductive and conductive interferences are present,
placing in jeopardy both the pipeline and the pipeline workers in the vicinity.
Research sponsored by the Ductile Iron Pipeline Research Association has further
established the factors that can influence the three coupling mechanisms of capacitance,
conductance, and induction (Bonds 1999). The severity of the effect that overhead power lines
can have on buried pipelines depends on a number of factors, including primarily the electrically
continuous length of pipeline that is parallel to the overhead line, the strength and nature
(e.g., number of phases) of the electric power, soil resistivity, the continuity of the corrosion
control coating or other wrapping on the pipe, and how well the pipe is otherwise (electrically)
insulated from the ground. Bare pipe that is in continuous contact with the ground is effectively
at the same electrical potential as the neutral ground wires of the overhead lines, so there is little
if any potential for current to flow between the two systems. Ironically, improvements in pipeline
coatings applied for the purpose of corrosion control can be counterproductive with respect to

42

interferences from electricity transmission systems, effectively isolating the iron pipe from the
ground and allowing considerable amounts of induced voltage to build up in the pipe.
Construction techniques can also greatly influence the extent of interference between
power lines and buried pipelines. Pipeline segments are typically 20 feet long and connected to
adjacent segments by rubber gaskets, effectively isolating each pipe segment and making the
entire pipeline electrically discontinuous. As noted above, installation mechanisms that involve
tightly wrapping the pipe and/or applying a continuous corrosion control coating can make the
pipe more susceptible to interferences from induced currents of nearby power lines, since those
techniques can prevent the pipeline from remaining at the same electrical potential as the ground
(and as the neutral wire of the electricity transmission system). To overcome this problem,
ductile pipe manufacturers recommend a loose wrapping of polyethylene that still provides
sufficient path to ground to keep the pipe and the neutral ground wires of adjacent power lines at
the same potential. Some mitigative techniques have been shown to not only reduce induced AC
voltages effectively and economically, but to simultaneously provide cathodic protection for the
pipeline (Southey et al. 1994).
As noted earlier, the precise alignment of the electric field with respect to pipeline
orientation is critical to the severity of the potential interference. PC-based software is available
that allows for calculation of both steady-state and fault-induced voltages on pipelines paralleling
high-voltage overhead AC power lines.33
Experience has shown that colocation of electricity transmission lines and buried metallic
pipelines creates additional monitoring, testing, and/or preemptive actions by the pipeline
operator, especially after certain events have occurred. The following conditions and potential
problems are unique to colocated pipelines:

Phase fault currents. Fault currents dumped to ground will naturally follow a
path of least resistance involving the soil and the metallic pipeline. There can
be many different scenarios depending on the resistance of the pipeline and
the resistance of the surrounding soil.

Lightning strike currents. Instantaneous lightning currents can be very high, in

excess of hundreds of thousands of amperes. As a result, these currents can
stress the electrical system such that breakdown and flashover occur at weak
points, resulting in damage. If the damage is not repaired, there will be
continued deterioration and ultimately system failure. An explosive effect may
be associated with a direct lightning strike, which can cause significant
damage not only to the electric system, but also to nearby buried pipelines.
Thorough inspections of affected areas of the electricity transmission system,
as well as nearby pipeline segments, are warranted after lightning strikes have
occurred.

33 See, for example, http://www.prci.com/publications/L51835.htm. (Accessed December 12, 2006.)

43

AC-induced corrosion. AC-induced corrosion may result in significant metal

loss and a significant threat to the integrity of the pipeline.

Impacts on pipeline cathodic protection systems. Some pipelines are protected

by an impressed-current cathodic protection system (CPS). A CPS is intended
to minimize the loss of metal in the pipeline due to electrolysis. Because the
currents applied in a CPS are typically quite low (in the milliamp range),
nearby electromagnetic fields from electricity transmission lines can disrupt
proper CPS operation. Interferences from nearby electricity transmission lines
can be compounded where multiple pipelines exist, each with its own CPS.
Increased monitoring of CPS function is warranted for pipeline segments in
close proximity to electricity transmission systems.

Compromised insulating coatings and pipeline joints. There may be damage

to the pipeline insulating coating as a result of induced voltage. This can
happen at underground sections of pipeline, as a consequence of the
application of an excessive voltage stress across the pipeline coating.
Likewise, insulating joints used to electrically isolate aboveground pipeline
segments from those belowground, or to electrically isolate separate CPSs
serving adjacent pipeline segments, can also be compromised by induced
voltage.

Electrical shorts between carriers. Many times, there can be electrical shorts
between the CPSs of adjacent pipelines. When two independent CPSs exist,
special field techniques are required to monitor for such shorts.

Polarized pipe. Metal pipelines in proximity to electricity transmission lines

may become electrically polarized, requiring special techniques to reveal the
electrical potential differences between the pipe and the soil with which it is in
contact; this is a critical consideration in designing and implementing an
appropriate CPS for the pipeline.

Review, testing, and documentation of electrostatic or capacitive interference.

When electromagnetic interference is possible, studies are warranted to ensure
the safety of personnel and other pipeline assets and that a CPS is not
adversely affected.

Review, testing, and documentation of resistive or ohmic interference. When

lightning strikes a transmission structure, or when there is a phase-ground
fault, it is important to measure and document the severity of the ohmic
interference that has resulted and to verify that adverse impacts to nearby
pipelines have not occurred.

Review, testing, and documentation of electromagnetic or inductive

interference. Phase imbalances in nearby electricity transmission lines can
result in inductive interferences in metallic pipelines that are close to and

44

parallel with the transmission lines. Special investigations of adverse impacts

to pipelines are warranted in the aftermath of such phase imbalance events.

Review, testing, and documentation of contact voltages. Contact voltages may

cause AC current to flow to ground through a person touching the line.
Therefore, to ensure worker safety, measurements to identify the existence of
such conditions must be routinely made and mitigative actions taken, when
necessary.

45

3 PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

Designing and constructing a pipeline is a major undertaking, requiring a wide variety of

engineering and construction skills. While is conceivable that a large pipeline operator would
have the internal resources (both trained and experienced manpower and equipment) to
undertake all phases of pipeline construction, it is more likely that virtually all of the major
phases of construction will be contracted out to companies possessing the necessary expertise
and capacities to complete the task. While that guarantees the critical requirements of pipeline
construction will be met, it also introduces the need to control logistics to ensure that all
contractor activities are coordinated and not mutually exclusive of one another.
Construction can take place within a relatively narrow ROW because pipeline
construction equipment is distributed along the pipeline route in a type of moving assembly
line in which only one major item of construction equipment is normally needed at any one
point along the line. The distance along the pipeline over which this equipment is deployed is
relatively short, typically less than a mile, but there may be several sets of construction
equipment operational along the pipeline route at any given time. These complete sets of
equipment for ditching, welding, coating, lowering in, and backfilling are called spreads.
A single pipeline may be built using several spreads, reducing the overall construction period,
but also increasing the amount of people and secondary resources required to support them. A
very large pipeline project may even be divided into two or more segments, and different
construction contractors may be used to install each segment. Various construction activities may
also occur simultaneously on a number of segments. Each of these contractors may field several
spreads to build a segment.
The actual installation of the pipeline includes these major steps:
1. Clearing the ROW as needed.
2. Ditching.
3. Stringing pipe joints along the ROW.
4. Welding the pipe joints together.
5. Applying a coating and wrapping the exterior of the pipe (except for the
portions of the pipe at each end, which is sometimes coated before being
delivered to the job site).
6. Lowering the pipeline into the ditch.
7. Backfilling the ditch.
8. Testing the line for leaks.

46

9. Cleanup and drying the pipeline after testing to prepare it for operation.
10. Reclaiming impacted environmental areas.
Brief discussions of each of these major steps are provided in the following paragraphs.
Images representative of each topic are also provided to augment the discussion. However, many
more images and engineering schematics are available than are provided below. The reader is
invited to consult the following Internet websites, which provide additional imagery relating to
pipeline siting and construction: http://www.uspipeline.com/html/photo_gallery.html and
http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=10595201.

3.1 SCHEDULING
Summer to fall months offer the best times for construction in mountains, due to lower
water tables and expected better weather.34 Working around the clock may become more
important for areas at higher elevations. For pipelines installed in lowland areas or areas that are
perpetually wet, major construction may need to occur in the winter months when frozen ground
allows access by heavy construction equipment with minimal damage. Likewise, pipelines
crossing agricultural lands may need to be installed in the winter months to not disrupt
agricultural activities. However, subfreezing conditions may preempt the application and proper
curing of certain corrosion control coatings that, by necessity, must be field-applied.

3.2 PRECONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES

3.2.1 Survey and Mapping

Numerous surveying and mapping operations are essential not only for pipeline
construction, but to support various engineering decisions, including calculations of desired flow
capacity of the completed system, foundation designs, pump sizing, and pump station spacing
along the route. Surveying will also identify unique circumstantial factors that must be
accommodated during construction (e.g., sensitive environmental areas, archeological or cultural
resources) and possible interferences to construction and/or operation (e.g., nearby utilities,
buried or otherwise). While many types of surveys are dictated by regulation, others are also
routinely conducted as a matter of prudent industry practice. Various types of surveys are
possible, each satisfying a specific purpose or need. The types of surveys typically associated
with long-distance, land-based pipeline installation and operation are itemized below
(Ricketts 2003).

34 However, under certain conditions (e.g., perpetually wet areas), construction may best be conducted in winter
months when the ground is frozen, allowing better and safer access to the ROW than might exist when the
ground is not frozen. Construction during winter months may also be less disruptive to adjacent agricultural
activities.

47

Geodetic surveying takes into account curvature of the Earth. Applicable for
large areas, long lines, and used to precisely locate basic reference points used
for controlling other surveys.

Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys are usually closed surveys that
establish property lines and corners. Cadastral surveys are typically conducted
only for public lands.

Topographic surveys provide the location of natural and artificial features and
the elevations used in mapmaking. Information on elevation (more precisely,
elevation changes) is critical to the design and location of pump stations.

