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Shawm Linear Algebra
Álgebra Lineal básica, problemas resueltos, series de ejercicios
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SCHAUM’S SOLVED PROBLEMS SERIES 3000 SOLVED PROBLEMS IN ¢ ee fee) LINEAR ALGEBRA by Seymour Lipschutz, Ph.D. Temple University SCHAUM’S OUTLINE SERIES McGraw-Hill New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogota Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore Sydney Tokyo Torontoee 4 Seymour Lipschutz, Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics at Temple University. ‘Dr. Lipschutz earned the Ph.D. at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sci- ences of New York University, He has authored a number of volumes in the ‘Schaum's Outline Series, including the internationally used LINEAR ALGE- BRA. Project supervision was done by The Total Book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lipschutz, Seymour. 3000 solved problems in linear algebra (Schaum's solved problems series) 1. Algebras, Linear—Problems, exercises, et. 1. Title. I. Title: Three thousand solved in linear algebra. Il. Series. QA184.5.L56 1988 512.5 88-8944 ISBN 0-07-038023-6 11 12 13 CUS CUS 09.87 0-07-038023-b Copyright © 1989 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. McGraw-Hill $2 A Division of The McGraw Hill CompaniesChapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 CONTENTS VECTORS IN R" AND C" 1.1 Vectors in R" / 1.2 Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication / Summation Symbol / 1.4 Dot (Inner) Product / 1.5 Norm (Length) in R" / 1. stance, Angles, Projections / 1.7 Orthogonality / 1.8 Hyperplanes and Lines in R’ .9 Complex Numbers / 1.10 Vectors in C" / 1.11 Dot (Inner) Products in C* 12 Cross Product, MATRIX ALGEBRA i 2.1 Matrices / 2.2 Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication / fatrix Multiplication / 2.4 Transpose of a Matrix / 2.5 Elementary Row Operations; Pi / 2.6 Echelon Matrices, Row Reduction, Pivoting / 2.7 Row Canonical Form, ss Elimination / 2.8 Block Matrices SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 3.1 Linearity, Solutions / 3.2 Linear Equations in One Unknown / 3.3 Linear Equations in ‘Two Unknowns / 3.4 One Equation in Many Unknowns / 3.5 m Equations in n Unknowns / 3.6 Systems in Triangular and Echelon Form / 3.7 Gaussian Elimination / 3.8 Systems of Linear Equations in Matrix Form / 3.9 Homogencous Systems / 3.10. Nonhomogeneous and Associated Homogeneous Systems / 3.11 Systems of Linear Equations as Vector Equations SQUARE MATRICES 4.1 Diagonal, Trace / 4.2 Identity, Scalar, and Diagonal Matrices / 4.3 Algebra of Square Matrices. Commuting Matrices / 4.4 Powers of Matrices / 4.5 Square Matrices as Functions / 4.6 Invertible Matrices / 4.7 Elementary Matrices / 4.8 Column Operations. Matrix Equivalence / 4.9 Upper Triangular and Other Special Matrices / 4.10 Symmetric Matrices / 4.11 Complex Matrices / 4.12 Hermitian Matrices / 4.13 Orthogonal Matrices / 4.14 Unitary Matrices / 4.15 Normal Matrices / 4.16 Square Block Matrices DETERMINANTS ‘5.1 Determinant Function, Determinants of Order One / 5.2 Determinants of Order Two / 5.3 Determinants of Order Three / 5.4 Permutations / 5.5 Determinants of Arbitrary Order / 5.6 Evaluation of Determinants; The Laplace Expansion / 