Gems

VOLUME XXVI
SUMMER 1990
The quarterly journal of the Gemological Institute of America
SUMMER '1990
Volume 26 No. 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FEATURE
ARTICLES
115
The Identification of Blue Diffusion-Treated Sapphires

Robert E. Kane, Robert C. Kammerling, John I. Koivula,
fames E. Shigley, and E m m a n u e l Fritsch
Jadeite of Guatemala: A Contemporary View

David Hargelt
NOTES
AND NEW
TECHNIQUES
. ,I
REGULAR
FEATURES
142
Well-Formed Tsavorite Gem Crystals from Tanzania

Robert E. Kane, A n t h o n y R. I<attip/, and Horst k r u p p
149
Diamond Grit-Impregnated Tweezers: A Potentially

Destructive Gemological Tool
John I. IZoivula, Edward Boehm, and Robert C. Kammerling
153
Gem Trade Lab Notes
159
Gem News
Book Reviews
Gemological Abstracts
ABOUT THE COVER: Blue sapphires, such as those in this sapphire and diamond necklace
and earrings, have been one of the most sought-after colored stones for centuries. Many efforts
have been n ~ a d eto produce this fine color, most frequently by heating colorless or light-colored
corundum. Diffusion treatment is a newer form of enhancement in which coloring agents are
used to create color at and just below the surface of a stone. In this issue, a team of GIA
specialists investigate blue diffusiorl-treated sapphires and describe the treatment techniques
used, identification o f the enhancement, and the durability of the treated stones.
The sapphire and diamond necklace (total weight of sapphires is 109 ct) and earrings (total
weight of sapphires is 18 ct) are courtesy of Harry Winston, Inc.
Photo 0 Harold el Erica Van PeltPhotographers Los Angeles, CA.
Typesetting for Gems & Gemology is by Scientific Cornposition, Los Angeles, C A Color
separations are by Effective Graphics, Compton, CA. Priming is by Waverly Press, Easton, IUD.
GI 1990 Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved
ISSN 0016-626X
EDITORIAL
STAFF
Editor-in-Chief
Richard T. Liddicoat
Associate Editors
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fohn Sinkankas
Editor
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Telephone: (800) 421 -7250 x25 1
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C. W. Fryer
Editor, Geiiiological A b s t r a c t s
Dona M. D i r l a n ~
Editors, B o o k Reviews
Elise B. M i s i o r o w s k i
Loretta B. Loeb
T e c h n i c a l Editor
Carol M. Stockton
Subscript i o n s
G a i l Young
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Fax: (213) 828-0247
A s s i s t a n t Editor
N a n c y I<. H a y s
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Editors, G e m N e w s
J o h n 1. Koivula
Robert C. K a m m e r l i n g
PRODUCTION
STAFF
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Production Artist
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Word Processor
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EDITORIAL
REVIEW B O A R D
Robert Crowningshield
Robert C . K a m m e r l i n g
Siillie M o r t o n
New York, hlY
S a m Monica, C A
Son lose, C A
Alan T Collins
A n t h o n y R . Karnpf
Kurt Nassau
London, United Kingdom
Los Angeles, C A
PO. Lebanon,
D e n n i s Foltz
Robert E. K a n e
Santa Monica, C A
Santa Monica, C A
E m m a n u e l Fritsch
J o h n I. Koivula
George Rossman
Santa Monica, CA
Santa Monica, C A
Pasadena, C A
C. W. Fryer
H e n r y 0. A. M e y e r
Karl S c h m e t z e r
Santa Monica, C A
C. S. H u r l b u t , Jr.
West Lafayette, IN
Petershausen, W Germany
Cambridge, MA
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THE IDENTIFICATION OF BLUE

DIFFUSION-TREATED SAPPHIRES
By Robert E. IZane, Robert C. IZammerling, John I. Koivula,
lames E. Shigley, and Emmanuel Fritsch
Blue diffusion-treated sapphires are becoming more prevalent than ever before.
The diffusion technique, which involves
the addition of color-causing chemicnls
during heat trentment, results in a thin
layer of color at the surface of colorless or
light-colored sapphire. The color was
found to be stable to routine cleaning procedures; however, it may be partially or
completely-removed if the stone is repolished pf, recut. Recently, significant
quantities o f so-called "deep" diffusiontreated sapphires have entered the market.
This article documents the properties of
these and other blue diffusion-treated sapphires, and presents means o f identifying
this method using simple gemological tests.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mr. Kane is supervisor of identification at the GIA
Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc. Santa Monica. Mr. Kammerling is director of technical development, Mr.
Koivula is chief gemologisl, Dr. Shigley is director
of research, and Dr. Fritsch is research scientist
at the Gemological Institute of America, Santa
Monica, California.
Acknowledgments: The authors are graleful to the
following for providing information, gem materials,
and research assistance: Karla and Bob Brom,
The Rainbow Collection; Jeffery Bergman, Gem
Source; Robert K. Stevenson, Long Gems Ltd.;
Edward Boehm, formerly 01 Overland Gems, now
01 the Gubelin Gemmolog~calLaboratory; Barry
Hodgin. Dino DeGhionno, Lorri Dee Rascoe, J.
Michael Allbr~tton,Terry Payne, Loretta Loeb, Sam
Muhlmeisler, Mike Moon, and Maha Smith, all of
GIA; and Shane McClure and Karin Hurwit, of the
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory. John Armstrong and
Paul Carpenter, of the California Institute of Technology, provided the electron microprobe analyses.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 115-133
0 1990 Gemological Institute of Anierica
Diffusion-Treated Sapphires
he heat treatment of pale, colorless, or milky white

"geuda" sapphires to produce attractive blue stones
has been practiced for a number of decades. These stones
have become a staple in today's international gem markets.
A different but related color-enhancement technique that
emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s is now also
becoming prevalent in the trade: diffusion treatment (see
figure 1).This process involves the diffusion at very high
temperatures (1700 and higher) of color-causing transition elen~entssuch as iron, titanium, chromium, or nickel
(depending on the color desired) into a region that extends
just below the surface of the otherwise colorless or very
light colored corundum (Carr and Nisevich, 1975). The
result is a thin color layer at and just below the surface of
the gemstone (see figure 2). This layer may be partially or
completely removed if the stone is repolished or recut. It is
commonly used on corundum that does not respond to
standard heat treatment. Unlike some treatment methods,
the diffusion treatment of sapphires does not have any
parallel in nature. As Nassau (1981)stated, "the results of
diffusion treatment . . . remind one more of Lechleitner
synthetic emerald overgrowth on a natural beryl than of
heated aquamarine."
Since 1979, numerous brief reports of diffusion-treated
corundum have been published (Crowningshield, 1979a
and b, 1980; Brauner, 1981; Crowningshield and Nassau,
1981, 1982; Fryer et al., 1981, 1982a and b; Graziani et al.,
1981; Leone and Cumo, 1981; Mat, 1981; Nassau, 1981,
1982; Herzberg, 198 1; Scarratt, 1981, 1983; Hinni, 1982;
Read, 1982; "New CIBJO guidelines given to sapphire
description," 1983; Hughes, 1987; Ohguchi, 1983a and b;
Kammerling et al., 1990a; Koivula and Kammerling, 1990).
Although relatively little corundum treated in this
manner was seen in the mid- to late 1980s, it appears to
have become quite prevalent in the international gem
markets in recent months. In late 1989, several blue
diffusion-treated sapphires (and samples of starting mate-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
115
Figure 1. These blue

sapphires (0.67-2.85
ct) have all been diffusion treated, reportedly
by a process that
produces an unusually
deep layer of color
at and just under the
surface of the stone.
Courtesy of Gem Source;
photo by Shane F.
McClure.
rial) were donated to GIA by Karla and Bob Brom,

of The Rainbow Collection, Honolulu, Hawaii
(figure 3).They report (pers.comm., 1990)that they
have received 500 ct of faceted and cabochon-cut
material from a scientist in Bangkok, Thailand,
who purports to use a complex treatment process
involving eight to 10 separate heating periods of 40
hours each.
More recently, at the 1990 Tucson Show, significant quantities of faceted blue diffusion-treated
sapphires were offered for sale by Gem Source, of
Las Vegas, Nevada, and Bangkok, Thailand (again,
see figure 1). According to a promotional flier
provided by the vendor, these blue sapphires had
been subjected to "new techniques resulting in
much deeper penetration of the metal ions. The
penetration is so deep that many stones treated
with this method are entirely recut, with a weight
116
loss of over lo%, yet they retain a fine color."

According to a report in Jewellery News Asia
("New colour diffusion for sapphires," 1990))the
vendor claims that about 25,000 ct of this material
have been treated and repolished, with 12,500 ct
currently in the world market. Trade sources and
our own observations at Tucson indicate that a
number of vendors are now selling diffusiontreated blue sapphires.
Another point of interest not previously mentioned in the literature is the experimentation in
Bangkok, Thailand, with diffusion treatment that
involves not only iron and titanium, but also other
color-causing impurities such as cobalt. We had an
opportunity to examine a number of these stones
as well.
To better understand the different types of
diffusion-treated stones on the market, the pro-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
persons involved in the heat treatment of corundum in Thailand. Five of the heat treaters
returned the treated sapphires with very little or
no apparent improvement in color. The sixth
person, however, presented the Bangkok dealer
with the intensely colored blue sapphire rough
shown on either side of the untreated material in
figure 4. Elated over the apparently successful heat
treatment, the Bangkok dealer began organizing
the purchase of large quantities of Montana sapphire rough. When he cut a portion of the
treated rough, however, he discovered that the
blue color was confined to a very thin area near the
surface (R. K. Stevenson, pers. comm., 1984). In
June of 1990, Bob Crowningshield of the East Coast
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory reported seeing another lot of diffusion-treated Montana sapphire
rough that was being marketed as heat-treated
material.
Figure 4. In the early 1980s, a gem dealer

i n Bangkok supplied six different heat-treating
operations w i t h light-colored Montana sapphire
rough (as seen i n the center o f this photo).
Five lots of the heat-treated sapphires were
returned w i t h little or n o improvement i n
color. The sixth operation, however, returned
intensely colored blue sapphires to the dealer
(as seen here. on either side of the original
light-colored rough). Subsequent cutting revealed that the blue color was confined t o
a thin superficial layer: The sapphires had
been diffusion treated. T h e largest piece
weighs 0.75 ct. Photo b y Shane F. McClure.
Carbide). Carr and Nisevich later described this

treatment procedure as a separate process (1976
and 1977). When the Linde division of Union
Carbide ceased production of synthetic star corundum, all four of these patents were assigned to
Astrid Corp. of Hong Kong, which had acquired
Linde's stock of synthetic star rubies and star
sapphires (Nassau, 1981).Astrid Corp., a member
of the Golay Buchel group, produced diffusiontreated sapphires in Bangkok until the early 1980s
(D. Biddle, pers. comm., 1990).
However, it appears that diffusion treatment is
being practiced by other firms. In late 1984, a
Bangkok gem dealer reported to one of the authors
(R. Kane) that he had given very light colored
sapphire rough from Montana to six different
118
Disclosure Practices. Although there is no worldwide agreement concerning disclosure practices

for the heat treatment of blue sapphire, there is
general consensus in the trade that disclosure of
diffusion-treated corundum is essential because
the added color is confined to a surface layer.
Consequently, while the terminology may vary,
corundum treated in this manner is nearly always
described as synthetically or artificially colored.
For example, the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory
issues the following conclusion on identification
reports:
DIFFUSION-TREATED NATURAL SAPPHIRE
Note: The color of this stone is confined to a
shallow surface layer that has been produced by
diffusing chemicals into the surface by heat
treatment.
THE DIFFUSION MECHANISM
The color in blue sapphire is due to Fez+-0-Ti4+
charge transfer, influenced by Fez+ 3Fe3 charge
transfer and Fe3+ absorptions (Smith and Strens,
1976; Schmetzer, 1987). Diffusion treatment first
brings the necessary iron and titanium coloring
agents into contact with the stone's surface. The
stone is then heated, sometimes to just below its
melting point, causing the corundum lattice to
expand and allowing the thermally energized transition metal ions to migrate into a layer at the
surface, resulting in a near-surface concentration
of color.
+
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Generally spealzing, tlie higher the temperature

n~aintainedand the longer the time used for the
heating step, the greater the depth of color penetration will be. In this regard, the possible difference
between so-called "deep" diffusion treatment and
earlier diffusion-treated stones may be in a higher
temperature being reached and/or maintained. It
may also be in the use of more than one heating
stage in the treatment procedure. J. Bergman reports (pers. comm., 1990) that the Gem Source
stones undergo multiple heatings; that is, after the
stones are cooled, they are usually reheated several
times. As mentioned above, a similar process was
claimed by the Bangkok supplier of the Rainbow
Collection stones. Bergman also reports that their
process can require treating over the course of two
months for some stones.
The Diffusion Treatment Process. Classically, colorless or 1-ight-coloredfashioned corundum is first
embedded in a powder that consists of a major
amount of aluniinum oxide, a minor amount of
titanium oxide, and a lesser amount of iron oxide,
which hasqbeen placed in an alumina crucible
(figure 5.).;The crucible is then subjected to extended heating in a furnace. Carr and Nisevich
(1975) reported that the heating time can vary
from two to 200 hours. The elevated temperature
will usually range from about 1600 to about
1850C with 170OoC to 1800 preferred. At
temperatures below- 1600Cthe process becomes
uneconomically slow; at excessively high temperatures, the surface of the sapphire may be
damaged (Carrand Nisevich, 19751. In practice, the
surface of the corundum usually does become
"poclzmarlzed" and show some melting (figures 6
and 7), which indicates that the higher temperatures have been used. The light repolishing required may result in the complete removal of tlie
diffused color from the girdle and/or some facets.
Figure 8 illustrates the appearance of sapphires at
various stages in diffusion treatment; again, see
figure 2 for an illustration of the color penetration.
J. Bergman reports a recovery rate of only 60% for
the cliffusion-treatment process Gem Source uses,
because many of the stones are severely damaged
by tlie high temperatures used ("New colour diffusion for sapphires," 1990).
The thickness of the treated zone (before repolishing) would logically depend on the length
and number of heatings and the temperature
attained, as mentioned above. To determine the
Figure 5 . To produoe moderate to deep blue

coloration by diff~isiontreatment, the colorless
or light-colored corundum ( B ) is placed i n
a crucible (A) while its entire surface is in
contact with a powder ( C ) comprising a
major amount of al11rnin11n1oxide and minor
amounts of titanium and iron oxides. The
crucible is then exposed t o extended heating
at very high temperatures ( 1 700 to near
the melting point o f corundum, 205OT).
Adaptedfrom U.S. Patent 3,897,529.
thickness of the diffusion color layer after repolishing, we sectioned and polished three blue diffusiontreated sapphires representing both early (Astrid
Corp.) and more recent (Rainbow Collection and
Gem Source) production (figure 9, top).
The polished sections revealed that most of the
treated zones consisted of two different levels of
color (figure 9, bottom), both of which we measured at the table edge on all stones. The blue
diffusion layer of the Astrid Corp. material measured 0.20 m m in total depth; the top portion of
this was a darker 0.07-mni primary layer. The blue
diffusion layer of the Rainbow Collection stone
measured approximately 0.15 m m in total depth,
of which 0.03 m m was a darker primary layer. The
blue diffusion layer of the Gem Source stone
measured a total depth of 0.42 mm; the darker
primary surface layer in this stone was 0.12 mm. In
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
119
Figure 6. Partially reflected light reveals

the rough, sintered surface on this unrepolished
3.37-ct diffusion-treated sapphire. Courtesy
o f G e m Source; photo b y Shane E McClure.
this instance, the color layer in the Gem Source

sample was twice as deep as in one comparison
stone and almost three times as deep as in the
other.
For additional comparison, we sectioned and
measured a Gem Source diffusion-treated sapphire
Figure 8. These three stones (1.10-3.37 ct)
represent the various stages involved i n producing diffusion-treated blue sapphires: Left,
the starting material is a faceted colorless
for light-colored) sapphire; center, the use of
chemicals and extreme heat produces a dark
blue stone with rough, corroded, and "pockmarked" surfaces; right, repolishing produces
a finished blue diffusion-treated sapphire.
Courtesy of G e m Source; photo b y
Shane E McClure.
120
Figure 7. "Light" repolishing of a diffusion

treated stone often produces a "double girdle"
and m a y leave a melted or sintered surface,
which is evidence of the very high temperatures
used. Photomicrograph b y Robert E. Kane;
darkfield illumination, magnified 25 x .
that had not been repolished. This section showed

a dark blue layer that measured approximately
0.10 m m at the table edge. In contrast to the
finished Gem Source section (figure9))the "rough"
piece did not show an obvious secondary layer. J.
Bergman (pers. comm., 1990) reported that this
sample had not completed the multiple-heatings
procedure because of fracturing early in the process. The fact that the limited heating produced
only a single layer suggests that the multiple layers
are produced by multiple stages of the diffusion
process, as was reported (see above] for both the
Gem Source and Rainbow Collection stones.
It is important to note that the measurements
provided here can vary significantly because of
several different factors: (1) temperature and
length of heating, as well as number of heatings; (2)
extent of repolishing; (3)preparation of the sample
for measuring (if the large "face" on the polished
section is not perpendicular to the table, the true
thickness of the treated zone will be exaggerated);
and (4)variation in measurements from one side of
a particular section to the other,
Although any of several colors can be induced by
this process (Carr and Nisevich, 1975; see table 11,
blue diffusion-treated sapphires are the most prevalent on the market at the present time. It is
interesting to note, however, that the first diffusion-treated sapphire seen in the GIA Gem Trade
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 9, To determine
the thickness of the diffusion color layer after repolishing, three representative samples were selected
(top): left, 2.24 ct, from
the Astrid Corp.; center,
2.22 ct, from the Rainbow
Collection; and, right, 1.45
ct, from Gem Source. All
show a dark outlining of
blue around the girdle
that is common in diffusion-treated stones. The
three samples were sawed
down the center and polished, producing sections
about 1.3 m m thick. As
seen here (bottom), i m mersed in methylene iodide over diffused transmitted light, the color
layer ranged from 0.15 to
0.42 m m thick. Note the
two layers of color in the
stones. In this limited
sample, the color layers
are thicker in the "deep"
diffusion-treated stone on
the far right. Photos by
Shane F. McChire.
Laboratory was red-orange (Crowningshield,

19791.
IDENTIFICATION OF BLUE
DIFFUSION-TREATED SAPPHIRES
Materials and Methods. To establish identifying
features of blue diffusion-treated sapphires, we
examined 40 stones, ranging from 0.63 to 5.46 ct:
nine faceted samples obtained from Astrid Corp. in
1981; 11 (five faceted and three cabochon-cut
diffusion-treated stones, plus three rough heattreated stones that were allegedly the starting
material for the diffusion-treated stones) obtained
from the Rainbow Collection in late 1989; 14 (one
faceted untreated colorless sapphire plus two faceted [not repolished] and 11 faceted [repolished]
diffusion-treated stones) obtained from Gem
Source in February 1990; and six "rough" preforms that had been diffusion treated in Thailand
using various oxides including iron, titanium, and

cobalt. We also referred to numerous stones examined in the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory over the
past 10 years to draw our conclusions.
The study material was subjected to standard
gemological testing procedures (refractive index,
specific gravity, pleochroism, absorption spectra as
viewed through both prism and diffraction-grating
spectroscopes, reaction to ultraviolet radiation,
microscopy using various types of illumination,
and immersion). Specific samples were also subjected to high-resolution spectrometry analysis of
the ultraviolet-visible and near-infrared portions of
the spectrum; microprobe analysis; and energydispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry
(EDXRF)analysis. The results for the Astrid Corp.,
Rainbow Collection, and Gem Source stones -all
of which were diffusion treated with iron and
titanium-are presented below. The results for the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
121
TABLE 1. Examples of diffusion-treated corundum experiments cited in United States Patent 3,897,529, July 29,
1975, titled "Altering the Appearance of Corundum Crystals,"by R , R, Carr and S. D. Nisevich of the Union Carbide
Corporation.
Starting color
of corundum
Powdered
addition
agents
(in wt.%)
Temperature
and length
of heating
Heating
environment
Resulting
appearance
and color
Reddish purple
sapphire and ruby
with low color
saturation or
nonuniform color
6% chromium oxide,
24% titanium oxide,
and 70% alumina
1 75OoC for 96 hours
Oxidizing
Uniform "ruby red"
Yellow sapphire
with nonuniform
color or too high
or too low a color
saturation
Yellow sapphire
with nonuniform
color or too low a
color saturation
3%-6% chromium
oxide, 24% titanium
oxide, and the
remainder alumina
175OoC for 48 hours
Oxidizing
Uniform "salmon
pink"
2.5% nickel oxide,

