Spur gears

Spur gears have teeth that are straight and arranged parallel to the axis of the
shaft that carries the gear. The curved shape of the faces of the spur gear
teeth has a special geometry called an involute curve. This shape makes it
possible for two gears to operate together with smooth, positive transmission
of power. The shafts carrying gears are parallel.
Spur gear design

Actual output speed (gear)

np

nG

VR

= rotational speed of the pinion

VR = gear ratio
nP

VR

NG
NP

= number of gear, pinion teeth.

The spreadsheet computes the approximate number of gear teeth to produce
NG , N P

Gd
the desired speed from NG N P n
( nGd = desired output speed). But, of
P
course, the number of teeth on any gear must be an integer, and the actual
value of NG is selected by the designer.

Spur gear geometry For full depth involute teeth in the diametral pitch system

Pitch diameter
D

N
Pd

Diametral Pitch
Pd

Outside diameter
Do

N
D

N 2
Pd

Addendum
a

1
Pd

1.25
Pd

Dedendum
if Pd 20

if Pd 20
b

1.2
0.002
Pd

Clearance

if Pd 20
c

0.25
Pd

if Pd 20
0.2
0.002
Pd

Root diameter
DR D 2b

Base circle diameter

Db D cos

Circular pitch
p

D
N

Whole depth
ht a b

Working depth
hk 2a

Tooth thickness
t

2Pd

Center distance
DG DP
2

Bending geometry factor, J, is dependent on the number of teeth of gear for

which geometry factor is desired and on the number of teeth in mating gear.
Values can be found from AGMA 908-B89(R1995).
Pitting geometry factor, I, is dependent on the tooth geometry and on gear
ratio. Values can be found from AGMA Standard 218.01.
Force and speed factors

Pitch line speed

Vt

DP nP
12

Tangential force
Wt

33000 (P )
Vt

Wt

126000 (P )
nD

or

where:
P
= transmitted power

Radial force

Wr Wt tan

Normal force
Wn

Wt
cos

Expected bending stress

St

Wt Pd
K o K s K mK B Kv
F J

where:
J
= bending geometry factor
Ko
= overload factor
Ks
= size factor
K m = load-distribution factor
KB
= rim thickness factor
Kv
= dynamic factor.
Expected bending stress formula for SI units is given by
b = (Wt / F.m.J) (KO.KS.Km.KB.KV)
Where;
b
= bending stress [MPa],
m
= module [mm],
F
= face width [mm],
Wt = transmitted load [N]
The AGMA indicates that the size factor KS can be taken to be 1.00 for
most gears. But for gears with large-size teeth or large face widths, a value
greater than 1.00 recommended. Gear design programs compute the size
factor automatically.
The determination of load-distribution factor Km is based on many
variables in the design of the gears themselves as well as in the
shafts, bearings, housings, and the structure in which the gear drive is
installed. Therefore, it is one of the most difficult factors to specify. Much
analytical and experimental work is continuing on the determination of values
for K m . We will use the following equation for computing the value of the loaddistribution factor:

K m 1.0 C pf Cma
where:

C pf

= pinion proportion factor is dependent on face width and

pitch diameter
C ma = mesh alignment factor.
The dynamic factor, Kv , accounts for the fact that the load is assumed
by a tooth with some degree of impact and that the actual load subjected

to the tooth is higher than the transmitted load alone. The value of Kv
depends on the accuracy of tooth profile, the elastic properties of
tooth, and the speed with which the teeth come into contact.
AGMA Standard 2001-C95 gives recommended values for Kv based on the
AGMA quality number, Qv , and the pitch line velocity.

Gears in typical machine design would have AGMA quality ratings of 5

through 7, which are for gears made by hobbing or shaping with
average to good tooling.
If the teeth are finish-ground or shaved to improve the accuracy of the
tooth profile and spacing, quality numbers in the 8 - 11 range should be
used. Under very special conditions where teeth of high precision are
used in applications where there is little chance of developing external
dynamic loads, higher quality numbers can be used.
If the teeth are cut by form milling, factors lower than those found from
QV = 5 should be used.
Note that the quality 5 gears should not be used at pitch line speed
above 12.7 m/s (2500 ft/min). Note that the dynamic factors are
approximate.

Expected contact stress

Sc C p

Wt K o K s K mKv
FDp I

where:
= elastic coefficient that depends on the material of both the pinion and the
gear.
CP

= 2300 for two steel gears. The design program automatically selects the
appropriate value after the user specifies the materials.
CP

Procedure for selecting materials for bending stress

K R SF
St Sat
YN
where:
KR

SF
YN

= reliability factor
= factor of safety
= stress cycle factor for bending.

