EXPERIMENTS IN PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS by David E. LaLond and John A. Ross Delmas Publishers Inc"* 1@)prNOTICE TO THE READER Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of the product information contained derein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. ‘The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. 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No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used ia any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical. including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage or retrieval systems—without written permission of the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Published simultaneously in Canada by Nelson Canada, a division of The Thompson Corporation 123456789 10 XXX 00 99 98 97 96 95 94 ISBN: 0-8273-4664.6 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 92-36004CONTENTS Preface . Suggested Experiment Usage .........- EXPERIMENTS: 1 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS .....-....--++ eee 1 2. THEVENIN'S THEOREM 3. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM ........ 4 TESTEQUIPMENT LIMITATIONS ............4 5 THEPNJUNCTIONDIODE ......... eee 7 6 RECTIFIERFORMS ........ eee pera 7 CAPACITOR INPUT FILTERS ........--.....27 8 ZENER REGULATION OF POWER SUPPLIES . .. . . . 32 9 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 10 SIGNAL CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS ....... 2.40 11 BASIC BJT CHARACTERISTICS... . . ce 47 12 BETA EFFECTS INTHEBIJT.........- vere SE 13 EMITTER BIAS OF THE BJT 14 COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIAS .......-... 1 9 15 VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS FORBITS ...... . 22 8 16 BIASING PNP TRANSISTORS ........--... 67 17 COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER . . . . - eee 1 18 COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIASED AMPLIFIER . . . . . 76 19 COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER... . . Bagopecl 20 COMMON BASE AMPLIFIER ..... . « 86 21 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS .........- + PE 22 CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIERS ...... ee 23 CLASS B PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS ......,.... 98 24 DARLINGTON AMPLIFIERS... .. . sees £03 CONTENTS fi= 25 CLASS CAMPLIFIERS.....---......-5 ye 26 DIRECT-COUPLED AMPLIFIERS... ...... 27 JFET CHARACTERISTICS ..... 6... ++ Pees 28SELF-BIASEDJFET ....-.-.-.---...005- 29 VOLTAGE DIVIDERBIAS ...- 64.22.0005 ‘ 30 CURRENT SOURCE BIASED JFET.......-.. a6 31 COMMON-SOURCE JFET AMPLIFIERS... ....-- 32 COMMMON-DRAIN JFET AMPLIFIERS... -.... « 33 BIASING D MOSFETS .............-5+ : 34 MOSFET AMPLIFIERS. ....--- +... 5+ Pr 35 BIT SWITCHES ....--.---.-..0 0-02 0s 36 BIT SCHMITT TRIGGER. . . . . Peer 37 JPET SWITCHES ©... -- 2-2-0... 0 eee ee 38 UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATORS... - - « 39 BJT RAMP GENERATORS... .. . Pee ecron : 40 FREQUENCY EFFECTS IN BJT AMPLIFIERS. . . . . . 41 FREQUENCY EFFECTS IN JFET AMPLIFIERS... . . 42 BIT DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS . . 43 BASIC OP-AMP PARAMETERS ............. : 44 OP-AMP SLEW RATE AND CMRR . . . . « eee 45 NONINVERTING VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS. . . 46 INVERTING VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS ........ do 47 OP-AMP CURRENT AMPLIFIERS ............ 48 VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT CONVERTERS ....... 49 SUMMING AMPLIFIERS. . 52 HARTLEY OSCILLATORS. . . . . peer 53 RELAXATION OSCILLATORS ...........5 ao $4 DIFFERENTIATORS AND INTEGRATORS... . . - c 107 feliz) 116 120 124 128 132 136 140 144 148 153 157 - 160 164 167 im 175 179 183 . ‘187 19155 OP-AMP DIODE CIRCUITS ..-....-.-0-0.05 26 56 SCHMITT TRIGGER CIRCUITS ... 2-6-0 eee es 231 57 WINDOW COMPARATORS... 2.0.06 250s 234 58 ACTIVE LOW-PASS FILTERS . . = 241 59 ACTIVE HIGH-PASS FILTERS . . = 242 60 ACTIVE BAND-PASS FILTERS ........--.+.- 246 61 ACTIVE BAND-REJECT FILTERS ..........-.. 250 ; 62 VCVS ACTIVEFILTERS «00.0.0. 0 ec eee 2s4 63 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS ........--.- 258 | 64 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION .....-.-.. 261 65 SSSTIMER CIRCUITS 2... 60-0. e eee eee ee 265 66 SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS .......-.. 270 67 TRIACS 214 68 FULL-WAVE PHASE CONTROL - - 278 | 69 SERIES PASS REGULATORS ...-......-.-.. 282 : TOICREGULATORS .... 20-0200. ese eee eae 285 71 SIGNAL MODULATION AND DEMODULATION . . . . 288 72 PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS... ........-----0+0- 291 73 VARACTOR DIODES ......- 2.0.0.0 sees 295 APPENDICES A COMPOSITE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS LIST . . 296 | B DATASHEETS ...-- 0.0.0. 00s se ee sere 300 CONTENTS vPREFACE Experiments in Electronic Devices and Circuits is designed as a leaming ‘companion to the text, Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits. This man- ual is uniquely structured. The differences are the number of experiments, the extent ofthe troubleshooting sections, and the use of a format that enhances the learning experience. The unusually large number of experiments provides a strong base from which instructors can select laboratory activities that support the emphasis of their specific program. The troubleshooting portions of the experiments are lo- cated in separate sections that permit assignment as desired. The troubleshooting, vwas designed to simulate realistic circuit faults and, toa major extent, avoid fault ‘simulation by means of a missing element-a questionable technique which tends to produce awkward measurements. ‘The experiment format is organized to allow the leamer to build a circuit, then make functional measurements to see the operating characteristics of the circuit. Coupled with this approach is a discussion section which extends the Tearmer’s thinking into further considerations of circuit characteristics and appli- cations. In summary, these experiments reflect an approach adopted after years of ‘watching students compare measured values with calculated values, and then attempt to describe what they learned from the process. Several individuals deserve credit and praise for their contributions to this undertaking, Special thanks to Charles A. Heskett for his time and talents. The following people had a part in creating this work: Robert Doyle, Arnie Garcia, David Leigon, Daniel Lookadoo, Daniel Presson, and Pat Thomason. The authors wish to thank all of them and express gratitude for their efforts. SUGGESTED EXPERIMENT USAGE It is recognized that, even in a two-quartes program, it would be difficult to assign (and expect every student to complete) all ofthe experiments available in ‘this manual. The tables on the following pages list a nominal assignment rate that is based on an assumed laboratory time of approximately eight lab hours per week. In this list, some experiments are marked in italics. These specially marked experiments could be deleted to accommodate shorter laboratory times or slower work rates. In addition, the tables list supplementary experiments that might be assigned fora particular program emphases or extra work for advanced learners.Suggested Experiments ‘Two-Quarter Program Text Chapters) ‘Main ‘Supplementary Experiments Experiments ‘Voltage Dividers Thevenin'’s Theorem 3. Superposition Theorem Test Equipment Limitations The PN Junction Diode waal nan Rectifier Forms Capacitor Input Filters Zener Regulation Of Power ‘Supplies 9 10 Signal Clippers and 11 Basic BJT Characteristics, Voltage Multipliers Clamper aaale ow 12 Beta Effects in the BIT 13 Emitter Bias of the BJT —_| 14 Collector Feedback Bias 15 Voltage Divider Bias for BITs 16 Biasing PNP Transistors 17 Common Emitter Amplifier] 18 Collector Feedback Biased 19 Common Collector Amplifier wl wae 20 Common Base Amplifier 21 Multistage Amplifiers 22 Class A Power Amplifiers 23 Class B Push-Pull ‘Amplifiers 25 Class C Amplifiers 24 Darlington Amplifiers __| 26 Direct-Coupled Amplifiers 27 JFET Characteristics 28 Self-Biased JFET 29 Voltage Divider Bias 30 Current Source Biased JFET] a al saata aa 31 Common-Source JFET 32 Commmon-Drain JFET 33 Biasing D MOSFETS 34 MOSFET Amplifiers Amplifiers Amplifiers wove 35 BIT Switches 36 BIT Schmitt Trigger 38 UJT Relaxation Oscillators 37 JEET Switches 39 BJT Ramp Generators /40 Frequency Effects in BJT 41 Frequency Effects in JFET Amplifiers Amplifiers 42 BIT Differential Amplifiers 43 Basic Op-Amp Parameters 44 Op-Amp Slew Rate and CMRR ‘SUGGESTED EXPERIMENT USAGE. vilvill Suggested Experiments ‘Two-Quarter Program (Cont'd) ‘Text Chapter(s) ‘Main Experiments Supplementary Experiments 2 2 R ‘45 Noninverting Voltage | Amplifiers 46 Inverting Voltage Amplifiers 48 Voltage-to-Current Converters. 47 Op-Amp Current Amplifiers 12 13 49 Summing Amplifiers $0 RC OSeillators B 13 B 31 Colpitts and Clapp Oscillators 52 Hariley Oscillators 54 Differentiators and Integrators 53 Relaxation Oscillators 14 ‘55 Op-Amp Diode Circuits 56 Schmitt Trigger Circuits 57 Window Comparators 15 15 ‘38 Active Low-Pass Filters 59 Active High-Pass Filters 60 Active Band-Pass Filters _ 16 16 61 Active Band-Reject Filters 62 VCVS Active Filters 16 63 Instrumentation Amplifiers 64 Digital-to-Analog —Conversion 17 65 555 Timer Circuits 18 18 66 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers 67 Triacs 68 Full-Wave Phase Control 19 69 Series Pass Regulators 70 1C Regulators 20 20 71 Signal Modulation and Demodulation 72 Phase-Locked Loops ‘73 Varactor DiodesSuggested Experiments One-Semester Program Text ‘Main ‘Supplementary Chapter(s) Experiments Experiments 1 1 Voltage Dividers 2 Thevenin’s Theorem 1 |4 Test Equipment Limitations }3 Superposition Theorem 2 |S ThePN Junction Diode | 3]? Capacitor Input Filters [6 Rectifier Forms 3 |8 Zener Regulation Of Power Supplies 3 |9 Voltage Multipliers 4 10 Signal Clippers and 1 Basic BJT Characteristics 4 Clamper 14 Collector Feedback Bias 4 12 Beta Effects in the BJT 15 Voltage Divider Bias for 4 [13 Emitter Bias of the BIT BITs 4 16 Biasing PNP Transistors 3 [17 Common Emitter Amplifier | 18 Collector Feedback Biased | 19 Common Collector Amplifier 5 Amplifier 20 Common Base Amplifier 5 21 Multistage Amplifiers 1 @ {22 Class A Power Amplifiers 6 23 Class B Push-Pull 24 Darlington Amplifiers 6 Amplifiers 25 Class C Amplifiers 6 _ |26 Direct-Coupled Amplifiers i 7 [28 Self-Biased JFET 27 FET Characteristics 1 |29 Voltage Divider Bias 30 Current Source Biased JFET| 7 31 Common-Source JFET 32 Commmon-Drain JFET Amplifiers Amplifiers 8 [33 Biasing D MOSFETS 8 34 MOSFET Amplifiers 9 [35 BIT Switches 36 BIT Schmitt Trigger 9 |37JFET Switches 38 UJT Relaxation Oscillators 9 39 BJT Ramp Generators 10 [40 Frequency Effects in BIT [41 Frequency Effects in JPET ‘Amplifiers Amplifiers 10 | 42 BIT Differential Amplifiers 11 _ [43 Basic Op-Amp Parameters 11 {44 Op-Amp Slew Rate and CMRR 12 |45 Noninverting Voltage ‘47 Op-Amp Current ‘Amplifiers Amplifiers 12 |46 Inverting Voltage 48 Voltage-to-Current Amplifiers Converters 12 |49 Summing Amplifiers 13 50 RC OScillators 13 51 Colpitts and Clapp 52 Hartley Oscillators 13 Oscillators 53 Relaxation Oscillators 13 | 54 Differentiators and Integrators | SUGGESTED EXPERIMENT USAGE ix‘Suggested Experiments One-Semester Program (Con's) ‘Text ‘Main ‘Supplementary Chapter(s) Experiments Experiments 4 14 '3$ Op-Amp Diode Circuits 56 Schmitt Trigger Circuits 14 _|$7 Window Comparators 15 _ | 58 Active Low-Pass Filters 15 | 59 Active High-Pass Filters 15 | 60 Active Band-Pass Filters 16 [61 Active Band-Reject Filters [62 VCVS Active Filters 16 _ }63 Instrumentation Amplifiers 16 4 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 17 | 65 555 Timer Circuits 18 _ | 66 Silicon-Controlled 67 Triacs Rectifiers 18) 68 Full-Wave Phase Control 19 _ [69 Series Pass Regulators 19 | 70 IC Regulators 20 71 Signal Modulation and Demodulation 20 72 Phase-Locked Loops 20 73 Varactor Diodes1 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS INTRODUCTION analyze series electronic circuits. The first part of this laboratory experiment will demonstrate to you three facts about voltage dividers: 1. The sum of all voltage drops is equal to voltage applied (Va). 2. Current flow is the same at any point in the circuit 3. The voltage dropped across any one resistor in a series circuit is "equal to the ratio of that resistance value to the total resistance (Rx / Rr) times the applied voltage (Va).” ‘You will see that the voltage divider principle is also used in series-paralle) | circuits. This occurs when you place a "load" on one of the resistors in the volt- age divider. The troubleshooting part of the experiment permits you to see the effect of a resistor failure in your voltage divider circuit. You will also be able to relate measurement values to circuit fault. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.2 OBJECTIVES Jn this experiment you will: ¥ Prove that multiple voltages are available with the use of only one power supply Y Study the effect of a load on a voltage divider circuit ¥ Be able to relate measured values to circuit faults EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Circuit protoboard Resistors: 1 kQ, 2k, 3 kO, 5kO, 1 MO VOLTAGE DIVIDERS 1‘The circuit shown below in Figure 1.1 is the same one explained in your textbook. Since all calculations for the circuit are done, you are ready to construct this cir- cuit on your breadboard. Ri Sska Va bs, Ri Saka Rs Sika Figure 1.1 ep ‘The portion of this lab starting with step 5 will enable you to study the effect of a "load" ona voltage divider. The circuit used in Figure 1.1 will be utilized so that we can have a good refer- cence point from which to make ‘comparisons Figure 1.2 2 EXPERIMENT 1 SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Adjust the variable power supply to 10 V. With the power supply tumed off, connect power to the circuit. Since you already know the expected voltage drops on each resistor, itis now time to verify these calculated results. Use your multimeter to meas- ure each voltage drop. Record your readings in the chart below. Vai= Vra= Vaa= To prove that the sum of these three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied (Va) to the circuit, sum the individual voltage drops data from step 2 above to calculate Va, Va Your calculated value of Va should agree (within the voltmeter accuracy). If there isa significant difference, recheck your measurements of steps 1, 2, and 3. 4. Using Ohm’s law, you can also prove that the current flowing through this circuit is the same at any point in that path. This is accomplished by taking each voltage drop and dividing it by its respective resistance value, Record your results below. arene eee Ee Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1.2 and adjust the power supply to 10V. ‘The addition of a 1-kO load across Ri alters the makeup of the circuit in Figure 1.2. This is due to the fact that the new load bas provided another path for current to flow. Another item to consider will be the effect this load will have on total resistance and, therefore, total current. Recalculate the new circuit, Calculated | Measured values and record the 1 data in the Calculated column in Table 1.1 Rr Measure the same circuit [Tat values and record them = [> in the Measured columa in Table 1.1 Irs Vat Vea’ VR3 VRLoad IRLoad TableSECTION IL TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 - Changing resistance in the voltage divider 1, Ifone resistor in your original circuit fails, then the voltage drops in the circuit would be expected to change also, This can be simulated easily by merely replacing one resistor with a large resistance to simulate a failed (open) resistor. With the power supply tumed off, remove Ra (5k) from the circuit and replace it with a 1-MQ resistor. 2. Using your digital multimeter, measure the voltage drop on each resistor and record this reading below. y = - ‘Your measurements in Step 2 Wae= _____Viw= ______ should clearly indicate hat he 3. Although the the voltage measurements for Figure 1.2 are different from _cifcuit fault is associated with the ones for Figure 1.1, their sum should still be equal to the total voltage R3- applied. Verify this concept betow. Va= Var + Veo t Vas =__ Fault 2 - Load resistor open 1. Using Figure 1.2, let’s assume that the 1-kQ load resistor fails, or opens. ‘The parallel combination of Ri (1 kA) and Ricedis different from before. Construct the circuit of Figure 1.2. Modify the circuit by replacing the 1KQ2 Re, with a -MQ resistor, Rr= r= Vai = Vata = Vea = Ves=_ 2. Apply 10 V to the circuit and measure the values listed below. Vai = Veoad =. Vea = Vio= 3. From your measured data it should be clear that the circuit fault lies with Rg or Ry. List the measurement you would make to isolate the failure to the specific resistor that failed, DISCUSSION Section I 1, In Section I you measured voltage drops and compared those to the calcu- lated values in your textbook. Discuss the relationship of each resistor’s ratio to the measured voltage drop. VOLTAGE DIVIDERS 3eH 10mA aS ev Re Load Figure 1.3 RZ imo R2Z 3kaQ RsS1ka Figure 1.6 4 EXPERIMENT! Discuss how a voltage divider could be used to supply a certain amount of voltage to a circuit or to a component. Discuss how you would connect a load that operates with a certain volt- age/current demand to a voltage divider circuit (see Figure 1.3). Section 0 1 If the circuit of Figure 1.4 were mounted in a printed circuit board, describe the measurements you would make to be certain that the failure ‘was an open resistor rather than a break in the solder connection on the board connecting one leg of Rs to the circuit board. Referring to the loaded voltage divider circuit failure, could you with just ‘one voltage measurement determine if the failure was R,, instead of Rs? ‘Explain why you chose your answer. Quick Check 1 2. Solve for the voltage drops of the voltage divider shown in Figure 1.5. IER; of Figure 1.5 was removed and replaced with an 8 kQ resistor, what ‘would be the new value of current flow? What effect, if any, does this ‘have on Vet and Vis? Figure 1.6 shows a loaded voltage divider. With the information given, determine the following values: Vra= I= Tg= Ra RS 2K0 2a — Re ZB 10ka2 Rs ZS 10Ka Figure 1.5 Figure 1.6THEVENIN’S THEOREM INTRODUCTION Thevenin’s theorem provides a way to take a complex circuit and reduce it to a simple Thevenin voltage (Vr) source in series with a Thevenin resistance (Rr). Thevenin’s theorem is also used for simplifying circuits that involve more than one power source. This experiment provides a functional review of the ap- plication of Thevenin’s theorem and an experimental application. