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Oracle
SQL Study Material
For Non-Oracle Streams
Date: 27/04/2012.

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Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................................ 2
INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE ............................................................................................................. 4
FEATURES OF ORACLE ............................................................................................................................. 5
Large Database Support .............................................................................................................. 5
Data Concurrence ........................................................................................................................ 5
Industry acceptance standards.................................................................................................... 5
Portability .................................................................................................................................... 5
Enforced Integrity ........................................................................................................................ 5
Data Security ............................................................................................................................... 6
Support for Client / Server environment ...................................................................................... 6
ORACLES ROLE IN CLIENT / SERVER COMPUTING......................................................................................... 6
WHAT IS PERSONAL ORACLE? .................................................................................................................. 6
SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................................ 8
EXERCISES ............................................................................................................................................ 9
SQL STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE ......................................................................................... 10
ENVIRONMENT .................................................................................................................................... 10
INTRODUCTION TO SQL ........................................................................................................................ 11
A Brief History of SQL................................................................................................................. 11
An Overview of SQL ................................................................................................................... 12
SQL Statements and Categorization .......................................................................................... 12
ORACLE SQL DATATYPES ...................................................................................................................... 13
Character Datatypes .................................................................................................................. 13
CHAR datatype .......................................................................................................................... 13
VARCHAR2 (size) ........................................................................................................................ 13
NVARCHAR2(size) ...................................................................................................................... 13
NUMBER .................................................................................................................................... 14
LONG ......................................................................................................................................... 14
DATE .......................................................................................................................................... 14
TIMESTAMP(precision) .............................................................................................................. 14
TIMESTAMP(precision) WITH TIME ZONE ................................................................................. 14
TIMESTAMP(precision) WITHLOCAL TIME ZONE ....................................................................... 14
RAW(size) .................................................................................................................................. 15
LONG RAW................................................................................................................................. 15
CLOB .......................................................................................................................................... 15
BLOB .......................................................................................................................................... 15
BFILE .......................................................................................................................................... 15
RULES FOR WRITING SQL STATEMENTS .................................................................................................... 15
DATA RETRIEVAL OR DATA QUERY USING SELECT STATEMENT ..................................................................... 16
Terminating an SQL Statement ................................................................................................. 16
Changing the Order of the Columns .......................................................................................... 17
Expressions, Conditions, and Operators .................................................................................... 17
Operators................................................................................................................................... 20
ORDER BY CLAUSE ..................................................................................................................... 27
Exercises .................................................................................................................................... 30
FUNCTIONS ................................................................................................................................ 33
Predefined functions .................................................................................................................. 33
GROUP BY clause with SELECT statement ................................................................................. 69
ORDER OF EXECUTION ............................................................................................................... 76
Nested Sub queries .................................................................................................................... 77
DML STATEMENTS IN SUB QUERIES .......................................................................................... 82
Exercise based on sub-queries ................................................................................................... 83
INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS ................................................................................................................ 84

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Constraint Guidelines ................................................................................................................ 84
TYPES OF CONSTRAINTS ............................................................................................................ 84
Various types of Integrity constraints ........................................................................................ 85
Guidelines for Primary Keys and Foreign Keys ........................................................................... 86
DDL ( DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE)....................................................................................................... 86
Create Table .............................................................................................................................. 87
Naming Rules in oracle .............................................................................................................. 87
ALTER TABLE .............................................................................................................................. 89
DATA MANIPULATION ..................................................................................................................... 90
INSERTING ROWS ...................................................................................................................... 91
SAVEPOINT ................................................................................................................................ 92
IMPLICIT COMMIT ..................................................................................................................... 92
AUTO ROLLBACK ........................................................................................................................ 92
CREATING A TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE .............................................................................. 94
To add a new column in the table ............................................................................................. 94
UPDATING ROWS ...................................................................................................................... 95
DELETING ROWS ........................................................................................................................ 96
TRUNCATING A TABLE ............................................................................................................... 96
DROPPING A TABLE OR REMOVING A TABLE ............................................................................ 96
ADDING COMMENTS TO A TABLE. ............................................................................................ 96
REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS .................................................................................... 97
Exercise ...................................................................................................................................... 99
JOINS ............................................................................................................................................. 100
Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 100
TYPES OF JOINS ........................................................................................................................ 100
Equi join ................................................................................................................................... 101
Non-Equi joins.......................................................................................................................... 102
OUTER JOIN ............................................................................................................................. 103
SELF JOIN ................................................................................................................................. 103
OTHER OBJECTS............................................................................................................................. 104
SEQUENCE OBJECT .................................................................................................................. 104
VIEWS ...................................................................................................................................... 106
INDEX ....................................................................................................................................... 108
PSEUDO COLUMN ......................................................................................................................... 109

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Introduction to Oracle
It is a database management system (DBMS), which manages a large amount of
data in a multi-user environment so that many users concurrently access the data.
It also provides security and Recovery. It stores and manages data using relational
model.
Oracle is the name of database management system developed by Oracle
Corporation.
Oracle server manages data in the database. Users access Oracle server using SQL
commands. So Oracle server receives SQL commands from users and executes
them on the database to produce the desired results as requested by the user.

Figure 1: Oracle Architecture

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Features of Oracle

The following are some of the important features of Oracle Server.

Large Database Support
Oracle supports largest database, potentially hundreds of pita bytes in size. It also
allows efficient usage of space by providing full control on space management.
Data Concurrence
Oracle supports concurrent access to database by multiple users. It automatically
locks and unlocks rows to maintain integrity of the data.
Industry acceptance standards
Oracle server is 100% compliant with Entry of the ANSI / ISO standards. Oracle
adheres to industry standards for data access language, network protocols etc.
This makes Oracle an open system, which protects the investment of customer.
It is easy to port Oracle applications.
Portability
Oracle software can be ported to different operating systems and it is the name
on all systems. Application development in Oracle can be ported to any operating
system with little or no modifications.
Oracle server runs on different platforms. The following are some of the platforms
on which Oracle runs.
Windows NT.
Novel Netware
Unix
Enforced Integrity
Oracle allows users to define business rules and enforce them. These rules need
not be included at the application level.

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Data Security
Oracle provides security in different levels system level and object level. It also
makes implementation of security easier through Roles.
Support for Client / Server environment
Oracle allows process to be split between client and server. Oracle server does all
database management whereas Client does user interface. Oracle server allows
code to be stored in the database in the form of procedures and functions. This
allows centralization of the code and reduces network traffic.
Oracles Role in Client / Server Computing

Client/Server computing is a method in which

Database is stored on the server in the network
A dedicated program, called back-end, runs on the server to manage
database, which is also stored on the server.
User access the data in database by running application, also called as frontend from clients, that accesses back-end running on the server.
Applications running on the clients interact with the user.
Back-end takes care of total database management.
Client application and back-end run on different machines, which may be of
different types. For example, back-end may run on mainframe and frontend may be on a PC.
Oracle is a database system that runs on the server, and used to manage the data.
The other name to database server is Back-End.
What is Personal Oracle?

Personal Oracle is one of the flavors of Oracle. In this Oracle server and client both
run on the same machine. This is unlike other flavors where Oracle Server runs on
Server and Front-end runs on Client.
It is possible to develop an application using Personal Oracle and deploy it in a
Client / Server environment. Personal Oracle can support up to 15 database
connections.
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Oracle Versions
Table 1: Versions and features of Oracle

Oracle 6.0
Oracle 7.0
Oracle 7.1
Oracle 7.2
Oracle 7.3
Oracle 8.0
Oracle 8i
Oracle9i
Oracle10g
Oracle 11g
Oracle 12i

1990
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2004
2009
2009 Aug

Object based
ORDBMS
Internet based Application
Application server
Grid Computing
482 new features
1500 new features

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Summary

Oracle is RDBMS. In a Client/Server environment, Oracle runs on the server as

back-end to manage the data. The logical structure of the database is
independent of physical structure of the database. User is concerned with only
the logical structure of the database.

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Exercises

1) SGA stands for _______________________________

2) _____________ is the name of the tablespace that is automatically
created when a database is created.
3) In which segment the data of a table is stored?
4) What is the difference between Personal Oracle and Client/Server Oracle

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SQL Structured Query Language
Environment

Clients of Oracle can use two different environments for executing SQL
statements. SQL*plus and iSQL*plus.
iSQL*plus is (Available only from Oracle 9i) a web based client tool.

An Environment
Oracle proprietary
Keywords can be abbreviated
Runs on a browser
Centrally loaded, does not have to be implemented on each machine

Difference between SQL*Plus and ISQL*plus

SQL*Plus is a CUI and iSQL*Plus runs on a browser
SQL*plus should be loaded in each every client system, where as iSQL*plus,
centrally loaded, doesnt have to be implemented on each machine

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Introduction to SQL

A Brief History of SQL

The history of SQL begins in an IBM laboratory in San Jose, California, where SQL
was developed in the late 1970s. The initials stand for Structured Query Language,
and the language itself is often referred to as "sequel." It was originally developed
for IBM's DB2 product (a relational database management system, or RDBMS, that
can still be bought today for various platforms and environments). In fact, SQL
makes an RDBMS possible. SQL is a nonprocedural language, in contrast to the
procedural or third generation languages (3GLs) such as COBOL and C that had
been created up to that time.
NOTE: Nonprocedural means what rather than how. For example, SQL describes
what data to retrieve, delete, or insert, rather than how to perform the operation.
The characteristic that differentiates a DBMS from an RDBMS is that the RDBMS
provides a set-oriented database language. For most RDBMS, this set-oriented
database language is SQL. Set oriented means that SQL processes sets of data in
groups.
Two standards organizations, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
and the International Standards Organization (ISO), currently promote SQL
standards to industry. The ANSI-92 standard is the standard for the SQL used
throughout this book. Although these standard-making bodies prepare standards
for database system designers to follow, all database products differ from the
ANSI standard to some degree. In technology in a single-user business application
positions the application for future growth.

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An Overview of SQL
SQL is the standard language used to manipulate and retrieve data from these
relational databases. SQL enables a programmer or database administrator to do
the following:

Modify a database's structure

Change system security settings
Add user permissions on databases or tables
Query a database for information
Update the contents of a database

SQL Statements and Categorization

Structured query language is a collection of various types of statements shown in
the table below.
Table 2: Various statements of SQL

SELECT
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
MERGE
CREATE
ALTER
DROP
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMIT
ROLLBACK
SAVEPOINT
GRANT
REVOKE

Data retrieval or Data query

Data manipulation language(DML)

Data definition language (DDL)

Transaction control

Data control language (DCL)

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Oracle SQL Datatypes

Each column value and constant in a SQL statement has a data type, which is
associated with a specific storage format, constraints, and a valid range of values.
When you create a table, you must specify a data type for each of its columns.
Oracle provides the following built-in data types.
Character Data types
o CHAR Data type
o VARCHAR2 and VARCHAR Data types
o NCHAR and NVARCHAR2 Data types
LONG Data type
NUMBER Data type
DATE Data type
LOB Data types
o BLOB data type
o CLOB and NCLOB data types
o BFILE Data type
RAW and LONG RAW Data types
Character Datatypes
The character data types store character (alphanumeric) data in strings, with byte
values corresponding to the character.
CHAR datatype
Fixed length character data of length size in bytes. (Default size is 1 and maximum
size is 2000). Padded on right with blanks to full length of size.
VARCHAR2 (size)
Variable length characters strings having a maximum size of 4000 bytes (Default
size is 1). Truncates leftover blank spaces.
NVARCHAR2(size)
Variable length characters strings having a maximum size of 4000 bytes (Default
size is 1) Or characters, depending on the choice of national character set.
Truncates leftover blank spaces.
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NUMBER
The NUMBER datatype stores fixed and floating-point numbers. Numbers of
virtually any magnitude can be stored and are guaranteed portable among
different systems operating Oracle Database, up to 38 digits of precision.
The following numbers can be stored in a NUMBER column:
Positive numbers in the range 1 x 10-130 to 9.99...9 x 10125 with up to 38
significant digits
Negative numbers from -1 x 10-130 to 9.99...99 x 10125 with up to 38
significant digits
Zero
Positive and negative infinity (generated only by importing from an Oracle
Database, Version
LONG
Character data of variable size up to 2GB in length. Only one LONG column is
allowed in a table. Long column cannot be used in sub queries, functions,
expressions, where clause or indexes.
DATE
Valid date ranges from January 1,4712 BC to December 31,9999 AD. (Default date
format DD-MON-YY)
TIMESTAMP(precision)
Date plus time, where precision is the number of digits in the fractional part of the
seconds field (default is 6).
TIMESTAMP(precision) WITH TIME ZONE
Timestamp plus time zone displacement value.
TIMESTAMP(precision) WITHLOCAL TIME ZONE
TIMESTAMP, with normalized to local time zone.

