01
01
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Targeting Ammunition
Introduction
In policy-relevant small arms research ammunition receives far less attention
than weapons. Most researchers and policy makers are more familiar with pistols,
rifles, or machine guns than with the different types and calibres of projectiles
fired by each weapon. One reason for this is the sheer diversity of ammunition,
ranging from the basic pistol cartridge to sophisticated explosive projectiles
for man-portable air defence systems (MANPADS). In order to understand the
issues surrounding the use and misuse of small arms and light weapons it is
necessary to understand the roles and characteristics of ammunition as well as
the factors affecting its production and distribution. Without this knowledge
it is difficult to develop effective policiesboth domestic and internationalto
address the problems associated with the unchecked proliferation and use of
small arms.
Many authors have provided comprehensive studies of the technical characteristics of ammunition (e.g. Courtney-Green, 1991; Allsop et al., 1997; Ness and
Williams, 2005). This chapter presents the broad categories of ammunition for
small arms and light weapons and is intended as an introduction to its diverse
technical characteristics in order to provide a basic understanding of ammunition in the context of historical, current, and possible future developments. It is
therefore a starting point for those who wish to understand how ammunition
functions, and how it may potentially be targeted by national and international initiatives.
Chapter 1 Bevan and Pzard 17
Targeting Ammunition
duced limited shooting accuracy and revealed the shooters position (Folly
and Mder, 2004, p. 374).
Black powder nevertheless remained in use until the late 19th century, when
it was replaced by nitrocellulose-based smokeless powder (Allsop et al., 1997,
p. 8). In addition to being more powerful, the smokeless powder left the barrel
relatively clean and had better storage and transportation properties. The switch
to smokeless powder facilitated the development of more complex weapons,
notably machine guns, which required a powder that would not foul complicated firing mechanisms (Headrick, 1981, pp. 99100).
Important improvements were made to the stability and functioning of ammunition in the early 19th century. Primers, which are used to ignite the propellant,
had previously been made from fulminate of mercurya substance that is
particularly unstable when stored. Chlorate mixtures had been tried in the early
1800s but these resulted in severe corrosion and rusted the weapons chamber.
When alternative lead styphnate mixes were developed, they proved more
stable and did not harm the weapon (Drury, 1999).
Projectiles
Early projectiles were made of stone, then iron, and later of the more dense
metals such as lead (Krause, 1995, p. 37). Lead bullets were at first spherical and
loaded through the muzzle of unrifled smoothbore weapons.1 Rifles were developed early in the history of military small arms but took much longer to load
than smoothbore weapons because the bullet had to be wrapped in a piece of
leather to allow it to grip the rifling of the barrel. One consequence of this loose
fit was that rifles suffered from fouling in the barrel (Headrick, 1981, p. 87).
In 1848, however, the development of the Mini bullet made possible the largescale adoption of rifles as a military small arm. This new bullet was conical in
shape with a hollow base, and it was easy to load. Moreover, it expanded on
firing to fit the rifling of the barrel, thereby providing greater accuracy and
reducing fouling (McNeill, 1983, p. 231).
Throughout the 19th century the calibre of guns and ammunition progressively reduced, from the 19 mm ball of the Brown Bess musket of the first quarter
of the century, to the less than 8 mm rounds used in some repeater rifles in the
1890s (Headrick, 1981, p. 99). The last quarter of the 19th century also saw the
Chapter 1 Bevan and Pzard 19
Targeting Ammunition
Table 1
Small arms and light weapons in United Nations Report of the
Panel of Governmental Experts on Small Arms
Type of weapon*
Cartridgebased
Guided
projectile
Explosive
projectile
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Assault rifles
Yes
No
No
Sub-machine guns
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
No
No**
Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Yes
Recoilless rifles
No
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Small arms:
Light weapons:
* Source: United Nations Report of the Panel of Governmental Experts on Small Arms (UN, 1997, section III, para. 26)
