SQL Commands

What is SQL?
SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing, manipulating and retrieving data stored in relational database.
SQL is the standard language for Relation Database System. All relational database management systems like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, postgres and SQL Server use SQL as standard database language.
Also, they are using different dialects, such as:
MS SQL Server using T-SQL,
Oracle using PL/SQL,
MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format), etc
Why SQL?
Allows users to access data in relational database management systems.
Allows users to describe the data.
Allows users to define the data in database and manipulate that data.
Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.
Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
What is RDBMS?
RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. RDBMS is the basis for SQL and for all modern database systems like MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.
A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system (DBMS) that is based on the relational model as introduced by E. F. Codd.
What is table ?
The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. The table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
Remember, a table is the most common and simplest form of data storage in a relational database.
What is field?
Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the CUSTOMERS table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.
A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every record in the table.
What is record or row?

A record, also called a row of data, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For example, there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table.
A record is a horizontal entity in a table.
What is column?
A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific field in a table.
What is NULL value?

A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank which means A field with a NULL value is a field with no value.
It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record creation.
SQL Constraints:
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the database.
Constraints could be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only to one column where as table level constraints are applied to the whole table.
SQL Syntax:
SQL is followed by unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial gives you a quick start with SQL by listing all the basic SQL Syntax:
All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE, SHOW and all the statements end with a semicolon (;).
Important point to be noted is that SQL is case insensitive which means SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL statements but MySQL make difference in table names. So if you are working with MySQL then you need to give
table names as they exist in the database.
SQL SELECT Statement:

SELECT column1, column2....columnN
FROM
table_name;
SQL DISTINCT Clause:

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN
FROM
table_name;
SQL WHERE Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL AND/OR Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;
SQL IN Clause:
FROM
table_name
WHERE column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);
SQL BETWEEN Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;
SQL Like Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };
SQL ORDER BY Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};
SQL GROUP BY Clause:

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;
SQL COUNT Clause:

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL HAVING Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement:

CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
SQL DROP TABLE Statement:

DROP TABLE table_name;
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement :

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name
ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);
SQL DROP INDEX Statement :

ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP INDEX index_name;
SQL DESC Statement :

DESC table_name;
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:

ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename) :

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
SQL INSERT INTO Statement:

INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)
VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);
SQL UPDATE Statement:

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];
SQL DELETE Statement:

DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE {CONDITION};
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement:

CREATE DATABASE database_name;
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement:

DROP DATABASE database_name;
SQL USE Statement:

USE DATABASE database_name;
SQL COMMIT Statement:

COMMIT;
SQL ROLLBACK Statement:

ROLLBACK;
SQL - Operators:
SQL Arithmetic Operators:
Assume variable a holds 10 and variable b holds 20, then:
Show Examples
Operator
Description
Example
Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator
a + b will
give 30
Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand
a - b will
give -10
Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator
a * b will
give 200
Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand
b / a will
give 2
Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns
remainder
b%a
will give
0
SQL Comparison Operators:

Show Examples
Operator
Description
Example
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition
becomes true.
(a = b) is
not true.
!=
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal (a != b)
then condition becomes true.
is true.
<>
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal (a <> b)
is true.
>
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand,
if yes then condition becomes true.
(a > b) is
not true.
<
Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.
(a < b) is
true.
>=
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a >= b)
is not
true.
<=
Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a <= b)
is true.
!<
Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of right
(a !< b)
is false.
!>
Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of right
(a !> b)
is true.
SQL Logical Operators:

Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.
Show Examples
Operator
Description
ALL
The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.
AND
The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.
ANY
The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list
according to the condition.
BETWEEN
The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values,
given the minimum value and the maximum value.
EXISTS
The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specified table
that meets certain criteria.
IN
The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been
specified.
LIKE
The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard
operators.
NOT
The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.
OR
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE

clause.
IS NULL
The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.
UNIQUE
The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for uniqueness (no
duplicates).
SQL - Useful Functions:

SQL has many built-in functions for performing processing on string or numeric data. Following is the list of all useful SQL built-in functions:
SQL COUNT Function - The SQL COUNT aggregate function is used to count the number of rows in a database table.
SQL MAX Function - The SQL MAX aggregate function allows us to select the highest (maximum) value for a certain column.
SQL MIN Function - The SQL MIN aggregate function allows us to select the lowest (minimum) value for a certain column.
SQL AVG Function - The SQL AVG aggregate function selects the average value for certain table column.
SQL SUM Function - The SQL SUM aggregate function allows selecting the total for a numeric column.
SQL SQRT Functions - This is used to generate a square root of a given number.
SQL RAND Function - This is used to generate a random number using SQL command.
SQL CONCAT Function - This is used to concatenate any string inside any SQL command.
SQL Numeric Functions - Complete list of SQL functions required to manipulate numbers in SQL.
SQL String Functions - Complete list of SQL functions required to manipulate strings in SQL.
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the database.
Constraints could be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only to one column, whereas table level constraints are applied to the whole table.
Following are commonly used constraints available in SQL. These constraints have already been discussed in SQL - RDBMS Concepts chapter but its worth to revise them at this point.
NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is specified.
UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.
FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table.
CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy certain conditions.
INDEX: Use to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created with the CREATE TABLE statement or you can use ALTER TABLE statement to create constraints even after the table is created.
Dropping Constraints:
Any constraint that you have defined can be dropped using the ALTER TABLE command with the DROP CONSTRAINT option.
For example, to drop the primary key constraint in the EMPLOYEES table, you can use the following command:
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP CONSTRAINT EMPLOYEES_PK;
Some implementations may provide shortcuts for dropping certain constraints. For example, to drop the primary key constraint for a table in Oracle, you can use the following command:
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP PRIMARY KEY;
Some implementations allow you to disable constraints. Instead of permanently dropping a constraint from the database, you may want to temporarily disable the constraint and then enable it later.
Integrity Constraints:
Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and consistency of data in a relational database. Data integrity is handled in a relational database through the concept of referential integrity.
There are many types of integrity constraints that play a role in referential integrity (RI). These constraints include Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique Constraints and other constraints mentioned above.
The SQL Joins clause is used to combine records from two or more tables in a database. A JOIN is a means for combining fields from two tables by using values common to each.
Consider the following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID
| DATE
| CUSTOMER_ID | AMOUNT |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
2 |
1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
4 |
2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, let us join these two tables in our SELECT statement as follows:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, AMOUNT

FROM CUSTOMERS, ORDERS
WHERE
CUSTOMERS.ID = ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
This would produce the following result:
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
|
3 | kaushik
23 |
3000 |
3 | kaushik
23 |
1500 |
2 | Khilan
25 |
1560 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 |
2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
Here, it is noticeable that the join is performed in the WHERE clause. Several operators can be used tojoin tables, such as =, <, >, <>, <=, >=, !=, BETWEEN, LIKE, and NOT; they can all be used to join tables. However, the most
common operator is the equal symbol.
SQL Join Types:

There are different types of joins available in SQL:
INNER JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in both tables.
LEFT JOIN: returns all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table.
RIGHT JOIN: returns all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table.
FULL JOIN: returns rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SELF JOIN: is used to join a table to itself as if the table were two tables, temporarily renaming at least one table in the SQL statement.
CARTESIAN JOIN: returns the Cartesian product of the sets of records from the two or more joined tables.
The SQL UNION clause/operator is used to combine the results of two or more SELECT statements without returning any duplicate rows.
To use UNION, each SELECT must have the same number of columns selected, the same number of column expressions, the same data type, and have them in the same order, but they do not have to be the same length.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of UNION is as follows:
SELECT column1 [, column2 ]