3.5% chromium
oxide, 15% titanium
oxide, and the
remainder alumina
1750 for 96 hours
Oxidizing
Uniform light graygreen
Pink sapphire with

nonuniform color,
black sapphire
with nonuniform
color, and white
sapphire with
nonuniform color
Milky white
sapphire with
nonuniform color
or undesirable
color such as
grayish tinge
Pale blue
sapphire with
nonuniform color
Deep blue
sapphire with
nonuniform color
22% titanium oxide

and the remainder
alumina (no coloring
agent)
1 750 for 96 hours
Oxidizing
Uniform color (pink,

black, or white,
respectively)
6% chromium oxide,
22% titanium oxide,
and the remainder
alumina
1 750 for 96 hours
Oxidizing
Uniform pink
10%-15% titanium
oxide and the
remainder alumina
0.1 %-0.5% ferric
oxide, 12%-18%
titanium oxide, and
the remainder
alumina
1750 for 96 hours
Reducing
Uniform pale blue
1750 for 3 0 hours
Reducing
Uniform deep blue
stones into which cobalt was incorporated, which

are not commonly seen commercially, are presented in the accompanying box.
Most of the gemological properties of the iron
and titanium-doped blue diffusion-treated sapphires studied overlap those of unheated and heattreated blue natural sapphires. Visual examination
of immersed stones reveals easily detectable identifying characteristics of surface-diffused coloration.
Visual Appearance and Optical and Physical Properties. The refractive indices, birefringence, and
specific gravity of diffusion-treated stones do not
differ significantly from those of natural-color and
heat-treated stones. Furthermore, the pleochroism
122
is consistent with that of natural-color and heattreated blue sapphires of comparable depth of color
even though the color is concentrated in a shallow
surface layer. This indicates that the diffusion layer
is crystalline, not amorphous. In addition, the
fashioned diffusion-treated sapphires studied varied from blue to violetish blue in moderate to very
dark tone, which overlaps the colors seen in both
natural and heat-treated sapphires.
However, when we examined these diffusiontreated sapphires with the unaided eye in sunlight
or overhead artificial illumination, we observed in
many of them a "watery" appearance, that is, a
decrease in transparency that was not caused by
visible inclusions. This is probably a result of the
concentrated diffusion of color-causing impurities
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
EXPERIMENTAL!?) COBALT-DOPED
BLUE DIFFUSION-TREATED
SAPPHIRES FROM BANGKOK
In the course of this study, we also examined six blue
diffusion-treated sapphire "preforms" that were reported to contain varying amounts of cobalt. The
samples were obtained by one of the authors (R. Kane)
in Bangkok, where they reportedly were treated, in
1984.
The U.V-visible absorption spectrum of a cobaltdoped blue diffusion-treated sapphire is illustrated in
the accompanying figure for random orientation. The
color is mainly caused by three intense merging
absorption bands with apparent maxima at about
550, 590, and 620 nnl. Minor absorptions are present
at about 375, 388, 410, 450, and 479 nnl.
These bands correspond to those attributed to
cobalt in synthetic blue spinels by Anderson and
Payne (1937)and Webster (1983),and in natural blue
spinel by Shigley and Stockton (1984).Therefore, we
interpret this spectrum as being due to Co2+. Because
these absorption bands are not naturally occurring in
sapphire, when observed in c o r u n d u n ~they can be
considered diagnostic of cobalt diffusion treatment.
It is interesting to note that the diffusion process
introduces cobalt in the corundum lattice as Co2+,
although this element is incorporated as Co3+ in Codoped synthetic sapphires. Co2- has never been
reported in the spectrum of natural sapphire.
into the surface of the sapphire. Also, a dark

outline of blue could be seen around the girdle in a
number of stones (again, see figure 9, top).
Absorption Spectra. The absorption spectra (400
nm to 700 nm) of all the treated sapphires were
exan~inedthrough both a Beck prism spectroscope
mounted on a GIA GEM Instruments spectroscope
unit and a GIA GEM DISCAN diffraction-grating
spectroscope. Five of the Astrid stones and one of
the Gem Source stones exhibited a weak absorption band at 455 nm, while four of the Gem Source
stones, one of which was the colorless "starting
material" stone, exhibited a fluorescent line at 693
nm; none of the other stones examined showed any
lines or bands. All of these features are consistent
with those seen in natural-color or heated sapphires from various localities. Thus, spectra observed through a hand-held type of spectroscope
do not provide a means of identifying blue diffusion-treated sapphires.
WAVELENGTH (nrn)
In this U.V-visible absorption spectrum of a

cobalt-doped blue diffusion-treated sapphire,
the three merging bands between 500 and 700
n m are due to Cop .
+
The cobalt-doped diffusion-treated sapphires were

also exanlined through a Chelsea color filter while
illuminated by intense transmitted light. Through
the filter the stones appeared a moderate patchy to
intense unifornl red, the intensity and distribution of
the filter color correlating with the depth and distribution of blue color of the stones. The reaction is
consistent with that of cobalt-doped synthetic blue
spinel of similar color.
Ultraviolet Fluorescence. The reactions of the

sample stones to long- and short-wave U.V radiation were found to overlap those of natural-color
andlor heat-treated blue sapphires from various
localities. In this regard, it is interesting to note
that many heat-treated blue sapphires exhibit a
chalky whitish blue to green fluorescence when
exposed to short-wave U.V radiation, whereas
natural-color blue sapphires do not exhibit this
characteristic reaction (Crowningshield and Nassau, 1981). Despite the extreme heat used in the
process, some of the blue diffusion-treated sapphires did not fluoresce to short-wave U.V radiation. This was the case for all but one of the Astrid
Corp. stones and for one of the Rainbow Collection
samples. It is possible that the dominance of iron as
a coloring agent in these stones (see discussion of
chemistry below) quenches any fluorescence that
may otherwise have been induced by heat.
One of the Astrid stones, however, showed a
small, chalky patch of moderate yellowish green
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
123
cludes: stress fractures surrounding inclusions;

melted crystals; partially absorbed and dot-like
rutile "silk"; blotchy color banding or diffused
zoning; and poclzn~arlzedsurfaces (see, e.g., Kammerling et al., 1990b). These features are frequently seen in diffusion-treated sapphires, but
they provide proof only of high-temperature treatment. Of particular use in the identification of
diffusion treatment is the "bleeding" of color in
and around surface-reaching pits and fractures
(figure lo), which is a localized reaction to the
diffusion process.
Figure 10. Dark concentrations, or "bleeding,"
o f color are often seen i n and around surfacereaching breaks and cavities it1 blue diffusiontreated sapphires. Photomicrograph b y Robert E.
Kane; diffused illumination, magnified 30 x ,
fluorescence when exposed to short-wave U.V

radiation; eight of the Rainbow Collection stones
and 12 of the stones from Gem Source fluoresced a
moderate chalky yellowish green, and one of the
Rainbow Collection stones fluoresced a strong
bluish white, also to short-wave U.V
In addition, one of the Rainbow Collection
stones fluoresced a strong orange to long-wave U.V
and a weak orange to short-wave U.V; one of the
Gem Source diffusion-treated stones fluoresced a
weak pinkish orange to long-wave U.V and a
chalky yellowish green to short-wave U.V A strong
pinkish orange fluorescence to long-wave U.V and
very weak pinkish orange to short-wave U.V has
been noted in the past for some natural, untreated
Sri Lanlzan sapphires, both colorless and blue. The
combination of a pinkish orange reaction to longwave, and a chalky yellowish green reaction to
short-wave, U.V would be consistent with some
heat-treated Sri Lankan sapphires, although it
would not separate those that had been diffusion
treated.
In general, then, U.V fluorescence reaction does
not provide diagnostic information for the identification of diffusion treatment.
Magnification. While magnification alone is usually not sufficient to identify that a stone has been
diffusion treated, it will provide clues to the fact
that the stone has been heated in some fashion.
The evidence of treatment at high temperatures
that is seen in sapphires with magnification in-
124
Immersion. The most effective means of detecting

a diffusion-treated stone is its appearance when
immersed in methylene iodide and examined in
diffused transmitted light; this simple procedure
is described and illustrated in figure 11. When
examined in this fashion, all of the diffusiontreated stones studied (figure 12) showed one or
both of the following:
1. Greater relief, as indicated by a concentration

of color along facet junctions and around the
girdle (figure 13).
2. Localization and blotchiness of color caused
by a combination of uneven diffusion and light
repolishing (figure 14); the girdle and some
facets may have the diffused color completely
removed (figure 15).
Blue sapphires not treated in this manner will
show low relief in methylene iodide; the facet
junctions generally are not easily visible (see left
view in figure 16). Note, however, that abraded
facet junctions may have high relief when immersed. To illustrate this effect, we selected two
virtually identical flame-fusion synthetic blue
sapphires and held one as a control sample while
the other was polished for approximately 48 hours
in a vibratory tumbler with Linde A as an abrasive.
Figure 17 shows the two stones immersed in
methylene iodide; although the effect was exaggerated for the purpose of this research, the greater
relief of a stone with abraded facet functions (e.g.,
with an appearance similar to that of the stone on
the left in figure 17) could cause some confusion
for the gemologist.
The two stones in figure 18 are also potentially
misleading. The 5.40-ct Montana sapphire on the
left has an additional tiny flat facet at the junction
of most of the pavilion facets (where ordinarily
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
-l
~
~
Figure 11. The most

effective way t o determine i f a sapphire
has been diffusion
treated is t o place
the "unknown" in
an immersion cell
filled with a liquid
such as glycerine
or methylene iodide.
The immersion cell
is then positioned over
diffused illumination for example, the flwrescent light source that
is available on many microscopes - and the
sapphire is examined
with the unaided
eye (inset). Photos
by Shane F. McClure.
Figure 12. Immersed in

methylene iodide over transmitted diffused illumination,
this selection of diffusiontreated sapphires, from various
"manufacturers," reveals
the characteristic identifying
features. These include:
greater relief due to color
concentrations at facet junctions, blotchiness of the
diffused color layer, and
areas without color. Photo
by Shane l? McClure.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
125
Figure 13. Proof of diffusion treatment in

a faceted blue sapphire is provided b y concentrations of color along facet junctions and/
or the girdle. Photo b y Shane P. McClure.
there would be a sharp edge). This created a subtle

blue outlining of these facet junctions when the
stone was immersed and examined over diffused
illumination. The 1.77-ct Kashmir sapphire on the
right has abraded facet junctions. Neither of these
stones was diffusion treated. Many blue sapphires
also show strong growth and color zoning (figure
19), but their appearance is still significantly
different from that of diffusion-treated stones.
Detecting diffusion treatment in cabochons may
be considerably more difficult, as they lack the
many sharp junctions on which color concentrates
in their faceted counterparts. On the three cabochons the authors examined for this report, the
one diagnostic feature noted was a dark color
Figure 15. Heavy repolishing of a badly melted
or sintered diffusion-treated sapphire can
result i n the removal of the diffused color
from the girdle and some facets. Note that
immersion reveals this effect on all sides
of the girdle. Photomicrograph b y Robert E.
Kane; transmitted diffused illumination,
magnified 15 x .
126
Figure 14. In addition to high relief and colo.

concentrations at facet junctions, immersion
m a y also reveal a blotchiness of the diffused
color layer caused b y a combination of uneven
diffusion and light repolishing. Photo b y
Shane P. McClure.
outlining of the girdle edge (figure 20). Deep color

concentrations have also been observed in cracks
and cavities on these and other cabochon-cut
stones we have examined.
Because methylene iodide is somewhat toxic to
breathe (particularly for extended periods of time)
Figure 16. A natural blue sapphire (left) is

shown here next to a diffusion-treated sapphire
(right), both immersed i n methylene iodide
over diffused transmitted illumination. With
immersion, the natural sapphire on the left
has l o w relief and does not show any facet
junctions. In contrast, the diffusion-treated
stone has much greater relief, as exemplified
b y a blue outlining of facet junctions. Photo
b y Shane F. McClure.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 17. To illustrate how abraded facet

junctions on a non-diffusion-treated sapphire
could cause confusion -i.e., high reliefwe selected two virtually identical flamefusion synthetic blue sapphires. One was
held as a control sample (right) and the other
was tumble polished to intentionally abrade
the facet junctions. The tnmble-polished stone
(left) n o w shows high relief of facet junctions
with immersion. Photo by Shane F. McClure.
or if absorbed through the skin, we experimented

with different immersion media. We selected three
stones, one each from Astrid Corp., the Rainbow
Collection, and Gem Source (again, see figure 9).
We placed-the three stones table-down in an
immersion'cell over diffused (through white translucent plastic) transmitted illumination in: (A)air
(R.I. 1.001, (B) water (R.I. 1.33), (C)glycerine (R.I.
1.471, and (D) pure methylene iodide (R.I. 1.75;
Weast et al., 1988).Figure 21 shows the appearance
produced by each medium. In some cases, diffused
illumination in air is sufficient to identify a
Figure 18. O n occasion, natural untreated

sapphires m a y exhibit confusing features
when examined with immersion over diffused
illumination. The 5.40-ct Yogo Gulch, Montana,
sapphire (left; courtesy of Rogers Jewelers,
Great Falls, Montana) possessed a tiny flat
facet at the junction of most of the pavilion
facets. This created a subtle blue outlining
of these facet junctions. The 1.77-ct untreated
Kashmir sapphire (right) shows a higher
relief caused b y abraded facet junctions.
Photo by Shane P. McClure.
diffusion-treated sapphire; in others, immersion in

methylene iodide is necessary (thecloseness in R.I.
helps accentuate treatment features). We found
that glycerine, which is colorless and quite innocuous, provided an excellent immersion fluid for
routine testing. Although it is quite viscous, it
cleans off easily with a tissue and water. We also
experimented with several other immersion fluids
and found that satisfactory results were achieved
Figure 19. With imrnersion, non-diffusiontreated blue sapphires

can show a variety
of appearances, such
as color zoning and
inclusions. These stones
are still easily identifiable b y their lack
of features typical
of diffusion-treated
sapphires. Photo b y
Shane F. McClure.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
127
analyzed to investigate the compositions of the

interior and surface areas of each sample. These
analyses were performed by electron microprobe
(JEOL 733) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry (a TRACOR X-ray Spectrace 5000). Sample
R302 was left as a faceted stone, while the other
four samples were cut along a direction perpendicular to the table into flat sections with polished
parallel sides. This permitted microprobe analysis
of both the near-surface region affected by the
diffusion treatment process, as well as the unaffected interior portion of each sample.
The electron microprobe was used to obtain
quantitative analyses of each sample (table 2).The
faceted sapphire, R302, was analyzed at three
separate locations 011 the table. The other four
samples, in the form of polished sections, were
analyzed at several locations- one near the surface
of the table, and three or four further locations at
progressively greater depths into the stone. The
elements Ca, Cr, Co, Ni, Gal and Cu were found to
be below or near the detection limit of the instrument (approximately 0.01 wt.% oxide), and to
display no particular distribution patterns. For Fe
and Ti, however, a distinct pattern was noted with
both elements increasing in concentration (between two- and 10-fold) from the interior to the
surface (where diffusion occurred), as shown in
figure 22. The plot of findings in figure 22 also
Figure 20. Cabochon-cut blue diffusion

treated sapphires show a characteristic dark
blue outlining of the girdle. They m a y also
show "bleeding" (concentrations) of color in
surface-reaching breaks. If mounted i n a
bezel setting, particularly one that is closed
backed, cabochon-cut sapphires treated i n
this manner could, indeed, be difficult to identify. Photo b y Shane E McClure.
with many and, in particular, with oils such as

sesame oil.
Chemical and Spectral Data. Five representative
blue diffusion-treated sapphires were chemically
TABLE 2. Chemical analyses of five blue diffusion-treated sapphires,a

-
R302 (Gem Source)
Wt.%
oxide
A1203
CaO
TiO2
Cr203
FeO
coo
NiO
cuo
Total
R296 (Gem Source)
Analysis no.
Average
Depthb
99.37 98.69 98.96

bdl
bdl
bdl
0.22 0.24
0.23
bdl
0.01
bdl
0.81
0.87 0.82
bdl
0.01 0.02
bdl
0.05 bdl
0.04
0.07
bdl
-100.60 99.77
1
>200
170
120
R293 (Gem Source)
--
70
-20
>200
150
110
70
-20
99.01 100.07 99.73 99.62 99.37 98.64

99.44 98.99 99.23 98.59 98.50
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.01
bdl
0.23
0.03
0.14
0.15
0.20
0.19
0.03
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.23
bdl
bdl
0.03
bdl
bdl
0.01
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.01
0.25
0.10
0.19
0.83
0.42
0.09
0.06
0.41
0.99
0.49
0.18
0.01
bdl
bdl
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.02
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.01
0.01
bdl
bdl
0.07
bdl
0.03
0.02
0.02
bdl
bdl
0.04
0.04
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.05
0.02
0.01
----- ----100.25 100.10 100.09 100.12 99.37
99.64 99.17 99.60 99.19 99.73
"Electron microprobe analyses were performed on a JEOL 733 microprobe operating at a beam accelerating potential 01 15 kV a current
of 35 nA. and spot size of between 10 and 25 u.. Entries indicated by "bdl" mere below the detection limits of the instrument (less than
0.01 wl.% oxide). The data were corrected using the program CITZAF (Armstrong, 1988). Analyst: Paul Carpenter, California Institute of
Technology. Specimen R302 was analyzed at three distinct locations on the table of the faceted stone, these three analyses are shown
along with an average analysis. The other lour samples consisted of polished sections cut perpendicular to the table of the faceted
stone. Each was analyzed at various locations below the surface of the table in order to document changes in trace-element chemistry
with increasing distance into the sample. At each of these locations, one analysis was performed.
"Depth = Approximate depth below the surface of the table (in microns).
128
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 21. These photos illustrate the differences observed when blue diffusion-treated sapphires are
immersed in different media and viewed with the unaided eye. The stones are, from left to right: 2.24
ct from tbe.Astrid Corp., 2.22 ct from the Rainbow Collection, and 1.45 ct from Gem Source. The stones
are place&table down i n an immersion cell over diffused transmitted illumination i n (A) air (R.I. 1.00);
(B) water (R.I. 1.33); (C) glycerine (R.I. 1.47); and (D) pure inethylene iodide (R.I. 1.75). In some stones, the
identifying features m a y be visible in air or while immersed in water; in others, methylene iodide is
necessary. Glycerine was found to be excellent for routine testing. Note that even with different orientations, k e y features are evident. Photos b y Shane E McClure.
R294 (Rainbow Collection)

1
150
110
70
-20
400
200
-20
99.46
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.02
bdl
0.04
bdl
.
-
R295 (Astrid Corp.)
99.87 99.05
bdl
0.01
0.12 0.15
bdl
0.01
0.02 0.01
bdl
0.06
0.04 0.01
0.02 0.03
--
99.60 100.07 99.33
98.41 100.54 100.52

0.01
0.02
bdl
0.04
0.22
0.03
bdl
bdl
bdl
0.08
0.03
0.05
0.01
bdl
bdl
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.03
0.05
bdl
- .-
98.78 100.71 100.63
99.76
bdl
0.17
bdl
0.14
0.02
bdl
0.05
suggests that diffusion of iron and titanium into

these sapphires resulted in these elements being
distributed (at progressively lower concentrations)
to depths as great as approximately 200 microns
below the surface. This gives some idea of how
deep into the sapphires these coloring agents were
able to diffuse during treatment. It is interesting to
note, too, that among these five stones, which were
randomly selected from the full suite of stones
available for study, there did appear to be a greater
depth of diffusion in the three from Gem Source.
Because of the small size of this sample, however,
we cannot draw firm conclusions in this regard.
Chromium was occasionally detected in each
sample at levels that would have no significant
influence on color, but would allow resolution of a
fluorescent line at 693 n m through the hand-held
spectroscope.
Qualitative XRF analyses (more sensitive to low
concentrations than the microprobe) of both the
inner (near-colorless)and outer (diffusion-treated)
surfaces of the sawn, polished sections confirmed
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
129
0 .I .2 .3 A .S .6 .T
WT OXIDE
.8 .9 1.0
R296 (Own Source)
Figure 22. These four graphs illustrate the changes in iron (blue) and titanium (red) content noted
in the study samples with microprobe analysis o f areas at various depths below the surface of the table.
the presence in each sample of Al, Ca, and Ga,

along with the transition elements Fe, Ti, and Cr.
In addition, Cu was noted in samples R295, R294,
and R293, and Ni was noted in R293. The diffusion-treated layer was consistently richer in titanium and iron than the core.
The ultraviolet/visible absorption spectra of all
five samples were measured at room temperature
using a Pye Unicam 8800 spectrophotometer, at a
resolution of 0.5 nm. The spectra were run through
the center of the polished slabs, in order to document the absorption in the untreated part of the
sapphire (see figure 23, spectrum a), and then

through one of the other two pieces left by sectioning, to document absorption in the superficial blue
layer (see figure 23, spectrum b).
Spectrum b actually represents the addition of
the spectrum of the colorless portion of the crystal
to that of the blue layer. The major difference
between spectra a and b is two broad bands with
maxima around 560 and 700 nm, which have been
interpreted to be the result of Fe2 -0-Ti4 charge
transfer (Ferguson and Fielding, 1971).The sharper
bands at about 375, 390, and 450 n m are due to
Fe3 (Lehmannand Harder, 1970),and the broader
band at about 335 nm could be due to either
isolated Fe3 ions (Lehmann and Harder, 1970)or
exchange coupled pairs of the same ions (Ferguson
and Fielding, 1971). The spectra of the diffusiontreated sapphires we studied are identical to those
of natural blue sapphires from Mogolz, Burma
(Schmetzer, 1987) or Sri Lanka (Schmetzer and
Kiefert, 1990).This confirms the statement made
earlier that absorption spectra are not diagnostic
indicators of this kind of diffusion treatment.
+
Figure 23. These U.V-visible absorption

spectra were taken i n a central colorless
part (spectrum a), and i n the outer blue
region (spectrum b), of a diffusion-treated
blue sapphire i n the same random optic
orientation. The features at 335, 375, 390,
and 450 are attributed to Fe3^-,and the
broad bands at 560 and 700 n m are attributed
to Fez + -0-Ti4+ charge transfer.
DURABILITY A N D STABILITY
OF THE TREATMENT
One of the first questions most jewelers and
gemologists ask about a gemstone enhancement is
how well it holds up to routine wear, jewelry
cleaning, and repair procedures. Therefore, we
conducted a number of tests on three faceted
diffusion-treated sapphires in order to determine
the durability and stability of this treatment under
a wide range of conditions to which sapphires
might routinely be subjected. The stones used
were (1)a 1.23-ct mixed-cut pear shape from Gem
Source, (2) a 1.21-ct oval mixed cut from the
Rainbow Collection, and (3) a 0.75-ct oval mixed
cut from Astrid Corp. To test this material under
130
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
TABLE 3. Durability and stability of the treatment in diffusion-treated sapphires3

Test
Procedure
Result
Placed in ultrasonic cleaner containina a solution (10%) of

commercial jewelry cleaner (6RC) and water for 47 minutes on the
high setting at a maximum temperature of 68C
"Placed in stainless steel wire basket and suspended in solution
Placed in plastic cup half-filled with concentrated jewelry cleaner
^Hung from wire in cleaning solution
Ultrasonic
cleaning
b.c.deUsed two steam cleaners with pressure maintained between