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.4 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Reduce a complex resistive circuit toa single resistance (Rr) in series ith a single voliage source (Vix) ¥ Experimentally verify Thevenin’s theorem through voltage measurements EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Circuit protoboard Resistors: 2.7 kQ, 82 kQ Potentiometers: 5 kQ [2], 10 kQ THEVENIN'S THEOREM 5SECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT 2. 3 4 Rug —W—— 27ka Vow Le Rie ave 2ko 8 5. 6 EXPERIMENT? aka Figure 2.1 Construct the circuit of Figure 2.1 on your circuit breadboard. Use the potentiometers adjusted to the required resistance value. ‘The total current (Iz) and load current (I.) have been calculated in the textbook on page 28. With that information, determine the expected value of voltage on the load. Vyoad (ate) = Adjust the power supply for 12 V and connect this voltage to the circuit Measure load voltage and record below. Vioad (measured) Using the circuit of Figure 2.1, Thevenize and reconstruct the circuit on your breadboard. NOTE: The calculations for this particular circuit have been com- pleted on pages 30 and 31 of the textbook. Figure 2.2 shows the equivalent (Thevenized) circuit after your caiculations. A standard 2.7-kQ resistor is used instead of the calculated 2.674 resistance shown on page 31 of the text, If you want to be more ac- curate, use a potentiometer that is adjusted to 2.67 kQ in place of, ‘the 2.7-kQ resistor. ‘Viosdeale,) = Apply 4 V to the Thevenized circuit and measure the voltage drop across the load, ‘Vioad(measured) = How does this measurement compare to the measurement across the load in step 3?ak2 og “Seat 8 “Shorted” Power Supply L Figure 2.3 6. To verify Rru, construct the circuit of Figure 2.3 and measure the resistance at points A and B. 7. Tum off the circuit power and restore your circuit to that of Figure 2.1, exoept use art 82-K02 toad resistance. Apply 12 VDC to the circuit and measure the value of Vi. Ve 8. Calculate for your circuit the value of Ir, lu, and Vi. Ire. vi 9. Modify your circuit to the Thevenin equivalent (Figure 2.2 where Ry = 82 kQ). 10. Apply 4 VDC and measure the value of VL. Ve=__ 11, Using the Thevenin equivalent circuit form, calculate the value of Ir and MV. r=, v= Can you agree that calculations of circuit values are much easier us- ing the "Thevenized” circuit form? This completes the measurements of this experiment. DISCUSSION 1, Discuss the reasons for any differences you might have encountered be- ‘been your calculated values and your measured values. 2. Discuss how Thevenin’s theorem could be useful in the “real world." THEVENIN'S THEOREM 78 EXPERIMENT? Quick Check 1 ‘When calculating Rr, you should remove the power supply and replace it with a/an (short, open) Thevenin voltage is calculated by finding the voltage drop at the (loaded, unloaded) terminals. Determine the Thevenin voltage and resistance for Figure 2.4 Vmi= Rr , wy] sez git tr Figure 2.43 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM INTRODUCTION ‘The superposition theorem is helpful when analyzing circuits that have more than one source. The superposition theorem can, with some restrictions, be used in both AC and DC and in circuits where both sources are used. In this experi- ‘ment you will construct and analyze two circuits, one with both DC sources and the other with an AC anda DC source. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.6 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Demonstrate the superposition theorem in DC circuits Demonstrate the superposition theorem in AC- and DC-sourced circuits EQUIPEMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply [2] Function generator Digital multimeter [2] Oscilloscope Circuit protoboard Resistors: 220 0, 330 Q, 1kQ SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 9NOTICE When a step in this experi- ‘ment instructs youto "short" a power supply, you should SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Two DC Sources Construct the circuit in Figure 3.1. disconnect the designated | 2 C#leulate Rr, Is, and V3 for Rr Re power supply and replace its Vp shorted. Record as V5 connections with a jumper Shorted in the Cale. aie’ columns of Table 3.1. y 3. Short power supply Va. 5V Disconnect Va and meas- ure Rr. Record as Vz ‘Shorted in the Rr column of Table 3.1. Ga 4, Reconnect the Va supply, but do not turn it on at this time. 5. Connect an ammeter in the Rs branch. 6. Tum on the Vi supply. Measure Is and Vs, and record the values as Vp Shorted in the Meas. columns of Table 3.1. 7. Tum off the power 8. Calculate Rr; Is, and Vs for Va shorted. Record as Va Shorted in the Cale. columns of Table 3.1 9. Short Va. Disconnect Vp and measure Rr. Record as Vp Shorted in the Rr column of Table 3.1 10, Repeat steps 4, 5,6, and 7, using Vw as the active supply. Do yourmeasured values in step os 13 agree with the calculated val- 11. Use the superposition theorem to calculate the values of ly and V3 in the ues for Is and V3 with two sup- fll cicuit. Record as Full Circuit items in the Cale. columns of Table plies? If they do not, recheck 3.1 your calculations and proce- dural steps. 12. Reconnect Va so that both supplies are in the circuit, and insert an amme- My terin the Rs branch, 13. Tum on the power and measure I3 and V3. Rr 5 Ve Calc. Meas. Calc. Meas. Calc. Meas. Vp Shorted Va Shorted Full Circuit - ‘Table 3.1 10 EXPERIMENTS:10. . 12. 13. 4. Mixed DC and AC Sources Construct the circuit in Figure 3.2. R R. Calculate the values for Rr, Is, and V3 for Va and Va shorted, Record the values in the Calc. columns of Table 330 32 ve % : sv WO s\.. Short supply Vp, Disconnect V4 and measure Ry. Record as Vy Shorted in the Rr Meas. columntbf Table 3.2. Reconnect the Va supply, but do not turn it on at this time. Figure 3.2 Connect an ammeter in the Rs branch. Tum on the power. Measure Is and Vs, and record as Vs Shorted in the Meas. columns of Table 3.1. Tum off power. Short supply Va, Disconnect Vp and measure Rr. Record as V3 Shorted in the Rr Cale. column of Table 3.2. Repeat steps 4, 5, 6, and 7, using Vp as the active supply. Use the superposition theorem to calculate the values of Is and V3 in the fut circuit, Record as Full Cireuit items in the Cale. columns of Table 3.2. Reconnect the circuit so that both supplies are active. Insert an ammeter in the Rs branch. 1av ‘Tum on the power. Measure Is and Vs, and enter the values as Full ‘°Y Circuit items in the Meas. columns of Table 3.2, cx Do your measured values in step 13 agree with the calculated a values for Ip and V3 with two supplies? If they do not, recheck av your calculations and procedural steps. 2v Connect your oscilloscope, DC coupled, across Rs. Sketch the wave- OV form in the space provided as Graph 3.1. Time Graph 3.4 Va Caio. [ Meas. [ Calc. Va Shorted Va Shorted Full Circuit = f L Table 3.2 ‘SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 1112 EXPERIMENTS DISCUSSION 1. Explain the signal you drew in step 13. Indicate for example, the reference voltage. Was it zero? Why? 2. What signal would you expect to see if the DC and AC levels were negative? 3. Why is it necessary to remove the source from the circuit before ‘measuring the total resistance of the circuit? Quick Check 1. In circuit of Figure 3.1, your calculated Rr for Vp shorted was approxi- mately: (@) 1500 () 5109 (©) 3309 @) 13302 ng Rein question 1 is Rr=R; + R222 2. The equation for finding Rr in question 1 is Rr=Ri + Ro+Rs True False 3. In the superposition theorem, currents and voltages are analyzed with one source applied at a time. ‘True False 4. The superposition theorem can be used to analyze circuits with both DC and AC sources. ‘True False 5. _Itis not possible to determine the direction of current flow using the super- position theorem. True False4 TEST EQUIPMENT LIMITATIONS INTRODUCTION ‘Measuring instruments are very important in technology. Whether you are trou- bleshooting or gathering data for an engineering project, having good measure- ment skills and knowing the limitations of your test equipment are imperative. When using a DMM, VOM, or an oscilloscope, several things you should re- member. Each piece of measurement equipment, oscilloscope, CMM, or VOM has a finite input impedance. This impedance, in paralle] with the circuit element where the measurement is being made, can alter the circuit, and thus the meas- ‘urement. Secondly, when you are measuring AC voltages, frequency limitations of the measuring equipment can result in misleading data being obtained. In this experiment you will observe the effect of meter loading on a circuit and measure the input impedance of a meter. You will also examine the fre- quency limitations of the AC voltmeter, REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.7 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: Y Demonstrate the effect of meter loading Y Leam technique to determine the input impedance of a meter Y Learn the frequency limitations of the DMM (or VOM), EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Function generator Oscilloscope Circuit protoboard ‘VOM and DMM (Also the meters” specifications) Resistors: 10 kQ2 [2], 1 MQ Potentionmeter: 2-MQ or 5-MQ ten-tum trimpot TEST EQUIPMENTLIMITATIONS 13,Ry Figure 4.1 44 EXPERIMENT4 SECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Input Impedance 1, Determine the input impedance from you meters’ specification for two voltage scales (ranges). Record below. Seale: Zin Scale: Zin 2. Adjust the DC supply voltage to equal the first voltage scale of step 1. 3. Connect the circuit of Figure 4.1. Do not readjust the power supply value set in step 2. While measuring the voltage across Ri, adjust the potenti- wm ometer until the meter displays one-half of the initial voltage set in step 2, Since this isa series circuit and each impedance-potentiometer and me- ter has one-half the total supply voltage, their impedances are equal. 4, Tum off the power supply and remove the potentiometer. 5. Measure the resistance of the potentiometer. Compare this measurement to the rated Zin of step 1 and record below. Zin(wetety= —__ 6. Repeat steps 3, 4, and 5 for each of the voltage ranges of step 1. Effects of Input Impedance in tis part of the experiment, you will observe the effect of meter loading. It will bbe necessary to measure the resistance of Re in Figure 4.2. 1, Using an ohmmeter, measure the resistance values of the 1-MQ_resis- tor. Measure and adjust your potentiometer to the same value. 2. Construct the circuit in Figure 4.2. Adjust the DC supply to provide 10 V, and record the supply value. Measure and record the voltage across Ra using your DMM. Voe= ‘Vino (measured) Rs ey maz © Figure 4.2Repeat the measurement of step 2 using a VOM, if available. Record your meter reading below. ‘Vreainesned) = ‘The expected voltage reading across Re is one-half the DC supply voltage. Calculate and record the expected meter reading. ‘Vira (expected ‘Cafcufate the error in the actual voltage reading using the formula below. Vsepcd ~ Veen Vespa Record the % Error for the readings of Procedure steps 2 and 3. step 2 %Error = step 4.% Error = These errors, while they include meter accuracy, are due to loading of the Vae % Error circuit by the voltmeter. 10k ‘Voltmeter Frequency Limitations MW R2 Construct the circuit of Figure 4.3. Using your oscilloscope, set the func- tka tion generator to provide a sinewave signal of 3 vpp at | kHz. Using your oscilloscope, measure and record the voltage across Ra. = a Veo = (P) Figure 4.3 Calculate the RMS value of the Rz value recorded above, Vra= (RMS) Use your DMM to measure and record the voltage across Ro. ‘Vr (DMM) = Increase the input frequency to 20 kHz. Repeat the measurements of steps 1 and 2 Veo= >) Vea=_____(RMS) Vra (oma You should have found that at the higher frequency, your DMM measured a lower value than it didat 1 kHz. This is due to frequency response characteristics ofthe DMM. ‘TEST EQUIPMENT LIMITATIONS 1516 EXPERIMENT 4 DISCUSSION Describe the effect the meters had on the voltage measurements in the Procedure for Effects of Input Impedance. Was there a difference when using the DMM versus the VOM? Explain why it is important that you understand circuit loading by your ‘measurement equipment. Given an oscilloscope with a bandwidth of 20 MHz and your DMM, dis- cuss which one you would use in making measurements of a circuit oper- ating at 50 kHz. Also, why would you select the one you did? Quick Check L To obtain an accurate measurement, the ohmmeter must have an input im- pedance of at least 10 times greater than that of the component being ‘measured True False Itis okay to use an ohmmeter in a circuit where power is applied, True False ‘Voltage is always measured across the component. True False An oscilloscope is used only to observe waveforms. True False3 THE PN JUNCTION DIODE INTRODUCTION ‘The PN junction diode in the simplest sense is a device that will conduct current inone direction and block current in the opposite direction. When forward biased to overcome the internal barrier potential, the diode wil! conduct. Since its for- ward-biased resistance is low, current must be limited by external resistance of ‘the circuit. When the diode is reverse biased, the diode current is very small, typically in the nano amp range, thus approximating an open circuit. in this experiment, you will perform measurements to let you see the char- acteristics of the PN junction diode. Also, from your measured data, you will plot a typical diode characteristic curve, REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 2, Sections 2.6 and 27 OBJECTIVES In this experiarent you will ¥ Determine forward and reverse resistance of the diode Measure the forward voltage and current of a diode and plot the result EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter [2] Circuit protoboard ‘Small-signal diode, 1N914 or similar Resistors: 220 0, 220kQ ‘THE PN JUNCTION DIODE 7= Forward Bias (a) Low Resistance (b) Figh Resi Figure 6.1 18 EXPERIMENTS SI SECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT ‘The first measurement of the diode is a simple resistance test that will give you an idea of the diode forward and reverse resistances. This testis also good quick to verify a good (or failed) diode. Set your DMM to ohms and the 1-k0 range. If your meter has a diode test range use that range. CAUTION % ‘When making resistance checks of a diode, do not use low meter ranges. ‘Some ohmmeters can supply sufficient voltage with minimum resistance to damage a low-current diode. Connect the diode to the ohmmeter as shown in Figure 5.1a. Record the resistance reading. Re Reverse the ohmmeter leads connection to that of Figure 5.1. In the reverse bias connection you may want to increase your ohmmeter range setting, Record the reverse bias resistance reading. Re= In the next procedure steps you will be measuring the forward-bias charac- teristics of the diode. To make this measurement you will adjust the source to obtain the required current reading of Table 5.1, and at each current value step you will measure and record the diode forward voltage drop. 3. Construct the circuit of Figure 5.2. Starting with the power supply set to zero volts, slowly increase the DC voltage to obtain the required current values of Table 5.1. At each current value, record the forward voltage (Vp) drop of the diode. ‘When all forward bias data points are completed, set the DC supply to zero volts. In the next procedure steps, you will be measuring the reverse bias values forthe diode. Since reverse current is too low to read directly on your ammeter, your values will be derived by the IR drop across a 220-k2? resistor = = = 30.0 mA IF | Vo 0.25 mA 05 mA ra 1.0mA (A) 20mA 50mA © 10.0mA © 20.0mA * Figure 6.2 Table 5.1Construct the circuit of Figure 5.3. Starting with the power supply set to ze volts, slowly increase the supply while reading the diode reverse voltage, At each diode reverse voltage step of Table 5.2, measure the voltage drop across Rs (220 kQ) and calculate the current to record in Table 5.2. ‘When data measurements for Table 5.2 are complete, tu off the DC supply. Vo ik 10V 20k Z5V Y) sove | | 10.0V * 150V Figure 5.3 Table 5.2 Plot the data of Tables 5.1 and 5.2 in Graph 5.1. Your plot should resemble that of your text Figure 2.19 Calculate the diode dynamic forward-bias resis- le (ma) tance using the formula below and your data of Table 5.1. Use the data points * of In of 8 10.0 mA and 20.0 mA from your table. Re- cord your calculated forward resistance, Re= Calculate the diode reverse-biased resistance, using the formula below and your data from Table 5.2. Use the data points of 5.0 V and 10.0 V. Record your caleufated value. 20 6 1 5 Va 02 04 06 08 10 8 Re= 10 16 20 1a (MA) Graph 8.4 ‘THE PN JUNCTION DIODE 1920. EXPERIMENTS DISCUSSION Describe how to determine the anode and cathode of a diode by using the diode test of the DMM. Assume that the diode has no markings. ‘When forward-biased, at what diode voltage did you notice the diode begin to conduct? Did you observe any conduction while the diode was in the reverse-biasd mode? For a forward-biased diode, describe how the current is able to increase while the voltage across the diode remains nearly constant. Quick Check ‘The typical reverse/forward resistance ratio of a silicon diode is 1000:1. Truc False ‘The diode has high resistance in the forward-biased mode. True False One characteristic of a silicon diode is that as the current increases, the resistance decreases. ‘True False ‘A diode in reverse bias will conduct only at low current levels. True False6 RECTIFIER FORMS INTRODUCTION ‘The purpose of a rectifier circuit is to convert AC power line voltage to DC. Essentially every piece of electronic equipment that operates on AC line power must use a rectifier circuit, ‘You will work with three different types of rectifier power supply circuits in this experiment: the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave, and full-wave bridge rec- tifier. You will contrast the advantages and disadvantages of each rectifier as you observe their differences Tn the troubleshooting section, you will observe the effects on the output voltage and ripple frequency of the bridge rectifier if a diode opens, if the sec- ondary opens, oF ifhaif of the secondary shorts. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 32 OBJECTIVES ‘When you complete this experiment, you will: ¥ Understand the operation of half-wave, full-wave, and full-wave bridge rectifiers ¥ Be able to contrast the differences in each rectifier cirewit ¥ Be able to relate the measured values of a failed circuit to the circuit fault EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS 115:12.6 V center-tapped transformer, equipped with AC power cord, fused primary, and power switch (see Materials Note) Circuit protoboard Digital multimeter Oscilloscope Circuit protoboard Rectifier diode [4], IN4001 or similar Resistor, 1 kQ (1/2 W) Materials Note If only a 115:12.6 V trans- former is available, the fol- lowing additional items are required for safe connec- tion of the transformer: AC power line cord In-line fuse holder 1/2-A fuse SPST toggle switch 3 ca, wire nuts RECTIFIER FORMS 21There will be 120 VAC on former. This is sufficient voltage to be a hazard. 1 USE CAUTION! . Fuse Figure 6.1 Figure 6.2 22 EXPERIMENTS BE CAREFUL! Y% SECTIONI FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT is if ith i line: fuse id switc! i iieovimay se ofteec. | Youtaneformeri equipped with an AC ine cord, and switch begin this Assemble the power line cord, fuse holder, and transformer as follows (refer to Figure 6.1) ‘A. Install the in-line fuse holder in series with one of the two leads on the line cord. Install the glass fuse in the fuse holder. B. Install the toggle switch in series with the other line cord lead. Solder the switch in place. C. Install the line cord to the transformer primary. ‘Twist the wires together in a clockwise direc- tion for these connections. This will allow the ‘wire nut to tighten the connection Note: Its a good idea to place the two secondary and center-tap transformer leads in the protoboard as shown. The connections can then be made as needed and the center tap will not be loose to cause trouble. Half-Wave Rectifier Build the rectifier circuit of Figure 6.2. Apply AC power. ‘Use your digital voltmeter to measure the transformer secondary Vine and DC output of the rectifier circuit. Record the data in the Half: Wave column of Table 6.1. Use your oscilloscope to measure the transformer secondary voltage and the peak rectifier output voltage. Record the data in the Half-Wave col- umn of Table 6.1 Connect your oscillo- scope to the rectifier cireuit output. Sketch the output waveform on the scale provided in Graph 6.1. Deter- mine the frequency of the output wave- form and record this value in the Half- Wave column of Ta- ble 6.1 Graph 6.1Full- Wave Rectifier Ds Build the rectifier circuit of Figure 6.3. Apply AC power. Use your digital voltmeter to measure the transformer secondary Vas | and DC output of the rectifier circuit. Record the data in the Full. Wave column of Table 6.1 A ra ‘Use your oscilloscope to measure the transformer secondary voltage tH ee and the peak rectifier output voltage, Record the data in the Full-Wave column af Table 6.1 Figure 6.3 Connect your oscilloscope to the rectifier circuit output, Sketch the output waveform on the scale in Graph 6.2, Determine the frequency of the output waveform and record this value in the Full-Wave column of Table 6.1 Bridge Rectifier 10. Build the circuit of Figure 6.4. Following construction, take a minute and check your circuit to ensure that the diodes are installed correctly. 11. Apply AC power. Measure and record in Table 6.1 the re- quired circuit values. 12. With your oscilloscope connected to the rectifier circuit Graph 6.2 output, observe and sketch the output waveform on the scale in Graph 6.3. Measure the frequency of the out- put waveform and record the value in Table 6.1 D: [ t tka Figure 6.4 Graph 6.3 Halt-Wave Fulrwave Bridge ‘Vaecondary (RMS) Vea) Vour(DC) Ripple Frequency Table 6.4 RECTIFIER FORMS 23‘Reminder User the voltmeter to meas- |. SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING ure DCVou and the oscillo- scope to measrue the AC ‘output waveform. Fault ID, open 1, Forthe circuit of Figure 6.4 with diode D1 open, calculate the DC Vou. and the ripple frequency. DC Vout Ripple freq, 2. Lift one end of Di of the circuit of Figure 6.4. Apply AC power, then measure and tecord the values below. DC Vout ipple freq, Fault 2 - Transformer secondary open 1. Tum off the AC power, reconnect diode Dy, and calculate the values of DC Vou and ripple frequency if the trans- former secondary were open. a DCVou= ___Ripple freq 2. Disconnect one lead of the transformer secondary. Apply AC power. Measure and record the following values: DC Vou = Ripple freq Draw the output waveform as Graph 6.4. Fault 3 - Half the transformer secondary shorted 1. Tumoff the AC power. Calculate the values of DC Vou and ripple frequency if half the transformer secondary were shorted. DC Vout ple freq Draw the output waveform as Graph 6.5. You can simulate half the secondary shorting by removing, ‘one secondary lead and replacing it with the center tap. Make the connection changes and apply AC power. Graph 6.5 ‘Measure and record the values of DC Vout and ripple fre- quency. DC Vout = Ripple freq. = Draw the output waveform as Graph 6.6. Graph 6.6 24 EXPERIMENTSDISCUSSION Section I 1. All three rectifier circuits had the full transformer secondary connected, yet the DC output of the bridge rectifier was larger than the others (Refer ‘to your data of Table 6.1). Briefly, for each rectifier circuit explain why you obtained the DC output voltage values measured. 2. Refer to your data of Table 6.1 and the output waveform drawings made for all three rectifier circuits. Two of the rectifier circuits had a higher rip- ple frequency. Discuss the rectifier circuits, describing why the ripple fre- quency differences. 3. The bridge rectifier circuit is considered to be the most efficient of the three rectifier forms. It also has another advantage over the other two rectifier circuits. Can you identify this advantage? Hint: Look at Figure 65. Section II Fault I - Diode opens 1. Referring to your fault measurements in Step 2, you should have found a low DC Vou and a lower than expected ripple frequency. Explain how the oscilloscope helps you diagnose this problem easier than the DVM. Fault 2 - Transformer secondary open 1. Fault 2 causes the Vou to disappear completely. One of the most obvious causes for this is an open secondary winding. The fastest way to trou~ bleshoot this problem would be to measure the secondary voltage with a DVM oran oscilloscope. 2. How would you verify that the secondary is open as opposed to a primary failure or the rectifier circuit shorting the secondary? Fault 3 - Half the transformer secondary shorted 1. You should have found zhat Vout measured about half of the expected Vout. Notice that using a DVM would not show you that the Vout wave- form is still full wave. Using the oscilloscope quite often speed up troubleshooting by allowing the waveform to be observed. You will use the oscilloscope much more often as you progress in electronics for this reason. Why do you think you would not always use the oscilloscope to troubleshoot? RECTIFIER FORMS 2526 EXPERIMENTS Quick Check 1. How many diodes does the bridge rectifier use ? 2. When a diode of the half wave rectifier is biased off, the current through the load is amps. 3. The fuse is usually located in the side of the transformer. 4. The output frequency of the half wave rectifier is (a) 120 Hz (b) 60 Hz (c) 0 Hz 5. _ Ina bridge rectifier is there one or two diodes conducting at one time ?7 CAPACITIVE INPUT FILTERS INTRODUCTION ‘The capacitive filter is used to smooth out the pulsating DC voltage ofthe recti- fier circuit. The capacitor changes to the AC peak value, thus providing an output larger than the average value, This gives a DC output voltage of a much higher value than the unfitered output voltage. In Section I of this experiment, you will observe the effects on your bridge rectifier output voltage when you add an output filter capacitor. You will then add a series resistance and a second capacitor to improve the output ripple volt- age even further. You will also explore how different size load resistors Affect the ripple output voltage. In Section II you will observe the effect of an open diode and open filter capacitor on the supply ripple voltage. Learning to recog nize the effects of these common faults will make troubleshooting power sup- plies much simpler and faster, REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 3.3 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Leam the effects of capacitive filters on the output voltage of rectifier circuits Understand the effects ofthe load resistance on the capacitive filter ¥ Recognize common problems with capacitive filtered power supplies EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS ‘The bridge rectifier circuit of Experiment 6 Oscilloscope Digital multimeter 470 UF capacitor [2] Resistors: 200 0 (2 watt), 470 0 (1/2 watt), 33 kQ CAPACITIVE INPUT FILTERS 27| SECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Figure 7.1 Build the circuit of Figure 7.1, omitting Cy at this time, From Table 6.1 or your calculation, determine the average DC output of the bridge rectifier. DC Varg = Apply AC power to your circuit. Using your DC voltmeter, measure the output voltage across the load resistor (Ri). ‘Measured DC Vag = Using your oscilloscope to observe the output voltage, sketch the wave~ form on the scale provided in Graph 7.1. Also note the peak output volt- age value, Vp= Tum off the rectifier power and install Cy, a 470 UF capacitor connected in paralle! with the load resistor. Ensure that the negative side of the capaci tor is at ground or the most negative part ofthe circuit, Tum on the rectifier and measure the output voltage with your DC voltme- ter. With your oscilloscope coupling set to DC, observe the supply out- put. You should find a DC level that is essentially a horizontal straight line. ‘Vout = ‘Now switch the oscilloscope coupling to AC and adjust the vertical range selector until the ripple is at least | division in height. Measure and re~ ‘cord the peak-peak ripple voltage (Vig). Sketch this waveform on the scale provided in Graph 7.2. | | | Graph 7.4 28. EXPERIMENT7Veip= —____ 7 T 8. Calculate the capacitor charge and discharge time constant [_ for your circuit. Use 2.0 for the diode resistance (TC = RO). Charge TC = Discharge TC = 9. Tum off the AC power and exchange the 33-k0 load resis- tor for the 200-0 resistor. 10, Measure and record both the DC Vou and peak-peak ripple eons voltage, and draw the ripple voltage waveform in Graph 73. DC Veut= v. 11, Caleulate the time constant for charge and discharge again, Charge TC= Discharge TC = : 12. Build the circuit of Figure 7.2. 4 R Cy C2 33k 2 aI a70yF |arowe Figure 7.2 t Graph 7.4 13. Apply AC power, Measure the DC output voltage with your voltmeter, and use the oscilloscope to measure the peak-peak ripple voltage. Sketch the output voltage waveform in Graph 7.4. | DC Vou = Ve 14, Tum off the AC power and remove the 33-kO Ry and the 470-UF capacitor C2, Notice that the peak-peak ripple voltage increases slightly, While it appears that the addition of C2 did not have much effect, if you look closely, you will see that as 2 percentage it helped quite a bit. SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 - Diode open 1. With the circuit of Figure 7.1, disconnect one leg of Dy i CAPACITIVE INPUTFILTERS 293. Tum on the rectifier. Measure and record DC Vow and Vrip, and draw the output waveform voltage in Graph 7.5. You should see an increase in the ripple. DC Vou= Vip = Contrast this reading with the reading taken in Procedure Step 4. Fault 2 - Filter capacitor open 1 ‘With AC power off, reconnect diode D1. Disconnect one end of capacitor Cy. Apply AC power. Measure and record DC Vou and Vsip, and sketch the output waveform in Graph 7.6. DC Vout = Veip = Graph 7.5 Graph 7.6 DISCUSSION | Section I 30. EXPERIMENT? L ‘You should have found that the average DC voltage decreased while the ripple increased as the load resistor got smaller in value. Why do you think the output voltage dropped as the load resistance decreased? Explain in your own words why the shorter time constant for charge and the longer time constant for discharge provided this increased output volt- age magnitude Section II Fault 1 - Bridge rectifier diode open Most power supply problems show up indirectly in other parts of an electronic circuit. An audio amplifies, for example, may be found 10 be operating improperly because of a low power supply voltage. ‘When you check Voc with your DVM you find that the voltage isreading below normal. At this point you would suspect the power supply and troubleshoot accordingly. ‘You also found that the load resistance can effect the power supply Vout. Can you think of a way to determine if the power supply or the load is the problem? ‘Fault 2 - Filter capacitor open ‘You found that when the filter capacitor opens, the Vau as measured ‘on the DVM goes down. What does the oscilloscope waveform tell ‘you about the condition of the power supply that che DVM does not? Quick Check 1. The filter capacitors charge slowly and discharge quickly. True False 2, The output voltage, after being filtered, is called the voltage. True False 3. A half-wave rectifier is easier to filter than a full-wave rectifier. Tre False 4, The most-used filter today isa. (®) pi filter (b) capacitive input filter (€} coil and capacitor filter ‘CAPACIVE INPUT FILTERS 318 ZENER REGULATION OF POWER SUPPLIES INTRODUCTION ‘The zener diode can act as a regulator for power supplies since its voltage drop (Vz) is nearly constant for a wide range of zener current, This characteristic also | functions to reduce power supply ripple variations. In Scetion | of this experiment you will measure the current through the zener and the output voltage for three different values of load resistors. You will also measure ripple voltage and see that the zener improves Vou ripple as well. In Section II you will observe the effect on the zener regulated voltage if either a rectifier diode ora filter capacitor fails open. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 3.4 | OBJECTIVES In this experiment, you will: Better understand the zener as a voltage regulator ¥ Understand zener operation under different load conditions ¥ Be able to relate circuit measurements to fault conditions EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Bridge power supply of Experiment 7 9.1 V zener diode, INS239B or equivalent Circuit protoboard Digital multimeter Oscilfoscope Resistors: 330.9, 470.0, 5600, 12kQ 32 EXPERIMENTSSECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT 1. Build the circuit of Figure 8.1, leaving the zener diode out of the circuit. 2. Measure the output peak-to-peak ripple voltage using the oscilloscope. Veip = —_ 3. Tum off the power and add the zener diode. (Remember to reverse bias the zener diode). Insert your ammeter in series with the zener to monitor zener Current. 4. Tumon the power supply and measure the output peak-to-peak ripple voltage again. Also measure and record the zener current (Iz). Veie= ke 5. With circuit power off, disconnect your zener current ammeter. Reapply AC power. Use your DC voltmeter and measure and record DC Vou Vous = __ } 6. Tum off the power supply and replace the 1.2-kO2 load resistor (Re) with 2560-0 resistor. 7. Tarn om the power supply and measure the output peak-to-peak ripple, Ie, and DC Vout. Vio ~ Ie. Vout 8. Tum off the power supply and replace the 560. Ry, with a 470 Q resistor. 9. Tum on the power supply and measure output pk-pk ripple, Iz, and DC Vout ‘Vrip = =. Vout =. SECTION IT ‘TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE Fault 1 -Dy open With circuit power off, disconnect one leg of Ds in the circuit of Figure 8.1, Measure the peak-to-peak output ripple, Iz, and DC Vou ZENER REGULATION OF POWER SUPPLIES 33,Vou Additionally, sketch the output waveform in Graph 8.1, and note on your sketch the peak values. Fault 2 - C; open With circuit power off, reconnect diode D1. Discon- nect one leg of C: in the circuit of Figure 8. 1. Meas- ure the peak-to-peak output ripple, Iz, and DC Vout. te | Graph 8.1 Veip = k= Vou = DISCUSSION section I From your measured data, you should have found that with changing load resistors, DC Vou temained nearly constant and zener current was differ- ent for each value of Rt. Looking at the relationship of Iz value vs. Rt value, briefly discuss this relationship and the zener regulation. ‘You should have found that the magnitude of ripple voltage was signifi- cantly less with the zener diode than without it. Discuss why this occurred. Section II Fault 1 - Diode Di open Of the measurements you made, at least one is a very strong indica- tor of a diode failure in the bridge rectifier. Identify the measure~ | ment(s) indicative of diode failure, and explain for each measurement you selected why it indicates a diode failure. Fault 2 -C; open ‘Refer to your output waveform sketch: (@) Can you verify thatthe zener diode is operating? Why do you believe this is so? (b)_Is there any indication in the output waveform that suggests that the filter capacitor failed? Describe the indication in the waveform that supports your answer. 34 EXPERIMENTSQuick Check 1, The zener diode is a current regulator. True False. 2, The zener diode must be biased to operate as a zener diode. (@) forward (b) reverse 3. Ifthe zener were installed backwards in the power supply of Figure 8.1, what do you think the result would be? 4. What is the total current through Rs in the circuit of Figure 8.1 when the foad resistor is; (a) R= 1.2kO, Ips = () RL = 470.0, Ins =__ ‘ZENER REGULATION OF POWER SUPPLIES 3536 EXPERIMENT 9 9 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS INTRODUCTION Voltage multipliers are an AC-to-DC voltage converter whose DC outpat is the product of an integer (2, 3, or greater) and the peak AC input. They cannot, however, supply a large load current. And the larger the multiplication, the smaller the load current capability. They find application where a large DC volt- age is required and the load current is small, In Section I you will build the voltage doubler and tripler circuits and evalu- ate these circuits. You will substitute a small Ri, on the doubler to observe the effects on the DC output. In Section IT you will observe the effect of open capacitors in the doubler and tripler circuits. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 3.5 _ OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Experimentally evaluate the operation of voltage multipliers ¥ Understand the relationship between the load and the voltage multiplier Measure the effects of open capacitors on the operation of voltage multipliers EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Oscilloscope Circuit protoboard Digital multimeter Diode [3], IN4001 Capacitor [3], 470 uF (50 V) 12.6 V center-tapped transformer Resistors: 500.0, 100kSECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT 1, Build the doubler circuit of Figure 9.1 NOTE: You may use the line cord and transformer cy Da from Experiment 6. Also notice that you use one secondary and the center tap leads for this eyperi- ‘ment. This gives an input AC of 63 Vaws. 4108 Re 2. Apply power to the circuit. Measure and record the peak input voliage and peak-to-peak ripple voltage output of the voltage doubler with the oscilloscope. Use your DC ° voltmeter to measure the DC output. Figure 9.1 Vin Pk = Vip = DC Vou= Notice that if Via were unknown, the DC Vou reading would tell you what peak-to-peak value was connected to the input. This is, ‘why this circuit is also called a peak-to-peak detector. 3. Tum off the power and replace the 100-K82 Ry with a 500-0 Ri, Measure the DC Veutand the peak-peak ripple voltage and record below. RL= 5002, DC Vout =. 4, Build the tripler circuit of Figure 9.2. Measure the peak c ‘AC input, DC output and the pk-pk ripple output anes and record below. Via k= R Pk 100 kQ DC Vou = ‘Vein = Figure 9.2 5, With the circuit tumed off, replace the 100-kO Rx. with the 500-0 Ry. Ap- ply AC power. Measure the DC output and peak-peak ripple voltage and record below. R= 500 DC Vou = Vrip = VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 3738 EXPERIMENTS SECTION It ‘TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1-Cy open Starting with the circuit of Figure 9.2 using a 100-kO load, ensure that the AC power is off. Disconnect onc leg of capacitor Ci. 2. Apply AC power. Measure the DC output and the Vez and Ves voltages. Record these values below. Using your oscilloscope, observe the circuit output Vou = Ver Ves Fault 2 -D, open 1. With circuit power off, reconnect capacitor Ci. Disconnect one leg of diode Di 2. Apply AC power. Measure DC output, Vc2 and Vcs voltages. Record these values below. Using your oscilloscope, observe the circuit output. Vou = Va= Ves DISCUSSION | Section I 1. You should have discovered thatthe voltage multipliers were sensitive to increased load. Explain why you think these circuit's DC output de- creastd toa lower value when the Ri, went down, With reference to the voltage doubler or tripler, what do you think would be the effect on the DC output if one or more capacitors in the multiplier circuit were leaky? | Section II | Fault 1- Cy open | You should have found that if Cy failed open, the circuit output dropped to that of a doubler. Explain why this should be. Fault 2 - Dy open Briefly explain why you obtained the DC output you measured for this fault. Also indicate what other (if any) component failures could have produced the same result.Quick Check 1. A voltage doubler is also called a(n)__. (q) rf detector (6) audio detector ‘The major disadvantage of the voltage multiplier is that it___ (@) uses expensive diodes (©) lowers the available current (b) peak-to-peak detector (b) raises the Vou (@) all the above With reference to the circuit of Figure 9.1, the PIV seen by diode Di is (@) Via Pk (©)3 Vin dk (0) 2 Vin pk (@) 4 Vin pk. Refer to the circuit of Figure 9.2. If AC Vin were 12.6 Vams, the DC output would be. (@)252V ()378V ()35.6V @3335V Refer to the circuit of Figure 9.2. The maximum DC voltage of capacitor Cris (@89V ()252V ()178V (356V VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 3940. EXPERIMENT 10 10 SIGNAL CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS INTRODUCTION Clippers are circuits that operate to limit (clip) a signal waveform at a given voltage. Clampers are circuits that change (clamp) the reference voltage level of a signal waveform. In this experiment you will study series, shunt, and biased clippers. You will also see how clamper circuits operate. In Section I you will build and make measurements on series, shunt, and biased clipper circuits as well as aclamper circuit. In Section II you will examine the effects of several common defects on the operation of clippers and clampers REFERENCE Prinipes of Electron Devies and Circuits - Chapter 3, Sections 3 and OBJECTIVES In this experiment you wil! Y Observe and draw the output voltage signals of clippers and clampers ¥ Lear how to clip a signal at a certain level using biased clippers ¥ Observe the effects on a signal voltage when clamped Y Through measurement, lear the effect of typical clipper and clamper failures EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Circuit protoboard Dual-trace oscilloscope Function generator ‘Small-signal diode [2], IN914 or similar Resistors: | kQ, 4.7 KO, 10k, 2.2 MQ Capacitor, 4.7 uFSECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Ds Re 47ka " i Figure 10.4 : _| r | r Graph 10.14 Graph 10.1b 1. Build the circuit of Figure 10.1. Set your function generator to supply a 1-kHz, 10-Vp-» input. 2. Connect your oscilloscope channel 1 tothe circuit input, and channel 2 to the output. This will permit you to measure the signal voltage levels and observe the relationship of the output to input signal. Adjust the scope sweep timing to obtain about 2 cycles of the input waveform. Sketch the oscilloscope display on the scale in Graph 10.1a. Note on the sketch the values of the positive and negative peak voltage. 3. Switch the input signal off Reverse the diode in the circuit. Apply the input signal and repeat the measurements of step 2. Use Graph 10.1b for this version of the oscilloscope display. ‘SIGNAL CLIPPERS ANDCLAMPERS 41Figure 10.2 Graph 10.2a 42. EXPERIMENT 10 10. Graph 10.2b Disconnect your circuit and build the circuit of Figure 10.2. Connect the function generator set to apply a 10-Vpp, I-kHz signal. Connect channel 1 of your oscilloscope to the circuit input, and channel 2 to the circuit output. Adjust the scope sweep timing to obtain about 2 cy- cles of the input signal. Sketch the scope display on the scale provided as Graph 10.2a, Indicate on your sketch the positive and negative peak volt- age values. ‘Tum off the input signal and reverse the diode connections in the circuit Apply the input signal and repeat the measurements of step 5. Use Graph 10.2b for this version of the oscilloscope display. Build the circuit of Figure 10.3. Connect a DC source of 5 V to the diode ( plus to the cathode of the diode, ‘minus to circuit ground). Connect the function generator set to provide a 12-Vpp, I-kHlz signal input. Connect your oscilloscope channel 1 to the circuit input, and channel 2 to the circuit output with DC coupling, Set the scope sweep timing to obtain a display of about 2 cycles of the input signal. Sketch the scope display ‘on the scale in Graph 10.3a. Mark the positive and negative voltage val- tues on your sketch. ‘Adjust the DC source for a value of 3 V, and repeat the measurements of stop 9. Use Graph 10,3b for this sketch of the oscilloscope display. What effect did reducing the DC voltage level have on your output signal?Rs 1k Dn SR 10ka +5voe i Figure 10.3 — oS r ML 12, Graph 10.3a Disconnect your circuit and build the clamper circuit of Figure 10.4. Ob- serve the capacitor polarity. Connect the function generator set to pro- vide a 10-Vpp, 1-KH2z signal. Connect channel 1 of your oscilloscope to the circuit input, and channel 2 set to DC coupling to the circuit output. Sketch the scope display on the scale provided in Graph 10.4. Mark the signal positive and negative peak voltage values. Graph 10.3b | Re ce 100 ka Figure 10.6 Graph 104 SIGNAL CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS 43,(Clipper Failures Fault 1 -Rs open 1. Build the circuit of Figure 10.2. Replace the 1-kO resistor of Rs with a 2.2-M@Q resistor. Connect the function generator set to provide 10 Vpp at 1 KHz, 2. Connect channel 1 of your oscilloscope to the circuit input, and channel 2 to the output. Set the scope sweep timing to obtain about 2 cycles of in- ‘put waveform. Sketch the scope display in Graph 10.5. Mark the positive and negative peak voltage values. Fault 2 - Diode D, open 1, With the function generator off, restore Rs to its 1-kO2 value. Disconnect the ground (cathode) end of Ds. Apply the signal input. Connect your oscilloscope and repeat the measurement steps of Fault 1. Use the scale in Graph 10.6, Clamper Failures Fault I - Diode Di open 1. Build the circuit of Figure 10.4. Disconnect one leg of Di. Connect ‘your function generator set to apply an input of 12 Vp-p at 1 kFYz Graph 10.6 44° EXPERIMENT 10 Graph 10.6 2. Connect channe! 1 of your oscilloscope to the circuit input and channel 2, set to DC coupling, to the circuit output. Set the sweep timing to obtain about 2 cycles of the input signal. Sketch the scope display on the scale in Graph 10.7. Mark the positive and negative peak voltage values. Fault 2-C; leaky 1. With the function generator off, connect a 1-k@ resistor in parallel with Ci. Apply an input signal of 12 Vp-p at 1 KHz, 2. Connect your oscilloscope and make the circuit measurements of Clamper Fault 1, step 2, using the scale in Graph 10.8.Graph 10.7 Graph 10.8 DISCUSSION Section I 1. Considering the output waveform of the circuit of Figure 10.1, you should | have found that the output is the same shape as that of the half-wave rec~ tifier. Explain why you think we call this cizcuit a clipper instead of a rec- tifier. 2. Compare the output waveform and signal levels of the series and shunt clipper. With the understanding that for the shunt clipper Rs and Rt. do not have to be a 10:1 ratio, list the advantages and disadvantages for each circuit. 3. In Figure 10.3 you saw that you could pick the amount of voltage you ‘wished to clip. Why do you think we might wish to clip only the top of a waveform? 4, Finally, in the circuit of Figure 10.4, you saw how to place the entire signal on a DC voltage level. These circuits are necessary in some elec- tronic equipment, such as television sets, to force a signal to a certain DC voltage level for proper operation. What is another name for the clamper | circuit? Section II Fault 1 -Rs open | ‘When Rg is open in the circuit of Figure 10.2, the output goes essen- tially to 0 V because there is no current flow in the circuit. During, your troubleshooting procedures, how’ would you isolate the fault to Rs? Fault 2-D1 open ‘When Dj in Figure 10.2 opens, the output has the complete signal waveform, Briefly explain why you believe (or don’t believe) that SIGNAL CLIPPERS AND CLAMPERS 45,46 EXPERIMENT 10 | Fault 3- Dy open the output waveform is sufficient data to determine the diode fail- ure. In the clamper of Figure 10.4, if the diode D; opens, the normal sig- nal voltage appears across Ry. Why does this occur? Quick Check 1. In our shunt clipper of Figure 10.2, what would happen to the Vautif Rs shorted? 2, Clamping circuits are also called (@) DC restorers (b) DC inserters (©) baseline stabilizers @)all the above 3. The capacitor in a clamper circuit is in parallel with the voltage source. True False 4. If you wish to make a negative shunt clipper out of a positive shunt clipper, what should you do?11 BASIC BJT CHARACTERISTICS INTRODUCTION Ina base biased transistor circuit, the quiescent collector current is determined by the base current and the beta of the transistor. Also, the base current may be varied by changing the amount of the base-emitter bias voltage. In Section I of this experiment, you will see how the current in a transistor varied by changing the amount of forward bias of the base-emitter junction with its corresponding change in hase current. In Section If you will explore two of the most common transistor failures: the C-E open and the C-E short, You will also leam to perform a quick measure~ ‘ment to determine the status of a transistor. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Section 4.3 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: Y Observe the effect of a changing base forward bias voltage on collector current ¥ Know how to recognize a shorted or open transistor using Voz measurements Y Learn how to make a quick check of transistor status using an obmmeter EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Circuit protoboard ‘NPN transistor, 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 1 kA [2] , 22 kA, 36 kA, 100 ka BASIC BJT CHARACTERISTICS 47+5 Figure 11.1 48° EXPERIMENT 11 45 SECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT 1. Build the cireuit shown in Figure 11.1 2, Measure and record the following voltages. Vor = Vee 3. Measure and record the collector and base currents, Ie= Ib= 4, Calculate the values of emitter current and beta ( 8); and then measure and record the value of Ie. Calculated: Ts — PatsmeseeceeenaaSaSCEOEEEE ID: fi = eneeceeentanasnee Measured: I= 5. Replace the 36-kQ Ry with a 22-kO RB, measure the Vag and Ic, and record these values below. Note: The value of Vpe will be small, in the range of 0.6 to 0.8 volt. Make and record as accurate a value as you can. Ri 22kO: Voe= Te= 6. Replace the 22-kO Ry with a 100-kO Rp; measure and record the Vie and Ic. Rp= 100k: Voe = Te= SECTION IT TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 - Collector-emitter short 1. You will simulate a shorted collector-emitter transistor failure by placing apiece of wire from the collector to base and from the base to emitter. 2. Apply power to the circuit and measure the C-E voltage. You should find this voltage very low. Remember: The voltage drop across a short is ideally zero volts. Vee =3. Remove the transistor and the shorting wires from the circuit and check the Vox circuit point again. You should now find the voltage drop very close to the power supply level. (Remember: The voltage source will be dropped across an open circuit.) Vee =. Testing a Transistor with an Ohmmeter Voltage checks are the easiest and less time-consuming tests for a technician to make. The information gained from this type of testing plus the knowledge of how the circuit and components operate is essential for successful troubleshoot- ing. Once you have made the decision to change a transistor that is inoperative, it's good to make a quick check with an ohmmeter to verify that the transistor is bad. The following is a quick check procedure to determine the condition of a transistor. CAUTION Uw Do not use the very low (Rx J or R x 10) range of your ohmmeter for testing transistors. On some ohmmeters, these ranges can cause a large current that will damage a diode or transistor. If your obameter has a range identified for diode tests, use that range. TOW TOW 1. _ Refer to Figure 11 2a. For an NPN transistor connect the positive lead of your ohmmeter to the base, and the negative lead to the collector. A good transistor vill show a low resistance reading. 2. Refer to Figure 112b. Leaving the positive lead on the base, place the negative lead on the emitter. This should also show a low resistance reading for a good @ © transistor, 3. Refer to Figure 11 2c. Next place the negative Jead on High HIGH the base and the positive lead on the collector. This . + . + should show an extremely high resistance reading on the ohmmeter for a good transistor. 4, Leaving the negative lead on the base, place the posi- tive lead on the emitter. This should also show a very large resistance reading for a good transistor. © @ Figure 11.2 The forward to reverse resistance ratio for a good transistor should be 1000:1, To check a PNP transistor, simply reverse the above process. BASIC BJT CHARACTERISTICS. 4950 EXPERIMENT 11 DISCUSSION Section I ‘You found in Section I that beta is an expression of a BJT current relation- ship. State in your own words the beta relationship. ‘You also found that the amount of forward bias voltage between the base and emitter controls the amount of collector current flow in the transistor. ‘What use do you think this control of a transistor by the base voltage may be? In step 4 of the experiment, you calculated the beta of the transistor used in the experiment. Using the beta box model for the circuit of Figure 11.1, predict the value of collector current for a transistor with beta 50% larger than your calculated value. Based on your measured and predicted collector current values, ‘comment on the ability to know the value of collector current in a base biased circuit. Section II ‘You found that a transistor that was shorted from collector to emitter has a very small voltage drop across it. How can this knowledge be useful to technician as a troubleshooting aid? ‘You discovered that when a transistor is open from collector to emitter, ce would read a very high voltage. Can you think of a way this know!- cedge would be helpful to a technician during troubleshooting? Quick Check A transistor will operate correctly even without any base current flow. ‘True False ‘The Vee of a shorted transistor will be (a) very high (©) very low (c)normal A varying forward bias voltage between the base and emitter of a transistor will not affect the collector current. ‘True False12 BETA EFFECTS IN THE BUT INTRODUCTION Base biasing, although the simplest of transistor biasing forms, provides the least stable quiescent operating point. This experiment introduces transistor biasing and allows you to observe variations in the "Q" point for different transistors and two circuit forms of base biasing. In the troubleshooting section you will make measurements to identify and enable you to leam the effects of failure of the base biasing resistor and circuit power supply. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Sections 4.4 and 4.5 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Leam how to use a single biasing supply Y Verify experimentally the inherent instability of base biasing ¥ Leam how to relate measured circuit values to specific circuit faults EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Circuit protoboard NPN transistor [3], 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 1 kO, 1.2 &@, 2.2 kQ, $10 kA, 680 kO, 4.7 MQ SETAEFFECTS INTHE BT 51NOTE Mark or identify each tran- sistoras A,B, or Csothatthe transistor effect on each cir- cuit can be compared. Vec =20V Re 22ka Re = 680k 2 Ve B= 150 Figure 12.4 Vee =20V Re Ra 510k Figure 1 3 12ka Re 1ka 22 52. EXPERIMENT 12 SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT The resistor values of the circuits in Figures 12.1 and 12.2 are selected to provide a quiescent collector current near midpoint with an assumed transistor beta of 150, In this experiment, you will try three different transistors and measure the quiescent circuit values in the circuit of Figure 12.1. ‘Then you will use the same three transistors in a modified circuit (Figure 12.2) to permit comparison of the individual transistor beta effect on the two circuits. 