Design of Steel Structures Second Edition vil iui i jwqnviInformation contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein. and neither = Tata) McGraw-Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. —= w LE Tata McGraw-Hill © 2000, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ‘Twelfth reprint 2007 RALQCRXYRACAC No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of the publishers This edition can be exported from India by the publishers, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited ISBN 0-07-463095-4 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, typeset at The Composers, 20/5 West Patel Nagar, Delhi 110 008, and printed at S P Printers. E-120, Sector 7, NOIDA, Cover: De-Uniquea Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition Chapter 1 General Considerations 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Advantages of Steel as a Structural Material 3 1.3 Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural Material 3 14 Structural Steel 3 15 Stress-Strain C for Mild Steel 16 Rolled Steel Sections 6 17 _Loads & 1.8 Permissible Stresses 22 1.9 Working Stresses 22 1.10 Factor of Safety 22 1.11 Minimum Thickness of Structural Members 23 1.12 Design Methods 23 Solved Examples 24 Exercises 29 Chapter 2 Simple Connections—Riveted, Bolted 1 Pi iC. : 2.1 Introduction 30 22 Ri 0, 20 2.3 Bolted Connections 48 2.4 Pin Connections 53 Solved Examples 55 Exercises 75 Chapter 3_ Simple Connections—Welded Connections 3.1_Introduction _77 3.2 Types 78 30 7x Q Contents 3.3 Symbols 79 3.4 Welding Process 80 3.5 Weld Defects 80 3.6 Permissible Stresses 82 3.7. Design of Butt Welds 82 3.8 Design of Fillet Welds 84 3.9 Design of Intermittent Fillet Welds 89 3.10 Fillet Welds for Truss Members 90 3.11 Plug and Slot Welds 92 3.12 Failure of Welds 92 3.13 Distortion of Welded Parts 94 3.14 Inspection of Welds 95 3.15 Fillet Weld vs Butt Weld 95 3.16 Welded Joints vs Riveted Joints 96 3.17 Selection of Fasteners 96 Solved Examples 97 Exercises 106 Chapter 4 Compression Members 108 4.1 Introduction 108 4.2 Effective Length 109 4.3 Slenderness Ratio (A) 112 4.4 Column Design Formula 114 4.5 Types of Sections 116 4.6 Assumptions 118 4.7. Design of Axially Loaded Compression Members 118 4.8 Built-up Columns (Latticed Columns) 119 4.9 Lacing 122 4.10 Batten 126 4.11 Compression Members Composed of Two Components Back-to-back 128 4.12 Encased Column 129 4.13 Eccentrically Loaded Columns 130 4.14 Splices 137 Solved Examples 141 Exercises 197 Chapter 5 Column Bases and Footings 199 5.1 Introduction 199 5.2 es of Column Bases 199 5.3 Slab Base 200 5.4 Gusset Base 204 5.5 Welded Column Bases 211 5.6 Design of Hold-down Angles and Base Plates 213 5.7 Grillage Footing 216Contents O xi Solved Examples 220 Exercises 239 Chapter 6 Tension Members 240 6.1 Introduction 240 6.2 Types of Tension Members 240 4. Permissible & 942 6.5 Net Sectional Area 243 6.6 Design of a Tension Member 248 6.7__Lug Angles 250 6.8 Splices 251 6.9 Gusset Plate 252 Solved Examples 253 Exercises 272 Chapter 7 Beams 274 ‘L1 Introduction 274 12 es of Sections 275 1.3 Lateral Stability of Beams 276 1.4 Bending Stress 277 7.5 Bearing Stress 287 7.6 Shear Stress 287 17 Deflection 294 7.8 Web Buckling 295 7.9 Web Crippling 298 7.10 Diagonal Buckling 300 7.11 Design of Laterally Supported Beams 301 7.12 Design of Laterally Unsupported Beams 302 7.13 Built-up Beams (Plated Beams) 303 ‘114 Lintels 309 7.15 Purlins 310 1.16 Encased Beam 214 7.17 Beam Bearing Plates 315 7.18 Castellated Beam 316 7.19 Effect of Holes in Beam 318 7.20 Shear Connectors 318 Solved Examples 323 Exercises 356 Chapter 8 Gantry Girders 359 rae by 82 Loads 36] 8.3 Specifications 362 8.4 Design 362 Solved Examples 365 Exercises 373xii Q Contents Chapter 9 Plate Girder 375 Chapter Chapter 9.1 Introduction 375 9.2 Types of Sections 376 9.4 Proportioning of Web 376 9.5 Proportioning of Flanges 380 9.6 Self-Weight of Plate Girder 384 9.7 Curtailment of Flange Plates 385 9.8 Connections 388 9.9 Stiffeners 392 9.10 Bearing Stiffener 394 9.11 Intermediate Stiffeners 396 9.12 Web Splices 400 4.13 Flange Angle Splice 407 9.14 Flange Plate Splice 408 9.15 Design Steps of a Plate Girder 409 9.16 Comparison of Welded and Riveted Plate Girders 409 Solved Examples 410 Exercises 436 10 Eccentric Connections 439 10.1 Introduction 439 10.2 Riveted Shear Connections 442 10.3 Welded Shear Connections 452 10.4 Moment Resistant Connections 459 10.5 Semi-Rigid Connections 471 Solved Examples 473 Exercises 514 11 Industrial Buildings 516 11.1 Introduction 516 11.2 Planning 517 11.3 Structural Framing 518 11.4 Types 519 11.5 Roof and Side Coverings 520 11.6 Elements of an Industrial Building 521 11.7 Design Steps of Industrial Building 537 Solved Examples 537 Exercises 595 Chapter 12 Water Tanks 597 12.1 Introduction 597 12.2 Permissible Stresses 598 12.3. Thickness Specifications 598 12.4 Stiffening Angle 598 12.5 Stand-Pipe 598—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—— Contents O xiii 12.6 Elevated Tanks 602 12.7 Circular Tanks 602. 12.8 Rectangular Tanks 608 12.9 Pressed Steel Tank 611 12.10 Wind Load 619 12.11 Earthquake Force on Tanks 620 12.12 Staging 621 Solved Examples 623 Exercises 659 Chapter 13 Bridges 660 13.1 Introduction 660 13.2 Components 661 13.3 Types 662 18.4 Choice of the Type of Bridge 668 13.5 The Floor System 669 13.6 End Supports 670 13.7. Truss Girder Bridges 671 13.8 Bracing of Truss Girder Bridges 673 13.9 Plate Girder Bridges 675 13.10 Bracing of Plate Girder Birdges 675 13.11 Loads 676 13.12 Dead Load 676 13.13 Live Load 677 13.14 Impact Load 697 13.15 Wind Load 699 13.16 Seismic Load 700 13.17 Longitudinal Forces 701 13.18 Racking Forces 701 13.19 Centrifugal Force 702 13.20 Temperature Effects 702 13.12 Secondary Stresses 702 13.13 Design Procedure of Bridges 703 Solved Examples 703 Exercises 725 Chapter 14 Elementary Plastic Analysis and Design 727 14.1 Introduction 727 14.2 Idealized Stress-Strain Curve for Mild Steel 727 14.3 Scope of Plastic Analysis 729 . 14.4 Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity of Tension Members 730 14.5 Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity of Compression Members 730 146 Flexural Members 732 14.7 Shape Factor 738xiv OQ -Contents 414.8 Load Factor 738 14.9 Mechanism 739 14.10 Plastic Collapse 741 14.11 Conditions in Plastic Analysis 741 14.12 Principle of Virtual Work 741 14.13 Theorems of Plastic Analysis 742 14.14 Methods of Analysis 743 14.15 Cancellation of Hinge in the Combined Mechanism (Beam + Panel) 744 14.16 Design 745 14.17 Limitations of Plastic Analysis 746 14.18 Plastic Design vs Elastic Design 746 Solved Examples 750 Exercises 784 Chapter 15 Tubular Structures 788 15.1 Introduction 788 15.2 Classification 789 15.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 789 15.4 Behaviour of Tubular Sections 789 15.5 Minimum Thickness 792 15.6 Combined Stresses 792 15.7 Connections 792 Solved Examples 795 Exercises 797 Chapter 16 Rigid Frames 798 16.1 Introduction 798 16.2 Analysis and Design 799 16.3 Rigid Frame Knees 799 16.4 Supports for Rigid Frames 800 Appendices 801 I Abbreviations 801 Il Unit Weight of Building Materials 807 TI Live Loads 802 IV Wind Map of India 804 Vv Permissible Bearing Pressures on Subsoils 804 V1 Stress Area of Bolts 805 VII Shear Centre 805 VIII External Pressure Coefficients (C,,) for Roofs of Rectangular Clad Buildings 806 IX External Pressure Coefficients (C,,) for Walls of Rectangular Buildings 807Contents O xv X Average Acceleration Spectra 808 XI Shape Factor f 808 XII Load Factor F 809 XIII Sizes and Properties of Steel Tubes for Structural Purposes 810 List of Symbols 813 Index ———i—‘“C—‘“‘ NU U8aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4 OQ Design of Steel Structures Table 1.1 Mechanical Properties of Structural Steels S.No. Property Value 1. Yield stress (f,) 220-540 N/mm? 2. Ultimate tensile strength 12f, 3. % Elongation (low carbon steel) 20 4. Modulus of Elasticity (£) 2x 10° Nimm? 5. Shear modulus (G) 04 E 6. Poisson's ratio (11) (i) elastic range 0.3 (ii) plastic range 0.5 The chemical composition of some of the steels is given in Table 1.2. Primary elements such as carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, manganese and silicon influence the mechanical properties of