Table of contents

Sl.No Topic

1 Meaning and definition of classification

2 Functions of classification

3 Characteristics of good classification

4 Objectives of classification

5 Modes of classification

6 Meaning and definition of tabulation

7 Objectives of tabulation

8 Components of tables

9 Requirements of good statistical tables

10 Types of tables

11 General purpose and specific purpose tables

12 Advantages and disadvantages of classification

And tabulation
Topic: Meaning and definition of classification
 Functions of classification

INTRODUCTION

The collected data is usually contained in schedules and

questionnaires. But that is not in an easily assailable form. The answers will
require some analysis if their salient points are to be brought out. As a rule,
the first step in the analysis is to classify an tabulate the information
collected, or if published statistics have been employed rearrange these into
new groups an tabulate the new arrangement. In case of some investigations,
the classification and tabulation may give such a clear picture of the
significance of the material arranged that no further analysis is required.
They are however very important whether they complete the analysis or
form only part of it. The questionnaire may have been very carefully drawn
up and the whole information displayed in tabular form, no one will be a
great deal wiser as to the contents of the replies.

MEANING OF CLASSIFICATION
Classification is a process of arranging data into different classes
according to their resemblances and affinities. The arrangement of a huge
mass of heterogeneous data into homogeneous groups facilitates
comparison and analysis of the data. Classification prepares the ground for
the proper presentation of statistical facts.
After collection and editing of data the first step towards further
processing the same is classification. Classification is the grouping of
related facts into classes. Facts in one class differ from those of
classification. sorting facts on one basis of classification and then on
another basis is called cross- classification. This process can be repeated as
many times as there are possible bases of classification. Classification of
data is a function very similar to that of sorting letters in a post- office are
sorted into different lots on a geographical basis, i.e., in accordance with
their destinations such as Mumbai, Calcutta, Kanpur, Jaipur, etc. They are
then put into separate bags , each containing letters with a common
characteristic, viz., having the same destination. To take another example,
when students seek admission in a college they submit applications to the
office. The applications forms contain particulars about their performance
in the previous examinations, their date of birth, sex, nationality, etc. If one
is interested in finding out how many first, second and third class students
have joined the college, one may look into each and every form and note
whether it relates to a first class student, second class student, etc. He may
find that out of 1,000 students who took admission 50 had first class ,800
second class and 150 third class. The process with the help of which this
information in a summary form is obtained is called the classification of
data.
DEFINITIONS
 “Classification is the process of arranging things (either actually or
notionally) in groups or classes according to their resemblances and
affinities and gives expression to the unity of attributes that may subsist
amongst a diversity of individuals.”
- Conner

“Classification is the process of arranging data into sequences and

groups according to their common characteristics, or separating them into
different but related parts.”
-Secrist

FUNCTIONS OF CLASSIFICATION

 Bulk of the data

 Simplifies the data
 Facilitates comparison of characteristics
 Renders the data ready for statistical analysis

Topic: Characteristics and objectives of Classification

 CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASSIFICATION:

The classification of data is decided after taking into consideration the

nature, scope and purpose of the investigation, However, an ideal
classification should have following characteristics:

1. Unambiguous:

It is necessary that the various classes should be so defined that there is

no room for confusion. There must be only one class for each element of the
data set. For example: If the population of the country is divided into two
classes, say literates and illiterates, then an exhaustive definition of the terms
used would be essential.

2. Stable:

The classification of a data set into various classes must be done in

such a manner that if each time an investigation is conducted, it remains
unchanged and hence the results of one investigation may be compared with
that of another. For example: classification country’s populations by a
census survey based on occupations are defined in different ways in
successive censes and, as such, these figures are not strictly comparable.
3. Flexible:
 A classification should be flexible so that suitable adjustments can be
made in new situations and circumstances. However, flexibility does not
mean instability. The data should be divided into few major classes which
must be further subdivided. Ordinarily there would not be many changes in
the major classes. Only small sub-classes may need a change and the
classification can thus retain the merit of stability and yet have flexibility.

4. Exhaustiveness:

A classification is said to be exhaustive if there is no item that cannot

be allotted a class. Classification must be exhaustive in the sense that each
and every item in the data must belong to one of the classes.