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RAW(size)
Raw binary date, size bytes long. Maximum size is 2000 bytes.
LONG RAW
Raw binary data, otherwise the same as LONG. Raw and Long Raw data types
allow storing pictures.
CLOB
Character Large object, up to 4GB in length.
BLOB
Binary large object, up to 4GB in length.
BFILE
Pointer to a binary operating system file.
Rules for writing SQL Statements

SQL statements are not case sensitive.

SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split across lines.
Clauses are usually placed on separate lines.
Indents are used to enhance readability.

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Data Retrieval or Data Query using SELECT statement

It is a building block for data retrieval in SQL. This statement helps to retrieve data
from one or multiple tables and produce output in a well formatted manner.
Syntax : SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE>;
Your First Query
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
MGR HIREDATE
SAL
COMM
DEPTNO
------ ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 SMITH
CLERK
7902 17-DEC-80
800
20
7499 ALLEN
SALESMAN
7698 20-FEB-81
1600
300
30
7521 WARD
SALESMAN
7698 22-FEB-81
1250
500
30
7566 JONES
MANAGER
7839 02-APR-81
2975
20
7654 MARTIN
SALESMAN
7698 28-SEP-81
1250
1400
30
7698 BLAKE
MANAGER
7839 01-MAY-81
2850
30
7782 CLARK
MANAGER
7839 09-JUN-81
2450
10
7788 SCOTT
ANALYST
7566 09-DEC-82
3000
20
7839 KING
PRESIDENT
17-NOV-81
5000
10
7844 TURNER
SALESMAN
7698 08-SEP-81
1500
0
30
7876 ADAMS
CLERK
7788 12-JAN-83
1100
20
7900 JAMES
CLERK
7698 03-DEC-81
950
30
7902 FORD
ANALYST
7566 03-DEC-81
3000
20
7934 MILLER
CLERK
7782 23-JAN-82
1300
10

ANALYSIS:
Notice that columns 6 and 8 in the output statement are right justified and that
columns 2 and 3 are left justified. This format follows the alignment convention in
which numeric data types are right justified and character data types are left
justified.
The asterisk (*) in select * tells the database to return all the columns associated
with the given table described in the FROM clause. The database determines the order
in which to return the columns.
A full table scan is used whenever there is no where clause on a query.

Terminating an SQL Statement

In some implementations of SQL, the semicolon at the end of the statement tells
the interpreter that you are finished writing the query. For example, Oracle's
SQL*PLUS won't execute the query until it finds a semicolon (or a slash). On the
other hand, some implementations of SQL do not use the semicolon as a
terminator. For example, Microsoft Query and Borland's ISQL don't require a
terminator, because your query is typed in an edit box and executed when you
push a button.

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Changing the Order of the Columns
We can change the order of selection of columns
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, sal, job, comm FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7369
7499
7521
7566
7654
7698
7782
7788
7839
7844
7876
7900
7902
7934

ENAME
SAL JOB
COMM
---------- ---------- --------- ---------SMITH
800 CLERK
ALLEN
1600 SALESMAN
300
WARD
1250 SALESMAN
500
JONES
2975 MANAGER
MARTIN
1250 SALESMAN
1400
BLAKE
2850 MANAGER
CLARK
2450 MANAGER
SCOTT
3000 ANALYST
KING
5000 PRESIDENT
TURNER
1500 SALESMAN
0
ADAMS
1100 CLERK
JAMES
950 CLERK
FORD
3000 ANALYST
MILLER
1300 CLERK

14 rows selected.

ANALYSIS:
Observe that the column sequence specified in the select command is not the original
sequence followed during table creation. Also as per sql a column may be selected
any number of times in the same select command.

Expressions, Conditions, and Operators

Expressions
The definition of an expression is simple: An expression returns a value.
Expression types are very broad, covering different data types such as String,
Numeric, and Boolean. In fact, pretty much anything following a clause (SELECT
or FROM, for example) is an expression. In the following example amount is an
expression that returns the value contained in the amount column.
SELECT sal FROM emp;
In the following statement NAME, DESIGNATION, SAL are expressions:
SELECT ENAME, DESIGNATION, SAL FROM EMP;

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Now, examine the following expression:
WHERE ENAME = 'KING'
It contains a condition, ENAME = 'KING', which is an example of a Boolean
expression. ENAME = 'KING' will be either TRUE or FALSE, depending on
the condition =.
Conditions
If you ever want to find a particular item or group of items in your database, you
need one or more conditions. Conditions are contained in the WHERE clause. In
the preceding example, the condition is ENAME = 'KING'
To find everyone in your organization who worked more than 100 hours last
month, your condition would be SAL > 2000
Conditions enable you to make selective queries. In there most common form,
conditions comprise a variable, a constant, and a comparison operator. In the first
example the variable is ENAME, the constant is 'KING', and the comparison
operator is =.
In the second example the variable is SAL, the constant is 100, and the
comparison operator is >. You need to know about two more elements before
you can write conditional queries: the WHERE clause and operators.
The WHERE Clause
Syntax: SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE> WHERE <SEARCH CONDITION>;
SELECT, FROM, and WHERE are the three most frequently used clauses in SQL.
WHERE simply causes your queries to be more selective. Without the WHERE
clause, the most useful thing you could do with a query is display all records in the
selected table(s).

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If you want a particular EMPLOYEE, you could type
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename = 'KING';

OUTPUT:
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
MGR HIREDATE
SAL
COMM
DEPTNO
------ ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7839 KING
PRESIDENT
17-NOV-81
5000
10

ANALYSIS:
This simple example shows how you can place a condition on the data that you want to
retrieve.

If you want a particular EMPLOYEE, you could type

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename != 'KING';
OR
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename <> 'KING';

OUTPUT:
EMPNO ENAME
JOB
MGR HIREDATE
SAL
COMM
DEPTNO
------- ---------- --------- ---------- --------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369 SMITH
CLERK
7902 17-DEC-80
800
20
7499 ALLEN
SALESMAN
7698 20-FEB-81
1600
300
30
7521 WARD
SALESMAN
7698 22-FEB-81
1250
500
30
7566 JONES
MANAGER
7839 02-APR-81
2975
20
7654 MARTIN
SALESMAN
7698 28-SEP-81
1250
1400
30
7698 BLAKE
MANAGER
7839 01-MAY-81
2850
30
7782 CLARK
MANAGER
7839 09-JUN-81
2450
10
7788 SCOTT
ANALYST
7566 09-DEC-82
3000
20
7844 TURNER
SALESMAN
7698 08-SEP-81
1500
0
30
7876 ADAMS
CLERK
7788 12-JAN-83
1100
20
7900 JAMES
CLERK
7698 03-DEC-81
950
30
7902 FORD
ANALYST
7566 03-DEC-81
3000
20
7934 MILLER
CLERK
7782 23-JAN-82
1300
10

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees other than KING.

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Operators
Operators are the elements you use inside an expression to articulate how you
want specified conditions to retrieve data. Operators fall into six groups:
arithmetic, comparison, character, logical, set, and miscellaneous.
Arithmetic Operators
The arithmetic operators are plus (+), minus (-), divide (/), multiply (*).
The first four are self-explanatory. Modulo returns the integer remainder of a
division.
Comparison Operators
True to their name, comparison operators compare expressions and return one of
three values: TRUE, FALSE, or Unknown. See the following examples.
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal >= 2000;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal >= 3000 AND sal <= 4000;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal NOT BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;

To understand how you could get an Unknown, you need to know a little about
the concept of NULL. In database terms NULL is the absence of data in a field. It
does not mean a column has a zero or a blank in it. A zero or a blank is a value.
NULL means nothing is in that field. If you make a comparison like Field = 9
and the only value for Field is NULL, the comparison will come back
Unknown. Because Unknown is an uncomfortable condition, most flavors of
SQL change Unknown to FALSE and provide a special operator, IS NULL, to
test for a NULL condition.
Here's an example of NULL: Suppose an entry in the PRICE table does not
contain a value for WHOLESALE. The results of a query might look like this:
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE comm IS NULL;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE comm IS NOT NULL;

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Character Operators
You can use character operators to manipulate the way character strings are
represented, both in the output of data and in the process of placing conditions
on data to be retrieved. This section describes two character operators: the LIKE
operator and the || operator, which conveys the concept of character
concatenation.
LIKE operator
What if you wanted to select parts of a database that fit a pattern but weren't
quite exact matches? You could use the equal sign and run through all the
possible cases, but that process would be time-consuming. Instead, you could use
LIKE.
Consider the following:
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE A%;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees whose names begins with letter A

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename NOT LIKE A%;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees whose names not beginning with letter A

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE %A%;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees whose names contains letter A (Any number of As)

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE %A%A%;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the names whose name contains letter A more than one time

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE %DEC%;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees who joined in the month of December.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE %81;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees who joined in the year 81.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal LIKE 4%;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees
conversion takes place).

whose

salary

begins

with

number

4.

(Implicit

data

Underscore (_)
The underscore is the single-character wildcard with in the LIKE operator.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno,ename FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE _A%;

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7521
7654
7900

ENAME
---------WARD
MARTIN
JAMES

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees whose second letter is A

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE __A%;

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------BLAKE
CLARK
ADAMS

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees whose third letter is A ( Two underscores followed by A)

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE A%\_% ESCAPE \;

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------AVINASH_K
ANAND_VARDAN
ADAMS_P

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees with underscore (_). \ Escape character. Underscore is
used to identify a position in the string. To treat _ as a character we have to use
Escape (\) character,

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Concatenation (||) operator
Used to combine two given strings
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename || job FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
ENAME||JOB
------------------SMITHCLERK
ALLENSALESMAN
WARDSALESMAN
JONESMANAGER
MARTINSALESMAN
BLAKEMANAGER
CLARKMANAGER
SCOTTANALYST
KINGPRESIDENT
TURNERSALESMAN
ADAMSCLERK
JAMESCLERK
FORDANALYST
MILLERCLERK

ANALYSIS:
Combines both name and designation as a single string.

INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ename || , || job FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
ENAME||','||JOB
---------------------SMITH , CLERK
ALLEN , SALESMAN
WARD , SALESMAN
JONES , MANAGER
MARTIN , SALESMAN
BLAKE , MANAGER
CLARK , MANAGER
SCOTT , ANALYST
KING , PRESIDENT
TURNER , SALESMAN
ADAMS , CLERK
JAMES , CLERK
FORD , ANALYST
MILLER , CLERK

ANALYSIS:
Combines both name and designation as a single string separated by,

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Logical Operators
AND, OR and NOT are the logical operators used in SQL.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE %A% AND ename NOT LIKE %A%A%

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------ALLEN
WARD
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
JAMES

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees whose names contains letter A exactly one time.

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal >= 3000 AND sal <= 4000;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal NOT BETWEEN 3000 AND 4000;

Miscellaneous Operators: IN, BETWEEN and DISTINCT

The two operators IN and BETWEEN provide shorthand for functions you
already know how to do. You could type the following:
INPUT:
SQL>
SELECT
ename,
job='SALESMAN';

job

FROM

emp

WHERE

job='CLERK'

OR

job=MANAGER

OR

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
MILLER

JOB
--------CLERK
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
MANAGER
MANAGER
SALESMAN
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK

ANALYSIS:
Display employees with designations manager, clerk, and salesman,

The above statement takes more time to parse it, which reduces the efficiency.
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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IN('CLERK','SALESMAN','MANAGER');

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
MILLER

JOB
--------CLERK
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
MANAGER
MANAGER
SALESMAN
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK

ANALYSIS:
Display employees with designations manager, clerk, and salesman,

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename, job FROM emp WHERE job NOT IN('CLERK','SALESMAN','MANAGER');

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SCOTT
KING
FORD

JOB
--------ANALYST
PRESIDENT
ANALYST

ANALYSIS:
Display designations other than manager, clerk, and salesman

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename,hiredate FROM emp WHERE hiredate IN (01-MAY-1981,09-DEC-1982);

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------BLAKE
SCOTT

HIREDATE
--------01-MAY-81
09-DEC-82

ANALYSIS:
Display employees who joined on two different dates.

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Distinct Operator
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT DISTINCT job FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
JOB
--------ANALYST
CLERK
MANAGER
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN

ANALYSIS:
Distinct operator displays unique designations.
displays the information in ascending order.

Distinct

operator

by

default

ORDER BY CLAUSE
Display the information in a particular order (Ascending or descending order)
Syntax: SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM <TABLE> WHERE <CONDITION> ORDER BY
<COLUMN(S)>;
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename FROM emp ORDER BY ename;

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------ADAMS
ALLEN
BLAKE
CLARK
FORD
JAMES
JONES
KING
MARTIN
MILLER
SCOTT
SMITH
TURNER
WARD

ANALYSIS:
Display employees in ascending order of names.