steel. Of these, carbon has the maximum influence on the mechanical properties of steel. Iron-car- bon alloys containing up to 2 per cent carbon are called carbon steel while those having more than 2% are called cast steel. With increase in carbon the tensile strength of steel increases but the ductility falls. However, by alloying chromium, nickel, molebdneum, vanadium, etc. the tensile strength can be increased while retaining the desired ductility. Table 1.2 Chemical Composition of Structural Steels 'S. Quality of Desig- LS. ‘Maximum percentage Tensile No. Steel nation Code C Ss P Mn Si strength (NI ram) 1, Standard Fe-410S 226 0.23 0,055 0.055 — 0,10 410 structural C = 0.2-0.35% 2. Structural Fe 310 1977 0.23 0.07 007 — — 310 ordinary Fe 410-0 1977 0.23 0.07 0.07 — — 410 3. Weldable Fe 410-H_ 2062 0.20 0.055 0.055 10 — 410 Fe 440 HT 8500 0.25 0.055 0.055 15 — 440 Fe 490 HT 8500 0.25 0.0¢ 0.04 15 — 490 Fe 590 HT 8500 0.25 0.05 0.05 15 — 590 Fe = steel, C = carbon, Si = silicon 1.5 STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL The stress-strain curve for mild steel presents a lot of information neces- sary to understand how it will behave in a given situation. Therefore, for a steel design method to be satisfactory it is essential to be conversant with the stress-strain relationship of mild steel. Curve OABCDEF in Fig. 1.1 represents the stress-strain curve when a mild steel specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing tensile load. Various elements of the curve are as follows, OAB— represents a straight line curve—the strain produced is pro- portional to the stress producing it, i.e. it obeys Hook’s law. sulphur, P = phosphorus, Mnaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.8 © Design of Steel Structures Steel sheets are designated by length, width and thickness, e.g., LS.SH. 2000 mm x 600 mm x 4 mm, means the sheet is 2000 mm long 600 mm wide and 4 mm thick. Steel strips are designated by width and thickness, e.g., IS.ST. 200 mm x 2mm, means the strip is 200 mm wide and 2 mm thick. 1.6.1 Choice of Section The design of steel sections is governed by cross-sectional area and sec- tion modulus. It has been seen that a variety of steel sections are rolled, but due to the limitations of rolling mills only a few are available. Also, if a section is in demand, it is rolled regularly but one which is in little demand is rolled only on order and hence costs more. Therefore, the design is not only governed by sectional properties but also on availabil- ity of the section in the market, which becomes a major consideration. Another factor governing the choice is the ease with which sections can be connected. 1.7 LOADS For the safe design of a structure it is essential to have a knowledge of various types of loads and their worst combinations to which it may be subjected during its life span. 1.7.1 Types of Loads The following are the various types of loads. . Dead load . Live load . Wind load . Seismic load Snow load Earth pressure Water current load . Impact load . Temperature and erection effects Dead load The dead load of a structure is not known before it is de- signed. It is assumed or estimated on the basis of experience. After designing, the assumed dead load is compared with the actual dead load. If the difference is significant, the assumed dead load is revised and the structure is sedesigned. Appendix II gives the dead loads of some struc- tural materials. Dead load calculations should also include the superim- posed loads that are permanently attached to the structure, e.g. parti- tion walls, parapets, etc. Live loads Live loads are those which may change in position and magnitude. The live loads on roofs are specified in I.S: 875-1987 and are listed in Appendix III. The live loads on floors as specified in Appendix III, PONBARYNEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.12 Q Design of Steel Structures Bot ofl vET 8oT eT ge T set LET 6ET vel set OFT 00g Zt 68T eet 9'T BET geT TéT 9eT set eet Let 68T ost 071 Set eet Sat et rET oeT get LET eet 9ET BET 00F 6rl LOT Tet wT oer zet 6eT PET 9e'T Tet set Let ost avy 92'T OeT Bot Bet Tet Sot GET vET ost VET get 008 oT FT eet Oz T oot 6st 9'T Tet Bet Bat CET vet Ose etl CT LZT sit ae LET VOT 8ZT oeTt 9eT ost sel 008 Ort Ost vet SIT ToT POT Te Sat Set vet Set oeT ost SOT stTt OZT ort LUT OT LTT Gol FT 0s T POT 92'T oot 96°0 SOT ort 20T 60T art ort SsTTt AUT vIT SIT OST os e380 £60 460 960 col 90T 401 ort art 60T ett StT og 19°0 9L'0 030 160 860 TOT 001 sot LOT 90T ort art 02 490 9L'0 08'0 L480 ¥6°0 460 160 BOT SOT €0T LOT 60°T Tt u90 9L°0 O80 280 88°0 160 60 860 00'T 660 £0 SOT or oa a ¥ a a Vv oO a v a a Vv (uy SsDp) S801 ss01D ssn} p &io3aM) urnuay € Klo8ayoy urv.iay, % hiodaqoy uipsiay, T S1oSemy uray doe samnng/sBurprmg JO S@ssel) WarEHIG 10} sureuE], juaTayid ul Ste WWM UoNeUeA paadg puly Ubisag uTeIqO 0} siO}ey “Y ZT OTTeLaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.16 Q Design of Steel Structures Design wind force The total wind load for a building as a whole is given by F=CrA,p, where Cy= force coefficient of the structure (Table 1.8) A, = effective frontal area p, = design wind pressure For flat-sided members such as plates, angles, I-sections, etc., the force coefficient in two mutually perpendicular directions, normal (C;,) and transverse (Cg) should be considered as given in Table 1.9. Normal force, F, = Cy pz RUD Transverse force, F, = Cp p, k Lb where & =a coefficient (Table 1.10) depending upon //b ratio 2 = length of the member 6 = width of the member across the direction of wind Wind force on roofs and walls is given by F= (Cy - Cy) A De Table 1.9 Force Coefficients (C;) for Individual Structural Members of Infinite Léngth fe Fi a a F, * F, : son o. os Fon, o oe leo Wino *,, ei 01d 8 om on Cin Cn Son Cn degrees 0 41.9 40.95 418 418 41760 40.1 45 +18 +0.8 42.1 +18 +0.85 +0.85, 90 42.0 0 +17 -19 9-10 40.1 +1.75 135 -18 0.1 -2.0 +0.3 0.75 +0.75 180 -20 40.1 “140-14 “175-01 7 Fy F, % $ 3 wt Rat. dt fa, ot apr, ul i i 0.45! beat | ~10.43b ia ca 8 G, Cin Ca Cin Ch degrees 0 +16 0 +2.0 0 +2.05 oO 45, +15 0.1 +12 +0.9 +185, 40.6 (Contd)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.20 Q Design of Steel Structures 1. India has been divided into five zones with regard to horizontal seismic coefficients. For important structures this coefficient may be increased by 50% (Table 1.14) Table 1.14 Basic Seismic Coefficient Zone No. Horizontal seismic coefficient (ay) I 0.01 Ui 0.02 Ml 0.04 Iv 0.05 Vv 0.08 The horizontal earthquake force should be calculated for the full dead load and some percentage of the live loads as given below: Live loads of the order of (N/m) % of live load 2000, 2500, 3000, stairs 25 4000, 5000, 7500, 10000, garage ete. 50 2. The fundamental time period is given by T = 0.1n (for moment resisting frames without bracing or shear walls) o9H vd (for all others) where n = number of storeys including basement, H = total height of the building in m, d = maximum base dimension of building in m, in the direction parallel to the applied seismic force 3. The base shear is computed by the following formula: V_ = KC a, W where ;,= design seismic coefficient = Bla W = total dead load and appropriate percentage of live load C= a coefficient which depends upon the fundamental time periods T = fundamental time period in seconds K= performance factor depending on the structural framing system and brittleness or ductility of construction Q@ = basic horizontal seismic coefficient (Table 1.14) B= a factor depending upon the soil foundation system (Table 1.15) J = importance factor, depending upon the life and function of the structureaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.24 O Design of Steel Structures A steel structure may be designed by any one of the following methods: 1. Elastic or working stress method. 