5. Mutually exclusive:

Different classes are said to be mutually exclusive if they are

overlapping. When a classification is mutually exclusive, each item of the
data can be placed only in one of the classes. Example , Classification of
students among smokers, non-smokers and females is not proper since
females could also come under both the classes. Proper classification would
consist in grouping the population among males and females and further
dividing the two groups among smokers and non – smokers.

6. Suitability:
 The classification should be suitable to the objective of
investigation. For example, if investigation is conducted to inquire into the
economic conditions of workers it will be of no use to classify them on the
basis of their religion.

7. Homogeneity:
A classification is said to homogeneous if similar items are placed in a
class.

8. Revealing:
A classification is said to revealing if it brings out essential features of
the collected data. This can be done by selecting a suitable number of
classes. Making few classes means over summarization while large number
of the material collected.

OBJECTIVES OF CLASSIFICATION:
1. To condense the mass of data:
Statistical data collected during the course of an investigation
are so varied that it is not possible to appreciate, even after a careful study,
the real significance of the figures, unless they are properly classified small
groups or classes. For example; the huge and fragmented data collected
during a population census has to be classified according to sex, marital
status, education, occupation, etc., to ascertain the structure and nature of the
population.

2. To enable grasping of data:

Unorganized mass of data does not allow a proper grasp of the
definition of statistics (as data) it was indicated that it has to be an
organized mass arranged and classified as per a predetermined mode of
classification.
The figures are easily arranged in a few classes or categories so that
the like go with the like. The data becomes comprehensible when it is sorted
into homogeneous groups as per their respective affinities and cognate
characteristics.

3. To prepare the data for tabulation:

Only classified data can be presented in tabular form.
Classification thus provides a basis for tabulation and further statistical
processing.
4. To study the relationships:
Relation between variable can be established only after the
various characteristics of the data have been known, which is possible only
through classification and tabulation. For example, the characteristics of
income and education can be related but these must first be extracted from
the mass of data.

5. To facilitate comparison:
Classification enables comparison between variables. For
example, the data an households classified on the basis of age, religion,
education, income, expenditure, occupation, etc., can be used for drawing
comparisons between, say, income and education and occupation etc.

Topic: Modes of Classification

 TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION

The nature of classification depends upon the purpose and

objective of Investigation. The following are some very common types of
classification.

1. Geographical (or spatial) classification

2. Chronological classification
3. Conditional classification
4. Qualitative classification
5. Quantitative classification

1. Geographical (or spatial) classification

When the data are classified according to geographical location or

region (like states, cities, regions, zones, areas, etc) it is called a
geographical classification. For example, the production of food grains in
India may be presented state-wise in the following manner.

State-wise estimates of production of production of food grains

 Sl.No Name of state Total Food
grains
(Thousand
Tones)
1 Andhra Pradesh 1093.90

2 Bihar 12899.89

3 Karnataka 18345.78

4 Punjab 21788.20

5 Uttar Pradesh 41828.30

Geographical classifications are usually listed in alphabetical order for easy

reference. Items may also be listed by size to emphasize the important areas
as in ranking the states by population. Normally, in reference table the first
approach is followed and in summary table the second approach is followed.

2. Chronological classification:
 When data are observed over a period of time the type of classification
is known as chronological classification (on the basis of its time of
occurrence). Various time series such as National income figures, annual
output of wheat, monthly expenditure of a household, daily consumption of
milk, etc, are some examples of chronological classification. For example we
may present the figures of population (or production, sales, etc.) as follows:

Population of India from 1941 to 1991

Sl.No Year Population (in Crores)

1 1941 31.87

2 1951 36.11

3 1961 43.92

4 1971 54.82

5 1981 68.33

3. Qualitative classification:

In qualitative classification data are classified on the basis of some

attribute or quality such as sex, color of hair, literacy, religion, etc. The point
to note in this type of classification is that the attribute under study cannot be
measured, on can only find out whether it is present or absent in the nits of
the population under study. For example it the attribute under study is
population, one can fund out how many persons are living in urban area and
how many in rural area. Thus when only one attribute is studied two classes
are formed is studied two classes are formed, one possessing the attribute
and the other not possessing the attribute. This type of classification is
known as simple classification. For example, the population under study
may be divided into two categories as follows:

Population

Rural

In a similar manner, we may classify population on the basis of sex,

i.e., into males and females, or literacy, i.e., into literate and illiterate, and so
on. The type of classification where only two classes are formed is also
called two-fold or dichotomous classification. If instead of forming only two
classes we further divide the data on the basis of some attribute or attributes
so as to form several classes, the classification is manifold classification.