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Ordering on multiple columns is also available as shown below.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,ename,sal FROM emp ORDER BY job,ename;

OUTPUT:
JOB
--------ANALYST
ANALYST
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK
CLERK
MANAGER
MANAGER
MANAGER
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
SALESMAN

ENAME
SAL
---------- ---------FORD
3000
SCOTT
3000
ADAMS
1100
JAMES
950
MILLER
1300
SMITH
800
BLAKE
2850
CLARK
2450
JONES
2975
KING
5000
ALLEN
1600
MARTIN
1250
TURNER
1500
WARD
1250

ANALYSIS:
Display employees in ascending order
information in ascending order of names.

of

jobs.

With

each

job

it

places

the

With

each

job

it

places

the

each

job

it

places

the

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY job, ename desc;

ANALYSIS:
Display employees in ascending order by
information in descending order of names.

jobs.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY job desc, ename DESC;

ANALYSIS:
Display employees in descending order by
information in descending order of names.

jobs.

With

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job != CLERK ORDER BY job;

OUTPUT:
Display employees in ascending order of jobs other than clerks.

ANALYSIS:
When we are executing the query, it is divided into two different parts.
1) SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job != CLERK
2) ORDER BY job;
First part is going to execute first, and selects all the employees
designation is other than clerk and places them in a temporary table.

whose

On the temporary table, order by clause is applied, places the information in

ascending order by jobs in the shadow page, from where end user can able to see the
output.

We can also use order by clause as

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM EMP ORDER BY 3;

ANALYSIS:
It places the information in the order of third column in the table.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT deptno, job, sal, empno FROM emp ORDER BY 3;

ANALYSIS:

The information is displayed in the order of the 3rd column of the selected and not
the 3rd column of the table

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT deptno, job, sal, empno, comm FROM emp ORDER BY comm;

ANALYSIS:
Since the comm column contain nulls, you observe that the rows containing null in
the comm column are displayed at the bottom of the output.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, sal, sal*12 as ann_sal FROM emp ORDER BY ann_sal;

ANALYSIS:
Data can be ordered by using alias name.

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Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.

_________ is the operator used to compare a column with null value.

_________is used to compare one value with a set of values.
The maximum number of characters that can be stored in CHAR type is
Assume there is a table student(sname char(6), sname1 varchar2(6)).
Assume that value placed in both columns is RAVI. What is the size of
sname and sname1.
5. How many LONG columns can a table contain? _______
6. SQL commands are to be terminated with ______________
7. Display list of employees that start with letter C
8. Display employees in ascending order of 5th column in the table
9. Examine the trace instance chart for employee table. You want to display
each employee hiredate from earliest to latest. Which SQL statement will
you use?
a. SELECT hiredate FROM emp;
b. SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate;
c. SELECT emp FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate;
d. SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate DESC;
10.Which of the following data type should you use for interest rates with
varying and unpredictable decimal places such as 1.234, 1.3, 4?
a. Long
b. Number
c. Number(p,s)
d. None
11.Which SQL Query generates the alias Annual Salary for the calculated
column SALARY *12?
a. SELECT ename, salary*12 ANNUAL_SALARY FROM employees;
b. SELECT ename, salary*12 ANNUAL SALARY FROM employees;
c. SELECT ename, salary*12 AS ANNUAL SALARY FROM employees;
d. SELECT ename, salary*12 AS INITCAP(ANNUAL SALARY)FROM
employees
12.The EMP table has these columns. ENAME VARCHAR2(35), SALARY
NUMBER(8,2), HIRE_DATE DATE. Management wants a list of names of

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employees, who have been with the company for more than 5 years. Which
of the following Select commands will get the required result?
a. SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE SYSDATE hire_date > 5;
b. SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE hire_date SYSDATE > 5;
c. SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE (SYSDATE hire_date)/365 > 5;
d. SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE (SYSDATE hire_date)*365 > 5;
13.The employee table contains these columns. LAST_NAME VARCHAR2(25),
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(25) DEPT_ID NUMBER(9) You need to display the
names of the employees that are not assigned to the department. Evaluate
this
SQL
statement.
SELECT last_name, first_name FROM employee WHERE dept_id IS NULL;
which change should you make to achieve the desired result?
a. Create an outer join
b. Change the Column in the Where Condition
c. Query executes Successfully
d. Add a second condition to the where condition
14.Which statement about SQL is true?
a. Null values are displayed last in the ascending sequences
b. Data values are displayed in the descending or by default
c. You cannot specify a column alias in an ORDER BY clause
d. You cannot sort query result by a column that is not included in the
SELECT list.

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Answers
1. IS NULL or IS NOT NULL
2. IN() operator
3. 2000 Characters
4. 6 and 4 respectively (can be verified using vsize() function)
5. 1 (one)
6. ; (semicolon)
7. SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename like(C%);
8. SELECT * FROM emp ORDER BY 5
9. b (SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate)
10.b (NUMBER)
11.a) and c)
12.c (SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE (SYSDATE hire_date)/365 > 5;)
13.c (Query executes successfully)
14.a (Null values are displayed last in the ascending sequences).

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FUNCTIONS
A function is a sub program, which executes whenever we call it and returns a
value to the calling place. Oracle has a large collection of predefined functions.
Each function has a name and some parameters on which the function will work
and return some answer.
These functions are classified into two types
Predefined functions
User defined functions
Predefined functions
These functions are again classified into two types
Group or Aggregate Functions
Single row Functions
Now let us have some detailed description of each of these functions, their use
and application.

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Aggregate Functions
These functions are also referred to as group functions. They return a value based
on the non-null values in a column.
COUNT([DISTINCT] <column name>|*|<expression>)

The function COUNT returns the number of rows that satisfy the condition in the
WHERE clause.
Say you wanted to know how many employees are there.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
COUNT(*)
-------14

ANALYSIS:
It counts the number of rows in that table.

To make the code more readable, try an alias:

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) NUM_OF_EMP FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
NUM_OF_EMP
------------------14

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(comm) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
COUNT(comm)
-------4

ANALYSIS:
It counts only those when there is a value in comm Column
Note: Count (*) faster than count(comm) Count(*) count the row when a row present in
the table where as Count(comm) counts the row only when there is a value in the
column.

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp WHERE job = MANAGER;

OUTPUT:
COUNT(*)
------4

ANALYSIS:
It counts only managers

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT job) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
COUNT (*)
------4

ANALYSIS:
It counts only distinct jobs

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SUM(<column name>|<expression>)

SUM does just that. It returns the sum of all values in a column.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUM(sal) TOTAL_SALARY FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
TOTAL_SALARY
------------29025

ANALYSIS:
Find the total salary drawn by all the employees

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUM(sal) TOTAL_SALARY, SUM(comm) TOTAL_COMM FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
TOTAL_SALARY
------------29025

TOTAL_COMM
---------2200

ANALYSIS:
The totals of sal column and the comm column are calculated and displayed

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUM(sal) TOTAL_SALARY,SUM(comm) TOTAL_COMM FROM emp WHERE
job=SALESMAN;

OUTPUT:
TOTAL_SALARY
------------5600

TOTAL_COMM
---------2200

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AVG(<column name>|<expression>)

The AVG function computes the average of a column.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT AVG(sal) AVERAGE_SALARY FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
AVERAGE_SALARY
--------------2073.21429

ANALYSIS:
Find the average salary of all the employees

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT AVG(comm) AVERAGE_COMM FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
AVERAGE_COMM
-----------550

ANALYSIS:
Functions ignores null rows

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MAX(<column name>|<expression>)

Returns the Maximum value in the given column of values

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
MAX(SAL)
-------5000

ANALYSIS:
Takes the value from one different rows from one particular column

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MAX(ename) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
MAX(ENAME)
-------WARD

ANALYSIS:
Max of name is identified based on ASCII value when a char column is given

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MAX (hiredate) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
MAX(HIREDATE)
------------12-JAN-83

ANALYSIS:
Can find the maximum date in the given column

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MIN(<column name>|<expression>)

Finds the minimum value in the given column of values. This example shows the
use of min function with a numeric column.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
MIN(SAL)
-------800

Using MIN with char column

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MIN(ename) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
MIN (ENAME)
-------ADAMS
The following example shows the use of all aggregate functions together.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUM(sal),AVG(sal),MIN(sal),MAX(sal),COUNT(*) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
SUM(SAL)
AVG(SAL)
--------- --------29025 2073.21429

MIN(SAL)
-------800

MAX(SAL)
-------5000

COUNT(*)
-------14

ANALYSIS:
All the aggregate functions can be used together in a single SQL statement

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SINGLE ROW FUNCTIONS
These functions work on each and every row and return a value to the calling
places.
These functions are classified into different types

Arithmetic Functions
Character Functions
Date functions
Miscellaneous Functions

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Arithmetic Functions
Many of the uses you have for the data you retrieve involve mathematics. Most
Implementations of SQL provide arithmetic functions similar to that of operators
covered here.
ABS(<column name>|<expression>)

The ABS function returns the absolute value of the number you point to. For
example:
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ABS(-10) ABSOLUTE_VALUE FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
ABSOLUTE_VALUE
--------------10

ANALYSIS:
ABS changes all the negative numbers to positive and leaves positive numbers alone.
Dual is a system table or dummy table from where we can display system information
(i.e. system date and username etc) or we can make our own calculations.

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CEIL(<column name>|<expression>) and FLOOR(<column name>|<expression>)

CEIL returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to its argument. FLOOR
does just the reverse, returning the largest integer equal to or less than its
argument.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT CEIL(12.145) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
CEIL(12.145)
-----------13

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT CEIL(12.000) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
CEIL(12.000)
----------12

ANALYSIS:
Minimum we require one decimal place, to get the next higher integer number

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT FLOOR(12.678) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
FLOOR(12.678)
----------------12

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT FLOOR(12.000) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
FLOOR(12.000)
----------------12

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MOD(<column name>|<expression>,<column name>|<expression>)

It returns remainder when we divide one value with another value

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MOD(5,2) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
MOD(5,2)
---------1

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT MOD(2,5) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
MOD(2,5)
---------2

ANALYSIS:
When numerator value less than denominator, it returns numerator value as remainder.

POWER(<column name>|<expression>,<column name>|<expression>)

To raise one number to the power of another, use POWER. In this function the
first argument is raised to the power of the second:
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT POWER(5,3) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
POWER(5,3)
---------125

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CHARACTER FUNCTIONS
Many implementations of SQL provide functions to manipulate characters and
strings of characters.
CHR(<column name>|<expression>)

CHR returns the character equivalent of the number it uses as an argument. The
character it returns depends on the character set of the database. For this
example the database is set to ASCII.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT CHR(65) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
CHR(65)
------A

LOWER(<column name>|<expression>) and UPPER(<column name>|<expression>)

As you might expect, LOWER changes all the characters to lowercase; UPPER
does just the changes all the characters to uppercase.
INPUT:
SQL>SELECT ename,UPPER(ename) UPPER_CASE,LOWER(ename) LOWER_CASE FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

UPPER_CASE
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

LOWER_CASE
---------smith
allen
ward
jones
martin
blake
clark
scott
king
turner
adams
james
ford
miller

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LPAD(expr1,expr2[,expr3]) and RPAD(expr1,expr2[,expr3])

LPAD and RPAD take a minimum of two and a maximum of three arguments.
The first argument is the character string to be operated on. The second is the
number of characters to pad it with, and the optional third argument is the
character to pad it with. The third argument defaults to a blank, or it can be a
single character or a character string.
The following statement adds five pad characters, assuming that the field
LASTNAME is defined as a 15-character field:
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT LPAD(ename,15,*) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
LPAD(ENAME,15,'
--------------**********SMITH
**********ALLEN
***********WARD
**********JONES
*********MARTIN
**********BLAKE
**********CLARK
**********SCOTT
***********KING
*********TURNER
**********ADAMS
**********JAMES
***********FORD
*********MILLER

ANALYSIS:
15 locations allocated to display ename, out of that, name is occupying some space
and in the remaining space to the left side of the name pads with *.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT RPAD(5000,10,*) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
RPAD(5000,10,*)
-------------------5000******

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REPLACE(<expr1>,<expr2>,[<expr3>])

REPLACE does just that. Of its three arguments, the first is the string to be
searched. The second is the search key. The last is the optional replacement
string. If the third argument is left out or NULL, each occurrence of the search key
on the string to be searched is removed and is not replaced with anything.
Syntax: REPLACE(STRING,SEARCH_STRING,REPLACE_STRING)
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT REPLACE (RAMANA,MA, VI) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
REPLACE (RAMANA,MA, VI)
---------------------------RAVINA

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT REPLACE(RAMANA,MA) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
REPLACE(RAMANA,MA)
---------------------RANA

ANALYSIS:
When the replace string is missing, search string removed from the given string

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT REPLACE (RAMANA,MA, NULL) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
REPLACE (RAMANA,MA, NULL)
-----------------------------RANA

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TRANSLATE(<expr1>,<expr2>,<expr3>)

The function TRANSLATE takes three arguments: the target string, the FROM
string, and the TO string. Elements of the target string that occur in the FROM
string are translated to the corresponding element in the TO string.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TRANSLATE(RAMANA,MA,CD) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
TRANSLATE(RAMANA,MA,CD)
----------------------------RDCDND

ANALYSIS:
Notice that the function is case sensitive. When search string matches, it replaces
with corresponding replace string and if any one character is matching in the search
string, it replaces with corresponding replace character.