FROM table1 [, table2 ]
[WHERE condition]
UNION
[WHERE condition]
Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota
| 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
2 |
1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |

4 |
2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME,

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID =
UNION
SELECT ID, NAME,
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID =
AMOUNT, DATE
ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
AMOUNT, DATE
ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID
| NAME
| AMOUNT | DATE
|
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
|
1 | Ramesh
|
NULL | NULL
|
|
2 | Khilan
|
1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
|
3 | kaushik |
3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
|
3 | kaushik |
1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
|
4 | Chaitali |
2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
|
5 | Hardik
|
NULL | NULL
|
|
6 | Komal
|
NULL | NULL
|
|
7 | Muffy
|
NULL | NULL
|
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
The UNION ALL Clause:

The UNION ALL operator is used to combine the results of two SELECT statements including duplicate rows.
The same rules that apply to UNION apply to the UNION ALL operator.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of UNION ALL is as follows:

[WHERE condition]
UNION ALL
[WHERE condition]
Here given condition could be any given expression based on your requirement.
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
2 |
1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
4 |
2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME,

FROM CUSTOMERS
LEFT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID =
UNION ALL
SELECT ID, NAME,
FROM CUSTOMERS
RIGHT JOIN ORDERS
ON CUSTOMERS.ID =
AMOUNT, DATE
ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID
AMOUNT, DATE
ORDERS.CUSTOMER_ID;
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
| ID
| NAME
| AMOUNT | DATE
|
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
|
1 | Ramesh
|
NULL | NULL
|
|
2 | Khilan
|
1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
|
3 | kaushik |
3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
|
3 | kaushik |
1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
|
4 | Chaitali |
2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
|
5 | Hardik
|
NULL | NULL
|
|
6 | Komal
|
NULL | NULL
|
|
7 | Muffy
|
NULL | NULL
|
|
3 | kaushik |
3000 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
|
3 | kaushik |
1500 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
|
2 | Khilan
|
1560 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
|
4 | Chaitali |
2060 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
+------+----------+--------+---------------------+
There are two other clauses (i.e., operators), which are very similar to UNION clause:
SQL INTERSECT Clause: is used to combine two SELECT statements, but returns rows only from the first SELECT statement that are identical to a row in the second SELECT statement.
SQL EXCEPT Clause : combines two SELECT statements and returns rows from the first SELECT statement that are not returned by the second SELECT statement.
SQL - NULL Values

The SQL NULL is the term used to represent a missing value. A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank.
A field with a NULL value is a field with no value. It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value or a field that contains spaces.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of NULL while creating a table:
SQL> CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID
INT
NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20)
NOT NULL,
AGE INT
NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY
DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
Here, NOT NULL signifies that column should always accept an explicit value of the given data type. There are two columns where we did not use NOT NULL, which means these columns could be NULL.
A field with a NULL value is one that has been left blank during record creation.
Example:
The NULL value can cause problems when selecting data, however, because when comparing an unknown value to any other value, the result is always unknown and not included in the final results.
You must use the IS NULL or IS NOT NULL operators in order to check for a NULL value.
Consider the following table, CUSTOMERS having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
|
|
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
|
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, following is the usage of IS NOT NULL operator:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, following is the usage of IS NULL operator:
SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NULL;
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
|
|
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
|
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL - Alias Syntax

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You can rename a table or a column temporarily by giving another name known as alias.
The use of table aliases means to rename a table in a particular SQL statement. The renaming is a temporary change and the actual table name does not change in the database.
The column aliases are used to rename a table's columns for the purpose of a particular SQL query.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of table alias is as follows:
SELECT column1, column2....

FROM table_name AS alias_name
WHERE [condition];
The basic syntax of column alias is as follows:
SELECT column_name AS alias_name

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
|OID | DATE
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
| 102 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
3000 |
| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |
3 |
1500 |
| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |
2 |
1560 |
| 103 | 2008-05-20 00:00:00 |
4 |
2060 |
+-----+---------------------+-------------+--------+
Now, following is the usage of table alias:
SQL> SELECT C.ID, C.NAME, C.AGE, O.AMOUNT

FROM CUSTOMERS AS C, ORDERS AS O
WHERE C.ID = O.CUSTOMER_ID;
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | AMOUNT |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
| 3 | kaushik | 23 |
3000 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 |
1500 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 |
1560 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 |
2060 |
+----+----------+-----+--------+
Following is the usage of column alias:
SQL> SELECT ID AS CUSTOMER_ID, NAME AS CUSTOMER_NAME

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY IS NOT NULL;
+-------------+---------------+
| CUSTOMER_ID | CUSTOMER_NAME |
+-------------+---------------+
|
1 | Ramesh
|
|
2 | Khilan
|
|
3 | kaushik
|
|
4 | Chaitali
|
|
5 | Hardik
|
|
6 | Komal
|
|
7 | Muffy
|
+-------------+---------------+
SQL - Indexes
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Indexes are special lookup tables that the database search engine can use to speed up data retrieval. Simply put, an index is a pointer to data in a table. An index in a database is very similar to an index in the back of a book.
For example, if you want to reference all pages in a book that discuss a certain topic, you first refer to the index, which lists all topics alphabetically and are then referred to one or more specific page numbers.
An index helps speed up SELECT queries and WHERE clauses, but it slows down data input, with UPDATE and INSERT statements. Indexes can be created or dropped with no effect on the data.
Creating an index involves the CREATE INDEX statement, which allows you to name the index, to specify the table and which column or columns to index, and to indicate whether the index is in ascending or descending order.
Indexes can also be unique, similar to the UNIQUE constraint, in that the index prevents duplicate entries in the column or combination of columns on which there's an index.
The CREATE INDEX Command:

The basic syntax of CREATE INDEX is as follows:
CREATE INDEX index_name ON table_name;
Single-Column Indexes:
A single-column index is one that is created based on only one table column. The basic syntax is as follows:
CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column_name);
Unique Indexes:
Unique indexes are used not only for performance, but also for data integrity. A unique index does not allow any duplicate values to be inserted into the table. The basic syntax is as follows:

on table_name (column_name);
Composite Indexes:
A composite index is an index on two or more columns of a table. The basic syntax is as follows:
CREATE INDEX index_name

on table_name (column1, column2);
Whether to create a single-column index or a composite index, take into consideration the column(s) that you may use very frequently in a query's WHERE clause as filter conditions.
Should there be only one column used, a single-column index should be the choice. Should there be two or more columns that are frequently used in the WHERE clause as filters, the composite index would be the best choice.
Implicit Indexes:
Implicit indexes are indexes that are automatically created by the database server when an object is created. Indexes are automatically created for primary key constraints and unique constraints.
The DROP INDEX Command:

An index can be dropped using SQL DROP command. Care should be taken when dropping an index because performance may be slowed or improved.
The basic syntax is as follows:
You can check INDEX Constraint chapter to see actual examples on Indexes.
When should indexes be avoided?