For example , we may first divide the population into males and females on
the basis of the attribute ‘sex’ , each of these classes may be further
subdivide into ‘literate’ and ‘ illiterate’ on the basis of the attribute ‘literacy’.
Further classification can be made on the basis of some other attribute, say,
employment.
example of manifold classification is given here:

Note: Emp. Indicates Employed and Unemp. Indicates unemployed.

4. Quantitative classification:
 Quantitative classification refers to the classification of data according
to some characteristics that can be measured, such as height, weight, income,
sales, profits, production, etc. For example, the students of a college may be
classified according to weight as follows:

Weight (kgs) No of Students

40-50 60

50-60 50

60-70 28

70-80 20

80-90 12

Total 170

Such a distribution is known as empirical frequency distribution or

simple frequency distribution. In this type of classification, there are two
elements, namely 1) the variable, i.e. the weight in the above example, and
2) the frequency, i.e., the number of students in each class.
A frequency distribution refers to data classified on the basis of some
variable that can be measured such as prices, wages, age, number of units
produced or consumed. The term variable refers to the characteristic that
varies in amount or magnitude in a frequency distribution.
A variable may be either continuous or discrete. A continuous variable
also called continuous random variable is capable of manifesting every
conceivable fractional value within the range of possibilities, such as the
height or weight of persons or the weight of person or the weight of the
product. On the other hand, a discrete variable is that which can vary only by
finite “jumps” and cannot manifest every conceivable fractional value. For
instance, the number of rooms in a house e can only take certain values such
as 1,2,3,4 etc. Similarly, the number of machine is and establishments are
discrete variables. Generally speaking, continuous data are derived by
counting. Series which can be described by a continuous variable are called
continuous series. Series represented by a discrete variable are called
discrete series. The following are two examples of discrete and continuous
frequency distributions:

Discrete Continuous

No of children No of families Weight No of persons

0 10 40-50 30

1 40 50-60 50

2 60 60-70 60

3 30 70-80 50

4 15 80-90 40

5 5 90-100 10

Total 160 Total 240

INTRODUCTION TO TABULATION

 Meaning and definition of tabulation

  Objectives of tabulation

 Components of tables

 Requirements of good statistical table

 Types of tables

 General purpose and specific purpose tables

 Advantages and disadvantages of classification and

tabulation

TABULATION

Topic: meaning and definition of tabulation

 MEANING

Although classified data is a step towards simplification and

summarizing of data, it is not able to explain the data fully. Neither does it
analyse the data. Data has to be presented in a suitable form before it can be
studied and its salient features and significance understood. Data can be
presented textually, but it is not an effective form, as matter has to be read
over and over again to grasp the entire range of figures. Presentation of data
involves the use of statistical devices by which classified data are presented
in an understandable form so that data may be quickly grasped. Presentation
of data helps in further statistical treatment and analysis. The main methods
of presenting data are 1) tabulation 2) diagrams and graphs.
Tabulation is a systematic presentation of numerical data in row and
columns. Tabulation of classified data makes it more intelligible and fit for
statistical analysis.
DEFINITION:

According to Tuttle, “A statistical table is the logical listing of

related quantitative data in vertical columns and horizontal rows of numbers,
with sufficient explanatory and qualifying words, phrases and statements in
the form of titles, heading and footnotes to make clear the full meaning of
the data and their origin”.
Topic: Objectives of Tabulation
Presented by: Vivek MN

OBJECTIVES OF TABULATION:
1. To simplify the complex data
Tabulation presents the data set in systematic and concise form
avoiding unnecessary details. The idea is to reduce the bulk of information
(data) under investigation into a simplified and meaningful form.

2. To economize space
By condensing data in a meaningful form, space is saved without
sacrificing the quality and quantity of data.