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SUBSTR(expr1,expr2[,expr3])

This three-argument function enables you to take a piece out of a target string.
The first argument is the target string. The second argument is the position of the
first character to be output. The third argument is the number of characters to
show.
Syntax: SUBSTR(STRING,STARTING_POSITION[,NO_OF_CHARACTERS])
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(RAMANA,1,3) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SUBSTR(RAMANA,1,3)
-------------------RAM

ANALYSIS:
It takes first 3 characters from first character

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(RAMANA,3,3) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SUBSTR(RAMANA,3,3)
-------------------MAN

ANALYSIS:
It takes 3 characters from third position

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(RAMANA,-2,2) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SUBSTR(RAMANA,-2,2)
--------------------NA

ANALYSIS:
You use a negative number as the second argument, the starting point is determined
by counting backwards from the right end.

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(RAMANA,1,2) || SUBSTR(RAMANA,-2,2) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SUBSTR(RAMANA
-------------RANA

ANALYSIS:
First two characters and last two characters are combined together as a single
string

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(RAMANA,3) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SUBSTR(RAMANA,3)
-----------------MANA

ANALYSIS:
When third argument is missing, it takes all the character from starting position

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE SUBSTR(hiredate,4,3) = SUBSTR(SYSDATE,4,3);

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees who joined in the current month SYSDATE is a single row
function, which gives the current date.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SUBSTR(RAMANA,1,2) || SUBSTR(RAMANA,-2,2) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
SUBSTR(RAMANA,1,2)
-------------------RANA

ANALYSIS:
First two characters and Last two characters are combined together as a single
string

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INSTR(<expr1>,<expr2>[,<expr3>[,expr4]])

To find out where in a string a particular pattern occurs, use INSTR. Its first
argument is the target string. The second argument is the pattern to match. The
third and forth are numbers representing where to start looking and which match
to report. This example returns a number representing the first occurrence of O
starting with the second
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT INSTR(RAMANA,A) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
INSTR(RAMANA,A)
------------------2

ANALYSIS:
Find the position of the first occurrence of letter A

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT INSTR(RAMANA,A,1,2) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
INSTR(RAMANA,A,1,2)
----------------------4

ANALYSIS:
Find the position of the second occurrence of letter A from the beginning of the
string. Third argument represents from which position, Fourth argument represents,
which occurrence.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT INSTR(RAMANA,a) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
INSTR(RAMANA,a)
------------------0

ANALYSIS:
Function is case sensitive; it returns 0 (zero) when the given character is not
found.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT INSTR(RAMANA,A,3,2) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
INSTR(RAMANA,A,3,2)
---------------------6

ANALYSIS:
Find the position of the second occurrence of letter A from 3rd position of the
string

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Conversion Functions
These functions provide a handy way of converting one type of data to another.
They are mainly useful for changing date formats and number formats.
TO_CHAR

The primary use of TO_CHAR is to convert a number into a character. Different

Implementations may also use it to convert other data types, like Date, into a
character, or to include different formatting arguments.
The following example illustrates the primary use of TO_CHAR:
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT sal, TO_CHAR(sal) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
SAL
---------800
1600
1250
2975
1250
2850
2450
3000
5000
1500
1100
950
3000
1300

TO_CHAR(SAL)
---------------------------------------800
1600
1250
2975
1250
2850
2450
3000
5000
1500
1100
950
3000
1300

ANALYSIS:
After conversion, Converted information is left aligned. So we can say that it is a
string.

The main usage of this function is, to change the date formats and number
formats
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD/MM/YYYY) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD/MM/YYYY')
-----------------------------24/03/2007

ANALYSIS:
Convert the default date format to DD/MM/YYYY format

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DD-MON-YY) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MON-YY')
-----------------------------24-MAR-07

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DY-MON-YY) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DY-MON-YY')
-----------------------------SAT-MAR-07

ANALYSIS:
DY displays the first 3 letters from the day name

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DAY MONTH YEAR) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DAYMONTHYEAR')
-----------------------------SATURDAY MARCH TWO THOUSAND SEVEN

ANALYSIS:
DAY
MONTH
YEAR

gives the total day name

gives the total month name
writes the year number in words

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,DDSPTH MONTH YEAR) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPTHMONTHYEAR')
--------- ------------------------------------------------------------------24-MAR-07 TWENTY-FOURTH MARCH
TWO THOUSAND SEVEN

ANALYSIS:
DD
DDSP
TH
format

gives the day number

Writes day number in words
is the format. Depends upon the number it gives either ST / RD/ST/ND

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT hiredate,TO_CHAR(hiredate,DDSPTH MONTH YEAR) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
HIREDATE
--------17-DEC-80
20-FEB-81
22-FEB-81
02-APR-81
28-SEP-81
01-MAY-81
09-JUN-81
09-DEC-82
17-NOV-81
08-SEP-81
12-JAN-83
03-DEC-81
03-DEC-81
23-JAN-82

TO_CHAR(HIREDATE,'DDSPTHMONTHYEAR')
------------------------------------------------------------------SEVENTEENTH DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY
TWENTIETH FEBRUARY NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
TWENTY-SECOND FEBRUARY NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
SECOND APRIL
NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
TWENTY-EIGHTH SEPTEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
FIRST MAY NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
NINTH JUNE NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
NINTH DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-TWO
SEVENTEENTH NOVEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
EIGHTH SEPTEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
TWELFTH JANUARY
NINETEEN EIGHTY-THREE
THIRD DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
THIRD DECEMBER NINETEEN EIGHTY-ONE
TWENTY-THIRD JANUARY
NINETEEN EIGHTY-TWO

ANALYSIS:
Converts all hire dates in EMP table into Words

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,Q) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,Q)
-----------------------------1

ANALYSIS:
Gives in the quarter the given date falls

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(10-SEP-2005),Q) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(TO_DATE('10-SEP-2005'),'Q')
---------------------------------------3

ANALYSIS:
To_date is data conversion function, which converts given string into date type

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,W) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,W)
-----------------------------4

ANALYSIS:
Gives the week number in the current month ( In which week given date falls in the
current month)

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT SYSDATE,TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,WW) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
SYSDATE
--------24-MAR-07

TO_CHAR(SYSDATE)
---------------------------12

ANALYSIS:
Returns no. of weeks worked during the year.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,HH:MI:SS AM) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(SYS
----------08:40:17 PM

ANALYSIS:
HH
MI
SS
AM

returns
returns
returns
returns

Hours
}
Minutes
} Returns time from current date
Seconds
}
AM / PM depends on Time

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,HH24:MI:SS) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(
-------20:43:12

ANALYSIS:
HH24
MI
SS

returns Hours in 24 hour format

returns Minutes
returns Seconds

}
} Returns time from current date
}

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(12567,99,999.99) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(12567,'99,999.99')
----------------------------12,567.00

ANALYSIS:
Converts the given number into comma format with two decimal places

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(12567,L99,999.99) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(12567,'L99,999.99')
----------------------------$12,567.00

ANALYSIS:
Display the local currency symbol

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT TO_CHAR(-12567,L99,999.99PR) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
TO_CHAR(-12567,'L99,999.99PR')
----------------------------------<$12,567.00>

ANALYSIS:
PR

Parenthesis negative number

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Date and Time Functions
We live in a civilization governed by times and dates, and most major
implementations of SQL have functions to cope with these concepts.
It demonstrates the time and date functions.
ADD_MONTHS(expr1,expr2)

This function adds a number of months to a specified date.

For example, say a customer deposited some amount on a particular date for a
period of 6 months. To find the maturity date of the deposit
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ADD_MONTHS (SYSDATE, 6) MATURITY_DATE FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
MATURITY_DATE
-------------------24-SEP-07

ANALYSIS:
It adds 6 months to the system date

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT hiredate, TO_CHAR(ADD_MONTHS(hiredate,33*12),DD/MM/YYYY) RETIRE_DATE
FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
HIREDATE
--------17-DEC-80
20-FEB-81
22-FEB-81
02-APR-81
28-SEP-81
01-MAY-81
09-JUN-81
09-DEC-82
17-NOV-81
08-SEP-81
12-JAN-83
03-DEC-81
03-DEC-81
23-JAN-82

RETIRE_DATE
--------------17/12/2013
20/02/2014
22/02/2014
02/04/2014
28/09/2014
01/05/2014
09/06/2014
09/12/2015
17/11/2014
08/09/2014
12/01/2016
03/12/2014
03/12/2014
23/01/2015

ANALYSIS:
Displaying the retirement date with century.

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT hiredate, ADD_MONTHS(hiredate,33*12) RETIRE_DATE FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
HIREDATE
--------17-DEC-80
20-FEB-81
22-FEB-81
02-APR-81
28-SEP-81
01-MAY-81
09-JUN-81
09-DEC-82
17-NOV-81
08-SEP-81
12-JAN-83
03-DEC-81
03-DEC-81
23-JAN-82

RETIRE_DATE
--------------17-DEC-13
20-FEB-14
22-FEB-14
02-APR-14
28-SEP-14
01-MAY-14
09-JUN-14
09-DEC-15
17-NOV-14
08-SEP-14
12-JAN-16
03-DEC-14
03-DEC-14
23-JAN-15

ANALYSIS:
Find the retirement date of an employee Assume, 33 years of service from date of
join is retirement date

LAST_DAY(expr1)

LAST_DAY returns the last day of a specified month.

For example, you need to know what the last day of the month by issueing the
command on 12/1/11 you get the following result
INPUT:
SELECT LAST_DAY(sysdate) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT:
LAST_DAY(SYSDATE)
----------------31-JAN-11

ANALYSIS:
The last_date function automatically calculates the last of the current month on
which the function is applied and return that date.

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MONTHS_BETWEEN(expr1,expr2)

Used to find the number of months between two given months

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename,MONTHS_BETWEEN(SYSDATE,hiredate)/12 EXPERIENCE FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

EXPERIENCE
---------26.2713494
26.0966182
26.0912419
25.9783387
25.4917795
25.8976935
25.7928548
24.2928548
25.3546827
25.545543
24.2014569
25.3089838
25.3089838
25.171887

ANALYSIS:
Finds number of months between sysdate and hiredate. Result is divided with 12 to
get the experience

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Miscellaneous Functions
Here are three miscellaneous functions you may find useful.
GREATEST(list) and LEAST(list)
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT GREATEST(10,1,83,2,9,67) FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
GREATEST
--------83

ANALYSIS:
Displays the greatest of the given set of values

Difference between GREATEST AND MAX IS

GREATEST IS SINGLE ROW FUNCTION, MAX IS A GROUP FUNCTION. GREATEST
TAKES VALUES FROM DIFFERENT COLUMNS FROM EACH ROW, WHERE AS MAX
TAKES VALUES FROM DIFFERENT ROWS FROM A COLUMN.
Assume there is a student table
ROLLNO
1
2
3
4

NAME
RAVI
KRIS
BABU
ANU

SUB1
SUB2 SUB3 SUB4
55
22
86
45
78
55
65
12
55
22
44
77
44
55
66
88

To find the greatest and Least Mark we can use the GREATEST and LEAST
functions as follows.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT name,sub1,sub2,sub3,sub4, GREATEST(sub1,sub2,sub3,sub4) GREATEST_MARK,
LEAST(sub1,sub2,sub3,sub4) LEAST_MARK FROM student;

OUTPUT:
ROLLNO
-----1
2
3
4

NAME
-----RAVI
KRIS
BABU
ANU

SUB1
---55
78
55
44

SUB2
---22
55
22
55

SUB3
---86
65
44
66

SUB4
---45
12
77
88

GREATEST_MARK
------------86
78
77
88

LEAST_MARK
---------22
12
22
44

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USER

USER returns the character name of the current user of the database.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT USER FROM dual;