1, Using transistor A, build the circuit in Figure 12.1. Measure and record the following circuit values: Vee = Vra= Te=. Vee= 2. Tum off the circuit power. Remove transistor A and insert transistor B. Reapply circuit power. Make and record the following measurements: Vag = Vrp= Ic = Vee = 3. Tum off the circuit power. Remove transistor B and insert transistor C. Reapply circuit power. Make and record the following measurements: Vee = Vra= Ic = Ver = 4, Disconnect your cireuit, and connect the circuit in Figure 12.2, using transistor A. Reapply circuit power; then measure and record the follow- ing circuit values: Ve Ic = Vee = 5. Tum off the circuit power. Remove transistor A and install transistor B. Reapply circuit power, then measure and record the following circuit values: Vrs= Vor = Veo. Ic = Ver = 6. Tum off the circuit power. Remove transistor B and install transistor C. Reapply circuit power, measure and record the following circuit values: Vor = Vea = Io= Vee =SECTION II ‘TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 -Rp open Build the circuit in Figure 12.1. Simulate an open Rn by replacing the 680 kQ resistor with a 4.7 MQ resistor. Apply circuit power. Measure the collector current and Vce. Contrast this with your measurement of Section I, step 1. Fault 2 - DC supply failure Here you will simulate the DC power supply voltage falling from 20 V to 15 V. Adjust your power supply for 15 V and again measure collector current and Vcr. Contrast this measurement with the measurement of Section I, step 1 DISCUSSION Section I 1. Inyour measurements of the two circuits (Figures 12.1 and 12.2), you should have found that one circuit showed less variation in collector cur- rent and collector-emitter voltage for the three different transistors used. Which circuit seemed to have the more consistent quiescent operating point, and why would you expect it to be so? 2. As you know from your text and this experiment, you cannot depend on a base-biased transistor to have a stable quiescent operating point. This ‘means that this bias form is not useful in an amplifier circuit, Can you think of a circuit application where a base-biased transistor would be use- ful? Why? 3. You should have found in Procedure steps 1, 2, and 3 that each transistor | most likely resulted in a different value of collector current. Why do you | think this was the case? Section II 1, In Fault 1 you found that there is no collector current flow if Ra becomes ‘open. Why is this true? 2. In Fault 2 you found that collector current was greatly reduced for a reduced Voc. Ohm’s law tells us that if the voltage is reduced, the cur- rent also is reduced. Thinking back to the chapter on power supplies, what problem can you think of that could cause the DC voltage to fall in value? BETA EFFECTS INTHE BJT 5354 EXPERIMENT 12 Quick Check 1, Base biasing is one of the most stable biasing arrangements. True False 2, Base biasing does not make beta independent in amplifier circuits. Tre False 3. Why do our circuit calculations differ from our actual measurements? (a) Resistor tolerances (b) Different transistor betas. (©) All of the above (@ None of the above13 EMITTER BIAS OF THE BJT INTRODUCTION In Experiment 12 you found that base bias could not provide stable collector current or voltage for transistors having different values of beta. In this experi- ment you wil) explore emitter bias. Emitter bias makes the circuit much more independent of beta, thereby stabilizing changes in collector current and voltage better than the base bias circuit. Although emitter bias provides an improvement in circuit stability, it has the disadvantage of requiring two power supplies to erate, } open the troubleshooting section you will xine the effect on your circuit Rp opens, Re opens, or the transistor shorts. REFERENCE, | Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Section 4.6 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Leam to construct an emitter bias circuit and perform measurements of that circuit ¥ Understand how emitter bias improves circuit quiescent stability Y Leam how to relate the effects of common emitter biased circuit failures with measured circuit values EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS Dual DC power supply i Circuit protoboard Digital multimeter NPN transistors {3], 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 470.0, 1 ko [2] EMITTER BIAS OF THE BT 55Step 4 completes the measure- ‘ment portion of the experiment. If you are proceeding to the troubleshooting portion of the experiment, leave your circuit connected. 56 EXPERIMENT13, SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT 1. Using the first transistor, construct the circuit in Figure 13.1. Check your circuit to be sure that your connections are correct. Apply circuit power, then measure and record the following circuit values: Ic Vre= Ve= Ve= Ve= Vee= 2. Tum off the circuit power. Remove the transistor and replace it with transistor #2. Reapply circuit power. Measure and record the following, circuit values: Ie=. Vee = Ve= vi Ve= Vee = 3. Tum off the circuit power. Remove transistor #2 and replace it with transistor #3. Reapply circuit power. Measure and record the following, circuit values: Vee = Ve Ic Ve= Vee= 4, Using the largest and smallest values of collector current measured for your circuit, calculate the mean value of collector current using the formula below. Tc(mean) = Vicimax) ¥ Te(min) Toymeas)= 5. Using the beta box model with an assumed beta of 173, calculate the following values for the circuit in Figure 13.1. Te= Ve~ Ve Ver SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 -Rp open Ensure that circuit power is off. Replace the 1-k0 Rp with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Tum on cireuit power. Measure and record the following circuit values: Ve= Vere =Fault 2~Rc open i ‘Tum off the cireuit power. Replace Re with a 1-0 resistor. Exchange the 470-Q. Re with a 2.2-MQ resistor, Reapply circuit power, Measure and | record the following circuit values. i Ve ve Vee To | Fault 3 - Transistor shorted ‘Tum off the circuit power. Replace Re with a 470-0 resistor. Place shorting wires from the collector to emitter and base to emitter of the transistor. Reapply circuit power. Measure and record the following cir- cuit values. vi Ve Vee = Vee = DISCUSSION Section I 1. Your measurements for the emitter biased circuit should have shown that the base voltage is almost 0 volts. Explain how it possible to forward bias the emitter-base diode with 0 volts on the base, 2. Considering the values of measured and caleulated collector current, do you feel that emitter bias provides a relatively stable quiescent operating point? Explain your answer using the measured data (steps 1, 2, and 3), mean collector current (step 4) and calculated collector current (step 5). | Section II Fault 1 - Rs open ‘You should have found, with Re open, that the base voltage dropped com- pletely to zero and there was no base cusrent. Since base voltage in this circuit form is small (about 0.09 V), can you suggest a better voltage test ‘that would indicate the transistor circuit operation? i Fault 2- Re open ‘According to your measured data, what is the most obvious indication that Rois open in this circuit form? Fault 3 - Transistor shorted In Fault 3 the shorted transistor is indicated by a Vce voltage of 0 volts. ‘What other condition in a transistor circuit could give almost this same indication and yet not have a failure? EMITTER BIAS OF THE BT 57Quick Check 1. The emitter bias transistor circuit should provide better stability than the base biased circuit, True False 2. ‘The base voltage of the emitter bias is typically close to @s5Vv (0)35V (ov 07V 3. The fact that the emitter bias circuit requires two power supplies is con- sidered (a) an advantage (b) a disadvantage (©) no problem 4. The saturated value of Ic for the circuit in Figure 13.1 is (@)93mA (b) 15.1 mA (©)21.3mA (@) 36.2mA 58. EXPERIMENT 13,14 COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIAS INTRODUCTION Collector feedback bias is an older form of bias originally designed to provide a simple circuit independent of variations in beta. In this experiment you wil! cal- culate and measure the DC values and then introduce beta changes to observe the effect on circuit stability “The troubleshooting section will explore the effects of an open Rpand Re. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits » Chapter 4, Section 4.6 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: Y Observe the effect of feedback to control circuit quiescent point stability ~ Measure the effects of temperature-induced beta changes on your circuit ¥ Leam to relate measured values to circuit failures EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Circuit protoboard ‘Heat gun or freeze spray NPN transistor, 2N3904 Resistors: 2.2 kQ, 470 kO, 2.2 MO COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIAS 59Vo +10 Re Re S22K0 470k B=100 Figure 14.1 e Step 4 completes the measure- ment portion of the experiment, You may leave the circuit con- nected if you are going to pro- ceed to the troubleshooting section. 60 EXPERIMENT 14 SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT In this experiment you will first measure the quiescent values at normal room temperature. You will then repeat the measurements with temperature-induced beta changes to observe the effect of feedback in controlling circuit stability. L. 2. Construct the circuit in Figure 14.1. Apply power to the circuit. Measure and record the circuit DC values indi- cated below. Ie VB vi Vo= Vee = If possible, use two digital voltmeters for Procedure step 3. If you cannot use two DMMs, make the collector current measurement first; then make the collector voltage measurement. 3. Connect one DMM to measure collector current and the other to measure collector voltage. Apply power and record these measurements. They should be approximately as recorded in step 2. a ‘While monitoring these values use the heat gun to warm the transistor or the freeze spray to cool it. Use care to avoid overheating the transistor. Limit heat gun application to approximately 1/2 minute to | minute maxi- ‘mum, and let the transistor cool before reheating. As collector current in- creases, you should notice the collector voltage decreasing; and as, collector current decreases, collector voltage increases. If you have ac- cess to both a heat gun and freeze spray, you may wish to make the meas- ‘urements first with the heat gun and then with the freeze spray. SECTION Il TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 -Re open “Make sure the circuit power is tumed off. Leaving the DMMs connected to read collector current and collector voltage from Section I, step 5, re place the 2.2-k0 Re with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Apply power to the circuit; ‘measure and record the values indicated below. To=, Vo= Vre=, Vag VaFault 2 -Re open i ‘Tum off the circuit power, Again leaving the DMM connected asin. step 4 of Section I, replace the 2.2-kO collector resistor, and exchange the Ra with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Apply circuit power; measure and record the values below. Io=. Vo=. Vee | Vor =___ Vee | DISCUSSION 1 Section I ! 1. While the transistor was heated in Procedute step 4 of the experiment, i you should have observed a small increase in the collector current and a decrease in collector voltage. In your own words, explain how this rela tionship helps to provide beta stabilization in this transistor circuit. | 2. Ifthe circuit in Figure 14.1 were modified to include an emitter resistance, how do you think this would affect the beta-independent nature of this [ circuit? Hint: Set up a beta box model for the modified cireuit form. Section II Fault I -Re open 1. You have found that if Rc opens, collector current and forward base~ emitter voltages are zero. Vc also goes to zero volts. Why does the base emitter voltage also disappear when Rc opens? | 2. You also observed that when Re opens, the entire Voc(10 V) is dropped across Re. Why does this occur? ‘Fault 2 - Ra open i Explain why you found that with Re open, collector current was zero and Vee = Voc. Quick Check 1, The feedback used in the collector feedback bias circuit demonstrates the ability of the output current or voltage to regulate a circuit by affecting the input current or voltage. True False COLLECTOR FEEDBACKBIAS 6162. EXPERIMENT 14 One advantage of collector feedback bias over base bias is that it uses only cone DC power supply. True False ‘The collector saturation current for the circuit in Figure 14.1 is: (@)2.55 mA (b) 4.55 mA. (©) 8.55 mA (9.55 mA At saturation, the collector-emitter voltage will be approximately 0.2 V. Tre False Assuming a transistor beta of 150, changing Rs in the circuit in Figure 14.1 to 330 kQ would put the transistor into saturation. True False15 VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS FOR BUTS INTRODUCTION ‘Voltage divider bias i one of the best and most commonly used bias methods for ilizing BJT circuits, In Section | of this experiment you will set up a voltage divider-biased circuit, predict circuit values, and make circuit measurements to evaluate the stability of the quiescent circuit values, Section II ofthis experiment deals with troubleshooting. In this section you will simulate three different faults and make measurements of the circuit for ach fault. This will develop your troubleshooting knowledge by letting you observe the effects of a component's failure and by giving you the measurement data of the fault. REFERENCE Principles of Blectronte Devios and Crews - Chapter 4, Sections 4.7 and i OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Add to your understanding of voltage divider bias Y Verify the stability of a voltage divider-biased circuit ¥ Determine circuit values for different component failures EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Circuit protoboard [NPN transistor [2], 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 270 Q, 1.2 kO, 2.7 kQ,12 kO, 2.2 MQ VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS FOR BsTs 63SECTION FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Re Re 27k S 270 0 Figure 15.4 a Changing transistors in the ci- cuit gave two measurements with two different (although unknown) values of beta. To 4 test the circuit stability further, ‘we can use the fact that beta in- creases with temperature, The next set of measurements will be made while the transistor is being heated. NOTE An alternative method to heating the transistor is to cool it using component cooler spray. This will de- crease beta. R et TH Construct the circuit shown in Figure 15.1. Set the DC power supply to 12 V, and connect the power supply to your circuit. Using the digital multimeter, measure and record the circuit parameters listed below. r=. Va = Ve Va ‘Tum off the DC power supply and substitute a second 2N3904 transistor Reapply circuit power; measure and record the circuit parameters again. Va= Ver Ve Vee = You can use a heat gun or soldering iron to heat the transistor. If you use a soldering iron, do not actually touch the transistor with the hot tip of the soldering iron—hold the soldering iron close to the transistor. Heat the transistor for about | minute, or until the case is very warm to the touch. Make the following measurements quickly following the heating of the transistor before it retums to ambient temperature: I= Va= Ve Vi Vee ‘Now you have three sets of data from your circuit. Solve the circuit for the same parameters as those measured. Calculate the Thevenin values of the voltage divider—Rru and Vir. Enter these values in the blanks pro- vided below and in the beta box model in Figure 15.2. Assume a beta of 150, and, using the beta box model, calculate emitter current, collector voltage, base voltage, and emitter voltage. Also enter these results in the appropriate blanks provided below. Vm= Rni Ve Ve= SECTION Il TROUBLESHOOTING 2150 o7v z Re Fault 1-Ry divider resistor fails i ‘When a resistor fils it becomes a high resistance, or open circuit In this proce dure, you will simulate an open-resistor failure by substituting a large resistance Figure 15.2 value for resistor Re. 64 EXPERIMENT 15 Modify your circuit of Figure 15.1 by replacing the 2.7-kO resistor with the 2.2-MQ resistor.2. Apply 12 VDC to the circuit. Using the digital multimeter, measure and re-/ cord the circuit values listed below: Va= Ve= Ve Vee 3. Compare the circuit values just obtained to those of @ aormal circuit (Sec- tion i, Step 2 or 3). Notice in particular the readings that had the large change. Fault 2 - Ry divider resistor fails 1, Tum off the circuit power and replace Rp with the 2.7-KQ2 resistor. Ex- change the 12-kO value of Ri with the 2.2-MQ resistor, 2. Reapply 12 VDC to the circuit. Using the multimeter, measure and record the circuit values listed below. Va=. Ve= Vv Vee = ‘You should have found that the measured circuit values for this fault are quite | different from those of a normal circuit. Also notice the differences from the | values obtained for the Re fault. Fault 3 - Emitter resistor fails 1, Tum off the DC power to the circuit and replace resistor Ri with the correct value of 12-kQ. Exchange the 270-0. emitter resistor for the 2.2-MOQ resistor. 2. Reapply 12 VDC to the circuit. Using the multimeter, measure and record the circuit values listed below. Ve= Vee = Notice that each fault gave a different and unique set of circuit values, and that | in each case, the transistor shifted to either a cutoff or a saturation condition, DISCUSSION | Section I 1 scuss, from the standpoint of a stable operating point, the voltage i divider portion of a voltage divider-biased circuit. Consider the effects of | iarge resistances in the divider, both firm and stiff. 2. Discuss the stability of voltage divider-biased transistors based on the data | you have taken. Consider such factors as the use of two different transis- | tors, as well as the forced beta changes of heating or cooling the transis- VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS FOR Bute 65tor, and the percentage difference in the values of emitter current and col- lector voltages. 