Route surveys typically connect control or reference points by the most direct
routes possible, given field conditions. Route surveys may need to be
amended in those instances when the most direct route encounters obstacles or
features to be avoided (e.g., severe grade changes, environmentally sensitive
areas, etc.). Nevertheless, route surveys are conducted to establish the most
direct paths between control points, which are then amended based on field
conditions.

Construction surveys are conducted during the construction phase to ensure

design specifications are met.

As-built surveys are conducted after construction has been completed as a way
to verify that design specifications were met or to capture the changes to
original design specifications that were required to be made to adjust to field
conditions.

Hydrographic surveys are required for all water crossings of pipelines to

determine the shoreline and depths of the water bodies being crossed.

Satellite surveying provides positioning data and imagery captured by

satellites. Doppler and global positioning data are used as standard practice in
remote regions and on subdivided lands where other ground-based reference
points may not exit.

Global positioning system (GPS) data are collected simultaneously by as

many as 24 or a minimum of six high-altitude navigational satellites
positioned in three orbital planes to precisely locate a point on the surface of
the Earth.

Inertial surveying systems are installed on helicopters or ground vehicles to

acquire coordinate data that are then used to control precision of geodetic and
cadastral surveys.

48

Photogrammetric data acquisition derives from aerial photographs, unique

terrestrial data, or other sensors that can be used to support any of the surveys
described above.

3.2.2 Staging Areas

In addition to laydown areas along the ROW, on a large project, centralized pipeline
staging areas may be located in nearby cities with rail offloading capability where pipe can be
collected and prepositioned. These areas could be 15 to 30 acres in size. In addition, another
10- to 30-acre area may be required for use as a construction support yard that will serve as an
assembly point for construction crews to meet prior to proceeding onto the ROW and for offices,
storage trailers, and fuel tanks. See the additional discussion in Section 3.3.1 below.

3.2.3 Soil and Geology Studies

Soil deposits can be divided into six geologic groups: aeolian, alluvial, colluvial, glacial,
marine, and residual. The Unified Soil Classification System classifies all soils as coarse, finegrained, or predominantly organic. Physical properties of relevance include water content, degree
of saturation, porosity (the volume of space between soil particles), and void ratio (volume of
pore space to the total volume of soil). Index parameters for soils include the liquid limit, the
plastic limit, the shrinkage limit, shear strength (the amount of force required to separate soil
particles), deformability (changes of shape in response to external forces), and the relative
density. Measuring and understanding these and other physical parameters of soil will allow
design engineers to anticipate how the soil will behave under certain conditions, especially how
it will react to external stresses. Arctic conditions present additional, unique challenges. For
example, the presence of permafrost (free water in the pore spaces of uppermost layers of soil
remaining frozen throughout the year) markedly changes the character and behavior of soils and
must be accommodated by specialized construction and operation techniques. Of particular
concern is the potential for latent heat of the commodity being transported to be transmitted to
the permafrost, thus destabilizing pipeline installation. In areas of variable permafrost
(i.e., permafrost that may occasionally melt and refreeze), pipelines are often installed above
ground, along with special construction of support members to prevent heat transfer to the soil.
Rock is commonly characterized by its type, degree of alteration (weathering), and continuity of
the core from core samples. Rock quality indices include fracture frequency and rock-quality
designation. Other considerations are floodplains, active earthquake areas, and hurricane and
tornado risks.

3.3 CONSTRUCTION
Standard pipeline construction is composed of specific activities including survey and
staking of the ROW; clearing and grading; trenching; pipe stringing, bending, welding, and
lowering-in; backfilling; hydrostatic testing; and cleanup. In addition to standard pipeline
construction methods, the pipeline construction contractor would use special construction

49

techniques where warranted by site-specific conditions. Rugged terrain, waterbodies, wetlands,

paved roads, highways, and railroads all dictate special construction techniques.
Pipeline ROWs can vary in their cross-sectional details as they accommodate unique
circumstantial factors or features. A comprehensive treatment of the various design variations
that are required to address every conceivable circumstance is beyond the scope of this
document. However, interested readers can consult the following Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission (FERC) website for a more exhaustive display of ROW cross sections:
http://elibrary.ferc.gov/idmws/common/OpenNat.asp?fileID=10595201.35 Selected images from
that website which exemplify the most typical situations encountered are reproduced below.
The typical ROW, as depicted in Figure 3.3-1, includes area for topsoil segregation,
which is done in some situations.36 Overburden soils are stockpiled to one side as the pipeline
trench is dug. This typically requires an area ranging from 15 to 35 feet aligned parallel to the
pipeline. Additional areas may be required to segregate topsoils. The other side of the pipeline

FIGURE 3.3-1 Typical ROW with Topsoil Segregation (Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass
LNG Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

35 This website provides access to Appendix D of the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) for the Golden
Pass LNG Terminal and Pipeline Project issued by FERC in 2005. The entire FEIS is available electronically at
http://www.ferc.gov/industries/lng/enviro/eis/06-03-05-eis.asp. (Accessed January 4, 2007.)
36 In virtually all instances, the natural native soil horizon will be reestablished after pipeline installation is
complete, and the disturbed area will be revegetated using indigenous plant species or species approved by the
landowner. However trees and woody plants whose roots could compromise pipe integrity would not be
replanted in the vicinity of the pipe.

50

trench is used for equipment access and work. This typically requires 25 to 30 feet, but can
include additional workspace or staging areas. This construction area is wider at stream and river
crossings to accommodate the additional construction requirements.
Figure 3.3-2 shows a typical ROW with an adjacent pipeline in place. In this example, the
full 25-foot ROW boundary on each side of each pipeline is maintained and should be sufficient
for two pipelines, since construction can take place to either side. However, if multiple pipelines
are running in parallel and transmission systems of other types are present, such as power lines,
issues of construction and maintenance repairs require further consideration. Section 2.1.8.2
provides further information on load and penetration risks.
In addition to the ROW shown in the above figures, additional laydown areas, typically
250 feet 450 feet (variable with individual project requirements and terrain) are adjacent to the
ROW at intervals corresponding to the spreads being worked.
The ROW must be maintained free of trees and brush that could pose a fire hazard or
obstruct visual identification of leaks. Trees and other woody plants also need to be eliminated
from the ROW to prevent their roots from challenging the integrity of the pipeline by intrusion.
Figure 3.3-3 below shows typical permanent ROW maintenance in forested areas.

FIGURE 3.3-2 Typical ROW with Adjacent Pipeline (Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass
LNG Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

51

FIGURE 3.3-3 Typical ROW Maintenance in Forested Areas

(Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass LNG Terminal and Pipeline
Project image)

3.3.1 Movement and Staging of Pipeline Components and Construction Equipment

Pipe segments are normally delivered from their point of manufacture by rail to a rail
off-loading yard conveniently located to the construction ROW (see Figure 3.3-4). From there,
pipe segments are loaded onto flatbed trucks and taken to a material laydown yard that is
temporarily maintained in an area close to the construction site (see Figure 3.3-5). Numerous
laydown yards may be constructed to support individual pipe construction spreads. A truck
typically carries a maximum of 20 pipe segments at a time; however, this varies by pipeline
diameter, wall thickness, weight, and pipe stacking method. Trucks will make round-trips all day
between rail off-loading areas and material laydown areas until all of the materials assigned to
the laydown areas have been delivered. In areas with less road infrastructure, consolidation of
crews and materials going to different spreads using the same public access roads is more likely,
thereby potentially magnifying the impact. In addition to the laydown areas adjacent to the
ROW, off-site staging areas used to collect equipment and workers could occupy several acres,
but the amount of space would be highly dependent on the size and terrain of the project.
Although their primary purpose is temporary storage of pipeline materials, laydown yards are
also sometimes used for double joining two pipe segments before their delivery to the ROW.
Laydown and staging areas could be in use from 3 to 12 weeks.

3.3.2 Clearing and Grading

The survey crew will carefully survey and stake the construction ROW to ensure that
only the preapproved construction workspace is cleared. The clearing and grading crew leads the
construction spread. This crew is responsible for removing trees, boulders, and debris from the

52

FIGURE 3.3-4 Pipe Segments Arriving at Rail Off-loading

Area (Source: Photo courtesy of U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced
with permission.)

FIGURE 3.3-5 Pipe Segments in a Material Laydown Area

(Source: Photo courtesy of U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced with
permission.)

53

construction ROW and preparing a level working surface for the heavy construction equipment
that follows. Depending on existing soil conditions, this may require bringing in additional
materials such as stone and sand to create a temporary work road adjacent to the pipeline.
The clearing and grading crew is also responsible for installation of silt fences along the
edges of streams and wetlands as necessary to prevent erosion of disturbed soil. Trees inside the
ROW are cut down, roots are excavated; and timber is stacked along the side of the ROW for
later removal. Brush is commonly shredded or burned.37 The amount of clearing required varies
widely. Sometimes only one pass down the ROW with a bulldozer is required. Where the route
passes through rough or forested terrain, however, clearing operations can be much more
extensive. The purpose is to make it possible to move construction equipment along the ROW as
needed. The clearing and grading crew is also responsible for clearing and grading ROW access
roads. As with the ROW, access roads from public roadways may also need to incorporate
measures such as silt fences and stone or paved transitions, as shown in Figure 3.3-6.
Construction access roads are removed and reclaimed after the construction phase; however,
some will remain in place throughout the operating life of the pipeline for access to the ROW by
maintenance and inspection personnel.
In virtually all circumstances, topsoils and subsoils are separately stockpiled adjacent to
the trench. In most instances, the subsoil can be used to backfill the trench once appropriate
bedding materials have been placed at the bottom of the trench and the pipe has been installed.
An exception to this general procedure occurs when the subsoils contain rocks of varying sizes
that could damage the pipe if they were used as backfill or when the subsoils are composed of
heavy clays that would retain water in the vicinity of the pipe, thereby promoting accelerated
corrosion. In those instances, appropriate backfill materials are brought to the site from the
nearest practical source, and the original soils are disposed of elsewhere, typically under the
auspices of a soil disposal permit or approved soil management plan.

