REVIEW

10.1111/j.1469-0691.2012.03816.x

Wild great apes as sentinels and sources of infectious disease

S. Calvignac-Spencer1, S. A. J. Leendertz1, T. R. Gillespie2,3 and F. H. Leendertz1
1) Emerging Zoonoses, Robert Koch-Institut, Berlin, Germany, 2) Department of Environmental Studies and Program in Population Biology, Ecology and
Evolution, Emory University, Atlanta, GA and 3) Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Abstract
Emerging zoonotic infectious diseases pose a serious threat to global health. This is especially true in relation to the great apes, whose
close phylogenetic relationship with humans results in a high potential for microorganism exchange. In this review, we show how studies
of the microorganisms of wild great apes can lead to the discovery of novel pathogens of importance for humans. We also illustrate
how these primates, living in their natural habitats, can serve as sentinels for outbreaks of human disease in regions with a high likelihood of disease emergence. Greater sampling efforts and improvements in sample preservation and diagnostic capacity are rapidly
improving our understanding of the diversity and distribution of microorganisms in wild great apes. Linking non-invasive diagnostic data
with observational health data from great apes habituated to human presence is a promising approach for the discovery of pathogens of
high relevance for humans.
Keywords: Chimpanzee, disease ecology, emerging infectious diseases, gorilla, zoonoses
Article published online: 22 February 2012
Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18: 521527

Corresponding author: F. H. Leendertz, Emerging Zoonoses,

Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction
Emerging infectious diseases frequently originate from zoonotic transmission events implicating wildlife reservoirs [1],
with the highest risk for emergence being seen in tropical
countries with high biodiversity and low infrastructure [2].
Consequently, the characterization of microorganisms infecting wildlife in the tropics is central to the development of
global health surveillance systems that are capable of identifying putative pathogens before they enter the human population [1,2]. However, where should we start? Technically, it is
possible to broadly screen various wildlife and vector species
for known and unknown pathogens (e.g. viruses in mosquitoes [3], bats, or rodents [4]). But what does the identification of various (new) microorganisms tell us? Are they of
pathogenic importance for humans? For some microorganisms, we may be able to assume zoonotic and pathogenic
potential, owing to relatedness to known pathogens, but a
true understanding of the risk associated with each microorganism requires comprehensive study of a large number of

well-characterized samples from healthy and symptomatic

humans from affected areas. This time-consuming and expensive process often yields results only after a pathogen has
emerged from a wildlife source and become established in
the human population. Fortunately, we can identify hosts
with a high potential for carrying microorganisms of importance for humans, on the basis of host demography, ecology,
and behaviour. Focusing on such high-potential hosts will
improve our chances of understanding a microorganism with
emergence potential well before it becomes established in
humans [5]. Ideally, candidates should be high-density animal
species exhibiting extensive niche overlap with humans in
tropical regions, such as rodents or bats.
Another criterion for selecting target species is to focus
on hosts with close evolutionary relatedness to humans.
Close relatedness between species (including primates) has
been shown to increase the likelihood of cross-species transmission events [5,6], and closely related species are also
more likely to develop similar clinical signs when infected
with specific pathogens [7].

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Therefore, wild great apes are promising candidates for

screening for potential new zoonotic agents. First, they are the
closest evolutionary relatives of humans, facilitating microorganism transmission, which has, for example, led to the emergence of human immunodeficiency virus-1 [8]. Second, it has
been shown that great apes suffer from acute and chronic diseases of high importance to humans, such as those caused by
Ebola viruses and simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs),
respectively [9,10], and can therefore serve as indicator species for pathogens of clinical importance for humans. Third,
there is intense exposure of humans to body fluids and tissues
of great apes, as all non-human primate species are commonly
hunted in West and Central Africa [11].
However, all great ape species are highly endangered, and
invasive studies including anaesthesia or even euthanasia,
such as those performed on bats on rodents, are ethically
impossible [12]. The only invasive samples that it is ethically
possible to collect are samples obtained from animals found
dead (in bushmeat markets or in the wild) or samples collected in the course of interventions necessary to save the
lives of great apes (e.g. hunting snare removal) [7]. In order
to study microorganisms in living wild great apes, methods
have been developed to allow the detection of microorganisms and antibodies in materials that can be collected noninvasively from these animals without disturbing them. Such
investigations rely mostly on faeces, but in some cases also
on urine or food wadges [7,13,14], and have led to the identification of at least 12 families and 17 genera of viruses
infecting wild great apes (Table 1).
In this review, we summarize the current knowledge
regarding the diversity of enzootic and non-enzootic microorganisms of African wild great apes (almost no information
is available on microorganisms of Asian wild great apes), with
a special emphasis on great apes as sentinels for emerging
infectious diseases. We also highlight important gaps in our
knowledge and areas in urgent need of further investigation.
We did not consider data obtained from captive or semicaptive wild ape populations, which is not to say that they
are uninformative, but rather that they are more likely to be
biased [15]. Additionally, a comprehensive overview of this
field of research would be beyond the scope of a review, so
we have restricted our overview to the best-studied microorganisms at the apehuman interface.