5.7 Classical Adjoint / '5.8 Volume as a Determinant / 5.9 Cramer’s Rule. Block Matrices / 5.10 Submatrices, General Minors, Principal Minors / 5.11 Miscellaneous Problems ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES 6.1 Sets, Mathematical Induction, Product Sets / 6.2 Relations / 6.3 Partitions and Equivalence Relations / 6.4 Operations and Semigroups / 6.5 Groups and Subgroups / 6.6 Normal Groups, Factor Groups, Group Homomorphisms / 6.7 Rings and Ideals / 6.8 Integral Domains, PID, UFD / 6.9 Fields VECTOR SPACES AND SUBSPACES 7.1 Vector Spaces / 7.2 Subspaces of Vector Spaces / 7.3 Linear Combinations, Linear Spans / 7.4 Spanning Sets, Generators / 7.5 Row Space of a Matrix / 7.6 Sums and Direct Sums LINEAR DEPENDENCE, BASIS, DIMENSION 8.1 Elementary Properties of Linear Dependence and Independence / 8.2 Linear Dependence of Vectors / 8.3 Theorems on Bases and Dimension / 8.4 Bases and Dimension / 8.5 Dimension and Subspaces / 8.6 Rank of a Matrix / 8.7 Applications to Linear Equations / 8.8 Sums, Direct Sums, Intersections / 8.9 Coordinates SI 13 143 173 196— ee iv 0 CONTENTS Chapter 9 MAPPINGS. 227 9.1 Mappings. Functions / 9.2 Real-Valued Functions / 9.3 Vector-Valued Mappings / 9.4 Composition of Mappings / 9.5 One-to-One, Onto, and Invertible Mappings Chapter 10 LINEAR MAPPINGS 247 10.1 Linear Mappings / 10.2 Properties of Linear Mappings / 10.3 Kernel and Image of a Linear Mapping / 10.4 Computing the Kernel and Image of Linear Mappings / 10.5 Singular and Nonsingular Linear Mappings. Isomorphisms / 10.6 Applications to Geometry. Convex Sets Chapter 11 SPACES OF LINEAR MAPPINGS 267 11.1 Operations with Linear Mappings / 11.2 Vector Space of Linear Mappings / 11.3 Algebra of Linear Mappings / 11.4 Invertible Operators / 11.5 Linear Mappings and ‘Systems of Linear Equations Chapter 12. MATRICES AND LINEAR MAPPINGS 282 12.1 Matrix Representation of a Linear Operator / 12.2 Matrices and Linear Operators on. R* J 12.3 Matrices and Linear Mapping Operations / 12.4 Matrices and Linear Mappings Chapter 13. CHANGE OF BASIS, SIMILARITY 302 13.1. Change-of-Basis (Transition) Matrix / 13.2 Change of Basis and Linear Operators / 13.3 Similarity and Similarity Transformations / 13.4 Trace and Determinant of Linear Operators / 13.5 Change of Basis and Linear Mappings Chapter 14 INNER PRODUCT SPACES, ORTHOGONALITY 319 14.1 Inner Product Spaces / 14.2 Propenies of Inner Products and Norms / 14.3 Cauchy- Schwarz Inequality and Applications / 14.4 Onthogonality, Onhogonal Complements / 14.5 Orthogonal Sets and Bases / 14,6 Orthogonal Matrices / 14.7 Projections, Gram- Schmidt Algorithm, Applications /- 14.8 Inner Products and Positive Definite Matrices / 14.9 Complex Inner Product Spaces / 14.10 Normed Vector Spaces Chapter 15 POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELD 355 15.1. Ring of Polynomials / 15.2 Euclidean Algorithm, Roots of Polynomials. / 15.3 Principal Ideal Domain, Unique Factorization Domain / 15.4 Polynomials with Matrices and Linear Operators Chapter 16 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS, DIAGONALIZATION 364 16.1. Characteristic Polynomial, Cayley-Hamilton Theorem / 16.2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors / 16.3 Computing Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors, Diagonalizing Matrices / 16.4 Minimum Polynomial / 16.5 Further Properties of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors Chapter 17 CANONICAL FORMS 386 17.1 Invariant Subspaces / 17.2 Direct Sums, Projections / 17.3 Invariant Direct-Sum Decompositions / 17.4 Nilpotent Operators and Matrices / 17.5 Jordon Canonical Form / 17.6 Quotient Spaces and Triangular Form / 17.7 Cyclic Subspaces, Z(v.T) / 17.8 Rational Canonical Form Chapter 18 LINEAR FUNCTIONALS AND THE DUAL SPACE. 