ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
What are electrical hazards?
Electrical hazards are caused by
the improper use of machinery or apparatus
the improper use of electrical outlets
the improper use of electrical equipment, such as cables and
power cords
the improper maintenance of apparatus, outlets, and electrical
equipment
When used or maintained improperly, electrical equipment or
devices can overheat or produce electrical fires. Frayed cords or
exposed wires can easily electrify you or your students. Examples
of particular hazards are
apparatus with deteriorated power cord insulation
a bent or broken prong on a plug
a broken prong on a plug protruding from an
outlet
flammable fumes near electrical apparatus
metal tools used near energized conductors
dangling jewelry near an energized conductor
a circuit that someone is working on with both
hands
a water spill on electrical equipment
You may know that the extent of
injury caused by an electric shock
depends on the magnitude of current.
(Current is the movement of charge.)
However, remember V = IR. Hence,
a circuit that has high voltage is also
likely to have a large current. So, the
best safety practice is to avoid highvoltage circuits.
Does the type of current matter?
Both alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC)
alternating current (AC)
can produce injury to living tissue and can destroy equipa current in which charge moves
ment. However, the AC (60 Hz and 120 V) that U.S. elecin one direction and then in the
tric companies supply to most electrical outlets disturbs
opposite direction
human nerve impulses more readily than DC of the same
direct current (DC)
voltage or AC at other frequencies do because human
a current in which charge moves in
nerve impulses resonate at approximately 60 Hz. In
one direction
addition, the DC circuits often used in classroom experiments are relatively harmless. Yet, DC can still be dangerous, and burn hazards are created in many common uses of DC.
So, all circuits should be treated cautiously.
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an overloaded circuit
Electrical Hazards, continued
CHAPTER 7
What are the dangers of electricity to living
tissue?
Electrical hazards can burn equipment and cause a fire in your
classroom. These hazards can also cause serious injuries to you or
your students. Specifically, current passing through a body may produce one or more of the following symptoms:
Shock Shock should not be confused with electric shock. Shock is an excitation or disturbance
of the normal function of nerves or muscles.
Involuntary muscle reaction A person who
experiences an electric shock may not be able to
control her or his muscles. In addition, muscles
that a person normally does not control, such as
the heart, may operate abnormally.
Severe electric shocks may cause
internal hemorrhages as well as tissue,
nerve, and muscle damage. These
injuries are often not visible and
may not be obvious to onlookers.
In addition, an electric shock is often
only the beginning of a chain of
events. A person who experiences
an electric shock may fall and break
a bone or get a cut.
Muscle paralysis An electric shock may prevent muscles from moving (for example, arm
muscles cannot flex) or operating (for example, the heart
cannot pump blood).
Burning of tissue and organs Tissue and organs may be
burned so badly that they hemorrhage.
Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Death (electrocution) Death can result from
electrocution, which is caused by electric shock.
Critical values of current and their
corresponding physiological effects
Listed below are the critical values of current and their
corresponding physiological effects. These approximate values are based on 60 Hz AC passing through
the intact skin for one second.
Critical values of
60 Hz AC (mA)
female
0.7
1.2
11
19
50
male
1.1
1.8
16
30
75
4000
5000
4000
5000
Approximately 109 mA of DC will
give a female respiratory arrest and
approximately 170 mA of DC will give
a male respiratory arrest. In contrast,
only 19 mA of 60 Hz AC will cause
respiratory arrest in a female, and
30 mA of 60 Hz AC will cause
respiratory arrest in a male.
Physiological effects
threshold of sensation
threshold of painless shock
paralysis of voluntary muscles
The critical values of 60 Hz AC and
respiratory arrest
their corresponding physiological
ventricular fibrillationthe
effects are taken from The Effects
uncoordinated pumping of
of Electric Shock on Man by Charles
Dalziel. See the appendix for more
the heart chambers such
information.
that blood does not flow
properly (can be fatal)
cardiac arrest
burns that are severe enough to be fatal
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Electrical Hazards, continued
How can electric shocks occur?