3. Compare the stability of voltage divider bias and emitter bias (Experiment 13). 4, If you used the quick method of your text for solving the firm or stiff divider for the circuit in Figure 15.1, do you believe this would give a sat- isfactory value for emitter current? Explain your answer. Section II 1. Foreach fault, describe the transistor state (cutoff or saturation). Describe how you would use this knowledge in troubleshooting a circuit. 2. Based on your measured data of circuit failures, what circuit measurements would you need to make in order to identify each fault? Quick Check 1, The circuit in Figure 15.1 is near mid-point bias. ‘True False 2. The saturation current of the circuit in Figure 15.1 is___- (@55mA (0) 8.16 mA (c) 10.23 mA (d) 11.04 mA 3. One advantage of voltage divider bias compared to emitter bias is____. (a) beta is not a factor (b) fewer components () alpha is not a factor (@) simpler power supply needed 4, Based on your circuit calculations, with an assumed beta of 150, the voltage divider is. (a) firm () stiff () neither 68 EXPERIMENT 1516 BIASING PNP TRANSISTORS ; INTRODUCTION ‘The operating voltages for PNP transistors have the oppos used to bias NPN transistors. PNP transistors are used less often than NPN transistors, and when they ave, they are often used in circuits with NPN transistors. For convenience, and to avoid two power sources, the PNP transistors are usually connected upside down with the emitter connected to the same +Vec that the collector of NPN transistors are. This is the circuit form you will use in this experiment. In Section I of this experiment you will calculate and measure the DC values for a PNP voltage divider biased transistor circuit. In Section II you will observe the effects of open bias resistors Ry, a shorted collector/emitter, and an open collector emitter. polarity from those REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Section 4.8 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Leam to set up an upside down voltage divider biased PNP transistor cireuit Understand the references used to make voltage measurements in a PNP transistor circuit ¥ Recognize fault voltage values for common troubles in a PNP voltage divider biased circuit EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Circuit protoboard PNP transistor, 2N3906 or equivalent i 2k, 2.2KO, 3.3 kO, 10k BIASING PNP TRANSISTORS 67SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT 1. Construct the circuit of Figure 16.1 Veo 9 12V In step 2 you will be measuring the DC values of your circuit. As reminder, where a parameter has a single subscript such as Vc ot Ve the measurement isto be made from the element to circuit com- Re mon (ground). Apply circuit power, measure and record the DC values ‘Table 16.1, paying close attention to Figure 16.1 ‘Tum off circuit power. In the area labeled Figure 16.2, redraw the circuit of Figure 16.1 right side up. Shift the cir- cuit ground to the positive terminal of the power supply. Construct the circuit you drew in Figure 16,2. Be sure to check your power supply connections carefully. Apply circuit power. Measure and record in Table 16.1 the ‘same circuit parameters you made in step 2. This completes the procedure, Turn off circuit power. Disconnect your circuit. Data from step 1 | Data from step 2 Va Ve Ve iG 1 Figure 16.2 Table 16.1 SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 -Ry open 1. Construct the circuit of Figure 16.1. Check your circuit fo ensure proper operation. Tum off circuit power. Remove the 10-k02 Ri and replace with a 2.2-MQ resistor. 2. Reapply circuit power. Measure and record the following circuit values: Ve Ve= Vp 68 EXPERIMENT 16Fault 2 - Transistor shorted 1. Tum circuit power off. Replace the transistor in the cireuit. Place a i shorting wire from the emitter to base and the base to collector. Tum on circuit power. 2. Measure and record the following DC values: vi Ve= i ‘Tum off circuit power and disconnect your circuit. DISCUSSION Section I I 1. Inthe measurements of steps 2 and 5, you found that the transistor element voltages, Vp , Ve , and Vo, were quite different yet the transistor | operated at the same quiescent point. Why do you think these differences | ‘are important to the technician? | 2. Because the circuits of Figure 16.1 and your circuit of Figure 16.2 had the ‘same values of Ic and Vee, the values of the base-emitter voltage and the voltage from collector to emitter were the same. Identify other voltages and currents that were the same in the two circuits Section II Fault IR, open Jn Fault | you found that Vp and Ve were at 12 V, while Ve had no voltage, Explain why you think these values Were measured. Fault 2 - Transistor shorted ‘You discovered that when the transistor was shorted, Voc was divided across Re and Rc. Explain why you think this occurred Quick Check 1. PNP transistor schematics are usually drawn: | (2) sight side up (©) sideways (c) upside down 2. The bias voltage polarities for PNP transistors (@) same as NPN (b) reversed from NPN (©) higher voltage than NPN BIASING PNP TRANSISTORS. 6970 EXPERIMENT 16 3, In the circuit of Figure 16.1, the bias is: ® Le (b) stiff () neither ‘The quiescent operating point of the circuit of Figure 16.1 would depend on the transistor beta. ‘True False17 COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER INTRODUCTION One of the most commonly used small-signal amplifiers is the common emitter configuration. In this experiment you will be testing a single-stage common emitter amplifier. You will be measuring voltage gain for both an unswamped and a swamped configuration, measuring amplifier phase shift, and observing the amplifier response to loading. In the troubleshooting section, you will insert amplifier faults and observe the failed amplifier AC and DC circuit values. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Sections 5.3 and 5.4 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Learn how to determine voltage through circuit measurements Y Gain understanding of the effects of loading on amplifier gain ¥ Be able to relate amplifier AC and DC voltages to component failures EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Dual-trace oscilloscope Function generator NPN transistor, 2N3904 or equivalent Circuit protoboard Resistors: 1 kG, 2.2 kQ, 3.9 kO 2}, 10k, 47k Capacitors: 1 pF [2], 470 uF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER 7172. EXPERMENT17 SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT on2Vv Re 3.9 ka Re Re Cs F39ka Pa7Ka 1ka “Tato uF} Figure 17.1 Build the circuit of Figure 17.1, without connecting a load resistance at this time. Connect the DC power supply set to 12 V. Do not connect the audio function generator at this time. Measure and record the following DC voltages: Ve Ve= Vee Is the amplifier operating at or close to the load line midpoint? ‘Connect the function generator, and set it to provide a signal of 20 mV pp at the base of the transistor. Ifyou have difficulty obtaining a low enough output from your function gen- erator in step 3, add the voltage divider Totransistor network of Figure 17.2 to your circuit. base Do not rely on the divider value to de- termine the amplifier input signal. Toampliier Measure the signal atthe base of the ground —_transistor and adjust the function gen- erator to obtain the required value. Figure 17.2 4. Set the oscilloscope coupling to AC and connect the scope to the transistor collector. Adjust the function generator to obtain the maximum output signal possible without clipping. Observe the shape of this output waveform. Reduce the input signal to obtain an output signal of approxi- mately 4 Vp.p. (The exact value is not critical.)10, Set the oscilloscope coupling to DC. Measure and sketch the com- bined AC and DC signals at the base (Vp), emitter (Vs), and col- lector (Vc) in Graph 17.1. Record the positive and negative peak values obtained at the collector in the waveform sketch. Using your dual trace oscilloscope, connect channel 1 to the transis- tor base and channel 2 to the collector. Set the scope coupling to AC, Set the scope to trigger from channel 2. What is the phase angle between the input and output of the amplifier? Phase angle = Adjust the function generator to provide a 20 mVp» input signal to the transistor base. Using your oscilloscope, measure and record Vin and Vou of the amplifier. Calculate and record the value of un- loaded voltage gain. Via =. Vout = Av= ‘Tum off the circuit power and connect the 3.9-k0 load. Measure the input signal and output across the load. Record these values. Cal- culate the amplifier loaded voltage gain, Vin =. Vout = AvL= ‘Tum off the circuit and replace the 3.9-k02 load with 47-2 measure- ments of step 8 to determine the loaded voltage gain. AvL= ‘Tum off the circuit power. Modify your circuit to the swamped am- plifier of Figure 17.3. Apply the circuit power. Set the function gencrator to apply a 20 mVpp, 1 kHz input signal, using your os- cilloscope. Measure and record the amplifier input and output sig- nal values. Then calculate the amplifier foaded voltage gain. Vin RL Vou = AVL= Figure 17.3 LY Ve Graph 17.4 COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER 7374 EXPERIMENT 17 ul While monitoring the output signal at the load, increase the input signal to the point just short of clipping, Observe this waveform. You should ob- serve aclean and undistorted waveform. Contrast this waveform to that obtained in step 4. Step 11 completes your measurements, You may disconnect your circuit. SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 - Emitter bypass capacitor open. 1 Capacitors have three failure modes: They can open, short, or leak, You will now explore what happens to the Vour when the Emitter bypass ca~ pacitor opens. Apply 12 VDC and the AC signal of 1 kHz at 20 mVp» to the amplifier circuit, While monitoring the Vou: carefully, remove one end of the emit- ter bypass capacitor and record the Vou below. Also observe and record gain differences With emitter bypass capacitor: Vou ‘Without emitter bypass capacitor: Vou = Av= Fault 2 - Transistor shorted The transistor in the CE amplifier has two main failure modes: The transistor can open or short from emitter to collector. You will explore ‘the shorted failure mode here. 2, Tum off the circuit power. Place a shorting wire from the emitter to the collector of the transistor. Apply circuit power. Monitor the output signal and record the voltages below. Vout Ve. Vo. Vee. DISCUSSION Section I 1 In Procedure step 6, you measured the phase shift between the signal input on the base to the signal output on the collector. Describe, using the functional operation of the transistor, the reason for the phase shift you ‘measured.2. In Procedure step 4, using the oscilloscope with AC coupling, the average value of the amplifier signal was 0 V. That is because the posi- tive peak value was equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity to the negative peak value. A. In Procedure step 5, the average value of the output signal was not zero. Calculate the average value from the data of Figure 17.3. Vavg= B. What is the circuit parameter value represented by the average value ‘Vavg of part A? Explain why you obtained the collector waveform values recorded in Figure 17.3, 3. In Procedure step 5, you measured the AC signal on the emitter of the transistor, which should have been essentially 0 VAC. Explain why this value should have been obtained. Section II | 1, In Fault 1 you discovered that the emitter bypass capacitor can greatly affect the gain of the amplifier. What operational measurement would you make to determine if the capacitor was open? Why? 2. In Fault2 you found that sometimes the AC signal may disappear com- pletely. You must then rely on DC voltage measurements for trouleshoot- ing, Which of the DC voltages checked do you think was the most obvious for showing a shorted transistor? Why? | Quick Check | 1. What would be the gain ofthe amplifier in Figure 17.1 ifthe value of Re ‘were changed to 5 kQ? (Assume no change in quiescent operating point.) 2. What should be the normal AC voltage read at the emitter of the transistor amplifier of Figure 17.1? 3. Ifthe amplifier of Figure 17.1 were exactly midpoint biased (Vez = 6 V), ‘what would be the maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing? @4v 5V ©@6v @l0Vv 4, If capacitor C3 in Figure 17.1 shorted, the transistor would likely be COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER 7576 EXPERIMENT 18 18 COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIASED AMPLIFIER INTRODUCTION In Experiment 14 you discovered how to use collector feedback to bias a transis- tor circuit, In this experiment you will use this circuit to amplify an AC signal. In Section I you will calculate the gain for the circuit and compare your meas- ured gain with your calculated gain. In the troubleshooting section, you will see the effects on the AC output voltage if the transistor opens. You will also observe the effects of open and shorted coupling capacitors on the output voltages. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Cireuits - Chapter 5, Section 5.5 OBJECTIVES When you complete this experiment, you will: Y Better understand amplifier gain Y Be able to do basic amplifier troubleshooting EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Function generator Circuit protoboard NPN transistor, 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 5.1 KO, 8.2 k0, 470 ka 1 pF capacitor [2]SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT BEFORE STARTING The circuit you will be working with has a rela- tively high gain. This will requirean input signal of 20 mVp>p. If your function generator won't adjust to that level, use the Input Sig- nal Divider of Figure 18.2 between your function gen- erator and your amplifier Figure 18.1 1. Build the circuit of Figure 18.1. Apply +12 VDC to your circuit. Do not ‘connect or apply the AC signal at this time. Measure and record the fol- lowing DC circuit values: Ie= Vee = 2. Connect your AC function generator to your circuit (Use the signal divider if required). Set the function generator to provide a signal of 1 kHz at 20 mVp» at TPL. Tots To circuit Using your oscilloscope, measure and record the input signal at TP1 (Vin) and the output signal at TP2 (Vou). vi = Vout = Figure 18.2 From these values, calculate the circuit loaded voltage gain (Av) AvL=. 3. From the data of step 2, calculate the theoretical loaded voltage gain of your circuit (AvL). Calculated Avi = 4, Set your oscilloscope to AC coupling and monitor the output of your circuit (TP2), Increase the input signal to the circuit slowly, stopping as soon as you detect any output clipping or limiting. For this value of out- put, record the value of the positive peak and the value of the egative step 4 completes the first sec- peak. tion of your experiment. If you i are proceeding to the trou- ne — Bleshooting, you may leave the Did clipping start simultaneously on both positive and negative peaks? circuit connected. Turn off all If not, which portion of the output signal showed clipping first? circuit power, AC and DC, Ve= COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIASED AMPLIFIER 7778 EXPERIMENT 18 SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING Fault I - Transistor open 1 In Figure 18.1, remove the transistor and apply power. Connect the function generator to the circuit and apply 20 mVp» at 1 KHz. Measure and record the output signal voltage at TP2 with the oscilloscope. Vm= Measure and record the signal at TP1 with the oscilloscope. Vrri= Make the DC voltage measurements from the point of collector connection to ground and the voltage from TP] to ground (Ve) with your oscilloscope. Ve= Vor = Fault 2 -Cy open 1 2. 3. ‘Tum off circuit power. Install the transistor and disconnect one end of C;. Apply DC and signal power. ‘Measure and record the signal voltage at the following test points: Vm Vrei Vivo Fault 3 - C2 shorted 1 2 ‘Tum off circuit power. Reconnect C; and place a shorting wire across C2. Measure and record the signal voltage at TP2. Vm= Fault 4 - C2 open ‘Tum off circuit power, remove the shorting wire and lift one end of C2. Apply circuit power, measure and record the signal voltage at TP2. Vm= ‘Measure the signal voltage at the collector. Ve=DISCUSSION Section I 1, In procedure step 2, you measured circuit gain. In step 3 you calculated the expected gain. Ifthe two values were the same, how would you ex- plain the equivalence? 2. In procedure step 4, you drove the amplifier to the point of just detecting clipping or limiting of the output signal. What does equal (symmetrical) clipping say about the quiescent operating point? Was the clipping you ‘observed in step 4 cutoff clipping or saturation clipping? Explain why you chose your answer to the last question. Section II Fault 1 - Transistor open 1. For this fault you found that the output voltage at TP2 was 0 V while the input voltage at TP1 was 20 mV. What do these two measurements signify to you? 2. Why do you think it helpful to measure the DC collector voltage? Fault 2 - C1 open 1. You should have found that the output voltage at TP2 was missing. This time your measurements showed you thatthe input voltage at TP] was also missing. However, the signal was present at TPO. You found that C1 ‘being open will prevent the signal from ever reaching the transistor in- ‘put, Does this suggest a pattem for troubleshooting to you? Explain. Fault 3 - Cp shorted ‘The measured output voltage at TP2 was seen to be superimposed on a DC level. If C2 were operating normally, the DC voltage would be blocked. What possible problem with oscilloscope switching could pre- vent you from seeing this? Fault 4 - Cz open 1In Fault 4 you should have found that the output voltage was missing. This time, when you measured the collector voltage, you found the out- put voltage present. This signal was on a DC voltage level and is hard to see with the oscilloscope. Would it be appropriate to measure this signal Voltage with the oscilloscope coupling switch on AC? Quick Check 1. What is the formula for voltage gain in a collector feedback biased amplifier? COLLECTOR FEEDBACK BIASED AMPLIFIER 792, Weccan expect our calculated Av and our measured Av to always be ex- tremely close. | Tre False 3. When troubleshooting collector feedback amplifiers, you often find that coupling capacitors are often found at fault. True False 4. Whatis the value of Icsar for the circuit of Figure 18.1? (a) L57mA (b) 240mA (©)2.90mA (@3.50mA 80 EXPERIMENT1819 COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER INTRODUCTION ‘The common collector or emitter follower amplifier provides current gain and a nominal voltage gain of slightly less than unity. This amplifier is also charac- terized by a moderately high input impedance and low output impedance. In this experiment you will verify voltage gain for several loads to illustrate the output impedance character of the, amplifier and, through measurement, you will determine the input impedance of the CC amplifier. The troubleshooting section witl enable you to relate measured circuit values to voltage divider faults in the CC amplifier. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Section 6 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: Examine the effect of small load resistors on the voltage gain of the emitter follower Y Verify the phase relationship between the input and output signal voltages of the common collector and amplifier ¥ Determine the input impedance of a common collector amplifier Understand and leam how to recognize failures ofthe bias resistors EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply NPN transistor, 2N3904 or equivalent Function generator Resistors: 470 Q, 1 kQ [2], 10 kQ [2], 100 ka, Dual trace oscilloscope 2.2MQ Circuit protoboard Potentiometer, 10 kQ Capacitors: 1 uF, 470 UF COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER 81‘Your first procedure steps will be measurement of the common collector amplifier phase shift and then voltage gain with three different load resistor values to let you observe the output im- pedance characteristics of the common collector am- plifier. Following these measurements, you will make measurements to ex- perimentally determine the input impedance of your 82. EXPERIMENT 19. SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Figure 19.4 1. Build the circuit of Figure 19.1, using first the 100-kQ load resistance, Apply DC power to the circuit. Use the function generator to apply a sinusoidal input signal of 1.5 Vpp at 1 kHz. 2. Use your oscilloscope to measure, and then record the values of the input signal (Vin) and the output signal at Ri (Vou). Vine Vou = Calculate and record the amplifier voltage gain. AvL= 3. Connect your oscilloscope to measure the phase of Vin versus Vou. Record the phase shift you measure. Phase shift = 4. Tum off the circuit power. Replace the 100-KQ load with a 1-2 resistor. Reapply circuit power. Measure and make sure that the input signal to the amplifier is 15 Vpp. Va= Measure the signal output at Ry, record Vou , and calculate the volt- age gain. Vout = AvL= 5. Tum offcircuit power. Replace the 1-kQ load resistor with a 470-0 resistor. Reapply circuit power and repeat the measurements of Step 4. Vin= Vou = AvL= Remove circuit power and disconnect the load resistance.Rt Ry c, S10Ka Cc, S10K0 10ko soko @ Re Ro 40k w0ka (@) ) Figure 19. 6. Ensure that the circuit power is off Disconnect the base lead of the transis-| tor from the junction of C and the voltage divider. Connect a 10-kQ potentiometer in series with the function generator to Cy as shown in Fig | ure 19.2, % Beginning with step 6, you will 7. Apply circuit power. Set the function generator to have an output of 2 Vp-p | be measuring the input imped- at kHz, measured with the oscilloscope. Set the scope vertical range se- lector to obtain as close to a full screen display as possibie, After setting the function generator, move the scope connection to read the AC volt- age across Re of the divider. Do not change the setting of the scope verti- cal range selector. Adjust the 10-k9 potentiometer fora scope display of exactly one-half the value set for the input signal 8. Tum off circuit power. Remove the potentiometer from the circuit and measure its resistance. Record this value as Zp. It is the value of the di- vider impedance. Zp= 9. Replace the potentiometer in the circuit. Reconnect the transistor base lead to the junction of C; and the voltage divider as shown in Figure 19.2b, Repeat exactly the measurement procedure of step 7. This time the resistance of the potentiometer is the total impedance of the divider and amplifier. Record your measured value of Zr. Zr= 10. Repeat the measurement steps of 7 and 8, and average the values of the readings made Calculate the input impedance of the amplifier from the measured and averaged data of steps 7 and 8, using the formula below. 20-20 Za= Zp-Zr Step 10 completes Section I measurements. If you are continuing to the tr0u- bleshooting section, leave your circuit connected. ance ofthe CCamplifier. This is ‘not a difficult measurement; however, it cannot be made di- rectly as you would measure a resistor. Ifyou look atthe circuit of Figure 19.1, you will see that at capacitor C1, there are two "impedances in parallel: the bias voltage divider and the ampli- / fier input impedance. You want to obtain the AC or active im- pedance of the amplifier so that the measurement must be made in an operating circuit, ‘The way that you will do this is to first, with the transistor dis [connected, determine the di- | vider impedance Zp. Then with a second measurement, obtain the total impedance with the ‘transistor connected. The differ- ence of the two impedance | measurements will allow caleu- | lation of the amplifier input im- | Pedance. COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER 8384 EXPERIMENT19 SECTION II ‘TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 - Bias resistor Ri open 1, Ensure that you start with your circuit connected as shown in Figure 19.1, but with no load resistor. Remove the 10-kQ resistor (Ri) and replace it with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Make and record your predicted circuit values as requested below. Vex ve= 2. Apply circuit power and an input signal of 1.5 Vp-p at 1 kHz. The bias resistor Ry of Figure 19.1 fails open. What do you think will happen to the output AC and DC voltages? Record your answer below; then meas- ure and record the results. Ve= ve= Fault 2 - Bias resistor Ro shorted 1. Tum off circuit power. Replace Ri with the current 10-kQ2 resistor. Remove Rp, 19kO, and replace it with a 2.2-MQ resistor. 2. Estimate the emitter AC and DC values and record below. Ve= Ve= Apply circuit power and AC signal input. Measure and record the voltages, ‘AC and DC at the emitter paying attention to the AC signal waveshape. Ve= Ve= DISCUSSION Section I 1. Inyour procedure you should have determined that the common collector amplifier had a moderately high input impedance and was capable of driving a fairly small load resistance. What purpose does this serve in electronics? 2. You also found that the voltage gain (Ay) of the emitter follower was at ora little less than unity (1). You found that this Av remained close to unity for several different load resistances. In your opinion why is this an advantage? 3. Your measurements showed that the output signal voltage is the same phase as the input signal voltage. Can this be an advantage? If yes, how? 4. Why is the output signal of the common collector amplifier just slightly less than the input signal?Section II 1, In Fault 1 you found that ifthe bias resister Ri opens, you lose both Vi and ve. Explain why this happens. 2. With Fault 2, Re open, you should have recorded a large DC voltage on the emitter and observed a heavily clipped AC signal. What conclusions about the state of the transistor can you draw from your measurements? Quick Check 1. The common collector amplifier is also called _. (a) an audio amplifier (b) a collector follower (c) an emitter follower 2. The common collector Zin is_. (a) medium (b) high (©) low 3. The common coffector amplifier has a signal phase inversion between the Vin and Vou of ___- ~ (a) 180 degrees (b) 270 degrees (©) O degrees 4, Acommon collector amplifier has a nominal voltage gain of COMMON COLLECTOR AMPLIFIER 8520 COMMON BASE AMPLIFIERS INTRODUCTION ‘The common base amplifier is characterized by a low input impedance and good voltage gain but no current gain at all. The input current is virtually equal to the “output current. In Section I you will make measurements and some calculations to verify the DC and AC characteristics of the common base amplifier. In Section 1 you will explore the effects on the output voltage when the coupling capacitor Cz shorts, Cz opens, or Re opens. REFERENCE, Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Section 5.7 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: Y Verify through circuit measurements, the voltage gain and phase shift ‘of the common base amplifier Experimentally determine the input impedance of a common base amplifier Explore three common failures of a common base amplifier EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS pe DC power supply ‘Dual-trace oscilloscope Digital multimeter Function signal generator Circuit protoboard NPN transistor, 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 100 Q, 1 kQ, 2.7kQ, 10kQ, 20 kQ, 2.2 MQ. Potentiometer, 100 2. 1 MF capacitor [2] 86 EXPERIMENT 20SECTION} FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT 1, Build the circuit of Figure 20.1, Resistors Ra and Re are a voltage divider to lower the input signal to your am- a ve) tov plifier without excessively loading the signal generator. “ 2. Apply DC power to your amplifier. Connect the signal Rr peee en generator to the circuit and set the generator for an in- 1kOS Cy 5 put of 20 mVp» across Re, using the oscilloscope to 7 ‘measure this voltage. Record the input signal level. AMF at Re Re Vin=___ = yoo ka Figure 20.1 3. Using the oscilloscope, measure the amplifier output across the Joad, and record the measured value: Vou = Calculate and record the amplifier gain: Avi 4, Connect the oscilloscope channel | to the amplifier input, and channel 2 to the amplifier output. Measure and record the amplifier phase shift. Phase shift 5. Inthe following steps you will be measuring the amplifier input impedance, Make the settings and measurements as accurately as possible. 6. Tum off the amplifier power. Calculate and record your value of the ampli- fier input impedance. Zin= Figure 20.2 Set a 100-0 potentiometer to the value you calculated for the input imped- ance. Connect the 100-02 potentiometer between the junction of Ra and Reand Ci as shown in Figure 20.2, Temporarily connect a jumper across the potentiometer connection to short the potentiometer. La chet dmse dad potentiometer is adjusted, in 7. Apply circuit power. Use the oscilloscope connected across divider resistor S*€P 8 the signal at divider Rato measure the input signal, and adjust the generator foran input of Ey Must be checked 20 mVp-p. Record your input signal value. Measure and record the ampli- SF5qsm¥en fier output signal. Repeat the adjustments until Vie Voa= the correct output is ob- tained and no adjustments 8, Remove the jumper shorting the potentiometer. Recheck the signal are required. voltage across Rx and readjust the generator for exactly 20 mVp-. Set the scope to measure the amplifier output and adjust the potentiometer v for an output of exactly half the value recorded in step 7 COMMON BASE AMPLIFIERS 879. Tum off circuit power. Remove the potentiometer and measure the set resistance. Record the measured resistance below. This is the input im- pedance of the amplifier. The value measured should be relatively close to the value you calculated in step 6. Za | This completes your circuit measurements. Your circuit may be left connected if ‘you are going to continue to the troubleshooting section. SECTION II ‘TROUBLESHOOTING Estimated Measured Vout ve ve VE Estimated ‘Measured Vout Ve Ve Estimated ‘Measured Vout Ve Ve 88 EXPERIMENT 20 | DISCUSSION Fault 1 -Re open Build the amplifier circuit of Figure 20.1. Replace the 2.7-kQ emitter resistor (Rc) with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Estimate the effect this failure would have on the cir- cuit. Record your estimated voltages in the Bsti- ‘mated column of the table provided here. Apply ciscuit power. Connect and set the signal generator to supply 20 mVp across Re. Measure and record the listed voltage values in the Measured column, Fault 2 - C2 shorted ‘Tum off circuit power. Replace the emitter resistor with the correct 2.7-kQ resistor. Place a jumper wire to short the output capacitor C2. Estimate the effect of this failure on the circuit parameters shown in the table atthe right. Record your estimates. Apply cir- cuit power and input AC signal, Measure and record the values in the Measured column, Fault 3 -C2 open ‘Tum off circuit power. Remove the jumper shorting Ca, Disconnect one end of C2 from the transistor col- lector. Estimate the effect of an open C2 on the cir- cuit parameters listed in the table at the right. Record your estimated values. Apply circuit power and input AC signal of 20 mV>.p. Measure and re- cord the circuit values in the Measured column of the table, Section I ‘You should have found that the gain of the common base amplifier is high and the input impedance is very low. What effect do you think the low in- put impedance would have on most input signals to the amplifier?2. Even though the common base amplifier has a high gain, why do you think it is not very popular for use as an audio amplifier? 3. Considering that the impedance of most coaxial cables used to carry RF signals isin the range of 50 to 75 ©, do you fee! that there would be an application in RF use for the common base amplifier? Give an example ‘to explain your answer. Section II Fault 1 -Ry open In Fault | we found that if Re opens, there is no output voltage. Why do you think this happens? Fault 2 - C2 shorted In Fault 2 the output coupling capacitor (C2) was shorted. You should have found that the output signal was superimposed on the DC voltage level of Vc. In troubleshooting there are two ways of finding this prob- Jem. Can you think of a problem you might have in troubleshooting this failure? Fault 3 ~C2 open ‘You found that when the output coupling capacitor, C2, becomes open, the signal path is interrupted and no output voltage will be seen. What do you think the output voltage would look like if C2 were leaky instead of open or shorted? Quick Check J. The common base amplifier is used mostly as an audio amplifier. Truc False 2, There is a 180-degree phase inversion between the input and output signals of the common base amplifier. ‘Tre False 3, The low input impedance of the common base amplifier makes it ideal as a voltage amplifier. Truc False 4. The gain of the common base amplifier is relatively high. True False ‘COMMON BASE AMPLIFIERS 8990 EXPERIMENT 21 21 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS INTRODUCTION Many times the gain required from an amplifier cannot be obtained by only one amplifier stage. Therefore, several amplifier stages are cascaded together so that the individual gain of each amplifier is multiplied to get an overall gain. In this experiment you will build a two-stage cascaded amplifier, make ‘measurements, and draw conclusions based on those measurements. ‘The troubleshooting section will examine the effects of capacitor failures on the multistage amplifier. You will install faults and make circuit measurements tobe able to relate measured values to component failures REFERENCE, Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Section 5.9 OBJECTIVES In this experiment, you will: ¥ Add to your knowledge of multistage amplifiers Y Be able to relate measured values to circuit failures EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Dual-trace oscilloscope Function generator Circuit protoboard ‘NPN transistor [2], 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 82.0, 180 2, 330.0, 1 kQ, 3.3 k, 3.9k0, 4.7kO, 5.60, 33 kA, 56kQ Capacitors: 1pF [3], 47 HF (2)SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Figure 21.1 1. Construct the two-stage amplifier of Figure 21.1. 2. Apply DC power. Do not connect the function generator at this time. Measure the DC voltages at the base, collector, and emitter of the first and second stages of the amplifier, Record your values in Table 2.1. ‘DC Values ‘AC Values Ve [ Ve | Ve [ w | ve | ve | Vou Stage 1 Stage 2 Table 2%. 3. Connect the function generator to provide an input to your amplifier at Cy. Set the generator t0 20 mVp.p at 1 kHz. ‘Note: If your function generator will not adjust to a sufficiently low signal, connect the input voltage divider network of Figure 21.2 to pn your circuit aa oC 4, Using the oscilloscope, measure the peak-to-peak AC signal atthe base, R emitter and collector of cach amplifier stage, and measure the amplifier = tke. ‘output across the load resistor. Record your measured values in Table 21. 5. From your measured data, calculate the loaded voltage gain of each stage and record below. Figure 21.2 Avi (Stage 1)=___ Avi (Stage 2) = MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS 91For stable ‘scope triggering in step 8, set the ’scope to trigger on the channel con- nected to the amplifier out- put. 92. EXPERIMENT 21 | 6. Calculate the overall voltage gain of the amplifier by taking the product of | the individual stage gains from step 5. | 7. From the data of Table 21.1, calculate the overall gain of the amplifier. Avr= This result should be the same as the value calculated in step 6, The total gain of multistage amplifier is the product of the individual stage gains. Connect your oscilloscope to measure the phase shift from input to output of the amplifier. Connect one channel of the scope to the input signal at Cy, and the other channel to the output atthe load resistor. Measure and record the amplifier phase shift. Phase shift ‘This completes the first section measurements, If you are proceeding to the trou- i | Besbooing, leave your circuit connected. | SECTION TROUBLESHOOTING | Troubleshooting amplifiers is very similar to troubleshooting the single stage | amplifier, There are some differences, however. One major difference is the cou- pling capacitors. Like a leaky or shorted bypass capacitor, coupling capacitors ‘alter the signal characteristics. Also, since they isolate the Ve of the first stage | from the Vp of the second stage, network bias is affected. Another difference of | the amplifier from the single-stage is that the subsequent stages act as the load | for the previous stage. Therefore, any problem in later stages affects the opera | tion of the previous stages. This experiment, then, focuses on these two major | differences by examining failures of the coupling capacitors. | Fault 1 -C2 open |1. Tum off circuit power. Open C2 by disconnecting one end from the capa | citor at Qi. Reapply circuit power and the AC signal of 20 mVpp at 1 kHz, Measure and record in Table 21.2 the AC and DC voltages at the collector of Q: and the base of Q2. |2. Reconnect Cz and measure V- of Qi and V» of Qz. Do you observe any | differences in the signal? | Fault 2 -C2 shorted ‘Tum off circuit power. Remove capacitor C2 and replace it with a jumper wire (connecting the collectar of Qi to the base of Q2). Reapply circuit power and the input signal. This simulates a leaky or shorted capacitor. Measure and record the appropriate data in Table 21.2, Also record the DC levels. DC Values AC Values Fault Ve [ve [ ve | w [ve | ‘C2 open [ i ‘C2 shorted I | Table 21.2DISCUSSION Section I 1. Calculate the unloaded voltage gain of the amplifier first stage. How does it compare to your measured value? 