OUTPUT:
USER
-------SCOTT

ANALYSIS:
Displays the current
environment command

sessions

user

name

We

can

also

display

username

using

SQL> SHOW USER

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DECODE(expr1,expr2,expr3[,])

The DECODE function is one of the most powerful commands in SQL*Plus--and

perhaps the most powerful. The standard language of SQL lacks procedural
functions that are contained in languages such as COBOL and C. The DECODE
statement is similar to an IF...THEN statement in a procedural programming
language. Where flexibility is required for complex reporting needs, DECODE is
often able to fill the gap between SQL and the functions of a procedural language.
SYNTAX: DECODE (column1, value1, output1, value2, output2, output3)
The syntax example performs the DECODE function on column1. If column1 has a
value of value1, then display output1 instead of the column's current value. If
column1 has a value of value2, then display output2 instead of the column's
current value. If column1 has a value of anything other than value1 or value2,
then display output3 instead of the column's current value.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename,job,DECODE(job,CLERK,EXEC,SALESMAN,
S.OFFICER,ANALYST,PM,MANAGER,VP,JOB) PROMOTION FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

JOB
--------CLERK
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
MANAGER
MANAGER
ANALYST
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN
CLERK
CLERK
ANALYST
CLERK

PROMOTION
--------EXEC
S.OFFICER
S.OFFICER
VP
S.OFFICER
VP
VP
PM
PRESIDENT
S.OFFICER
EXEC
EXEC
PM
EXEC

ANALYSIS:
When JOB has a value CLERK , then display EXEC instead
When JOB has a value SALESMAN , then display S.OFFICER
When JOB has a value ANALYST , then display PM instead
When JOB has a value MANAGER , then display VP instead
OTHERWISE DISPLAY SAME JOB

of CLERK
instead of SALESMAN
of ANALYST
of MANAGER

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename, job, sal,DECODE(job,CLERK,SAL*1.1,SALESMAN,
sal*1.2,ANALYST,sal*1.25,MANAGER,sal*1.3,SAL) NEW_SAL FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------SMITH
ALLEN
WARD
JONES
MARTIN
BLAKE
CLARK
SCOTT
KING
TURNER
ADAMS
JAMES
FORD
MILLER

JOB
SAL
NEW_SAL
--------- ---------- ---------CLERK
800
880
SALESMAN
1600
1920
SALESMAN
1250
1500
MANAGER
2975
3867.5
SALESMAN
1250
1500
MANAGER
2850
3705
MANAGER
2450
3185
ANALYST
3000
3750
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
SALESMAN
1500
1800
CLERK
1100
1210
CLERK
950
1045
ANALYST
3000
3750
CLERK
1300
1430

ANALYSIS:
When JOB has
When JOB has
When JOB has
When JOB has
OTHERWISE no

a value CLERK , then giving 10% increment

a value SALESMAN , then giving 20% increment
a value ANALYST , then giving 25% increment
a value MANAGER , then giving 30% increment
increment

Assume there is a table with empno, ename, sex

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename,sex,DECODE(sex,MALE,MR.||ename,MS.||ename) FROM emp;

ANALYSIS:
Adding Mr. or Ms. before the name based on their Gender

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CASE

As of Oracle 9i, you can use the CASE function in place of DECODE. The CASE
function uses the keywords when, then, else, and end to indicate the logic path
followed, which may make the resulting code easier to follow than an equivalent
DECODE.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,
CASE job
WHEN 'MANAGER' then 'VP'
WHEN 'CLERK'
THEN 'EXEC'
WHEN 'SALESMAN' THEN 'S.OFFICER'
ELSE
job
END
FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
JOB
--------CLERK
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
MANAGER
MANAGER
ANALYST
PRESIDENT
SALESMAN
CLERK
CLERK
ANALYST
CLERK

CASEJOBWH
--------EXEC
S.OFFICER
S.OFFICER
VP
S.OFFICER
VP
VP
ANALYST
PRESIDENT
S.OFFICER
EXEC
EXEC
ANALYST
EXEC

ANALYSIS:
Works similar to that of DECODE

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NVL

If the value is NULL, this function is equal to substitute. If the value is not NULL,
this function is equal to value. Substitute can be a literal number, another column,
or a computation.
NVL is not restricted to numbers, it can be used with CHAR, VARCHAR2, DATE, and
other data types, but the value and substitute must be the same data type.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT

empno,sal,comm.,sal+comm TOTAL FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
SAL
COMM
TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369
800
7499
1600
300
1900
7521
1250
500
1750
7566
2975
7654
1250
1400
2650
7698
2850
7782
2450
7788
3000
7839
5000
7844
1500
0
1500
7876
1100
7900
950
7902
3000
7934
1300

ANALYSIS:
Arithmetic operation is possible only when value is there in both columns

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno, sal, comm, sal + NVL(comm,0) TOTAL FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
SAL
COMM
TOTAL
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------7369
800
800
7499
1600
300
1900
7521
1250
500
1750
7566
2975
2975
7654
1250
1400
2650
7698
2850
2850
7782
2450
2450
7788
3000
3000
7839
5000
5000
7844
1500
0
1500
7876
1100
1100
7900
950
950
7902
3000
3000
7934
1300
1300

ANALYSIS:
Using NVL, we are substituting 0 if COMM is NULL.

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LENGTH
Finds the length of the given information
SQL> SELECT ename, LENGTH(ename)FROM emp;
SQL> SELECT LENGTH(SYSDATE) FROM emp;
SQL> SELECT sal, LENGTH(sal) FROM emp;

ASCII

Finds the ASCII value of the given character

SQL> SELECT ASCII(A) FROM dual;

CAST

Converts one type of information into another type

SQL> SELECT 50 NUMB, CAST(50 as VARCHAR2(2)) VALUE FROM dual;

Test the following

1. Select Round(12.1567,2) from dual;
2. Select round(12.1567,-1) from dual;
3. Select round(51.782,-2) from dual;
4. Select round(sysdate,YEAR) from dual;
5. Select round(sysdate,MONTH) from dual;
6. Select round(Sysdate,DAY) from dual;
Note : Test the above with TRUNC function

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Exercises -1
1. _____________ function performs one to one character substitution.
2. _____________ format option is used to get complete year spelled out in
TO_CHAR function.
3. ___________ symbol is used to combine tow given strings
4. What happens if replace string is not given for REPLACE function
5. Can a number be converted to DATE?
6. Convert the value of name in the EMP table to lower case letters
7. Display the names of the employees who have more than 4 characters in
the name.
8. Print *s as number of thousands are there in the number
9. Display the ename, comm. If the commission is NULL, print as NO COMM
10.Add number of days to the given date
11.Display the first and last two characters from a given name and combine
them as a single string (Use only functions)
12.Find the difference between two given dates
13.Display all the names which contain underscore
14.subtract number of months from given date

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Exercises 2
1. Examine the trace instance chart for employee table. You want to display
each employee hiredate from earliest to latest. Which SQL statement will
you use?
a. SELECT hiredate FROM emp
b. SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate
c. SELECT emp FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate
d. SELECT hiredate FROM emp ORDER BY hiredate DESC.
2. Which data type should you use for interest rates with varying and
unpredictabledecimal places such as 1.234, 3.4, 5 and 1.23?
a. LONG
b. NUMBER
c. NUMBER(p,s)
d. None
3. Which SQL statement generates the alias Annual Salary for the calculated
column SALARY*12?
a.
b.
c.
d.

SELECT ename, salary*12 Annual SalaryFROM employees;

SELECT ename, salary*12 Annual SalaryFROM employees;
SELECT ename, salary*12 AS Annual SalaryFROM employees;
SELECT ename, salary*12 AS INITCAP(ANNUAL SALARY)
FROM employees

4. EMP table has these columns: ENAME VARCHAR2(35), SALARY

NUMBER(8,2)HIRE_DATE DATE. Management wants a list of names of
employees who have been with the company for more than five years;
Which SQL statement displays the required results?
a.
b.
c.
d.

SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE > 5;

SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE HIRE_DATE-SYSDATE > 5;
SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE (SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE)/365 > 5;
SELECT ENAMEFROM EMPWHERE (SYSDATE-HIRE_DATE)* 365 > 5;

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5. The employee table contains these columns.LAST_NAME VARCHAR2 (25),
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(25) DEPT_ID NUMBER(9) You need to display the
names of the employees that are not assigned to the department. Evaluate
this SQL statement; SELECT last_name, first_name FROM employee WHERE
dept_id is NULL which change should you make to achieve the desired
result?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Create an outer join.

Change the column in the where condition.
Query executes successfully
Add a second condition to the where condition

6. Which statement about SQL is true?

a.
b.
c.
d.

Null values are displayed last in the ascending sequences.

Data values are displayed in descending order by default.
You cannot specify a column alias in an ORDER BY clause.
You cannot sort query results by a column that is not included in the
SELECT list.

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GROUP BY clause with SELECT statement
Syntax: SELECT [column,] group_function(column)...
FROM table
[WHERE condition]
[GROUP BY [CUBE | ROLLUP] group_by_expression]
[HAVING having_expression]
[ORDER BY column];
Group by statement groups all the rows with the same column value. Use to
generate summary output from the available data. Whenever we use a group
function in the SQL statement, we have to use a group by clause.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job, COUNT (*) FROM emp GROUP BY job;

OUTPUT:
JOB
COUNT(*)
--------- ---------ANALYST
2
CLERK
4
MANAGER
3
PRESIDENT
1
SALESMAN
4

ANALYSIS:
Counts number of employees under each and every job. When we are grouping on job,
initially jobs are placed in ascending order in a temporary segment. On the
temporary segment, group by clause is applied, so that on each similar job count
function applied.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job, SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY job;

OUTPUT:
JOB
SUM(SAL)
--------- ---------ANALYST
6000
CLERK
4150
MANAGER
8275
PRESIDENT
5000
SALESMAN
5600

ANALYSIS:
With each job, it finds the total salary

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ERROR with GROUP BY Clause
Note :
Only grouped columns allowed in the group by clause
Whenever we are using a group function in the SQL statement, we have to
use group by clause.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,COUNT(*) FROM emp;

OUTPUT:
SELECT job, COUNT (*) FROM emp
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00937: not a single-group group function

ANALYSIS:
This result occurs because the group functions, such as SUM and COUNT, are
designated to tell you something about a group or rows, not the individual rows of
the table. This error is avoided by using JOB in the group by clause, which forces
the COUNT to count all the rows grouped within each job.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,ename,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY job;

OUTPUT:
SELECT JOB,ENAME,COUNT(*) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00979: not a GROUP BY expression

ANALYSIS:
In the above query, JOB is only the grouped column where as ENAME column is not a
grouped column. Whatever the columns we are grouping, the same column is allowed to
display.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job, MIN(sal),MAX(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY job;

OUTPUT:
JOB
MIN(SAL)
MAX(SAL)
--------- ---------- ---------ANALYST
3000
3000
CLERK
800
1300
MANAGER
2450
2975
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
SALESMAN
1250
1600

ANALYSIS:
With each job, it finds the MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM SALARY

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For displaying Total summary information from the table.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job, SUM(sal),AVG(sal),MIN(sal),MAX(sal) ,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY
job;

OUTPUT:
JOB
SUM(SAL)
AVG(SAL)
MIN(SAL)
MAX(SAL)
COUNT(*)
--------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ANALYST
6000
3000
3000
3000
2
CLERK
4150
1037.5
800
1300
4
MANAGER
8275 2758.33333
2450
2975
3
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
5000
5000
1
SALESMAN
5600
1400
1250
1600
4

ANALYSIS:

With each job, finds the total summary information.

To display the output Designation wise, Department wise total salaries With a
matrix style report.
INPUT:
SQL>
SELECT
job,SUM(DECODE(deptno,10,sal))
DEPT10,
SUM(DECODE(deptno,20,sal))
DEPT20,
SUM(DECODE(deptno,30,sal)) DEPT30, SUM(sal) TOTAL FROM emp GROUP BY job;

OUTPUT:
JOB
DEPT10
DEPT20
DEPT30
TOTAL
--------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------ANALYST
6000
6000
CLERK
1300
1900
950
4150
MANAGER
2450
2975
2850
8275
PRESIDENT
5000
5000
SALESMAN
5600
5600

ANALYSIS:
When we apply group by, initially all the designations are placed in ascending order
of designations. Then group by clause groups similar designations, then DECODE
function (Single row function) applies on each and every row of that group and
checks the DEPTNO. If DEPTNO=10, it passes corresponding salary as an argument to
SUM() .