35 and 80 psi, stones placed one-half to one inch from nozzle for
approximately 15 minutes
b.c.d,eStonesboiled in solution of dishwashing liquid and water for
25 minutes
Steam
cleaning
Boiling in
detergent
solution
Heat and
chemicals
from jewelry
reoair
^Se
in 14K gold cast head; one prong tip removed by sawing;
stone and mounting fire-coated with boric acidlmethyl alcohol
solution and prong retipped with 14K yellow gold ball and 14K
yellow gold hard solder (flow point approximately 750C and
green flux
Wemaining three prong tips sawed off and retipped, care taken to
minimize contact of flux with stone's surface
^One prong tip removed by sawing; stone and mounting firecoated with boric acidlmethyl alcohol solution and prong retipped
with 14K yellow gold ball and 14K yellow gold hard solder (flow
point approximately 750Cand green flux
^Prong tips built up with 18K hard white gold solder (flow point
approximately 768OC). care taken to minimize contact of solder
with stone's surface
=Set in 14K gold cast head; four prong tips removed by sawing;
stone and mounting fire-coated with boric acidlmethyl alcohol
solution and prongs retipped with 14K yellow-gold ball and 14K
yellow-gold hard solder (flow point approximately 750Cand
green flux, care taken to minimize'contact of flux with stone's
surface
No effect on treatment
Moderate surface etching in vicinity of

new prongh
Minor surface etching in vicinity of new

prongsh
Moderate surface etching in vicinity of
new prongh
.Moderate to severe etching, especially

on stone's tableh
Minor surface etching in vicinity of new
prongsh
Rhodium
electroplating
b.c.d.fStonesand mountings cleaned, then flash rhodium

electroplated for five minutes at 6 volts, then 10-15 seconds at
average of 3 volts: two-step plating procedure repeated for all
three stones, followed by second cleaning
No additional changes noted in stones'

surfaces
Low
temperature1
thermal shock
b.c.d.gStonesdropped into cup containing liquid nitrogen, cooled

to - 185OC
No additional changes noted in stones'

surfaces
'All tests performed by GIA Jewelry Manufacturing Arts stall members with exception of low temperaturelthermal shock
which was performed by the authors
" 1 23-ct pear-shaped mixed cut from Gem Source
c1 71-ct oval mixed cut obtained from the Rainbow Collection
"0 75-19 oval mixed cut purchased from the Astnd Corporation
e0 75-ct oval mixed cut (same as stone "d"above) mounted in used six-prong 14K while gold oval setting and attached
to a ring shank before this lest was performed
'All three stones in mountings when this test was performed
aAII three stones removed from mountings before this test was performed
hSurface etching may result in stone requiring repolishing, repolishing may partially or completely remove diffusion-induced color layer
This would be expected with any corundum-treated or untreated natural or synthetic-when so exposed to borax-containing chemicals
the greatest number of circumstances, the 0.75-ct

stone was mounted in a used six-prong 14K white
gold oval setting attached to a ring shank before
the durability testing began.
Table 3 outlines the tests used and the results
observed. Neither ultrasonic or steam cleaning
nor boiling in a detergent solution appeared to have
any effect on the treated stones, which were

examined with magnification both before and after
the cleaning procedure.
To test the response of the sample stones to
stress received during such jewelry repair procedures as the retipping of prongs, we also had the
other two test stones mounted but in 14K yellow
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
131
gold cast heads. One prong tip was removed by

sawing on all three of the stone-set mountings, and
the prongs were retipped following the procedures described in table 3. Eventually, all four
prongs were sawed off and retipped on the 1.23-ct
pear shape. As would be expected with any corundum, the use of borax-containing chemicals
(both firecoat and flux) contributed to moderate
surface etching of the diffusion-treated sapphires.
We did find, though, that the retipping of prongs
with 14K gold solder produced only minor etching
when care was talzen to minimize the contact of
the borax-containing flux with the surface of the
stone. However, when one of the prong tips was
built up with 18K gold, even though care was talzen
to avoid contact of the flux with the stone's
surface, the higher temperatures required by the
higher melting point of 18K (versus 14K) solder
resulted in moderate to severe etching, especially
on the surface of the table, as would happen with
any corundum. If etching is severe enough, the
stone might have to be repolished. Inasmuch as the
color of a diffusion-treated sapphire is confined to a
thin surface layer, such repolishing might lighten
or totally remove the diffused color.
The best way to avoid this potential problem is
to unmount the stone before retipping. Should the
decision be made to retip prongs with the stone in
place, however, a cotton swab dipped in alcohol
should be used to carefully remove the firecoat
from the stone before heat is applied [M. Allbritton, pers. comm., 1990). Although another option
might be to use a non-borax-containing soldering
flux, the only one we know to be available, a
fluoride-based flux, is more toxic than borax-based
fluxes and thus is not widely used (M. Allbritton,
pers. comm., 1990).
When the three mounted diffusion-treated sapphires were subjected to rhodium electroplating,
magnification revealed no additional changes in
the appearance of the stones' surfaces.
As a final step in durability testing, the three
treated sapphires were unmounted and then
checked for their reaction to low temperatures and
thermal shock by instantaneously lowering the
temperature of each to - 185OC by means of
immersion in liquid nitrogen. The stones were
then removed from the nitrogen bath and allowed
to return to room temperature. This procedure
tested not only the effects of extreme cold but, in
the rapid way the cooling was performed, it also
subjected the stones to extreme thermal shock.
132
Diffusion-TreatedSapphires
Again, though, there were no additional signs ot

damage.
Since the origin uf the blue color in diffusiontreated sapphire is identical to that in naturalcolor blue sapphire, the diffusion-induced color
can be considered to be as stable as that of natural
blue sapphire.
CONCLUSION
The fact that more blue diffusion-treated sapphires
have entered the gem market than ever before has
increased the need for awareness on the part of the
gemologist. With this procedure, color-causing
chemicals are diffused into the surface of a stone
by high-temperature heat treatment for extended
periods of time, as long as a week or more.
Apparently, by using higher temperatures, longer
periods of heating, and/or multiple heatings, a
deeper diffusion layer can be produced. This was
evident in the one polished Gem Source stone in
which we actually measured the diffusion layer
and in the three Gem Source stones that were
chemically analyzed. Even so, although the surface color layer produced by diffusion is stable to
routine cleaning procedures, the shallowness of
the layer makes it susceptible to partial or complete removal if the stone is subsequently repolished or recut.
Diffusion treatment can best be detected by
examination of the stone while it is immersed in a
liquid such as glycerine or methylene iodide over
diffused transmitted illumination. In most cases,
the unaided eye is more effective than magnification.
The 1975 Union Carbide patent listed numerous
examples of the colors that could be produced in
corundum with diffusion treatment, including red
and orange. We have been told by Karla Brom (pers.
comm., 1990) that diffusion-treated rubies and
'padparadscha" sapphires have already been produced in Bangkok on a limited experimental basis;
a red-orange diffusion-treated sapphire was examined by Bob Crowningshield at the GIA Gem Trade
Laboratory in 1979. Inasmuch as large quantities
of blue diffusion-treated sapphires-from a variety
of treaters-are now being sold in the gem market,
it is possible that the trade will also begin to see
other colors of diffusion-treated corundunl in the
not-too-distant future. If procedures similar to
those described above are used to produce these
other colors, it is likely that they, too, will be
readily identifiable.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
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Crowningshield R. i1979a) Developments and highlights at
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thermodiffusion treated corundun~s.Associazione Orafa
Valenzana, Valenzci, Italy (unpublished paper).
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sapphires. National Jeweler, October 16, pp. 43 and 65.
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Gcn~ology,Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 32-49.
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R.C. (1990) Gem news: Diffusiontreated corundum. Gems a ) Gemology, Vol. 26, No. 1, p.
100.
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New CIBJO-guidelines given to sapphire description (1983).
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New colour diffusion for sapphires (1990).Jewellery News Asia,
No. 70, p. 78.
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identification. Diamant, Vol. 26, No. 270, pp. 17-26.
Ohguchi H. (1983b)Improven~entof color of sapphire and its
identification. Diamant, Vol. 26, No. 271, pp. 13-20.
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No. 5, pp. 13-14.
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Schmetzer K. (1987) Zur Deutung tier Farbursache blauer
Saphire-eine Diskussion. Neues fahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Monatshefte, No. 8, pp. 337-343.
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Shigley J.E., Stockton C.M. (1984) "Cobalt-blue" gem spinels.
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Identification, 4th ed. Rev. by B. W Anderson, Butterworths, London.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
133
JADEITE OF GUATEMALA:
A CONTEMPORARY VIEW
By David Hargett
A l t h o u g h lost for l i t e r a l l y hundreds of

years after t h e Spanish conquest of t h e
Aztecs, m a n y deposits of jadeite h a v e
been f o u n d i n G u a t e m a l a d u r i n g t h e last
t w o decades. F o l l o w i n g t h e discovery of
the first significant o u t c r o p i n 1974, l i t e r a l l y tons of jadeite i n a w i d e v a r i e t y of
colors have been removed f r o m t h e area
a n d sent t o c u t t i n g shops for use i n t o u r i s t carvings, i n fine reproductions of
I n d i a n artifacts, a n d i n jewelry.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Hargett is manager of the Identil~cation
Department of the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory,
Inc., in New York City.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank
Jay and Mary Lou Ridinger 01 Jades S.A.;Dr.
George Harlow of the American Museum of Natural History; John Leyland of Moses Jewelers;
Cecile Ganteaume, assistant curator 01 the Museum 01 the American Indian in New York;
D.Dirlam, senior librarian 01 GIA's Richard %
Liddicoat Gemological Library and Information
Center; G. R. Crowningshield, C. W Fryer, R. E.
Kane, T. Moses, and D. Singh, 01 the GIA Gem
Trade Laboratory, Inc.: and AT Gems, Inc., 01 New
York.
0 1990 Gemolog~calInstitute of America
134
Guatemalan Jadeite
f all the world's occurrences of jadeite, Guatemala
may be the least known. Ironically, the English word

jade, which most people associate with the Far East, is
actually derived from the Spanish phrase piedm de ijadu,
or "loin stone," from the material's reputed value as a cure
for kidney ailments. Between about 1300 B.C. and the
Spanish conquest in the 16th century A.D., a number of
highly civilized, complex societies flourished in Central
America, including the Olmecs, the Mayans, and the
Aztecs. These great civilizations left behind carved jadeite
in many forms. In modern times, several pieces were taken
from ritual burial sites (Proskourialzoff, 1974); most are
believed to have been the property of the wealthy, the
nobility, and the priests. Items found include burial masks,
rings, collars, and ear flares, as well as disks and pendants.
The Aztecs are believed to have used jade during human
sacrifices while the Olmecs are noted for their striking axgod pieces (figure 1).The finest ax gods were found primarily in Costa Rica, although it is virtually certain that jade
does not occur there (Desautels, 1986).
Jadeite artifacts of these ancient civilizations have been
unearthed throughout Central America, Mexico, and even
Peru; yet the actual sources were lost for nearly 500 years.
Recently, however, commercially significant deposits have
been found in Guatemala. This newly rediscovered jadeite
is fascinating not only because its very study recalls the
grand civilizations that existed before the Spanish Conquest, but also because it occurs in a wide variety of
qualities and colors. The author visited Guatemala in 1988
and returned with samples of the materials that are
currently being mined there, as well as information on the
recent history and development of these deposits. The
samples were subsequently tested, and their gemological
properties are also reported here.
HISTORY, LOCATION, AND ACCESS
When the Spaniards arrived in the region that is now
Guatemala (about 1519), Mayan chiefs dispatched entire
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 1. "The Kunz Ax,"made of translucent

dull blue-green jadeite that undoubtedly originoted from the area that is now Guatemala, is
typical of the ax gods fashioned b y the Olmecs
in pre-Columbian times. This 27.2-cm-high artifact was found in Oaxaca, Mexico, around
1869.Courtesy of Department of Library Services, American Museum of Natural History.
families to guard the mines and the secret of their

location. The Mayans did not realize that the
Spanish had little use for, or interest in, jadeite;
they were after gold and emeralds. With the decline
of the indigenous cultures and the eventual deaths
of the guard families, the knowledge of where the
great mines had been was lost.
In 1952, however, Robert Leslie of the Smithsonian Institution identified some green jadeite that
Guatemalan Jadeite
had been found near the small town of Manzanal,

in the department of El Progreso [figure 2), when it
became lodged in a cultivating dislcer being used
on a field of tomato plants [J. Ridinger, pers. comm.,
1989). Leslie subsequently found a number of
detrital nodules in the alluvial terraces of the
Motagua River near Manzanal (McBirney et al.,
1967).In 1963, McBirney reported finding detrital
jadeite in the gravels of the same river, but about 70
lzm upstream. As late as 1967, McBirney et al.
lamented that no occurrences of the jadeite in
bedrock had yet been reported.
In 1973, Jay and Mary Lou Ridinger, American
expatriates living in Antigua, Guatemala, began
their search for jadeite. For almost a year, they
explored the mountainous region on foot; the
difficult task was made even more dangerous by
the ongoing guerrilla warfare in these remote
regions. Another concern is the deadly "cigarette"
snake; once bitten by this serpent, the victim lives
only long enough to smoke a single cigarette.
In 1974, Mary Lou Ridinger discovered a major
block of jadeite in a serpentinite body on a hillside
in the Zacapa region of the Motagua River Valley.
Located about 10 k m east of Manzanal, this
occurrence of jadeite was about 2 x 3 m (6 x 9 ft.),
while the surrounding albitic material extended
another 6-7 m in each direction. These and the
other eluvial deposits (drift from the weathering of
jadeite tectonic blocks; Harlow, pers. comm.,
1990), are probably the source of the alluvial
material reported by Foshag in 1955 and McBirney
in 1963.
The Ridingers have since found jadeite in a
number of locations in the Motagua River Valley;
they and others (primarily independent operators)
continue to prospect in the area (figure 3). Small
boulders or "cobbles" are also recovered from the
beds of streams (notably Rio La Palmilla and Rio
Huijo) that pass near the outcrop (figure 4).George
Harlow, of the American Museum of Natural
History, has visited the region and believes that
there may be other sources yet undiscovered in the
valley (pers. comm., 1990).
Today, for the most part, sophisticated techniques are not used to search for jadeite in Guatemala. According to Harlow, searchers commonly
explore until they encounter serpentinatious terrain, then walk along the area's river and stream
beds until they sight jadeite. Sometimes aerial
photos are examined for tectonic blocks of jadeite
in the serpentinite. Because of the proprietary
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
135
BELIZE
UEMALA
HONDURAS
Figure 2. Jadeite has been
rediscovered in
Guatemala, near the
small town of Manzanal,
in the valley of the
Motagua River. Artwork
by Carol Winkler.
nature of the mining sites, precise directions to the

locality are not provided with this article.
GEOLOGY OF JADE
Formed as a result of metamorphic activity, jadeite
the world over occurs in lenses and masses, usually
in serpentinatious rock (Desautels, 1986).Specific
information on the occurrence and formation of
Guatemalan jadeite is available in Harlow (1986
and in press). Guatemalan jadeite itself is coarsely
grained, often with large, eye-visible crystals of
jadeite. This is consistent with the detrital material examined by McBirney et al. (1967).
MINING METHODS
Commercial mining of jadeite in Guatemala is a
rudimentary process. In the Ridinger operation, a
pick-up truck carries the equipment as close as
possible to the site, but a full day or longer may be
needed to then transport the materials by mule or
on foot to the mining area. Gasoline-powered
136
Guatemalan Jadeite
jackhammers are used to remove the jade lenses

and boulders from the host rock (figure 5). These
pieces are then moved by animal and human
power back to the truck, to be driven to the factory
in Antigua. No more than five to 10 people at a
time are involved in any one mining operation (J.
Ridinger, pers. comm., 1988).
DESCRIPTION
The jadeite found in Guatemala is wonderfully
varied (figure 6), although even in its finest qualities, it does not approach the translucency, texture,
or rich "emerald" green of the classic Burmese
"Imperial" jadeite. Nevertheless, the Spaniards
originally thought that fine Guatemalan jadeite
was emerald (Foshag, 1957). As with many gem
products, colorful commercial names have been
created for Guatemalan jadeite; these include
"Olmec Blue," "Galactic Gold," "Watermelon,"
and "Emerald Green." The following are brief
descriptions of the Guatemalan jadeite commercially available today:
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 3. Prospectors in
Guatemala uncovered
this field o f eluvial
(weathered tectonic
block) jadeite on the
northwest side of Cerro
Colorado, near the town
of La Palmilla. To the
north can be seen Siena
de las Minus. Photo
courtesy of George
Harlow
Green: Slightly variegated medium to dark green;

semitranslucent to opaque; fine to medium texture. This color variety includes the best quality
found to date in Guatemala (figure 6, bottom).
"Blue": Actually a slightly variegated bluish

green; translucent to semitranslucent; fine to
medium texture (figure 7). This is the rarest color
found by the Ridingers (pers. comm., 1990)) although they have not seen the almost pure
"Olmec Blue" illustrated in Easby (1968),and its
source remains a mystery.
Variegated Green: Small, randomly oriented
patches of white and light grayish green; semi-
translucent to opaque; coarse texture with eyevisible single crystals of allanite or jadeite (figure
6, top).
White: Slightly variegated with brown and gray
(again, see figure 4); semitranslucent; coarse
texture with eye-visible single crystals. This is
the most abundant color (J. Ridinger, pers. comm.,
1990).
"Black": Actually very dark green, as is readily
apparent when viewed with transmitted light
through a thin section; uniform color; opaque;
fine texture; potentially commercially important
(figure 6, left; figure 8).
1 polished
Figure 4. This streamboulder of
white jadeite was found
in one of the small rivers
(Rio La Palmilla, a tributary of the Motagz~a
River) in the department
of Zacapa, Photo courtesy of George Harlow
Guatemalan ladeite
Pyrite-bearing: Uniform dark green with flecks

of pyrite throughout; fine to medium texture;
opaque (figure 6, right). Guatemala is the only
known source of this material.
No precise production figures are available for

the individual "varieties" of Guatemalan jadeite or
for the total mined to date. At the end of 1989,
however, Jay Ridinger (pers. comm.) reported that
he currently had on hand 20,000 tons of "top
quality" carving material.
Figure 5. To remove jadeite from the area, large

pieces are usually broken up with a gasolinepowered jackhammer. Photo courtesy of Jades S.A
Figure 6. The jadeite found to date in the Motagua River Valley occurs in many different "varieties. " Shown here are: top, variegated green;
left, "black" (actually, very dark green); right,
pyrite bearing; bottom, green. The largest piece
(top) is 24.04 x 17.12 x 5.29 mm. Photo 0
Tino Hammid.
GEMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
AND CHEMISTRY
The author performed standard gemological tests
on 43 pieces of jadeite from this locality: two
green, one "blue," 28 variegated green, four white,
four black, and four pyrite bearing. The gemological properties of the various colors were remarlzably similar. Also, despite the higher content of
diopside in Guatemalan jadeite, the gemological
properties are the same as for jadeite from other
localities with the exception of the coarse granular
crystalline structure. Table 1 compares the gemological properties of Guatemalan jadeite to those
of jadeite from Burma (now Myanmar).
The refractive index (spot or shadow) of the
Guatemalan material ranged from 1.65 to 1.67, but
was usually 1.66. The specific gravity of the
material tested was within the normal range for
jadeite, from as low as 3.20 to, more commonly,
approximately 3.34. Most stones showed the 437nm absorption line in the Beck hand-held spectroscope. Several of the green stones also showed
chromium-related bands at about 630, 660, and
690 nm. Although the "black" material did not
show the 437-nm line, X-ray diffraction analysis
proved it to be jadeite. Incidentally, X-ray diffraction analysis also proved that the yellow mineral
found in some Guatemalan jadeite is, indeed,
pyrite. The color filter reaction was inert for all but
the bluish green material, which was faint red.
Guatemalan jadeite contains about 10% diopside, which is significantly more than the 1%-2%
found in Burmese material (Foshag, 1957).Chemical analyses of various specimens of jadeite from
the earlier Manzanal discovery as well as from
archeological finds in Guatemala were performed
and compared to the theoretical composition of
pure jadeite by McBirney et al. (1967);their results
are reproduced here as table 2, and include Foshag's
(195.5)analyses.
GEMS
GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 7. This slab (12.73 x 9.51 x 2.00 mm)

is typical o f the rare "blue" jadeite that has
been found i n the rediscovered jadeite deposits
of Guatemala. Photo 0 Tino H a m m i d .
I
TABLE 1, Qemological properties of jadeite from

Guatemala and from Burma (Myanmar).a
.-L
Property
--
..
Guatemala
Burma
--
Physical
appearance
Colors
Transparency
Refractive
index (spot
or shadow)
Specific
gravity
Color filter
Mohs
hardness
Chemical
composition
Visible
absorption
spectrum
"Pfapeflieslor
Granular appearance
with eye-visible
crystals; pyrite
inclusions; greasy
luster
Black" (very dark
green); bluish green;
white; variegated
green, dark green;
pvrite-bearing
Semitranslucent to
opaque
1.65-1.67
Individual crystals
rarely visible; no
pyrite; greasy to
vitreous luster
Green; white;
brownish orange;
lavender; "moss in
snow"
Semitransparent to
opaque
1.65- 1 67
3.25-3.40
Negative except for
the bluish green
material, which
shewed faint red
Approx. 7
Negative
NaAl (SiOa), with

CaMg (Si03)? up to
10%
437 nm in all except
black; Cr bands in
some green
NaAl (SiO.,), with

CaMg (SiO& 1-2%
437 nm; Cr bands
common in green
Burmese jadeile are from GTL files
Guatemalan Jadeite
Figure 8. "Black" jadeite i s actually a very durk

green. This material is frequently used i n fine
jewelry (here, a 13.0 x 11.0 x 6.2 mm cabochon set w i t h fancy-intense yellow diamonds
i n an 18K gold and platinum ring). It also holds
a polish well: W i t h normal wear, the polish on
this cabochon should last m a n y years, owing t o
the hardness and tough interlocking structure
of the jadeite. Photo b y Robert Weldon.
Diopside-jadeite and acmitic jadeite are also

found in Guatemala, but neither was examined for
this article. The refractive index of diopsidejadeite, which contains about 50% diopside, is
1.68 (Foshag, 1957). None of the Guatemalan
material tested for this study had a refractive index
that high. According to C. W Fryer, West Coast
director of the G1A Gem Trade Laboratory (pers.
comm., 19881, if the material being tested possesses all of the gemological properties of jadeitethat is, the appropriate refractive index, specific
gravity, spectrum, and hardness-it can be correctly called jadeite even though the diopside
content is higher than that usually associated with
jadeite.
CUTTING AND POLISHING
The first step of the cutting process requires that
the large boulders, many of which weigh hundreds
of pounds, be broken up. The Ridingers use a
magnesium torch to heat the boulders (Ward, 1987)
GEMS &I GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
139
and then douse them with water to create cracks.

Smaller pieces can be placed directly on a 12-inch
or smaller diamond saw. The pieces are then carved
or cut en cabochon or into beads. Most of the
material is processed in Antigua, where there are a
number of factories, the largest of which is Jades
S.A., with 10 people employed in cutting and
polishing.
COMMERCIAL ASPECTS
There are three commercial uses for modern
Guatemalan jade: tourist jewelry and art (figure 9),
reproductions of Mayan and Olmec carvings (figure lo), and cabochons or smaller carvings for
karat-gold jewelry. The blaclz jadeite is often used
in fine jewelry like that shown in figure 8 because
jadeite's hardness (approximately 7) and interloclzing crystalline structure prevent it from becoming
dull over time, a common problem with nephrite
(Crowningshield, 1973).
Presently, Guatemalan jadeite is not being extensively marketed worldwide, although it has
been exhibited at international gem shows such as
the one held in February at Tucson, Arizona.
Recently, some material (mostly blaclz) has been
sold and shipped to cutters in Hong Kong (G.
Harlow, pers. comm., 1990).
Figure 9, These reproductions of Olmec carvings

in jacleite, with jadeite and rose quartz beads, are
typical of jewelry found in tourist shops in
Guatemala. Courtesy of Jades S.A.
TABLE 2. Chemical analyses of Guatemalan jadeite. Table reproduced from McBirney

et al., 1967.
1
5a
5b
SiO,
TiO,
A12
Fe203
FeO
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na20
K20
HO
,
+
Total
1 . Theoretical composition of pure jadeite.
2. Jadeite from Manzanal, Guatemala, W.F. Foshag analyst (Foshag, 1955).