2, The overall gain you measured for your multistage amplifier could be approximated by a single-stage unswamped amplifier. What reasons would you give for using the multistage amplifier? What reasons would you give for using the multistage amplifier as a better choice? Section II 1. What effect did an open coupling capacitor have on the circuit? Also, explain how and why the signal changed when C2 was reinserted into the network, 2. Explain what effect a leaky coupling capacitor would have on the opera- tion of the multistage amplifier. 3. Explain the measurements you observed when C2 was shorted. What, for example, happened to the gain of the amplifier, or to the output signal waveshape? Quick Check 1, The term hee refers to (a) Av (b) beta (©) impedance (4) slew rate 2. Crisused to couple the first stage to the second stage. True False 3. Amopen emitter bypass capacitor___the gain ofan amplifier? (a) increases (b) decreases (©) has no effect on 4, A multistage amplifier increases signal strength in small steps, True False 5. Inamoltistage amplifier, faults in one stage can affect the operation of other stages, True False MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS 9394 EXPERIMENT 22 22 CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIERS INTRODUCTION As its name notes, the emphasis of the power amplifier is power gain. It is most often found in the final stages of multistage amplifiers. Some important features ofthe class A amplifier are the current drain, maximum power dissipation by the transistor, the stage efficiency and full power output (maximum unclipped signal the amplifier can deliver). In this experiment you will calculate and measure power output and effi- ciency of a class A Power amplifier. ‘The troubleshooting section of this experiment will simulate two amplifier faults and you will, through measurements made, be able to relate failures to circuit measured values. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Section 6.3 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: ¥ Determine by measurement the efficiency of a class A power amplifier Y Understand the effect of a swamping resistor on the signal linearity of large signal amplifier Y Simulate faults and be able to determine their effect on amplifier Parameters EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Dual-trace oscilloscope Function generator NPN transistor, 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 220 0, 820 0, 1 kA, 3.3 kA [2], 6.8 kO, 33k Capacitors: 1 uF [2], 470 uFSECTION I FIUINCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Figure 22.1 Pavation for step 6: Poc= Vee: Iec 1, Construct the circuit in Figure 22.1 2. Apply DC power and with no signal applied, measure and record in Table Equations for step 7: 22.1 the values of Ica, Veo, and the total current drawn by the amplifier oe). Vip= MER 3. Connect the function generator and adjust for a signal of 20 mVpp at 1 kz 2 atthe base of the transistor. ‘Viras =0.707VLp Using the oscilloscope, observe the load voltage while increasing the AC input signal. Continue to increase the input signal untt clipping is ob- served, Take note of the nonlinear distortion of the signal, in fact the sig- nal begins to squash and elongate before clipping in reached. This is due to the changes in r'e. Equation for step 8: NOTE: Although, at the power levels of your circuit you won't do any damage, its usually not desirable to operate an amplifier in saturation clipping forlong Efficiency = 7+ x 100% intervals. ‘be 4. Reduce the input signal until the output signal is at its maximum value without clipping. 5. Measure and record in Table 22.1 the peak-to-peak output voltage (Vp-p). 6. Calculate and record in Table 22.1 the DC power supplied to the amplifier (re). 7. Calculate and record in Table 22.1 the total power delivered to the load (PD. 8. Calculate and record in Table 22.1 the efficiency of the amplifier. CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIERS. 9596 EXPERIMENT 22 igure 22.2 9. ‘Tum off the cirout power. Change the emitter circuit to add a swamping resistor as shown in Figure 22.2. Reapply circuit power and the AC signal input. 10. Connect the oscilloscope to monitor the amplifier output. Adjust the input signal amplitude until the output just starts to clip. Compare the signal ‘waveshape to that observed in step 3. Does it appear to be less distorted? | This completes the measurements of this section. SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 - Output capacitor C2 is shorted | 1. Starting with the circuit of Figure 22.1, place a jumper wire to short the output capacitor, C2 Apply circuit power, measure and record the following DC volt- ages: Ve Ver Vew. Apply an AC input signal of 20 mVpp at 1 kHz, Measure and re- cord the peak-to-peak voltages. | Ve= Veu= | 2. Tum off circuit power. Remove the jumper shorting capacitor C2. | Fault 2 - Emitter bypass capacitor C3 is shorted 1, With circuit power off, connect a jumper wire to short C3 Apply DC power, ‘measure and record the following DC voltages: Va= Ve= Ve=___ 2. Apply an input signal of 20 mvpp at I kHz. Measure the record the follow- ing peak-to-peak AC voltages: Ve= Vet=Observe the waveshape of the output signal atthe collector and load, Does this waveshape imply anything about the state of the transistor? 3. Tum off the power and disconnect your circuit. DISCUSSION Section I 1. What effect did including a swamping resistor have on your measurements. Explain the effect. 2. The amplifier efficiency you calculated in step 8 should have been much less than the ideal class A efficiency of 25 percent. With reference to ‘your text, can you identify measured circuit parameters that contributed ‘to the low efficiency? Section 1. What happens to the signal at the load when the bypass capacitor shorts. Why does this occur? 2. What does nonlinear distortion look like and explain why it occurs ina class A amplifier 3. What one measurement could you make to be certain to identify a shorted output capacitor? Explain why this measurement would be certain. Quick Check 1. The class A amplifier is highly efficient, Tre False 2. The maximum, theoretical, efficiency ofa class A amplifier is___- (a) 30% (b) 25% (15% (d) 33.3% 3. Overdriving an ampiifier is a good idea, True False 4, Distortion is caused by changes in @r () Re ©@R @) te CLASS A POWER AMPLIFIERS 9723 CLASS B PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS INTRODUCTION In this experiment you will construct a voltage divider biased and a diode (cur- | rent mirror) biased class B push-pull amplifier. This will allow you to observe | crossover distortion and its elimination by the diode biased amplifier. You will also demonstrate that changing class B bias to class AB eliminates crossover distortion. You will also determine the efficiency of your class B amplifier, Simulated fault measurements will be made in Section II of the experiment. ‘You will faulta portion ofthe civeuit and make measurements ose the effets of the fault REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Sections 6.4 and 6.5 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: Y Observe crossover distortion Y Demonstrate the AC and DC operating characteristics ofthe class B ‘complementary symmetry amplifier Y Demonstrate class B amplifier faults EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Diode [2], IN914 or equivalent Oscilloscope NPN transistor, 2N3904 Digital multimeter PNP transistor, 2N3906 Function generator Resistors: 220 0, 10 [2], 18k [2] Circuit protoboard Potentiometer: 1-kQ ten-turn trimpot Capacitors: 1 uF [2], 100 wF 98 EXPERIMENT 23SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Crossover Distortion 1, Construct the circuit in Figure 23.1. 2. Adjust the potentiometer (Ra) for a total resistance of 50.Q or less between the bases of Q: and Qa. 3. Connect a milliamp meter to measure the collector cur- rent of Qu 4, Connect the DC power supply to your circuit and set it for 12 V. m0 CAUTION % = Step 5 below must be performed carefully to avoid ex- ceeding the current limit of Qi and Q2. Figure 23.1 5. Slowly adjust the potentiometer (Re) while observing the milliammeter. Adjust Ra to obtain a current value of 0.25 mA. The exact value is not critical and can be in the range of 0.1 to 0.25 mA. Following the adjustment of Re, record your eur- rent meter reading. Tceg=____ (0.1 0.0.25 ma) 6. Tum the DC power supply off and disconnect the cur- rent meter. 7. Reapply 12 VDC. Use your digital voltmeter; measure and record the Verg of each transistor. Qi VeEq= _ ® Veeg: 8. Connect the function generator to your circuit and. set the generator to provide a 1-kHz sine wave at 2Vpe. Graph 23.4 9. Using the oscilloscope, observe the signal across the load resistor. The sig- nal you observe should have crossover distortion. 10. Draw the signal in Graph 23.1 ‘The following procedure step allows you to provide Class AB biasing of your voltage divider biased circuit and observe the elimination of crossover distortion, CLASS B PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS 99Graph 23.4 Crossover distortion is | caused by need for the input || signal to increase to the point where the Class B bi- ased transistor will turn on and start conduction, In- creasing the bias to a point where the transistor is barely in conduction (Class AB) al- lows the transistor to follow the input signal without the delay that appears as cross- ‘over distortion. This is not easily accomplished with voltage divider biased tran- | sistors because of the diffi- | culty in selecting resistor | 4 sizes and the danger of ther- ‘mal runaway 1. Repeat Procedure steps 3 through 10, except in step 5 ad- just the collector current to 5 mA, and plot yout signal in Graph 23.2. Do the adjustment carefully; follow the pro- cedure exactly. You will be increasing the transistor for- ward bias, and too big an increase can put the transistor into full conduction with no limit on the collector current. This completes the first past of the experiment, Disconnect all power and disassemble the circuit. ‘The Diode Biased Ampfifier ‘Connect the circuit in Figure 23.2. Calculate and measure the DC level at the emitter junction of Qi and Qo (point A). Record your data in Table 23.1. Calculate the remaining parameters shown in Table 23.1 and enter the re- sults in the Calculated column. | Reminder: Icc is equal to the sum of the current mirror bias network (Ip) plus | the amplifier transistor collector current (Ice): Ice = Ip + Iczg Since your circuit may not be operating at maximum power fo the load, ‘use an estimated load voltage value of 9 Vp to calculate load power. When your calculations are complete, make the [ec measurement before ‘connecting the function generator to your circuit. Connect the function generator to your circuit and set the generator to pro- vide a 1-KFiz signal at 2 Vp-p. av cs Calculated | Measured -— a i Voea tHE al QaVeea ® +—| Iceq ec 100 HF |p PL | ee 200 tcc THF Poc tL - Eff Figure 23.2 Table 23.1 100 EXPERIMENT 236. Connect the oscilloscope to measure the output voltage across the load. While observing the scope display, adjust the function generator output amplitude to obtain the maximum undistorted (no clipping) load voltage. 7. Measure the output voltage actoss the load and sketch the oad signal waveform in Graph 23.3, 8. Tum off the generator and power supply. Complete the power calculations for the output load power, the circuit DC power, and the amplifier efficiency from your meas- ured values. Enter the results in Table 23.1 Graph 23.2 ‘You may leave the circuit connected if you are proceeding to the troubleshooting section. SECTION [1 TROUBLESHOOTING Fault 1 -D, shorted Place a jumper wire across Dj. Measure the DC fevels and signals at the base of Qi and Q2 , and the output junction before the coupling capacitor. ‘Are the DC levels normal? Fault 2 - Injected fault Have your instructor or lab partner inject a problem into the circuit. Try covering the fault with a piece of tape to hide the fault, and make your conclusions based on your measurements only. DISCUSSION Section I 1. Explain the term push-pull. How does this term describe the class B amplifier? 2. Describe crossover distortion. What does it look like and how can it be eliminated? 3. Considering the measured efficiency of your amplifier versus the theoretical maximum value, what things would you suggest to increase ‘your amplifier efficiency? Section II 1. Deseribe the procedure you used to troubleshoot the fault that your instructor or partner injected into the circuit, CLASS 8 PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIERS 101102 EXPERIMENT 23 2, If the base to emitter junction of Qu opened, what signal would you ‘expect to observe at the output? Quick Check 1 ‘The maximum efficiency of a class B amplifier is approximately. (a) 50% (b) 63.3% ©25% (@) 78.5% A class B amplifier is normally biased above cutoff to eliminate crossover distortion. True False ‘The class B amplifier consists of two transistors each conducting for 270 degrees of the input signal. True False Provided the transistors are biased equally, the DC level at the collector emitter junction of a class B amplifier i (@) half the value of Voc (b) 10% of Vee (©) 0.7V above ground (@) 10% below Vc ‘An abnommal voltage reading at the emitter junctions (point A) indicates (a) an open biasing resistor (b) an open coupling capacitor (c)a shorted or saturated transistor _(d) an excessive load24 DARLINGTON AMPLIFIERS INTRODUCTION ‘The Darlington amplifier is a common transistor network. In the common col- lector configuration it has characteristics of a very high current gain, a voltage gain of 1, a high input impedance, and a low output impedance. Therefore, the Darlington amplifier is often used to isolate a high input source from a low input load, In this experiment you will construct two darlington pair amplifiers: a com- ‘mon emitter and a common collector amplifier. You will also calculate DC and AC levels, inject an AC signal, and measure the current gain. REFERENCE Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Section 6.5 OBJECTIVES In this experiment you will: Y Measure the current gain of a darlington pair Demonstrate the characteristics ofthe darlington pair ~ Leam the difference between the common collector and the common emitter darlington pair EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS DC power supply Digital multimeter Oscilloscope Function generator Circuit protoboard ‘NPN transistor [2], 2N3904 or equivalent Resistors: 680 ©, 820.0, 3.30, 150k0, 300KQ, 500k, I MO [2] Capacitors: | uF [3], 470 uF DARLINGTON AMPUFIERS 103SECTION 1 FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT Common Collector Amplifier Build the circuit of Figure 24.1. Connect the +15 VDC power. Do not connect.the AC function generator at this time. Measure and record in Table 24.1 the base voltage of Q1 and Qs, and the emitter voltage and current of Qo Connect the AC function generator and set it to supply a 1-Vppsignal at | kHz, Measure and record in Table 24.1 the peak-to-peak ‘values of the input and output signal. From these measurements calculate the amplifier voltage gain and record the value in Table 24.1. Figure 24.1 4. Because the current values will be derived from voltage measurements, it is necessary to know the actual values of the circuit resistances. Measure In these procedure steps you and record the values of resistors Ra, Ri, Rz, and Re. will be measuring the cur- rent gain (Ai) of your ampli- Ra= Ri fier. Because the expected nas gain is lange, typically in the R= Re= range of 1000 to 20,000, a direct measurement of the | 5. | Connect the input circuit to your amplifier as shown in Figure 24.2a. Set input current (lin) is not pos- the generator to provide an exact | Vp.» at $00 Hz using your digital mul- sible. Therefore, some cal- timeter. culations are required to determine the value of lin | 6. | Measure and record the AC voltage drops across Ra (Vi) and across Your accuracy in this meas- divider resistor Ra (V2). ‘urement is limited, but will serve to give you a fair Vi V2= measure of current gain and illustrate the high input im- sdance of the Darli impli, een Tommon Collector | Common Emitter (Figure 24.1) (Figure 24.3) Figure 24.2a shows the in- | ut portion of the amplifier Vet and the source that will be Vea used to make the measure~ ment, Vea Figure 24.2b shows the lez equivalent AC impedances Ve ofthe input circuit. Vout Figure 24.2c shows the cur By rents and two voltage meas- ‘urements to be made. ery 104 EXPERIMENT 2410. u. 12. ‘This completes your measurements of the common col- lector amplifier. Turn off the power and disconnect your cireuit L This completes the measurements of your Darlington amplifiers. Turn off the circuit power and disconnect your circuit. Calculate the total input current (Ir) and the divider current (Ip) using the formulas of Figure 24.2c. r=. Ib. Ra Calculate the amplifier current (I,) from formula ¢ of Figure 24.2c. mo l= ‘The approximate input impedance of your amplifier = can be calculated from formula d of Figure 24.2c. Measure the output AC signal across Re. Vou = Calculate low using formula ¢ of Figure 24.2c. Tout Calculate Aj from the data of steps 8 and 11. Ai Common Emitter Amplifier Build the circuit of Figure 24.3. Apply 12 VDC power. Do not connect the function generator at this time. Measure and record in Table 24.1 the DC voltages at the bases of Q: and Qs, and the emitter and collector voltages of Qo. Connect the function generator, set to apply an input signal of 20 mVp-p at 1 kHz, Measure and record in Table 24.1 the AC signal voltages at the input and output of the amplifier. Calculate from these measurements the am- plifier voltage gain and record it in Table 24.1 a DARLINGTON AMPLIFIERS 105,