Although indexes are intended to enhance a database's performance, there are times when they should be avoided. The following guidelines indicate when the use of an index should be reconsidered:
Indexes should not be used on small tables.
Tables that have frequent, large batch update or insert operations.
Indexes should not be used on columns that contain a high number of NULL values.
Columns that are frequently manipulated should not be indexed.
SQL - ALTER TABLE Command

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The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to add, delete or modify columns in an existing table.
You would also use ALTER TABLE command to add and drop various constraints on a an existing table.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a new column in an existing table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP COLUMN in an existing table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to change the DATA TYPE of a column in a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a NOT NULL constraint to a column in a table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name datatype NOT NULL;
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD UNIQUE CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:
ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint UNIQUE(column1, column2...);
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD CHECK CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:

ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint CHECK (CONDITION);
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint to a table is as follows:

ADD CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2...);
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP CONSTRAINT from a table is as follows:

DROP CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint;
If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

DROP INDEX MyUniqueConstraint;
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP PRIMARY KEY constraint from a table is as follows:

DROP CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey;
If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

DROP PRIMARY KEY;
Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is the example to ADD a new column in an existing table:
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD SEX char(1);
Now, CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
| SEX |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 | NULL |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 | NULL |
| 2000.00 | NULL |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai
| 6500.00 | NULL |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 | NULL |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 | NULL |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 | NULL |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+------+
Following is the example to DROP sex column from existing table:
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP SEX;
Now, CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+---------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL - TRUNCATE TABLE Command

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The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete complete data from an existing table.
You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would remove complete table structure form the database and you would need to re-create this table once again if you wish you store some data.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of TRUNCATE TABLE is as follows:
TRUNCATE TABLE
table_name;
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is the example to truncate:
SQL > TRUNCATE TABLE CUSTOMERS;
Now, CUSTOMERS table is truncated and following would be the output from SELECT statement:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

Empty set (0.00 sec)
SQL - Using Views

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A view is nothing more than a SQL statement that is stored in the database with an associated name. A view is actually a composition of a table in the form of a predefined SQL query.
A view can contain all rows of a table or select rows from a table. A view can be created from one or many tables which depends on the written SQL query to create a view.
Views, which are kind of virtual tables, allow users to do the following:
Structure data in a way that users or classes of users find natural or intuitive.
Restrict access to the data such that a user can see and (sometimes) modify exactly what they need and no more.
Summarize data from various tables which can be used to generate reports.
Creating Views:
Database views are created using the CREATE VIEW statement. Views can be created from a single table, multiple tables, or another view.
To create a view, a user must have the appropriate system privilege according to the specific implementation.
The basic CREATE VIEW syntax is as follows:
CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2.....
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];
You can include multiple tables in your SELECT statement in very similar way as you use them in normal SQL SELECT query.
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, following is the example to create a view from CUSTOMERS table. This view would be used to have customer name and age from CUSTOMERS table:
SQL > CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS

SELECT name, age
FROM
CUSTOMERS;
Now, you can query CUSTOMERS_VIEW in similar way as you query an actual table. Following is the example:
SQL > SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW;
+----------+-----+
| name
| age |
+----------+-----+
| Ramesh
32 |
| Khilan
25 |
| kaushik
23 |
| Chaitali |
25 |
| Hardik
27 |
| Komal
22 |
| Muffy
24 |
+----------+-----+
The WITH CHECK OPTION:

The WITH CHECK OPTION is a CREATE VIEW statement option. The purpose of the WITH CHECK OPTION is to ensure that all UPDATE and INSERTs satisfy the condition(s) in the view definition.
If they do not satisfy the condition(s), the UPDATE or INSERT returns an error.
The following is an example of creating same view CUSTOMERS_VIEW with the WITH CHECK OPTION:
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS

SELECT name, age
FROM
CUSTOMERS
WHERE age IS NOT NULL

WITH CHECK OPTION;
The WITH CHECK OPTION in this case should deny the entry of any NULL values in the view's AGE column, because the view is defined by data that does not have a NULL value in the AGE column.
Updating a View:
A view can be updated under certain conditions:
The SELECT clause may not contain the keyword DISTINCT.
The SELECT clause may not contain summary functions.
The SELECT clause may not contain set functions.
The SELECT clause may not contain set operators.
The SELECT clause may not contain an ORDER BY clause.
The FROM clause may not contain multiple tables.
The WHERE clause may not contain subqueries.
The query may not contain GROUP BY or HAVING.
Calculated columns may not be updated.
All NOT NULL columns from the base table must be included in the view in order for the INSERTquery to function.
So if a view satisfies all the above-mentioned rules then you can update a view. Following is an example to update the age of Ramesh:
SQL > UPDATE CUSTOMERS_VIEW

SET AGE = 35
WHERE name='Ramesh';
This would ultimately update the base table CUSTOMERS and same would reflect in the view itself. Now, try to query base table, and SELECT statement would produce the following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
35 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Inserting Rows into a View:

Rows of data can be inserted into a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE command also apply to the INSERT command.
Here we can not insert rows in CUSTOMERS_VIEW because we have not included all the NOT NULL columns in this view, otherwise you can insert rows in a view in similar way as you insert them in a table.
Deleting Rows into a View:

Rows of data can be deleted from a view. The same rules that apply to the UPDATE and INSERT commands apply to the DELETE command.
Following is an example to delete a record having AGE= 22.
SQL > DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW

WHERE age = 22;
This would ultimately delete a row from the base table CUSTOMERS and same would reflect in the view itself. Now, try to query base table, and SELECT statement would produce the following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
35 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Dropping Views:
Obviously, where you have a view, you need a way to drop the view if it is no longer needed. The syntax is very simple as given below:
DROP VIEW view_name;
Following is an example to drop CUSTOMERS_VIEW from CUSTOMERS table:
DROP VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW;
SQL - Having Clause

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The HAVING clause enables you to specify conditions that filter which group results appear in the final results.
The WHERE clause places conditions on the selected columns, whereas the HAVING clause places conditions on groups created by the GROUP BY clause.
Syntax:
The following is the position of the HAVING clause in a query:
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
ORDER BY
The HAVING clause must follow the GROUP BY clause in a query and must also precede the ORDER BY clause if used. The following is the syntax of the SELECT statement, including the HAVING clause:
SELECT column1, column2

FROM table1, table2
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
HAVING [ conditions ]
ORDER BY column1, column2
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is the example, which would display record for which similar age count would be more than or equal to 2:
SQL > SELECT *

FROM CUSTOMERS
GROUP BY age
HAVING COUNT(age) >= 2;
+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
+----+--------+-----+---------+---------+
SQL - Transactions
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A transaction is a unit of work that is performed against a database. Transactions are units or sequences of work accomplished in a logical order, whether in a manual fashion by a user or automatically by some sort of a database
program.
A transaction is the propagation of one or more changes to the database. For example, if you are creating a record or updating a record or deleting a record from the table, then you are performing transaction on the table. It is important
to control transactions to ensure data integrity and to handle database errors.
Practically, you will club many SQL queries into a group and you will execute all of them together as a part of a transaction.
Properties of Transactions:
Transactions have the following four standard properties, usually referred to by the acronym ACID:
Atomicity: ensures that all operations within the work unit are completed successfully; otherwise, the transaction is aborted at the point of failure, and previous operations are rolled back to their former state.
Consistency: ensures that the database properly changes states upon a successfully committed transaction.
Isolation: enables transactions to operate independently of and transparent to each other.
Durability: ensures that the result or effect of a committed transaction persists in case of asystem failure.
Transaction Control:
There are following commands used to control transactions:
COMMIT: to save the changes.
ROLLBACK: to rollback the changes.
SAVEPOINT: creates points within groups of transactions in which to ROLLBACK
SET TRANSACTION: Places a name on a transaction.
Transactional control commands are only used with the DML commands INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE only. They can not be used while creating tables or dropping them because these operations are automatically commited in the
database.
The COMMIT Command:

The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to save changes invoked by a transaction to the database.
The COMMIT command saves all transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command.
The syntax for COMMIT command is as follows:
COMMIT;
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is the example which would delete records from the table having age = 25 and then COMMIT the changes in the database.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> COMMIT;
As a result, two rows from the table would be deleted and SELECT statement would produce the following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The ROLLBACK Command:

The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command used to undo transactions that have not already been saved to the database.
The ROLLBACK command can only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK command was issued.
The syntax for ROLLBACK command is as follows:
ROLLBACK;
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is the example, which would delete records from the table having age = 25 and then ROLLBACK the changes in the database.