Most electric shocks are caused when people come in contact with
defective power cords or with energized instruments whose cases are
removed. A person receives an electric shock when he or she becomes
part of a live electric circuitwhen current enters the body at one
point and exits at a different point. You will receive an electric shock
if you are in contact with
both energized receptacle slots of an outlet or power cord
wires
one energized wire and a ground
When instrument cases are open or electric components are
exposed, an electric shock is likely to occur. Always make sure that
an instrument is unplugged before you inspect the internal components of an instrument. Furthermore, always have a trained technician repair equipment. Students should never work on instruments
that use AC and have exposed internal components.
Note that student-assembled circuits that use lowvoltage and relatively safe DC power sources (such as
D-cell batteries) are far less hazardous than activities in
Capacitors should always be treated
which AC is used, even though these student circuits are
with caution because capacitors store
not enclosed in cases. Regardless, remain cautious about
charge and can deliver an unexpected
students working on electrical devices. (See the sections
electric shock.
on resistive heating and on the prevention of electrical
hazards.)
What conditions affect the severity of electric shock?
Several factors, in addition to the magnitude and type of current,
affect the severity of electric shock. Those factors include the
following:
Current path through the body Electric shocks are less
severe if the current path does not include vital organs.
Length of time the electric shock acts on the body The
duration of the electric shock effects the extent of injury
the longer the duration of the electric shock on the body, the
greater risk of severe injury. In addition, the electric shock
can influence the duration of exposure if a victim cannot let
go of the conductor of electricity that is causing the electric
shock because of loss of voluntary muscle control.
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a metallic piece that is in contact with an energized conductor and a ground
Electrical Hazards, continued
CHAPTER 7
Location on the body of the electrical contact An electric
shock that starts at a finger and exits through the grounded
elbow on the same arm will do less damage than an electric
shock that starts at a finger and exits through the victims
grounded feet. The latter scenario is more dangerous because
more tissue is affected and the path of current is closer to
internal organs.
Current can burn vital organs even if the
current does not pass through those vital
organs. This type of damage may occur exterThe severity of heart injury that an
electric shock can cause depends on
nally because of arcing or thermal contact
which stage of the pumping cycle the
(a vital organ is near tissue that is experiencing
heart was in at the instant the electric
electric shock). The likelihood of this type of
shock occurred.
damage increases at high current levels.
Skin resistance The resistance of the body greatly affects the
severity of the electric shock. Human tissue has very low resistance because the cellular fluid in tissue is a good conductor of electricity. However, dry skin has very high resistance
approximately a hundred thousand ohms (10 ). Resistance
of wet skin is lowa thousand ohms or less (10 ). Skin
resistance is even lower than the resistance of wet skin if a
cut or deep abrasion is present. The exposure of moist and
deeper skin layers increases the severity of injury that results
from the electric shock.
Because low resistance results in high current for a given
potential difference (I = V/R), the current in wet skin can be
several hundred times greater than the current in dry skin.
Whether you have wet or dry skin can mean the difference
between a harmless electric shock and an electric shock that
causes serious burns and interferes with the functions of
internal organs.
5
Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Other physiological and psychological factors Age and
physical condition affect the severity of an electric shock.
Body resistance also varies according to muscular structure.
Studies show that for a given current, a person concentrating on a task may not experience the same electric shock as
a person who is daydreaming and then is startled when the
electric shock occurs.
What should I do if someone is electrified?
If someone is electrified, tell a student to get another teacher to call
for emergency personnel. Then, remove the person from contact
with the energized conductor. Do not try to touch the person or you
may be electrified as well. You can turn off the power of the device
that is causing the electric shock if this can be done safely (for example, turning off the circuit breaker for the outlet in which the device
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Electrical Hazards, continued
is plugged). Or you can obtain an insulator, such as a wooden
meterstick, and break the contact between the person who is being
electrified and the energized conductor.