Great Ape Enzootic Microorganisms

Most microorganisms identified in wild great apes appear to
be enzootic (that is, they persistently infect wild great ape
populations), and are not known to be associated with acute

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disease. This is nicely exemplified by viruses such as adenoviruses, hepadnaviruses, herpesviruses, parvoviruses, picornaviruses, polyomaviruses, and retroviruses (Table 1), and also
applies to most gastrointestinal helminths, protozoa, and bacteria [7,16,17].
In contrast, nothing is known about enzootic pathogens
spreading through populations and causing acute disease or
death. For humans, various acute disease-causing endemic
pathogens are known, e.g. smallpox or measles viruses. One
may argue that this is simply because of a lack of surveillance
in wild ape populations; however, habituated communities of
wild great apes are distributed across each species range,
and some of these communities have been under continuous
observation for decades, so massive die-offs would not have
gone unnoticed. A more likely explanation is that great ape
demography (i.e. low-density, fragmented populations) is not
compatible with the sustained circulation of such acute disease-causing pathogens. Known acute diseases in wild great
apes originated either from other species (Ebola) [10], the
environment (anthrax) [18], or humans (respiratory diseases)
[19] (see below).

Great Ape Non-enzootic Microorganisms

A number of microorganisms infect wild great apes by environmental means, at least in the initial phases of what might
later become an epizootic sustained by within-species transmission. Such infections occur through the consumption of
contaminated food items, direct (e.g. biting) or indirect (e.g.
aerosols) contact with other species, or vector bites (arthropods).
Microorganisms acquired though contaminated food

Obviously, all wild great apes are exposed to foodborne

microorganisms, including other animal microorganisms found
on vegetation as a consequence of contamination by infected
animal fluids. Although diets typically exhibit significant variation at multiple scales (e.g. within subspecies or species, within
regions, or over seasons for a specific population), the most
striking differences are seen between the omnivorous genus
Pan (chimpanzees and bonobo) and the herbivorous genus Gorilla. Chimpanzee and bonobo diets consist primarily of fruit
and other plant parts, but animals, including other non-human
primates, are eaten on occasion, with interesting regional differences in diet composition [20,21]. Thus, chimpanzees and
bonobos are more likely to acquire microorganisms from
other non-human primate species than are gorillas, which have
never been observed to consume non-human primates or
other animals in the wild [22,23].

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Ptv, Ptt, Gg
Ptv, Gg
Ptv, Pts, Gb
Ptv
Ptt, Gg
Ptt
Ptv, Pts, Gg
Pte, Ptt, Pts, Gg

Ptv, Ptt, Gg

Ptv, Gg
Ptv, Pts, Gb

Ptv
Ptt, Gg
Ptt, Gg

Ptv, Pts, Gg

Ptv, Pte, Ptt, Pts,

Pp, Gg
Ptv
Ptv, Pte, Ptt, Pts,
Pp, Gg
Ptt, Pts
Ptv
Ptv, Pte, Ptt, Pts,
Pp, Gg
Ptt, Pts

Pts
Ptt, Gg
Pte, Ptt, Pts, Gg

Ptt, Pts
Ptt, Gg
Pte, Ptt, Pts, Gg

HTLV-1
Not found in
humans
ND

HIV-1

MCPV

HRSV
HBoV
EV70, EV76

HCMV
HMPV

EBV

Not found in
humanse
Cyclovirus 7, 13-16
EBOV
HBV

TTV

HAdV-A to F

Closest human
counterpart

ND

Yes
Yes

Yes

Unknown

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Cross-species
transmission

Unknown

Unclear
Yes

Yes

Yes

No
Yes
Yes

Unknown
No

Unknown

Yes
Yes
Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Possible
recombination/
reassortment