416 18.1 Linear Functionals and the Dual Space / 18.2 Dual Basis / 18.3 Second Dual Space, - Natural Mapping / 18.4 Annihilators / 18.5 Transpose of a Linear Mapping Chapter 19 BILINEAR, QUADRATIC, AND HERMITIAN FORMS 426 19.1 Bilinear Forms / 19.2 Bilinear Forms and Matrices / 19.3 Alternating Bilinear Forms / 19.4 Symmetric Bilinear Forms / 19.5 Quadratic Forms / 19.6 Real Symmetric Bilinear and Quadratic Forms, Law of Inertia / 19.7 Orthogonal Diagonalization of Real Quadratic Forms / 19.8 Hermitian Forms / 19.9 Multlinearity and DeterminantsChapter 20 Chapter 21 CONTENTS 0 v LINEAR OPERATORS ON INNER PRODUCT SPACES 451 20.1 Adjoint Operators / 20.2 Self-Adjoint Operators, Symmetric Operators / 20.3 Orthogonal and Unitary Operators / 20.4 Positive and Positive Definite Operators / 20.5 Normal Operators / 20.6 Spectral Theorem APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY AND CALCULUS 467 21.1 Vector Notation in R? / 21.2 Planes, Lines, Curves, and Surfaces in R’ / 21.3 Scalar and Vector Fields / 21.4 Del Operator V and Gradient, Divergence and Curl / 21.5 Differential EquationsTo the Student This collection of thousands of solved problems covers almost every type of problem which may appear in any course in linear algebra. Moreover, our collection includes both computational problems and theoretical problems (which involve proofs). Each section begins with very elementary problems and their difficulty usually increases as the section progresses. Furthermore, the theoretical problems involving proofs normally appear after the computational problems, which can thus preview the theory. (Most students have more difficulty with proofs.) Normally, students will be assigned a textbook for their linear algebra course. The sequence of ‘our chapters follows the customary order found in most textbooks (although there may be some discrepancies), However, whenever possible, our chapters and sections have been written so that their order can be changed without difficulty and without loss of continuity. The solution to each problem immediately follows the statement of the problem. However, you may wish to try to solve the problem yourself before reading the given solution. In fact, even after reading the solution, you should try to resolve the problem without consulting the text. Used thus, 3000 Solved Problems in Linear Algebra can serve as a supplement to any course in linear algebra, or even as an independent refresher course. viiLr CHAPTER 1 Vectors in R” and C” 1.1 VECTORS IN R" La 12 13 14 A vector w in the vector space R" is an ordered set of n real numbers: u=(a,,a;,...,a,). The real number a, is called the kth component or coordinate of u. Compare this with the definition of a vector in physics, IL Physics defines a vector u to be a quantity with magnitude and direction, represented by means of an arrow or