After the person who is suffering from electric shock has been
removed from the source of the shock, check to see if this person is
having breathing problems or is experiencing ventricular fibrillation.
Artificial respiration or cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be
performed on the person who experienced electric shock, if necessary. Also, use blankets to keep the person warm. Although a person
who is electrified may appear unharmed, call emergency personnel
because this person may have suffered internal injuries, such as
burns to organs during the electric shock.
What is resistive heating?
Resistive heating is the thermal energy that current produces while moving through circuits. This type of energy
is also known as Joule heating or I2R loss and can be
resistive heating
a hazard to you, your students, and your equipment.
the heating of electrical components
Charges colliding with (instead of moving smoothly
due to the passage of current
through) atoms or ions of the conductor can produce
resistive heating. When such collisions occur, the charges lose kinetic
energy, but the conductor gains thermal energy. Resistive heating
can occur if
outlets or circuits are overloaded
electrical connections are poorly or improperly made
apparatus is not properly ventilated
The effects of resistive heating are as follows:
burns, if hot components are accidentally touched
ignition of combustible materials in the vicinity of equipment
that has resistive heating
vaporization of or explosion of components
Resistive heating is easy to prevent
Fortunately, resistive heating can be prevented easily by good laboratory technique and proper use of equipment. You should experience
little resistive heating if you follow, in order, these simple steps.
Before you start building your circuit, plan your circuit by
drawing a schematic that identifies all components of the
circuit.
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equipment components or conductors are not rated for the
amount of current in their circuit
Electrical Hazards, continued
CHAPTER 7
Estimate the current that each component of the circuit will
have, based on the voltage of the power source.
Compare your estimates of current with the ratings for
the components you will use to prevent overloading the
components.
Connect all components in the circuit except
the power source, and verify that all connections are properly made.
Open the switch or turn the power source off
while you connect the power source to the
circuit.
If a fire occurs because of an electrical hazard, try to extinguish the fire
only if you believe that you can extinguish the fire safely. Do not use water
to extinguish an electrical fire. Use a
Class C fire extinguisher.
Leave the power source on only as long as necessary to perform the desired actions or functions.
Open a switch or turn the power source off as soon as the
necessary measurements or observations have been made.
What are other electrical concerns?
Electric shock and resistive heating are not the only hazards associated with electrical equipment. Charges may move as a current spontaneously. Although these arcs and sparks typically create currents
that exist for a short duration, these charges can still be hazardous.
Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Is static electricity a concern?
Static electricity is caused by an imbalance of electrons between two
surfaces. The imbalance can be corrected by transferring electrons
from one surface to another surface by conduction or induction.
When the excess charge on a surface is discharged, a person standing
near the discharge can be electrified. However, these electric shocks
are not normally hazardous, so students do not have to report every
instance of a shock by static electricity.
One serious concern related to static electricity is the accumulation
of static electricity near a hazardous material such as a flammable
gas or vapor. Static electricity can cause a flammable gas or vapor to
ignite. Another concern is the potential for an injury to result from
someone reacting to electric shock by, for example, rapidly pulling
her or his hand away and knocking over a beaker.
Are there any other issues I should be concerned about?
You should be concerned about the following:
Sparks Sparks are created when electricity jumps across a
small gap in a circuit. Many types of electrical equipment are
capable of creating sparksthermostats, drills, and motors
commonly produce sparks. Sparks are dangerous because they
can ignite flammable materials or shock you or your students.
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Electrical Hazards, continued
Electric arcs Electric arcs are bands of sparks and may be
created when a circuit is shorted, when the flow of a current
is interrupted, or even when a switch is closed. Electric arcs
are capable of causing electric shocks and combustion of
materials. To prevent the occurrence of electric arcs, always
ensure that components of circuits are properly connected
before energizing the circuits and never close a switch or circuit breaker slowly.
What can I do to prevent electrical hazards?
