Schools of Thought
Schools of Thought
Schools of Thought
SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
THE GERMAN SCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHY
Friedrich Ratzel (1844‐1904)
He dominated the geographical scene in the late 19th century. He got his early education at
several universities in Germany. He travelled widely in the United States, Europe and Mexico
and Worked at the Universities of Munich and Leipzig. He was trained in zoology, geology and
comparative anatomy. Being a contemporary of Darwin, he was influenced by Darwin’s theory
of the evolution of species. Before Raztel, the foundation of systematic geography was laid by
Alexander von Humboldt and that of regional geography by Carl Ritter. It was Ratzel who
compared the mode of life of different tribes and nations and thus made a systematic study of
human geography. His interest in tribes, races and nations coined the term
‘anthropogeography’, describing it as the major field of geographical study.
In 1874 Ratzel reached the United States and Mexico and thereby expanded his sphere of
study. In the United States, he started studying the economy, society and the habitat of the
original tribes especially the red Indians. At the completion of his field study in the United
States and Mexico, he returned to Germany in 1875 and was appointed Professor of Geography
at the University of Leipzig. In 1878 he published a book on North America. However, the book
for which he is acknowledged all over the world is ‘Anthropogeography’. The major focus of this
work was the effects of different physical features and locations on the style of life of people.
In Anthropogeographie, Ratzel used the deductive approach to present the first systematic
study of the geography of man. The first volume of this book was organized largely in terms of
the natural conditions of the earth, which he studied in relation to human culture. The
environment dominated man response approach was influenced by the chronological
approach.
Ratzel’s deterministic approach became popular outside Germany, especially France, England
and the United States. Ms Ellen Churchill Semple was one of his students and a strong
supporter of his environmental superiority philosophy. He applied Darwin’s theory of the
evolution of species to human societies. His analogy suggested that groups of human beings
must struggle to survive in particular environments as much as plants and other organisms
must do. This was also known as social Darwinism. Thus Ratzel’s basic philosophy was the
survival of the fittest in a physical environment. In 1897, Ratzel wrote Political Geography in
which he compared the state to an organism. He emphasized that the state like an organism
must either grow or die and can never stand still. It was this philosophy of ‘living space’ which
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created controversy of superior and inferior races by claiming that superior peoples (nations)
have a right to expand their territory (kingdom) over their inferior neighbours. He expounded
his views by starting that when a state extends its frontiers at the expense of weaker states, it is
a sign of internal strength. Thus the superior nations ruling over the inferior peoples fulfilled an
organic necessity. It was Ratzel’s philosophy which governed the German policy in the 1930s
which finally led to the outbreak of the Second World War.
While discussing the effect of the physical environment on human groups, Ratzel explained that
human societies made progress in stages
1. Hunting and fishing
2. Hoe‐culture
3. Crops cultivation where the land is ploughed
4. Mixed farming where farming and herding are mixed
5. Unmixed herding and
6. Horticulture
He however argued that it was not necessary that all societies pass through the same stages of
the economy. In those days, there was enormous increase in knowledge and information (data)
was being accumulated on a large scale from different parts of the earth. Each region having a
different physical environment was providing different modes of production and different
styles of life. It was Ratzel who tried to build a fundamental ‘unity in diversity’.
THE FRENCH SCHOOL OF GEOGRAPHY
In France as in Germany, geography was taught by historians, geologists, military personnel and
engineers. Even the chair of geography in Sorbonne (Paris) was occupied by a historian
attached to the faculty of letters. Phillippe Buache (1752) was the first French scholar who
criticized the prevalent method of representation of population, economic and other data in
administrative units. He felt the right method of representation of geographic data is in the
frame of a natural region. According to him, a river basin was the best kind of a natural region.
Hence the director of the statistics office proposed a division of the national territory into
natural regions with a brief description of each of them. The effort created interest in regional
divisions in France. His effort was contradicted by Omalius d’ Halloy in 1833 who prepared a
geological map of France to establish the relations between landforms and soils and the
underlying rocks. About this time there occurred a major breakthrough in the in the expansion
of geographic knowledge. Soon several geographic societies were established in the various
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universities of France. The real takeoff in France, however, started during the period of Paul
Vidal de Lablache.
Paul Vidal de Lablache (1848‐1918)
He is known as the founder of human geography. He was essentially a scholar of classical
languages. His interest in geography developed in 1865 when he was studying archeology in
Athens. Later Vidal taught geography at the university of Nancy from 1872‐1877 and then
joined Ecole as a professor of Geography. In 1891, he founded a new professional periodical for
the publication of the best geographical writings. The periodical was called ‘Annales de
geographie’. From 1896 to the time of his death, he was a Professor of geography at the
Sorbonne. During his career, he devoted himself to the cause of geography, and trained
geography teachers over a period of about 26 years.
Vidal was a strong opponent and critique of the environmental deterministic approach. He was
influenced by the writings of Ratzel and from his second volume of ‘Anthropogeographie’; Vidal
formulated the concept of possibilism. His basic approach to the study of man and environment
– the two basic components of geographic study; was that nature sets limits and offers
possibilities for human settlement; but the way man reacts or adjusts to these new conditions
depends on his own traditional way of living.
In some of his works, Vidal attempted a harmonious blending of physical and human features of
France Plateau. His book also dealt with the recognizable regional units of France (Pays); it
showed that each Pays had its own active agriculture due to its soil and water supply; and also
due to the economic specialization made by the demands of the people living in towns. Far
from reducing the individuality of each pay, trade had accentuated it by making their
agriculture distinctive. Settlement showed a distinct relationship to soil and water; for in some
areas it was scattered and in others, it was in the form of compact villages. Many Pays had for
generations been recognized as separate from but complementary to its neighbours. Vidal was
opposed to the idea of studying the drainage basin as the unit of analysis and study. He felt that
such a unit would create complications in the understanding the reality of the region. For
instance, the Central Massif of France is a well demarcated natural region; but if it is divided
into drainage basin units, then the culture, institutions, traditions and attitudes of the people
cannot be properly understood. He held the view that the basic objective of Geography was to
study phenomena mutually interacting in a segment of the earth’s surface (Pays)
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In the opinion of Vidal, the relatively small regions are the ideal units to study and to train
geographers in geographical studies. These could also be used in the planning of areas. It was
with this objective that he prepared a scheme to study the larger regions of the world.
The American School of Thought
Contributions of Americans to Geography
William Morris Davis
William Morris Davis is often called the "father of American geography" for his work in not only
helping to establish geography as an academic discipline but also for his advancement of
physical geography and the development of geomorphology.
Geography
William Morris Davis was very excited about the discipline of geography; he worked hard to
increase its recognition. In the 1890s, Davis was an influential member of a committee that
helped to establish geography standards in the public schools. Davis and the committee felt
that geography needed to be treated as a general science in primary and secondary schools and
these ideas were adopted. Unfortunately, after a decade of the "new" geography, it slipped
back to being rote knowledge of place names and eventually disappeared into the bowels of
social studies.
Davis also helped to build geography up at the university level. In addition to training some of
America's foremost geographers of the twentieth century (such as Mark Jefferson, Isaiah
Bowman, and Ellsworth Huntington), Davis helped to found the Association of American
Geographers (AAG). Recognizing the need for an academic organization composed of
academics trained in geography, Davis met with other geographers and formed the AAG in
1904.
Davis served as the AAG's first president in 1904 and was reelected in 1905, and ultimately
served a third term in 1909. Though Davis was very influential in the development of geography
as a whole, he is probably best known for his work in geomorphology.
His Contributions to Geomorphology
Geomorphology is the study of the earth's landforms. William Morris Davis founded this
subfield of geography. Though at his time the traditional idea of the development of landforms
was through the great biblical flood, Davis and others began to believe that other factors were
responsible for shaping the earth.
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Davis developed a theory of landform creation and erosion, which he called the "geographical
cycle." This theory is more commonly known as the "cycle of erosion," or more properly, the
"geomorphic cycle." His theory explained that mountains and landforms are created, mature,
and then become old.
He explained that the cycle begins with the uplift of mountains. Rivers and streams begin to
create V‐shaped valleys among the mountains (the stage called "youth"). During this first stage,
the relief is steepest and most illregular. Over time, the streams are able to carve wider valleys
("maturity") and then begin to meander, leaving only gently rolling hills ("old age"). Finally, all
that is left is a flat, level plain at the lowest elevation possible (called the "base level.") This
plain was called by Davis a "peneplain," which means "almost a plain" for a plain is actually a
completely flat surface). Then, "rejuvenation" occurs and there is another uplift of mountains
and the cycle continues.
Though Davis' theory is not entirely accurate, it was quite revolutionary and outstanding at its
time and helped to modernize physical geography and create the field of geomorphology. The
real world is not quite as orderly as Davis' cycles and certainly erosion occurs during the uplift
process. However, Davis' message was communicated quite well to other scientists through the
excellent sketches and illustrations that were included in Davis' publications.
In all, Davis published over 500 works though he never earned his Ph.D. Davis was certainly one
of the greatest academic geographers of the century. He is not only responsible for that which
he accomplished during his lifetime, but also for the outstanding work done across geography
by his disciples.
Ellen Churchill Semple
Ellen Churchill Semple will long be remembered for her contributions to American geography
despite her association with the long‐disregarded topic of environmental determinism. Ellen
Semple was born in the midst of the Civil War in Louisville, Kentucky on January 8, 1863.
Semple attended Vassar College .
To Europe
Semple was greatly influenced by the works of a professor of geography at Leipzig named
Friedrich Ratzel through Ratzel's book, Anthropogeographie, which she immersed herself in for
months and subsequently decided to study under Ratzel at Leipzig.
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She returned home to finish work on a master's degree by writing a thesis titled Slavery: A
Study in Sociology and by studying sociology, economics, and history. She earned her master's
degree in 1891 and rushed to Leipzig to study under Ratzel. Semple met Ratzel and obtained
permission to attend his courses. She remained at the University of Leipzeg through 1892 and
then returned again in 1895 for additional study under Ratzel. Since she could not enroll at the
university, she never earned a degree from her studies under Ratzel and therefore, never
actually obtained an advanced degree in geography.
Although she Semple was well‐known in the geography circles of Germany, she was relatively
unknown in American geography. Upon returning to the United States, she began to research,
write, and publish articles and began to gain a name for herself in American geography. Her
1897 article in the Journal of School Geography, "The Influence of the Appalachian Barrier upon
Colonial History" was her first academic publication. In this article, she showed that
anthropological research could indeed be studied in the field.
Becoming an American Geographer
What established Semple as a true geographer was her outstanding field work and research
into the people of the Kentucky highlands. For over a year, Semple explored the mountains of
her home state and discovered niche communities that had not changed much since they were
first settled. The English spoken in some of these communities still carried a British accent. This
work was published in 1901 in the article "The Anglo‐Saxons of the Kentucky Mountains, a
Study in Antropogeography" in the Geographical Journal.
There was a strong interest in Ratzel's ideas in America so Ratzel encouraged Semple to make
his ideas known to the English‐speaking world. He asked that she translate his publications but
Semple did not agree with Ratzel's idea of the organic state so she decided to publish her own
book based on his ideas. American History and Its Geographic Conditions was published in 1903.
It gained wide acclaim and was still required reading in many geography departments across
the United States in the 1930s. (Colby)
Her Career Takes Off
The publication of her first book launched Semple's career. In 1904, she became one of the
forty‐eight charter members of the Association of American Geographers, under the presidency
of William Morris Davis. That same year she was appointed Associate Editor of the Journal of
Geography, a position she retained until 1910. In 1906, she was recruited by the country's first
Department of Geography, at the University of Chicago. (The Department of Geography at the
University of Chicago was established in 1903.) She remained affiliated with the University of
Chicago until 1924 and taught there in alternating years.
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Semple's second major book was published in 1911. Influences of Geographic Environment
further expounded on Semple's environmental deterministic viewpoint. She felt that climate
and geographic location was the major cause of a person's actions. In the book, she cataloged
countless examples to prove her point. For example, she reported that those who live in
mountain passes are usually robbers. She provided case studies to prove her point but she
didn't include or discuss counter examples that could prove her theory wrong. (Martin, 331)
Semple was an academic of her era and while her ideas can be considered racist or exceedingly
simple today, she opened up new arenas of thought within the discipline of geography. Later
geographic thought rejected the simple cause and effect of Semple's day.
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The British School of Thought
Halford Mackinder
Halford Mackinder (1861‐1947), was a British political geographer. He was born in
Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, England and was educated at the University of Oxford, where in
1887 he was appointed the first reader in geography, a position he held until 1905. Mackinder
was instrumental in establishing geography as an academic subject in Britain. From 1904 to
1908 he was the director of the London School of Economics, and from 1909 to 1922 he was a
Member of Parliament. Mackinder is known as the author of the “heartland” theory, originally
stated in 1904 and revised in 1919 and 1943. In this theory he proposes that north‐central
Eurasia, because of its geographic isolation and vast natural resources, would eventually be the
heart of the world's controlling political power.
Mackinder’s thinking was governed by visualization, both on the mind and map; of the world’s
regional complexes as combinations of varied physical and human elements. He considered
geography as a bridge between the humanities and the natural sciences. He applied these
concepts to the interpretation of the world’s political affairs.
With his appointment as professor of Geography at the University of Oxford in 1887, geography
started growing in the United Kingdom. At the initial stage, the British geographers were
essentially concentrating in the field of physical geography. There was hardly any description of
man as an agent of change in the physical surroundings. Mackinder identified geography as a
discipline that traces the interaction of man with his physical environment.
In 1904, he formulated the concept of the geographical pivot of history, which is also known as
the “heartland theory of Mackinder”. In this theory, he identified a world island consisting of
the continents of Africa and Eurasia. The most inaccessible part of the world, he called
heartland. This is the area of low population and inaccessibility.
Mackinder declared that throughout the history of mankind, the coastal lands had always
proved vulnerable to attack from the heartland; and the heartland remained secure because
sea power could be denied access to it. He was mainly concerned with a world view. Few years
before his death during the second world war, he warned of the danger of the heartland falling
in its entirety under the control of the Soviet Union; and of Russia’s ability then to strike out to
peripheral lands to the east , south and west of the ‘world island’. His regional concept also
influenced his interpretation of countries.
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