3. Jadeite from pea-green colored cell, Guatemala, J, Fahey analyst (Foshag, 1955).
4 . Jadeite from "jade vwrker's tomb," Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala, J Fahey analyst (Foshag, 1955).
5. Jadeite from Manzanal, Guatemala, K. Aoki analyst (new analysis).
5a. Analysis no, 5 recalculated by subtracting 2 wt,% albite (An3).
5b. Atomic proportions calculated from 5a on the basis of six oxygen atoms.
140
Guatemalan Jadeite
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 10. This modern

reproduction of a famous
Mayan burial mask (16
cm jn diameter) was
fashioned from the newly
discovered deposits of
Guatemalan jadeite.
Photo courtesy of
lades S.A.
CONCLUSION
Mesoamerican jadeite was mined, fashioned, revered, and worn for thousands of years in preColumbian civilizations. Although "lost" for hundreds of years, deposits of jadeite were "rediscovered" in Guatemala in 1974 and are presently
being mined by very elementary techniques at
sites near the small town of Manzanal.
-
Guatemalan jadeite varies greatly in color,

translucency, and texture. It is sold in tourist
shops, used in reproductions of ancient pieces, and
set in karat-gold jewelry. The "black" material has
the greatest commercial potential, while the
bluish material is the rarest. To date, thousands of
tons of jadeite have been mined in Guatemala.
REFERENCES
Crowningshield G.R. (1973)Wearability of jadeite versus nephrite. Gems 01 Gen~ology,Vol. 14, No. 6, p. 175.
Desautels D.E. (1986) The lade Kingdom. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.
Easby E.K. (1968)Pre-Columbian Jade from Costa Rica. Andre
Emmerich, New York.
Foshag W.F. (1955) Chalcliihutl-A study in jade. American
Mineralogist, Vol. 40, pp. 1062-1070.
Foshag W.F. (1957) Mineralogical studies on Guatemalan jade.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, Vol. 135, No. 5,
pp. 7, 17, 19.
Harlow G.E. (1986)Jadeites and their fluid inclusions from Rio
Motagua, Guatemala [abs.). International Mineralogiccil
Association Abstracts with Program, Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC, p. 119.
Harlow G.E. (in press) Middle American jade: Geological and
petrologic perspectives on its variability and source. In
Guatemalan Jadeite
F. W Lange, Ed., Pre-Col~~mbian

Jade, Proceedings of the
Conference on Middle American Jade, University of Utah
Press, Salt Lake City, U T
McBirney A.R. (1963) Geology of a part of the Central Guatemalan Cordillera. University of California Geologic
Sciences Publications, Vol. 28, pp. 177-242.
McBirney A., Aoki K., Bass M. (1967)Eclogites and jadeite from
the Motagua fault zone, Guatemala. American Minerulogist, Vol. 52, pp. 908-918.
Proskouriakof[T (19741Jades from the cenote of the sacrifice,
Chichen Itza, Yucatar~.Memoir of the Peabody Museum
of Archeology and Ethnology, Harvard, Vol. 10, No. 1.
Ward F. (1987)Jade: Stone of heaven. National Geographic, Vol.
172, No. 3, pp. 282-3 15.
Webster R. (1983) Gems, Their Sources, Descriptions, and
Identification, 4th ed. Rev. by B. W Anderson, Butterworths, London.
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Sunimcr 1990
141
NOTES
A N D
NEW T E C H N I Q U E S
WELL-FORMED TSAVORITE GEM CRYSTALS FROM TANZANIA
By Robert E. Kane, Anthony R. K a m p f , and Horst K m p p
Green grossular garnet crystals o f fine form and clurity have been found recently in Tanzania, at the Karo
pit of the tanzunite mining belt. Although the crystals tend to be relatively light in color, they are
consistent in gemological properties and composition
with the grossular variety popularly 1<11ownas
tsavorite. The very distinct and complex morphology
of these crystals is remarkable. Eight different crystallographic forms have been identified, including
one that has never before bean recognized for any
member o f the garnet group.
Since early 1987, small amounts of gem-quality

green grossular garnet (tsavorite)crystals (figure 1)
have been recovered from pockets at the Karo
tanzanite pit in the Merelani" Hills of Tanzania.
The Merelani Hills are located south of Arusha
and just west of Kimoingan Mountain. The area
referred to locally and in the trade as the original
tanzanite mine is actually a mining belt about
4 x 1 lzm which encompasses six major pits (figures 2 and 3).These pits are named after the men
who originally filed mining claims on them (listed
here in numerical order from one end of the belt to
the other): 1 - D e Souza pit no. 1, 2-Ali
'Mereluni is an anglicized phonic spelling of the local Masai

word for a tree common to the urea. This spelling was employed by Bridges (19821, while Glibelin and Weibel (1975)
used Mirnlnni. A third spelling, Mererani, may i n fact be
more accurate. Nevertheless, Merelam is used here to avoid
further confusion of the literature.
142
Notes and New Techniques
Ju~~yawatu,
3 - Papanicolao~~,
4 - Karo, 5 - Georgi,
and 6 -De Souza pit no. 2. The complex tsavori te
crystals discovered at the Karo pit are particularly
noteworthy for the perfection of their external
crystal form (again, see figure 1). Previously,
tsavorite found here and elsewhere was almost
exclusively massive (front portion of figure 4).
Occasional incompletely developed crystals with
extremely crude faces had also been recovered
(back specimen in figure 4), but e ~ ~ l ~ e dcrystals
ral
were virtually unknown.
During a recent visit to Moshi, Tanzania (about
70 lzm east of the Merelani Hills), one of the
authors (H. Krupp) obtained a number of wellformed tsavorite crystals. The largest of these
[figure 1)weighs 14 grams and is only very slightly
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mr. Kane is supervisor of identification at the GIA Gem
Trade Laboratory, Inc., Santa Monica, California; Dr. Kampt is
curator of mineralogy at the Natural History Museum of Los
Angeles County, Los Angeles, California; and Dr. Krupp is a
physicist currently devoting most of his time to minerals and
gemstones. Dr. Krupp is based in Idar-Oberstein and Heidelberg, West Germany, and has made more than 60 trips to
Kenya and Tanzania to purchase gem rough.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank George R. Rossman,
John Armstrong, and Arthur Chodos, of The California Institute
of Technology, lor providing the electron microprobe analyses;
Campbell R. Bridges, of Bridges Exploration (Nairobi, Kenya),
for helpful comments on the manuscript and for providing information on East African tsavorite localities; and Peter and Bobbi
Flusser, of Overland Gems, Los Angeles, for making material
available lor examination.

01990 Gemological Institute of America
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
1 Figure 1. Well-formed
included. This crystal was used in this study

together with a more complete, but also more
included, 6-gram crystal and a 10.75-ct pear shape
faceted from a Karo-pit crystal. This article describes the occurrence, gemological characteristics, composition, and morphology of the Karo-pit
tsavorite crystals.
OCCURRENCE
The gem variety of green grossular garnet known
as tsavorite (or, in some areas, tsavolite) was
discovered in Tanzania in the late 1960s (Bridges,
1974). Since then, most commercial mining has
been based in an area to the south of the Taita Hills
tsavorite crystals are exceedingly rare. Recently,

the Karo tanzanite pit i n
the Merelani Hills, Tanzania, yielded this 14gram crystal and another
from which the accompanying 14.84-ct gem
was cut. Photo f3
Harold &> Erica Van Pelt.
in neighboring Kenya known as the TaitaITaveta

district (figure 5).According to Gubelin and Weibel
(1975),the tsavorite occurs in metamorphic rocks
consisting primarily of graphite-bearing gneisses
and marbles. It is generally found in rounded forms
up to fist size (locally called "potatoes"), which
have an interior of more or less fractured tsavorite
surrounded by a shell consisting mainly of epidote
and scapolite (again, see figure 4). Some of these
masses exhibit crude crystal form, but generally
they do not show distinct crystal faces.
Tanzanite and tsavorite are found in very similar
geologic environments; although tanzanite and
tsavorite generally do not occur in commercial
GEM& GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
143
Figure 2. This general overview shows a small section of the 4 x 1 k m tanzanite mine belt in the
Merelani Hills, south of Arusha in Tanzania. Photo by Horst Krupp.
quantity or quality at the same deposit, they are

often found together. Gubelin and Weibel (1975,
p. 402) note that green grossular garnets "varying
in hue and shade between bright lime-green and
dull dark green . . . are occasionally also seen as
accessory minerals in the zoisite (tanzanite)mines
in the Miralani Hills.".And Bridges (1974)reports
that tanzanite occurs as a minor accessory mineral
in fragments or larger shattered crystals at the
tsavorite mines in Kenya and Tanzania. Bridges
(1982, p. 274) also states that "The same clay-like
mineral is associated with these pockets [of tanzanite] as occurs with tsavorite pockets."
Bridges (pers.comm., 1989)provided the authors
with details of the occurrence of tanzanite and
tsavorite at his Scorpion mine in the TaitaITaveta
district. In the no. 4 tsavorite ore shoot of this
mine, what appears to be bluish zoisite [tanzanite)
forms kelyphitic shells of about 1-2 mm thickness
Figure 3. Although some operations, such as this one

at Karo, are open pit, 90% of the current mining in
the Merelani Hills is underground and involves
blasting with dynamite. The miners will continue
through the hole shown in the central right portion of
this photo until they reach the gem-bearing reef,
where they will then begin horizontal tunneling.
Photo by Horst Krupp.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 4. These tsavorite specimens from the

Liialeiiyi mine, TaitdTaveta district, Kenya, are
typical of the form in which most tsavorite is
found. The specimen at the top (20 c m across)
contains large, crudely formed crystals. The
two smaller specimens are typical broken
"potatoes." Photo by Shane McClure.
around green grossular (tsavorite)nodules. Bridges

interprets the tanzanite shell as being the result of
retrograde metamorphism. In this ore shoot, compacted crystal groups and individual crystals with
a few distinct faces were encountered. Rare examples of crystals with all faces present, but possessing the lzelyphitic tanzanite shell, have been
found. A parallel ore shoot in this mine contains
beautifully colored but badly shattered tanzanite,
sometimes in the form of crystals.
One of the authors (H.Krupp)spoke with miners
who have worked the tanzanite mine belt in the
Merelani Hills. They confirmed that tsavorite has
been found there, but usually in small fractured
masses, wish only a few pockets yielding tsavorite
Figure 5. Most tsuvorite

comes from an area south
of the Taita Hills in Kenya.
The tsavorites reported on
here are from the tanzanite
mine belt i n the Merelani
Hills, south o f Arusha in
Tanzania. Adapted from a
m a p compiled by
Campbell R. Bridges,
Nairobi; artwork by
Carol Winkler.
1
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
145
Figure 6. This 5.42-ct

faceted tsavorite from
the Karo pit was cut
from a crystal fragment
recovered along with
well-formed crystals
such as the 6-gram one
shown here. Photo 0
Harold d Erica Van Pelt.
crystals. They did not provide information regarding the quantity or quality of these crystals. Yet no
other mining area has produced well-formed, gemquality crystals of tsavorite.
The well-formed tsavorite crystals examined by
the authors were free of matrix. Only traces of
graphite were noted still adhering to the crystals;
it is not known whether tanzanite was found in
direct association with the tsavorite crystals.
GEMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
The gemological properties of the 6-gram crystal
(figure 61 and the 10.75-ct faceted stone from the
Karo pit are summarized in table 1. These properties are generally consistent with those of other
tsavorites from various localities in Kenya and
Tanzania (Manson and Stockton, 1982).
The most noteworthy characteristics of these
tsavorites are their weak orange transmission
luminescence and their dull chalky orange fluorescence to both short- and long-wave ultraviolet
radiation. In the authors' experience, this behavior
is not often observed in tsavorite; when it is, it is
generally restricted to material with a light to
medium-light tone similar to the Karo-pit crystals.
Although these tsavorite crystals are notable for
their high degree of clarity, we did observe a
number of internal features, none of which is
unusual for tsavorite (see, e.g., Gubelin and Koivula, 1986). These include straight and angular
growth features, as well as graphite inclusions.
146
TABLE 1. Gemological properties of tsavorite found

as well-formed crystals at the Karo pit, Merelani Hills,
Tanzan1a.a
--
Color
Hue
Tone
Saturation
Refractive index
Polariscope reaction
Optical absorption
spectrumb
Transmission
luminescence
Chelsea color filter
Fluorescence to
U.V. radiation
Long-wave
Short-wave
Slightly yellowish green

Light to medium light
Moderately strong
1.737
Single refraction, with a weak to
moderate anomalous-doublerefraction effect
Broad absorption blocking out all
of the violet and most of the blue
portions of the spectrum and a
broad diffuse band of weak
intensity at approximately 580610 nm
Weak orange
No reaction
Phosphorescence to
U.V. radiation
Specific gravityc
Microscopy
Moderate dull chalky orange

Very weak dull chalky orange
None
Approximately 3.58
Straight and angular growth
features; graphite inclusions
'Propertielisted were obtained from one rough crystal weighing 6

grams and one faceted mixed-cut pear shape weighing 10.75 ct
^As observed through a GIA GEM Instruments fiber-optic spectroscope
unit with a Beck prism spectroscope.
Determined by the hydrostatic weighing technique.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
The composition of tsavorite from Kenya and
Tanzania has been studied by many workers
(Switzer, 1974; Gubelin and Weibel, 1975; Amthauer, 1975; Schmetzer, 1978; Bank et al., 1979;
Manson and Stockton, 1982; Schmetzer and Bank,
1982). All have reported a composition close to
that of pure grossular, but with significant quantities of V2O3 and, usually, lesser quantities of
Cr203.The green color has been attributed to V3+
and/or Cr3+, and it has been observed to vary in
intensity with the amounts of these chromophores
present.
Analysis of the 6-gram crystal on an electron
microprobe yielded the chemical composition
shown in table 2. This is similar to those determined for tsavorites by the other researchers cited
above. The amounts of Cr203 and V203 determined, 0.05 and 0.19 wt.%, respectively, are toward the low end of the ranges reported in the other
studies. This is consistent with the relatively light
tone exhibited by the cut stone and crystals
examined.
b'.,
CRYSTAL MORPHOLOGY
The most remarkable aspect of the tsavorite crystals described here is the perfection of their faces
TABLE 2. Chemical compositions of a 6-gram

tsavorite crystal from the Karo pit, Merelani Hilts,
Tanzania.
Oxide
Weight
%b
MgO
CaO
MnO
40.33
0.28
22.49
0.19
0.26
0.05
0.02
37.16
0.27
TOTAL
101.05
-iAnalyses were performed on a JEOL 733 microprobe operating at a

beam accelerating potential of 15 kV a current of 35 nA, and spot size
between 10 and 25 pm. The data were corrected using the program
CITZAF (Armstrong, 1988), employing the absorption corrections of
Armstrong (1982), the atomic number corrections of Love et a/. (1978),
and the fluorescence corrections of Reed (1965) as modified by
Armstrong (1988). Paul Carpenter, California Institute of Technology,
analyst.
"Average of live point analyses.
(figure 7). Heretofore, even a crude face on a

tsavorite fragment was considered unusual. The
distinctness and high luster of the faces on these
crystals enabled us to measure precisely their
Figure 7. In this top view o f the 14-gram tsavorite crystal shown in figure 1, all 39 of the faces
measured on this crystal-and labeled in the accompanying crystal drawing-can be seen. The
crystal forms noted are: d {Oil},e {012},g {023},1 {035}, {045},n {112},s {123},and IT {I-10-16}.
Photo 0 Harold &> Erica Van Pelt.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
147
complex morphology with a Huber two-circle

optical goniometer.
Both the 6- and 14-gram crystals were found to
exhibit the same crystallograpl~icforms (sets of
equivalent faces), although the relative development of these forms differed somewhat between
the two crystals. A total of eight forms were found.
The labels and Miller indices of these forms are as
follows: d {Ol I}, e {012},g {023},1 {035}, {045},n
{112}, s {123}, and i~ {l-10.16}.
The eight crystallographic forms have been
noted on the appropriate faces in the drawing of the
14-gram crystal that appears in figure 7. The three
growth l~illoclzson the large g face are composed of
the same group of faces, which is labeled only on
the largest of the hillocks. A total of 39 faces were
measured on this crystal, and the crystal is less
than half complete.
Of special note is the presence of faces corresponding to the TT {l-10-16}form. To our lznowl-
edge, this crystallographic form has never before

been reported for any member of the garnet group.
CONCLUSION
Unlike most other facetable gem minerals,
tsavorite generally does not occur in well-formed
crystals. The tsavorites documented here from the
Karo pit of the tanzanite mine belt, Merelani Hills,
Tanzania, are extraordinary for the perfection of
their faces. From a crystallographic point of view,
these samples are even more remarkable for prominently exhibiting the TT {l-10-16}crystal form,
which has never before been reported for any
member of the garnet group.
Although stones faceted from the green grossular crystals described here are generally less intense in color than is considered optimal for
tsavorite, their chemical composition and gemological properties are consistent with those of
previously studied tsavorites.
REFERENCES
Amthauer G. (1975)Zur Kristallchen~icund Fal-be griiner und
brauner Grossularc aus Tansania. Zeitschrift tier dent^
schcn Gemnwiogishen Gesellscl~aft,Vol. 24, No. 2, pp.
61-72.
Armstrong J.T. 11982) New ZAP and a-factor correction procedures for the quantitative analysis of individual microparticles. In K. F. J. Hcinrich, Ed., Microbeam Analysis1982, San Francisco Press, San Francisco, CA, pp. 175-1 80.
Armstrong J.T. (19881 Quantitative analysis of silicate and
oxide materials: Comparison of Monte Carlo, ZAP and
(fr(pz) procedures. In D. E. Newbury, Ed., Microbeam
Analysis- 1988, San Francisco Press, San Francisco, CA,
pp. 239-246.
Bank H., Schmetzer K., Probst S. (19791 Vanadiumgross~~lare
mit hoher Lichtbrcchung liiber 1.750). Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Ce~n~nologische~i
Gesellsclidfl, Vol. 28, No. 2,
pp. 70-72.
Bridges C.R. (19741 Green grossular garnets ("tsavorites"] in
East Africa. Gems ed Gemology, Vol. 14, pp. 290-295.
Bridges C.R. (1982) Gemstones of East Africa. In D. M. Eash,
Ed., International Gemological Symposium Proceedings.
Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA, pp.
263-275.
148
Ciibelin E.J., Koivula 1.1. (1986) Photoatlas of Inclusions in

Ceiiistones. ABC Edition, Zurich, Switzerland.
Giibelin E.J., Weibel M. (1975)Green vanacliumgross~~largarnct
from Lualenyi, near Voi, Kenya. Lapidary Journal, Vol. 29,
NO. 2, pp. 402-426.
Love G., Cox M.G., Scott VD. (19781A versatile atomic number
correction for electron-probe n~icroanalysis.Journal of
Physics D, Vol. 11I, pp. 7-27.
Manson D.V, Stockton C.M. 119821 Gem-quality grossular
garnets. Gems es) Geinology Vol. IS, No. 4, pp. 204-2 13.
Reed S.J.B. (1965) Characteristic fluorescence correction in
electron-probe microanalysis. British Journal of Applied
Physics, pp. 913-926.
Schmetzer K. (1978)Vanadium 111als Farbtrager bei natiirlichen
Silikaten und Oxidcn-ein Beitrag zur Kristallchemie dcs
Vanadiurns. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Heidclberg,
1978.
Schmetzer K., Bank H. (1982) Gelbgriiner Grossular aus OstC ~ S afrika. Zeitschrift cler Deiitscheii Ge~~~~i'iologisclien
ellschaft, Vol. 31, No. 1/2, pp. 81-84.
Switzer G.S. (1974)Composition of green garnct from Tanzania
and Kenya. Gems ei) Gemology, Vol. 14, pp. 296-297.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
DIAMOND GRIT-IMPREGNATED TWEEZERS:

A POTENTIALLY DESTRUCTIVE GEMOLOGICAL TOOL
By John I. Koivulu, Edward Boehm, and Robert C, Kmnmerling
The authors exanlined diamond grit-impregnated
tweezers that reportedly were being marketed out of
Japan. The tweezers were shown to damage virtually
any type of gemstone with the possible exception of
diamond; owners of these tweezers are advised to use
caution.
Just as a tennis racket is an extension of the arm

for the professional tennis player, so a pair of
tweezers is an extension of the hand for the
jeweler-gemologist. The gemologist thinks no
more about how to use tweezers when examining a
stone than a tennis player does about racket
technique during match play. Years of practice
make these actions automatic, almost instinctive.
And yet it is this very instinctiveness that can
cause problems when a new type of tool is used in
the same.nianner as the more familiar one. It was
with this in mind that the authors investigated a
new type of tweezers that appeared to be potentially damaging to gemstones.
Instead of the standard metal "waffle pattern"
seen on most gem tweezers (figure 1, top), this new
type is impregnated with particles of randomly
oriented, sharp-edged diamond grit (figure 1, bottom). According to the literature that accompanied
the tweezers (which were sold in pairs-one fine
point and one medium point-and are reportedly
manufactured in Japan), the purpose of the diamond grit is to give them a superior grip in
handling diamond melee. It is interesting to note
in this regard that our extensive use of these
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Mr. Koivula is chief gemologist, and Mr. Kammerling is director

of technical development, at the Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, California; Mr Boehm, formerly with Overland Gems, Los Angeles, is now working for the Gubelin Gemmological Laboratory in Lucerne, Switzerland.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank Peter and Bobbi Flusser
of Overland Gems for providing the diamond-impregnated
tweezers investigated for this report and lor bringing lo our attention the potential for gemstone damage.
0 1990 Gemological Institute of America
Figure 1. The tweezers at top show the scored

metal "waffle" pattern of standard tweezer tips,
while those below are impregnated with diamond grit. Photomicrograph by John I. Koivulc];
magnified 3 x .
tweezers during testing did not reveal any significant difference in grip from the standard type.
Although the tweezers were designed for use
with small diamonds, it would not be unusual for
someone to forget, once the tweezers were in the
workplace, and use them to manipulate other
gems as well. Given that diamond is the hardest
naturally occurring substance known, what is the
risk of using these tweezers to handle colored
stones such as sapphires, rubies, or emeralds? Also,
diamond has directional hardness. And it is reasonable to assume that if the diamond grit was
randomly implanted into the tips of the tweezers,
some of the grains would be oriented so that their
hardest directional surfaces were at the gripping
surface of the tweezers. Wouldn't this present a
hazard even to diamond?
To answer these questions, we decided to test the
tweezers with regard to their potential for damage
to synthetic ruby (Mohs hardness 9) and diamond
(Mohs hardness 10) round brilliants. If either of
these materials was damaged by the tweezers, all
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
149
other gem materials (which have comparable or

lower hardness) would be at risk as well.
TESTING
For this test, we selected a 2.39-ct round brilliant-cut flame-fusion synthetic ruby (8.32-8.39
m m in diameter) and a 0.21-ct round brilliant-cut
diamond (3.704.72 m m in diameter).
It is standard procedure in both gem identification and diamond clarity grading to examine a
stone first through its largest facet, the table. For
this procedure, the stone is usually picked up by
the girdle edge. However, the next step commonly
is examination through crown and pavilion
facets, for which the stone is held table-to-culet (as
shown in figure 2) so that it can be easily rotated
and then examined through facets around its
circumference.
With standard metal-tipped tweezers, such a
procedure presents little potential for damage to
all but the softest of gem materials, because
stainless steel has a Mohs hardness of only about
5 ' 1 2 to 6. The contact surface of the diamondimpregnated tweezers, however, exceeds the hardness of all gems but diamond.
Before handling either the synthetic ruby or the
diamond with the tweezers, we photomicrographically documented the condition of their
table facets in surface-reflected light (figures3 and
Figure 2. As part of the identification and eval
nation of a gemstone, it is commonly held in
the tweezers table-to-culet for examination
through the crown and pavilion facets. Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula.
150
4). We then picked up the synthetic ruby with

standard medium-point, metal-tipped tweezers
table-to-culet, using normal finger pressure. The
stone was rotated 360a total of 10 times and then
carefully examined with magnification. We observed 110 damage on the table of the stone.
Next, using normal finger pressure, we picked
the synthetic ruby up table-to-culet with the
diamond-impregnated tweezers and rotated it once
through 360'. This caused considerable damage to
the stone: The table was covered with numerous
concentric scratches (figure 5).
We then proceeded to pick up the diamond tableto-culet with the fine-tipped diamond-impregnated tweezers and, again using normal finger
pressure, rotated it through 360'. When we subsequently examined the stone with magnification,
there was no indication of damage. Next, we
rotated the diamond a total of nine more times
through 360' and reexamined it; again, visual
inspection with magnification revealed no damage. We continued the procedure, reexamining the
table facet after every 10 rotations. We noted the
first evidence of damage after a total of 50 rotations. After a total of 100 rotations, damage was
severe (figure 6). Notice the broken circular (as
opposed to complete circular) pattern of the
scratches. This results from "skipping" as the
randomly oriented diamond grains in the tweezers
encountered harder directions in the subject diamond.
CONCLUSION
Rubies and sapphires are correctly considered
hard, durable gems. Yet the diamond-impregnated
tweezers easily produced significant surface damage to the table facet of the synthetic ruby tested. If
the tweezers can do this amount of damage to such
a relatively hard gemstone, it is reasonable to
expect that they would be even more destructive to
softer gem materials such as alexandrite, garnet,
tanzanite, tourmaline, and the quartz varieties. A
cursory examination of a hardness comparison
table in any standard gemological reference (e.g.,
Liddicoat, 1989; Webster, 1983) reveals that the
majority of gemstones are notably lower in Mohs
hardness than diamond and corundum.
While rather extreme handling was necessary to
produce the damage shown in figure 6, the fact
remains that the diamond-impregnated tweezers
do have the potential to scratch even diamond.
And a single scratch is all that is needed to remove
a diamond from the flawless category. Because the
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 3. This photomicrograph shows the condition o f the table facet on the 2.39-ct synthetic
ruby before it was handled with the diamoii~iimpregnated tweezers. Photomicrograph b y
John I. Koiviila; magnified 5 x .
Flgiire 5 After only one 360 rotation i n the

laws o f the diamond-impregnated tweezers,
considerable damage was done to the table
facet o f the synthetic ruby seen i n figure 3 Photoinicrograph b y fohn I Kaiviifa, magn~fied5 x
Figure 4. This photomicrograph shows the condition of the table facet on the 0.21-ct diamond
before i t was handled with the diamond-impregnatcd tweezers. Photomicrograph b y John I.
Koivula; magnified 12 x .
Figure 6. This damage was evident on the table

of the diamond illustrated in figure 4 only after
one hundred 360' rotations i n the jaws of the
diamond-impregnated tweezers. Photomicrogrciph b y John I. Koiviila; magnified 12 x .
table is generally the largest facet on a gemstone,

recutting a stone to remove damage from the table
area will usually result in a significant loss of
weight.
Damage such as that described here is apparently occurring to gems in the marketplace. Gemologists in the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory have
reported seeing rubies and sapphires with concentric circular scratches on their tables ( R .
Crowningshield, pers. comm., 1989).Gem dealers
have encountered diamonds, as well as colored
stones, with similar damage (H. Acller, pers.
comm., 1989).The jeweler-gemologist is advised to

exercise great caution when using diamond-impregnated tweezers and to avoid using them on any
gem material other than diamond.
Notes and New T e c h n i q ~ ~ e s
REFERENCES
Liddicoat R.T. (1989) Handbook of Gem Identification, 12th
ed., 2nd rev. printing. Gemological Institute of America,
Santa Monica, CA.
Webster l<. (1983) Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and
Identification, 4th eel. Revised by B. W Anderson, Butterworth and Co., London.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
151
Back Issues of
Limited quantities of these issues are still available.
Fall 1986
Winter 1983
Engraved Gems: A Historical Perspective
Gem Andradite Garnets
The Rubies of Burma: The Mogok Stone Tract
Induced Fingerprints
Cobalt Glass as a Lapis-Lazuli Imitation
Summer 1984
Gem-Bearing Pegmatites: A Review
Gem Pegmatites of Minas Gerais. Brazil: Exploration,
Occurrence, and Aquamarine Deposits
The First-Order Red Compensator
Winter 1986
The Gemological Properties of the Sumitorno GemQuality Synthetic Yellow Diamonds
Art Nouveau: Jewels and Jewelers
Contemporary Intarsia: The Medvedev Approach
Fall 1984
Summer 1987
Gemstone Durability, Design to Display
Wessels Mine Sugilile
Three Notable Fancy-Color Diamonds: Purplish
Red, Purple-Pink, and Reddish Purple
The Separation of Natural from Synthetic Emeralds
by Infrared Spectroscopy
The Rutilated Topaz Misnomer
Freshwater Pearls of North America