4. To facilitate comparison
Since table is divided into various parts and for each part tables are
given, the relationship between various items in the tables can be easily
compared.

5. To facilitate statistical analysis

Tabulation is the phase between classification of data and its
presentation. Various statistical technique such as measures of average and
dispersion, correlation and regression, time series, and so on can be applied
to analyse data and then interpreting the results.

6. To save time
From the tabulated data the information can be understood by less
time.
7. To depict trend
Data condensed in the form of table reveal the trend or pattern of data
which otherwise cannot be understood in a descriptive form of presentation.

8. To help reference
When data are arranged table in a suitable form, they can be easily
identified and can also be used as reference for future needs.

Components Of Table
Presenting data in a tabular form is an art. Statistical table should
contain all the requisite information in a limited space but without any loss
of clarity. Practice varies, but explained below are certain accepted rules for
the construction of an ideal table

1. Table number
A table should be numbered for easy identification and reference in
future. The table number may be given either in the center or side of the
table but above the top of the title of the table. If the number of columns in a
table is large, then these can also be numbered so that easy reference to these
is possible.

2. Title of the table

Every table should be given in a suitable title. Title should be clear,
precise and self explanatory. A complete title must explain in brief and
concise language: (a) what the data are (b) where the data are (c) when the
data occurred (d) how the data are classified

3. Caption (or box head)

Caption refers to the columns headings. It explains what the column
represents. It may consist of one or more columns headings. Under a column
heading there may be subheads. The caption should be clearly defined and
placed at the middle of the column. Caption should be shown in a smaller
letter in order to save space.

4. Stub
Stubs are designation of the rows or row headings. They are at the
extreme left and perform the same function for the horizontal rows of
numbers in the tables as the column heading do for the vertical columns
numbers. The stubs are usually wider than column headings but should be
kept as narrow as possible.

5. Body (or field)

The body of the table contains the numerical information. This is the
most vital part of the table. The collected data are presented in the body of
the table.

6. Head note
It is a brief explanatory statement applying to major part of the
materials in the table. It is used to explain certain points relating to the whole
table that have not been included in the title nor captions or stubs. Head
notes may be used to indicate the units in which the data of the table are
expressed. Head notes should be used only when actually needed. They may
be placed in brackets immediately following the title.
7.Foot note
Anything written below the table is called a foot note. It is written to
further clarify either the title captions or stubs. For example if the data
described in the table pertain to profits earned by a company, then the foot
note may be define whether it is profit before tax or after tax. There are
various ways of identifying foot notes:
a) Numbering foot notes consecutively with smaller number 1, 2,3…..or
letters a, b, c…..or star *, **,……
b) Sometimes symbols like @ or $ are also used to identify foot notes.

7. Source data
The source from where the data contained in the table has been
obtained should be stated. This would help the reader to check the figures
and gather, if necessary, additional information.

A blank model table is given below:

Table Number and Title [Head or Prefatory Note (if any)]

Stub Caption Total

headings (rows)
Subhead Subhead
 Column-head Column Column- head Column head
head

Stub Entries

Total
(columns)

Foot note :
Source note:

Topic: Requirements of good statistical tables

Types of Tables

REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD STATISTICAL TABLES:

 “A good Statistical table is not a mere careless grouping of columns and
rows of figures; it is a triumph of ingenuity and technique, a masterpiece of
economy of space combined with a maximum of clearly presented
information. To prepare a good table, one must have a clear idea of the facts
to be presented, the contrasts to be stressed, the points upon which emphasis
is to be placed and lastly a familiarity with the technique of preparation.”
There are no hard and fast rules for preparing a statistical table. However,
commensurate with the objectives and scope of enquiry, the following points
may be come into mind while preparing a good statistical table.

1. Suit the purpose

A table should able to keep the objective of the statistical enquiry.

2. Scientifically prepared
The table should be prepared in a systematic and logically organized
manner, simple and compact so that it is readily comprehensible. It should
be free from all sorts of overlapping and ambiguities.