Unknown

Sexual, maternalneonatal
Bloodblood, biting

Sexual, bloodblood

Unknown

Respiratory droplets
Faecaloral
Respiratory, oral droplets

Contact, urine, saliva

Respiratory droplets

Contact, saliva

Unknown
Body fluids, blood
Sexual, bloodblood

Faecaloral

Sexual, blood

Faecaloral, respiratory

Mode of
transmissionb

None

Ape to human
Ape to human

Ape to human

None

Human to ape
None
Unknown

None
Human to ape

None

None
Ape to human
Human to ape

None

Ape to human,
human to ape

Transmission/
directionalityc

Unknown

Unknown
Unknown

Yes

Unknown

Yes
Unknown
Unknown

Unknown
Yes

Unknown

Unknown
Yes
Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Unknown

Veterinary
relevance

Unknown

Yes
Unknown

Yes

Yes

Yes
Unknown
Yes

Yes
Yes

Yes

Unknown
Yes
Yes

Unknown

Unknown

Yes

Medical
relevance

[66]

[36]
[50]

[8,65]

[63,64]

[19]
[61]
[62]

[45]
[19,39]

[60]

[56]
[10,57]
[58,59]

[56]

[55]

[24,54]

Referenced

Calvignac-Spencer et al.

ChiSCV, Chimpanzee stool-associated circular virus; EBOV, Ebola virus; EBV, EpsteinBarr virus; EV, enterovirus; Gb, Gorilla beringei; Gg, Gorilla gorilla; HAdV, human adenovirus; HBoV, human bocavirus; HBV, hepatitis B virus; HCMV,
human cytomegalovirus; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HMPV, human metapneumovirus; HRSV, human respiratory syncytial virus; HTLV, human T-cell lymphotropic virus; MCPV, Merkel cell polyomavirus; ND, not determined;
Pp, Pan paniscus; Pte, Pan troglodytes ellioti; Pts, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii; Ptt, Pan troglodytes troglodytes; Ptv, Pan troglodytes verus; SFV, simian foamy virus; TTV, transfusion-transmitted virus; Unknown, either not tested or situation not
clear.
a
Tests might have consisted of family-level tests. For example, viruses belonging to the family Circoviridae were all identified with the same PCR system. No cross-check for the absence of cycloviruses with a specific system was performed.
b
Classical modes of transmission are given according to viralzone.expasy.org; all viruses may also be transmitted during the butchering of infected great apes.
c
Evidence was based on the following: (i) differences in prevalence in humans and great apes infected with closely related viruses unambiguously pointed at one being the reservoir for the infection of the other; (ii) genetic diversities of
great ape (or human) strains were fully encompassed within those of human (or great ape) strains; (iii) recombinant forms of great ape and human strains were detected (where viruses exhibit host specificity). Co-speciation patterns
within the course of hominid evolution were not considered.
d
Only a few selected references per viral genus are given; either recent, comprehensive reviews or the most recent article published in the field. This table should not be considered to be comprehensive.
e
Circoviruses are found in humans but are thought to derive from pig (Sus scrofa) meat consumption.

Unassigned (ChiSCV)

Deltaretrovirus
Spumavirus (SFV)

Cyclovirus
Filoviridae/Ebolavirus
Hepadnaviridae/
Orthohepadnavirus
Herpesviridae/
Lymphocryptovirus
Cytomegalovirus
Paramyxoviridae/
Metapneumovirus
Pneumovirus
Parvoviridae/Bocavirus
Picornaviridae/
Enterovirus
Polyomaviridae/
Polyomavirus
Retroviridae/Lentivirus

Ptt, Pts

Pts

Pts

Ptt, Pts

Ptv, Pts, Gg, Gb

Ptv, Pts, Gg, Gb

Adenoviridae/
Mastadenovirus
Anelloviridae/
Alphatorquevirus
Circoviridae/Circovirus