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> ROLLBACK;
As a result, delete operation would not impact the table and SELECT statement would produce the following result:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
The SAVEPOINT Command:

A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire transaction.
The syntax for SAVEPOINT command is as follows:
SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
This command serves only in the creation of a SAVEPOINT among transactional statements. The ROLLBACK command is used to undo a group of transactions.
The syntax for rolling back to a SAVEPOINT is as follows:
ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT_NAME;
Following is an example where you plan to delete the three different records from the CUSTOMERS table. You want to create a SAVEPOINT before each delete, so that you can ROLLBACK to any SAVEPOINT at any time to return the
appropriate data to its original state:
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, here is the series of operations:
SQL> SAVEPOINT SP1;

Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=1;
1 row deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT SP2;
Savepoint created.
1 row deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT SP3;
Savepoint created.
1 row deleted.
Now that the three deletions have taken place, say you have changed your mind and decided to ROLLBACK to the SAVEPOINT that you identified as SP2. Because SP2 was created after the first deletion, the last two deletions are
undone:
SQL> ROLLBACK TO SP2;

Rollback complete.
Notice that only the first deletion took place since you rolled back to SP2:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
5 | Hardik
27 | Bhopal
8500.00 |
6 | Komal
22 | MP
4500.00 |
7 | Muffy
24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
6 rows selected.
The RELEASE SAVEPOINT Command:

The RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is used to remove a SAVEPOINT that you have created.
The syntax for RELEASE SAVEPOINT is as follows:
RELEASE SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;
Once a SAVEPOINT has been released, you can no longer use the ROLLBACK command to undo transactions performed since the SAVEPOINT.
The SET TRANSACTION Command:

The SET TRANSACTION command can be used to initiate a database transaction. This command is used to specify characteristics for the transaction that follows.
For example, you can specify a transaction to be read only, or read write.
The syntax for SET TRANSACTION is as follows:
SET TRANSACTION [ READ WRITE | READ ONLY ];
SQL - Wildcard Operators

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We already have discussed SQL LIKE operator, which is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard operators.
SQL supports following two wildcard operators in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
Wildcards
Description
The percent sign
Matches one or more characters. Note that MS Access uses theasterisk (*)
(%)
wildcard character instead of the percent sign (%) wildcard character.
The underscore (_)
Matches one character. Note that MS Access uses a question mark(?) instead of
the underscore (_) to match any one character.
The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters. The underscore represents a single number or character. The symbols can be used in combinations.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of '%' and '_' is as follows:
SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX%'
or

WHERE column LIKE '%XXXX%'
or

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX_'
or

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX'
or

WHERE column LIKE '_XXXX_'
You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators. Here, XXXX could be any numeric or string value.
Example:
Here are number of examples showing WHERE part having different LIKE clause with '%' and '_' operators:
Statement
Description
WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%'
Finds any values that start with 200
WHERE SALARY LIKE

'%200%'
Finds any values that have 200 in any position
WHERE SALARY LIKE '_00%'
Finds any values that have 00 in the second and third positions
WHERE SALARY LIKE '2_%_
Finds any values that start with 2 and are at least 3 characters in
%'
length
WHERE SALARY LIKE '%2'
Finds any values that end with 2
WHERE SALARY LIKE '_2%3'
WHERE SALARY LIKE '2___3'
Finds any values that have a 2 in the second position and end with a
3
Finds any values in a five-digit number that start with 2 and end with
3
Let us take a real example, consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
2 | Khilan
25 | Delhi
1500.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
4 | Chaitali |
25 | Mumbai
6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Following is an example, which would display all the records from CUSTOMERS table where SALARY starts with 200:
SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%';
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
|
1 | Ramesh
32 | Ahmedabad |
2000.00 |
3 | kaushik
23 | Kota
2000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
SQL - Date Functions

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Following is a list of all important Date and Time related functions available through SQL. There are various other functions supported by your RDBMS. Given list is based on MySQL RDBMS.
Name
Description
ADDDATE()
Adds dates
ADDTIME()
Adds time
CONVERT_TZ()
Converts from one timezone to another
CURDATE()
Returns the current date
CURRENT_DATE(),
CURRENT_DATE
Synonyms for CURDATE()
CURRENT_TIME(), CURRENT_TIME
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP(),
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
Synonyms for CURTIME()
Synonyms for NOW()
CURTIME()
Returns the current time
DATE_ADD()
Adds two dates
DATE_FORMAT()
Formats date as specified
DATE_SUB()
Subtracts two dates
DATE()
Extracts the date part of a date or datetime expression
DATEDIFF()
Subtracts two dates
DAY()
Synonym for DAYOFMONTH()
DAYNAME()
Returns the name of the weekday
DAYOFMONTH()
Returns the day of the month (1-31)
DAYOFWEEK()
Returns the weekday index of the argument
DAYOFYEAR()
Returns the day of the year (1-366)
EXTRACT
Extracts part of a date
FROM_DAYS()
Converts a day number to a date
FROM_UNIXTIME()
Formats date as a UNIX timestamp
HOUR()
Extracts the hour
LAST_DAY
Returns the last day of the month for the argument
LOCALTIME(), LOCALTIME
Synonym for NOW()
LOCALTIMESTAMP,
LOCALTIMESTAMP()
Synonym for NOW()
MAKEDATE()
Creates a date from the year and day of year
MAKETIME
MAKETIME()
MICROSECOND()
Returns the microseconds from argument
MINUTE()
Returns the minute from the argument
MONTH()
Return the month from the date passed
MONTHNAME()
Returns the name of the month
NOW()
Returns the current date and time
PERIOD_ADD()
Adds a period to a year-month
PERIOD_DIFF()
Returns the number of months between periods
QUARTER()
Returns the quarter from a date argument
SEC_TO_TIME()
Converts seconds to 'HH:MM:SS' format
SECOND()
Returns the second (0-59)
STR_TO_DATE()
Converts a string to a date
SUBDATE()
When invoked with three arguments a synonym for

DATE_SUB()
SUBTIME()
Subtracts times
SYSDATE()
Returns the time at which the function executes
TIME_FORMAT()
Formats as time
TIME_TO_SEC()
Returns the argument converted to seconds
TIME()
Extracts the time portion of the expression passed
TIMEDIFF()
Subtracts time
With a single argument, this function returns the date or

TIMESTAMP()
datetime expression. With two arguments, the sum of the

arguments
TIMESTAMPADD()
Adds an interval to a datetime expression
TIMESTAMPDIFF()
Subtracts an interval from a datetime expression
TO_DAYS()
Returns the date argument converted to days
UNIX_TIMESTAMP()
Returns a UNIX timestamp
UTC_DATE()
Returns the current UTC date
UTC_TIME()
Returns the current UTC time
UTC_TIMESTAMP()
Returns the current UTC date and time
WEEK()
Returns the week number
WEEKDAY()
Returns the weekday index
WEEKOFYEAR()
Returns the calendar week of the date (1-53)
YEAR()
Returns the year
YEARWEEK()
Returns the year and week
ADDDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit),