3.3.3 Stringing Pipe Joints along the ROW

Normally, pipe segments are delivered to staging areas closest to the point along the
mainline where they will be installed and then subsequently deployed along the ROW. This
guarantees that each joint needs only to be moved over to the ditch when it is ready to be welded
into the pipeline. Not only does this save cost and time, it also lessens the potential for damage to
the pipe before installation. Figure 3.3-7 shows pipe segments being deployed along the ROW in
preparation for welding and installation into the trench (not yet constructed in this photograph).
In some rugged locations, pipe segments must be staged on the ROW with helicopters
(see Figure 3.3-8). In those circumstances where longer lengths of pipe can be easily moved into
place, pipe is brought to the job site in sections consisting of two single joints of pipe (typically,
having an overall length of up to 40 feet). This double-jointing saves welding time on the job
site, which often must be done under less desirable conditions than exist in a fabrication yard.

37 Open burning of landscape waste will usually require a special permit issued by the local environmental
regulatory authority.

54

FIGURE 3.3-6 Sample Road Entrance to a Pipeline ROW (Source: Modified from FERC
Golden Pass LNG Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

FIGURE 3.3-7 Stringing Pipe along the ROW (Source:

Photo courtesy of U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced with
permission.)

55

FIGURE 3.3-8 Delivering Pipe Segments to the

Construction Site in Rugged Terrain May Require
Special Equipment (Source: Photo courtesy of
U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced with permission.)

3.3.4 Ditching (Excavation and Filling)

The ditch, or trench, in which the pipeline will be installed is usually made to one side of
the center of the ROW rather than in the center, to provide adequate room for construction
equipment and operations alongside the pipe as well as room for future installations. Ditching in
relatively soft soil is done by a machine with a large wheel on which cutting teeth are mounted.
The wheel rotates continuously as the machine moves along the pipeline route, and excavated
material is continuously deposited alongside the ditch. In loose rock or hard soil, it may be
necessary to use other equipment for trenching for example, a backhoe or clamshell bucket.
Blasting or special rock-cutting equipment may be required when the ditch must pass through
solid rock.
The depth of the ditch is based on minimum cover specifications or the distance from the
top of the buried pipe to the ground surface. For the same minimum cover requirements, a largerdiameter pipe requires a deeper ditch. The minimum cover varies according to requirements of

56

regulatory agencies, standard industry practice guidance, the type of area through which the
pipeline passes, and features along the pipeline route. A minimum of 3 feet of cover is typical,
but it may be less in open, unpopulated areas and more when the pipe passes under roads, rivers,
and highway borrow ditches. Minimum cover for river crossings (the distance between the top of
the river bed and the top of the pipeline) is set at 4 feet; however, additional cover may be
necessary where scouring of river bed materials by moving water is possible. Most river
crossings are directionally bored.
The width of the pipeline ditch varies according to the size of the pipeline. Typically, this
width ranges from 14 to 28 inches for intermediate pipeline diameters. Figure 3.3-9 shows a
typical ditching operation.

3.3.5 Pipe Bedding Material

Bedding material must be clean sand or soil and must not contain stones having a
maximum dimension larger than 0.5 inch. Material must be placed to a minimum depth of
6 inches under the pipe and 6 inches over the top of the pipe. The remaining backfill must not
contain rock larger than 6 inches. Organic material and wood are not permitted for bedding and
backfill since they will deteriorate over time, allowing for subsidence and subsequent shifting
and possible pipe damage.

FIGURE 3.3-9 Pipeline Ditching (Source: Photo courtesy of

U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced with permission.)

57

3.3.6 Welding
Welding procedures and metallurgy should comply with the service of the system.
Engineering standards published by the American Petroleum Institute dictate what welding
techniques should be used (API 1991, 1999).
With the ditch made and the pipe delivered, welding can begin. The pipe joints are placed
over the ditch for welding. As welding proceeds, a section of pipeline steadily increasing in
length is in place above or alongside the ditch. Under some circumstances, pipe segments are
lowered into their trench before being welded together. Pipeline welding is done with electric
welding equipment, both manual and automatic. Welding machines are typically mounted on
small trucks or pickups. The machines may also be mounted on tracked vehicles. A number of
welders each with a welding machine work on each pipeline spread. Since a number of
weld passes (a bead of weld material around the circumference of the pipe) must be made at
each joint, a typical procedure is to have one welder make the initial passes at each joint. Other
welders follow behind the lead welder, building up the weld metal at the joint by making
additional weld passes until the appropriate number of passes have been deposited. The number
of weld passes required depends on the wall thickness of the pipe and its physical characteristics,
and is specified in the construction plans. The initial weld pass is one of the most critical aspects
of pipeline construction and is carefully controlled and monitored.
It is important that the two ends of pipe to be welded are properly aligned so the weld
will be uniform around the circumference of the pipe. Line-up clamps are used for this purpose
at each joint before welding begins. After all passes have been made, the alignment clamps can
be moved to the next welding station. Figure 3.3-10 shows typical welding operations, which,
depending on individual circumstances, can occur either before or after the pipe is placed in its
trench.

3.3.6.1 Welding Processes

The sources of heat for welding include electric arc, electric resistance, flame, laser, and
electron beam. Most processes used in field pipeline welding employ a filler metal, do not
involve the application of pressure, and depend on an electric arc as the heat source. Types of
welding include:

Shielded metal arc welding. The heat for this process is provided by an
electric arc that melts a consumable electrode, with some of the metal being
welded. When the weld metal cools, it hardens to form the weld.

58

FIGURE 3.3-10 Welding Pipe (Source: Photos courtesy of

U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced with permission.)

Submerged arc welding. In this process, heat is supplied by an electric arc,

and a consumable electrode is used. A granular flux composed of silicates and
other elements is deposited on the weld joint. The arc melts some of the flux
and is submerged in the liquid slag that is produced by this melting. The
electrode in this method is wire that is fed continuously to the weld joint. The
high currents used in this technique allow the weld to penetrate deeper below
the surface of the pipe wall than is possible with other welding processes.

59

Gas-metal arc welding. This process also uses the heat from an electric arc.
The arc is covered by an inert gas, such as argon or helium. The insert-gas
shielded metal arc process uses a consumable, continuous electrode.

Gas-tungsten arc welding. An inert gas shield is required when welding with
tungsten electrodes using the gas-tungsten arc welding process.

Electron beam welding. Used primarily for offshore pipelines.

3.3.6.2 Welding Inspection

A key part of pipeline welding is inspection. For most projects, welders must be qualified
by testing on the size and type of pipe to be used on the job. After the welds on the pipeline are
made, however, they must be thoroughly examined to insure the safety of the pipeline. The most
common inspection method relies on radiographic, or X-ray, examination of completed welds.
Construction plans specify what type of inspection will be required and what portion of welds
must be examined by each method. For instance, it might be specified that where the pipeline
traverses open areas, 10% of the welds must be X-rayed, however, where the pipeline passes
under railroads, highways, or rivers, all welds must be examined using radiography. In the X-ray
inspection process, film wrapped around the circumference of the pipe over the weld is exposed
to radiation. When the film is developed, bubbles, cracks, slag inclusions, and other defects are
visible. It is desirable to make this inspection and find any defective welds before the pipe is
buried because defective welds must be removed and new welds made.

Welding Inspection Requirements. Pipeline welding must follow written welding

procedures outlined in 49 CFR Part 195, Subpart D. These procedures are qualified under the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and API standards. Certain steels require separate
qualification of welding procedures. Each welding procedure must be recorded in detail during
the qualifying tests and the record retained for the life of the pipeline.

Nondestructive Testing (NDT). Nondestructive testing is the branch of engineering

concerned with all methods of detecting and evaluating flaws in materials. Flaws can affect the
serviceability of the material or structure, so NDT is important in guaranteeing safe operation as
well as in quality control and assessing plant life. The flaws may be cracks or inclusions in welds
and castings or variations in structural properties that can lead to loss of strength or failure in
service.
Nondestructive testing is used for in-service inspection and for condition monitoring of
the operating plant. It is also used for measurement of components and spacings and for the
measurement of physical properties such as hardness and internal stress.
The essential feature of NDT is that the test process produces no deleterious effects on
the material or structure under test. The subject of NDT has no clearly defined boundaries; it

60

ranges from simple techniques, such as visual examination of surfaces, through the wellestablished methods of radiography, ultrasonic testing, and magnetic particle crack detection, to
new and very specialized methods such as the measurement of Barkhausen noise 38 and positron
annihilation.

3.3.7 Pipe Bending

As welding proceeds along the pipeline, a slight change in direction or a significant
change in elevation may require a bend in the pipeline. Many such bends are made by a bending
machine on the job site that bends a joint of pipe to the required curvature (see Figure 3.3-11).
Even large-diameter pipe can be accommodated in todays modern bending machines, but it may
also be necessary to make some bends in a shop on a special machine. Depending on the
diameter and the wall thickness of the pipe, slight changes in elevation may be accommodated by
flexing the pipe without the bending machine. Very small changes in direction may sometimes
be made by letting the pipe lie to one side of the ditch. But changes in direction or elevation
without bending must be small, especially when large-diameter, heavy-wall pipe is being used.

3.3.8 Pipe Coating

If not precoated at the coating mill, the pipe exterior is coated and wrapped after welding
is complete. Coating and wrapping are done using special machines that move along the pipeline
ROW. Coal tar enamel is the most common pipeline coating; others include thin-film powdered
epoxy and extruded polyethylene. Asphalt enamel and asphalt mastic are also used as pipe

FIGURE 3.3-11 Pipe Bending

Machine

38 Named after the German physicist, Heinrich Georg Barkhausen who first discovered the phenomenon,
Barkhausen noise is the audible signal delivered by ferromagnetic materials as they realign their magnetic
domains in response to externally applied alternating magnetic fields. Material testing methodologies utilizing
the Barkhausen noise phenomenon (Barhausen Noise Analysis or Micromagnetic Analysis) study the
microstructures of materials and are capable of identifying the presence of stresses (e.g., in a pipe segment) and
discontinuities (e.g., in a weld) that could indicate an increased potential for future structural failures.