You can prevent or minimize electrical hazards easily. Listed below
are some steps you can take to minimize these hazards.
Apparatus and Electrical Fixtures
Often inspect the insulation on power cords, patch cords,
and cables for deterioration. If a conductor is exposed,
remove it from use or repair it immediately.
Do not splice equipment or cords. Do not use any equipment or cords that have splices.
Never remove the ground prong from a plug. If a plug is
missing the ground prong, replace the plug immediately
or stop using the apparatus with the broken plug.
Do not use three-to-two prong adapters.
Have any two-prong electrical outlets replaced as soon
as possible. Two-prong outlets do not have the ground
prong and are more dangerous than the three-prong
outlets.
Do not overload circuits. Using extension cords often
overloads circuits.
If a prong is broken off in an outlet, make certain the
outlet is de-energized before attempting to remove the
prong. Do not let students work in the immediate area
until the outlet is de-energized and the prong is removed.
Have loose outlets repaired before allowing anyone to use
themthey can cause electrical shorts.
Instruct students to report broken or damaged apparatus
or fixtures immediately.
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Always use power cords rated for the device with which
they are to be used. Ensure that connecting cords and
cables are also rated for the magnitude of the current to
be found in an activity.
Electrical Hazards, continued
CHAPTER 7
Instruct students to warn you immediately if they touch any
apparatus and feel a tingling sensation. Remove the suspect
apparatus from use in experiments immediately.
When replacing fuses, use only the type specified for the
apparatus; do not attempt to substitute fuses whose current
or voltage rating is different from the current or rating
required.
Never staple or nail power cords, patch cords, and cables, as
is commonly done, to get them out of the way of students or
equipment. Use cable ties or plastic wire keepers instead.
Never use the power cord to move or carry apparatus.
Provide adequate ventilation for electrical apparatus.
If apparatus are used near chemicals, periodically check that
connections and power cords are not degrading because of
the chemicals.
Electrical apparatus that must be used in hoods should be
built to prevent sparks.
Provide shielding between exposed vacuum tubes or cathode
ray tubes and the students, and provide safety goggles to
students. These tubes are potential implosion hazards.
Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
Environmental
Always keep activity areas dry. Have any leaks repaired
immediately, or have students work in an alternate area
until repairs are made. Do not allow students to bring
water bottles or drinks into the lab.
Do not use any electrical apparatus near any water sources
or around combustible materials. In particular, do not allow
power cords or cables to lie under water faucets or in sinks.
If you smell gas when you are entering a room, do not turn
on the lights (or other electrical apparatus). A spark may be
created by turning on any electrical equipment and may
cause an explosion if the gas concentration is large.
Do not leave windows open where rain may drop on equipment or create puddles on floors or benches.
Make sure electrical panels on equipment are closed and
latched, especially if they are accessible to students.
Ensure that students have adequate lighting to perform
activities.
When arranging electrical equipment, take into account that
not all students are the same height or that some students
have visual or mobility impairments.
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Electrical Hazards, continued
Work Practices
Know your limitationsdo not attempt to repair apparatus if you are not certain what to do.
Get students in the habit of working on energized electrical circuits (DC or AC) with one hand behind their back.
Always construct a circuit, and then connect the circuit
to the power source. Always disconnect the power source
before disassembling the circuit.
Always check that circuits are properly connected.
Always have one student act as an observer when a group
is working on a circuit. Never let any student work alone
on a live circuit.
Never allow students to wear jewelry, loose clothing, keys
on a cord around the neck, or any other dangling conductors near an energized circuit.
Never remove power cords, patch cords, and cables by
pulling on the wire. Always use the plug or connector.
Do not use apparatus that have overextended power
cords. Replace the power cord with a longer power cord,
use closer outlets, or redesign the layout of the activity in
the room.
Do not store apparatus with the power cord wrapped
tightly around it. A tightly wrapped cord adds stress to
the cord at the point the cord enters the apparatus case
and leads to the deterioration of the cords insulation.