directed line segment emanating from a reference point O. In Fig. 1-1 a planar vector u is identified with the coordinates of its endpoint, P(4,2). That is, u=(4,2)—in accord with the above definition of a vector in R* State the difference between a row vector and a column vector. IA column vector u is a vector whose components are arranged vertically: A row vector is a vector whose components are arranged horizontally, as in Problem 1.1. [In this chapter, vectors will normally be written as row vectors.) To which vector space R” does each vector belong? @ (3, 8) (6) (3.6421) () (2,5) H (@ R° since there are four components. (b) None, since not all the components are real numbers. (©) R’ [7 and Sz are real numbers}. For vectors u and v in R", when is u=v? I The vectors u and v are equal if and only if the corresponding components are equal. Let u,=(1,2,3), if any, are equal? (2.3.1), uy =(1,3,2), 4, =(2,3,1) be vectors in R’. Which of the vectors, F Only u, and u, are componentwise equal2 17 19 1.10 CHAPTER 1 Find x and y if (x,3)=(2,x+y) 1 3 1e the two vectors are equal, the corresponding components are equal to each other: x= 2, +y. By subtraction, y=1 Define the zero vector in R”. 1 0=(0,0,....0) Find x and y if w=(x+y,x—3) is the zero vector. I First set each component of u equal to 0 to obtain the equations x+y=0 and x-3=0. The second equation gives x=3; then the first equation gives y= —3. Define the negative, —u, of a vector w=(4,,43,...,@,) in R T= 174,) Find the negatives of (a) u=(3,-5,-8,4), (6) v= —4,2m,0), () 0=(0,0,0,0). (-3, =(-5), =(~8), -4) = =0)=(0, 0, 0, 0)=0. I Take the negative of each component of the vector. (a) - (-3, 5,8, -4); (6) -v=(4, -29,0); (©) -0=(-0, Show that —(~u)=u for any vector w in R” F Let w=(a,,a. @,). Then, because —(—a)=a for any scalar a in R, (-u) = (ay, a...) = (ay, 3, a, = 1.2, VECTOR ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION Lan Let w=(u,,u;,..-,U,) and v=(v,,0,,...,0,) be any vectors in R*. Then the sum, u+v, is the vector ut vm(Uy +0,, Uy +02,...,U, +04) Show how this definition conforms to the addition of vectors in physics. I In physics, vector u+v_ is the diagonal of the parallelogram formed by vectors w and v, as pictured in Fig. 1-2(a). Now let O be chosen as the origin of a coordinate system (of R*), and suppose (a, b) and (c,d) are the endpoints of u and v, respectively, as pictured in Fig. 1-2(b). Then, using geometry, one can show that (a+c,b+d) will be the endpoint of u+v. On the other hand, adding corresponding components, we obtain (a,b) +(.d)= (a+ 0,6 +d) Both definitions of addition give the same result. @ (b) Fig. 1-2113 14 11s 1.16 417 118 VECTORS INR"ANDC” J 3 Compute: (a) (3, ~4, 5, -6)+(1, 1, 2,4), (6) (1, 2, -3) +, -5). FT (@) Add corresponding components: (3, -4,5, -6) + (1,1, -2,4) = +1, -441, 5-2, -6 + 4) = (4, -3,3, -2) (b) The sum is not defined, since the vectors have different numbers of components. 1 [-3 1 Compute: (a) (-!)