61

coating materials. Tape is then wrapped over this coating to provide additional protection to the
pipe and to protect the corrosion coating, especially through rocky areas that might damage the
pipe coating.
In some cases, coating and wrapping are yard-applied to the pipe before the pipe is
delivered to the job site (see Figure 3.3-12). When this is done, a short distance at each end of the
pipe joint is left bare to permit welding. Then those areas are coated and wrapped over the ditch
after welding is complete.

3.3.9 Lowering the Pipeline into the Ditch

When the welding and coating are complete, the pipe is suspended over the ditch by
sideboom tractors, which are crawler tractors with a special hoisting frame attached to one side.
Then the pipeline is gradually lowered to the bottom of the ditch (lowering in)
(see Figure 3.3-13). In rocky soil or solid rock, it is sometimes necessary to put a bed of fine soil
in the bottom of the ditch before lowering the pipeline. The fine fill material protects the pipe
coating from damage.

3.3.10 Backfilling the Ditch

With new pipelines, or when conducting a maintenance activity for existing pipelines,
backfilling and bedding must be provided in a manner that will offer firm support for the pipeline
and not damage either the pipe or the pipe coating by the type of backfill material used or
subsequent surface activities.
If the backfill material contains rocks or hard lumps that could damage the coating, care
must be taken to protect the pipe and pipe coating from damage by such means as the use of
mechanical shield material; backfilling procedures must not cause a distortion of the pipe cross
section that would be detrimental to the operation of the piping and the passage of cleaning or
internal inspection devices. Typical backfilling operations are shown in Figure 3.3-14.

FIGURE 3.3-12 Applying Coating

to Pipeline

62

FIGURE 3.3-13 Lowering Pipe into Trench

(Source: Photos courtesy of U.S. Pipeline, Inc.
Reproduced with permission.)

3.3.11 Hydrostatic Testing

All newly installed pipelines, including pipe segments that have been replaced in existing
pipelines, undergo hydrostatic testing before being put into service. Hydrostatic testing involves
isolating that portion of the pipeline undergoing testing, filling it with water, and then
pressurizing the line to a specified pressure to check for leaks. U.S. federal safety regulations for
pipelines require that pipelines used to transport hazardous or highly volatile liquids be tested at
a pressure equal to 125% of the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) for at least four
continuous hours and for an additional four continuous hours at a pressure equal to 110% or
more of the MAOP, if the line cannot also be visually inspected for leakage during the test. A
batching pig driven ahead of the water is used to remove any air and forms an efficient seal to
isolate that portion undergoing testing. Without a pig in downhill portions of the line, the water
will run down underneath the air, trapping pockets at the highest points within the pipe. Long
pipelines will normally be tested in sections; short pipelines may be tested as single units.

63

FIGURE 3.3-14 Backfilling Pipeline (Source:

Photos courtesy of U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced
with permission.)

Temporary connections for filling and draining the pipeline are used, and a pump is used
to pressure up the line. Once the specified pressure is attained, the pump is shut off and the
static leak test commences. A leak is indicated if the pressure falls over the period of the test.
Once hydrostatic testing is completed, the water is removed and typically delivered to a
wastewater treatment facility (e.g., a publicly owned sewage treatment works) for treatment.
While the majority of the water will be removed simply by draining the water at appropriate
locations along the segment undergoing a test, some water will still remain and will contaminate
the subsequent product unless it is removed. Typically a pig is used that is designed specifically
to capture water and deliver it to a point where it can be removed. This dewatering pig serves a
dual purpose, removing water and also removing construction debris that may still remain in the
pipeline and could be very damaging to downstream pumps, if not removed. Often, the pig is
propelled along the pipeline by the products the pipeline was designed to carry, and once the pig

64

and the water it has captured have been removed, the pipeline is considered to be fully
operational.
The water removal process described above is usually sufficient for crude oil and
petroleum products. However, for some petrochemical feedstocks that would react adversely
with water, additional steps are taken to remove the last vestiges of water before the product is
introduced. Super-dry air, methanol, or inert gases such as nitrogen are typically used to flush the
pipeline and capture any last remaining amounts of water.

3.3.12 Final Grading and Reclamation

Once backfill has been placed and properly compacted, the original topsoil is returned to
its original location and final grading and contouring are performed. Depending on the
vegetation reclamation plan that has been approved, reclamation of the disturbed area above the
pipeline can begin at this time. Also at this time, as all construction work is completed for each
spread, construction equipment is removed and the construction ROW is reclaimed. However,
depending on access constraints, the construction road may remain in place until adjacent
spreads are completed, if it provides the only access to those spreads. Figures 3.3-15 and 3.3-16
show final contouring of a pipeline ROW and a reclaimed ROW, respectively.

FIGURE 3.3-15 Final Contouring of Pipeline ROW

(Source: Photo courtesy of FERC)

65

FIGURE 3.3-16 Revegetated Pipeline ROW

(Source: Photo courtesy of FERC)

3.3.13 Special Conditions

3.3.13.1 Road, Railroad, and Waterbody Crossings

Even small pipeline projects often involve crossing roadways and streams; a
long-distance pipeline may cross scores of each. A variety of techniques are used for crossing
these obstacles, depending on the length of the crossing, the size of the stream or roadway,
applicable regulations, and, where federal lands are involved, the extant policies of the federal
land owner.

Road and Railroad Crossings. Crossing roadways or railroads can be done by either
trenching or boring. When trenching, the roadway must be closed to traffic for some period of
time. The road itself must be removed in that portion that overlays the pipeline and reinstalled
after pipeline installation is complete. Because of the obvious disruptions to traffic flow that will
result, this method is often not permitted for busy thoroughfares, and instead a trenching
technique that will allow the road to remain in service would be used. Similarly, an analogous
approach to crossing a railroad would require that a section of the railroad directly above the
pipeline path be removed and reinstalled after pipe installation is complete. Again, trenching
alternatives are available if disruption of rail service cannot be tolerated.
Virtually identical design considerations are made for road and railroad crossings. Of
primary importance is a calculation of the maximum dynamic loading on the pipe from traffic or
trains. This dictates the depth of cover between the road or railroad and the pipe and whether
additional design features are added to disperse the load to a sufficient degree so as to not deform
the pipe. A schematic of a typical trenched road crossing is shown in Figure 3.3-17.

66

FIGURE 3.3-17 Trenched Road Crossing (Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass LNG
Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

Boring is done with a horizontal boring machine that drills a hole under the roadway or
railroad without disturbing the road surface or the trackbed. A casing pipe is normally installed
in the bored hole, then the pipeline is placed inside the conductor. Spacers are used to center the
pipeline within the conductor. This sleeve arrangement is effective not only in reducing the load
on the pipe but also in reducing corrosion in the segment of the pipe underlying the roadway.
The American Petroleum Institute document API RP 1102 provides guidance for pipelines
running under roads. Generally, 4 feet of cover is adequate for pipelines 12 inches and smaller.
Larger pipelines may require additional protection by way of more cover, pipe sleeves, or
concrete slabs positioned above the pipe to disperse the dynamic loading from traffic and prevent
deformation of the pipe. Figure 3.3-18 provides an example of a bored pipeline road crossing.

67

FIGURE 3.3-18 Bored Road/Railroad Crossing (Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass LNG
Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

Waterbody Crossings. Strategies for crossing waterbodies depend on a number of sitespecific factors, most importantly, the size and nature of the waterbody itself and the existing
ecosystems. A schematic of a typical waterbody crossing is shown in Figure 3.3-19.
Stream and river crossings can be made in a variety of ways. The first is the open-cut wet
(in-stream) method. A backhoe or dragline can be used in minor stream crossings to make a ditch
for the pipe to rest in. This technique does not use any method to divert the stream. The pipe is
installed and backfilled while the river/stream continues to run through the site. The ditch is then
backfilled, and the pipe may be fitted with concrete weights to hold it in place against the stream
currents and movement of stream bed sediments. The benefits are low cost and a quick
completion time, making this the method of choice when existing regulations or policies do not
require other techniques. Disadvantages include potentially significant pollutant and sediment
runoff, greatly increased total suspended sediment concentrations downstream, changes in

68

FIGURE 3.3-19 Typical Waterbody Crossing (Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass LNG
Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

channel morphology, and impacts to aquatic ecosystems. These problems can be mitigated only
by a quick completion time.
An alternative method of waterbody crossings is called the open-cut dry (isolated)
method. Here the stream is isolated and diverted around the pipeline crossing. Then the trench is
excavated, the pipe is installed and backfilled, and then water diversion structures are removed
and the stream is allowed to restabilize over the buried pipe. It is best-suited for narrow streams
and rivers with flows less than 141 cubic feet per second. The two main methods of isolated
crossings are the dam-and-pump method (see Figure 3.3-20) and the flume method (see
Figure 3.3-21). In the dam-and-pump method, the stream is dammed and water is transferred
across the construction site by means of a temporary hose or pipe and pump.
In the flume method, the stream is dammed and a culvert is installed. Isolated crossing
methods usually have less sediment yield than a wet crossing, but are often more expensive and
more time consuming.
Additionally, the installation and removal of the dam can cause high releases of sediment.
Other problems may arise from leakage around/underneath the dam, dam failures, flume failures,
insufficient sump storage, insufficient pump capacity, and inadequate maintenance.
For larger bodies of water, horizontal directional drilling (HDD) may be used. It offers
several advantages, including no disruption of traffic on the waterway and minimum
environmental impact. The process proceeds in three basic steps. First, a pilot hole is drilled.
Secondly, the pilot hole is enlarged to a diameter larger than the diameter of pipe to be installed.
A slurry composed of bentonite clay is typically used to lubricate the drill and bring cuttings out
of the hole. A similar slurry is also often pumped into the enlarged hole to prevent it from

69

FIGURE 3.3-20 Dam-and-Pump River Crossing with Two Pipelines (Source: Modified from FERC
Golden Pass LNG Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

collapsing before the pipe can be installed. Finally, the prefabricated pipe segment is pulled into
the hole, using the same drill rig that bored the initial and enlarged holes. This sequence of steps
is depicted in Figure 3.3-22.
Heavy equipment is required on both sides of the waterbody crossing for HDD. The
drilling rig spread requires a minimum 100-foot wide by 150-foot long area on each bank. The
drilling operation requires large volumes of water for mixing the drilling slurry, often but not
necessarily withdrawn from the waterbody being crossed. The length of workspace should be
sufficient to permit fabricating the product pipeline into one string. The width should be what