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT deptno,job,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno,job;

OUTPUT:
DEPTNO
---------10
10
10
20
20
20
30
30
30

JOB
COUNT(*)
--------- ---------CLERK
1
MANAGER
1
PRESIDENT
1
CLERK
2
ANALYST
2
MANAGER
1
CLERK
1
MANAGER
1
SALESMAN
4

ANALYSIS:
Department wise, Designation wise , counts the number of employees

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To display the DEPTNO only one time (output with breaks)
INPUT:
SQL> BREAK ON DEPTNO SKIP 1
SQL> SELECT deptno,job,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno,job;

OUTPUT:
DEPTNO JOB
COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ---------10 CLERK
1
MANAGER
1
PRESIDENT
1
20 CLERK
ANALYST
MANAGER

2
2
1

30 CLERK
MANAGER
SALESMAN

1
1
4

ANALYSIS:
Break is Environment command , which breaks the information on repetitive column and
displays them only once.
SKIP 1 used with BREAK to leave one blank line after completion of each
Deptno.

To remove the given break , we have to use an Environment command

SQL> CLEAR BREAK;

Group by with ROLLUP and CUBE Operators

Use Rollup or CUBE with Group by to produce super aggregate rows by
cross-referencing columns.
ROLLUP grouping produces a result set containing the regular grouped rows
and the subtotal values.
CUBE grouping produces a result set containing the rows from ROLLUP and
cross-tabulation rows
The ROLLUP and CUBE operators are available only in Oracle8i and later releases.

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CUBE function

We can use CUBE function to generate subtotals for all combinations of the values
in the group by clause.( CUBE and ROLLUP are available only from 9i)
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT deptno,job,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY CUBE(deptno,job);

OUTPUT:
DEPTNO JOB
COUNT(*)
---------- --------- ---------14
CLERK
4
ANALYST
2
MANAGER
3
SALESMAN
4
PRESIDENT
1
10
3
10 CLERK
1
10 MANAGER
1
10 PRESIDENT
1
20
5
20 CLERK
2
20 ANALYST
2
20 MANAGER
1
30
6
30 CLERK
1
30 MANAGER
1
30 SALESMAN
4

ANALYSIS:
Cube displays the out with all the permutation and combination of all the columns
given a CUBE function.

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ROLLUP FUNCTION

It is similar to that of CUBE function

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT deptno,job,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY ROLLUP(deptno,job)

OUTPUT:
DEPTNO
---------10
10
10
10
20
20
20
20
30
30
30
30

JOB
COUNT(*)
--------- ---------CLERK
1
MANAGER
1
PRESIDENT
1
3
CLERK
2
ANALYST
2
MANAGER
1
5
CLERK
1
MANAGER
1
SALESMAN
4
6
14

ANALYSIS:
Observe the output. The count(*) column total is automatically displayed with every
change in the deptno.

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HAVING CLAUSE
Whenever we are using a group function in the condition, we have to use having
clause. Having clause is used along with group by clause.
For example, to display Designation wise total salaries
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY job;

OUTPUT:
JOB
SUM(SAL)
--------- ---------ANALYST
6000
CLERK
4150
MANAGER
8275
PRESIDENT
5000
SALESMAN
5600

To Display only those designations, whose total salary is more than 5000
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,SUM(sal) FROM emp WHERE SUM(sal) > 5000 GROUP BY job;

OUTPUT:
SELECT JOB,SUM(SAL) FROM EMP WHERE SUM(SAL) > 5000 GROUP BY JOB
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00934: group function is not allowed here

ANALYSIS:
Where clause doesnt allow using group function in the condition.
When we are using group function in the condition, we have to use having clause.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,SUM(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY job HAVING SUM(sal) > 5000;

OUTPUT:
JOB
SUM(SAL)
--------- ---------ANALYST
6000
MANAGER
8275
SALESMAN
5600

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the designations whose total salary is more than 5000.

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,COUNT(*) FROM emp GROUP BY job HAVING COUNT(*) BETWEEN 3 AND 5;

OUTPUT:
JOB
COUNT(*)
--------- ---------CLERK
4
MANAGER
3
SALESMAN
4

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the designations whose number where employees between 3 and 5

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT sal FROM emp GROUP BY sal HAVING COUNT(sal) > 1;

OUTPUT:
SAL
---------1250
3000

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the salaries, which are appearing more than one time in the table.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
WHERE clause can be used to check for conditions based on values of
columns and expressions but not the result of GROUP functions.
HAVING clause is specially designed to evaluate the conditions that are
based on group functions such as SUM, COUNT etc.
HAVING clause can be used only when GROUP BY clause is used.
ORDER OF EXECUTION
Here are the rules ORCALE uses to execute different clauses given in SELECT
command

Selects rows based on Where clause

Groups rows based on GROUP BY clause
Calculates results for each group
Eliminate groups based on HAVING clause
Then ORDER BY is used to order the results

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT job,SUM(sal) FROM emp WHERE job != CLERK
GROUP BY job HAVING SUM(sal) > 5000 ORDER BY job DESC;

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Nested Sub queries
Oracle has the ability to execute queries which are more complex than the ones
that we have seen till now. In some situations, we may have to embed queries
with in another query. This system called sub-query. Nesting is the act of
embedding a sub query within another query.
Syntax: Select * FROM SOMETHING WHERE (SUBQUERY (SUBQUERY
(SUBQUERY)));
Whenever particular information is not accessible through a single query, then we
have to write different queries one included in another.
Sub queries can be nested as deeply as your implementation of SQL allows. We
can write different types sub queries

Single row sub queries

Multi row sub queries
Multi column sub queries
Correlated sub queries.

Single row sub query

A Sub query which returns only one value. For example, To get the employee, who
is drawing maximum salary?
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ENAME,SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL = ( SELECT MAX(SAL) FROM EMP);

OUTPUT:
ENAME
-----------KING

SAL
---------5000

ANALYSIS:
Right side query is called as child query and left side query is called parent
query. In nested queries, child query executes first before executing parent query.

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INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename, hiredate FROM emp WHERE hiredate = (SELECT MAX(hiredate) FROM
emp);

OUTPUT:
ENAME
HIREDATE
---------- --------ADAMS
12-JAN-83

ANALYSIS:
Display the least experienced employee

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename,sal FROM emp WHERE sal < (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp);

OUTPUT:
ENAME
SAL
---------- ---------SMITH
800
ALLEN
1600
WARD
1250
JONES
2975
MARTIN
1250
BLAKE
2850
CLARK
2450
SCOTT
3000
TURNER
1500
ADAMS
1100
JAMES
950
FORD
3000
MILLER
1300

ANALYSIS:
Display all the employees whose salary is less than the maximum salary of all the
employees.

Try the following?

To display all the employees whose salary lines between minimum and maximum
salaries
Answer:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN (SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp) AND (SELECT
MAX(sal) FROM emp);

Display all the employees who are getting maximum commission in the
organization
Answer:
SQL> SELECT * FROM emp WHERE comm = (SELECT MAX(comm) FROM emp);

Display all the employees from department 30 whose salary is less than maximum
salary of department 20.
Answer:
SQL> SELECT empno, ename, sal FROM emp WHERE deptno=30
AND sal < (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno = 20);

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Multi row Sub queries
A sub query, which returns more than one row is a multi row sub query.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT ename,sal FROM emp WHERE sal IN(SELECT sal FROM emp GROUP BY sal HAVING
COUNT(*)> 1);

OUTPUT:
ENAME
---------WARD
MARTIN
SCOTT
FORD

SAL
--------1250
1250
3000
3000

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees who are drawing similar salaries

When child query returns more than one value, we have to use IN operator for
comparison.

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Multi Column Sub Queries
When sub queries returns values from different columns.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno,ename,deptno,sal FROM emp WHERE (deptno,sal)
IN (SELECT deptno,MAX(sal) FROM emp GROUP BY deptno);

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7839
7788
7902
7698

ENAME
DEPTNO
SAL
---------- ---------- ---------KING
10
5000
SCOTT
20
3000
FORD
20
3000
BLAKE
30
2850

ANALYSIS:
Display all the employees who are drawing maximum salaries in each department

CORRELATED SUB QUERIES

A correlated sub query is a sub query that receives a value from the main query
and then sends a value back to main query.
For example, Display all the employees whose salary is less than maximum salary
of each department
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno,ename,deptno,sal FROM emp X WHERE sal < (SELECT MAX(sal)
FROM emp WHERE deptno = x.deptno);

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7369
7499
7521
7566
7654
7782
7844
7876
7900
7934

ENAME
DEPTNO
SAL
---------- ---------- ---------SMITH
20
800
ALLEN
30
1600
WARD
30
1250
JONES
20
2975
MARTIN
30
1250
CLARK
10
2450
TURNER
30
1500
ADAMS
20
1100
JAMES
30
950
MILLER
10
1300

ANALYSIS:
Find department wise maximum salaries and display the employees whose salary is less
than that value for each department

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Execution Sequence of steps in Correlated sub queries

A row from main query is retrieved

Executes sub query with the value retrieved from main query
Sub query returns a value to main query
Main querys current row is either selected or not, depending upon the
value passed by sub query.
This continues until all rows of main query are retrieved
To display the nth highest paid employee
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno,ename,sal FROM emp X WHERE &N = (SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT sal) FROM
emp WHERE sal >= x.sal);

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7788
7902

ENAME
SAL
---------- ---------SCOTT
3000
FORD
3000

ANALYSIS:
It selects each row from emp table from parent query and finds the distinct count
for each salary whose salary >= the salary returned by main query.

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DML STATEMENTS IN SUB QUERIES
To modify the salary of an employee who is drawing minimum salary with the
salary of the employee who is drawing maximum salary
INPUT:
SQL> UPDATE emp SET sal = (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp) WHERE Empno = (SELECT empno
FROM emp WHERE sal = (SELECT MIN (sal) FROM emp));

ANALYSIS:
Identify the employee who is drawing minimum salary and update with the maximum
salary of all the employees.

To insert selected rows from emp table to emp1 table

INPUT:
SQL> INSERT INTO emp1 SELECT * FROM emp ;

ANALYSIS:
Assuming that EMP1 is an existing table.
table.

Inserts all the selected rows into EMP1

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Exercise based on sub-queries
1. In department 20, one employee is drawing minimum salary and is having
some designation. Display the employees from other departments whose
designation is matching with the designation of the above employee.
2. Display all the employees whose salary is within 1000 from the average salary
of all the employees.
3. Display the employees who reported to KING
4. Display all the employees whose salary is less than the minimum salary of
MANAGERS.
5. Display the details of students who have paid the highest amount so far in their
course.
6. Display the details of subjects that have been taken by more than two students
7. Display the employees from EMP table with empno,ename,sal,total. Where
total value is generated with the cumulative total salaries
For example:
EMPNO ENAME SAL TOTAL
101
xxx
3000 3000
102
yyy
2500 5500
103
zzz
4200 9700
8. Display all the employees whose salary is less than the maximum salary of their
respective departments

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INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS

Constraints are used to implement standard rules such as uniqueness in the key
filed and business rule such as AGE column should contain a value between 15
and 60 etc.
Oracle server makes sure that the constraints are not violated whenever a row is
inserted, deleted or updated. If constraint is not satisfied the operation will fail.
Constraints are normally defined at the time of creating table. But it is also
possible to define constraints after the table is created.
Constraint Guidelines
Name a constraint or the Oracle server generates a name by using the
SYS_Cn format
Create a constraint either:
o At the same time as the table is created, or
o After the table has been created.
Define a constraint at the column or table level.
View a constraint in the Data dictionary for verification
TYPES OF CONSTRAINTS
Constraints are classified into two types
Table Constraints
Column Constraints
Table Constraint
A constraint given at the table level is called as Table Constraint. It may refer to
more than one column of the table.
A typical example is PRIMARY KEY constraint that is used to define composite
primary key.