The Chemical Distinction of Natural from Synthetic
Emeralds
Identifying Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds:
An Update
Inclusions in Taaffeites from Sri Lanka
Magnetic Properties of Gem-Quality Synthetic
Diamonds
Winter 1984
Natural Rubies with Glass-Filled Cavities
Pyrope-Spessartine Garnets with Unusual Color
Behavior
Gem-Qualily Red Beryl from Utah
An Extraordinary Calcite Gemslone
Green Opal from East Africa
Spring 1985
Gem Pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil: The
ourm ma lines of the Aracuai Districts
Sapphire from Cauca, Colombia
Altering the Color of Topaz
A Preliminary Report on the New Lechleitner
Synthetic Ruby and Synthetic Blue Sapphire
Interesting Red Tourmaline Irom Zambia
Summer 1985
Pearl Fashion Through the Ages
Russian Flux-Grown Synthetic Emeralds
Gem Pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil The
Tourmalines of the Governador Vaiadares District
The Eyepiece Pointer
Winter 1985
A Status Report on Gemstones from Afghanistan
A Proposed New Classification for Gem-Quality
Garnets
Amethystine Chalcedony
The Pearl in the Chicken
Spring 1986
A Survey of the Gemstone Resources of China
The Changma Diamond District, China
Gemstone Carving in China: Winds of Change
A Gemological Study of Turquoise in China
The Gemological Characteristics of Chinese Peridot
The Sapphires of Mingxi, Fujian Province, China
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Summer 1986
The Coscuez Mine: A Major Source of Emeralds
The Elahera Gem Field in Central Sri Lanka
Some Unusual Sillimanite Cat's-Eyes
An Examination of Four Important Gems
Green Glass Made of Mount Saint Helens Ash?
Fall 1986
A Simple Procedure to Separate Natural from

Synthetic Amethyst on the Basis of Twinning
Pink Topaz from Pakistan
Carbon Dioxide Fluid Inclusions as Proof of NaturalColored Corundum
Specific Gravity-Origins and Development of the
Hydrostatic Method
Colombage-Ara Scheelite
Spring 1987
'Modern" Jewelry: Retro to Abstract
Infrared Spectroscopy in Gem Identification
A Study of the General Electric Synthetic Jadeite
A New Gem Material from Greenland: Iridescent
Orthoamphibole
Fall 1987
An Update on Color in Gems. Part I

The Lennix Synthetic Emerald
An Investigation of the Products of Kyocera Corp.
that Show Play-of-Color
Man-Made Jewelry Malachite
n a m o r i Synthetic Cat's-Eye Alexandrite
Winter 1987
The De Beers Gem-Quality Synthetic Diamonds
The History and Gemology of Queen Conch
"Pearls"
The Seven Types of Yellow Sapphire and Their
Stability to Light
Spring 1988
An Update on Color in Gems. Part 2
Chrysoberyl and Alexandrite from the Pegmatite
Districts of Minas Gerais, Brazil
Faceting Large Gemstones
The Distinction of Natural from Synthetic
Alexandrite by Infrared Spectroscopy
Summer 1988
The Diamond Deposits of Kalimantan, Borneo
An Update on Color in Gems. Part 3
Pastel Pyropes
Examination of Three-Phase Inclusions in
Colorless, Yellow, and Blue Sapphires from Sri
Lanka
Fall 1988
An Economic Review of the Past Decade in

Diamonds
The Sapphires of Penglai, Hainan Island, China
Iridescent Qrthoamphibole from Wyoming
Detection of Treatment in Two Green Diamonds
Winter 1988
Gemstone Irradiation and Radioactivity
Amethyst from Brazil
Opal from Opal Butte, Oregon
A Gemological Look at Kyocera's Synthetic Star
Ruby
Spring 1989
The Sinkankas Library
The Gujar Killi Emerald Deposit
Beryl Gem Nodules from the Bananal Mine
"Opalite Plastic Imitation Opal
"
Summer 1989
Filled Diamonds
Synthetic Diamond Thin Films
Grading the Hope Diamond
Diamonds with Color-Zoned Pavilions
1987. 1988. and $65.00 U.S.

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EDITOR
C. W. Fryer
Gem Trade Laboratory, West Coast
LAB NOTES
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Robert Crowningsliield
Gem Trade Laboratory, East Coast
Karin N. Hurwit
Robert E . Kane
David Hargett
Geni Trade Laboratory, East Coast
Cultured CALCAREOUS
CONCRETIONS
At the February 1990 Tucson Gem
and Mineral Show, several staff
members saw a number of concretions that had been found during the
harvest of cultured black pearls from
Pinctada margaritifera mollusks in
the South Seas. These concretions,
which averaged approximately 12
m m in diameter, were a fairly even
dark brown, to black in color, but
lacked any nacreous deposits. The
client asked us to investigate why in
these instantes the mollusk did not
produce the expected cultured pearl
hut rather a concretion.
With magnification, all of the samples showed a cellular structure in
the dark surface areas (figure 1) that
is characteristic of most calcareous
concretions. In one of the samples, we
also noticed an underlying lighter
colored area that had no structural
characteristics (figure 2). This area
Figure 1. T h e cellular structure

characteristic o f calcareous
concretions i s readily apparent
in these dark surface areas.
Magnified 20 x .
did not fluoresce when exposed to

long-wave ultraviolet radiation, although the outer layer with the cellular structure did fluoresce a faint
yellow, similar in appearance to that
seen in some areas of the prismatic
calcite layer of the shell itself. An
X-radiograph of the concretion revealed the bead nucleus surrounded
by a heavy conchiolin layer, thus
proving that the concretions were
indeed the result of a culturing process. The mollusk had apparently
started to build the different shell
layers around the inserted nucleus,
but had stopped before producing
any nacreous layer. We could only
speculate that the mantle-tissue
graft inserted into the mollusk during the culturing process did not
contain (probably by accident; i.e.,
the critical area was cut off) those
cells crucial to the production of this
nacreous layer.
KH
Figure 2. T h e light-colored n u cleus visible under the dark

surface of this calcareous concretion has n o apparent
structure and thus cannot be
a shell bead. Magnified 5 X .
Figure 3. This 21.26-ct slab of

imitation coral is comprised of
barium sulfate, a plastic
binder, and a coloring agent.
Imitation CORAL,
Barium Sulfate
The West Coast laboratory recently
received for identification the 21.26ct orangy red, partly polished, sawed
slab illustrated in figure 3. Routine
gemological testing quickly identified the material as manmade, apparently intended to imitate coral.
When viewed with overhead illumination, the slab appeared opaque,
but when placed over an intense light
source, it transmitted a moderate
amount of light. To the unaided eye,
the polished side appeared to be a
fairly even orangy red with a waxy
Editor's Note: The initials at the end of each

item identify the contributing editor who
provided that item.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 26, No.2, pp. 153

158
G) 1990 Gemological Instilute of America
G e m Trade Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
153
luster. However, with low (less than

20 x ) magnification and oblique illumination, a subtle inhomogeneous
appearance was evident: an irregular,
randomly oriented, whitish pink
'veining" that somewhat resembles
the l'spiderweb" pattern seen in some
imitation turquoise. Also observed
were minute, opaque, metallic-appearing black inclusions.
The material showed an indistinct
refractive index reading of around
1.58. The specific gravity, as determined by the hydrostatic method,
was approximately 2.33. The hardness - tested in a discreet area - was
estimated to be 2 ' 1 2 to 3.
To determine the exact nature of
the material, we used sophisticated
testing methods. X-ray powder diffraction analysis produced a pattern
that matched the standard pattern for
barium sulfate. An infrared spectrum obtained to determine if a plastic-type binder was used revealed a
strong, sharp peak at 1733 cnl-1,
typical of a polymer. This absorption
band has also been observed in plastic-treated (stabilized)turquoise and
in some manufactured turquoise imitations (see "The Identification of
Turquoise by Infrared Spectroscopy
and X-ray Powder Diffraction," by
Th. Lind, K.Schmetzer, and H. Bank,
G e m s e>} Gemology, Vol. 19, No. 3,
1983, pp. 164-1681.
R I<
-
DIAMOND
Etch Channels in
Etching of a diamond crystal by
chemical dissolution can take any of
several different forms. The appearance of trigons was discussed in the
Lab Notes section of the Spring 1990
issue of this journal, while the Winter 1988 Lab Notes mentioned laminar dissolutions on octahedral faces.
Recently, the East Coast laboratory
observed etch channels along the
edges of octahedral faces on a 3.57-ct
rough diamond (figure 4).
As stated in Orlov's Mineralogy of
Diamonds (J.Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1973, p. 82): "The internal
structure of the crystal has consider-
154
Gem Trade Lab Notes
Figure 4. Etch channels are evident on the edges o f this

octahedral diamond crystal.
Magnified 10 x .
Figure 5 . The color of this 1.04

ct modified bullet-shaped purpie diamond is quite rare.
able influence on the nature of the

dissolution surfaces. Different kinds
of defects, twinning, inhomogeneous
internal structure, all reveal themselves on the surfaces and in the
resulting diversity of striations and
sculptures."
DH
5.0 and a saturation of 1.0. Unlike the

grayish purple diamond described in
the 1988 entry, this stone had no
discernible gray component when
examined in the G1A Gem Trade
Laboratory's standardized grading
environn~ent, using a Verilux daylight-balanced light source. Although this diamond did not display
the 550-11111 line in the hand-held
spectroscope seen in other purple
diamonds, it showed broad absorption in that area when tested with a
P y e - U n i c a m U.V.-visible s p e c trophotometer. It was grained internally and had numerous surface
grain lines as well.
The I.R. spectrum (figure 6), ob-
Another Purple Diamond

As mentioned in the Summer 1988
Lab Notes section, purple diamonds
are rare. The 1.04-ct modified-bulletshape brilliant cut shown in figure 5
was graded as fancy purple, natural
color. The East Coast laboratory
thought that the key color was
closely matched by ColorMaster coordinates C-23/59/66, with a tone of
Figure 6. This infrared absorption curve shows that the purple diamond seen in figure 5 is a type IaA diamond.
TYPE
Z a A PURPLE DIAMOND
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
tained using a Nicolet Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, shows

that this stone is a type IaA diamond.
Type IaA diamonds contain nitrogen
in pairs. Unlike type IaB diamonds, in
which the nitrogen is bonded in triplets, IaA diamonds do not display the
classic Cape series of absorption
lines.
DH
Radioactive GLASS Egg

The 7-oz. ( 198-gram]glass egg shown
in figure 7 was submitted for identification to the East Coast laboratory.
It was found to be singly refractive,
with the spherical bubbles and swirls
typical of glass; it also fluoresced a
very strong greenish yellow, similar
to the fluorescence seen in some
synthetic spinels with this body
color.
Figure 7. This yellowish green

glass egg, measuring approximcitely 68.50 x 47.85 mm,
proved t o be almost 10 times
as radioactive as normal back
ground.
Since the body color reminded the
staff of that seen in the radioactive
uranium glass once used for tableware, we tested this glass egg for
residual radioactivity. We found it to
be quite "hot," with measurements
nearly 10 times that of our normal
background radiation, In this respect, it approaches the radioactivity
of the rough sample of uranium glass
reported by Nassau and Lewand in
their article about radioactive synthetic spinel and glass triplets, which
appeared in the Winter 1989 issue of
G e m s &> Gemology
RC
Gem Trade Lab Notes
Figure 8. I t is unusual to see a

banded structure i n lapis
lazuli. Magnified 4 x .
Banded LAPIS LAZULI
The Spring 1988 Lab Notes section
described and illustrated a very unusual example of lapis lazuli. As our
readers may recall, the distinctive
characteristic was a striated structure that was easily visible to the
unaided eye. Recently, our West
Coast laboratory received for identification a 4-ct oval cabochon showing the same unusual structure
(figure 81, with gemological properties almost identical to those of the
material previously seen: R.I. (spot)
1.5 1 and S.G. (hydrostatic method)
2.85. With magnification and a
strong overhead light, the unusual
arrangement that produced the striated effect became easily visible:
Dark blue grains closely packed in
layers alternated with areas that contained both transparent near-colorless and opaque dark blue grains.
X-ray diffraction analysis resulted in
a pattern that showed a mixture of
the major components that make up
lapis lazuli: lazurite, hauyne, and
mica (as well as another, undetermined mineral). We subsequently
learned from our client that this
banded material originates in Afghanistan; he could not provide information on the exact locality.
KH
PEARLS
Gray Baroque Cultured Pearl
The dark gray baroque cultured pearl
in figure 9, grown in a Japanese salt-
water molluslc, was chosen for

mounting as a tie tack because of its
particularly lustrous appearance.
Fortunately, X-radiographs were
taken in the East Coast laboratory to
locate the nucleus before the pearl
was drilled. Had that not been done,
it is quite possible that the drill
would have missed the nucleus and
subjected the very thin nacre to
irreparable damage. Figure 10 shows
X-radiographs taken from two different directions after the pearl was
drilled and the tie tack assembled. It
is easy to visualize what could have
happened if the drill had missed the
point of contact between the nucleus
and the nacre. X-radiographs of such
culturedpearls suggest that stringing
them into a necklace can be quite
risky.
Incidentally, people in the trade
had mistaken this specimen for a
natural-color gray Tahitian cultured
pearl. However, the bead nucleus is
only 7.5 m m in diameter, smaller
than the nuclei custon~arilyused in
RC
Tahiti.
Figure 9. This approximately

12 x 14 mm baroque dark
gray cultured pearl was Xradiographed before it was
drilled.
"Well-Worked" Pearl
The 22.70 x 15.60 m m natural baroque pearl recently seen in the East
Coast laboratory (figure 11) is securely held in a custom-designed
gold pendant that appears to be old. It
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
155
phire - beads we have seen. However,

the spectrum seen with a hand-held
spectroscope readily identified them
as sodalite. It is surprising that a
material with a relatively low refractive index (1.48 versus 1.76) and
much lower hardness (5to 6 versus 91
could so closely resemble corundum.
Figure 13 illustrates the relative
transparency and fine polish of these
RC
handsome beads.
Figure 10. Two different X-radiographic views of the cultured pearl

shown in figure 9 illustrate the importance of proper location of the
drilling site. Note the large area between the nucleus and the nacre
in the view on the left.
natural pearl. This pearl plug can be
seen on one side about a third of the
way up from the bottom of the penRc
dant.
---
Figure 13. The transparency

and fine polish o f the sodalite
beads shown in figure 12 are
evident even at 1O X magnification.
la-
Unusual Gem-Quality
SODALITE
I
Figure 11. This attractively

mounted 22.70 x 15.60 m m
baroque pearl has been repaired in a number of areas;
note the small pearl (on the
side near the bottom) that has
been used to plug an existing
hole.
Figure 12 shows part of an 11-strand

hank of more than 2,000 semi-transparent blue beads, averaging approximately 2.0 to 2.5 mm, that recently
came into the East Coast lab for
identification. At first glance, because of their uniformity in color and
appearance, they resembled some
sapphire-actually, synthetic sap-
--
---
SPINEL from Tanzania

The West Coast laboratory recently
received for identification the 2.28-ct
purplish pink faceted pear shape illustrated in figure 14. Subsequent
testing revealed that it was a natural
Pigure 12. These fine-quality 2-2.5 m m beads resembled natural or

synthetic sapphire in appearance, but proved to be sodalite.
is an example of the lengths to which

jewelers once went to use a rare gem
material. The pearl has been half
drilled in four places, unwanted areas
have been judiciously removed, and
other areas show signs of repair - one
hole is even plugged with a small
156
Gem Trade Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
Figure 14. T h i s 2 . 3 - c t purplish pink spinel is

reportedly from Tanzania,
spinel (R.I. 1.7 14; singly refractive
with very weak anomalous double
refraction; S . G . by h y d r o s t a t i c
m e t h o d of approximately 3.60;
strong and very weak red fluorescence to long- and short-wave U.V
radiation,, respectively; characteristic absorption spectrum). An interesting feature was noted, however:
When the spinel was placed over the
intense light emitted through a small
opening of the iris diaphragm on the
spectroscope unit, a moderate to
strong whitish blue transmissiontype effect was very evident (see
figure 15). This phenomenon was
also apparent to the unaided eye
when the stone was held a few inches
from either an incandescent or fluorescent lieht
- source. A faint bluish
hazy cast was seen when the spinel
was held at "arm's length" in sunlight. This is probably a scattering
effect caused by minute inclusions,
or dislocations, similar to the reaction seen in some other gem materials.
With the microscope, we observed
that although the stone was slightly
included, the parallel rows of tiny
octahedra that are so frequently encountered in spinels from the classic
localities of Burma and Sri Lanka
were conspicuously absent. In addition to the "cloudy" transn~ission
effect discussed above, the most
prominent internal features were numerous "sheets" of polysynthetic
Gem Trade Lab Notes
Figure 15. W i t h i n t e n s e light, t h e spinel showed a

strong b l u e transmission-type effect.
twinning planes. These planes intersected in two directions throughout

the gem, and in several areas they
were associated with coarse needles
or growth tubes. Immersion of the
stone in methylene iodide revealed
faint color zoning, which appeared to
be in alignment with some of the
twinning features discussed above.
Also dispersed through most areas
were densely packed clouds of what
appeared to be exsolutions of tiny
particles and needles oriented in
three directions. A few small, thin,
transparent, near-colorless tabular
euhedral crystals were present.
The physical and optical properties, as well as color and visual appearance, of this spinel match those
of spinels from a "new" deposit in
Tanzania that were shown to the
writer by Mrs. Eckehard Petsch during a recent visit to Idar-Oberstein.
Tanzanian spinel was also available
at the 1990 Tucson Show. The owner
of the spinel described here reported
that the stone was indeed from Tanzania.
RK
figure 16 certainly appeared to be in

good company, set in a silver toplgold
back earring with near-colorless oldmine brilliants and Swiss cuts-a
d'ombination that was common before the turn of the century. The blue
stone proved to be glass, with a refractive index of 1.57. It could well be
the replacement for a stone lost from
an original near-antique piece. However, an even greater mystery is in
the markings on the gold (figure 17):
the number 583, a quality stamp, anil
a syn~bolconsisting of a five-pointed
star within which is a hammer and
sickle. The style was recognized as
Russian by a member of our staff
who is of Russian extraction. However, we have been unable to determine if this syn~bolwas in use in pre-
Figure 16. This faceted b l u e

glass, surrounded b y o l d - m i n e and Swiss-cut d i a m o n d s , proba b l y replaced t h e original c e n ter stone i n t h i s period earring.
SYNTHETICS and
SIMULANTS
in Period Jewelry
The East Coast laboratory again had

the opportunity to examine some
interesting period pieces. The blue
stone in the pierced earring shown in
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
157
gest a turn-of-the-century dating for

the ring. Of particular interest, and
to us a rarity, is the fact that the nearcolorless accent stones are completely unpolished diamond chips
(again, see figure 18).The blue stones
appear to be undisturbed in the setting and therefore are probably original. The earliest date for these synthetics would be 1910, so the piece
could not have been made before
then.
RC
Figure 17. T h e unusual hallmarks on the gold post of the

enrring i n figure 16 raise some
questions as to when and
where it was fashioned. Magnified 10 X .
revolutionary Russia, or even if the

piece is indeed Russian. If the hammer and sickle came into use only
after the 1917 revolution, then the
piece would have to be considered a
reproduction.
The ring shown in figure 18 con-
Figure 18. Since synthetic blue

sapphires were not m a d e before 1910, this ring m a y be a
reproduction o f an earlier piece,
with diamond chips used
t o suggest the earlier dating.
tains three very deeply cut synthetic
sapphires that resemble some Sri
Lankan sapphires we have seen. The
silver top and gold shank again sug-
FIGURE CREDITS
The photomicrographs in figures 1, 2 and 8
are the work of John I. Koivula. Figures 3 ,
14, and 15 are by Robert Weldon. Dave
Hargett is responsible for ligure 4. Vincent
Cracco took the photo for figure 5. The I.R.
spectrum in ligure 6 was produced by Ilene
Reinitz. Nicholas DeIRe provided figures 7,
9, 11-13, and 16-18. The X-radiographs
reproduced in figure 10 were taken by
Robert Crowningshield.
A l ISTORICAL NOTE
Highlights from the ;em Trade Lab 25, 15, and five years ago
SUMMER 1965
The New York lab commented on
seeing for the first time a gray-blue
kornerupine set in jewelry. They also
mentioned a color-change sapphire,
two cat's-eye apatites, and a number
of painted diamonds that were being
fraudulently sold as natural color by
a 47th-Street jeweler.
The Los Angeles lab reported on a
beautiful aquamarine that was faceted on the pavilion but had a buff top
carved with the head of a lady who
was wearing a heavy bead necklace
and a hair ornament. They also described and illustrated a badly damaged diamond ring. T h e owner
remembered hitting the side of the
swimming pool a few times with it,
but didn't realize the damage caused.
The stone had chips extending from
the girdle to the culet on all four sides
between the prongs of the setting.
SUMMER 1975
Several examples of very beautiful
158
Gem Trade Lab Notes
scrimshaw work on sperm whale