70

FIGURE 3.3-21 Flume Water Crossing with Two Pipelines (Source: Modified from FERC Golden
Pass LNG Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

is necessary for normal pipeline construction, although a workspace of 100-foot wide by

150-foot long will also be required at the exit point, assuring that the pipe can be installed in one
uninterrupted operation during the pullback. The recommended minimum cover depth is 20 feet
for the lowest section of the crossing.
Slurry pits are constructed in the construction zone to support boring operations. Slurries
recovered from the hole are delivered to these pits where they can be recycled. At the completion
of drilling, the slurries are removed for use at another drilling operation or used elsewhere in the
pipeline construction project to be mixed with native soils to enhance slope stability or increase

71

FIGURE 3.3-22 Typical Directional Drilling under Waterway

(Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass LNG Terminal and Pipeline
Project image)

water retention properties, where warranted. Otherwise, slurries are disposed of as nonhazardous
wastes.
Not all streams are crossed by installing the pipeline beneath the stream. Some pipelines
are installed on pipeline bridges, steel structures built to suspend the pipeline above the stream.
Use of this method depends on a number of factors, including the presence of traffic on the
waterway.
In addition, new pipeline construction may cross existing pipelines in service
(see Figure 3.3-23).
Instances in which anchoring is required include river crossings where currents can cause
pipe movement or scour beneath the pipe installed on top of the river bed, a dry wash subject to

72

FIGURE 3.3-23 Waterbody Crossing Containing a Second Pipeline

(Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass LNG Terminal and
Pipeline Project image)

temporary flooding or extraordinarily fast stream flows after heavy rains, or where certain types
of backfill are used.

3.3.13.2 Crossing Wetlands

Crossing wetlands, if required and allowed by law, creates unique construction
challenges. Figure 3.3-24 depicts a typical saturated wetland crossing with topsoil segregation.
Construction equipment working in wetlands would be limited to that essential for
clearing the ROW, excavating the trench, fabricating and installing the pipeline, backfilling the
trench, and restoring the ROW. In areas where there is no reasonable access to the ROW except
through wetlands, nonessential equipment would be allowed to travel through wetlands only if
the ground was firm enough or had been stabilized to avoid rutting. Otherwise, nonessential
equipment would be allowed to travel through wetlands only once.
Clearing vegetation in wetlands would be limited to trees and shrubs, which would be cut
flush with the surface of the ground and removed from the wetland. To avoid excessive
disruption of wetland soils and the native seeds and rootstocks within the wetland soils, stump
removal, grading, topsoil segregation, and excavation would be limited to the area immediately
over the trench line. A limited amount of stump removal and grading could be conducted in other
areas if dictated by safety-related concerns.

73

FIGURE 3.3-24 Saturated Wetland Crossing (Source: Modified from FERC Golden Pass LNG
Terminal and Pipeline Project image)

74

During clearing, sediment barriers such as silt fences and staked certified weed-free straw
bales would be installed and maintained adjacent to wetlands and within additional temporary
workspace areas as necessary to minimize the potential for sediment runoff. Sediment barriers
also would be installed across the full width of the construction ROW at the base of slopes
adjacent to wetland boundaries. Silt fences and/or certified weed-free straw bales installed across
the working side of the ROW would be removed during the day when vehicle traffic was present
and would be replaced each night. Alternatively, drivable berms could be installed and
maintained across the ROW in lieu of silt fences or certified weed-free straw bales. Sediment
barriers also would be installed within wetlands along the edge of the ROW, where necessary, to
minimize the potential for sediment to run off the construction ROW and into wetland areas
located outside the work area.
The method of pipeline construction used in wetlands would depend largely on the
stability of the soils at the time of construction. If wetland soils are not excessively saturated at
the time of construction and can support construction equipment on equipment mats, timber
riprap, or certified weed-free straw mats, construction would occur in a manner similar to
conventional upland cross-country construction techniques. In unsaturated wetlands, topsoil from
the trench line would be stripped and stored separately from subsoil. Topsoil segregation
generally would not be possible in saturated soils.
Where wetland soils were saturated and/or inundated, the pipeline could be installed
using the push-pull technique. The push-pull technique involves stringing and welding the
pipeline outside of the wetland and excavating and backfilling the trench using a backhoe
supported by equipment mats or timber riprap. The prefabricated pipeline would be installed in
the wetland by equipping it with buoys and pushing or pulling it across the water-filled trench.
After the pipeline was floated into place, the floats would be removed and the pipeline would
sink into place. Most pipe installed in saturated wetlands would be encased in concrete or
equipped with set-on weights to provide negative buoyancy (see Figure 3.3-25).
Because little or no grading would occur in wetlands, restoration of contours would be
accomplished during backfilling. Prior to backfilling, trench breakers would be installed where
necessary to prevent the subsurface drainage of water from wetlands. Where topsoil has been
segregated from subsoil, the subsoil would be backfilled first, followed by the topsoil. Topsoil
would be replaced to the original ground level, leaving no crown over the trench line. In some
areas where wetlands overlie rocky soils, the pipe would be padded with rock-free soil or sand
before backfilling with native bedrock and soil. Equipment mats, timber riprap, gravel fill,
geotextile fabric, and/or certified weed-free straw mats would be removed from wetlands
following backfilling.
Where wetlands are located at the base of slopes, permanent slope breakers would be
constructed across the ROW in upland areas adjacent to the wetland boundary. Temporary
sediment barriers would be installed where necessary until revegetation of adjacent upland areas
was successful. Once revegetation was successful, sediment barriers would be removed from the
ROW and disposed of properly. In wetlands where no standing water was present, the
construction ROW would be seeded in accordance with the recommendations of local soil
conservation authorities. Lime, mulch, and fertilizer would not be used in wetlands.

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FIGURE 3.3-25 Concrete-Coated Pipe in a Wetland (Source: Photo

courtesy of U.S. Pipeline, Inc. Reproduced with permission.)

3.3.13.3 Elevated Areas and Rugged Topography

There may be multiple areas that would require additional workspace areas due to
exceptionally rugged or steep terrain. Additional grading may be required in areas where the
proposed pipeline route would cross steep slopes. Steep slopes often need to be graded down to a
more gentle slope to accommodate pipe-bending limitations and the limits of pump capabilities
to move product over a grade change. In such areas, the slopes would be cut away and, after the
pipeline was installed, reconstructed to their original contours during final contouring and before
restoration of surface vegetation.
In areas where the proposed pipeline route crosses laterally along the side of a slope,
cut-and-fill grading may be required to obtain a safe, flat, work terrace. Generally, on steep
side-slopes, soil from the high side of the ROW would be excavated and moved to the low side
of the ROW to create a safe and level work terrace. Under these circumstances, the topsoil would
be stripped from the entire width of the ROW. After the pipeline is installed, the soil from the
low side of the ROW would be returned to the high side, topsoil replaced, and the slopes
original contours would be restored.
In steep terrain, temporary sediment barriers such as silt fences and certified weed-free
straw bales would be installed during clearing to prevent the movement of disturbed soil off the
ROW. Temporary slope breakers consisting of mounded and compacted soil would be installed
across the ROW during grading, and permanent slope breakers would be installed during

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cleanup. Following construction, seed would be applied to steep slopes and the ROW mulched
with certified weed-free hay or nonbrittle straw or covered with erosion-control fabric. Plants
with noninvasive root systems and indigenous to the area or approved by the federal land
stewards vegetation management plan would be planted for long-term erosion control. Sediment
barriers would be maintained across the ROW until permanent vegetation is established.
When rock or rocky formations are encountered, tractor-mounted mechanical rippers or
rock trenchers would be used for fracturing the rock prior to excavation. In areas where
mechanical equipment could not break up or loosen the bedrock, blasting would be required.
Whenever possible, excavated rock would be used to backfill the trench to the top of the existing
bedrock profile; however, crushing the rock to a uniform size may be necessary to prevent
damage to the pipe during placement and to ensure proper backfilling density and minimize the
potential for future subsidence.

3.3.13.4 Valves
Valves are installed at various locations along the mainline for various operational
controls and to isolate segments of the pipeline for maintenance or replacement or to limit the
amount of product in jeopardy of spilling in the event of a pipeline break. Typically, valves are
installed at either side of sensitive or potentially problematic segments such as waterbody
crossings. Such check valves can serve to quickly and efficiently isolate those segments of the
pipeline in the event a problem should occur. Such isolation limits the scale of the adverse
consequences that could occur in the event of a pipeline rupture in those segments. Check valves
are placed at each significant change in grade to prevent backflow of product in the event of a
failure of the upstream pumps. Bypasses may need to be installed around mainline valves or
damaged pipeline segments to facilitate maintenance, repair, or replacement without shutting
down operation of the pipeline. Bypasses typically consist of the requisite length of substitute
pipe, each end of which is attached to a manually operated valve and two hot taps (devices that
cut into the pipeline and divert the flow from the mainline pipe segment to be isolated to the
bypass pipe). Once the bypass is positioned, the bypass valves are opened and the hot taps are
operated to tap into the existing pipe. Such bypasses are typically removed (and the hot taps
repaired) once the task is completed. See Section 4.10 for additional discussions regarding
repairs of operational pipelines.