Electrical Plugs
In a chemistry classroom, students are using hot plates to heat solutions. One student wants to move his hot plate to the other side of
his laboratory table and tries to unplug his hot plate without first
turning off the hot plate. The plug will not separate from the outlet,
so the student uses a metal spatula to free the plug from the outlet.
The student experiences an electric shock as a result of his actions.
Tips to avoid electrical plug accidents
Remind students of safe practices in the classroom, such
as turning off electrical equipment before unplugging the
equipment.
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Keep cords and plugs away from areas where they may be
stepped on, pinched between objects, or tripped over.
Electrical Hazards, continued
CHAPTER 7
If possible, do not use metal instruments such as spatulas
during experiments that require electrical equipment.
Do not let students move laboratory equipment during an
experiment.
Place warning signs and reminders near equipment.
What kind of outlets do I need?
Outlets (receptacles) in your classroom should have the standard
three-prong design as shown in the diagram. This design has a
ground connection. Plugs and outlets are wired in a standard way:
The short slot of the outlet (black-wired prong on a plug) is
the hot connection.
The longer slot of the outlet (longer, white-wired prong on a
plug) is the neutral connection.
Copyright by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved.
The round opening of the outlet (green-wired prong on the
plug) is the ground.
The potential between the hot connection and the neutral connection is approximately 120 V. The ground connection protects users
by ensuring that the equipment is at the same potential as Earth,
which is neutral. You will not experience an electric shock if you and
the equipment that you touch are at the same potential as Earth.
(For apparatus that need 240 V, their cords will have a plug with a
third wire at a potential of 120 V.)
This figure shows a threeprong outlet in the proper
orientation.
Receptacles are usually oriented so that the slots form an inverted
triangle. This inverted triangle is not the safest arrangement for outlets located on the skirt of the laboratory table because students
commonly lean against laboratory tables while they are working. A
student may repeatedly lean against a plug, gradually work the plug
loose from the receptacle, and partially expose the energized prongs
of the plug. A better arrangement in these cases would be to install
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Electrical Hazards, continued
the outlets as shown in the diagram on the previous page. The first
prong to be exposed would be the ground prong, which is not energized (unless there also happens to be a short in the case of the
equipment).
Receptacles should be equipped with a ground fault circuit interrupt (GFCI or GFI). Receptacles located near sinks or other water
sources must have a GFCI. Receptacles for hoods should be located
outside the hoods. This placement prevents ignition of vapors that
may be present in the hood because of a plug sparking while being
inserted or removed from an outlet.
If there are absolutely no other outlet alternatives and adapters
must be used to connect three-prong plugs to a two-prong outlet, be
certain to connect the ground on the adapter to a grounded screw
on the outlet plate (or other suitable ground). Make sure the outlet
panel screw is actually grounded, however. Also ensure that the
ground wire is insulated, because if the wire is not truly a ground
wire, someone could unknowingly touch it and receive an electric
shock.
Dangers of using too much equipment with too few outlets
Calculate the total load on the outlet or on the entire circuit
from the wattage ratings for each device plugged into the
outlet or for each component in the circuit.
If the sum of the currents exceeds the current rating (the
circuit breaker or fuse rating) for that outlet or circuit, then
some devices or equipment must be moved to different
outlets.
Do not use multiple outlet plugs that allow more than one apparatus to be plugged into an outlet simultaneously. If you are not
careful about what equipment is plugged into the outlet, the outlet
may overload and create a serious fire hazard.
For the following reasons, extension cords should never be used.
Although extension cords are intended for temporary use,
they have a tendency to become permanent.
Extension cords are fire hazards because they are typically
overloaded.
The wires in extension cords are often not rated for their
applied loads.
These cords are trip hazards.
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Receptacles must never be overloaded. Overheating of outlets may
cause a fire, especially if combustible material is near the overloaded
outlet. To ensure that an outlet is not overloaded, perform the following steps:
