Winter Camp 2011

Polynomials

Alexander Remorov

Polynomials
Alexander Remorov
[email protected]

Warm-up Problem 1: Let f (x) be a quadratic polynomial. Prove that there exist quadratic polynomials g(x) and h(x) such that f (x)f (x + 1) = g(h(x)).
(University of Toronto Math Competition 2010)
Solution: The standard approach would be to write f (x) = ax2 + bx + c and play around with
the coefficients of f (x)f (x + 1). It is doable, but quite messy. Let us look at the roots. Let
f (x) = a(x r)(x s), then:
f (x)f (x + 1) = a2 (x r)(x s + 1) (x s)(x r + 1) =
= a2 ([x2 (r + s 1)x + rs] r)([x2 (r + s 1)x + rs] s)
and we are done by setting g(x) = a2 (x r)(x s), h(x) = x2 (r + s 1)x + rs.
Warm-up Problem 2: The polynomial f (x) = xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + + an1 x + an = 0
with integer non-zero coefficients has n distinct integer roots. Prove that if the roots are pairwise
coprime, then an1 and an are coprime.
(Russian Math Olympiad 2004)
Solution: Assume gcd(an1 , an ) 6= 1, then both an1 and an are divisible by some prime p. Let
the roots of the polynomial be r1 , r2 , , rn . Then r1 r2 rn = (1)n an . This is divisible p, so at
least one of the roots, wolog r1 , is divisible by p. We also have:
r1 r2 rn1 + r1 r3 r4 rn1 + + r2 r3 rn = (1)n1 an1 0 mod p
All terms containing r1 are divisible by p, hence r2 r3 rn is divisible by p. Hence gcd(r1 , r2 r3 rn )
is divisible by p contradicting the fact that the roots are pairwise coprime. The result follows.

Algebra

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: A polynomial P (x) of degree n with complex coefficients

has n complex roots. It can be uniquely factored as:
P (x) = a(x r1 )(x r2 ) (x rn )
Vietas Formulas: Let P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 with complex coefficients have
roots r1 , r2 , , rn . Then:
n
X
i=1

ri = (1)1

an1
;
an

ri rj = (1)2

i<j

an2
;
an

r1 r2 rn = (1)n

a0
an

Winter Camp 2011

Polynomials

Alexander Remorov

Bezouts Theorem: A polynomial P (x) is divisible by (x a) iff P (a) = 0.

Lagrange Interpolation: Given n points (x1 , y1 ), , (xn , yn ), there is a unique polynomial P (x)
satisfying P (xi ) = yi . Its explicit formula is:
P (x) =

n
X
i=1

yi

1jn,j6=i

x xj
xi xj

A few general tricks related to polynomials:

Look at the roots. If you want to show a polynomial is identically 0, it is sometimes useful
to look at an arbitrary root r of this polynomial, and then show the polynomial must have
another root, e.g. r + 1, thus producing a sequence of infinitely many roots.
Look at the coefficients. This is particularly useful when the coefficients are integers. It
is often a good idea to look at the leading coefficient and the constant term.
Consider the degrees of polynomials. If P (x) is divisible by Q(x) where P, Q are polynomials,
then deg(Q) deg(P ). A straight-forward fact, yet a useful one.
Perform clever algebraic manipulations, such as factoring, expanding, introducing new polynomials, substituting other values for x, e.g. x + 1, x1 , etc.

1.1

Warm-up

1. Let P (x) and Q(x) be polynomials with real coefficients such that P (x) = Q(x) for all real
values of x. Prove that P (x) = Q(x) for all complex values of x.
2. (a) Determine all polynomials P (x) with real coefficients such that P (x2 ) = P 2 (x).
(b) Determine all polynomials P (x) with real coefficients such that P (x2 ) = P (x)P (x + 1).
(c) Suppose P (x) is a polynomial such that P (x 1) + P (x + 1) = 2P (x) for all real x.
Prove that P (x) has degree at most 1.
3. (USAMO 1975) A polynomial P (x) of degree n satisfies P (k) =

k
for k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
k+1

Find P (n + 1).

1.2

Problems

1. (Brazil 2007) Let P (x) = x2 + 2007x + 1. Prove that for every positive integer n, the equation
P (P (. . . (P (x)) . . .)) = 0 has at least one real solution, where the composition is performed n
times.
2. (Russia 2002) Among the polynomials P (x), Q(x), R(x) with real coefficients at least one
has degree two and one has degree three. If P 2 (x) + Q2 (x) = R2 (x) prove that one of the
polynomials of degree three has three real roots.
3. Let P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial with integer coefficients such
that |a0 | is prime and |a0 | > |a1 + a2 + + an |. Prove that P (x) is irreducible (that is,
cannot be factored into two polynomials with integer coefficients of degree at least 1).

Winter Camp 2011

Polynomials

Alexander Remorov

4. (Russia 2003) The side lengths of a triangle are the roots of a cubic equation with rational
coefficients. Prove that the altitudes are the roots of a degree six equation with rational
coefficients.
5. (Russia 1997) Does there exist a set S of non-zero real numbers such that for any positive
integer n there exists a polynomial P (x) with degree at least n, all the roots and all the
coefficients of which are from S?
6. (Putnam 2010) Find all polynomials P (x), Q(x) with real coefficients such that P (x)Q(x +
1) P (x + 1)Q(x) = 1.
7. (IMO SL 2005) Let a, b, c, d, e, f be positive integers. Suppose that S = a + b + c + d + e + f
divides both abc + def and ab + bc + ca de ef f d. Prove that S is composite.
8. (USAMO 2002) Prove that any monic polynomial (a polynomial with leading coefficient 1)
of degree n with real coefficients can be written as the average of two monic polynomials of
degree n with n real roots.
9. (Iran TST 2010) Find all two-variable polynomials P (x, y) such that for any real numbers
a, b, c:
P (ab, c2 + 1) + P (bc, a2 + 1) + P (ca, b2 + 1) = 0
10. (China TST 2007) Prove that for any positive integer n, there exists exactly one polynomial
P (x) of degree n with real coefficients, such that P (0) = 1 and (x + 1)(P (x))2 1 is an odd
function. (A function f (x) is odd if f (x) = f (x) for all x).

Number Theory

By Z[x] we denote all the polynomials of one variable with integer coefficients. Arguably the most
useful property when it comes to polynomials and integers is:
If P (x) Z[x], and a, b are integers, then (a b)|(P (a) P (b))
Recall that polynomial in Z[x] is irreducible over the integers if it cannot be factored into two
polynomials with integer coefficients.
Eisensteins Criterion: Let P (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + ... + a1 x + a0 Z[x] be a polynomial and
p be a prime dividing a0 , a1 , ..., an1 , such that p - an and p2 - a0 . Then P (x) is irreducible.
Proof : Assume P (x) = Q(x)R(x), where Q(x) = bk xk + bk1 xk1 + ... + b1 x + b0 , R(x) =
cl xl + cl1 xl1 + ... + c1 x + c0 . Then b0 c0 is divisible by p but not p2 . Wolog p|b0 , p - c0 . Since
p|a1 = b1 c0 + b0 c1 it follows that p|b1 . Since p|a2 = b2 c0 + b1 c1 + b0 c2 it follows that p|b2 . By
induction it follows that p|bk which implies that p|an , a contradiction.
Lemma [Schur] Let P (x) Z[x] be a non-constant polynomial. Then there are infinitely many
primes dividing at least one of the non-zero terms in the sequence P (1), P (2), P (3), ....
Proof : Assume first that P (0) = 1. There exists an integer M such that P (n) 6= 1 for all n > M (or
else P (x)1 has infinitely many roots and therefore is constant). We also have P (n!) 1( mod n!),
and by taking arbitrarily large integers n we can generate arbitrarily large primes dividing P (n!).
3

Winter Camp 2011

Polynomials

Alexander Remorov

If P (0) = 0, the result is obvious. Otherwise consider Q(x) =

P (xP (0))
and apply the same line
P (0)

of reasoning to Q(x); the result follows.

P
For polynomials in Z[x] it is often useful to work modulo a positive integer k. If P (x) = ni=0 ai xi
P
Z[x] and k is a positive integer we call P (x) = ni=0 ai xi the reduction of P (x) (mod k), where
ai = ai (mod k). Some useful facts about reduced polynomials:
1. Let P (x), Q(x), R(x), S(x) Z[x], such that P (x) = (Q(x) + R(x))S(x). Then
P (x) = (Q(x) + R(x))(S(x)).
2. Let p be a prime and P (x) Z[x]. Then the factorization of P (x) is unique modulo p (more
formally, in Fp [x] up to permutation.) Note that this result does not hold when p is not a
prime. For example, x = (2x + 3)(3x + 2) mod 6 if x, 2x + 3, 3x + 2 are prime.
Also remember that all roots of P (x) modulo p are in the set {0, 1, . . . , p 1}.

2.1

Warm-Up

1. (a) Let p be a prime number. Prove that P (x) = xp1 + xp2 + ... + x + 1 is irreducible.
(b) Prove Eisensteins Criterion by considering a reduction modulo p.
2. (Iran 2007) Does there exist a sequence of integers a0 , a1 , a2 , ... such that gcd(ai , aj ) = 1 for
n
X
i 6= j, and for every positive integer n, the polynomial
ai xi is irreducible?
i=0

3. (a) (Bezout) Let P (x), Q(x) be polynomials with integer coefficients such that P (x), Q(x)
do not have any roots in common. Prove that there exist polynomials A(x), B(x) and
an integer N such that A(x)P (x) + B(x)Q(x) = N .
(b) Let P (x), Q(x) be monic non-constant irreducible polynomials with integer coefficients.
For all sufficiently large n, P (n) and Q(n) have the same prime divisors. Prove that
P (x) Q(x).