3.3.13.5 Pump Stations and Terminals

Pumps that provide the operating capability of a pipeline are located within pump
stations.. The location and number of pump stations, as well as the size and power of the pumps,
are dictated by a number of factors, including topography along the ROW (elevation changes),
the specific gravity and viscosity of the commodity, and the desired throughput. Liquids exiting a
pump station will be at their highest pressure. Pressure will fall with distance from the pump
station due to grade changes (if any) and frictional losses. To be effective, the pipelines
operating pressure must be maintained at or above the design discharge pressure at the pipelines
final destination. With the discharge pressure setting the lower pressure limit and the burst

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pressure of the pipe and other components setting the maximum pressure, calculations can
determine the number and location of pump stations required, as well as the size and power of
the pumps at each of these stations.
Typical pump station configurations involve at least three pumps connected to the
pipeline in parallel. Two of the three pumps operate while the third remains available, if needed,
or in the event of a failure of one of the operating pumps. Such a configuration also allows
pumps to be taken off-line for maintenance or replacement without affecting the operating status
of the pipeline.
While housing the pumps and their prime movers remains the primary function, other
activities such as pig launching and recovery also are typically colocated at pump stations. Also,
many pump stations have the ability to introduce commodities into the pipeline or to remove
them and direct them to storage tanks located on-site. Such actions are typically further
supported by the capability to meter volumetric flow, especially when such transfers into or out
of the pipeline system represent a change in custody or ownership of the commodity. Storage or
breakout tanks are used to support maintenance or replacement activities where draining
pipeline segments is required and are also an essential part of emergency-response actions to
limit the amount of commodity in jeopardy of release or to relieve pressure on damaged pipeline
segments. Maintenance shops and parts warehouses are also often colocated at pump stations.
Depending on the array of planned activities, pump station footprints can vary in size
from a few acres to as many as 50 acres or more. Pump stations can be fully automated or
manned, either continuously or during one or more shifts. Even for manned stations, however, all
actions that could be taken at a pump station that affect operational conditions in the pipeline
(e.g., shutting down or starting a pump) can also be controlled remotely from the pipeline control
center.
Figure 3.3-26 is an artists representation of Pump Station No. 1, the start of the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) at the North Slope, Alaska. Gathering pipelines from
various production areas on the North Slope deliver a mixture of gas, water, and crude oil from
wellheads to a central gathering facility where the gaseous and aqueous fractions are removed
and the crude oil is metered and introduced into the TAPS for its journey to the Valdez Marine
Terminal, 802 miles south on Prince William Sound. The TAPS terminus is the breakout station
at the Valdez Marine Terminal where crude oil is recovered from the pipeline and sent to various
storage tanks to await load-out to oceangoing tankers for delivery to refineries in the contiguous
United States and elsewhere.
The terminus of a pipeline is typically located within or adjacent to a petroleum bulk
terminal. The pipeline ends at a breakout station where terminal personnel can perform final
metering and distribute products to various storage tanks, redirect them to a different pipeline, or
load them directly to truck transports or vessels for additional transport to points of use. The
terminal may or may not be owned and operated by the same company that owns and operates
the pipeline. A typical pipeline breakout station is shown in Figure 3.3-27.

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FIGURE 3.3-26 Crude Oil Pipeline Pump Station (Source: TAPS Final Environmental
Impact Statement)

FIGURE 3.3-27 Typical Pipeline Breakout Station (Terminus) at a Petroleum Terminal

(Source: V. Yarborough, Argonne staff)

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4 PIPELINE OPERATIONS

4.1 INSPECTIONS AND MARKERS

The activities discussed below represent standard industry practices. Depending on the
individual pipeline operator, company polices may result in more restrictive requirements for
each of the actions. In some instances, regulation or lease stipulation specify how such activities
will be conducted.

4.1.1 Inspections during Excavation

Whenever a pipe is exposed for any reason, the operator typically examines the pipe for
evidence of mechanical damage or external corrosion, including the coating. Mechanical damage
must be evaluated and repaired as necessary, in accordance with company repair procedures.
Coating damage should be repaired prior to reburying the pipeline. If the operator finds active
corrosion, general corrosion, or corrosion that has caused a leak, the operator should investigate
further to determine the extent of corrosion. The pipeline should be inspected prior to and during
backfilling of the exposed section.

4.1.2 ROW Inspections

ROW inspections occur with regularity. Depending on lease stipulations and other
factors, frequencies can be as high as weekly. Inspections can involve individuals walking the
ROW and also aerial surveillance. Flyover inspections are the most common and most efficient
method for routine surveillance, but are not appropriate for many required inspection tasks.
Unique opportunities exist for surveillance and inspection activities for multiple pipelines
or other energy transmission systems on adjacent ROWs. Although no system operator would be
willing to entirely relinquish inspection activities to another system operator, there are many
surveillance activities that are common to all types of energy systems that might be adjacent to
one another, creating the possibility for a more integrated approach to routine inspections.
Agreements between system operators and the federal land manager to combine routine
surveillance activities can reduce environmental impacts that would result from independently
conducted inspections and could potentially increase operating efficiencies for all of the system
operators within the ROW. Similarly, integration of passive surveillance systems can potentially
save costs and increase overall observational frequencies for all of the energy systems present.
Regardless of the opportunities for combining efforts and he resources of system operators for
common tasks, system operators remain individually responsible for the integrity of their
systems and consequently will retain certain surveillance tasks for themselves.

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4.1.3 Pipeline Markers and Aboveground Facilities

Proper pipeline markers should be placed where hazardous liquid pipelines and any
associated facilities are exposed. All hazardous liquid pipelines attached to bridges or otherwise
spanning an area should have pipeline markers that are visible and readable at both ends of the
suspended pipeline.

4.1.4 Change in Operating Rate

Each pipeline system is designed to a maximum operating rate, or throughput, expressed
as volumetric flow of the carried commodity over time. This operating rate equates to a
maximum operating pressure. The design maximum operating pressure, in turn, is the product of
numerous engineering parameters and limits, the most critical of which from a safety perspective
are the suite of minimum yield stress pressures, pressures above which pipeline components can
break or burst. Burst pressures are calculated initially for pipe segments and other components
and recalculated periodically over time, based on information obtained from various monitoring
and inspection activities, especially those that determine the extent of external and internal
corrosion, either of which can have a dramatic influence over the components burst or yield
pressure. Regulations published by the DOT OPS in 49 CFR Part 195 require pipelines to
calculate yield strengths and operate at a maximum percentage of that design minimum yield
stress pressure, thus providing adequate safety margins against the minimum burst pressures of
each pipeline component.39 Oversight by OPS inspectors, including their review of monitoring
and inspection data or in response to a system failure that is related to pressure, can result in an
order for the pipeline to be operated at a reduced operating pressure (expressed typically as a
new lower maximum operating rate) until observed or indicated deficiencies are further
investigated and resolved.

4.2 PIPELINE REPAIRS

In most instances, pipeline repairs are accomplished expeditiously to ensure minimal
disruption to pipeline operations. Unless otherwise specified by applicable regulation or lease
stipulation, pipeline repairs are typically made in accordance with ASME standard B31.4, 2002,
Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids.40 ASME B31.4
requirements and specifications extend to design, materials, construction, assembly, inspection,
and testing of piping transporting crude oil, condensate, natural gasoline, natural gas liquids,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), carbon dioxide, liquid alcohol, liquid anhydrous ammonia, and
liquid petroleum products including petrochemical feedstocks and secondary refinery feedstocks.
Pipeline components addressed in this standard include pipe, flanges, bolts, gaskets, valves,
relief devices, fittings, and the pressure-containing portions of other support components.
39 The required tests and the formulae for calculating minimum yield strength and the consequent maximum
operating pressure of a liquid pipeline carrying hazardous materials are contained in 49 CFR 196.106.
40 This and other ASME standards can be purchased through the ASME website at http://catalog.asme.org/Codes/
PrintBook/B314_2006_Pipeline.cfm.

81

Additionally, this standard extends to marine pipelines and piping at tank farms, pump stations,
terminals, pressure-reducing stations, and metering stations and all aspects of pipeline operation
related to safety and protection of the general public, operating company personnel,
environment, property, and the piping systems themselves.

4.2.1 Moving and Lowering Hazardous Liquid Pipelines

Prior to moving or lowering any hazardous liquid pipeline, hazardous liquid pipeline
companies typically prepare a study to determine whether the proposed action will cause an
unsafe condition. The study must include pipe stress calculations based on API RP 1117,
Movement of In-Service Pipelines.

4.2.2 Remedial Action for Corrosion Deficiencies

Companies must initiate remedial action as necessary to correct deficiencies observed
during corrosion monitoring. Industry standards for allowable advancements of internal and
external corrosion establish the action levels for such remedial activities. Remedial action may
involve replacing the sacrificial anodes of a corrosion control system, a relatively minor
construction activity compared to wholesale replacement of compromised pipe involving
long-term shutdown of operations and major construction efforts equivalent to initial installation.
To limit operational downtime, temporary bypass segments isolating the damaged segments may
also be installed. See additional discussions on corrosion control in Section 4.7.

4.3 PIGGING ACTIVITIES

A variety of inspection techniques and technologies are used to monitor pipeline
condition and integrity. The most important goal of pipeline inspection is usually to assess
corrosion-caused metal loss. But inspection also provides information on dents and other damage
that may eventually cause failure and leaks. Pigs that perform a variety of functions are essential
to pipeline internal inspections.
Equipment is required to introduce the pig into the pipeline and to retrieve the pig at the
end of the segment being pigged. A launcher is required at the upstream end of the section, and a
receiver is required at the downstream end. The distance between these pig traps depends on
the service, location of pump or compressor stations, operating procedures, and the material used
in the pig. For obvious reasons, any launched pig must be retrieved from the mainline pipe
before the pipe reaches the next pump station. Often, launching and recovery facilities are
colocated at pump stations.

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4.4 CHEMICAL ADDITIVES

Drag-reducing agents or other chemicals to improve the flow characteristics of the
pipeline are always present and something to consider in any analysis of pipeline systems.
Furthermore, dependent on the product, there may be other chemicals that affect the properties of
the fluids in transmission systems, such as the static reducer added to diesels. For high-viscosity
crude oils (i.e., low API gravity numbers), a diluent is often added to enhance the pumpability of
the crude and reduce the frictional drag on the inside pipeline walls, thereby reducing the amount
of energy needed to pump the crude. Such diluents are typically low-viscosity petroleum refining
fractions such as raw naphtha.

4.5 PIPELINE SECURITY

Third-party damage and ROW encroachments are the biggest threats to pipeline safety.
Pipeline operators use a combination of techniques to monitor pipeline ROWs. Aerial
surveillance and satellite imaging combined with interpretive software that can survey and detect
things such as heat, color, size, and shape, which can alert operators to potential encroachment
concerns. Fiber optic broadband capabilities along ROWs typically are used to assist in this
effort. Many pipeline operators are also enlisting the support of adjacent landowners in
establishing programs for reporting observed suspicious activities along the ROWs.