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Column Constraint
A constraint given at the column level is called as Column constraint. It defines a
rule for a single column. It cannot refer to column other than the column, at
which it is defined.
A typical example is PRIMARY KEY constraint when a single column is the primary
key of the table.
Various types of Integrity constraints

PRIMARY KEY
UNIQUE
NOT NULL
CHECK

PRIMARY KEY
It is used to uniquely identify rows in a table. There can be only one primary key in
a table. It may consist of more than one column, if so, it is called as composite
primary key. ( It maintains uniqueness in the data and null values are not
acceptable).
i.e. UNIQUE + NOT NULL = PRIMARY KEY
Automatically creates unique index to enforce uniqueness.
UNIQUE
Maintains unique and NULL values are acceptable.
Oracle automatically creates a unique index for the column.
Example : EmailID
A UNIQUE key integrity constraint requires that every value in a column or set of
columns (key) be unique- that is, no two rows of table can have duplicate values in
a specified column or set of columns. The column (or set of columns) included in
the definition of the UNIQUE key constraint is called the unique key. If the

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UNIQUE constraint comprises more than one column, the group of columns is
called a composite unique key.
NOT NULL
Uniqueness not maintained and null values are not acceptable.
Note: The NOT NULL constraint can be specified only at the column level, not at
the table level.
CHECK
Defines the condition that should be satisfied before insertion and updating is
done.
Defines a condition that each row must satisfy
The following expressions are not allowed
- References to CURRVAL, NEXTVAL and ROWNUM pseudocolumns
- Calls to SYSDATE,UID,USER functions
- Queries that refer to other values in other rows
Note: - Pseudocolumns are not actual columns in a table but they behave like
columns. For example, you can select values from pseudocolumns. However, you
cannot insert into, update, or delete from a pseudocolumn.
Guidelines for Primary Keys and Foreign Keys
You cannot use duplicate values in a primary key.
Primary keys generally cannot be changed.
Foreign keys are based on data values and are purely logical, not physical,
pointers.
A foreign key value must match an existing primary key value or unique key
value, or else be null.
A foreign key must reference either a primary key or unique key column.
DDL ( Data Definition language)

CREATE, ALTER, DROP commands used in SQL are called the DDL commands.
DDL STATEMENTS COMMITS AUTOMATICALLY. There is no need to save explicitly.
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Create Table
Syntax: CREATE TABLE <TABLE-NAME>
(COLUMN DEFINITION1, COLUMN DEFINITION2);
Column Def:
<Name> Data type [Default Value] [constraint <name> constraint type]
Note: Min. Column in a table = 1
Max. Columns in a table = 1000
Naming Rules in oracle
1. A table or a column name must never start a number but they can contain
numbers in them
2. They cant consist of any special characters other than $, #, -
i.e. $,# are used mainly for system tables.
SQL>CREATE TABLE empl4747(
empno NUMBER (3) CONSTRAINT pk_empl47473_empno PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2 (10) NOT NULL,
gender CHAR(1) CONSTRAINT chk_empl47473_gender CHECK(UPPER(gender) IN(M,F)),
email_id VARCHAR2(30) UNIQUE,
designation VARCHAR2(15),
salary NUMBER(7,2) CHECK (salary BETWEEN 10000 AND 70000)
);

Note:
Constraint name is useful for manipulating the given constraint
When the constraint name is not given at the time of defining constraints,
system creates a constraint with the name SYS_Cn.
Constraints defined on a particular table are store in a data dictionary table
USER_CONSTRAINTS, USER_CONS_COLUMNS.
Tables defined by a user are stored in a data dictionary table USER_TABLES

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These definitions can be viewed by giving the following command.
INPUT:
SQL> DESCRIBE

USER_CONSTRAINTS

SQL> SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME,

CONSTRAINT_TYPE, SEARCH_CONDITION
FROM USER_CONSTRAINTS
WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'EMPL47473';

OUTPUT:
CONSTRAINT_NAME
--------------SYS_C003018
CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER
SYS_C003020
PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO
SYS_C003022

CONSTRAINTTYPE
--------------C
C
C
P
U

SEARCH_CONDITION
--------------------------------"ENAME" IS NOT NULL
UPPER (GENDER) IN ('M','F')
SALARY BETWEEN 10000 AND 70000

ANALYSIS:
Describe displays structure of the data dictionary table.
Select statement is used to view the constraints defined on the table

INPUT:
SQL> DESCRIBE USER_CONS_COLUMNS
SQL> SELECT CONSTRAINT_NAME,COLUMN_NAME
FROM USER_CONS_COLUMNS
WHERE TABLE_NAME = 'EMPL47473';

OUTPUT:
CONSTRAINT_NAME
-----------------------------CHK_EMPL47473_GENDER
PK_EMPL47473_EMPNO
SYS_C003018
SYS_C003020
SYS_C003022

COLUMN_NAME
-------------------------------GENDER
EMPNO
ENAME
SALARY
EMAIL_ID

ANALYSIS:
Describe displays structure of the data dictionary table.
Select statement is used to view the constraints defined on the column

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ALTER TABLE
Used to modify the structure of a table
Syntax: ALTER TABLE <TABLENAME> [ ADD | MODIFY | DROP | RENAME]
(COLUMN(S));
ADD
- for adding new columns into the table
MODIFY
- for modifying the structure of columns
DROP
- for removing a column in the table ( 8i)
RENAME
- for renaming the column name ( Only from 9i)
SQL> ALTER TABLE empl47473 ADD(address VARCHAR2(30), doj DATE,pincode VARCHAR2(7));
SQL> ALTER TABLE empl47473 MODIFY(ename CHAR (15), salary NUMBER (8,2));
SQL> ALTER TABLE empl47473 DROP COLUMN pincode;
SQL> ALTER TABLE empl47473 DROP (designation,address);
SQL> ALTER TABLE empl47473 RENAME COLUMN ename TO empname;

Note: This command is also useful for manipulating constraints

INPUT:
SQL> ALTER TABLE emplL47473 DROP PRIMARY KEY;

ANALYSIS:
To remove the primary key
referring constraint name.

from

table.

Other

constraints

are

removed

only

by

INPUT:
SQL>ALTER TABLE empl47473 ADD PRIMARY KEY(empno);

ANALYSIS:
To add primary key to the table without constraint name. It creates constraint name
with SYS_Cn.

INPUT:
SQL>ALTER TABLE empl47473 ADD CONSTRAINT pk_empl47473_empno PRIMARY KEY(empno);

ANALYSIS:
To add primary key in the table with constraint name

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DATA MANIPULATION

Data manipulation means performing operations on the data in the tables of the
dataase. We perform mainly 3 types of data manipulation operations. They are
Insertion
Updation
Deletion

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INSERTING ROWS
Syntax: INSERT INTO tablename(colname1,colname2,)
VALUES(VALUE1,VALUE2,...);
SQL> INSERT INTO empl47473 VALUES(101,RAVI,M,
[email protected],5000,10-JAN-2001);
OR
SQL> INSERT INTO empl47473 VALUES(&empno,
&ename,&gender,&email_id,&salary,&doj);

To insert data into specific columns of the table instead of all columns
SQL> INSERT INTO empl47473(empno,empname,salary) VALUES(101,RAVI, 5000);
OR
SQL> INSERT INTO empl47473(empno,empname,salary) VALUES(&empno,&empname,&salary);

ANALYSIS:
We cant skip primary key and NOT NULL columns

Note: Changes made on the database are recorded only in the shadow page. For
saving the information we have to use a command COMMIT,
ROLLBACK.SAVEPOINT (Called as Transactional processing statements)
SQL>COMMIT;

ANALYSIS:
Information from shadow
destroyed automatically.

page

flushed

back

to

the

table

and

shadow

page

gets

SQL> ROLLBACK;

ANALYSIS:
Shadow page destroys automatically without transferring the information back to the
table.

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SAVEPOINT
We can use save points to roll back portions of your current set of transactions
For example
SQL> INSERT INTO empl47473 VALUES(105,KIRAN,M,[email protected],5000,10-JAN2001);
SQL> SAVEPOINT A
SQL> INSERT INTO empl47473 VALUES(106,LATHA,F, [email protected],5000,15-JAN2002);
SQL> SAVEPOINT B
SQL> INSERT INTO empl47473 VALUES(107,RADHA,F,[email protected],15000,15-JAN2002);

When we SELECT data from the table

SQL> SELECT * FROM empl47473;
EMPNO
---------105
106
107

EMPNAME
---------KIRAN
LATHA
RADHA

G
M
F
F

EMAIL_ID
SALARY DOJ
------------------ ---------- [email protected]
5000 10-JAN-01
[email protected]
5000 15-JAN-02
[email protected]
15000 15-JAN-02

The output shows the three new records weve added . Now roll back just the last
insert:
SQL> ROLLBACK TO B;

IMPLICIT COMMIT
The actions that will force a commit to occur, even without your instructing it to,
or quit, exit (the equivalent to exit), any DDL command forces a commit.
AUTO ROLLBACK
If youve completed a series of inserts, updates or deletes, but not yet explicitly or
implicitly committed them, and you experience serious difficulties, such as a
computer failure, Oracle automatically roll back any uncommitted work. If the
machine or database goes down, it does this as cleanup work the next time the
database is brought back up.

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Note :
Rollback works only on uncommitted data
A DDL transaction after a DML transaction, automatically commits.
We can use an Environment command SET VERIFY OFF to remove the old
and new messages while inserting data.

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CREATING A TABLE FROM ANOTHER TABLE
Syntax: CREATE TABLE <tablename> AS SELECT <COLUMNS> FROM
<existingtable> [WHERE <condition>];
SQL> CREATE TABLE empl47473 AS SELECT empno,ename,sal,job FROM

emp;

To add a new column in the table

SQL> ALTER TABLE empl7473 ADD(sex CHAR(1));
SQL> SELECT * FROM empl47473;

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UPDATING ROWS
This command is used to change the data of the table
Syntax:UPDATE <tablename> SET column1 = expression, column2 = expression
WHERE <condition>;
SQL> UPDATE empl47473 SET sal = sal * 1.1;
SQL>

COMMIT / ROLLBACK;

ANALYSIS
To give uniform increments to all the employees

SQL> UPDATE empl47473 SET

sal = DECODE(job,CLERK,sal*1.1, SALESMAN,sal*1.2,sal*1.15);
SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;

SQL> UPDATE empl47473 SET sex = M WHERE ename IN (KING,MILLER,BLAKE);

SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
SQL> SELECT * FROM empl47473;

SQL> UPDATE empl47473 SET sex = F WHERE sex IS NULL;

SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;
SQL> SELECT * FROM empl47473 ;

SQL> UPDATE empl47473 SET ename = DECODE(sex,M,Mr.||ename,Ms.||ename);

SQL> COMMIT / ROLLBACK;

ANALYSIS:
ADD Mr. or Ms. Before the existing name as per the SEX value

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DELETING ROWS
Syntax: DELETE [FROM] <table-name> WHERE <condition>;
From is an optional keyword.
Omitting the where clause will delete all rows from the table.
You have to commit or rollback if the autocommit is not set to true.
SQL> DELETE FROM empl47473 WHERE sex = M;
SQL> COMMIT | ROLLBACK;

TRUNCATING A TABLE
Syntax: TRUNCATE TABLE <TABLENAME>
Note : Removes all the rows from table. Deleting specified rows is not possible.
Once the table is truncated, it automatically commits. It is a DDL statement.
DROPPING A TABLE OR REMOVING A TABLE
Syntax: DROP TABLE <TABLENAME>
Note : Table is dropped permanently. It is a DDL statement. It removes the data
along with table definitions and the table.
ADDING COMMENTS TO A TABLE.
You can add comments up to 2000 bytes about a column, table, view by using the
COMMENT statement. The comment is stored in the data dictionary and can be
viewed in one of the following data dictionary views in the COMMENTS column:
ALL_COL_COMMENTS
USER_COL_COMMENTS
ALL_TAB_COMMENTS
USER_TAB_COMMENTS
Syntax: COMMENT ON TABLE table | COLUMN table.column IS text ;

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REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS
This constraint is useful for maintaining relation with other table. Various
referential integrity constraints we can use in Oracle are

Foreign Key
References
On delete cascade
On Delete Set NULL

Foreign Key
Defines the column in the child table at the table constraint level
References
Identifies the table and column in the parent table. Reference key accepts
NULL and duplicate values.
On delete cascade
Deletes the dependent rows in the child table when a row in the parent table is
deleted.
On Delete Set NULL
Converts dependent foreign key values to null.
For example we want following table structures and constraints imposed on those
tables as shown below. Give the commands to create those tables with the
specified constraints on those tables.
Department47473 (Deptno , dname)
Employee47473 (Empno, ename, salary, dno)
Deptno of Department47473 is a primary key
Empno of Employee47473 is a primary key
Dno of Employee47473 is a reference key

Solution
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SQL> CREATE TABLE department47473 (
deptno
NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY,
dname
VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL
);
SQL> CREATE TABLE employee47473(
empno
NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY,
ename
VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
salary
NUMBER(7,2) CHECK(salary > 0),
dno
NUMBER(3) REFERENCES department47473(deptno) ON DELETE CASCADE
);

Assume the case where supermarket selling various items and customers order
the items. Items may be returned by people who purchased it.
SQL> CREATE TABLE itemmaster (
itemno
NUMBER (3) PRIMARY KEY,
itemname
VARCHAR2 (10),
stock
NUMBER (3) CHECK (stock > 0)
);
SQL> CREATE TABLE itemtran (
trnno
NUMBER (3),
itemno
NUMBER (3) REFERENCES itemmaster (itemno),
trndate
DATE,
trntype
CHAR (1) CHECK (UPPER (trntype) IN (R,I)),
quantity
NUMBER (3) CHECK (quantity > 0),
PRIMARY KEY (trnno, itemno)
);
SQL> CREATE TABLE itemrefund(
trnno
NUMBER (3),
itemno
NUMBER (3),
quantity
NUMBER (3),
FOREIGN KEY (trnno,itemno) REFERENCES itemtran
);