** Explosive ammunition for some large-calibre machine guns is available but remains very rare.
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Targeting Ammunition
24
Targeting Ammunition
Under
12.7 mm
Examples:
Shotgun
Pistol
Machine pistol
Sub-machine gun
Rifle
Assault rifle
Light sniper rifle
Light machine gun
General purpose
machine gun
(GPMG)
Examples:
Muzzle-loading
weapons including antique pistols,
muskets, rifles, and
replicas
Non-rocketpropelled projectiles
Examples:
Mortar
Rifle grenade
Recoilless rifle
Examples:
RPG
Rocket launcher
Examples:
MANPADS
ATGW
12.7 mm
and over**
Examples:
Pistol*
Anti-materiel rifle
Heavy sniper rifle
Heavy machine gun
OCSW/OICW
Spin-stabilized
grenade
Non-cartridge based
Note: Hand grenades fall under the United Nations definition but differ markedly from the ammunition shown above in that they are self-contained, comprising both ammunition
Cartridge based
Other*
Figure 1
Varieties of ammunition and
examples by type of weapon
Cartridge-based ammunition
The cartridge is a self-contained unit comprising the cartridge case, the primer,
the propellant (powder), and the projectile or bullet (Figure 2). All weapons
that fire cartridge-based ammunition have a barrel, which is integral to the
process of delivering energy, momentum, and direction to the bullet.
The operating principles of all weapons firing cartridge-based ammunition
are the same (Figure 2). The cartridge partially seals the firing chamber of the
weapon. On firing, a pin strikes the primer at the base of the cartridge (1) and
ignites it. This ignites the powder, which burns rapidly and generates expanding gases. The gases are forced down the length of the barrel, pushing the
bullet in front of them (2) and eventually out of the barrel (3). Simultaneously,
the cartridge case expands, thereby completing the firing chamber seal. The
momentum imparted by the process propels the bullet but there is no process
within the bullet that sustains movement. As a consequence, the bullet begins
to lose velocity shortly after it leaves the barrel.
Cartridge size differs from weapon to weapon not only in the calibre (i.e.
diameter) of the bullet, but also in the overall length of the case (e.g. 5.56 x 45 mm
denotes a round of calibre 5.56 mm with a case length of 45 mm). Longer cases
contain more powder, which can give more energy and thus higher velocities
Figure 2
Anatomy and operation of cartridge-based ammunition
Bullet
Firing pin
Barrel
Case
Powder
3
Primer
10
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Targeting Ammunition
7.62 x 54
7.62 x 51
7.62 x 39
7.62 x 31
5.56 x 45
5.45 x 39
7.5 x 54
12.7 x 114
12
12.7 x 107
12.7 x 99
14 calibre (mm)
Table 2
Ammunition standards
Types of weapons
NATO standards
5.56 x 45 mm
7.62 x 39 mm
7.62 x 51 mm
7.62x 54 mm
Pistols
9 x19 mm Parabellum
7.62 x 25 mm, 9 x 17 mm
12.7 x 99 mm
These rubber bullets and live ammunition were used by the Bolivian authorities in a confrontation with coca
growers on a road between Chipiriri and Eterazama. Lucian Read/WPN
28
Targeting Ammunition
Figure 4
Anatomy of a spin-stabilized grenade
Explosive charge
Projectile
Cartridge case
Impact fuse
Primer assembly
The latest versions of spin-stabilized grenades are being developed for the
Objective Crew Served Weapon (OCSW) and the smaller Objective Individual
Combat Weapon (OICW). The ammunition is conventional, in that it is fired
from a cartridge in a barrelled weapon, but the round, which is 25 mm in diameter, is far larger than most cartridges yet smaller than previous spin-stabilized
grenades. It is, moreover, fused to explode in the air over targets, an effect that
is called airbursting (see Figure 10). It is predicted that the OCSW will replace
both heavy machine guns and automatic grenade launchers in the US armed
forces (Jones and Cutshaw, 2004, pp. 39495).
Non-cartridge-based ammunition
In contrast to cartridge-based ammunition, many varieties of non-cartridge based
ammunition contain their means of propulsion within the projectile. These weapons are commonly referred to as rocket or missile systems. They also include
categories of ammunition such as rocket-propelled grenades. Small arms do not
operate in this way, but the majority of light weapons in the United Nations
definition operate according to some variation of this principle. The basic configuration of this ammunition differs from system to system but, in all cases,
the projectile consists of an explosive warhead and a rocket motor. Propulsion
Figure 5
The two main types of rocket-propelled ammunition
Single combustion
1
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Targeting Ammunition
Figure 6
Anatomy and operation of a mortar
Fuse
High explosive charge
Secondary or augmenting
propellant charge
Ignition and primary
propellant cartridges
can be of two types, depending on whether the combustion of gases occurs while
the projectile is in the tube or whether it is launched from the tube by a small
propelling charge prior to combusion of the main rocket motor (Figure 5).