+(-i) (6) (3)+(2). a \s5 s I (a) Add corresponding components: 1) (-3\ (7-3) (4 G4 2 \ 5) \ 24s} \ 7 (b) The sum is not defined, since the vectors have different numbers of components. Let u=(Wy,uy,-..,4,) be any vector in R” and let k be any scalar [real number] in R. Then the [scalar] product ku is the vector Ku (kut,, kts, 5 Kil,) ‘Show how this definition conforms to the scalar multiplication of vectors in physics. I Physics defines the product of a real number k and a vector [arrow] u, say with reference point 0, to be the vector (i) whose magnitude is equal to the magnitude of u multiplied by |&|; (ii) whose direction is that of wif k=0, but is opposite to wif k<0. This is pictured in Fig. 1-3(a). Now let O be chosen as the origin of a coordinate system [of R*], and suppose (a, ) is the endpoint of u, as pictured in Fig. 1-3(b). Then, using geometry, one can easily show that the endpoint of ku is (ka, kb). On the other hand, our definition gives k(@, b) = (ka, kb), the same result. a 3u cy O} Fig. 1-3 Compute: (a) —3(4,~5,-6), (6) -(6,7, -8). F(a) Multiply each component by the scalar: —3(4, -5, -6) = (~12, 15,18). (6) Either multiply éach component by ~1 o take the negative of each component; either way we obtain (6, ~7, 8) 2) 7 Compute: (a) ( 3), (b) -2(_f). 4 FF Multiply each component by:the scalar: © {3)-(“) ©) -2(_3) 4 -14 (io) Define the difference, u~v, of the vectors w and v in R", I The difference is obtained by adding the negative; u—v =u + (-v).4 19 1.20 121 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 0 CHAPTER 1 Compute: (a) (3,~5,6,8)~(4,1,-7.9). 6) (_$)-(_2). I First find the negative of the second vector and then add. (a) (3, -5,6,8)—(4,1, -7,9) —5,6,8) + (—4, -1, 7, -9) = (-1, -6, 13, -1) (3)-()-(3)+(3)-() Let u=(2,-7,1), ' =(-3,0,4), w= (0,5, 8). Find (a) 3u—4v, (b) 2u+3v—Sw. I First perform the scalar multiplication and then the vector addition. (a) 3u~4v = 3(2, 7, 1)—4(-3, 0, 4) = (6, ~21,3) + (12, 0, -16) = (18, -21, ~13) (6) 2u+3v~Sw=2(2, ~7,1) + 3(-3,0, 4) —5(0, 5, -8) |. —14, 2) + (~9, 0, 12) + (0, —25, 40) =(4-9+0,-14 +0~25, 2+ 12 + 40) = (5, -39, 54) Let w=(3,-2,1,4) and v=(7,1,-3,6) in R* Find (a) utv, (6) 4u,(c) 2u-3v. # @ utv=G+7,-2+1,1-3,446)=(10, 2,10); (6) 4u=(4+3,4+(-2),4+1,4-4) = (12, ~8,4, 16); (c) 2u~3v = (6, ~4, 2, 8) + (—21, ~3, 9, ~18) = (~15, -7, 11, -10), Find x and y if (4, y) = x(2,3). 1 (i) Matipty by the scalar x to obtain (4, y) =x(2,3)=(2x, 3x). (ii) Equate corresponding components: 4=2x, y=3x. (iii) Solve linear equations for x andy: x=2 and y=6. Write w=(1,9) asa linear combination of the vectors 1,2) and v=(3,-1). H We want to find scalars x and y such that w=xu+yu; ite., (1, 9) = x(1, 2) + y(3, -1) (x, 2x) + By, ~y) = (x +3y, 20 -y) Equality of corresponding components gives the two equations x43y=1 0 Qx-y=9 To solve the system of equations, multiply the first equation by —2 and then add it to the second equation to obtain -7y=7, or y=~1. Then substitute y=—1 in the first equation to obtain x~3~=1, or x=4. Accordingly, w=4u~v. Write v= (2, —3,4) as a linear combination of vectors u,=(1,1,1), 4;=(1,1,0), 4,=(1,0,0). 4 Proceed as in Problem 1.23, this time using column representations. (i) G)48)-€)-G)-0)-(27) Now set corresponding components equal to each other: xtytz=20 0 xty=-300 x=4 To solve the system of equations, substitute x=4 into the second equation to obtain 4+ or y=—7. Then substitute into the first equation to find z=5. Thus v=4u,~7u, +Su,. 