2. Plastic or limit design method. In the elastic method of design, the worst combination of loads is ascertained and the members are proportioned on the basis of working stresses. These stresses should never exceed the permissible ones as laid down by the code. Steel is a ductile material and from the stress-strain curve it is observed that higher loads than in the elastic method can be applied over the structure. This is due to the fact that a inajor portion of the curve lies beyond the elastic limit. This extra strength is termed reserve strength and forms the basis of plastic design method. This is an aspect of limit design, which confines the structural usefulness up to the plastic strength or ultimate load carrying capacity. In the plastic design method, the working loads are multiplied by the load factor and the members are designed on the basis of the collapse strength. The connection, whether riveted, bolted or welded, can be designed as flexible, semi-rigid or rigid connections. Flexible connections are also known as simple connections. These connections are assumed to resist shear only. Some insignificant bending moment may develop at the con- nection but a flexible connection does not provide any resistance to mo- ment. Rigid connections, also called the moment connections, resist the shear and bending moments at the connections. Semi-rigid connections resist the bending moment in between the flexible and rigid connections. The moment resistance of such connections is less as compared to rigid connections. Although the permissible stresses for the main member in a working stress design is based on the initial yielding of the steel, the permissible stresses for fasteners are usually based on the ultimate strength of the connection. The safety factor values of various fasteners are about 2 to 3. The design of structural elements by elastic and plastic methods and design of connections have been discussed in subsequent chapters. SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 1.1 The yield strength for a mild steel specimen was found to be 250 N/mm?. Taking a factor of safety of 2, find out the working stress. yield strength Solution Working stress = Tactor of safety = 250 2 = 125 NAnm? Example 1.2 A tie bar 50 mm x 8 mm is to carry a load of 80 KN. A specimen of the same quality steel of cross-sectional area 250 mm” wasaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.28 Q Design of Steel Structures Example 1.8 A seven-story building is to be constructed at Allahabad. The foundation to be provided is raft over the medium soil. The dimen- sions are as in Example 1.3. Using LS. specifications, determine the earthquake forces in the bottom three floors, if the structural framing system consists of moment resistant frames with steel bracing members designed for ductility. Solution Load from roof, W,= 3000 x 4x4 48000 N 8 kN ‘3000 + 4000 x 0.5) x 4x 4 0,000 N 0 KN W=6x W,+ W, 6 x 80 + 48 = 528 kN The building is situated at Allahabad, ie., in Zone II. Therefore, C= 0.54 T=1s e% = 0.02 B=1.0 (for raft in medium soil) 1=1.0 K=1.0 &%, = BIO = 1x 1x 0.02 = 0.02 Vy = KCa,W = 1x 0.54 x 0.02 x 528 = 5.7024 kN LWA? = 80((3.2)? + (2 x 3.27 + (3 x 3.2) + (4 x 3.2)? + (5 x 3.2) + (6 x 3.2)7] + 48(7 x 3.2)? = 98,631.68 _ Vp Wh} ‘Twa? Load from floor, W; — 5.7024 x 80 x (3.2)? 98,631.68 = 47.36 N @= 5.7024 x 80 x (2 x 3.2)? 98,631.68 = 189.45 N Qaaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter a Simple Connections— Riveted, Bolted and Pinned Connections 2.1 INTRODUCTION The various elements of a steel structure like tension member, compres- sion member and flexural member are connected by fasteners (connec- tors). Different types of fasteners available are rivets, bolts, pins and welds. The forces exerted by one element on another are transferred through these fasteners, which should therefore be adequate to transmit the forces safely. Often much attention is not given to the design of connections. If the necessary connections are inadequate, the result will be a poor structure in spite of the most efficiently designed member. Therefore the design of connections must be given due importance. The nature of forces and stress distributions also need to be properly evalu- ated and established Of the various types of simple connections used in structures, riveted, bolted and pinned connections behave alike, and are therefore grouped together. These are discussed in the following articles. Welded connec- tions are discussed in Chapter 3. 2.2 RIVETED CONNECTIONS A rivet is made up of a round ductile steel bar piece (mild or high tensile) called shank, with a head at one end. The head can be of differ- ent shapes as shown in Fig. 2.1(a-d). The usual form of rivet head em- ployed in structural steel construction is the snap head. The snap heads and pan heads form a projection beyond the plate face, and where this is an objection—as in bearings, where continuity between plate and plate,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.38 Q Design of Steel Structures 2.2.7 Specifications To estimate the strength of the riveted joints and to ensure safe design, the specifications for pitch and edge distances as laid down by LS: 800-1984 must be observed strictly. {i) Diameter The gross diameter may be found by increasing the nomi- nal diameter (¢), by certain allowances as given below. Gross diameter = nominal diameter + 1.5 mm, ¢< 25 mm Gross diameter = nominal diameter + 2 mm, ¢ > 25 mm (ii) Gauge (g) is the distance between adjacent rivet lines, or the dis- tance between the back of the rolled section and the first rivet line, or centre to centre distance (Fig. 2.5) between two consecutive rivets mea- sured along the width of the member or connection. The guage lines are Edge distance pitch Oo oOo 90 Pa =P | lodge yy oO cs Edge distance A (a) Rolled Section i Pitch (Long direction) Gauge iston | eT direction) —_—7 Edge distance P= —_P (b) Wide Plate Fig. 2.5 Gauge and Pitch specified on the sections tabulated in the I.S. Handbook No. 1 and the rivets should be placed on them in order to facilitate and simplify office and shop work. Guage lines are also called the rivet lines. (iii) Pitch (s) is the distance between the centre of two consecutive rivets measured along a row of rivets as shown in Fig. 2.5(a). A row generally refers to a line of rivets placed parallel to the stress in a member. Since the rivets are staggered the pitch in this case will be referred to as staggered pitch. For wide plates (Fig. 2.5(b)) pitch may also be defined as the c/c distance of rivets measured along the length of the member or the connection. Rivets should be placed apart at a suffi- cient distance for the following reasons: 1. To prevent tension failure of members between the two consecu- tive rivets, andaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.42 Qi Design of Steel Structures n = number of rivets on each side of joint n’ = number of rivets in one pitch length Strength of rivet in shear = cross-sectional area x permissible shear stress Single shear Strength of one rivet = qa Typ (2.1) Strength of riveted joint =n Getty (2.2) Strength of riveted joint/pitch length =n’ ia 8 ty (2.3) Double shear Strength of one rivet = atdty (2.4) Strength of riveted joint, P, = 2n fa? ty (2.5) Strength of riveted joint/pitch length = 2 ta? Ty (2.6) ‘Note The shearing strength of a rivet in double shear is considered to be twice its |sirate shear value. Any further increase of shear value beyond double shear is not permitted for rivets subjected to shear forces on more than two planes. Strength of rivet in bearing The bearing strength of a rivet is the force that can be exerted on it by the section through which it passes. The bearing area of a rivet is cylindrical but for computation purpose, the projected area which is rectangular, is considered as shown in Fig. 2.4(d). Let P, = strength of the riveted joint in bearing in Newtons d = gross diameter of the rivet in mm t= thickness of thinner section in lap joint or = thickness of main thinner plate or sum of cover plates thickness, whichever is minimum in butt joint Gyr = permissible bearing stress in rivet in MPa n = number of rivets on each side of joint n’ = number of rivets in one pitch length Strength of rivet in bearing = projected area x permissible bearing stress : = dt Oy 27 Strength of riveted joint, P, = ndt oy (2.8) Strength of riveted joint/pitch longth = n’ dt oy (2.9) Strength of plate in tearing Strength of the plate in tearing depends upon the net section resisting the force. As shown in Fig. 2.8, x-x is assumed to be the critical section.