4.6 WASTE MANAGEMENT

The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) plays a key role in determining
environmental standards for the management of solid and hazardous wastes. Under RCRA, a
solid waste is any material discarded or intended to be discarded; it may be solid, semisolid,
liquid, or contain gases. A solid waste is a hazardous waste if it is one of more than 400 materials
listed as a hazardous waste or it exhibits one or more of the characteristics of hazardous waste
defined in federal or state regulations, such as ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity. For
pipelines, benzene is an important hazardous material, as it is a component in crude oil and in
many petroleum distillate fuels and secondary feedstocks that are routinely delivered by pipeline.
In sufficient quantities, its presence can cause any spilled products to meet the regulatory
definition of hazardous waste.
Another important aspect of RCRA is the mixture rule, 40 CFR 261.3(a)(2)(iii and iv).
Mixing any listed hazardous waste with a nonhazardous waste renders the entire mixture
hazardous.41 Water can pose disposal problems for pipeline operators. Water used in hydrostatic
testing of repaired pipelines that carried crude oil or petroleum products can become
contaminated with hydrocarbons that require it to be managed as hazardous waste. Certain
41 The mixture rule will always be in effect when listed hazardous wastes are involved. However, if mixing a
characteristic hazardous waste with a nonhazardous waste results in a mixture that no longer exhibits the
characteristic, the mixture is not considered a hazardous waste. However, undertaking such purposeful mixing of
waste streams to avoid the application of hazardous waste regulatory controls is prohibited.

83

constituents in crude oil or petroleum distillates are also listed as hazardous waste
(e.g., benzene), and some of these constituents also have relatively high solubility in water.
Consequently, condensates removed from pipelines carrying such commodities may need to be
managed as hazardous wastes. Likewise, sludge and other materials removed from such pipeline
systems during routine cleaning or repairs may also qualify as hazardous waste and must
routinely undergo hazardous waste determinations against the standards and specifications
contained in federal or state regulations before management and disposal options are selected.
The Clean Water Act influences pipeline construction, especially through its
requirements for permits for activities in wetlands and stormwater management (particularly
during the construction and decommissioning phases). Stormwater controls must be established
before construction begins and must be maintained until reclamation has progressed sufficiently
to stabilize disturbed areas. Similar controls may need to be reinstated before major repair,
replacement, or upgrading activities are conducted.
Another important environmental consideration in pipeline construction and operation is
impact to air quality. Substances of concern to pipeline operators include carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and mercaptan, a sulfur-containing hydrocarbon42 that is introduced into
natural gas systems as an odorant. Pipeline operators must also be concerned about sources of
nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, and emissions from pump engines. Fugitive emissions of
benzene from seals on pumps, valves, meters, and storage tanks must also be controlled.

4.7 CATHODIC CORROSION PROTECTION

Underground corrosion of steel pipelines can result from the flow of electrical current
between areas of different electric potential. The area of higher potential (the anode) will be
corroded, and the area of lower potential (the cathode) will not be subject to corrosion. In the
case of a buried pipeline, the soil can act as an electrolyte, facilitating the transfer of electrons
from a metallic object such as a buried pipe (the anode in this electrochemical engine) and the
ground. Areas of different electrical potential exist throughout the trace of a pipeline, with the
magnitudes of such electrical potential differences depending on soil types and myriad other
local conditions.
In a cathodic protection system, anodes made of materials that are more conducive to
electrical current delivery than the steel of the pipeline are electrically bonded to the pipe and
installed along the pipeline route, resulting in the subsequent flow of electrical current from the
anodes to the ground. As electrons flow from these anodes, the anodes deteriorate, earning them
the common name of sacrificial anodes since they are being sacrificed and allowed to corrode
instead of the pipe. The pipeline becomes the cathode of the system, and its corrosion is
prevented as long as some anode material remains. Keifner and Vieth (1990) established that the

42 The most commonly used odorant is methyl mercaptan. Details on its chemical and physical properties can be
obtained at the following website: http://www.praxair.com/praxair.nsf/d63afe71c771b0d785256519006c5ea1/
bd40c55346b4930f85256e5f007e8c2a/$FILE/MethylMercaptan-Canada.pdf.

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magnitude of the corrosion currents for a given potential difference between two electrodes
(cathode and anode) depends on several factors:

Soil resistivity. This is determined by temperature, moisture content, and the

concentration of ionized salts present. Generally, corrosion is high in lowresistivity soils and can be low in very high resistivity soils.

Chemical constituents of the soil. Corrosion can be low in very high resistivity
soils.

Separation between anode and cathode. Corrosion is more likely to occur

when the anode and cathode are close together.

Anode and cathode polarization. Protective films formed at the anode and
cathode affect corrosion intensity.

Relative surface areas of cathode and anode. For a given magnitude of

corrosion current, the depth of corrosion on the anode will be inversely
proportional to anode area.

Since power requirements for cathodic protection systems are relatively low, the
application fits the capabilities of solar energy systems.

4.8 LEAK DETECTION

In addition to inspecting the pipeline route visually on the ground or by means of light
aircraft, advanced methods are now employed to detect smaller leaks and others more rapidly.
The minimum size leak that can be detected depends on a number of factors:

Type of fluid in the pipe.

Accuracy of the metering system and the accuracy of temperature and

pressure transmitters.

Line size.

Wall thickness.

Length of line.

Steady-state or transient condition of the pipeline.

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Analytical equipment.

Experience of the personnel involved.

Metering accuracy plays a key role in leak detection because one important way to detect
leaks is by direct observation of the pressure drop and volume loss, based on comparing the flow
into a segment of pipeline and the flow out of the segment. This approach can be effective with
relatively simple instrumentation, but can also be used with more complex leak detection
models. Instrumented pigs have been used to monitor a pipeline for leaks.

4.9 INTEGRITY ASSESMENTS

Routine evaluation of the physical condition of an oil pipeline is critical for ensuring
pipeline safety. The AOPL and the API have jointly published an overview of pipeline integrity
programs in effect for liquid pipeline systems (AOPL/API 2006). Their overview is summarized
below. Pipeline integrity can be determined through direct assessment methods, hydrostatic
testing, and by the use of internal inspection tools. Using direct assessment methods, oil pipeline
operators can determine the integrity of an oil pipeline through visual and physical (internal and
external) observations. Internal inspections of oil pipelines involve the use of smart pigs.
Hydrostatic testing involves pressuring the pipe to a level equal to or above its normal operating
pressure. Oil pipeline operators generally use a combination of direct assessments, internal
inspection tools, and/or hydrostatic tests for ensuring the safe and reliable operation.
Direct assessment methods include various types of cathodic protection surveys, such as
close interval surveys (to ensure that the pipe is not corroding) and physically uncovering
selected segments of the pipeline and examining the external coating as well as the steel pipe. A
detailed examination of the internal and external condition of the pipe also can be accomplished
when sections of pipe are inspected or removed for any reason, such as pipeline relocation,
installation of taps, installation of test leads, etc. The pipeline ROW may be assessed by ground
and aerial surveillance to look for any discoloration of plants and grasses as well as to observe
unusual activity in the area of the pipeline (for potential outside force damage).
Smart pigs are routinely used by the oil pipeline industry to detect loss of metal and in
some cases deformations in the pipeline. Inserted into the pipeline and propelled by the flowing
liquid, smart pigs record physical data about the pipelines integrity (e.g., location of reduced
pipe wall thickness, dents, etc.) as they move through the pipeline. Evaluation of smart pig data
allows the pipeline operator to make integrity decisions about the pipeline and to find and
mitigate potential problem areas before they become a problem.
Since their development in the 1960s, smart pigs have undergone several generations of
technological advancements. As smart pig technology has evolved, oil pipeline operators have
required the use of specialized smart pigs. Specialized smart pigs have evolved into three types:
metal-loss tools, crack-detection tools, and geometry tools.

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4.9.1 Metal-Loss Tools (Corrosion Tools)

A number of smart pigs have been developed to inspect for metal loss. The magnetic flux
leakage (MFL) smart pig induces a magnetic field in the pipe and monitors for anomalies in the
magnetic field that are later interpreted as potential metal losses due to corrosion. Highresolution MFL smart pigs can not only locate potential corrosion, but can also collect data to
allow for a determination of whether the corrosion is advancing from the inside or outside of the
pipe. Industry standards have been developed for use of the collected data to perform
calculations of such characteristics as the depth of corrosion pitting, but typically, corrosion must
have advanced to a depth of at least 20% of the pipe wall thickness before smart pigs can detect
it. However, smart pigs are not reliable for identifying flaws in the pipe that are oriented along
the pipes long axis, such as stress corrosion cracking, selective seam corrosion, and axial
gouges.
The ultrasonic smart pig, also called the UT tool, measures pipe wall thickness by using
ultrasonic technology. The UT tool transmits an ultrasonic pulse into the pipe wall and directly
measures its thickness. However, the inside surface of the pipe must be relatively clean for the
tool to be effective; consequently it is not typically used for crude oil or heavy oil pipelines
where paraffins or other debris can accumulate on interior pipe walls. Further, its overall
effectiveness decreases with decreasing wall thicknesses.

4.9.2 Crack-Detection Tools

A variety of smart pigs are now available with instrumentation that can identify cracks in
pipe walls. One such tool uses ultrasonic sound, interpreting the reflection of that sound back to
the instrument as a crack. However, because the ultrasonic signal would not travel effectively in
a gaseous pipeline, this tool is effective only for use in liquid pipelines.
Another smart pig, known as the transverse magnetic flux leakage pig, is similar in
operation to the magnetic flux smart pig discussed above; however, the magnetic field it creates
is oriented along the long axis of the pipe, making this tool especially sensitive to longitudinal
seams cracks and longitudinal seam corrosion. Nevertheless, small cracks may not be detected,
and while the tool can detect the presence of a larger crack, it cannot determine its severity.
Consequently, visual inspections of suspect areas typically follow the use of this pig.
Smart pigs are now under development that simultaneously send ultrasonic in two
directions along the pipeline to locate and size longitudinally oriented crack and manufacturing
defects.