AGMA Standard 2001-C95 allows the determination of the life adjustment

factor, YN , if the teeth of the gear being analyzed are expected to experience a
number of cycles of loading much different from 10 7 . Note that the general
type of material is a factor for the lower number of cycles. For the higher
number of cycles, a range is indicated by a shaded area.
Expected number of cycles of loading

Nc (60)(L)(n )(q )

where:
L
= design life in hours
n
= rotational speed in rpm
q
= number of load applications per revolution.
Procedure for selecting materials for contact stress
K R SF
S c S ac
ZN
where:
ZN

= pitting resistance stress cycle factor.

AGMA Standard 2001-C95 specifies the determination of the stress cycle

factor, ZN . If the teeth of the gear being analyzed are expected to experience
a number of cycles of loading much different from 10 7 , a factor should be used.
The user specifies the desired life for the system in hours and the program
computes the values for YN and Z N .
After computing the values for allowable bending stress number, Sat , and for
allowable contact stress number, S ac , you should go to the data in AGMA
Standard 2001-C95, to select a suitable material. Consider first whether the
material should be steel, cast iron, bronze, or plastic. Then consult the related
tables of data.

Pressure angle
The pressure angle is the angle between the tangent to the pitch circles and
the line drawn normal (perpendicular) to the surface of the gear tooth
The line normal to the gear teeth is sometimes referred to as the line of
action. When two gear teeth are in mesh and are transmitting power, the force
transferred from the driver to the driven gear tooth acts in a direction along
the line of action. Also, the actual shape of the gear tooth depends on the
pressure angle.
Standard values of the pressure angle are established by gear manufacturers,
and the pressure angle of two gears in mesh must be the same. Current
standard pressure angles are, although the 14

1
2

tooth form is considered to

be obsolete. Although it is still available, it should be avoided for new designs.

The 20 degrees tooth form is the most readily available at this time. The
advantages and disadvantages of the different values of pressure angle relate
to the strength of the teeth, the occurrence of interference, and the magnitude
of forces exerted on the shaft.

Face width
The face width can be specified once the diametral pitch is chosen. Although a
wide range of face widths is possible, the following limits are used for general
machine drive gears:
8
16
F
Pd
Pd
12

Nominal value of F P
d
For SI System of Units,
3 m< F < 5 m

Nominal value of F = 4 m
Also, the face width normally is not greater than pitch diameter of the
pinion.
An upper limit is placed on the face width to minimize problems with
alignment. A very wide face width increases the chance for less than full face
loading of the teeth. When the face width is less than the lower limit, it is
probable that a more compact design can be achieved with different pitch.
F

Notice that D 2.00 is recommended.

p
Number of pinion teeth
In the selection of the number of teeth on the pinion, the designer must be
aware of potential interference. For certain combinations of numbers of teeth
in a gear pair, there is interference between the tip of the teeth on the pinion
and the fillet or root of the teeth on the gear. Obviously this cannot be
tolerated because the gears simply will not mesh. The probability that
interference will occur is greatest when a small pinion drives a large gear, with
the worst case being a small pinion driving a rack. A rack is a gear with a
straight pitch line; it can be thought of as a gear with an infinite pitch
diameter.
It is the designers responsibility to ensure that interference does not occur in
a given application. The surest way to do this is to control the minimum
number of teeth in the pinion.

If a designer wants to be sure that there will not be interference between

any two gears when using the 14

1
2

, full-depth, involute system, the pinion

of the gear pair must have no fewer than 32 teeth.

For the 20 , full-depth, involute system, using no fewer than 18

teeth will ensure that no interference occurs.
For the 25 , full-depth, involute system, using no fewer than 12 teeth will
ensure that no interference occurs.

Design life
Design life is, indeed, a design decision based on the application. As a
guideline, this set of data was created for use in bearing design and is used
here for gearing:
Application
Domestic appliances
Aircraft engines
Automotive
Agricultural equipment
Elevators, industrial fans, multipurpose gearing
Electric motors, industrial blowers, general industrial