ADDDATE(expr,days)
When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, ADDDATE() is a synonym for DATE_ADD(). The related function SUBDATE() is a synonym for DATE_SUB(). For information on the INTERVAL unit argument, see the
discussion for DATE_ADD().
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1 row in set (0.00 sec)
mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| ADDDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02
+---------------------------------------------------------+
When invoked with the days form of the second argument, MySQL treats it as an integer number of days to be added to expr.
mysql> SELECT ADDDATE('1998-01-02', 31);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-02-02
+---------------------------------------------------------+
ADDTIME(expr1,expr2)
ADDTIME() adds expr2 to expr1 and returns the result. expr1 is a time or datetime expression, and expr2 is a time expression.
mysql> SELECT ADDTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999','1 1:1:1.000002') |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-02 01:01:01.000001
+---------------------------------------------------------+
CONVERT_TZ(dt,from_tz,to_tz)
This converts a datetime value dt from the time zone given by from_tz to the time zone given by to_tz and returns the resulting value. This function returns NULL if the arguments are invalid.
mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','GMT','MET')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 13:00:00
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CONVERT_TZ('2004-01-01 12:00:00','+00:00','+10:00')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-01-01 22:00:00
+---------------------------------------------------------+
CURDATE()
Returns the current date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT CURDATE();
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE()
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT CURDATE() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURDATE() + 0
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 19971215
+---------------------------------------------------------+
CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE()

CURRENT_DATE and CURRENT_DATE() are synonyms for CURDATE()
CURTIME()
Returns the current time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context. The value is expressed in the current time zone.
mysql> SELECT CURTIME();

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME()
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 23:50:26
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT CURTIME() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| CURTIME() + 0
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 235026
+---------------------------------------------------------+
CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME()

CURRENT_TIME and CURRENT_TIME() are synonyms for CURTIME().
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP()
CURRENT_TIMESTAMP and CURRENT_TIMESTAMP() are synonyms for NOW().
DATE(expr)
Extracts the date part of the date or datetime expression expr.
mysql> SELECT DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE('2003-12-31 01:02:03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|
2003-12-31
+---------------------------------------------------------+
DATEDIFF(expr1,expr2)
DATEDIFF() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a value in days from one date to the other. expr1 and expr2 are date or date-and-time expressions. Only the date parts of the values are used in the calculation.
mysql> SELECT DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59','1997-12-30')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1
+---------------------------------------------------------+
DATE_ADD(date,INTERVAL expr unit),

DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit)
These functions perform date arithmetic. date is a DATETIME or DATE value specifying the starting date. expr is an expression specifying the interval value to be added or subtracted from the starting date. expr is a string; it may start
with a '-' for negative intervals. unit is a keyword indicating the units in which the expression should be interpreted.
The INTERVAL keyword and the unit specifier are not case sensitive.
The following table shows the expected form of the expr argument for each unit value;
unit Value
ExpectedexprFormat
MICROSECOND
MICROSECONDS
SECOND
SECONDS
MINUTE
MINUTES
HOUR
HOURS
DAY
DAYS
WEEK
WEEKS
MONTH
MONTHS
QUARTER
QUARTERS
YEAR
YEARS
SECOND_MICROSECOND
'SECONDS.MICROSECONDS'
MINUTE_MICROSECOND
'MINUTES.MICROSECONDS'
MINUTE_SECOND
'MINUTES:SECONDS'
HOUR_MICROSECOND
'HOURS.MICROSECONDS'
HOUR_SECOND
'HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'
HOUR_MINUTE
'HOURS:MINUTES'
DAY_MICROSECOND
'DAYS.MICROSECONDS'
DAY_SECOND
'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES:SECONDS'
DAY_MINUTE
'DAYS HOURS:MINUTES'
DAY_HOUR
'DAYS HOURS'
YEAR_MONTH
'YEARS-MONTHS'
The values QUARTER and WEEK are available beginning with MySQL 5.0.0.
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59',

-> INTERVAL '1:1' MINUTE_SECOND);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1997-12-31 23:59:59', INTERVAL...
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998-01-01 00:01:00
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_ADD('1999-01-01', INTERVAL 1 HOUR)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999-01-01 01:00:00
+---------------------------------------------------------+
DATE_FORMAT(date,format)
Formats the date value according to the format string.
The following specifiers may be used in the format string. The '%' character is required before format specifier characters.
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Specifier Description
%a
Abbreviated weekday name (Sun..Sat)
%b
Abbreviated month name (Jan..Dec)
%c
Month, numeric (0..12)
%D
Day of the month with English suffix (0th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, .)
%d
Day of the month, numeric (00..31)
%e
Day of the month, numeric (0..31)
%f
Microseconds (000000..999999)
%H
Hour (00..23)
%h
Hour (01..12)
%I
Hour (01..12)
%i
Minutes, numeric (00..59)
%j
Day of year (001..366)
%k
Hour (0..23)
%l
Hour (1..12)
%M
Month name (January..December)
%m
Month, numeric (00..12)
%p
AM or PM
%r
Time, 12-hour (hh:mm:ss followed by AM or PM)
%S
Seconds (00..59)
%s
Seconds (00..59)
%T
Time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
%U
Week (00..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week
%u
Week (00..53), where Monday is the first day of the week
%V
Week (01..53), where Sunday is the first day of the week; used with %X
%v
Week (01..53), where Monday is the first day of the week; used with %x
%W
Weekday name (Sunday..Saturday)
%w
Day of the week (0=Sunday..6=Saturday)
%X
Year for the week where Sunday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits; used with
%V
Year for the week, where Monday is the first day of the week, numeric, four digits; used with
%x
%v
%Y
Year, numeric, four digits
%y
Year, numeric (two digits)
%%
A literal .%. character
%x
x, for any.x. not listed above
mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00', '%W %M %Y');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00', '%W %M %Y')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Saturday October 1997
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00'

-> '%H %k %I %r %T %S %w');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_FORMAT('1997-10-04 22:23:00.......
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|
22 22 10 10:23:00 PM 22:23:00 00 6
+---------------------------------------------------------+
DATE_SUB(date,INTERVAL expr unit)

This is similar to DATE_ADD() function.
DAY(date)
DAY() is a synonym for DAYOFMONTH().
DAYNAME(date)
Returns the name of the weekday for date.
mysql> SELECT DAYNAME('1998-02-05');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYNAME('1998-02-05')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Thursday
+---------------------------------------------------------+
DAYOFMONTH(date)
Returns the day of the month for date, in the range 0 to 31.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFMONTH('1998-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 3
+---------------------------------------------------------+
DAYOFWEEK(date)
Returns the weekday index for date (1 = Sunday, 2 = Monday, ., 7 = Saturday). These index values correspond to the ODBC standard.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
|DAYOFWEEK('1998-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 3
+---------------------------------------------------------+
DAYOFYEAR(date)
Returns the day of the year for date, in the range 1 to 366.
mysql> SELECT DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DAYOFYEAR('1998-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 34
+---------------------------------------------------------+
EXTRACT(unit FROM date)

The EXTRACT() function uses the same kinds of unit specifiers as DATE_ADD() or DATE_SUB(), but extracts parts from the date rather than performing date arithmetic.
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR FROM '1999-07-02')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1999
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| EXTRACT(YEAR_MONTH FROM '1999-07-02 01:02:03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 199907
+---------------------------------------------------------+
FROM_DAYS(N)
Given a day number N, returns a DATE value.
mysql> SELECT FROM_DAYS(729669);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| FROM_DAYS(729669)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-10-07
+---------------------------------------------------------+
Use FROM_DAYS() with caution on old dates. It is not intended for use with values that precede the advent of the Gregorian calendar (1582).
FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp)
FROM_UNIXTIME(unix_timestamp,format)
Returns a representation of the unix_timestamp argument as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context. The value is expressed in
the current time zone. unix_timestamp is an internal timestamp value such as is produced by the UNIX_TIMESTAMP() function.
If format is given, the result is formatted according to the format string, which is used the same way as listed in the entry for the DATE_FORMAT() function.
mysql> SELECT FROM_UNIXTIME(875996580);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| FROM_UNIXTIME(875996580)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-10-04 22:23:00
+---------------------------------------------------------+
HOUR(time)
Returns the hour for time. The range of the return value is 0 to 23 for time-of-day values. However, the range of TIME values actually is much larger, so HOUR can return values greater than 23.
mysql> SELECT HOUR('10:05:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| HOUR('10:05:03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 10
+---------------------------------------------------------+
LAST_DAY(date)
Takes a date or datetime value and returns the corresponding value for the last day of the month. Returns NULL if the argument is invalid.
mysql> SELECT LAST_DAY('2003-02-05');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| LAST_DAY('2003-02-05')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-02-28
+---------------------------------------------------------+
LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME()