ALTER TABLE <TABLENAME> DISABLE PRIMARY KEY

ALTER TABLE <tablename> DISABLE PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;
Note : It is not possible to enable using cascade

ALTER TABLE <tablename> DROP PRIMARY KEY CASCADE;

ANALYSIS:
Removing the primary key along with Reference key

DROP TABLE <TABLENAME> CASCADE CONSTRAINTS

ANALYSIS:
Dropping the table along with constraints

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Exercise
Consider a training institute conducting different courses, into which the
students are joining for various courses ( Also, assume the case where same
student can join in more than one course)
The students may pay the fee in installments
Identify the tables, attributes and define them with relations

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JOINS

Objectives
After completing this lesion, you should be able to do the following.
Write SELECT statements to access data from more than one table using
equality and non-equality join.
View Data that generally does not meet a join condition by using outer joins
Join a table itself by using self join
Join will enable you to gather and manipulate data across several tables. By
One of the most powerful features of SQL is its capability to gather and
manipulate data from across several tables. Without this feature you would have
to store all the data elements necessary for each application in one table. Without
common tables you would need to store the same data in several tables.
TYPES OF JOINS
Oracle supports different types of joins as defined in the following table.
Oracle Proprietary Joins(8i and SQL: 1999 Complaint Joins
prior)
Equi join

Cross join

Non-Equi join

Natural Join

Outer join

Using clause

Self Join

Full or two side outer joins

Arbitrary join conditions for outer joins

The Oracle 9i database offers join syntax that is SQL: 1999 compliant. Prior to 9i
release, the join syntax was different from the ANSI standards. The new SQL: 1999
compliant join syntax does not offer any performance benefits over the Oracle
proprietary join syntax that existed in prior releases.

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Equi join
Extracting the information from more than one table by comparing ( = ) the
common information.
Note : Equi Joins are also called as simple joins or Inner Joins
To display common column information
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT
dept.deptno

empno,

ename,

job,

sal,

dname

FROM

emp,dept

WHERE

emp.deptno

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7782
7839
7934
7369
7876
7902
7788
7566
7499
7698
7654
7900
7844
7521

ENAME
---------CLARK
KING
MILLER
SMITH
ADAMS
FORD
SCOTT
JONES
ALLEN
BLAKE
MARTIN
JAMES
TURNER
WARD

JOB
SAL DNAME
--------- ---------- -------------MANAGER
2450 ACCOUNTING
PRESIDENT
5000 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
1300 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
800 RESEARCH
CLERK
1100 RESEARCH
ANALYST
3000 RESEARCH
ANALYST
3000 RESEARCH
MANAGER
2975 RESEARCH
SALESMAN
1600 SALES
MANAGER
2850 SALES
SALESMAN
1250 SALES
CLERK
950 SALES
SALESMAN
1500 SALES
SALESMAN
1250 SALES

ANALYSIS:
Efficiency is more when we compare the information from lower data table(master
table) to Higher data table( child table).
When Oracle processes multiple tables, it uses an internal sort/merge procedure to
join those tables. First, it scans & sorts the first table (the one specified last
in FROM clause). Next, it scans the second table (the one prior to the last in the
FROM clause) and merges all of the retrieved from the second table with those
retrieved from the first table. It takes around 0.96 seconds

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno,ename,job,sal,dname FROM emp,dept WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno;

ANALYSIS:
Here driving table is EMP. It takes around 26.09 seconds
So, Efficiency is less.

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Non-Equi joins
Getting the information from more than one table without using comparison (=)
operator.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT empno,ename,sal,grade,losal,hisal FROM salgrade g,emp e
WHERE e.sal BETWEEN g.losal and g.hisal;

ANALYSIS:
Displays all the employees whose salary lies between any pair of low and high salary
ranges.

INPUT:
SQL> SELECT * FROM dept WHERE deptno NOT IN (SELECT DISTINCT deptno FROM emp);

OUTPUT:
DEPTNO
DNAME
LOC
---------- -------------- ------------40 OPERATIONS
BOSTON

ANALYSIS:
Displays the details of the department where there are no employees

We can also get above output using relational algebra operators.

SQL> SELECT deptno FROM dept MINUS SELECT deptno FROM emp;
SQL> SELECT deptno FROM dept UNION SELECT deptno FROM emp;
SQL> SELECT deptno FROM dept UNION ALL SELECT deptno FROM emp;

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OUTER JOIN
It is a join, which forcibly joins multiple tables even without having the common
information. It is represented by +.
INPUT:
SQL>
SELECT
emp.deptno(+);

empno,ename,job,sal,dname

FROM

dept,emp

WHERE

dept.deptno

OUTPUT:
EMPNO
---------7782
7839
7934
7369
7876
7902
7788
7566
7499
7698
7654
7900
7844
7521

ENAME
---------CLARK
KING
MILLER
SMITH
ADAMS
FORD
SCOTT
JONES
ALLEN
BLAKE
MARTIN
JAMES
TURNER
WARD

JOB
SAL DNAME
--------- ---------- -------------MANAGER
2450 ACCOUNTING
PRESIDENT
5000 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
1300 ACCOUNTING
CLERK
800 RESEARCH
CLERK
1100 RESEARCH
ANALYST
3000 RESEARCH
ANALYST
3000 RESEARCH
MANAGER
2975 RESEARCH
SALESMAN
1600 SALES
MANAGER
2850 SALES
SALESMAN
1250 SALES
CLERK
950 SALES
SALESMAN
1500 SALES
SALESMAN
1250 SALES
OPERATIONS

SELF JOIN
Joining the table from itself is called as self join.
INPUT:
SQL> SELECT worker.ename || ' IS WORKING UNDER ' || manager.ename
FROM emp worker, emp manager WHERE worker.mgr = manager.empno;

OUTPUT:
WORKER.ENAME||'ISWORKINGUNDER'||MANAGE
-------------------------------------SCOTT IS WORKING UNDER JONES
FORD IS WORKING UNDER JONES
ALLEN IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
WARD IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
JAMES IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
TURNER IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
MARTIN IS WORKING UNDER BLAKE
MILLER IS WORKING UNDER CLARK
ADAMS IS WORKING UNDER SCOTT
JONES IS WORKING UNDER KING
CLARK IS WORKING UNDER KING
BLAKE IS WORKING UNDER KING
SMITH IS WORKING UNDER FORD

ANALYSIS:
It displays who is working under whom MGR number appearing against employee is the
employee number of manager

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OTHER OBJECTS

SEQUENCE OBJECT
Used to generate sequence(Unique) Integers for use of primary keys.
Syntax: CREATE SEQUENCE sequence
[INCREMENT BY n]
[START WITH n]
[{MAXVALUE n | NOMAXVALUE}]
[{MINVALUE n | NOMINVALUE}]
[{CYCLE | NOCYCLE}]
[{CACHE n | NOCACHE}];
Sequence

is the name of the sequence generator

INCREMENT BY n

specifies the interval between sequence numbers where

n is an integer (If this clause is omitted, the sequence
increments by 1.)

START WITH n

specifies the first sequence number to be generated (If

this clause is omitted, the sequence starts with 1.)

MAXVALUE n

specifies the maximum value the sequence can generate

N

NOMAXVALUE

specifies a maximum value of 10^27 for an ascending

sequence and 1 for a descending sequence (This is the
default option.)

MINVALUE n

specifies the minimum sequence value

NOMINVALUE

specifies a minimum value of 1 for an ascending

sequence and (10^26) for a descending sequence (This
is the default option.)

CYCLE | NOCYCLE

specifies whether the sequence continues to generate

values after reaching its maximum or minimum value
(NOCYCLE is the default Option.)
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CACHE n | NOCACHE specifies how many values the Oracle server preallocates
and keep in memory (By default, the Oracle server
caches 20 values.) The value set must be less than MAXVALUE
minus

Example
CREATE SEQUENCE sqno47473
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 10;

CREATE SEQUENCE sqno47473

START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAVALUE 10
CACHE 3
CYCLE;

Note: - These sequences are stored in a data dictionary table SER_SEQUENCES.

This sequence object provides two public member functions
NEXTVAL and CURRVAL
NEXTVAL is a function which generate next value from sequence object. CURRVAL
is a function, which gives the current value of the sequence object. Assume there
is a table SAMPLE47473(EMPNO,ENAME,SAL) columns. To insert the values into
the table we are using the sequence
SQL> INSERT INTO sample47473 VALUES(sqno47473.NEXTVAL,
&ENAME, &SAL);

TO MODIFY THE SEQUNECE OBJECT

SQL> ALTER SEQUENCE sqno47473 INCREMENT BY 2 MAXVALUE 40;
Note : We cant change starting value

To remove the sequence object

SQL>

DROP SEQUENCE <SEQUENCE_NAME>;

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VIEWS

A view is an object, which is a logical representation of a table

A view contains no data on its own
It is derived from tables
Changes made in tables are automatically reflected in views
As a view does not store any data the redundancy problem does not arise.
Critical data in the base table is safeguarded as access to such data can be
controlled.
It is used to reduce the complexity of the query
In Oracle Oracle we can create different types of views
SIMPLE
COMPLEX
INLINE
SIMPLE view is a view, which is created using only one base table.
COMPLEX view is a view, which is created using more than one table or using
group functions
INLINE view is a view, which is created using sub query (it is not a schema object).
It is a named sub query in the FROM clause of the main query. Generally used in
TOP N Analysis.
Syntax: CREATE OR REPLACE [FORCE] VIEW <viewname>
AS SELECT <columns> FROM <table > [ WITH READ ONLY];
The table on which a view is based is called as base table
FORCE option allows view to be created even if the base table doesnt exist.
However, the base table should exist before the view is used.

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WITH CHECK OPTION
This option is used to prevent any changes to base table through view. Insertion
and updating is not allowed into base table through view.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW chkview AS SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno = 20 WITH
CHECK OPTION;

It doesnt allow you to update the condition column as well as it doesnt allow you
to insert the details of employees with DEPTNO other than 20.
We can also create a view using group functions. Such views are called as INLINE
views. They are by default read only.
SQL> CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW simpleview47473 AS SELECT
SUBSTR(hiredate,-2) YEAR, COUNT(*) NUMB FROM empl47473
GROUP BY job;

To remove a view
SQL> DROP VIEW <VIEWNAME>;

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INDEX
The concept indexing in Oracle is same as a book index. Just like how book index is
sorted in the ascending order of topics, an index in Oracle is a list of values of a
column in the ascending order. Page number in book index is similar to ROWID if
Oracle index.
An oracle index is a database object. It contains the values of the indexed
column(s) in the ascending order along with address of each row. The address of
rows are obtained using ROWID pseudo column.
Why to Use An INDEX
INDEXES in ORACLE are used for two purposes
To speed up data retrieval and thereby improving performance
of query
To enforce uniqueness
Note: A UNIQUE index is automatically created when you use PRIMARY KEY and
UNIQUE constraints
An index can have up to 32 columns.
Syntax: CREATE *UNIQUE+ INDEX index_name ON table(column1,column2,);
Note :- Indexes are stored in the data dictionary table USER_INDEXES.
When Oracle Does Not Use Index
Oracle index is completely automatic. I.e., you never have to open or close an
index. Oracle server decides whether to use an index or not.
The following are the cases in which Oracle does NOT use index.
SELECT doesnt contain WHERE clause
When the data size is less
SELECT contains WHERE clause, but WHERE clause doesnt refer to indexed
column.
SELECT contains WHERE clause and WHERE clause uses indexed columns
but indexed column is modified in the WHERE clause.

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Dropping an Index
Syntax: DROP INDEX <indexname>;
Removing an index doesnt invalidate existing applications, because applications
are not directly dependent on index, but at the same time not having an index
may effects performance.
PSEUDO COLUMN

A pseudo-column is a column that yields a value when selected but which is not
an actual column of the table.
ROWID
ROWNUM
SYADATE
NEXTVAL
CURRVAL
NULL
LEVEL
Are called as Pseudo-columns.
SELECT ROWNUM, empno, ename FROM emp;

TO DISPLAY 3 HIGHEST PAID EMPLOYEES

SQL> SELECT ROWNUM,empno,ename,sal FROM (SELECT empno,
ename,sal FROM emp ORDER BY sal DESC)
WHERE ROWNUM <= 3;

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