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.46 Q Design of Steel Structures Fig. 2.11 Staggered Pitch Diameter of the rivet The size of a rivet is usually determined by con- sidering the practical aspects of riveting as well as the strength of the structure. It is economical to use a small number of large diameter rivets rather than a large number with small diameters. This is because for a given plate thickness, in case the shear controls the design, the strength is directly proportional to the square of the diameter of the rivet and large diameter rivets or rivets with double shear may be a choice. Whereas, if bearing controls the design, the strength is directly proportional to the rivet diameter only and in this case a large number of rivets with small diameter are preferred. The nominal diameter of a rivet is assumed to be between 12-25 mm for joining structural ele- ments. As the range is quite large, to have an approximate value Unwin’s formula may be used. o=6.01vE where ¢ is the nominal diameter of the rivet in mm and ¢ is the mini- mum thickness of the plates to be jointed, in mm. The limitation of the Unwin’s formula is that it gives higher values than required. Therefore, suitable approximation may have to be made for the nominal diameter by the designer. Number and pitch of rivets The number of rivets can be computed by dividing the total load to be transmitted by the rivet value. This value is the minimum strength of one rivet in shear or bearing and can be worked out as discussed in Section 2.2.8. For a butt joint the calculated rivets are arranged on one side of the joint and the same number of rivets are also provided on the other side of the joint to make a complete joint. The pitch of the rivets should conform to the Indian Standard specifications, with a minimum to achieve economy and compactness. An optimumaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SO O Design of Steel Structures are prepared carefully and are machined to fit in the hole. Tolerances allowed are very small. These bolts have high shear and bearing resis- tance as compared to unfinished bolts, However, these bolts are obsolete nowadays. The specifications for turned bolts are given in I.$: 2591- 1969. 2.3.3 Ribbed Bolts These are also called fluted bolts. The head of the bolt is like a rivet head. The threads and nut are provided on the other end of the shank. From the shank core longitudinal ribs project making the diameter of the shank more than the diameter of the hole. These ribs cut grooves into the connected members while tightening and ensure a tight fit. These bolts have more resistance to vibrations as compared to ordinary bolts. The permissible stresses for ribbed bolts are same as that for rivets. 2.3.4 High Strength Bolts These bolts are also called friction type bolts. These are made from bars of medium carbon steel. Their high strength is achieved through quench- ing and tempering processes or by alloying steel. Steel washers of hard steel or carburized steel are provided as shown in Fig. 2.12(d), to evenly distribute the clamping pressure on the bolted member and to prevent the threaded portion of the bolt from bearing on the connecting pieces. If the bolts are tightened by the turn of nut method, the nut is made snug and is tightened a half turn more by hand wrenches, then the washers are not required. The vibrations and impact resistance of the joint is also improved. The nut and head of the bolts are kept sufficiently large to provide an adequate bearing area. The specifications for high strength bolts are laid in I.$: 3757-1972 and 1.S: 4000-1967. These bolts have a tensile strength several times that of the ordinary bolts. High strength bolts have replaced rivets and are being used in structures, such as high rise buildings, bridges, machines etc. Due to their distinct advantages and vital use, high strength bolts are discussed below in some detail. Advantage of high strength bolts High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts have replaced the rivets because of their distinct advantages as discussed below. However, the material cost is about 50% greater than that of ordinary bolts and special workmanship is required in installing and tightening these bolts. 1. These provide a rigid joint. There is no slip between the ele- ments connected. 2. Large tense stresses are developed in bolts, which in turn pro- vide large clamping force to the elements connected. High fric- tional resistance is developed providing a high static strength of the joint. 3. Because of the clamping action, load is transmitted by friction only and the he'\s are not subjected to shear and bearing.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.54 Qi Design of Steel Structures 2.4.1 Specifications Shear Structurally a pin may be treated as a cylindrically shaped beam. Assuming that bending does not exceed yield strength, the shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis of the pin and may be computed by beam-shear formula. apa VAY Id or 16V (2.24) or aT tenen tng where 7, is the maximum shear stress in pin (100 MPa), V is the shear force at the section in Newtons, d is the diameter of the pin in mm, AY is the moment of the area of the cross-section above the section under consideration about the neutral axis and J is the moment of inertia of cross-section. Calculations of shear stress from the beam-shear formula give considerable error when the span-to-depth ratio is small, as it usu- ally is for pins. This necessitates the use of nominal shear stress based on the uniform stress distribution over the pin section, in which case Typ, avg = Top = WA. ‘Note The allowable shear stress in the pins is adopted the same as that for power I driven rivets. Bearing A pin in bearing is designed in a similar manner as for rivet. A uniform bearing stress may be assumed for a proper fit between the plates and the pin. Bearing force = dt o,- (2.25) where d is the diameter of the pin in mm, t is the thickness of bar in mm and 9,,is the permissible bearing stress (300 MPa). Flexure Flexure is most critical in case of pins. The members jointed by pin connections are separated some distance because of the following reasons: 1. to prevent friction 2. to allow for rivet heads, if the member is built up, and 8. to facilitate paintingaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.58 Q Design of Steel Structures Strength of rivet in double shear = 2 x 4 a? ty 100 (10)3 =2x7(2L5)? x = 72.61 KN Thickness of cover plate 4 3 t 5 $8x16 +10 mm Let us provide two cover plates each 10 mm thick. The thickness to be considered for calculation purposes will be the thickness of the main plate or the sum of cover plates, whichever is less. Strength of rivet in bearing = dt o,¢ _ 300 = 21.5 x 16 x Gos = 103.200 kN Strength of plate in tearing = (s — d)t oy = (60 -21.5) x 16 x -150 ( )x 16x Tio = 92.400 kN Strength of the joint per pitch length in shear is the minimum. Hence, Strength of joint per pitch length = 72.61 kN Strength of solid plate per pitch length = st o,, 150 =60x 16x (10)3 = 144 kN Strength of joint ciency of joint =e ength of eolid plate x 100 _ 72.61 in x 100 = 50.42% Example 2.4 Design a riveted joint to connect two plates 14 mm thick. Power driven rivets may be used for making the connection. Solution The joint can be designed as a lap joint or as a butt joint. The design of each type of reveted joint is illustrated by this example. Finally the selection of the type of joint is done on the basis of efficiency. The diameter of the rivet can be found by using Unwin’s formulaaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.62 Q Design of Steel Structures From the above illustration it is clear that the efficiency of a double cover butt joint is maximum and therefore it should be preferred. Example 2.5 A tie member has to transmit a pull of 300 KN. Design a butt joint to connect it with 12 mm thick plate. Also find the efficiency of the joint. Assume steel of yield stress 250 MPa. Solution Nominal diameter of the rivet = 6.01 Ve = 6.01 V2 = 20.819 mm = 20 mm Provide 20 mm ¢ power driven rivets. Gross diameter of the rivet = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm Pitch of the rivets = 2.5 ¢ = 2.5 x 20 = 50 = 60 mm Let us provide a double cover butt joint. The rivets will be in double shear, Shear strength of one rivet = af a? ty =2x4 (215)? x 100 = 72.61 x 10°N 2.61 kN Bearing strength of one rivet = dt 9, 1.5 x 12 x 300 7.4 x 10°N 7.4 kN Strength of one rivet, R, = 72.61 kN Number of rivets required on each side of the butt joint = ~ = 4.13 =5 Arrange the rivets as shown in Fig. Ex. 2.5. @ eo 00:0 60 Ni 300 kN=<—| | i : ee 300 kN o0!i0 0 20 mm ¢ Rivet 8mm 12 mmet ano 8 8mm + Cover Plate Main Plate 8mm Fig. Ex. 2.5aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.66 Q Design of Steel Structures 100 (10)8 =z 2 4 (21.5)? x = 36.305 kN The thickness to be considered for bearing will be 6 mm. Strength of rivet in bearing = dé oy 300 (o)s = 21.5x6x Number of rivets = —50_ 36.305 = 1377 =2 Provide two rivets. Member BE P=65 kN It is built up of single 1.S.A, 75 mm x 75 mm x 8 mm. The rivets will be in single shear. Strength of rivet in shear = qa typ 100 (10)8 == = g(2h5? x = 36.305 kN The thickness to be considered for bearing will be 8 mm. Strength of rivet in bearing = dt o,, - 300 =21.5x8x ah = 51.60 kN Strength of one rivet, R, = 36.305 kN 65. 