4.9.3 Geometry Tools

As discussed above, the roundness of a pipe is critical to the overall performance and
delivery capacity of the pipeline system. Thus, pipe deformations must be identified and
corrected. Various smart pigs have been developed for that purpose. They are designed to

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identify external dents or damage to the pipe from external forces that have caused a change in
overall pipe geometry. Two basic types of geometry pigs are in service, caliper pigs and pipe
deformation pigs, and both operate on the same principles. Caliper pigs can use either
mechanical arms or electromagnetic signals to identify the exact locations of the interior pipe
wall. Data collected as the pig moves along the pipe can then be interpreted as dents or
deformations in the pipe. Pipe deformation smart pigs are similar in function to caliper pigs, but
incorporate a gyroscope for locating anomalies along the pipes circumference more precisely.

4.9.4 Mapping Tools

Smart pigs equipped with global positioning system (GPS) capabilities are also in
service. With this feature, identified anomalies or suspect areas can be precisely located for
directed repair and maintenance.

4.10 PIPELINE REPAIR TECHNIQUES

Leaks in the pipeline demand immediate attention. Repairs to mainline pipe can be
accomplished in a variety of ways, from replacement of an entire segment to replacement of a
small section within which the leak has occurred, to application of a patch to the existing pipe.
None of these repair strategies can be selected until a thorough investigation is completed to
fully understand the nature and causal factors of the leak. In addition to replacement of damaged
pipe, repairs could also involve reburial or rerouting of the pipe to prevent reoccurrence of the
damage.
Although some repairs require an entire shutdown of the pipeline, many might involve
only very temporary interruption of operations to isolate and bypass the damaged area, with the
majority of the repairs occurring while the pipeline remains operational. Typically, plugs are
inserted to temporarily isolate the damaged area so that isolating valves and a bypass could be
installed. A variety of plugging pigs are available expressly for this purpose. Once the bypass
components are in place, hot tap machines already attached to the newly installed bypass
valves will tap the pipeline to allow product to flow through the bypass, isolating the damaged
mainline pipe. With the damaged section drained of fluid and the pressure relieved, the damaged
section can be removed and the repair made. Equipment is available to perform this type of
operation on pipe sizes up to 48 in. in diameter. Hot taps can be made into pipelines operating at
pressures up to 1,400 psi and temperatures from 20F to 700F. Plugging can be done at
pressures to 1,200 psi and temperatures from 20F to 650F. Once the repair is completed, the
bypass valves can be closed and the product flow returned to the newly repair segment of the
pipeline. Bypass components may be left in place or removed. If removal is called for, the hot
taps initially made to create the bypass must be patched, or, alternatively, the bypass valves can
be left in place as a means of sealing the hot taps.

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5 DECOMMISSION AND DEMOLITION

Decommissioning is the process of taking equipment out of service when it has reached
the end of its useful life. From an operational perspective, that point is reached when
maintenance and replacement costs for older equipment begin to outweigh the value obtained
from continued operation. Advancements in technology can also signify the point in a systems
lifetime when decommissioning is warranted. Alternatively, decommissioning may be
appropriate due to a change in demand for the commodity being transported or when the
locations being served by the pipeline no longer align with locations of high demand for the
commodity or when more economical alternative supply paths have been established. Finally,
decommissioning may be specifically directed by lease or permit stipulation.
The economic lifetime of a pipeline (the time necessary for depreciation of the initial
investment) is typically around 50 years; however, with a sufficient commitment to maintenance
and upgrading, pipeline systems can remain functional for much longer periods of time. Unless it
is incompatible with future land uses planned for the ROW, industry practice is to leave a
mainline pipe in the pipeline trench located in the ROW.43 This prevents the additional
ecosystem disturbances that would result during removal of the pipe and other buried
components. Removal costs also encourage abandonment in place.
Typical abandonment-in-place processes include:

Removing any cathodic protection from the pipeline.

Physically disconnecting the pipeline from any operating facilities.

Removing the product from the line.

Cleaning the line by flushing it with fresh water, air, or inert gas.

Capping the pipe at all open ends by welding on steel caps.

Hardening foam is injected at certain locations along the pipe to prevent water
and contamination migration through the pipeline.

Any unnecessary surface facilities associated with the abandoned pipe are typically also
removed. Land owners may also require removal of all belowground elements that exist within
3 to 4 ft of the surface so as not to encumber reestablishment of vegetative cover or impede
surface land uses such as agricultural uses.

43 Because cost of removal may be as great as initial installation costs and the value recovered from recycling
mainline pipe is not likely to cover removal costs, most mainline pipe is abandoned in place; however, valves,
special fittings, and all aboveground features (e.g., pump stations and all of the equipment therein) are removed
and recycled. DOTs OPS maintains statistics regarding the lengths of interstate pipelines abandoned in place.
See: http://ops.dot.gov/library/abandoned/abandon_pipelines_orig.htm.

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Decommissioning plans are very site-specific and may not call for the same techniques
throughout the entire pipeline system. As suggested above, there can be circumstances in which
removal of buried pipe or removal of pipe from beneath a waterbody can cause more disruption
to ecosystems (including the disruption caused by constructing the necessary access roads for the
heavy equipment needed for pipe removal) than abandoning those segments in place. In those
instances, the decision may be to purge and clean the pipe of product, remediate any accidentally
released products, and abandon the pipe and associated infrastructure in place. Typically, pipe
corrosion control systems are also abandoned, allowing the pipe to corrode as circumstances
would dictate. Eventually, this might lead to surface subsidence when the pipe corrodes to the
point that the empty pipe can no longer support the weight of the overburden. In those instances,
abandonment may also include filling the pipe segment to the greatest extent possible with inert
material such as sand.

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6 EMERGENCIES AND OFF-NORMAL EVENTS

Once pipelines are operational, monitoring the pipelines flow parameters, instituting
operational procedures and controls, and performing periodic maintenance (especially, for
example, in conformance with the principles of Reliability-Centered Maintenance)44 are all
typically used to reduce the potential for accidental releases of commodities. Notwithstanding
such efforts, mechanical system failures and human error can still occur, some of which may
result in accidental releases of pipeline commodities. Consequently, all pipeline operators are
required to develop written procedures within an emergency plan that must address all credible
off-normal events. Each such credible event must be evaluated for its short- and long-term
impacts and the appropriate response actions developed accordingly.
Evaluations of off-normal events, including credible spill scenarios, consider relevant
circumstantial factors (e.g., ecosystems potentially impacted); potential natural, mechanical, or
human causal factors (e.g. earthquakes, equipment failure, human error); the expected
frequencies of such events; and the potential magnitude and severity of the events in terms of the
amounts and types of commodities released, to determine the short-term and long-term impacts
of a release and to devise the appropriate response actions to mitigate those impacts without
increasing the risk to facility response personnel or the public from inappropriate response
actions. For example, releases of flammable liquids with high vapor pressures in lowland areas
require a determination of the potential for formation of explosive vapor atmospheres before
response actions involving internal combustion engines or spark-producing equipment could
commence. Review of pipeline design features, such as distance from the release to the nearest
upstream and downstream valves, would determine the maximum potential volume of product
that would be in jeopardy of release. Such estimates, together with circumstantial factors such as
environmental features and distance to areas of critical environmental concern (ACEC) or
sensitive ecosystems, provide a basis for both the urgency and the necessary scale of the
response action.
For the purposes of impact analysis, there is no difference whether a leak or rupture
occurs along the pipeline or at a pump station. The impact from a continuous low-volume leak in
the pipeline would be similar to that from drips or spills at the pump station. Likewise, the
impact from a pipeline rupture would be similar to that from a large release due to an equipment
failure at a pump station. In all instances, the impacts depend on the environmental setting and
the quantity and nature of the leaks. However, it is important to note that pipeline control centers
routinely monitor pressures along the system as their primary leak detection capability. Pipeline
ruptures will result in significant pressure drops, and operators observing such pressure drops
would immediately recognize the possibility of a rupture and began shutting operations down
and isolating the segments where pressure drops first occurred. Automated systems are typically

44 Reliability-Centered Maintenance is a process for systematically and scientifically establishing appropriate

maintenance actions, schedules, and priorities for mechanical systems and other physical assets. When applied to
operations involving hazardous materials, the nature, scope, and priority of the maintenance actions are based on
an understanding of the nature and extent of adverse consequences to workers, the public, and the environment
that would result from component or system failure.

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designed to do the same if the operator does not act within a certain time frame after the initial
pressure drop alarm is initiated. However, small-volume leaks may not necessarily result in
pressure drops to which the systems pressure monitors would respond; therefore, such small
leaks can go undetected at the pipeline control center and may remain undetected until pipeline
ground or aerial surveillance crews discover the leak by visual observation.
Accidental releases of various commodities routinely conveyed by pipeline result in
substantially different impacts and dictate fundamentally different response actions. In general,
crude oil, due primarily to its viscosity, would be less mobile in the environment than less
viscous refined products. However, toxic constituents in crude oil such as benzene can find their
way to groundwater or surface water. Such toxic constituents are also present in many refined
products. Some, such as the BTEX fraction of gasoline45 are composed of polar organic
molecules with relatively high solubility in water, thus increasing their potential environmental
mobility from the spill site. Each of these highly flammable components also has a relatively
high vapor pressure under standard conditions and broad explosive ranges of their vapors in air,
increasing the potential for their volatilization from the surface of a spilled fluid and the
subsequent formation of vapor and air mixtures having explosive properties. Obviously, such
properties must be considered in the development of appropriate spill response actions to prevent
the response itself from exacerbating the impact of the initial spill. In addition to contributing to
gasolines viscosity, specific gravity, and solubility, benzene and xylene can increase the
permeability of clay over time. These chemicals can cause clay shrinkage and cracking, thereby
increasing the chances of fracturing clay soils in the upper horizons and providing pathways for
gasoline to move more rapidly to subsurface aquifers than might otherwise occur (EPA 2000).

45 The BTEX fraction is composed of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and the three isomers of xylene.

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7 REFERENCES

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