teeth were examined and illustrated
by the Los Angeles laboratory. A11
unusual occurrence of corundum in
pinite was discussed and shown by
reflected and transmitted light, with
the difference in hardness of the two
materials readily apparent from the
difference in luster. Another rare
item was a snuff bottle carved from
the beak of a hornbill. The red color
of the casque on the bill was evident
as a darker rim on the edges of the
bottle,
The New York lab saw first-hand
the effects of too much heat on a
diamond. The ring in which the
stone was set had been repronged
with the stone in place and no effort
made to protect it. As a result, the
diamond was burned beyond recognition, with all of the facets destroyed.
The color changes that can occur
in GGG (gadolinium gallium garnet)
when i t is exposed to ultraviolet
radiation and then heated were covered in detail. The stones turn brown
when exposed to U.V radiation but
return to their original color on heating. A "Mood Stone" was examined

and found to be a quartz cabochon
backed with an unknown material
that changes color as the temperature changes. The color-change effect
is very similar to that of the liquid
crystal thermometers that change
color with variations in temperature.
SUMMER 1985
Different cat's-eyes were discussed
and illustrated, with the various
gemological properties listed. These
i n c l u d e d s p e c i m e n s of z i r c o n ,
quartz, a 52.97-ct green-brown scapolite, and a rare 1.86-ct hexagonite
(the pink variety of tremolite, found
in St. Lawrence county, New York).
Also illustrated was the damage incurred when a fluorite carving was
placed in dilute sulfuric acid to remove traces of soldering flux and
tarnish from a gold bail. An unusual
synthetic opal and a radioactive natural opal from Mexico were discussed and illustrated.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
John I. Koivula and Robert C. Kammerling, Editors
DIAMONDS
Scientists research material as hard as diamond. Using
principles based on the calculated compressibility of a
hypothetical solid composed of carbon and nitrogen,
scientists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory investigated the possibility of synthesizing new materials with
a hardness comparable to diamond. Physicist Marvin
Cohen and Berkeley graduate student Amy Liu used a
combination of a simple empirical model and a quantum-mechanical "first principals" computer calculation
to test their hypothesis. Experiments were performed on
silicon-nitride, in which the silicon was substituted
with carbon. Results found that a carbon-nitrogen conipound would have a bulk n~odulusof 4.3 megabars,
compared to the 4.4 megabars of a diamond. [A megabar
is one milliop times atmospheric pressure at sea level.)
A material with a hardness comparable to diamond
would be valued in industry for use in cutting tools and
as a wear-resistant protective coating.
Malaysia diamond plant. According to the Bernama
news agency, a new diamond-processing plant opened
this past March at Ipoh, 190 knl north of Kuala Lumpur
in Malaysia. The plant, a joint venture between two
Belgian companies (Schongut and Tache], is said to have
an annual capacity of 900,000 processed diamonds, with
a work force of 250.
Botswana beats target. Botswana produced 13 million
carats of diamonds in the first three quarters of 1989,
which betters the production target of 12.6 million
carats, according to the minister of Finance Development Planning. The minister added that an $87 million
crushing plant was scheduled for completion in April at
Debswana's Jwaneng diamond mine near the city of
Kanye, about 100 k m southwest of Gaborone. He speculated that diamonds produced at Jwaneng in the future
would be smallerand of lower value than those presently
mined, although total carat output would remain at the
current level. [Mining lournal, March 23, 1990)
Soviet-Singapore joint venture. lntraco of Singapore, a
government-linked trading firm, announced plans for a
joint trading venture with Almazjuvelirexport (Almaz),
which is currently the exclusive producer and exporter
of diamonds for the Soviet Union. The joint venture,
which began operations in April 1990, is called
Ccm News
Russalmaz Asia, and has started with a n authorized

capital of $500,000. Almaz would take a 50% stake, with
the remainder divided equally between Intraco and
Agrochem Investment of Singapore. The intention of the
newly formed venture is to deal not only in diamonds,
but also in colored stones, jewelry, precious metals, and
industry-related equipment and machinery.
New area in Angola to be mined. A new area in and
around Lucapa, in the province of Lunda-Norte, is a
prospecting target for the Sociedade Portuguesa de
Empreendimentos. SPE signed a two-year agreement
that allows it to prospect the area, for which target
production is 400,000 ct of diamond a year, according to
SPE's chairman. At the end of the two-year contract, SPE
and Endiama (Angola's national diamond enterprise)
might consider a joint mining venture. (Diamond International, MarchiApril 1990)
Argyle cutting school near Beijing. The Australian
government has funded a school to train diamond
cutters to boost the cutting of Australian rough in China
and encourage competition with India in the manufacture of Australian goods. According to Beijing officials,
the school, managed by Argyle Diamond Sales, was
scheduled to begin operations in April. On staff are five
Chinese training managers from the Pearl, Diamond,
Gem and Jewelry Import and Export Corporation
(CPDGJIEC].Students for the school - which hopes to
train 850 cutters over the three-year duration of the
project-will be recruited from CPDGJIEC factories in
Beijing and the provinces. Argyle will supply the rough
to be cut and polished; the finished stones will be
returned to Argyle. (Diamond International, January1
February 1990)
Kimberlite find in the U.S. The Upper Peninsula region of
Michigan was targeted for drilling by Crystal Exploration, Inc., to determine the diamond potential of a
kimberlite pipe found there. Out of 10 holes drilled in
that area, seven intersected kimberlite.
Crystal Exploration has acquired the diamond exploration assets of Dow Chemical Co., which had been
exploring for diamonds in Michigan for almost five
years. During this time, they discovered six pipes, two of
which require further processing to assess their potential. (Mining Journal, April 13, 19901
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
159
Figure 1. This 39.00 x 30.45 x 6,42 "plume" agate is

actually an assembled stone. Photo by Robert Weldon.
Diamond-cutting industry in Sri Lanka. Switzerland and
Sri Lanka are setting up a joint venture in the Katunayake area of Sri Lanka to cut and polish diamonds
and colored stones. The project is expected to employ
about 150 people. Sri Lanka had three approved diamond-cutting units in 1986, and now has 13, most of
which are joint ventures with Belgian, Israeli, and
Japanese interests. The Sri Lankan government has
offered outside investors incentives such as dutv-free
import of machinery and accessories and tax exemptions on export profits.
Future industry proposals include the establishment
of an exclusive diamond zone within the Katunayake
Free Trade Zone as well as the establishment of a special
Diamond Guild. [Mining Journal, April 27, 1990)
Tanzania intensifies mineral search. Apparently because
of radical reductions in the production of gold and
diamonds (the latter is reportedly only 50% of what it
was in the mid-1970s)) the Tanzanian government has
intensified its search for mineral deposits. The Mwadui
diamond mine is expected to be exhausted in approximately nine years. (Diamond Intelligence Briefs, May 8,
1990)
Prospecting in Botswana. The firm Molopo Australia is
currently exploring for diamonds in Botswana in a large
tract to the south and southwest of Debswana's Jwaneng
diamond mine. The firm reports "significant advances"
in its evaluation of one of the kimberlite pipes discovered in the prospect area. Molopo will carry out
aeromagnetic surveys in parts of the concession as well
as continue to evaluate the economic potential of
already-discovered kimberlite pipes. (Diamond Intelligence Briefs, May 8, 1990)
160
Gem News
Assembled "plume" agate. From time to time, we see

gem materials that have been treated to fabricate, alter,
or induce inclusions. We have seen transparent quartz
crystals with man-made "three-phase" inclusions, topaz
withstained etch channels that were heat treated to alter
the color of the iron-based staining, and agates with
dendritic inclusions produced through electrically stimulated chemical precipitation.
Recently, Pieter Bennett, a student at GIA in Santa
Monica, donated an interesting assembled stone to the
Institute. The stone, a very low-domed oval cabochon
(figure l), had been purchased at the February Tucson
Show, where it was represented to be "natural" dendritic
agate. The 61 -39-ctspecimen is essentially colorless and
almost transparent where inclusions are not present. It
exhibits an attractive "plume1'-type pattern of dark
reddish to greenish brown dendrites. One small, irregular area is a dark yellowish brown color with wavy, agatelike banding.
When examined from the side, the assembled nature
of the piece becomes obvious: The top consists of a
transparent, colorless, convex cap joined to a flat, light
gray, semitransparent to translucent base. With magnification, the cap appears inclusion-free. Between the cap
and the base is a fairly thick (approximately 0.5 mm),
transparent, colorless layer that contains many minute
spherical gas bubbles. Using a straight pin and very little
pressure, we easily scratched and indented this layer,
which we believe to consist of an epoxy or similar
synthetic resin. Irregular drops of this material were
found on the cap near the separation plane, and the entire
base - which showed several scratches - was coated
with it. In addition to the dendritic inclusions mentioned above, the approximately 1.2-mm-thick base
section contained some irregular, wispy, milky-white
areas, some of which showed typical "botryoidal" or
"fortification agate" structure.
A spot-R.I. taken on the apex of the cap revealed a
reading of 1.51; the 1.56 flat-facet reading taken on the
base was believed to represent the thick coating rather
than the underlying material. No birefringence or
pleochroism was noted, and no absorption features could
be detected with a desk-model prism spectroscope unit.
When examined face-up in the polariscope, the stone
exhibited an aggregate reaction; when examined
through the side, parallel to the separation plane, the cap
gave a singly refractive reaction, while the base gave an
aggregate reaction. Using hardness points, we determined that the cap had a Mohs hardness of approximately 5 '12.
Viewed face-up, the piece was inert to long-wave U.V
radiation and fluoresced a moderate chalky yellow to
short-wave U.V When the piece was examined parallel to
the girdle plane, however, the epoxy-like layer fluoresced
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
a bright bluish white-and both the base and cap were

inert - to long-wave U.V; to short-wave U.V, the cap
fluoresced a strong chalky yellow, the epoxy-like layer
fluoresced a moderate chalky bluish white, and the base
was inert. Interestingly, when the stone was viewed
through its base while exposed to short-wave U.V
radiation, the yellow fluorescence of the cap was
masked.
On the basis of these test results, we determined that
the specimen was a glass and dendritic ("plume") agate
doublet, the two components being joined by a colorless
cement layer. One might ask why anyone would go to the
trouble of producing such an assembled stone. Dr.
Emmanuel Fritsch, of the GIA Research Departn~ent,
suggested that only in a relatively thin section might the
agate base exhibit the desired "plume" effect; the assemblage allowed this effect to be seen in a larger (and
perhaps more durable) stone.
Apatite "from Paraiba" and apatite purchased as emerald. Among the colors seen in the Paraiba tourmaline
that has recently emerged from Brazil is a saturated
bluish green similar in appearance to what some in the
trade call "light emerald." Also seen at the February
Tucson Show were parcels of greenish blue to bluish
green apatitethat reportedly came from Madagascar; at
least one exhibitor was offering apatite in this color
range as "~araibaapatite," while another was selling
virtually identical material labeled simply "Paraiba." To
our knowledge, no apatite comes from Paraiba.
Interestingly, about a month after the Tucson Show, we
received International Colored Gemstone Association
(ICA] Laboratory Alert No. 35, "Bluish Green Apatite
Rough as Emerald." The report, which originated with
Yehuda Yacar of the Gemological Institute for Precious
Stones and Diamonds Ltd. i n Ramat-Gan, Israel, documented the gen~ologicalproperties of a 230-gram parcel
of bluish green apatite that was purchased in Kenya as
emerald and was said to have come from Madagascar.
Brazilian chrysoprase. Chrysoprase is one of the more
popular gem varieties of chalcedony. The best known
locality for this yellowish green material is Australia,
and it is often given the misnomer "Queensland jade."
Recently, Douglas M. Henrique of Huntington Park,
California, showed us some rough specimens of an
attractive light yellowish green material that he described as Brazilian chrysoprase. According to Afranio
Moreira, of Brasil Conlercio de Pedras Preciosas, in
Governador Valadares, the material is found in a galena
mine near Niquelandia, in the Brazilian state of Goias.
According to Mr. Moreira, only 30% of the material
recovered is green, with the rest white.
We subsequently had two oval single cabochons and a
preform cut from one of the pieces of rough (donated by
Mr. Moreira) and subjected these to testing to confirm
the identity. One of the cabochons, together with a piece
Gem News
Figure 2. Chrysoprase, like this lZ.l8-ci

c~bochoiiand accompanying rough, is being
mined in G o d s , Brazil. Phoio by Robert Weldon.
of strongly color zoned rough, is shown in figure 2. The
pieces are all light, slightly yellowish green and semitranslucent. A refractive index of 1.539 was obtained
from the flat, well-polished base of one specimen, and
thin sections of the cabochons gave aggregate reactions
in the polariscope. When viewed through a Chelsea color
filter, the stones appeared grayish green. Specific gravity
(taken with heavy liquids) was approximately 2.64.
Magnification revealed yellowish, possibly limonitic,
staining in some surface-reaching fractures.
X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, performed by Dr.
Emmanuel Fritsch, demonstrated the presence of both
silicon and nickel in a test sample. Meredith Mercer, also
of the GIA Research Department, compared the
U.V-visible absorption spectrum of this material to that
of a reference sample of Australian chrysoprase from the
GIA collection and found the features of the two to be
essentially identical. This testing confirmed the identity of the material as chrysoprase chalcedony.
One interesting feature noted during the gen~ological
investigation was the reaction to ultraviolet radiation of
this Brazilian material: It fluoresced a moderate greenish
blue to long-wave, and a weaker greenish blue to shortwave, U.V, and did not phosphoresce to either wavelength. Chrysoprase from other localities is typically
inert to both wavelengths.
Major jade deposits in Japan. Commercial mining of jade

is very limited in Japan, although large deposits of goodquality jadeite exist. In addition to the green variety,
blue, purple, black, and white jadeite has been found.
Deposits in Kotaki, near Itoigawa and Oomi in Niigata
prefecture, are under snow six months of the year, and
even in the warmer months strong river currents and
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
161
durability. Another piece of material, s u c h as

chalcedony, may be glued to the base, thus producing a
"cat's-eye opal triplet."
Recently Lorri Dee Rascoe, a staff gemologist in the
CIA Gem Trade Laboratory, showed the editors a very
attractive opal triplet measuring 7.78 x 9.85 x 4.80
mm. The assembled stone was noteworthy for the
strength of its play-of-color chatoyant band (figure 3).
Peridot mining update. Suzanne Kinkade, of Arizona
Gems & Crystals, provided the Gem News editors with
an update on peridot mining at the San Carlos Apache
Indian Reservation in Arizona. According to Ms. Kinkade, n~onthlyproduction at this important locality is
presently about 600 kg of cabochon- and tumblingquality material and 12-15 kg of facetable rough. Approximately 95% of the latter consists of pieces smaller
than 5 ct. Typically, mining is carried out from October
Figure 3. This "cat's-eye" opal triplet measures

7.78 x 9.85 x 4.80 m m . Photo b y Robert
Weldon.
Figure 4. Amethyst scepters such as this 10-cm+"I

^.."A
""
+ \y i r + L a l-yo National
long (.
Fores
iber
in.
."".."
,.n"
landslides make it difficult to get men and equipment

into the area. Following the rainy season, however,
jadeite pebbles of good color and quality are found on the
banks of the Kotaki and Himekawa rivers, in Niigata
prefecture, and on the seashore at Asahi, in nearby
Toyama prefecture. A deposit of fine jadeite was recently
discovered in Hashidate, close to Itoigawa, but the snow,
rough terrain, and dangerous insects make commercial
mining possible only in September.
In Ooya, in Hyogo prefecture, good-quality white
jadeite with splashes of bright green has been discovered,
but the deposits are protected. Deposits recently discovered in Kanto and Gunma are yet to be mined. Other
jadeite deposits in Japan are: Kamuikotan in Hokkaido;
the northern mountain area of Nagano prefecture; Wakasa in Tottori prefecture; Oosa in Okayama prefecture;
and Nagasaki and Shikoku. [JewelleryNews Asia, March
1990)
Attractive chatoyant assembled opal. Opal is an essentially noncrystalline, amorphous form of silica that
consists of regularly arranged spherical particles which
diffract white light into colors of the spectrum.
Some opal, notably material from Idaho, exhibits a
play-of-color in the form of a chatoyant band, an effect
that has been attributed to planar faults in the stacking
of the silica spheres. This chatoyancy can be enhanced
by gluing a colorless cabochon cap, which acts as a
condensing lens, over the opal; the cap also increases
162
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
in Patagonia, Argentina. It measures 55 mm high and 53

mm in diameter, and weighs approximately 125 grams.
to March, since the heat is unbearable during much of

the rest of the year and many of the potential miners are
often occupied as firefighters.
California quartz update. In the Winter 1988 Gem News
section, we reported on the recovery of good-quality
smoky quartz crystals in the Inyo National Forest, Inyo
County, California. Continued exploration by Michael
and Cora Anderson has led to the discovery of amethyst
crystals as long as 4 in. (10cm)in this area. Some of these
crystals show very fine scepter form, as seen in figure 4.
Most of the crystals found thus far can be described as
specimen quality, while a few have transparent areas
suitable for faceting. The extent of the deposit is not
known at the present time.
Rubies from Vietnam? Dr. Henry A. Hanni, of the Swiss

Foundation for the Research of Gemstones [SSEF),provided the Gem News editors with some very interesting
information relating to rubies that he believes to be from
a new source in Southeast Asia. On a recent visit to
Thailand, Dr. Hanni heard about rubies supposedly
coming from either Vietnam or Cambodia; he also noted
that Richard Hughes, editor of Gemmological Digest,
had mentioned rubies from Vietnam in the most recent
issue of that journal. While in Chanthaburi, Thailand,
Dr. Hanni had an opportunity to see a large number of
Unusual pseudomorph. Some of the most unusual unfashioned specimens of gem minerals are silica pseudomorphs after various organic materials. Included
among these are petrified wood and silicified coral, as
well as opalized wood, shells, and even lizards.
Recently, an unusually fine fossilized cryptocrystalline quartz pine cone [figure 5 )that dates back to
the Jurassicperiod was brought to our attention by David
Humphrey. The pine cone, Aura Caria Mirabilis, was
reportedlyiftund in the Cerro Cuadrado Petrified Forest,
Figure 5. This 55-mm-high fossilized pine cone

was discovered in Patagonia, Argentina.
Courtesy of David Humphrey, Pacific Palisades,
CA. Photo by Robert Weldon.
Figure 6. This ruby rough is reportedly from a

new locality in Vietnam. Photo courtesy of
Dr. Henry Hanni, SSEE
'
Gem News
rubies (figure 6 ) that were reportedly from this new

locality in Vietnam and to purchase samples for preliminary investigation.
Dr. Hanni believes, based on his study of the inclusions and on trace-element analyses, that the deposit
from which these rubies came is similar to the ruby
deposits of Burma, Hunza (Pakistan), and Jegdalik [Afghanistan); he postulates that the rubies are derived
from a marble occurrence. Samples he examined contained phlogopite mica and intersecting twin lamellae,
and had a "certain milkiness." Almost all of the individual stones were waterworn, rolled pebbles, although
some exhibited fresh crystal faces and had a tabular
habit (figure 7). Dr. Hanni feels that if these stones were
heat treated, they might be indistinguishable-except by
trace-element analysis-from similar-appearing material from East Africa or Burma.
The largest specimen examined weighed approximately 20 grams (100ct); like many of the stones, it was
not transparent but was believed to be suitable for heat
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
163
"sandstone-like" rock. Slabs as large as 1 111 across have

been recovered.
The GIA Gem Trade Laboratory has examined similar
material in the past, and found it to be a rock con~posed
primarily of quartz sand grains, opal, and pyrite, with
the opal being the cementing agent.
Figure 7. Note the tabular habit of this ruby

crystal, which was reportedly mined in Vietnam.
Photo courtesy of Dr. Henry Hanni, SSEF.
treatment. With magnification, Dr. Hanni observed
healing fissures as well as "dense patterns of intersecting
narrow twin lamellae" in this stone.
Rock-like material with play-of-color. At a Santa Monica
gem show, one of the Gem News editors recently
examined an interesting semitranslucent gem material,
fashioned en cabochon, that ranged from gray to yellowbrown in body color and exhibited a speckled play-ofcolor (figure 8). Magnification revealed transparent colorless grains surrounded, and cemented together, by
what appeared to be a whitish opal exhibiting diffraction
colors. Some specimens exhibited a range of spectral
colors, while others showed only green.
According to the vendor, Ajith K. Senanayake of Sri
Gems, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, the material is recovered
from swampy areas within a 30- to 40-mi. (48-64 k m )
radius of the city of Lafayette, Louisiana. It is found in
association with what Mr. Senanayake describes as a
Cat's-eye topaz. Recently, Charles Carnlona of Guild