3. Clarity
A table should be easily understandable, complete and self-
explanatory.

4. Manageable size
 A table should be so designed that it is neither very long and narrow
nor very short and broad. If need be, it should be adjusted to the space
provided for the purpose. But such an adjustment should not be at the cost of
legibility. If the space available is inadequate, a table is either split into
various parts or is appended to the report on separate larger-size sheet .If it is
found difficult to accommodate all details into a single table, it is better to
break them down into two or more tables. If too much is incorporated in a
single table, the table will loose its simplicity and understandability
.
5. Columns and rows should be numbered
When there are a number of rows and columns in a table, they must be
numbered for reference.

6. Suitably approximated
If the figures are large, they should be suitably approximated or
rounded. The method rounding should be indicated along with the units of
measurements such as a weight in thousand tones rounded to the nearest
whole number.

7. Attractive get-up
A table should be have an attractive get-up which is appealing to the
eye and mind so the reader grabs it without any strain. The rows and
columns are separated by single, double or thick lines depending on the
broad classes and sub classed used. Related percentages are given close to
corresponding columns and rows. Whereas columns are invariably separated
by lines the rows may or may not be so separated.

8. Units
The units designation should be given at the top of the table below the
title such as ‘price in rupees’ and ‘weight in tones’. If there are different
units for different items then they should be mentioned in respective
columns and rows.

9. Averages and totals

The averages and percentages should as far as possible, be given to the
right or at the bottom of the columns containing original figures. Totals and
sub-totals of both columns and rows and if necessary, the cross totals of each
such group should be given.

10. Logical arrangement of items

There should be logical and systematical classification of items in the
table. Items may be arranged (1) alphabetically, (2) geographically, (3)
chronologically, (4) conventionally (5) in order of magnitude, in ascending
or descending order.

11. Proper lettering

It is not advisable to use too many styles of letters in a table. Large
capitals letters and bold face type may be used for headings, stubs, captions
and small letters may be used for preparatory notes, footnotes and source
notes. Lettering also helps in adjusting the size of the table. Whiling styling a
table, it’s suitably to the user should always be kept in mind. The
expressions should be intelligible. Only accepted common abbreviations
should be used. In case of doubt, a footnote is to be added. The box or circle
may be used to emphasize a figure. If there is gap due to the non-availability
of information, it should be filled by letters N.A., i.e., ’not available’. It is
preferable to avoid the use of dash since a dash can create confusion. The
use of double ditto mark (,,) may be avoided since it can be easily confused
with 11.

Types of tables

Tables can be classified in a number of ways depending on the extent of

coverage given by the survey, objective and scope of the survey, nature of
the survey etc. different types of tables are used. They are given below:

1. Simple and Complex tables.

2. General purpose and special purpose tables.
3. Original and derived table.

1. Simple and Complex tables

The distinction between simple and complex tables are based on the
number of characteristic studied.
In a simple table only one characteristic is shown. Hence this type of
table is also known as one way table. In a complex table. On the other hand
two or more characteristics are shown. Such tables are most popular in
practice because they enable full information to be incorporated and
facilitate a proper consideration of all related facts. When two characteristics
are shown such a table is known as two way table. Or double tabulation.
When three characteristics are shown in a table, this type of tabulation is
known as three way table. When four or more characteristics are
simultaneously shown it is a case of manifold tabulation.

The following examples will illustrate the distinction between simple

and complex table.

Simple table or one-way table

In this type of table only one characteristic is shown. This is simple

type of table. The following is illustration of such a table:

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGE

Age groups Number of persons

(in years) (in millions)
 0-18 ……
18-40 ……
40-60 ……
60 and above ……

Two-way table:

Such tables are shown two characteristics and formed when either the
stub or the caption is divided into two coordinate parts. The following
example illustrates the nature of such a table:

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGE AND SEX

Age-Groups Number of persons (in millions) Total

(in years)

Males Females
0-18
18-40
40-60
60 and above

Total

Three-way table

In such a table three characteristics of data are classified. Thus a three

way a table gives us information regarding three inter related characteristics
of a particular phenomenon. For example, the classification of a given
population. With regarding to age, sex and literacy will give rise to three
way table.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY AGE, SEX AND LITERACY

 AGE MALES FEMALES TOTAL
GROUP
(IN

illiterate

total

total

total
Literate

Literate

illiterate

Literate

Illiterate
YRS.)

