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This document discusses several methods of error detection and correction used in digital communications: Parity checking involves adding an extra bit to detect errors but can only detect odd numbers of errors and not locate the specific bit in error. 2D parity uses a parity byte to detect and correct single errors or detect multiple errors. Hamming codes assign parity bits to specific bit positions so that errors in transmission can be pinpointed to the exact bit position based on the parity bits in error. Gray codes arrange bit patterns so that only one bit changes between consecutive values, making it less likely for errors to occur when a signal changes state. This is useful for things like clock displays and satellite dish positioning.

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Harold Wilson
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104 views5 pages

FGDFGF

This document discusses several methods of error detection and correction used in digital communications: Parity checking involves adding an extra bit to detect errors but can only detect odd numbers of errors and not locate the specific bit in error. 2D parity uses a parity byte to detect and correct single errors or detect multiple errors. Hamming codes assign parity bits to specific bit positions so that errors in transmission can be pinpointed to the exact bit position based on the parity bits in error. Gray codes arrange bit patterns so that only one bit changes between consecutive values, making it less likely for errors to occur when a signal changes state. This is useful for things like clock displays and satellite dish positioning.

Uploaded by

Harold Wilson
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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AQA AS Computing

Error Detection

Parity
The simplest form of error detection is parity.
A single bit is appended to a bit pattern.
In even parity, the number of 1 bits must add up to an even number.
In odd parity, the number of 1 bits must add up to an odd number.
Even parity is more common, but both are used.
e.g.

ASCII letter H = 7210 = 100 10002

Using even parity we need to add a 0, so the transmission is 1001 0000


If a bit is flipped accidentally (e.g. 1011 0000) then the parity check detects an
error.
The two downfalls of parity checks are:
Parity can only detect an odd number of errors
e.g. 1111 0000 would be falsely identified as correct
Parity cant be used to detect WHICH bit is in error.
The main advantage is the low overhead.

AQA AS Computing

Representing Data

2D Parity
One possible solution is 2D parity. A series of messages each uses a single parity bit,
with a whole parity byte at the end of the transmission.
e.g. H e l l o

Error:

1001 000 0

10010000

10010000

1100 101 0

1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 error

11011010

1101 100 0

11011000

11011000

1101 100 0

11011000

11011000

1101 111 0

11011110

11011110

1000 010 0

10000100
error

10000100

2D parity increases the overhead in data transmission, but provides correction of ONE
error and detection of MULTIPLE errors

AQA AS Computing

Representing Data

Hamming Codes
To start with Hamming Codes, write down all the binary digits from 1 to 7:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

001
010
011
100
101
110
111

All the powers of 2 (bit patterns that have JUST ONE 1 bit) are designated as parity
bits. The rest are data bits.
1
2 3 4
5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
P1 P2 d P4 d d d P8 d d d d d d d P16 d d d d
The parity bit at position 1 (0001) covers all of the bit positions that end in a 1.
The parity bit at position 2 (0010) covers all of the bit positions that end 1*.
The parity bit at position 4 (0100) covers all of the bit positions that end 1**.
The parity bit at position 8 (1000) covers all of the bit positions that end 1***.
This means that (looking at the binary digits above),
P1 covers bits 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, etc
P2 covers bits 2 & 3, 6 & 7, 10 & 11, etc
P4 covers bits 4 7, 12 15, etc
This means that an error in bit 5 would be highlighted by errors in P1 & P4.
An error in bit 7 would be highlighted by errors in P1, P2 & P4.
An error in bit 2 would only be highlighted by an error in P2
Note that

1+4=5

1+2+4=7

2=2

Adding the bit positions of the incorrect parity bits highlights the exact position of the
error.
Also note that this only works provided there is only one error in the transmitted bit
pattern.

AQA AS Computing
Representing Data
Hamming Codes (how to)
If we wanted to transmit the pattern 1011 we would do the following:
Position
Bit

1
P1

2
P2

3
1

4
P4

5
0

6
1

7
1

6
1

7
1

6
1

7
1

6
1

7
1

P1 covers bits 1, 3, 5 & 7 (P, 1, 0, 1). Using even parity, P = 0


Position
Bit

1
0

2
P2

3
1

4
P4

5
0

P2 covers bits 2, 3, 6 & 7 (P, 1, 1, 1). Using even parity, P = 1


Position
Bit

1
0

2
1

3
1

4
P4

5
0

P4 covers bits 4, 5, 6 & 7 (P, 0, 1, 1). Using even parity, P = 0


Position
Bit

1
0

2
1

3
1

4
0

5
0

So the transmitted data is 011 0011


If there was an error and the message received was 011 0111 then check each parity
bit:
P1 covers 1, 3, 5 & 7 (0 1 1 1) - fail
P2 covers 2, 3, 6 & 7 (1 1 1 1) pass
P4 covers 4, 5, 6 & 7 (0 1 1 1) - fail
P1 and P4 failed, 1 + 4 = 5, therefore bit 5 is incorrect.
Therefore the correct data transmission should have been 011 0011 and the original
data is 1011

AQA AS Computing

Representing Data

Gray Codes
Imagine looking at a clock where the digits flip as the minutes change.

Now imagine the time is changing from 09:59 to 10:00. All 4 digits need to change,
and because it is a mechanical operation it is impossible to guarantee absolute
synchronicity.
It is possible that we will look at the clock just as it says 19:00 meaning that we
would read the time wrong. Oh no!
The solution is to arrange the digits so that only 1 needs to change at any time.
If we have a 2-bit word we could use 00, 01, 11, 10 to represent the numbers 1 to 4.
This is NOT the same as the standard binary representation!!
Digital communications systems often use gray codes to track the modulation.
Satellite dishes also use a form of gray coding to locate its position as it rotates.

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