Laboratories, Inc., Los Angeles, showed us an interesting,
very light yellowish brown, almost round double cabochon that he had identified as topaz. The 3.53-ct stone
(8.63 x 8.36 x 5.01 m m ] was translucent and exhibited
a very strong chatoyant band (figure 9), which was
apparent even under the diffused illumination of overhead fluorescent lighting.
Magnification revealed a dense pattern of very fine,
parallel etch ribbons that were stained with a light
yellow material (possibly limonite). When the stone was
examined in transn~ittedlight down the length of the
ribbons, a transmission effect similar to that seen with
the mineral ulexite (sometimes sold as "TV stone"
because of the fiber-optic effect it exhibits) was noted.
Secondary partially healed fractures in fingerprint patterns were also noted.
This is the first example of cat's-eye topaz that either
of the Gem News editors has seen.
The discovery of the Paraiba tourmaline mine. The
introduction of the "electric" blue and green tourn~alinesknown as "Paraibai' to the colored stone market
was one of the more notable industry events of recent
years. Heitor Barbosa, who claims to have first discov-
Figure 9. This 3.53-ct cat's-eye topaz exhibits

strong chatoyancy Photo by Robert Weldon.
Figure 8. These 3- to 5-ct cabochons of a rock-like

material from Louisiana display a speckled
play-of-color. Photo by Robert Weldon.
164
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
ered the Paraiba tourmalines, provided the following

report on the history and development of this mine.
The sole source of the material, Mina da Batalha a
Nova Era (Mine of the Battle of the New Era) is located in
the state of Paraiba, Brazil, south of the mountain range
Serra da Borborema on the north flank of Serra da Frade.
It is 4.5 km northeast of Salgadinho, near the village of
Siio Jose da Batalha. T h e m i n e is operated by
COGASBRA, Cooperativa de Garimpeiros de S i o Jose da
Batalha, municipality of Salgadinho, registered by the
National Department of Minerals, DNPM, alvara no.
7.432, on March 13, 1990. Because the ongoing dispute
over mining rights could become violent, the mine is not
open to outsiders at the present time.
Barbosa, who previously had mined green tourmaline
from the Golconda mine in Minas Gerais, was traveling
through northeast Brazil's rugged sertio outback region
in 1982 when he met Jose Pereira of Patos, Paraiba, an old
garimpeiro who dealt in industrial "black mineral1'tantalite-columbite- which is found almost exclusively
in pegmatites. When Barbosa examined some samples of
the black mineral, he noticed tiny grains of a material
resembling colored sugar that no one had identified but
he suspected was a gem material. Barbosa then decided
to explore for gem prospects with Pereira as his guide.
They searched the mine dumps and tailings of the
region's tinyiindustrial pegmatites, exploited for tantalite, beryl; rhica, phosphate, and quartz, among other
minerals. In 1983, while investigating the tailings of a
small manganotantalite pit at the base of a hill, Barbosa
spotted colorful fragments and began to dig.
Over the course of two and a half years, with a crew of
10 to 16 men, Barbosa laboriously dug two shafts up to
50 111 deep, the second with 15-n1 galleries at several
levels. The slow and cunlbersome process involved twokilo sledge hammers, chisels, pry bars, shovels, picks,
and dynamite. The shafts followed vertical pegmatite
dikes, with narrow (1.8 x 0.6 m ) galleries carved where
they intersected a horizontal finger of the dike. [Tourmaline is usually found here in pencil-thick veinlets
enveloped in white kaolin clay.) Debris was moved back
out of the galleries by shoveling across the length of the
shaft and into a rubber bucket, which was then hauled to
the top of the shaft by a hand-turned winch.
During 1985-87, Barbosa relates, miners encountered
several varieties of tourmaline, ranging from bright
"lettuce" green to blue green, near-emerald color, and
drab green stones with indicolite tips large enough for
faceting. In August 1988, at a depth of 50 m, Barbosa
found five different types of blue tourmaline, including
the "electric" blue stone he calls "Heitorita" (figures 10
and 11). He tells how he had to "bring [the beautiful
tourmaline] out again and again to look at it. . . . After
five and a half years, this was not just a good surprise but
a present beyond imagination." In late 1988, the first
examples of Paraiba blue tourmaline found their way
into the Brazilian markets.
Gem News
Since the emergence of significant amounts of this

fine material, a second claim has been made on exploration rights in the general vicinity. However, Barbosa has
already been granted these rights for the area where the
tourmaline was found, and he expects the Federal
Department of Minerals to grant the mining lease to the
COGASBRA mining cooperative, of which he is president, shortly. Currently, COGASBRA is working five
different shafts with 14 miners, although Barbosa feels
that a greater capacity -up to 25 pits-is feasible.
Tourmaline doublets. Some of the most interesting
assembled stones-and potentially the most difficult to
identify-are those that are composed partially or conlpletely of the natural gem species being imitated. For
example, beryl triplets, composed of two sections of
natural beryl joined by a green cement, will give refractive index and birefringence readings consistent with
emerald.
ICA Laboratory Alert No. 33, written by Drs. Hermann Bank and Ulrich Henn of the Deutsche Stiftung
Edelsteinforschung, Idar-Oberstein, reports on tourmaline doublets. One basic type exhibits a cat's-eye
effect, made by cementing a transparent crown to a
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
165
fibrous pavilion; the other is a bicolored transparent

stone, with the two color components cemented together (figure 12). In either case, the con~ponentpieces
may or may not be from the same crystal. As the authors
note, both types can be identified with magnification, as
the cement layer is easily visible.
"Treasure" postage stamp. While reading the article
"Emerald and Gold Treasures of the Spanish Galleon
Nuestra Senora de Atochal' (Gems &> Gemology, Winter
1989),Nawal Kishore Tatiwala of Bansal Jewellers Gem
Identification Laboratory in Jaipur, India, was reminded
of a postage stamp in his gems and jewelry stamp
collection (figure 13).
The stamp, issued by the Bermuda government in
1969, shows a gold cross that appears to be set with
cabochon emeralds in a style very similar to that of the
emerald-set cross described in the G d G article and
pictured on the cover of that issue. The stamp carries the
Figure 13. The emerald-set gold cross pictured

on this Bermuda postage stamp is strikingly
similar to the cross that appeared on the
cover of the Winter 1989 Gems & Gemology
Stamp courtesy of Nawal Kishore Tatiwala;
photo by Robert Weldon.
Figure 11. The "electric" blue color that appears
to be unique to the Paraiba find can be seen
here in this 1-cm tourmaline fragment on
quartz from the Batalha a Nova Era mine.
Specimen courtesy of Nature's Geometry;
photo by Robert Weldon.
Figure 12. These two bicolored tourmalines were

identified as assembled stones. Photo courtesy
of H. Bank and U. Henn, Deutsche Stiftung
Edelsteinforschung, ldar-Oberstein, Germany.
166
Gem News
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
legend "1594 TREASURE FROM THE SEA" and a value

of "4d." According to Mr. Tatiwala, four stamps of
different values were issued.
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Plastic cameo imitations. The Spring 1989 Gem News
column reported on two plastic cameo imitations, one
resembling a shell cameo and the other mimicking a
Wedgwood piece.
At the most recent Tucson Show, the Gem News
editors saw a new type of plastic imitation cameo that
was quite large and resembled those cut from the reddish
brown and white helmet shells. These imitations are
particularly effective in that they appear to have been
molded in a manner that produces an irregular concave
back, similar to that seen on large natural shell cameos
(figure 14).
Imitation emeralds from southern Africa. Jim Lewis of

Kaiser Gems, Los Angeles, has provided more information on imitation emerald crystals similar to those
described by Dr. Henry A. Hanni in the Spring 1989 Gem
News section.
On a buying trip to Zambia in May and June of 1989,
Messrs. Lewis and Caesar Habib lco-owner of Kaiser
Gems) were shown what appeared t o be a large emerald
crystal byQ~'localman not involved in the gemstone
industry. In Malawi, they were shown a sin~ilar-appearing specimen. In Los Angeles some months later, Kaiser
Gems was visited by the man from Zambia who brought
with him the original specimen plus another similar
"crystal." These were examined with magnification and
immediately determined to be composite imitations.
Mr. Lewis subsequently loaned them to G1A for examination.
The two "crystals" have a distorted hexagonal habit
(figure 15). The larger weighs 63.35 ct and measures
31.96 x 17.60 x 16.37 mm; the smaller weighs 26.96 ct
and measures 28.30 x 15.49 x 12.05 mm. Thev are both
medium dark green with rather rough surfaces that are
partially coated with a light orangy brown limonitic
staining and tiny flakes of mica. The smaller one has an
area of distinctly lighter color and lower transparency.
Some relatively clean, smooth surface areas on both
reveal highly transparent interiors; neither of the specimens has a termination.
The larger piece had one relatively smooth surface
that allowed determination of refractive index readings
of approximately 1.54-1.55, although the condition of
the surface did not allow for an accurate birefringence.
The smaller "crystal" had a smooth, partially polished
face which gave R.I. readings of 1.545-1.553 and a birefringence of 0.008; a flat surface on the lighter green area
gave a vague R.1. reading of 1.57. Both "crystals" gave
doubly refractive reactions in the polariscope and appeared grayish green through the Chelsea color filter.
Both showed a strong, chalky, slightly greenish white
Gem News
Figure 14. These two plastic imitation shell

cameos, which measure 70 x 56 m m , had been
molded to imitate the irregular concave backs
seen on some natural shell cameos. Photo
b y Robert Weldon.
reaction to long-wave U.V radiation in some areas, with a
similar but distinctly weaker reaction to short-wave U.V
There was no phosphorescence to either wavelength.
When the specimens were examined with a DlSCAN
diffraction-grating spectroscope unit, a dark absorption
band at 662-689 nnl was observed; this is similar to the
main absorption feature noted in jadeite and some other
gem materials that have been dyed green, including
quench-crackled quartz.
Magnification revealed the true nature of the deception. Both specimens consisted of fairly thick green
seams holding together irregular fragments of a transparent colorless material, the individual fragments exhibit-
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
167
onto the surfaces of the specimens. Doubling could be

seen through the smoothest face of the smaller specimen.
On the basis of this examination, the editors concluded that these imitation emerald "crystals" were
composed primarily of quartz fragments that were held
together with a green epoxy resin or other plastic, The
lighter green area on the smaller crystal is believed to be
a piece of low-quality natural emerald. These two
specimens appear to be quite similar to the two imitation emerald crystals from southern Africa described by
Dr. Hanni in his earlier report.
Figure 16. The 10-inm beads in this necklace

resemble rhodochrosite but were determined to
be dyed massive calcite. Photo by Robert
Welclon.
ing parallel striations that were randomly oriented from

one fragment to another. The green binding material
contained numerous gas bubbles and was easily indented
with a needle probe; the mica flakes appeared to be glued
Tiffany & Co. has donated a

large kunzite necklace to the
Sinithsonian Institution's National
Museum of Natural History.
The necklace, which features
a 396.30-ct lwnzite on a necklace
of South Sea baroque pearls,
was designed by Palonla Picasso
in 1986. It appeared on the cover
of the Summer 1987 issue of
Gems o) Gemology The donation
coincided with the opening
of a branch store of Tiffany &
Co. in Tysons Corner, Virginia.
The National Museum of Natural
History also recently received
a donation from the Independent
Jewelers Organization of a 120-
168
Gem News
Imitation rhodochrosite beads. Massive calcite has been

dyed various colors and used to imitate a wide variety of
other ornamental gem materials such as jade ("Mexican
jade"), lapis lazuli, and coral, CIA instructor Mary
Fitzgerald recently showed the Gem News editors a
continuous strand of approxin~ately10-mm beads that
at first glance resembled rhodochrosite. The beads,
which she purchased in Mexico, have an overall pinkish
body color; many of them showed prominent banding
ranging from very light pink to slightly orange-red
(figure 16).With routine gemological testing, the beads
were found to be massive banded calcite ("onyx marble").
Magnification showed obvious dye concentrations in
surface-reaching fractures and around the drill holes,
while vigorous rubbing produced a pink discoloration on
an acetone-dipped cotton swap.
lb. (54.5-kg] specin~enof transparent s n ~ o k ycitrine consisting

of two pencil-like, six-sided crystals that are joined at the base.
The longer section is 26 in. tall
and 7 in. in diameter. Both crystals
are so transparent that it is
possible to read newsprint through
them. The specimen was found
at a mine in Minas Gerais.
1990, to February 17, 1991.

On display are over 2,000 gems,
minerals, and metals, including
fancy-colored diamonds, black
opals from Australia, a 122.08ct kunzite, and a 22.18-ct emerald
from the Muzo mine in Colombia.
Also in the hall will be several
educational exhibits on geology,
the lapidary arts, and mining,
The Cleveland Museum of Natural

History has announced the opening
of its new 7,000 square-foot
exhibition gallery with an inaugural exhibit from its permanent
collection of gems, jewelry, and
precious metals. The show, titled
GemFire, will run from April 7,
Erratum: The Gem News entry

regarding the Pamir spinel in
the Winter 1989 issue of Gems o)
Gemology should have called
the stone a cushion cut. It was
faceted by J~istiiiaWright of
Fallbrook, California, but is owned
by Marius Van Dyk.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
though one continues to hear complaints about reference inadequacies,

this reviewer feels that these complaints are unjustified, The only toBy Willard L. Roberts, Thomas /.
tally new feature is the inclusion of
Campbell, and George R. Rapp, jr.,
reflected-light data for opaque min979 pp., illus., publ. by Van Noserals.
trand Reinhold, New York, 1989.
This reviewer would like to extoll
.
-.
.
-- the high level of accuracy that obviUS99.95'
Elise B. Misjorowski and
Prior to the publication of the first
ouslv characterized the data entries.
Loretta B. Loeb, Editors
edition of the Encyclopedia of MinIt is heartening to find such editorial
erals in 1974, i t had been a long time
integrity in a n age when books are
since any major con~pendium of
carelessly researched and thrown tominerals had been released, the last
gether with little or no concern about
accuracy than to select a big block of
being volun~esI and I1 of Dana's
accuracy or adherence to a specific
these facts and check them against
System of Mineralogy (1944 and
objective.
their original sources. When one does
1951, respectively). During the interOne negative aspect about the text
this (as I did with a random Samval (1951-1974), new species were
was that i t may have failed slightly in
pling), a measure of the authors' dedibeing introduced at an average rate of
its cataloguing of important contenlcation, thoroughness of proofreadmore than 50 per year, with some 65
porary mineral localities; some very
ing, and care taken in data gathering
being acknowledged in the year just
important ones were omitted or overquickly becomes evident. The aubefore the first Encyclopedia was
looked. There also appears to have
published. Moreover, many long-fa- thors have done a remarkable job; the
been poor coordination between the
number of errors was far below what
miliar species had been discredited,
authors and the photo editor, as sev1was prepared to accept as tolerable.
families of related species were being
eral localities of specimens illusThe format is essentially the same
recognized, and basic data relating to
trated are not given in the text. For
as the first edition, with the minerals
many established n~ineralshad been
example, the authors failed to cite
arranged in alphabetical order. Under
refined. Thdre thus existed a great
Nasik (India) as the locality for the
the mineral for which a group is
thirst for a contemporary book comworld's finest powellite, even though
named, one finds a general entry
bining the vast accumulation of data
a color photograph of a Nasik powon new species that had blosson~ed (apatite group, for example], followed
ellite is used in the book.
by a brief statement of some of the
over the previous 24 or more years.
Overall, the photographs are excelThe first edition of the Encyclope- parameters the members share (e.g.,
lent, substantially better than those
crystal system), the elen~entsthat
dia of Minerals brought existing and
of the first edition. For the most part,
may substitute in specific sites (thus
new information together i n a
the printing is also excellent, alcreating the various members), and
praiseworthy fashion. No one had
though the color is badly off on a
then a list of these members. This
ever tackled such a compilation, and
couple of specimens (microcline and
it was bound to have some problen~s. convention informs the reader that a
scorodite).This reviewer feels that, if
group of related minerals exists, UnThe problems were n~inor,however,
the purpose of the color photographs
der the data for each of the group
and in no way diminished the granwas to aid the reader in n~ineral
members, the group association is
deur of that monumental accomidentification, then there should
again identified.
plishment. It was, in fact, such a
have been more photographs of very
The inforn~ationprovided under
prodigious effort that few ever
rare species. However, the scanning
each individual e n t r y includes:
dreamed that it would be followed by
electron n~icrographsand the crystal
chemical formula, crystal system
a second edition.
drawings are very helpful in identiand class, space group, lattice conThe second edition is of enormous
fication.
stants, three strongest diffraction
size, with 979 pages, 286 more than
This book may seem expensive,
lines, optical constants, hardness,
the first edition, for a total weight of
but a comparable volun~eprobably
density, cleavage, habit, color/luster,
just over seven pounds. The 240 color
could not be published for much less.
mode of occurrence, and at least one
photographs are presented in a center
Those who work with minerals can
selected reference.
section of the book, while another
The quality of the references pro104 black-and-white illustrations are
vided is vastly improved over the
interspersed throughout the text, as
first edition, as many new and better
are 45 crystal drawings. The book's
"This book is available for purchase at
ones have been added. Many now
primary objective is to present tens
the GIA Bookstore, 1660 Slewart Street,
include JCPDS X-ray data file nuinSanfa Monica, CA 90404. Telephone:
of thousands of hard facts accurately.
(800) 421-7250, ex!. 282.
bers, which is a nice addition. AlThere is no better method to measure
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
MINERALS
2nd Edition, December 1989
BOOK
REVIEWS
--
Book Reviews
G E M S & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
169
ill afford to be without their ow11

copy - n o c o m p e t i n g reference
stands alone as effectively as this
one. While every boolz about minerals is deficient in some important
area, the Encyclopedia of Minerals
conies closer than any other to satisfying all of the needs of professional
mineralogists and amateur collectors
in just one volume. This book is a
wonderful legacy to have been left by
lead author Willard Lincoln Roberts,
who did not live to see its publication.
JOHN SAMPSON WHITE
Cura tor-in-Charge
Division of Mineralogy
National Museum of
Natural History
Smithsonion Institution
Washington, DC
BLACK PEARLS
OF TAHITI
By Dr. Jean-Paul Lintilhac, photographs by Aloin Durond, 116 pp.,
illus., pub], by Royal Tahitian Pearl
Book, Papeete, Tahiti, 1987.
US$39.95*
The subject of black pearls is of
growing interest worldwide, and this
boolz has something for everyone,
from the casual tourist to the serious
pearl dealer. The information is well
ordered, beginning with a data sheet
on the islands of paradise to whet the
appetite of any traveler. This is followed by a brief but concise history
of the discovery of the many islands
comprising French Polynesia and the
politics involved in their development.
While dispelling the myth of
glamour surrounding the South Seas
pearl diver, the narrative provides an
instructive description of the pearling industry, from the production of
mother-of-pearl with the pearl as a
by-product to the eventual creation
and production of the cultured black
pearl. Dr. Lintilhac then describes
the locations and culturine
- methods
used by many of the farmers to bring
170
Book Reviews
this product to the world market. He

also relates the rigors of the work and
the many and sometimes devastating
problenls encountered along the way.
He includes a description of the characteristics that set these black pearls
apart as a desirable conlmodity in the
jewelry trade.
Calling on the experiences of his
deeply personal involvement in pearl
production, which sometimes approached the status of a full-fledged
apprenticeship, he is able to give a
meaningful overview of the procedures used in evaluating the poe
rava (Tahitian for black pearl) for
beauty and price. The last few pages
are devoted to a photographic essay
illustrating the use of the black pearl
in jewelry for the world market.
The illustrations are meaningful
and the exquisite photography adequately supplies the text material
with the necessary visual interest.
Although not a voluminous publication, the book is spectacular without
being pretentious.
ARCHIE CURTIS
Administrative Officer
CIA, Santa Monica
GEM IDENTIFICATION
MADE EASY:
A HANDS-ON GUIDE
TO MORE CONFIDENT
BUYING AND SELLING
By Antoinette L. Matlins and A. C.
Bonanno, 270 pp., illus., publ. by
Gemstone Press, South Woodstock,
VT, 1989. US$29.95'
This book serves as an introduction
to gem identification for readers with
little or no gemological background.
Matlins and Bonanno begin by recommending gemological i n s t r u ments they feel are essential to setting up a small identification lab,
with emphasis placed on the loupe,
dichroscope, Chelsea filter, refractometer, ultraviolet lamp, and microscope. The function, proper use, and
limitations of each piece of equip-
ment are discussed in a comprehensible manner using informative illustrations. The authors focus on observations that can be made with the
various instruments, rather than on
scientific explanations, and supply
numerous examples of separations
and identifications that can be accomplished with each. The examples, however, are somewhat limited
in their completeness. Grouped at
the back of the book are a number of
tables of gem properties and lists of
sources for further information, including magazines, gemological associations, and gem identification
laboratories.
The biggest drawback of this book
is that it oversimplifies gem identification. By saying that approximately 85% of the commonly encountered gemstones can be positively identified using a loupe, dichroscope, and Chelsea filter, the
authors are making gem identification sound deceptively easy and failing to emphasize and explain how
complex an issue it can be. 111 most
cases, a confident separation between yellow sapphire and citrine or
yellow beryl could not be made using
only those three instruments. In addition, several commonly encountered gems have sophisticated synthetic counterparts. If one were to
make natural vs. synthetic separations using only a loupe, dichroscope, and Chelsea filter, costly errors could result. However, the authors do acknowledge that it is important for a person to recognize his
or her limitations and employ the
services of a professional gemologist
or laboratory for verified identifications. Overall, although they fall
short of discussing the more complex
identifications, Matlins and Bonanno
have assembled a good introductory
guide to gem identification.
MARY FITZGERALD
Resident Colored Stones/
Gem Identification
Instructor
GIA, Santa Monica
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
Dona M . Dirlam, Editor
REVIEW BOARD
Barton C. Curren
Topanga Canyon. Calilon
Stephanie L. Dillon
San Clemente. Calilornia
Bob F. Effler
GIA. Santa Monica
Emmanuel Fritsch
GIA. Santa Monica
Patricia A. S. Gray
Venice, Calilornia
Mahinda Gunawardene
Idar-Oberslein Germany
Gary S. Hill
GIA, Santa Monica
Karin N. Hurwit
Gem Trade Lab. I n c . Santa Monica
Robert C, Kammerling
GIA. Santa Monica
Neil Letson
Palm Beach. F/orida
Shane F. McClure
Gem Trade Lab. Inc , Santa Monica
COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
Ein Beitrag zur Farbe niederschlesischer Chrysoprase (A
contribution concerning color in Lower Silesian
chrysoprase). L. Natkaniec-Nowak, W Heflik, N.
Sobczak, and T. Sobczak, Zeitschrift der Deutschen G e m m o l o g i s c l ~ e n Gesellschaft, Vol. 38,
No. 1, 1989, pp. 3 1-36.
Lower Silesia has produced chrysoprase since the early
1400s; in fact, the Silesian material remained unsurpassed in quality until the discovery in 1960 of Australia's exceptional Marlborough Creek deposits. Fine table
This section is designed to provide as complete a record as

practical ol the recent literature on gems and gemology. Articles
are selected lor abstracting solely at the discretion 01 the section
editor and her reviewers,and space limitations may require that we
include only those articles that we feel will be of greatest interest to
our readership.
Inquiries for reprints of articles abstracted must be addressed to
the author or publisher of the original material.
The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her initials at the
end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are identified by their full
names. Opinions expressed in an abstract belong to the abstractor
and in no way reflect the position of Gems & Gemology
or GIA.
@ 1990 Gemological Institute of America
Elise B. Misiorowski
GIA, Santa Monica
Gary A. Roskin
GIA, Santa Monica
James E. Shigley
GIA. Santa Monica
Carol M. Stockton
Los Angeles. Calilornia
William R. Videto
GIA, Santa Monica
Robert Weldon
GIA. Santa Monica
surfaces, mosaics, and ceremonial objects fashioned

from Lower Silesian chrysoprase can be found in many
European castles and chapels, and one fine collection of
armbands and rings is held in the Kremlin treasury in
Moscow.
Geologic and mineralogic literature on the Lower
Silesian deposits is abundant, some of it dating back to
the 17th century. Yet the exact cause of chrysoprase's
translucent green color has remained scientific conjecture.
Responding to the challenge of finding the cause of
color, the authors used Beckinan U.V-visible spectrophotometry, infrared spectroscopy, and electron-spin
resonance testing. Their evaluation of structural chemistry concludes that color in Lower Silesian chrysoprase
is caused by the presence of nickel silicates in the
cryptocrystalline framework.
Pans A. Walker
Orangefarbene Korunde aus Malawi (Orange corundums
from Malawi). U. Henn, H. Bank, and F. H. Bank,
Zeitscllrjft der Deutschen G e ~ n n ~ o l o g i s c h eGne sellschaft, Vol. 38, No. 4, 1989, pp. 164-166.
Blue, bluish green, red, and orange corunduins are found
in the Chimwadzulu Hills, near the Mozambique border
in southern Malawi. The orange corundums have
the following gemological characteristics: nc =
1.763-1.765; nu = 1.771-1.773; birefringence = 0.008;
specific gravity =3.97-3.98. T h e y c o n t a i n t w i n
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
171
lamellae, healed fractures, and rounded, doubly refractive mineral inclusions.