Mortars are different in that they operate in a similar way to firearms by
using an integral charge (single combustion) but are not strictly cartridge based.
As Figure 6 illustrates, the mortar bomb is dropped into the tube (1). It strikes
a firing pin at the base of the tube (2), which ignites the ignition cartridge and
the primary propellant cartridge. This, in turn, ignites the augmenting or secondary propellant charge (if used), which is arranged in bands around the
base of the mortar bomb (shown in grey). The expansion of gases in the tube
forces the bomb out of the tube (3).
Chapter 1 Bevan and Pzard 31
Unguided ammunition
Unguided ammunition simply follows the trajectory assigned by the firer. Their
trajectory cannot be adjusted once they have left the barrel, or launch tube, of
the weapon. Unguided weapons are a common feature in most conflicts and
include mortars, rocket launchers, RPGs, recoilless rifles, and rifle grenades.
Unguided rocket-propelled light weapon ammunition can be divided into
two groupsweapons that are designed to fire along the firers line of sight,
and those that are intended to fire indirectly. The former comprise weapons
commonly referred to as rocket launchers or missile systems, while the latter
are mortars. Mortars fire ammunition in high arc trajectories designed to hit
targets beyond the sight of the firer or behind obstacles (Figure 7).
The basic design of a direct-fire projectile includes a warhead section and a
propellant section (Figure 8). This type of direct-fire weapon was developed
to meet the need for a weapon to defeat armoured vehicles. The weapons and
ammunition are now designed for many different roles, including targeting
armoured and light vehicles, destroying hard targets such as bunkers or houses,
and anti-personnel roles. Because such rocket-propelled ammunition is launched
from an unrifled tube, rather than a rifled barrel, no spin is imparted to the
projectile on launch. For this reason, stability is achieved through stabilizing
fins, which produce a slow rate of roll in flight (Figure 8).
32 Targeting
Indian
army personnel
Ammunition
display seized rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) in Srinagar, 2005. Danish Ismail/Reuters
Figure 7
The high arc trajectory of a mortar bomb
Figure 8
Two examples of unguided rocket-propelled ammunition
Explosive
Warhead
section
Fuse
Propellant
charge
Propellant
section
Stabilizing fins
(folding)
66 mm M72A5 HEAT ammunition
for an M72 light anti-armour
weapon (LAW)
Guided ammunition
In contrast to unguided ammunition, guided ammunition is designed expressly
to hit mobile targets, including tanks, lighter vehicles, and aircraft. Guided
weapons can be directed towards the target while in flight, which allows the
firer to make adjustments to compensate for the targets movement.
Types of guidance system differ greatly. In the early guided weapons, the
trajectory of projectiles was adjusted in flight by wire guidance. This relied on
Chapter 1 Bevan and Pzard 33
Figure 9
Diagram of an infrared seeking anti-tank missile
Propulsion
section
Explosive
charge
Seeker
assembly
Note: A rough representation of a Javelin missile. Adapted from Raytheon and Lockheed Martin (2005).
the operator being in visual contact with the target and making adjustments
while the missile flew towards it. Wire guidance is still common in some antitank systems, such as the Russian 9M14 Malyutka and the French Matra Eryx.
More recent types of guidance system include radar, infrared seeking, beam
riding, image matching, and sensors that analyse a broad spectrum of energy
sources. These do not rely on directions given by the operator after firing. They
use sophisticated sensors and electronics to recognize the target, calculate its
trajectory and that of the missile, and make adjustments to ensure that the two
meet. The most modern systems incorporate a number of such methods, most
notably, MANPADS such as the British Starstreak and the Japanese Type 91.
Figure 9 illustrates that ammunition which contains a seeker has propulsion
and warhead sections that are common to unguided weapons but the warhead
is set back behind the seeker, which is positioned at the front of the projectile.
Systems that employ guided rocket-propelled projectiles include anti-tank
guided weapons (ATGW) and MANPADS. These are the most sophisticated
light weapons in production and their manufacture is confined to a relatively
small number of countries with well developed defence industries (Small Arms
Survey, 2004, pp. 8182; 2005, pp. 5862). Because they are designed to destroy
modern, rapidly moving targets, guided weapons present technological, financial, and political barriers to their acquisition, which control their proliferation
to a greater extent than unguided weapons.