36.305 = 1.790 =2 Number of rivets = Provide two rivets. Example 2.7 A riveted boiler 2.5 m in diameter is made with a double riveted double cover butt joint. It is subjected to a fluid pressure of 2.0 N/mm?. Design the longitudinal joints of the boiler. Assume fy = 250 Nimm?.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Simple Connections—Riveted, Bolted and Pinned Connections OQ 73 Maximum bending moment = a 90x 104 x(40 + 10+ 10) ——— _ 90104 x60 4 Nmm 4xax 165 = 94.10 mm = 100 mm Provide an 100 mm diameter pin Check (i) Average shear stress in pin, a= (Semen xen)” _ 45x 104 4 (100)? = 57.29 Nimm? < 100 N/mm? which is as it should be. (ii) Bearing stress in the pin, 45x 104 = 00x20 = 225 N/mm?* < 300 N/mm? which is all right. Example 2.13 Design a butt joint to connect two plates 240 x 12 mm (f, = 250 N/mm?) using M20 bolts. Arrange the bolts to give maxi- mum efficiency. Solution Let us provide a double cover butt joint. Thickness of cover plate = 3x 12=7.5mm=8 mm The tensile force (7) the main plate can carry = bt Oy 240 x 12 x 0.6 x 250/108 = 432 kN Shear strength of bolt = at dryaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Chapter 3 Simple Connections— Welded Connections 3.1 INTRODUCTION When two structural members are jointed by means of welds the connection is called a welded connection. A few decades ago designers had a feeling that welded connections were less fatigue resistant and that a good quality welded connection could not be made. These negative feelings had a great impact on the use of welding in structures, But the progress made in welding equipment and electrodes, the advancing art and science of designing for welding, and the increasing trust and acceptance of welding have combined to make it a powerful implement for the expanding construction industry. ‘The economics inherent in welding ave helping to offeet increase in the prices of material and cost of labour. In addition, the shortened production cycles made possible by welding, have helped effect a quick- ening in the pace of new construction. Welding will become increasingly important as more people acquire a greater depth of knowledge and experience that goes with it. Today most of the regulatory agencies and government departments accept welded joints. There are a number of reasons for using a welded design, but a few basic ones are: 1, Welded designs offer the opportunity to achieve a more efficient use of materials. Welding is the only process that produces a one piece construction. 2. The speed of fabrication and erection helps compress production schedules. Welding permits architects and structural engineers complete free- dom of design. The usage of outstanding design advancements such asaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Simple Connections—Welded Connections Q ° 81 6" of fusion Lack of fusion (a) Incomplete penetration 4 Incomplete {1 ____J Root-face penetration (b) Gas pocket Slag inclusion (c) (c) (a) Undercut Undercut (e) Fig. 3.5 Weld defects Incomplete fusion is the failure of the base metal to get completely fused with the weld metal. It is caused by rapid welding and foreign materials on the surfaces to be welded. Incomplete penetration is the failure of the weld metal to penetrate the complete depth of joint. It is normally found with single vee and bevel joints and also because of large size electrodes. Porosity occurs due to voids or gas pockets entrapped in the weld while cooling. It results in stress concentration and reduced ductility of the metal. Normally porosity is not a problem because each void is spherical and not a notch. Even with a slight loss in section because of the voids, their spherical shape may be considered to allow a smooth flow of stress around the void without any measurable loss in strength. Mainly these are caused because of careless use of back up plates, presence of moisture in the electrodes, hydrogen in the steel and excessive current. Slag inclusions are metallic oxides and other solid compounds which are sometimes found as elongated or globular inclusions. Being lighter than the molten material these float and rise to the weld surface fromaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Simple Connections—Welded Connections O 85 strength, when the vertical leg of the weld cannot be increased. An example of this is the attachment of a channel (shear connector) over a beam flange, shown in Fig. 3.8. Here the vertical leg of the fillet weld must be held to the thickness at the outer edge of the channel flange. Additional strength must be obtained by increasing the horizontal leg of the fillet. The weld size for unequal-legged fillet weld is specified by both leg lengths. Fusion zone Increased effective p, Increased effective ¥ ~,, throat = 1.262t throat = 1.262t 7 Mek fore: Added weld Added weld Ue Dye'metal v 4 % fe, —el Erbe (a) (b) (c) Throat increased by 26% Throat increased by 26% Area increased by 100% Area increased by 59% Fig. 3.7 Leg Length of Fillet Weld Channel shear attachment Unequal-legged Beam flange fillet weld Fig. 3.8 Welding of Channel Shear Connector The maximum size of a fillet weld is obtained by subtracting 1.5 mm from the thickness of the thinner member to be jointed. This specification limits the size of the fillet weld so that total strength may be developed without overstressing the adjacent metal. A small weld placed on a thick member is undesirable. The heat generated in depositing the small size weld may not be appreciably enough to expand the base metal. Consequently, as the weld cools, it contracts and is prevented from doing so by the stable base metal. This results in initial stresses in the weld metal. Also the welding process will not heat the heavy plate much beyond the immediate vicinity of the weld. The mass of the thick plates will cool the weld too rapidly and tend to make it brittle. To help control this situation, I.S specifies the minimum size of a fillet weld as given in Table 3.2. The minimum size of the weld should not exceed the thickness of the thinner part jointed. In case of welds applied to the round toe of steel sections the maximum size of the weld should not exceed 3/4 of the thickness of the section at the toe.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Simple Connections—Welded Connections 0 89 longitudinal fillet welds. It is a common practice to treat both the welds as if they are stressed equally. 