Design life L (h)

from 1000 to 2000
from 1000 to 4000
from 1500 to 5000
from 3000 to 6000
from 8000 to 15,000
from 20,000 to 30,000

machines
Pumps and compressors
Critical equipment in continuous 24-h operation

from 40,000 to 60,000

from 100,000 to
200,000

Number of load applications per revolution, q

The normal number of load applications per revolution for any given tooth is
typically, of course, one. But consider the case of an idler gear that
serves as both a driven and driving gear in a gear train. It receives two
cycles of load per revolution: one as it receives power from and one as it
delivers power to its mating gears. Also, in certain types of gear trains, one
gear may deliver power to two or more gears mating with it. Gears in a
planetary gear train often have this characteristic.
Rim thickness
The rim thickness factor, K B , accounts for a rim that may be too thin. The
basic analysis used to develop the Lewis equation assumes that the gear
tooth behaves as a cantilever attached to a perfectly rigid support
structure at its base. If the rim of the gear is too thin, it can deform and
cause the point of maximum stress to shift from the area of the gear-tooth
fillet to a point within the rim.
The key geometry parameter is called the backup ratio, mB , where

t
mB R
ht
t R = rim thickness;
ht = whole depth of the gear tooth.

For mB >1.2, the rim is sufficiently strong and stiff to support the tooth, and
K B =1.0.
For mB <1.2, rim thickness factor determined:
2.242

mB

K B 1.6 ln

When a solid gear blank is used, input a large value (say t R > 1.0 inch) for rim
thickness. The resulting value is K B 1 .

Gear application
The mesh alignment factor, Cma, is dependent on the application of the gear
pair.
Open gearing refers to drive systems in which the shafts are
supported in bearings that are mounted on structural elements of
machines with the expectation that relatively large misalignments will
result.
In commercial-quality enclosed gear units, the bearings are mounted in a
specially designed housing that provides more rigidity than for open
gearing, but for which the tolerances on individual dimensions are fairly loose.

10

The precision enclosed gear units are made to tighter tolerances.

Extra-precision enclosed gear units are made to exacting precision and are
often adjusted at assembly to achieve excellent alignment of the gear teeth.
Elastic coefficient
The value of this coefficient depends on the material of the pinion and
the gear. For instance if the pinion and the gear are both steel the elastic
coefficient C p =2300. Simply click on the database icon and you will be
prompted to input the material type for the pinion and the gear, and the
appropriate value will be inserted for calculations. For a complete listing of
values, AGMA standard 2001-C95 can be referenced.
Overload factor, Ko
Overload factors consider the probability that load variations,
vibrations, shock, speed changes, and other application-specific
conditions may result in peak loads greater than Wt being applied to
the teeth during operation. A careful analysis of actual conditions should be
made, and the AGMA Standard 2001-C95 gives no specific values for overload
factor.
The primary considerations are the nature of both the driving power
source and the driven machine. An overload factor of 1.00 would be applied
for a perfectly smooth electric motor driving a perfectly smooth generator
through a gear type speed reducer. Any rougher conditions call for a value of
overload factor Ko greater than 1.00. For power sources we will use the
following:
-

Uniform: Electric motor or constant-speed gas turbine

Light shock: Water turbine, variable speed drive
Moderate shock: Multi-cylinder engine

Examples of the roughness of driven machines include the following:

- Uniform: Continuous-duty generator
- Light shock: Fans and low-speed centrifugal pumps, liquid agitators,
variable-duty generators, uniformly loaded conveyors, rotary positive
displacement pumps
- Moderate shock: High-speed centrifugal pumps, reciprocating pumps and
compressors, heavy-duty conveyors, machine tool drives, concrete mixers,
textile machinery, meat grinders, saws
- Heavy shock: Rock crushers, punch press drives, pulverizers, processing
mills, tumbling barrels, wood chippers, vibrating screens, railroad car
dumpers

11

Factor of safety
The factor of safety may be used to account for the following:
- Uncertainties in the design analysis
- Uncertainties in material characteristics
- Uncertainties in manufacturing tolerances
It may also be used to provide an extra measure of safety in critical
applications.
No general guidelines are published, and designers must evaluate the
conditions of each application. Note, however, that many of the factors often
considered to be a part of a factor of safety in general design practice have
already been included in the calculations for the allowable stresses. Therefore,
a modest value for factor of safety should suffice, between 1.00 and 1.50.
Hardness ratio factor, CH
Good gear design practice calls for making the pinion teeth harder than the
gear teeth so that the gear teeth are smoothed and work-hardened during
operation. This increases the gear capacity with regard to pitting resistance
and is accounted for by the factor C H .
Data for C H for through-hardened gears (AGMA Standard 2001-C95) depend
on the ratio of the hardness of pinion and the hardness of gear, expressed as
NG
the Brinell hardness number, and on the gear ratio where mG
.
NP
Use the given curves in the graphic help for hardness ratios between 1.2 and
1.7.
For hardness ratios under 1.2, use C H =1.00.
For hardness ratios over 1.7, use the value of C H for 1.7, as no substantial
additional improvement is gained.

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