1), uy = (2.1.4) and uy = (1, 1,3). Write w=(1,2,-5) asa linear combination of u, = (1 4 First multiply by scalars x, y,z and then add: 1 1/2) fly [ x+2y+2 (2-48)-G)e (8% -s} \-1) “\a)\3/ \-x44y +32 ‘Then set corresponding components equal to each other to obtain the system: x+2y+z=1 -xtytz=2 wx+4y+3z=1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 © Prove that w+ VECTORS INR”ANDC” J 5 ‘Add the first equation to the second equation to obtain (i) 3y+2z=3. Now add the first equation to the third equation to obtain 6y +42 =-4, or (ii) 3y-+2z=~-2. Equations (i) and (ii) are obviously inconsistent. In other words, w is not a linear combination of w,, Us, Uy In Problems 1.26-1.36, u,v, w denote vectors in R"; k, k’ denote scalars in R; u,v, and w, denote the ‘ith components of u, v and w, respectively. Prove that (u+v) + w=u+(v+w). 1 By definition [Problem 1.12], u, + v, is the ith component of u+v and so (u,+0,) +, is the ith component of (u+v)+w. On the other hand, v,+w, is the ith component of v+w and sou, +(v,+1,) is the ith component of u+(v+w). But w,,v,, and w, are real numbers for which the associative law holds; that is, (u,+v)+w,=u,+(o, +0) G=1,...,n) Accordingly, (u + v) + u+(v+w), since their corresponding components are equal. HO (eg tayo thy) + (0405 0) (ey +0, ty +0, 25 ty) = Cys Mya ety) = Prove that u+(—u)=0. Hutu) Prove that u+v=v+u. 4 By definition [Problem 1.12], u, +v, is the ith component of u+v, and v,+u, is the ith component of u+u. But u, and v, are real numbers for which the commutative law holds, that is, u, +0,= tu, on) Hence u+v=v+u, since their corresponding components are equal. Prove that k(u +0) = ku + kv H Since u,+v, is the ith component of u+v, k(u,+v,) is the ith component of k(u+v). Since ku, and kv, are the ith components of ku and kv respectively, ku, + ku, is the ith component of | ku + ku. But k, u, and v, are real numbers; hence Ku, +0) = ku, + kv, (G2 1,2...) Thus k(u+v)=ku+ kv, as corresponding components are equal. Prove that (k+k’)u= ku + k'u 1 By definition [Problem 1.15], (k+k')u, is the ith component of the vector (k + k’)u Since ku, and k’u, are the ith components of Au and k’u, respectively, ku, + k’u, is the ith component of ku+k'u. But k, k’, and u, are real numbers; hence (+ ku, = ku, + ku, = 1... .m) Thus (k +’)u= ku + k’u, as corresponding components are equal. Prove that (kk")u = k(k'u).1.33 1.34 1.38 1.36 CHAPTER 1 1 Since k'w, is the ith component of k'u, k(k’t,) is the ith component of k(k’u). But (kk')u, is the ith component of (kk')u and, since k, k’ and u, are real numbers, (kk')u,= (ku) (G1...) Hence (kk’)u = k(k’u), as corresponding components are equal. Prove that 1-u Bye Hey tay ey tg) = (Lid May MG) = (Uy ge ey) = te Show that Qu=0 for any vector u. F Method 1. Ow =0(u,, uz... ty) = (Out, 0uU5,..., 0u,) =(0,0,-..,0)=0. Method 2. By Problem 1.31, 0u=(0+0)u=Ou+0u. Adding —(Ou) to both sides gives Ov + (—(Ov)) = (Ov + Ov) + (—(0v)) = Ov + (Ov +(—(0v)))_ [by Problems 1.28, 1.26] 0=0v +0 [by Problem 1.28] 0=0v {by Problem 1.27] [Note that Method 2, although lengthy, does not explicitly use coordinates.] Show that k0=0 for any scalar k. 4H Method 1. k0=K(0,0,... ,0) =(k-0, k-0,...,k-0)=(0,0,...,0)=0. Method 2. By Problem 1.34, 0+0=0. Then, by Problem 1.31, k0=k(0+0)=k0+k0. Adding —(K0) to both sides leads to the required result, as in Problem 1.34. Show that (—1)u=—u. 1 From the previously proved properties, u+(-u)= =u = (14+ (-1)u =u + (“Iu = ut lu and the result follows upon adding —u to both sides. 1.3 SUMMATION SYMBOL 137 1.38 139 Let f(k) be an algebraic expression involving an integer variable k. Define the expression 3S 1a where 21. [Here 1 is called the lower limit, n is called the upper limit, and the Greek letter sigma functions as the summation symbol.] HS, =f()+f(2)+++++f(n=1) + fl). From this definition, it is obvious that, for n=2, S, = Saat fla). ‘Suppose m, and n, are any integers such that_n,