5. If only a longitudinal fillet weld is made, a check is provided to see that the length of each longitudinal fillet weld is more: than the perpendicular distance between them. 6. End returns of length twice the size of the weld are provided at each end of the longitudinal fillet weld. Note it is assumed that the strength of the longitudinal and tranverse fillet welds, as shown in Fig. 3.12, is same. Actually the strength of the transverse fillet weld is about 30% more than the longitudinal fillet weld, because a transverse fillet weld is stressed more uniformly for full length whereas a longitudinal fillet weid is stressed non-uniformly due to varying deformations along the weld length. An- other reason for the greater strength of the transverse fillet weld is given by tests which show that failure occurs at an angle other than 45°, giving transverse fillet welds a larger effective throat area. Ca a Longitudinal Fillet Weld Transverse Fillet Weld Pig. 3.12 3.9 DESIGN OF INTERMITTENT FILLET WELDS Intermittent fillet welds are provided to transfer calculated stress across a joint when the strength required is less than that developed by a continuous fillet weld of the smallest practical size, e.g. in case of con- nections of stiffeners to the web of plate girders. The fillet weld length required is computed as a continuous fillet weld and a chain of intermit- tent fillet welds of total length equal to the computed length, with spac- ing as per LS. specifications is provided, as shown in Fig. 3.13. Intermit- tent fillet welds as shown in Fig. 3.13(a) are structurally better than those shown in Fig. 3.13(b). The question of whether and to what extent intermittent welds should be used involves consideration of the following points: 1, Intermittent fillet welds are not economical unless the weld is of minimum size. A smaller fillet weld of a longer length is usually more economical for the same strength. This is because the strengthaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Simple Connections—Welded Connections Q 93 If the fillet legs are unequal, a fracture usually occurs near the shorter leg (Fig. 3.16(d)). If the tensile strength of the weld metal is considerably greater than that of the plate, the fillet may remain intact and be pulled right out of the plate (Fig. 3.16(e)). With all end fillet welds failures occur abruptly, after a small amount of deformation. er i a Line Line of. fracture = (c) | fracture Fracture =_*> in plate — — (e) (a) Fig. 3.16 Position of Fracture in End Fillet Welds Side fillet weld In a side convex fillet weld subjected to shear stress along the weld, failure occurs down the throat of the weld. The break commences at the toe of the fillet at one or both the ends of the weld and as it progresses, the plane of fracture rotates (Fig. 3.17). The failure is gradual and considerable deformation of the fillet and usually also of the plates takes place before the final fracture. a Ay So SS Fig. 3.17 Position of Fracture in Side Fillet Welds | 2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Simple Connections—Welded Connections Q 97 permanent structure rivets, welds and high strength bolts are used, whereas for temporary structures ordinary bolts and pins may be used {ii) Strength and efficiency required For high strength and efficiency, welding is preferred. {iii) Availability of skilled persons If the joint is a welded one, highly skilled people are required, whereas riveting, bolting or pin connections can be made by ordinary technicians. {iv) Cost The cost of connection influences the overall cost of the struc- ture, e.g., if the connections are to be made in the field, riveted or high strength bolted connections may be economical as compared to welded joints. Also, welding at the site may not be feasible due to lack of power supply. Some of the other factors which should be given due consider- ation are loading conditions, equipments available and skilled fabrica- tors. Unfinished bolts, being economical, can be provided for structures subjected to small static loads and temporary structures. ‘The bolting process is rapid and less skilled labour can be employed. High strength friction bolts are costly but are good for fatigue loads. Welding has the biggest advantage of giving rigid (fully moment-resisting) joints. Also, it gives a better appearance and uses metal economically. Rivets are be- coming obsolete due to their limitations as discussed earlier. These are preferred only when a simple connection with a small moment-resis- tance is desired. Normally it has been found economical to use riveted or welded connections in the shop and bolted connections in the field. Solve Fxampies Example 3.1 Two plates of thickness 16 mm and 14 mm are to be jointed by a butt weld, as shown in Fig. Ex. 3.1. The joint is subjected to a tensile force of 280 KN. Due to some reasons the effective length of the weld that could be provided was 175 mm only. Check the safety of the joint if: 1. Single-V butt weld is provided, 2. Double-V butt weld is provided. £ + t F 4 4 seem f F Fig. Ex. 3.1 Solution Assume allowable stress in butt weld in tension as 150 N/mm’.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 109 the bending moment is increasing at a rate greater than the increase in load, and the column soon fails by buckling. In general long columns fail by elastic buckling, intermediate columns by inelastic buckling, and very short columns usually fail by crushing or yielding. At the point of fail- ure, the stress in a long column will not exceed the proportional limit and it may be much lower than this limit for a very slender column. Failure of the intermediate column occurs after the extreme fibres have reached the yield point. A very short column is not really a column as such but is considered to be a block without buckling. In any case, some maximum compressive stress can be set as a limit of strength, and an allowable working stress is chosen accordingly. Also it is logical to apply a large factor of safety to a long column and a smaller factor of safety to a shorter one. It should be taken note of that the terms long, intermediate and short columns are only relative. They are defined by the interpretation of their slenderness ratio. 4.2 EFFECTIVE LENGTH The form of curve into which a compression member tends to deflect depends upon the mode of end fixtures. In each case there is a portion of the length of the compression member which bends as if this part had been a pin-jointed end. The end points of this portion of the compression member are the points of contraflexure. The effective length, J, of a compression member is the distance be- tween these points. Therefore it should be derived from the actual length and end conditions. The end conditions are accounted for through the use of effective length factors, which when multiplied by the actual length L give the effective length. Since the effective length is based on the end conditions of the compression member a precise determination of the effective length is very difficult and any arbitrary assumption may lead to serious errors. Tables 4.1 and 4.2 proved the effective length of columns and struts respectively, for various end conditions. An angle strut may be a continuous or a discontinuous strut. A con- tinuous strut is a compression member which is continuous over a num- ber of joints, such as a top chord member of a truss bridge girder, principal rafter of a roof truss, etc. In the chord members of roof truss, double unequal angle sections with their short legs placed back to back on the opposite side of the gusset plate are used. This provides greater overall stiffness to the truss against lateral bending. A discontinuous strut is a compression member which extends between two adjacent joints only, e.g., vertical or inclined compression members in a roof truss.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 113 and thus permitting use of a smaller section at high average stress. If this is possible in only one direction, then the value of the unsupported length will be different in the two directions. Sections with different radii of gyration in two directions may be so chosen as to obtain approxi- mately equal values of slenderness ratios (see Example 4.9), It would be desirable to orient the section so that the axis having the smallest ra- dius of gyration would be the one braced. Sometimes when the condi- tions at the column end, about the two axes are different, a balance between the two slenderness ratios (Ayy and Ayy) can be achieved by properly orienting the section and the material can be used to its maxi- mum stress value. An I-section electric pole fixed at the base and carry- ing wires parallel to the road is an example wherein the wires provide a hinge condition in the direction of wires (J = 0.8L) and with free end condition in the perpendicular direction (J = 21). The section is used to its full strength by providing flanges parallel to the direction of wires and thus attempting to equalise A,, and Ay. _ 0.8L 2b » Ay =e ie ee dix The slenderness ratio of compression members is limited because of the following reasons: 1. The effect of accidental and construction (fabrication, transporta- tion and erection) loads are automatically taken care of. 2. The bracing members may be used as a walkway for workmen or to provide temporary support for equipments. 