2.2

Problems

1. (a) (USAMO 1974)Let a, b, c be three distinct integers. Prove that there does not exist a
polynomial P (x) with integer coefficients such that P (a) = b, P (b) = c, P (c) = a.
(b) (IMO 2006) Let P (x) be a polynomial of degree n > 1 with integer coefficients and let k
be a positive integer. Let Q(x) = P (P (. . . P (P (x)) . . .)), where the polynomial P is composed
k times. Prove that there are at most n integers t such that Q(t) = t.
2. (Romania TST 2007) Let P (x) = xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 be a polynomial of degree
n 3 with integer coefficients such that P (m) is even for all even integers m. Furthermore,
a0 is even, and ak + ank is even for k = 1, 2, ..., n 1. Suppose P (x) = Q(x)R(x) where
Q(x), R(x) are polynomials with integer coefficients, deg Q deg R, and all coefficients of
R(x) are odd. Prove that P (x) has an integer root.
3. (USA TST 2010) Let P (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients such that P (0) = 0 and
gcd(P (0), P (1), P (2), . . .) = 1. Prove that there are infinitely many positive integers n such
that gcd(P (n) P (0), P (n + 1) P (1), P (n + 2) P (2), . . .) = n.

Winter Camp 2011

Polynomials

Alexander Remorov

4. (Iran TST 2004) Let P (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients such that P (n) > n for
every positive integer n. Define the sequence xk by x1 = 1, xi+1 = P (xi ) for i 1. For
every positive integer m, there exists a term in this sequence divisible by m. Prove that
P (x) = x + 1.
5. (China TST 2006) Prove that for any n 2, there exists a polynomial P (x) = xn +an1 xn1 +
... + a1 x + a0 such that:
(a) a0 , a1 , ..., an1 all are non-zero.
(b) P (x) is irreducible.
(c) For any integer x, |P (x)| is not prime.
6. (Russia 2006) A polynomial (x + 1)n 1 is divisible by a polynomial P (x) = xk + ak1 xk1 +
+ a1 x + a0 of even degree k, such that all of its coefficients are odd integers. Prove that
n is divisible by k + 1.
7. (USAMO 2006) For an integer m, let p(m) be the greatest prime divisor of m. By convention,
we set p(1) = 1 and


p(0) = . Find all polynomials f with integer coefficients
such that


the sequence {p f n2 2n}n0 is bounded above. (In particular, f n2 6= 0 for n 0.)
8. Find all non-constant polynomials P (x) with integer coefficients, such that for any relatively
prime integers a, b, the sequence {f (an + b)}n1 contains an infinite number of terms and any
two of which are relatively prime.
9. (IMO SL 2009) Let P (x) be a non-constant polynomial with integer coefficients. Prove that
there is no function T from the set of integers into the set of integers such that the number
of integers x with T n (x) = x is equal to P (n) for every positive integer n, where T n denotes
the n-fold application of T .
10. (USA TST 2008) Let n be a positive integer. Given polynomial P (x) with integer coefficients,
define its signature modulo n to be the (ordered) sequence P (1), . . . , P (n) modulo n. Of the nn
such n-term sequences of integers modulo n, how many are the signature of some polynomial
P (x) if:
(a) n is a positive integer not divisible by the square of a prime.
(b) n is a positive integer not divisible by the cube of a prime.

Winter Camp 2011

Polynomials

Alexander Remorov

Hints to Selected Problems

3.1

Algebra

2. Difference of squares.
3. Prove that for any complex root r of P (x), we have |r| > 1.
4. Use Herons formula to prove the square of the area is a rational number.
5. Look at the smallest and the largest numbers in S by absolute value. Use Vietas thoerem.
7. The solution involves polynomials.
8. A polynomial has n real roots iff it changes sign n + 1 times. Define one of the polynomials
as kQ(x) where Q(x) has n roots and k is a constant.
9. Prove that P (x, y) is divisible by x2 (y 1).
10. Let P (x) = Q(x) + R(x) where Q is an even function and R is an odd function.

3.2

Number Theory

2. Reduce modulo 2. Prove that deg R(x) = 1.

3. Let P (x) = xk Q(x) with Q(x) 6= 0. Consider prime n = pk where p is prime.
4. Prove that xk+1 xk |xk+2 xk+1 .
5. Reduce modulo 2.
6. Use Eisensteins Criterion.
7. Look at the irreducibe factors of f . Prove they are of form 4x k 2 .
8. What can you say about gcd(n, f (n))?
9. For k N, look at ak , the number of integers x, such that k is the smallest integer for which
T k (x) = x.
10. First solve the problem if n is a prime.