LOCALTIME and LOCALTIME() are synonyms for NOW().
LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP()

LOCALTIMESTAMP and LOCALTIMESTAMP() are synonyms for NOW().
MAKEDATE(year,dayofyear)
Returns a date, given year and day-of-year values. dayofyear must be greater than 0 or the result is NULL.
mysql> SELECT MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKEDATE(2001,31), MAKEDATE(2001,32)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '2001-01-31', '2001-02-01'
+---------------------------------------------------------+
MAKETIME(hour,minute,second)
Returns a time value calculated from the hour, minute, and second arguments.
mysql> SELECT MAKETIME(12,15,30);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MAKETIME(12,15,30)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| '12:15:30'
+---------------------------------------------------------+
MICROSECOND(expr)
Returns the microseconds from the time or datetime expression expr as a number in the range from 0 to 999999.
mysql> SELECT MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MICROSECOND('12:00:00.123456')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 123456
+---------------------------------------------------------+
MINUTE(time)
Returns the minute for time, in the range 0 to 59.
mysql> SELECT MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MINUTE('98-02-03 10:05:03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 5
+---------------------------------------------------------+
MONTH(date)
Returns the month for date, in the range 0 to 12.
mysql> SELECT MONTH('1998-02-03')

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTH('1998-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2
+---------------------------------------------------------+
MONTHNAME(date)
Returns the full name of the month for date.
mysql> SELECT MONTHNAME('1998-02-05');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| MONTHNAME('1998-02-05')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| February
+---------------------------------------------------------+
NOW()
Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context. The value is expressed in the current time zone.
mysql> SELECT NOW();

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| NOW()
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-15 23:50:26
+---------------------------------------------------------+
PERIOD_ADD(P,N)
Adds N months to period P (in the format YYMM or YYYYMM). Returns a value in the format YYYYMM. Note that the period argument P is not a date value.
mysql> SELECT PERIOD_ADD(9801,2);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| PERIOD_ADD(9801,2)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 199803
+---------------------------------------------------------+
PERIOD_DIFF(P1,P2)
Returns the number of months between periods P1 and P2. P1 and P2 should be in the format YYMM or YYYYMM. Note that the period arguments P1 and P2 are not date values.
mysql> SELECT PERIOD_DIFF(9802,199703);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| PERIOD_DIFF(9802,199703)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 11
+---------------------------------------------------------+
QUARTER(date)
Returns the quarter of the year for date, in the range 1 to 4.
mysql> SELECT QUARTER('98-04-01');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| QUARTER('98-04-01')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2
+---------------------------------------------------------+
SECOND(time)
Returns the second for time, in the range 0 to 59.
mysql> SELECT SECOND('10:05:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SECOND('10:05:03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 3
+---------------------------------------------------------+
SEC_TO_TIME(seconds)
Returns the seconds argument, converted to hours, minutes and seconds, as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SEC_TO_TIME(2378);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SEC_TO_TIME(2378)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 00:39:38
+---------------------------------------------------------+
STR_TO_DATE(str,format)
This is the inverse of the DATE_FORMAT() function. It takes a string str and a format string format. STR_TO_DATE() returns a DATETIME value if the format string contains both date and time parts or a DATE or TIME value if the string
contains only date or time parts.
mysql> SELECT STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| STR_TO_DATE('04/31/2004', '%m/%d/%Y')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2004-04-31
+---------------------------------------------------------+
SUBDATE(date,INTERVAL expr unit) and

SUBDATE(expr,days)
When invoked with the INTERVAL form of the second argument, SUBDATE() is a synonym for DATE_SUB(). For information on the INTERVAL unit argument, see the discussion for DATE_ADD().
mysql> SELECT DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| DATE_SUB('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-02
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY);

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SUBDATE('1998-01-02', INTERVAL 31 DAY)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-02
+---------------------------------------------------------+
SUBTIME(expr1,expr2)
SUBTIME() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a value in the same format as expr1. expr1 is a time or datetime expression, and expr2 is a time.
mysql> SELECT SUBTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999',

-> '1 1:1:1.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SUBTIME('1997-12-31 23:59:59.999999'...
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1997-12-30 22:58:58.999997
+---------------------------------------------------------+
SYSDATE()
Returns the current date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT SYSDATE();

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| SYSDATE()
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2006-04-12 13:47:44
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TIME(expr)
Extracts the time part of the time or datetime expression expr and returns it as a string.
mysql> SELECT TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME('2003-12-31 01:02:03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 01:02:03
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TIMEDIFF(expr1,expr2)
TIMEDIFF() returns expr1 . expr2 expressed as a time value. expr1 and expr2 are time or date-and-time expressions, but both must be of the same type.
mysql> SELECT TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001',

-> '1997-12-30 01:01:01.000002');
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMEDIFF('1997-12-31 23:59:59.000001'.....
+---------------------------------------------------------+
|
46:58:57.999999
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TIMESTAMP(expr), TIMESTAMP(expr1,expr2)
With a single argument, this function returns the date or datetime expression expr as a datetime value. With two arguments, it adds the time expression expr2 to the date or datetime expression expr1 and returns the result as a datetime
value.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMP('2003-12-31');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMP('2003-12-31')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-12-31 00:00:00
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TIMESTAMPADD(unit,interval,datetime_expr)
Adds the integer expression interval to the date or datetime expression datetime_expr. The unit for interval is given by the unit argument, which should be one of the following values: FRAC_SECOND, SECOND, MINUTE, HOUR, DAY,
WEEK, MONTH, QUARTER or YEAR.
The unit value may be specified using one of keywords as shown or with a prefix of SQL_TSI_. For example, DAY and SQL_TSI_DAY both are legal.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPADD(MINUTE,1,'2003-01-02')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-01-02 00:01:00
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TIMESTAMPDIFF(unit,datetime_expr1,datetime_expr2)
Returns the integer difference between the date or datetime expressions datetime_expr1 and datetime_expr2. The unit for the result is given by the unit argument. The legal values for unit are the same as those listed in the description of
the TIMESTAMPADD() function.
mysql> SELECT TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIMESTAMPDIFF(MONTH,'2003-02-01','2003-05-01')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 3
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TIME_FORMAT(time,format)
This is used like the DATE_FORMAT() function, but the format string may contain format specifiers only for hours, minutes and seconds.
If the time value contains an hour part that is greater than 23, the %H and %k hour format specifiers produce a value larger than the usual range of 0..23. The other hour format specifiers produce the hour value modulo 12.
mysql> SELECT TIME_FORMAT('100:00:00', '%H %k %h %I %l');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME_FORMAT('100:00:00', '%H %k %h %I %l')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 100 100 04 04 4
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TIME_TO_SEC(time)
Returns the time argument converted to seconds.
mysql> SELECT TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TIME_TO_SEC('22:23:00')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 80580
+---------------------------------------------------------+
TO_DAYS(date)
Given a date, returns a day number (the number of days since year 0).
mysql> SELECT TO_DAYS(950501);
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| TO_DAYS(950501)
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 728779
+---------------------------------------------------------+
UNIX_TIMESTAMP(), UNIX_TIMESTAMP(date)
If called with no argument, returns a Unix timestamp (seconds since '1970-01-01 00:00:00' UTC) as an unsigned integer. If UNIX_TIMESTAMP() is called with a date argument, it returns the value of the argument as seconds since '197001-01 00:00:00' UTC. date may be a DATE string, a DATETIME string, a TIMESTAMP, or a number in the format YYMMDD or YYYYMMDD.
mysql> SELECT UNIX_TIMESTAMP();