0-18
18-40
40-60
60 and
above

TOTAL

Manifold table
These tables give the information on a large number of inter-related
problems or characteristics of a given phenomenon. These tables are
commonly used in presenting population census data.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY STATES, AGE, SEX AND

LITERACY
AGE GROUP MALES FEMALES TOTAL
STATES (IN YRS.)
 total

total

total
Literate

Illiterate

literate
illiterate

Literate
Illiterate
WEST 0-18
BENGAL 18-40
40-60
60 and above

UTTAR 0-18
PRADESH 18-40
40-60
60 and above

TOTAL TOTAL

GENERAL PURPOSE AND SPECIFIC PURPOSE TABLES:

General purpose tables represents the raw data in great detail, covers variety
of information on the same subject and presents the data without any special
analytical purpose. Since they are repository tables. As these tables are
usually placed in the appendix of a report for a reference, they are sometimes
called reference tables. Reference tables contain ungrouped data, basic for a
particular report, usually containing a large amount of data and frequently
related to a tabular appendix.
Tables published by various government agencies like CSO, Reserve
Bank of India etc. are such tables. The sole purpose of such table is to
present detailed statistical information pertaining to national income,
population, employment, prices, production, money supply, taxation etc on a
continuing basis.
A special purpose table also known as text table, summery table, or
analytical table presents data relating to a specific problem. For example
tables prepared by a firm for managerial decision present data on a specific
issue desired by the management. Further, a table presenting data related to
the sale of a particular product should be termed specific purpose table.
“These tables are those in which have been analyzed, but rather the
results of analysis”. Such tables are usually smaller than reference table and
are generally found in the body of a report. These tables can be arranged to
emphasize the relationship between various characteristics of data or to
facilitate comparisons between specific problems relating to enquiry.

Original and derivative tables:

Original tables are also known as classification tables, contain data

which were initially collected from the original source. But a table which
presents results derived from the original data like averages, coefficients etc.
would constitute derivative table. Similarly, a time series forms a table
containing original values but a table containing trend values constitutes a
derived table. Quite often original data and the derived results like
percentages of the total, mean, standard deviations etc, are presented in the
form of a table.

Topic:
General purpose table:

The general purpose table is also called as reference table. This

general purpose table is mainly used for facilitating easy reference of the
collected data. This type of table presents the data in such a manner that the
individual items are readily found by the reader. This type of table is formed
without any specific objectives. But this general purpose table contains large
mass of data.

Special purpose table:

The other names for this special purpose tables are text table and
summery table. The main objective of this type of table is to present the data
pertaining to a specific problem. This table is generally smaller in size as
compared to the general purpose tables. The specific purpose tables are
generally formed to highlight the relationship between various
characteristics or to facilitate their on.
Advantages of classification and tabulation

1. Clarifies the object

The information arranged in the form of table is easily accessible and
provides adequate and very clear information to the user. There is no need to
search for the required information in the table and the table gives the ready
information.

2. Simplifies the complex data

The main objective of the tabulation is to reduce the mass i.e. the size
of the data and present the data in the simplest possible way. The idea is to
make a complex data more intelligible and meaningful. While presenting the
data in tables all the complexities are removed and the data is made very
simple and clear.

3. Economic space
The economies of space are achieved without sacrificing the quality
and usefulness of the data. Repetition of explanatory terms and phrases can
be avoided in tabulation.

4. Facilitates the comparison

It facilitates the quick comparison of the statistical data shown in
rows and column. Comparable figures are put in highlighted column to grab
more attention.
5. It helps in references
The tabulated information is convenient to refer to and identify at
any future data. With mechanized tabulation there is permanent storage and
the facility to tabulate in different forms to suit the needs of business.

6. Depict the trend

Tabulated data is easily amenable to statistical calculation of trend and other
features of data.

Disadvantages of tabulation and classification

1. Complicated process
Some time the arrangement of data into rows and columns become
complicated if the person arranging or tabulating does not have the required
knowledge.

2. Every data cannot be put into tables

Some data’s can be put into tabular form but not all the data’s. S we
cannot arrange all the given data in the tabular form or it will be very
difficult to put every data into the tabular form.

3. Lack of flexibility
Once the tale is created then we can not make changes regularly. If
we want to make changes then we should change the whole table.