f(k). HY f= fn,) + fl, +1) + fm, +2) +--+ fl). For ny
j*, 43744457 = 449416425 =54 Find D xy, 1 Sz,=2,48 Baas, Rewrite without the summation symbol: (a) Sab, (6) Sas, S yby- HE @ a,b, +0,b, +++ +0,b, (b) ay + a,x + ax? +--+ a,x" (©) aby + dyabz + ayby, +--+ a,b, Prove: 3 (st + ato1= 3 1) + 3 st. 1 The proof is by induction on n. For n=1, 2 + s1= 10) + @1)= BA) +B 8th) Suppose n>1, and that the theorem holds for _n — bes Zw +ee1-E pw+E so Then [see Problem 1.37], 3+ e001= 3 1 + «01 + Led +e0)= Be +B ate + 100) + 600 -[E sw + 1] +[¥ ew + sm] -3 pe + Dae Thus the theorem is proved. Prove: S efty=e 3 p00) 1 The proof is immediate from the distributive law, a(b ++c+++-)=ab+ac+++-, for real numbers. 1.4 DOT (INNER) PRODUCT 1.45 Suppose u=(u,,tyy...5H,) and v=(0,,0,,...,0,) are vectors in R", The dot [or inner or scalar] product of wand v, denoted by u-v, is defined to be'the scalar obtained by multiplying corresponding components and adding the resulting products: wv= > uy, ‘Show how this definition conforms to that used in physics. Suppose that w and v are vectors (arrows) in R’ emanating from the origin O, as pictured in Fig. 1-4. Moreover, suppose that P(a,, a,,.2,) and O(b,, b,, b,) are the endpoints of u and v, respectively, and let 8 denote the angle between w and v. Physics defines the dot product as | |v] cos 81.46 1.47 1.48 1.49 1.50 1st a CHAPTER 1 Fig. 1-4 Now |ul?=ai+ai+a3, |y|?=b3+b;+3, and PQ*=(a, ~ by) + (a, ~ bs) + (ay ~ 65)" = (aj + a3 + a3) + (bj +b} + 3) =2(a,b, + a,b, + ab5) +P 23 wpe But, by the law of cosines, PQ’ two definitions agree. |” + ||? — 2jul |v] cos 8; therefore, |ul|vjcos@= > u,v,, and the Compute u-v, whére w=(2,-3,6) and v=(8,2,-3), TF Multiply corresponding components and add: uv = (2)(8) + (-3)(2) + (6)(-3) = 8. Compute u-v, where w=(1,-8,0,5) and v=(3,6,4). I The dot product is not defined between vectors with different numbers of components. Compute u-v, where u=(3,-5,2,1) and v=(4,1,-2,5). F Multiply corresponding components and add: w+ v = (3)(4) + (—5)(1) + (2)(-2) + (1(5) =8. Compute u-v, where u=(1,-2,3,-4) and v 1 Mutiply corresponding components and add: u+v = (1)(6) + (~2(7) + (3)) + (-4\(-2)=3. 6.7.1, -2) Suppose u=(3,2,1), 5,-3.4), w=(1,6,-7). Find: (a) (u+v)+w, (6) uew+v-w, 1 (a) First calculate w+ v by adding corresponding components: u+v=(3+5,2-3,1+4)= (8,—1,5). Then compute the dot product (u+v)-w by multiplying corresponding components and adding: (u + v)+w = (8)(1) + (-1)(6) + (5)(-7) = -33.. (6) First find w-w=3+12—7=8 and v-w=5-18-28=-41. Then u-w=8-41=~33. [For an explanation of the agreement between (a) and (b), see Problem 1.52.] Let u=(1,2,3,-4), 1 @ First find w+ (6) First find ku = 5, -6,7.8); and k=3, Find: (a) &(u+v), (6) (ku)-v, (6) ue(kv). = 12+21—32=-18. Then k(u+v)=3(-18) = -S4. (1), 3(2), 3(3), 3(—4)) = (3, 6,9, -12). Then (ku) + v = (3)(5) + (6)(—6) + (9)(7) + (—12)(8) = 15 — 36 + 63 — 96 = —S4 (©) First find kv = (15, ~18, 21,24). Then w(K) = (1)(15) + (2)(-18) + (3)(21) + (-4)(24) = 15-36 + 63 96 = 54 [See Problems 1.53 and 1.54.]1.52 1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.87 VECTORS INR”ANDC” J 9 Prove that (u+v)-w=u-w+v-w, 1 Using Problem 1.43, (w+ v)-w= Eu, to)m = 3 (um, +00 )= 3 um, +S ome ews vw Prove that (ku)+v = k(u*v). 