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UNIX_TIMESTAMP()
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 882226357
+---------------------------------------------------------+
mysql> SELECT UNIX_TIMESTAMP('1997-10-04 22:23:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UNIX_TIMESTAMP('1997-10-04 22:23:00')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 875996580
+---------------------------------------------------------+
UTC_DATE, UTC_DATE()
Returns the current UTC date as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD' or YYYYMMDD format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_DATE(), UTC_DATE() + 0
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14, 20030814
+---------------------------------------------------------+
UTC_TIME, UTC_TIME()
Returns the current UTC time as a value in 'HH:MM:SS' or HHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIME(), UTC_TIME() + 0
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 18:07:53, 180753
+---------------------------------------------------------+
UTC_TIMESTAMP, UTC_TIMESTAMP()
Returns the current UTC date and time as a value in 'YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS' or YYYYMMDDHHMMSS format, depending on whether the function is used in a string or numeric context.
mysql> SELECT UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0;

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| UTC_TIMESTAMP(), UTC_TIMESTAMP() + 0
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 2003-08-14 18:08:04, 20030814180804
+---------------------------------------------------------+
WEEK(date[,mode])
This function returns the week number for date. The two-argument form of WEEK() allows you to specify whether the week starts on Sunday or Monday and whether the return value should be in the range from 0 to 53 or from 1 to 53. If
the mode argument is omitted, the value of the default_week_format system variable is used
Mode
First Day of week
Range
Week 1 is the first week.
Sunday
0-53
with a Sunday in this year
Monday
0-53
with more than 3 days this year
Sunday
1-53
with a Sunday in this year
Monday
1-53
Sunday
0-53
Monday
0-53
with a Monday in this year
Sunday
1-53
Monday
1-53
with a Monday in this year
mysql> SELECT WEEK('1998-02-20');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEK('1998-02-20')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 7
+---------------------------------------------------------+
WEEKDAY(date)
Returns the weekday index for date (0 = Monday, 1 = Tuesday, . 6 = Sunday).
mysql> SELECT WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEKDAY('1998-02-03 22:23:00')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1
+---------------------------------------------------------+
WEEKOFYEAR(date)
Returns the calendar week of the date as a number in the range from 1 to 53. WEEKOFYEAR() is a compatibility function that is equivalent to WEEK(date,3).
mysql> SELECT WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| WEEKOFYEAR('1998-02-20')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 8
+---------------------------------------------------------+
YEAR(date)
Returns the year for date, in the range 1000 to 9999, or 0 for the .zero. date.
mysql> SELECT YEAR('98-02-03');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 1998
+---------------------------------------------------------+
YEARWEEK(date), YEARWEEK(date,mode)
Returns year and week for a date. The mode argument works exactly like the mode argument to WEEK(). The year in the result may be different from the year in the date argument for the first and the last week of the year.
mysql> SELECT YEARWEEK('1987-01-01');

+---------------------------------------------------------+
| YEAR('98-02-03')YEARWEEK('1987-01-01')
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| 198653
+---------------------------------------------------------+
Note that the week number is different from what the WEEK() function would return (0) for optional arguments 0 or 1, as WEEK() then returns the week in the context of the given year.
For more information, check MySQL Official Website - Date and Time Functions
SQL - Sub Queries

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A Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query within another SQL query and embedded within the WHERE clause.
A subquery is used to return data that will be used in the main query as a condition to further restrict the data to be retrieved.
Subqueries can be used with the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE statements along with the operators like =, <, >, >=, <=, IN, BETWEEN etc.
There are a few rules that subqueries must follow:
Subqueries must be enclosed within parentheses.
A subquery can have only one column in the SELECT clause, unless multiple columns are in the main query for the subquery to compare its selected columns.
An ORDER BY cannot be used in a subquery, although the main query can use an ORDER BY. The GROUP BY can be used to perform the same function as the ORDER BY in a subquery.
Subqueries that return more than one row can only be used with multiple value operators, such as the IN operator.
The SELECT list cannot include any references to values that evaluate to a BLOB, ARRAY, CLOB, or NCLOB.
A subquery cannot be immediately enclosed in a set function.
The BETWEEN operator cannot be used with a subquery; however, the BETWEEN operator can be used within the subquery.
Subqueries with the SELECT Statement:

Subqueries are most frequently used with the SELECT statement. The basic syntax is as follows:
SELECT column_name [, column_name ]

FROM
table1 [, table2 ]
WHERE column_name OPERATOR
(SELECT column_name [, column_name ]
[WHERE])
Example:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Now, let us check following subquery with SELECT statement:
SQL> SELECT *
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 4500) ;
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
Subqueries with the INSERT Statement:

Subqueries also can be used with INSERT statements. The INSERT statement uses the data returned from the subquery to insert into another table. The selected data in the subquery can be modified with any of the character, date or
number functions.
INSERT INTO table_name [ (column1 [, column2 ]) ]

SELECT [ *|column1 [, column2 ]
[ WHERE VALUE OPERATOR ]
Example:
Consider a table CUSTOMERS_BKP with similar structure as CUSTOMERS table. Now to copy complete CUSTOMERS table into CUSTOMERS_BKP, following is the syntax:
SQL> INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS_BKP

SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE ID IN (SELECT ID
FROM CUSTOMERS) ;
Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement:

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the UPDATE statement. Either single or multiple columns in a table can be updated when using a subquery with the UPDATE statement.
UPDATE table
SET column_name = new_value
[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]
Example:
Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of CUSTOMERS table.
Following example updates SALARY by 0.25 times in CUSTOMERS table for all the customers whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27:
SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET SALARY = SALARY * 0.25
WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE >= 27 );
This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS
| SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
| 1 | Ramesh
| 35 | Ahmedabad |
125.00 |
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik
| 27 | Bhopal
| 2125.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore
| 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
Subqueries with the DELETE Statement:

The subquery can be used in conjunction with the DELETE statement like with any other statements mentioned above.
DELETE FROM TABLE_NAME

[ WHERE OPERATOR [ VALUE ]
(SELECT COLUMN_NAME
FROM TABLE_NAME)
[ WHERE) ]
Example:
Assuming, we have CUSTOMERS_BKP table available which is backup of CUSTOMERS table.
Following example deletes records from CUSTOMERS table for all the customers whose AGE is greater than or equal to 27:

WHERE AGE IN (SELECT AGE FROM CUSTOMERS_BKP
WHERE AGE > 27 );
This would impact two rows and finally CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| ID | NAME
| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY
|
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
| 2 | Khilan
| 25 | Delhi
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 6 | Komal
| 22 | MP
| 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy
| 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+---------+----------+
SQL - Syntax
SQL is followed by unique set of rules and guidelines called Syntax. This tutorial gives you a quick start with SQL by listing all the
basic SQL Syntax:
All the SQL statements start with any of the keywords like SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, ALTER, DROP, CREATE, USE,
SHOW and all the statements end with a semicolon (;).
Important point to be noted is that SQL is case insensitive, which means SELECT and select have same meaning in SQL
statements, but MySQL makes difference in table names. So if you are working with MySQL, then you need to give table names as
they exist in the database.
SQL SELECT Statement:

FROM
table_name;
SQL DISTINCT Clause:

SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2....columnN
FROM
table_name;
SQL WHERE Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL AND/OR Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION-1 {AND|OR} CONDITION-2;
SQL IN Clause:
FROM
WHERE
table_name
column_name IN (val-1, val-2,...val-N);
SQL BETWEEN Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN val-1 AND val-2;
SQL LIKE Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE { PATTERN };
SQL ORDER BY Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION
ORDER BY column_name {ASC|DESC};
SQL GROUP BY Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name;
SQL COUNT Clause:

SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION;
SQL HAVING Clause:

FROM
table_name
WHERE CONDITION
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING (arithematic function condition);
SQL CREATE TABLE Statement:

CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
PRIMARY KEY( one or more columns )
);
SQL DROP TABLE Statement:

DROP TABLE table_name;
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement :

ON table_name ( column1, column2,...columnN);
SQL DROP INDEX Statement :

SQL DESC Statement :

DESC table_name;
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:

ALTER TABLE table_name {ADD|DROP|MODIFY} column_name {data_ype};
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename) :

ALTER TABLE table_name RENAME TO new_table_name;
SQL INSERT INTO Statement:

INSERT INTO table_name( column1, column2....columnN)
VALUES ( value1, value2....valueN);
SQL UPDATE Statement:

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2....columnN=valueN
[ WHERE CONDITION ];
SQL DELETE Statement:
DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE {CONDITION};
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement:

CREATE DATABASE database_name;
SQL DROP DATABASE Statement:

DROP DATABASE database_name;
SQL USE Statement:

USE database_name;
SQL COMMIT Statement:

COMMIT;
SQL ROLLBACK Statement:
SQL - Data Types

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SQL data type is an attribute that specifies type of data of any object. Each column, variable and expression has related data type in SQL.
You would use these data types while creating your tables. You would choose a particular data type for a table column based on your requirement.
SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use:
Exact Numeric Data Types:

DATA TYPE
FROM
TO
bigint
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
int
-2,147,483,648
2,147,483,647
smallint
-32,768
32,767
tinyint
255
bit
decimal
-10^38 +1
10^38 -1
numeric
-10^38 +1
10^38 -1
money
-922,337,203,685,477.5808
+922,337,203,685,477.5807
smallmoney
-214,748.3648
+214,748.3647
Approximate Numeric Data Types:

DATA TYPE
FROM
TO
float
-1.79E + 308
1.79E + 308
real
-3.40E + 38
3.40E + 38
Date and Time Data Types:

DATA TYPE
FROM
TO
datetime
Jan 1, 1753
Dec 31, 9999
smalldatetime
Jan 1, 1900
Jun 6, 2079
date
Stores a date like June 30, 1991
time
Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.
Note: Here, datetime has 3.33 milliseconds accuracy where as smalldatetime has 1 minute accuracy.
Character Strings Data Types:

DATA TYPE
FROM
char
char
varchar
varchar
varchar(max)
varchar(max)
TO
Maximum length of 8,000 characters.( Fixed length nonUnicode characters)
Maximum of 8,000 characters.(Variable-length nonUnicode data).
Maximum length of 231characters, Variable-length non-
Unicode data (SQL Server 2005 only).
text
Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum
text
length of 2,147,483,647 characters.
Unicode Character Strings Data Types:

DATA TYPE
Description
nchar
Maximum length of 4,000 characters.( Fixed length Unicode)
nvarchar
Maximum length of 4,000 characters.(Variable length Unicode)
nvarchar(max)
ntext
Maximum length of 231characters (SQL Server 2005 only).( Variable length

Unicode)
Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. ( Variable length Unicode )
Binary Data Types:

DATA TYPE
Description
binary
Maximum length of 8,000 bytes(Fixed-length binary data )
varbinary
Maximum length of 8,000 bytes.(Variable length binary data)
varbinary(max)
image
Maximum length of 231 bytes (SQL Server 2005 only). ( Variable length
Binary data)
Maximum length of 2,147,483,647 bytes. ( Variable length Binary Data)
Misc Data Types:

DATA TYPE
sql_variant
timestamp
uniqueidentifier
xml
Description
Stores values of various SQL Server-supported data types, except text, ntext,
and timestamp.
Stores a database-wide unique number that gets updated every time a row
gets updated
Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)
Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column or a variable (SQL
Server 2005 only).
cursor
Reference to a cursor object
table
Stores a result set for later processing
What is an Operator in SQL?
An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement's WHERE clause to perform operation(s), such as comparisons and arithmetic operations.
Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to serve as conjunctions for multiple conditions in a statement.
Arithmetic operators
Comparison operators
Logical operators
Operators used to negate conditions
SQL Arithmetic Operators:

Show Examples
Operator
Description
Example
Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator
a + b will
give 30
Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand
a - b will
give -10
Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator
a * b will
give 200
Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand
b / a will
give 2
Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and

returns remainder
b%a
will give
0
SQL Comparison Operators:

Show Examples
Operator
Description
Example
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes then condition
becomes true.
(a = b) is
not true.
!=
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal (a != b)
is true.
<>
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if values are not equal (a <> b)
is true.
>
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of right operand,
if yes then condition becomes true.
(a > b) is
not true.
<
Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, if
yes then condition becomes true.
(a < b) is
true.
>=
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
(a >= b)
is not
true.
<=
Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of right
(a <= b)
is true.
!<
Checks if the value of left operand is not less than the value of right
(a !< b)
is false.
!>
Checks if the value of left operand is not greater than the value of right
(a !> b)
is true.
SQL Logical Operators:

Here is a list of all the logical operators available in SQL.
Show Examples
Operator
Description
ALL
The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values in another value set.
AND
The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's
WHERE clause.
ANY
The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicable value in the list
according to the condition.
BETWEEN
The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that are within a set of values,
given the minimum value and the maximum value.
EXISTS
The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of a row in a specifiedtable that
meets certain criteria.
IN
The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literal values that have been
specified.
LIKE
The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar values

using wildcardoperators.
NOT
The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which it is used.
Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN, etc. This is a negate operator.
OR
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE

clause.
IS NULL
The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.
UNIQUE
The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified table for uniqueness (no
duplicates).

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What is SQL?

Also, they are using different dialects, such as:

MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

Oracle using PL/SQL,

MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format), etc

Allows users to access data in relational database management systems.

Allows users to describe the data.

Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.

Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.

Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

What is record or row?

A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is NULL value?

SQL SELECT Statement:

SQL DISTINCT Clause:

SQL WHERE Clause:

SQL AND/OR Clause:

SQL BETWEEN Clause:

SQL Like Clause:

SQL ORDER BY Clause:

SQL GROUP BY Clause:

SQL COUNT Clause:

SQL HAVING Clause:

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement:

SQL DROP TABLE Statement:

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement :

SQL DROP INDEX Statement :

SQL DESC Statement :

SQL TRUNCATE TABLE Statement:

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement (Rename) :

SQL INSERT INTO Statement:

SQL UPDATE Statement:

SQL DELETE Statement:

SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement:

SQL DROP DATABASE Statement:

SQL USE Statement:

SQL COMMIT Statement:

SQL ROLLBACK Statement:

Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator

Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand

Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator

Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand

SQL Comparison Operators:

SQL Logical Operators:

The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE

The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULL value.

SQL - Useful Functions:

UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.

PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.

FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table.

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP CONSTRAINT EMPLOYEES_PK;

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP PRIMARY KEY;

Consider the following two tables, (a) CUSTOMERS table is as follows:

(b) Another table is ORDERS as follows:

| 100 | 2009-10-08 00:00:00 |

| 101 | 2009-11-20 00:00:00 |