3. To take care of the probability of members being subjected to unex- pected vibrations. The maximum permissible slenderness ratio for compression mem- bers are stated in Table 4.3. Table 4.3 Maximum Slendemess Ratio (A) for Compression Members SI. No. Type of Member a 1. Asstrut connected by single rivet at each end 180 2. Amember carrying compressive loads resulting from 180 dead loads and imposed loads 3, A member subjected to compressive forces resulting 250 from wind/earthquake forces, provided the deforma- tion of such members does not adversely effect the stress in any part of the structure 4. Compression flange of a beam 300 5. A member normally acting as a tie in a roof truss or 350 a bracing system but subjected to possible reversal of stresses resulting from the action of wind or earth- quake forcesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members OQ 117 Double angles placed back to back (Fig. 4.4(a)) or with legs spread (Fig. 4.4(b)) are most suited for trusses. For a double angle section back- to-back, it is desirable to use unequal angles with the long legs back-to- back to achieve a balance between radius of gyration values about the X “TIF ri +e {a) (b) (c) (d) ey ange A hk 7 @ (h) ) “o at (n) (0) Fig. 4.4 Shapes of Compression Members “Y When the legs are spread, the least radius of gyration is same as that when placed back-to-back. The stiffness of double angle sections with legs spread is greater than when placed back-to-back but this is uneconomical because of the additional cost of lacing and riveting. How- ever it has no advantage over a double angle placed back-to-back regard- ing the least radius of gyration. Two angle sections can also be used in the form of a star (Fig. 4.4(c)), This cruciform arrangement of double angles is most effective because of its approximately equal radii of gyra- tion in two directions. The box section can be formed with welded con- nection (Fig. 4.4(d)). The least radius of gyration of the section shown in Figs 4.4(c) and (d) of two equal angles is same and is more than that of the sections shown in Fig. 4.4(a, b). Four angle sections can be used as shown in Fig. 4.4(e-g). The built-up section shown in Fig. 4.4(e) is provided when the load is small. For higher loads the section shown in Fig. 4.4(f) is preferred. The section shown ir. Fig. 4.4(g) is used for moderate loads and large length, i.e. when the least radius of gyration required is large but due to excessive lacing it is uneconomical. The connecting systems can be replaced byaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members OQ 121 Lacing Channei (a) Channels Face-to-face Connected — (b) Channels Back-to-back Connec- by Single Lacing ted by Single Lacing End batten > Tie plate Angle Lacing batten (c) Channels Back-to-Back (0) Angles Connected by Connected by Battens Single Lacing Fig. 4.5 Built up Columnsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 125 Notes 1. N= 2 for two channels laced on both faces or four angles laced on all the faces. 2. To the shear V so determined any shear due to the weight of the member or due to other forces, is added and the lacing is proportioned for the combined shear. 11. The compressive force in the lacing bar is computed, which is equal to (VIN) cosec@ for single lacing system and (V/2N) cosec6, for a double lacing system. 12. The section of the lacing flat is initially assumed and then checked for safety. Width First of all the diameter of the rivet is assumed. Depending upon this the flat width is selected from Table 4.5. Table 4.5 Width of Lacing Flats Nominal diameter Width of lacing of rivet in mm flat in mm 16 50 18 56 20 60 22 65 Thickness If single lacing system is adopted, the thickness ¢ of lacing flat ¢ 1/40 of the length between the inner end rivets or welds. If double lacing system is adopted, the thickness t of the lacing flat + 1/60 of the length between the inner end rivets or welds. Note Rolled sections other than flats, e.g. angle sections and tubes can also be T used as lacing. 13. Minimum radius of gyration for the lacing flat is computed, r=t/J12. 14. The slenderness ratio of the lacing bar is computed which should be < 145. In a riveted construction, the effective length of the lacing bar is the length between the inner end rivets for a single lacing system and 0.7 times of this distance for a double lacing system. In welded constructions, the effective length of the lacing bar is 0.7 times the distance between the inner ends of the welds connecting the lacing bars to the member. 15. The compressive strength of the lacing flat is computed for the calculated value of the slenderness ratio of the lacing flat. This should be more than the force on the flat. 16. The tensile strength of the flat, which is equal to (b - d)t o,, and should be more than the force on the lacing flat, is calculated. 17. In case of riveted constructions, the rivet value is calculated and should be more than the load coming over the rivet. In case the two lacing flats are riveted at same point the load over the rivet will beaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CompressionMembers O 129 5. When placed back-to-back the spacing of the rivets should not ex- ceed 12t or 200 mm and the longitudinal spacing between intermit- tent weld should not be more than 16¢, where ¢ is thickness of the thinner section. 4.12 ENCASED COLUMN In tall buildings, designed with skeleton as a steel structure, the col- umns are encased in concrete to provide flush surfaces from the archi- tectural point of view, (Fig. 4.11). It increases the fire resistance of the column and checks corrosion of the outer columns, which otherwise have Reinforcement — Stirrups Column section Concrete (M-15 Grade) rr eee et eA Fig. 4.11 Cased Column to be painted regularly. Another use of this type of column is in the basements. In the design of such a column the following specifications as laid by I.S: 800-1984 must be followed: 1. The member should be a symmetrical I-section shape or channels back-to-back with or without cover plates. 2. The overall dimensions of the steel sections should not exceed 750 x 450 mm over plating where used, the larger dimension being measured parallel to web. 3. The column should be unpainted and solidly encased in ordinary dense concrete with a 20 mm aggregate and of minimum M-15 grade. 4, The minimum width of solid casing is by + 100 mm, where bp is the width of steel flange of the column. 5. The surface and edges of the steel column should have a concrete cover of not less than 50 mm. 6. The casing should be reinforced with steel wires in the form of strirrups which should be at least 5 mm diameter, 150 mm c/c.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 133 It is observed that the maximum bending moment never reaches the value of Pe. The shear force is plotted in Fig. 4.13(d). The shear force in various portions AB, BC, and CD of the column are R, R — H and R respectively. Similarly the values of bending moments for various end conditions of the column can be calculated and used for the design. 4.13.2 Combined Permissible Axial and Bending Compressive Stresses In most of the practical situations as discussed above, columns are sub- jected to bending moments in addition to axial loads. For such a column section the maximum stress should not exceed the yield stress i.e. P.M +2 4.1. 9, + (4.1) = Cac, cal + Pe, cal oS, a ee ee (4.2) Oy oy or Since the permissible axial compressive stress depends upon the slen- derness ratio, the permissible bending compressive stress depends on the lateral instability of the beam and different f.o.s. are used for loads and bending moments, Equation 4.2 may be modified as follows. Facyeat_ | Fhe, cal Eeeical_. Sbcieal, wa og <1 (4.3) where = calculated average axial compressive stress permissible axial compressive stress 0}. = permissible bending compressive stress sceai = Maximum bending compressive stress taking into ac- count the additional moment due to axial load inter- acting with deflections _ Fde,cat Sbe,cal ~ P. NGac,cal Pe RE bc, cal = Maximum bending compressive stress, neglecting the additional moment due to axial load interacting with deflection p, =22EL_ n° EAr? _n°EA _x?EA aR P Ur? 2 P Pp. NGaccal__ 2 Fac.eal Py 22BA/A2 22 EI feaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 137 8. The column section is checked for combined stresses as follows: The ratio of Oye, ai tO ye is worked out. oS, If “2 0.15 is as follows. Crc.cal_ Cox _ Livexcal_ Cny Soeyeal_ — Fac Fac, cal be Fac, cal Srey paar p-ase-} 4.14 SPLICES A joint when provided in the length of the column is called a splice. Column sections can be spliced in the following cases: 1. When the length of the column is more than the length of the column section available, a number of pieces are jointed to furnish the full length of the column. 