1 Using Problem 1.44, (ku) +0 = 3 (uu, =D kup.) =k S u,v, = kw) Prove: u-w=0, and u-w=0 iff [‘if and only if”] u=0. # Since u? is nonnegative for each i, uw+u=ui+ui+-+-+u220. Furthermore, u-w=0 iff u,= 0 for each i; that is, iff u=0. In Problems 1.56 and 1.57, u, stands for the ith vector in a set of vectors (not the ith component of a vector u). Similarly for v,, Let uy, ty... u, and v be vectors in R" and let a,, @,,..., a, be scalars in R. Prove @ (3 eun)-0 Daur) (0) 0-(3,auu,)= > ax(o-m) In words: Taking the dot product with a fixed vector v represents a linear operation on R". 1 (a) The proof is by induction on p. The case _p=1 is true by Problem 1.53. Suppose p>1 and the theorem true for p—1; ie., (5 au,)-0 =D a(u,-v) ‘Then, using Problems 1.37, 1.52, 1.53, and the above inductive hypothesis, we have Baul 0) + yup 0) = Z a(uy 0) (Sean) -0=(Save)-0 + y)-0= (6) Using u+v=v-u [Problem 1.54] and part (a), we have 0-(3, an) =(3 au) -0= 3 acu-0)= 3 aor) Let ty, sy +5 Mpy Djs Bay +++ 5 By be Vectors R” and let a,,4;,...,d,, By, by,-.-,by be any scalars in R. Prove that (3 4)-(2 bav,) = > 3 abstu,-v4) (bilinearity of the inner product). I Using Problem 1.56 (Sem): (S tn) 23 o[ag(Seel So[E ry -vo]- 3 3 ab.cu,-00)10 15. 1.58 1.59 1.60 161 1.62 1.63 1.64 0 CHAPTER 1 NORM (LENGTH) IN R" If w=(uy,t;,.++.U,) is a veetor in R", the norm or length of u, denoted ||u\|, is the nonnegative square root of w*u: lull = varw= Vid rd ‘Show that the above definition of the norm of a vector conforms to that of the length of a vector [arrow] in physics. I Let w be a vector [arrow] in the plane R? with endpoint P(a, b), as pictured in Fig. 1-5. Then |a| and 10] are the lengths of the sides of the right triangle formed by u and the horizontal and vertical directions. By the Pythagorean theorem, the length of u is |ul= Va" + 6°. This value is the same as the norm of u. 3 Fig. 1-5 R", together with the definitions of vector addition, scalar multiplication, and inner product, is called real Euclidean n-space. Why? I According to Problem 1.45, two vectors w and v in the inner-product space R” may be termed perpendicular if uv =0. For such vectors, we have from Problem 1.57 |lu + vl? =(u+ v)-(u+ 0) =u-w +0404 v-v= lull? + [loll which is the Pythagorean theorem, Since this theorem is a consequence of Euclidean geometry, we call R” a “Euclidean” space. Find [lull if = (, =12, ~4) I First find |ju||7=u+u by squaring the components of u and adding: Mjull? = 3° + 12)" + (-4y = 94144 +16= 169. Then, ul] = VI60=13. Find [lol] if » = (2, 3,8, —5). I Square each component of v and then add to obtain jul]? =v-v: [ful|? = 2° + (3) +8°+ (5) = 4+9464+25=102, Then |jo|| = V102. (-5) =9+1+4416+25=55; hence |Iw|| = VSB. Determine k such that ||u||=_V39 where uw =(1,k, ~2, 5). HP |jul?=12 + + (2° +? = 8 +30, Now solve k°+30=39 and obtain k=3, ~ Give the definition of a unit vector. FA vector w is a unit vector if {|u| or, equivalently, if u~
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