Positive species

Tested speciesa

Viral family/genus

TABLE 1. Viral diversity described for African wild great apes

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523

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Both lethal and non-lethal microorganisms have been

shown to be acquired from contaminated fruits or vegetation
in wild great apes. For example, studies in Uganda have demonstrated transmission of non-pathogenic Escherichia coli
from humans and goats to wild gorillas, as well as from
humans to wild chimpanzees, probably simply through overlap and contamination of habitat [17,24]. Also, phylogenetic
and anecdotal evidence exists for similar transmission of adenoviruses [24]. The clinical relevance of such infection
remains unknown.
However, the examples of Ebola haemorrhagic fever and
anthrax demonstrate the degree to which infectious diseases
can impact on wild ape populations. Ebola viruses have caused
massive die-offs of gorillas and chimpanzees [25,26]. The most
likely sources of Ebola and other filoviruses are fruit bats [27]
contaminating fruits with saliva or other bodily excretions [10].
Anthrax has also been identified as a cause of death for
wild chimpanzees [28] and gorillas (G. gorilla) [18]. Interestingly, the bacterial agent isolated from these infections falls
outside the known variation of Bacillus anthracis, and instead
is a member of the Bacillus cereus family; however, it encodes
all factors needed to cause the disease anthrax. Therefore,
this strain was termed B. cereus biovar anthracis [29,30]. All
members of the Bacillus group are classically acquired
through point-source infections via ingestion of contaminated
vegetation, soil, or animal carcases. As great apes do not
scavenge, such infections were probably acquired from contaminated fruits or leaves [18].
In addition to vegetation-borne microorganisms, wild chimpanzees and bonobos are exposed to microorganisms of their
prey. Among ape-hunted species, monkeys are of the greatest
interest, both as the most frequently consumed prey and as the
prey with the greatest phylogenetic proximity to great apes.
Unfortunately, comprehensive investigation of pathogen transmission via predatorprey dynamics is lacking, and evidence of
cross-species transmission is mainly restricted to retroviruses.
Simian foamy viruses (SFVs), which have no known clinical
effect on primates, show a distinctive pattern of long-term
co-speciation with primates [31]. Hence, one would presume
that cross-species transmission would be theoretically easy
to pinpoint by phylogenetic means. In this regard, two wild
chimpanzees in the Ta National Park (Cote dIvoire) have
shown evidence of co-infection with chimpanzee-specific SFV
and the SFV of their favourite prey, the red colobus monkey
(Piliocolobus badius) [32]. In another study, one faecal sample
(out of nearly 400) from a wild chimpanzee was found to be
positive for an undetermined cercopithecid species SFV [33].
Considering the intense contact between chimpanzees and
their prey [22,34], transmission of monkey SFVs to chimpanzees seems to occur at a very low rate.

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Simian T-lymphotropic viruses type 1 (STLV-1s) also show

evidence of cross-species transmission. In contrast to SFVs,
STLV-1s show low host specificity [35]. Consequently, sympatric host species tend to harbour STLV-1s whose
sequences are interspersed in phylogenetic analyses. For
example, chimpanzees from the Ta National Park (Cote
dIvoire) are infected with STLV-1 strains belonging to three
distinct clades, one probably constituting the original chimpanzee STLV-1 clade and the others comprising STLV-1
strains from the sympatric red colobus and sooty mangabeys
(Cercocebus atys) [36]. Relatively frequent cross-species transmission seems to occur for this virus, but the slow evolutionary rates of STLV-1s [37] prevent exact determination of
the frequency of transmission events.
Finally, SIVcpz has been shown to stem initially from interspecies transmission from monkeys to chimpanzees, as this
virus is a recombinant of two different monkey SIVs [38].
However, exposure to prey SIVs does not automatically lead
to infection, as demonstrated by the absence of red colobus
SIVs in wild chimpanzees, who prey heavily on SIV-infected
red colobus monkeys [34].
Microorganisms acquired through aerosols

To date, no respiratory pathogen has been conclusively

shown to enzootically infect wild great apes. All published
evidence of aerosol-transmitted respiratory microorganisms
have involved either human respiratory syncytial virus or
human metapneumovirus. These viruses were transmitted in
settings where apehuman overlap was extensive, such as
tourism (gorilla) and research projects (chimpanzees)
[13,19,39]. Furthermore, Streptococcus pneumoniae and
Pasteurella multocida of undetermined origin have been found
in several cases as co-infections with the viral infections mentioned above [4042].
Because it is likely that respiratory pathogens can be
spread easily, it will be important to determine whether wild
great apes are hosts or intermediate amplifiers of any of
these pathogens.
Microorganisms acquired through aggressive interactions

The possibility of transmission of microorganisms through

aggressive interactions between great apes (such as biting)
has rarely been investigated. However, retroviral transmission from chimpanzees to gorillas is suggested by SIVgor
nesting within the diversity of SIVcpz [43,44]. Another example suggestive of transmission via gorillachimpanzee aggressive interactions is provided by cytomegalovirus strains in
chimpanzees and gorillas each nesting within the diversity of
the other in two different clades, indicating transmission in
both directions [45].