34
Targeting Ammunition
Flight ballistics
The term ballistics refers to the behaviour of a projectile in flight. Most cartridgebased small arms and light weapons are designed to fire a projectile, with a
relatively flat trajectory, at a target that is within the firers line of sight. However, there are a number of small arms and light weapons that are expressly
designed to engage targets beyond the sight of the firer. These are termed indirect
fire weapons and are designed so that the projectile either follows a high arc
trajectory before striking the target (Figure 7), or follows a flatter trajectory before
exploding over the target.
In either case, the rationale behind developing such munitions is that the firer
can engage the enemy without entering the enemys line of sightand ultimately the enemys line of fire. However, the fact that indirect-fire weapons
enable the firer to engage targets he or she cannot see has a number of potentially grave consequences in modern conflict. Primarily, this is because the firer
is unable to determine what effect they have. Moreover, from a purely psychological perspective, the firer is disconnected from the target (Grossman, 1995,
pp. 10708). The 2003 siege of Monrovia, Liberia, demonstrated the effect of
using mortars in built-up areas. Fighters from both sides of the conflict were
unable, or unwilling, to hit purely military targets to the detriment of the local
civilian population (Small Arms Survey, 2005, pp. 18283).
Figure 10
Airburst munitions
The latest developments in airburst munitions (Figure 10) are worrying for
exactly this reason. Unlike mortars, which are only sporadically used, some of
these weapons are intended to replace standard assault rifles. This means that
this ammunition could be among those most commonly used in any future
infantry encounter. One fear is that combatants may use airburst munitions not
only when they are certain of targets, but also when they are in doubt as to what
is happening out of sight.
Wound ballistics
The different categories of ammunition (non-explosive or explosive) have important implications for the type and severity of wounds that they cause.5
Non-explosive projectiles
Wound ballistics is the study of the motion and effect of bullets and fragments
on tissue (Di Maio, 1999, p. 53). The penetration of a bullet first creates a temporary cavity that corresponds to a very fast implosion of tissue. It leaves a
permanent canal (see Figure 11). Most of the tissue is destroyed by the effect of
the distension of the temporary cavity, rather than by the contact between the
bullet and the tissue. It is worth noting, however, that the size of the temporary
cavity does not determine the extent of the damage to the tissue because a large
part of it is only distended rather than destroyed. The amount of kinetic energy
Figure 11
Permanent and temporary cavities
Temporary cavity
36
Targeting Ammunition
An anthropologist examines a skull shattered by a high-velocity bullet at the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology
Foundation (FAFG) in Guatemala City. FAFG devotes most of its time to exhuming bodies killed by the Guatemalan
military during the countrys 36-year civil war. Victor James Blue/WPN
that is transferred to the body when hit determines the size of the permanent
and temporary cavities (Di Maio, 1999, p. 55). Kinetic energy (KE) is a function
of the mass and velocity of the projectile (KE=1/2.m.v).
Other factors affect the extent of the damage done by a bullet. Of these factors,
the most notable is the characteristic (type, elasticity, density) of the organ hit.
Organs that have a certain amount of elasticity, such as lungs or muscles, are
better able to sustain a gunshot wound than solid organs such as the liver (Fackler,
1987; Di Maio, 1999, p. 55).
Fragmentation of the bullet can also increase the gravity of the wound. The
breaking behaviour of a bullet depends on the distance it is fired fromthere
is more chance of fragmentation for a projectile shot from close rangeand on
other factors such as the type of metal of which it is made.
Another important factor in wound ballistics is the type of projectile used.
Semi-jacketed bullets, such as soft-point and hollow-point bullets, have part
of their core exposed at the top. These usually expand when they hit the target
to assume a mushroom shape (Di Maio, 1999, pp. 29296).6 Semi-jacketed
bullets are usually used for hunting because they increase the chances of a kill,
Chapter 1 Bevan and Pzard 37
and in law enforcement because they tend to ricochet less, presenting less of
a hazard to innocent bystanders in urban surroundings. Only fully jacketed
bullets, however, are permitted for military use under international law (Small
Arms Survey, 2005, pp. 2223).