The orange color is due to the superposition of the
absorptions of Fe3+ and C F . This sets these stones
apart from their Sri Lankan counterparts, which are
colored by color centers.
EF
Red and orange corundum (ruby and padparadscha) from
Malawi. U. Henn, H. Bank, and F. H. Bank, Journal
of Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1990, pp. 83-89.
The authors describe red and orange corundum from the
Chimwadzulu Hill region of southern Malawi, an in situ
deposit in an epidotized amphibolite, which was first
described in 1958. The eight study samples, acquired by
one of the authors at the mine, are crystals up to 15 m m
long. Six range in color from pale to dark red; the
remaining two are orange. The "rubies" revealed a
correlation between increasing Cr (and, to some extent,
Fe) content and refractive index, as well as birefringence.
R.I. values reached previously unreported high values of
n,. = 1.770 and no = 1.780. Absorption spectra show
corresponding variations. Properties for the orange corunclums are comparable to those for similar material
from Tanzania.
A variety of mineral, liquid, and growth structure
inclusions are described for t h e Malawi corundun~s,
with 12 useful black-and-white illustrations. Although
scientific details of analytic conditions are omitted, this
study is especially useful to the gemologist for its
expansion of the range of values to be expected for rubies.
CMS
Role of natural radiation in tourmaline coloration:
Discussion. I. Petrov, American mineralogist, Vol.
75, No. 112, 1990, pp. 237-239.
By reviewing previously published data on pink tourmaline coloration, the author proposes that this coloration is not simply due to Mn2+ turning to Mn3+ with
irradiation, but rather results from a number of different,
more complex processes. He proposes three: ( 1 ) inetastable 01 - centers, stable up to 250C(2)Mn4'-+Mn3+
electron centers, stable up to 500' or 600C and (3)
electronic transitions of transition metal ions, for example Mn3+, stable up to 800 or higher.
Besides thermal stability, interpretations of electron
paran~agneticresonance (EPR)spectra are also used as
EF
arguments.
Spectacular spinel. l? Bancroft, Lapidary foiirnal, Vol. 43,
No. 11, February 1990, p. 25.
Dr. Bancroft reports on the acquisition of the Itatherina
spinel by ACT International (based in the Netherlands).
Recovered in the Pan~irMountains of the USSR, the
Itatherina weighed 532 ct rough, and produced a 146.43ct cushion step cut described as dark pink. This stone is
five times larger than the former record holder for a
Pamir Russian spinel (27.81ct).The stone was faceted by
172
Justina of Mission Viejo, California, and also produced a

30-ct triangle-shaped stone. The article contains two
color photographs of the faceted gem and the uncut
rough.
WRV
Star rhodolite garnet from Tanzania. R. C. Kan~merling
and J. I. Koivula, Journal of G e ~ ~ ~ ~ n o lVol.
o g y22,
,
No. 1, 1990, pp. 16-18.
The authors describe the first-reported star rhodolite
from Tanzania. The 15.6-ct stone displays four- or sixrayed asterism, depending on the angle of observation,
with near-transparency and a "slightly brownish purplish red" color. Gemological properties are consistent
with those typical of rhodolite. Microscopic examination revealed the source of asterism to be fine acicular
rutile crystals with 110170-degree orientation, running
the entire distance through the stone. (Unfortunately,
part of the text has been omitted in publicationhopefully no more than the apparent two words.) Four
color photographs accompany the article.
CMS
An unusual agate from Guyana. J. G. Gosling, Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1990, pp. 76-79.
This article reports on the discovery of a new form of
agate in the Republic of Guyana, which is noted for its
occurrences of agate. Mr. Gosling, who was involved
with the initial developn~entof a lapidary industry in
Guyana, reports that most of the agate deposits are
located along the Ireng River that borders Guyana and
Brazil, from the Good Hope Mountains in the north to
the Blue (Kanuku) Mountains in the south. The agates
occur in gullies that are dry for most of the year and drain
into the river during the rainy season.
The new type of agate consists of a criss-cross lattice of
quartz crystals with banded agate filling the cavities in
the lattice. Cutting of the material is similar to that for
agates in general except that, because it is difficult to
clean residual polishinggrit out of the cavities after each
polishing step, subsequent polishing with the next finer
grade of grit can produce scratches if sufficient care is
not taken.
This attractive material is illustrated on the cover of
the journal as well as in photos that accompany the
article, clearly revealing that a visual observation is all
that is needed to make an identification. Unfortunately
(to this abstractor), the large size of the pattern makes
this material - like so many spectacular agates - unsuitable for use in jewelry and limits its application to
CMS
ornamental objects.
DIAMONDS
Brilliance in Tilt. E. S. Love, Lapidary Journal, Vol. 43,
No. 9, December 1989, pp. 90-94.
This rigorous mathematical exercise explores theoretical aspects of the concept of brilliance-in-tilt. This
concept presupposes that a standard round brilliant
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
optimized for combined face-up brilliance and tilt brilliance is preferable to one optimized for face-up brilliance only.
According to Love, brilliance-in-tilt is best achieved
through solutions developed for analyzing satellite communications and detections by light rays and optical
sensors. Such solutions, known as the L-solutions, embrace single and combined tilting about all three axes.
The body of this article consists of tabulated data
illustrating the effects of fluctuating values on brilliance. These data are based on comparative studies, and
no examples of successful applications of this theory are
included with the article.
Paris A. Walker
How to value irradiated diamonds. C. Altobelli, Jewelers'
Circular-Keystone,Vol. 161, No. 3, March 1990, p.
130.
This brief but concise article gives pertinent information on how to value irradiated diamonds by using the
"market data approach," or the use of conlparables.
Dealers who have sold treated stones in the past would
be good sources of information on the wholesale costs of
diamonds that match the cut, color, clarity, and carat
weight of your stone.
Altobelli.describes a formulaic approach that may be
used when $eternlining a broad estimate for insurance
replacement cost, and is used when market data are
unavailable. First assign an arbitrary GIA color grade as a
good repre<entative for the stone. Then set a clarity and
cut grade for that weight and shape diamond, and add the
cost of treatment to get your wholesale value. If the
appraisal is for insurance purposes, add the markup for
retail replacement. Also, make note of the type of
treatment and method used in determining the markup
for retail replacement. When using the formulaic approach, you must state that it was used, why it was used,
and any limitations on accuracy that occurred from its
use.
T h e customer should be made aware of the fact that if a
replacement is needed, an untreated dianlond of the
same value may be chosen. In most cases, the insurance
company would not object-their main concern is the
replacement cost. However, most insurance adjustors
deal with replacement companies that offer "at wholesale" prices, If another type of stone is being considered,
the insurance company and the customer should have an
agreement on the different options available through the
specific policy.
Karen B , Stark
Secret of Indian success being emulated by other centers.
New York Diamonds, No. 7, 1990, pp. 58-64.
India's ever-growing diamond industry has contributed
to an expanded world market for diamond jewelry,
mainly by manufacturing smaller, lower-quality, lowpriced stones. This has caused a reclassification of
diamonds (gem, near-gem, and industrial), with more
"industrial-grade" diamonds now being cut for the

average consumer.
The conditions responsible for India's success- inostly massive pools of cheap, semiskilled labor-also exist
in many other countries. Thailand, Sri Lanka, China,
and South Africa all have begun to emulate India and
encourage investment by foreign manufacturers. In fact,
in 1988, Thailand exported 200,000 ct of polished
diamonds, more than four times its 1987 production.
Often, Belgian and Israeli diamantaires will provide
needed expertise and technology.
To maintain its predominance, India must improve
both production methods and efficiency. Although it is
true that Indian cutters generally receive lower-quality
rough, this fact alone cannot explain India's 1988 average
yield of only 20.23%, compared to a 40.24% yield by the
Israeli industry.
Poris A . Walker
Visual optics. A. Hodgkinson, Australian Gemmologist,
Vol. 17, No. 4, 1989, pp. 137-138.
Distinguishing between diamond and its various simulants still poses a challenge to jewelers, This brief
report describes a simple method that can be useful in
such situations. Called visual optics, it is performed by
placing the table of'a gemstone against partially closed
"eyelashes" and looking at a nondiffused light source
e.g., a candle flame or penlight) that is approxinlately 4
to 6 nl away. The patterns and intensities of spectral
reflections seen are felt to be indicative of various gem
materials, these features being influenced by the gem's
refractive index, birefringence, and dispersion.
After discussing the technique, the author proceeds to
describe the typical images produced by diamond, zircon, CZ, and strontium titanate. These patterns are also
R CIZ
illustrated photographically.
GEM LOCALITY
Some aspects of pearl production with particular reference to cultivation at Yangxin, China. E. A. Jobbins
and K. Scarratt, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 22,
NO. 1, 1990, pp. 3-15.
This well-illustrated article by Messrs. Jobbins and
Scarratt is the result of a recent trip by those authors to a
Chinese pearl farm. As background, they describe the
major sources of natural and cultured pearls. Historically, the most significant source of natural pearls has
been the Persian Gulf. However, changing economics
and politics, pollution, and over-fishing have reduced
pearl production in this region to a trickle. A11 interesting discussion of natural pearl fishing in Scotland
provides insight into that little-known source.
Since the 1920s, Japan has dominated the pearl market
through its production of cultured pearls in enormous
quantities and a full range of qualities. The original type
of cultured pearl is formed around a mother-of-pearl
bead nucleus. The developnlent in the 1950s of "non-
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
nucleated" (mantle-tissue nucleated) freshwater cultured pearls, originally from Japan's Lake Biwa, represented a new phase in both pearl marketing and identification.
The Chinese adopted this technique as suitable for
their own freshwater mussels. They began marketing
cultured freshwater pearls in the early 1980s. Eventual
flooding of the market dropped prices for lower-quality
strands radically. However, fine-quality Chinese culturecl pearls are also produced.
In May 1989, the authors visited one of the Chinese
pearl farms at Yangxin, Hubei Province. The mussels Cristaria plicata-grow as long as 20 c m and are
cultivated for about 40 pearls at a time. The farms
include nursery ponds, spat sheds, producing ponds, and
cultivatingsheds. When spats reach 8 c n in
~ length, each
is implanted with 40 squares of mantle tissue (from
another mussel of the same type) and is placed in a net in
a maturing pond.
Nineteen black-and-white and two color illustrations-mostly locality photographs-accompany this
very readable and altogether too short article. It is an
excellent summary, especially for the jeweler looking for
basic information.
CMS
Wave Hill prehnite. H. Bracewell, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1989, pp. 127-129.
Wave Hill Station, 940 k m south of Darwin and 1,230
lim northwest of Alice Springs, is located in one of the
most isolated regions of Australia's Northern Territory.
Here, prehnite is collected from two distinct areas, one
that produces opaque greenish material froni pebble to
small boulder size, while the other yields small, facetable nodules in colors ranging from "whitish to pale
green and greenish hues through to a clear yellow."
Four faceted prehnites from the second area, ranging
from 7.35 to 31 ct, were examined by the author, with
properties determined to be as follows: appearancesemitransparent, slightly grayish green with a slightly
fibrous texture; Mohs hardness-6 to 7; mean refractive
indices-a = 1.614, B = 1.620, -y = 1.637; mean
biregringence -0.023; dichroism-slight, in pale to dark
green hues; long-wave U.V fluorescence-dull brown;
absorption spectrum-vague band at 440 nm. Magnification revealed very distinct radiating fibers in the
largest specimen, while in the smaller three stones the
fibers had a parallel orientation. The author speculates
that this latter structure raises the possibility of cat'seye stones being cut from the material.
The article is nicely illustrated with seven color
RCK
photographs.
INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

Mikrospektralphotometrie der Edelstein-Kathodolumineszenz (Microspectrophotometry of gemstone-cathodolumiiiescence). J. P o n a h l o ,
174
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemrnologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 38, No. 213, 1989, pp. 63-84.
This is the latest article by Dr. Ponahlo on gemstone
cathodol~iminescence,with a focus this time on the
en~issionspectra of various gem materials. After a brief
description of the homemade experimental set-up he
uses, the author reports on the cathodoluminescence spectra of natural and synthetic rubies, emeralds, padparadscha sapphires, alexandrite chrysoberyls, diamonds, and lapis lazuli. A general rule of thumb valid for
the first four is that the cathodoluminescence of natural
and synthetic gem materials are mostly similar in
spectrum shape, but that the synthetic materials typically luminesce more strongly than their natural counterparts (although there is some overlap.).
For rubies, a slight difference in the shape of the
emission spectra of natural and synthetic stones seems
to help the separation, Also, it seems that cathodolun~inescencecould provide an indication of heat
treatment, although more research is needed. This
technique seems to be helpful, too, in the detection of
oiling of emerald. Growth features that help separate
natural from synthetic padparadscha sapphires and diamonds are emphasized under the electron beam.
The author pays a great deal of attention to good
calibration procedures, and uses a large enough sample
size (up to 76 samples for alexandrite] to propose
significant results, which are illustrated with numerous
color photographs and spectra. Dr. Ponahlo's spectra
would be even more useful if he would publish all of
them within scale (many spectra are cut off at the top]
and provide the curve of his photomultiplier's sensitivity over the m a x i n ~ u nrange
~
used, as luminescence
spectra are known to be instrument-dependent.
EF
Reconnaissance d'un diamant de svnthese De Beers
parmi d'autres gemnies grace la cathodoluminescence (Separation of a De Beers synthetic diamond
froni other gems using cathodoluminescence). C .
Bille, R. Chapoulie, J. Dorbes, and M. Schvoerer,
Revue de Gemrnologie a.f.g., No. 100, 1989, pp.
19-21.
This study provides cathodoluminescence spectra of
four groups of samples: small faceted natural diamonds,
synthetic diamond powder from De Beers, a YAG crystal,
and a zircon crystal from Spain. The purpose of the
article and the principles of catliodoluminescence are
briefly stated, and the three different instruments used
are mentioned. This method is nondestructive only for
small samples (less than 1 c d ] .
All natural diamonds studied showed a blue cathodolun~inescence,centered around 450 nm. The synthetic diamonds showed a yellowish green cathodoluminescence, mostly due to a broad band peaking at
about 520 nm. The YAG crystal showed a pink to violet
luminescence (depending on the experimental condi-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
tions), due to a con~binationof three main spectral

regions of emission. The color of the zircon luminescence is not described, but its con~plexspectrum is
attributed to various rare-earth elements. The authors
conclude that this technique could prove useful to
characterize gems if a wider, more representative sample
could be studied.
EF
Reflections on reflectivity. l? G. Read, journal o f Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 2, April 1990, pp. 97-102.
For the gemologist interested in why and how things
work, Peter Read has provided a discussion of the
relationship between reflectivity and refractive index.
This relationship has been exploited in recent years by a
variety of reflectivity meters, a number of which are
described by the author. Generally less accurate than a
refractometer, these instruments do, however, have the
advantage of a broader range useful in making diamond1
simulant separations. The most recent instrument described is the author's own Brewster-angle refractometer,
with an R.I. range of 1.4 to 3.3. Photographs and
explanatory drawings illustrate the text.
CMS
Using the spectroscope. S. M. B. Kelly, Australian
Gemmologist, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1989, pp. 118-119.
This brief article, subtitled "Apersonal assessment of the
contribution to gemmology of J. J. Snow, F.G.A.A.,
F.G.A.," is printed in a special Memorial Issue of Australian Gemmologist dedicated to the late, well-respected
gemologist. *
The author begins with a reminiscence about her
student days and the help Mr. Snow gave her in learning
to use the spectroscope. She then goes on to describe a
number of personal situations in which an instrument
designed by Mr. Snow was especially useful in identifying mounted gems.
The examples are ones to which many gemologists
can no doubt relate: identifying orange-brown zircon;
separating peridot from sinhalite; distinguishing natural from synthetic sapphire; determining whether small
green stones are emerald or demantoid; and separating
ruby from almandine garnet. Key absorption lines for the
materials described are listed.
R CK
JEWELRY METALS
Accelerator-based spectroscopy techniques for analysis
of archaeological gold jewelry. G. Demortier, Spectroscopy. Vol. 4, No. 6, 1989, pp. 35-40.
Demortier describes work in the conlpositional analysis
of archaeological gold jewelry performed at the Laboratory for Analysis by Nuclear Reaction (LARN)in Belgium by particle induced X-ray emission (PIXE),particle
induced gamma-ray emission (PIGE), and nuclear reaction analysis [NRA]. These are non-destructive, accurate, and sophisticated (but extraordinarily expensive)
techniques.
The items discussed include a gold Byzantine cruciform reliquary, a terminal or connecting end from a
Roman necklace, and a Byzantine bead shown to have
been made with a cadmium-copper solder. The last item
supports earlier work of Demortier's showing that the
presence of cadmium is not necessarily a sign of modern
manufacturing (Gold Bulletin, Vol. 17, No. 1, 1984;
abstracted in Gems es) Gemology, Summer 1984). He
proposes that the ancient meaning of chrysocolla (a
mineral salt used in some ancient soldering techniques)
was cadmium sulphide (greenoclzite).Interestingly, he
gives the modern meaning of chrysocolla as copper
carbonate, rather than hydrated copper silicate. Other
ancient bonding processes, including sintering of the
reliquary and solid-state diffusion bonding (the process
used in Etruscan granulation work) of the necklace
terminal, are also discussed.
Meredith E. Mercer
Digging a mile deep. L. J. Fisher, Earth Science, Vol. 42,
NO. 1, 1989, pp. 12-13.
The United States uses 2.5 million troy ounces of
platinum per year, 93% of which is imported from South
Africa, the Soviet Union, and Canada. With the renewed
interest in the Stillwater Con~plex,located in the Beartooth Mountains southwest of Billings, Montana, the
percentages of imported platinum and palladium should
decrease. Although platinum was found in the conlplex
in the 1920s) at the it time was considered economically
unfeasible. Today, more than 780 tons of platinum and
palladium ore are mined daily, and yield approximately
20 tons of ore concentrate; after refining, the result is
160 oz. of platinum and 480 oz. of palladiunl. The
expected annual metals yield of the mine is 225,000 oz.
The author points out that, although this is a mere
fraction of world demand, an advantage is that the mine
is "not subject to political problems associated with
importing minerals from South Africa and the Soviet
Union."
Rose Tozer
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Beaut6 de l'oulongolite (Beauty of oulongolite). D. Robert, Revue de Gemmologie a.f.g., No. 101, December 1989, pp. 17-18.
This article briefly describes some properties of a new
synthetic gem material, oulongolite. The author points
out that it is definitely not a YAG; indeed, its composition is "more con~plex."Among its properties are an R.I.
of 1.93-1.99, an S.G. of 7, and a hardness between 7 ' A
and 8. Oulongolite is offered in a wide variety of colors
that simulate those of natural gem materials (peridot,
sapphire, aquan~arine,pink diamond), and can be faceted
or carved in "free cuts." Gamma irradiation causes a
"ruby-red" coloration, which fades with exposure to
light within a few hours.
EF
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990
175
Effect of solvent metals upon the morphology of synthetic diamonds. H. Kanda, T. Ohsawa, 0 .
Fukunaga, and I. Sunagawa, Journal of Crystal
Growth, Vol. 94, 1989, pp. 115-124.
Synthetic diamond crystals up t o 3 n1n1 in diameter have
been grown in a hydrous environment from various
metal solvents to study the effect of those metals on
diamond morphology. The growth features were analyzed by etching and various surface microscopy techniques. Only octahedral { l 1 l} and cube {loo} faces are
seen in diamond grown in pure Ni. The dodecahedra1
{ l lo} and trapezoliedral {113} faces appear only when
using Ni alloyed with other transition metals. This is
attributed to the strong affinity of those metals for
nitrogen, which can lead to a modification of the metaldiamond interface conditions during growth, thus producing different crystal faces.
The octahedral and cubic faces grow sn~oothlyin
successive layers that are thinner than 3 0 A and are
persistent throughout the growth, with the octahedral
face dominating the morphology. The dodecahedra1 and
trapezohedral faces, which are transient and minor on
the final morphology, have a hopper growth, in which
growth proceeds from the edges inward, resulting in
raised edges. A perturbation in the growth parameters
indicates a distinct growth band on the cubic sector.
The presence of cubic faces in synthetic diamonds is
attributed to a surface reconstruction of the cubic face,
which might be prevented in nature by the silicate
magma in which the diamond grows.
EF
How secret GE recipe for making diamonds may have
been stolen. L. Ingrassia, Wall Street Journal,
Wednesday, February 28, 1990, pp. A1 and A4.
This front-page article relates the circunistances surrounding lawsuits filed by General Electric, a major
synthetic diamond producer, and Norton, a major diamond tool nlanufacturer, against one of their former
en~ployees,Mr. Chien-Min Sung. The two con~panies
suggest that Mr. Sung may have sold vital industrial
secrets on how to grow high-quality industrial diamonds
to China, a South Korean company, and, perhaps, even
the USSR.
EF
Inamori stones' rough (some observations and speculations). J. Snow and G. Brown, Australian Gemnwlogist, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1989, pp. 132-136.
Beginning with a brief review of the Kyocera Corporation's manmade gem products, the authors proceed to
describe their examination of unfashioned specimens of
several of these materials.
The synthetic corundun~ examined included rodshaped single crystals of synthetic ruby, star ruby, and
orange-red sapphire. These crystals were oriented with
the c-axis parallel to their length and had rounded,
176
niachine-ground external surfaces; the authors speculate from the latter that the crystals originally had
somewhat irregular external forms. All of the crystals
examined contained great numbers of bubbles in basically three configurations: (1)a central mass of bubbles
in various sizes and shapes; 12) randomly scattered
bubbles; and (3)fine, radially arrayed stringers of bubbles
near external surfaces. Based on these observations, the
authors hypothesize that the materials may have been
grown by a zonal melting technique. Additional features
noted were severe surface crazing on the synthetic
orange-red sapphire, cloud-like swirls found predominantly toward the periphery of the crystals, and extremely fine exsolved rutile in the synthetic star ruby.
Synthetic chrysoberyl crystals examined included
both alexandrite and cat's-eye alexandrite. The former
had a distinct purplish red to grayish green color change,
were transparent, contained gas bubbles and smoky
swirls and, based on their pleochroism, were possibly
grown on a seed plate cut at right angles to the a-axis. The
chatoyant crystals had a similar but weaker color
change, were translucent, had a slightly undulating
parallel banding parallel to the c-axis and were possibly
grown on a seed plate cut perpendicular to the c-axis.
1<yocera1sopaque black and transparent colorless opal
products were also studied. The authors observed one
previously unrecorded feature: a bronze luster on the
base of the black opal rough,
This well-illustrated report provides some very useful
information on the visual characteristics of these manmade gems.
R CK
An investigation of three imitation opalized shells. J. I.
I<oiviila and R. C. Kammerling, Australian Gemn~ologlst,Vol. 17, No. 4, 1989, pp. 148-152.
Opal pseudomorphs after shell are an unusual and
comparatively rare form of precious opal. This wellillustrated article reports on three imitations that had
been represented as natural opalized n~olluskshells,
including a clam shell, a mussel shell, and a turban snail
shell. Each exhibited a patchy play-of-color pattern
coming from what appeared to be distinct breccia of
white opal. A number of other visual inconsistencies
were noted, but magnification revealed the true nature of
the deceptions. Each "shell" was seen to be composed of
many small chips of white opal, boulder opal, and a
limonitic matrix rock, bound together with a transparent, colorless material. The binding agent contained
numerous spherical gas bubbles, while flattened bubbles
were observed at some interfaces between the binder and
opal fragments.
Gemological testing for microhardness, reaction to a
thermal probe, R.I., U.V. fluorescence, and hydrophobic
reaction led the authors to conclude that the binding
agent was a plastic.
RW
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Summer 1990

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VOLUME XXVI

The quarterly journal of the Gemological Institute of America

The Identification of Blue Diffusion-Treated Sapphires

Jadeite of Guatemala: A Contemporary View

Well-Formed Tsavorite Gem Crystals from Tanzania

Diamond Grit-Impregnated Tweezers: A Potentially

Gem Trade Lab Notes

GI 1990 Gemological Institute of America

All rights reserved

New York, hlY

London, United Kingdom

THE IDENTIFICATION OF BLUE

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

0 1990 Gemological Institute of Anierica

he heat treatment of pale, colorless, or milky white

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 1. These blue

rial) were donated to GIA by Karla and Bob Brom,

loss of over lo%, yet they retain a fine color."

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 4. In the early 1980s, a gem dealer

Carbide). Carr and Nisevich later described this

Disclosure Practices. Although there is no worldwide agreement concerning disclosure practices

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Generally spealzing, tlie higher the temperature

Figure 5 . To produoe moderate to deep blue

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 6. Partially reflected light reveals

this instance, the color layer in the Gem Source

Figure 7. "Light" repolishing of a diffusion

that had not been repolished. This section showed

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Laboratory was red-orange (Crowningshield,

using various oxides including iron, titanium, and

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

1 75OoC for 96 hours

Uniform "ruby red"

175OoC for 48 hours

2.5% nickel oxide,

1750 for 96 hours

Uniform light graygreen

Pink sapphire with

22% titanium oxide

1 750 for 96 hours

Uniform color (pink,

1 750 for 96 hours

1750 for 96 hours

Uniform pale blue

1750 for 3 0 hours

Uniform deep blue

stones into which cobalt was incorporated, which

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

into the surface of the sapphire. Also, a dark

In this U.V-visible absorption spectrum of a

The cobalt-doped diffusion-treated sapphires were

Ultraviolet Fluorescence. The reactions of the

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

cludes: stress fractures surrounding inclusions;

fluorescence when exposed to short-wave U.V