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Microorganisms acquired through arthropod vectors

The only vector-borne microorganism known from wild

great apes is Plasmodium. Various malarial parasites infect
chimpanzees and gorillas [4648]. The effect of plasmodial
infections on wild great ape health remains unknown, but
current efforts to integrate non-invasive faecal rectal temperature measurements [49] with observational and non-invasive
diagnostic data [48] may yield interesting results.

Transmission of Great Ape Microorganisms

to Humans
Because of their generally higher prevalence, enzootic microorganisms are likely to have a higher risk of transmission
than non-enzootic ones. To date, the only known example
of a non-enzootic great ape-borne pathogen is Ebola virus,
for which wild great apes can serve as intermediate amplifiers [10]. This contrasts with frequent reports of great ape
SFV and STLV-1 transmission to humans (notably in high-risk
populations such as great ape-bitten hunters; reviewed in
[50]). Also, among enzootic microorganisms, prevalence
seems to be a key parameter. For example, transmission of
great ape SIVs, which are found at only a low prevalence,
with few communities infected [51], to humans appears to
be exceptionally rare [8]. Therefore, large-scale mapping of
the prevalence of wild great ape enzootic microorganisms
will be required to assess the risk of transmission to humans.
Obviously, prevalence is not the only determining parameter,
as shown by the example of plasmodia, which are highly prevalent in great apes but were apparently only transmitted
once to humans, giving rise to Plasmodium falciparum [47].
Transmission mode will also be important in defining
exposure and consecutive transmission risk for different
pathogens. For example, the transmission of many microorganisms requires blood-to-blood contact, such as can occur
in bushmeat hunting and butchering. However, these bushmeat practices are not homogeneously encountered
throughout Africa. Conversely, transmission of vector-borne
microorganisms such as plasmodia requires the presence of
appropriate vectors. Other microorganisms could also be
transmitted as a simple consequence of habitat overlap (e.g.
via faecaloral transmission; Table 1).

Summary
Despite minimal surveillance for microorganisms in wild
great ape populations to date, these species are associated
with a number of pathogens that are highly relevant to

Great apes and disease emergence

525

humans, including retroviruses, filoviruses, plasmodia, and

B. cereus biovar anthracis. However, transmission can occur
in both directions, as demonstrated by the examples of
human respiratory viruses and gastrointestinal bacteria being
transmitted from humans to wild great apes [13,17,19,39].
Only indirect evidence of transmission exists for other
pathogens with high potential to threaten wild ape populations, such as measles viruses and scabies [12].
Future studies integrating long-term observational health
data with non-invasive diagnostics for great apes will be
essential in improving our understanding of the epizoology
and biology of pathogens in great apes. The example of
SIVcpz nicely illustrates the benefits of such monitoring of
habituated wild great apes. Like other SIVs, SIVcpz was long
considered to be non-pathogenic in its natural host. Only
through longitudinal sampling linked to observational health
data was its pathogenicity in chimpanzees revealed [9,52].
Such observational health data are critically needed to
understand the pathogenic potential of other great ape
pathogens, such as Plasmodium. In addition, studies of wild
chimpanzees and bonobos are of particular interest for the
study of cross-species transmission events associated with
predatorprey interactions and the possible resulting
recombination and reassortment events that may lead to
altered properties of the microorganisms (Table 1). More
generally, longitudinal studies may allow for the investigation
of adaptive processes associated with pathogen host
switches [5,53].
Finally, great apes may give us the unique opportunity to
determine the original diversity of hominin microbiomes
(including our own), because, in contrast to humans, they
continued to live isolated in their pristine habitats, unexposed to our global microbiome. The protection of the great
apes and their habitat is a pre-condition for such studies.

Transparency Declaration
No conflict of interest to be declared.

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