Explosive munitions
Explosive munitions launched by light weapons affect the human body in a
different way to cartridge-based ammunition. Many light weapons use explosive munitions. They have three distinct effects: a ballistic effect, produced by
fragments and sometimes referred to as the fragmentation effect; a blast effect;
and a thermal effect.
It is important to note that a number of light weapons, such as portable antitank and anti-aircraft launchers, are intended to be used against materiel (vehicles,
small buildings, and aircraft) rather than humans. In practice, however, humans
can beand often arehit by such munitions, and are part of the collateral
damage caused by the use of light weapons against materiel (Covey, 2004).
Explosive munitions produce metallic fragments that cause ballistic injuries.
The resulting injuries depend on the characteristics of the fragment (velocity,
mass, and shape) and those of the tissues hit (elasticity, density, and type). In
contrast to bullets, fragments are often smaller and irregularly shaped, and can
cause multiple wounds (VNH, 2004, p. 1.4). The impact of both thermal and
blast effects depends on the distance between the body and the epicentre of
the explosion (see Figure 12).
A thermal effect occurs when an individual is closest to the epicentre of the
explosion, in which case he may be severely burned by the heat generated. These
burns usually seriously complicate the treatment of other (ballistic) wounds
(VNH, 2004, p. 1.4). The blast effect, which comes from the blast overpressure
waves (also called sonic shock waves) created by the explosion, usually affects
ears, lungs, and the digestive tract. These injuries increase in severity with the
level of pressure and the length of exposure to them. Thermobaric weapons
augment this blast effect by increasing the duration of the explosion, which is
enhanced when it occurs in an enclosed space (such as a bunker). It should also
be noted that the blast effect can cause further injuries by forcing individuals
into nearby solid and sharp objects (VNH, 2004, p. 1.4).
38
Targeting Ammunition
Figure 12
Probability of injuries sustained from the detonation of explosive
munitions
Distance from epicentre
Thermal +
blast +
ballistic effects
Probability of injury
Blast +
ballistic effects
1.0
Ballistic effects
0
Effects
Figure adapted from Virtual Naval Hospital (2004), p. 1.3.
Targeting Ammunition
For this reason it falls outside the United Nations definition of small arms
and light weapons. Nonetheless, the fact that guided munitions have decreased
in calibre over the past two decadesin some cases, such as the British Royal
Ordnance Merlin, to 82 mmsuggests that this trend may well continue. If this
occurs, another type of smart (i.e. guided) munition will become commonplace in the small arms and light weapons category alongside such weapons
as ATGWs and MANPADS.
The third development departs entirely from conventional principles of small
arms and light weapons operation. Metal Storm is an Australian- and US-based
initiative to replace the usual mechanical firing mechanism of small arms and
light weapons with electronic impulses in order to achieve unprecedented rates
of fire (Hiscock, 2003; Janes Information Group, 2004). Inside the barrel, the
conventional cartridge case is replaced by a series of bullets separated by a
propellant load. While the technology is still at the developmental stage, its
envisaged applications include a range of small arms and light weapons from
handguns to grenade launchers. A 36-barrel gun of this type would be able to
fire one million rounds per minute (Hiscock, 2003; BBC, 2004). The implications
of this new technology are an increased lethality and, once again, a blurring
of the division between small arms and light weapons.
Targeting Ammunition
List of abbreviations
ACP
ATGW
BMG
GPMG
ERA
HEAT
KE
Kinetic energy
LAW
MANPADS
MEP
NATO
OCSW
OICW
RPG
SPG
Endnotes
1
2
3
4
5
6
The shift from muzzle-loaded to breech-loaded weapons did not occur until the 1860s
(Headrick, p. 85).
Another international definition of small arms and light weapons can be found in UNGA,
2005, Section II, para. 4.
It should be noted, however, that there is disagreement about the definition of small-calibre
ammunition; Ness and Williams define it as up to 14.5 mm calibre (Ness and Williams, 2005,
p. 3), and Courtney-Green as ammunition for weapons such as pistols, rifles and machine
guns below 20 mm in calibre (Courtney-Green, 1991, p. 24).
Research conducted at the 2004 Eurosatory Arms Exhibition, Villepinte, France, 14 June.
This section relies on Sellier and Kneubuehl (1994) for most of its information.
Semi-jacketed bullets may also not expand; it depends on their construction (the type of
metal they are made of) and their velocity at the time of impact.
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