2. In case of multistoreyed buildings, the section of the column re- quired for the various storeys may be different, as the load goes on increasing for columns of the lower storeys. Theoretically, a splice plate should be located at the point of contraflexure of the column. If the column ends are restrained in direction and position, this point will be at the middle of the column due to wind stresses. However, due to direct load there will be two points of contraflexure varying from the middle of column to the points above or below the middle, depending upon the amount of wind stresses. Therefore, it is common practice to design a column of two-storey length and splice it at about 30-150 cm above the floor level. This arrange- ment also keeps the splice clear of beam or wind brackets. In splicing compression members it is essential to notice the end conditions, i.e. whether the ends have been faced/milled/machined for complete bearing or not. If the bearing in the two sections is achieved completely a large portion of the load passes down to the lower column directly and the splice is designed for the remaining load. However, if the exact proportion of the load transmitted by the splice plate cannot be determined accurately because of the difficulty to achieve perfect match- ing of the two column ends, it will be desirable to design the splice foraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 143 Allowable working compressive stress = 0.80 o,, = 0.80 x 43.46 = 34.76 N/mm* Strength of the strut = 34.76 x 1167 = 40,564.92 N = 40.564 kN (c) When the strut is welded at each end, the specifications as laid by the IS. code are similar to case (a) and, therefore, the strength of the strut will be 65.98 kN. Example 4.3 Calculate the strength of a discontinuous strut of length 3.2 m. The strut consists of two unequal angles 100 mm x 75 mm x 8 mm (f, = 250 N/mm”), with long legs connected and placed: (a) on the opposite side of a gusset plate (Fig. Ex. 4.3(a)) (b) on the same side of a gusset plate (Fig. Ex. 4.3(b)) Note The strut is tack riveted and is connected to a 10 mm gusset plate. 10 mm > Gusset plate 10 mm Gusset plato Tlisa 100 x 75 x 8 mm ISA 100 x 75 x 8 mm (a) (b) Fig. Ex. 4.3 Solution From I.S. Handbook No. 1, the properties of two angles back- to-back and spaced 10 mm apart are: A = 2672 mm? (a) Ty = 31.4 mm Nyy = 32.2 mm Minimum radius of gyration, r = 31.4 mm 0.85L 0.85 x 3.2 x 10% = 2720 mm 2720 314 = 86.624 Le Faa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members OQ 147 Lig mm 7 <-> 1.S.M.C. 400 }=- 300 mm >} Fig. Ex. 4.6 T= 15.3 mm ¢= 86mm ry = 154.8 mm g=60 mm I,, = 15,082.8 x 10* mm‘ I,, = 504.8 x 104 mm‘* C,, = 24.2 mm Area of channel sections = 2 x 6293 = 12,586 mm? Area of plate section = (300 + 2 x 100) x 16 = 8000 mm? Total area provided = 12,586 + 8000 = 20,586 mm? Let the distance of neutral axis from top be y. 2x 6293 x $90.4 16) + 8000 x 38 y 20,586 = 135.168 mm I,, = 2{15,082.8 x 10* + 6293 x (216 — 135.168)"] , 500 x (16) 12 = 51,342.82 x 104 mm‘ + 500 x 16 x (195.168 — 8)? 3 Ty = 2X 504.8 x 104 + 16 x BOO 5 2x 6298 x (150 + 24.97 = 55869.22 x 10¢ mm*aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 151 Solution Let us assume allowable compressive stress of 60 MPa. Cross-sectional area required = —_ = 1500 mm? (a) Angles placed on opposite sides of gusset plate From I.S. Hand- book No. 1 select 2 1.S.A. 65 x 65 x 8 mm (weight = 154 N/m). Area provided = 1952 mm? Minimum radius of gyration, r = r,, = 19.6 mm 1=0.85L = 0.85 x 3000 = 2550 mm L . 2550 19.6 = 130.10 < 350 * 4 For 4 = 130.10 and f, = 250 MPa, r Oye = 56.94 N/mm? Safe load = 56.94 x 1952 = 111,146.88 N = 111.146 kN > load over the strut The designer may now try to economise the section. Try a section having a greater radius of gyration and less weight/m run. Select 2 I.S.A. 70 x 70 x 6 mm (weight = 126 N/m). A= 1612 mm? Minimum radius of gyration, r = 21.4mm 1. 2550 * 214 = 119.158 < 350 For 4 = 119.158 and f, = 250 MPa, r qe = 64.67 N/mm? Safe load = 64.67 x 1612 = 104,248.04 N = 104.248 kN > load over the strut Provide 2 1.S.A. 70 x 70 x 6 mm on opposite side of the gusset plate (Fig. Ex. 4.8(a)). From the above trial it is observed that the weight of the section is reduced from 154 N/m to 126 N/m and the section is still oversafe. Therefore, if desired another section may be tried to bring further economy.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 155 = 405.950 kN > 350 KN which is all right. Hence, provide I.8.H.B. 150 @ 271 N/m. Example 4.11 An 8.0 m long column of an in- 140 kN dustrial building supports a bracket 1.5 m x 10m and 1.8 m below the end supporting truss as shown 15m in Fig. Ex. 4.11. The reaction from the truss is 1.8m) 75 KN 140 KN. The bracket supports a beam transmitting an end reaction of 75 kN. The eccentricity of the 1.0 m. end reaction from the column axis is 1.00 m. The 7 ends of the column are restrained in position but not in the direction. Design the column. 8.0m Solution l=L 8.0 m x 10? mm e=1x 109mm Fig. Ex. 4.11 a=18x 10? mm 8 — 18-1) x 10° 2 x 103 mm Maximum negative bending moment = 2&¢ _ 75x 108 x 1x 109 x 18x 10? ~ 8x 108 = 16,875 x 10? Nmm Maximum positive bending moment -fe _75x 103 x 1x 103 x 5.2x 103 ~ 8 x 103 = 48,750 x 103 Nmm Hence, maximum design moment = 48750 x 103 Nmm Design axial load = 140 x 103 + 75 x 10% 15 x 109 N Assuming allowable axial compressive stress o,, = 70 N/mm?, 215x 105 70 = 3071.42 mm® Let area thus calculated be increased by 100% to account for bending moment. A= Area = 2 x 3071.42 = 6142.85 mm?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 159 Solution The problem consists of finding out the maximum bending moment on the rafter due to the applied normal loads on the purlins. The rafter is then designed for the axial compressive force and maxi- mum bending moment. Analysis for moments There are several methods by which the bend- ing moments in the continuous beam can be found. Let us use the mo- ment distribution method to calculate the moments. Fixed end moments 2x0.3x2.72 3x2.1x0.9? Mra = ~\—“g7——* a3 =-1.053 kNm Mops = +42%0:3? X2.7 3x21? x0.9 BBA = +933 5 +1.377 KNm WL Myge #5 4x3 8 =-1.5 kNm Myce = + 1.5 KNm By symmetry, Mgcp = -1.377 kNm Mpc = 1.053 kNm Distribution factors Assuming the moment of inertia to be constant throughout the rafter, IN COP COI Olaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 163 720 x 103 =e As the column is subjected to bending moments, the area computed above is increased by 25% to account for the bending moments. Area = 1.25 x 8470 = 10588 mm? From I.S. Handbook No.1, select I.S.H.B. 450 @ 872 N/m. The relevant properties are A=11114 mm? Zyx = 1742.7 x 103 mm? Zyy = 238.8 x 10° mm B= 250 mm T=13.7 mm 9.8 mm D=450 mm Ny = 51.8 mm ry = 187.8 mm Bending moment about xx-axis, M,, = 175 x 325 = 56875 kNmm Bending moment about yy-axis, My, = 125 x 400 - 120 x 300 = 14,000 kNmm _ 720 x 108 Pac, cal = T7174 = 64.78 N/mm? i, , —_Mix__ 56875 x 108 fen cal “Ze 1742.7 108 = 32.6361 N/mm? Myy _ 14,000 103 A = 8470 mm? Obey, cat == a eal 238.8% 103 = 58.6264 N/mm? T _ 13.7 2.137 _ 139722 t 98 < d, _ 450- (213.7) op 8285 Peo ond “ces t taa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.-— Compression Members Q 167 Uncased column which is all right. For 4 = 62.74 and f, = 250 MPa, r 'y Oye = 119.256 N/mm? Load carrying capacity = 119.256 x 11,114 = 1,325,411.2 N = 1325.411 kN which is all right. Cased column Column size is 550 mm x 350 mm. The column is en- cased in concrete with a 50 mm cover all around. Ty = 0.2(B + 100) = 0.2(250 + 100) = 0.2 x 350 = 70 mm 3250 7 Loo = 46.428 ; For 4 = 46.428 and f, = 250 MPa r Oye = 134.500 N/mm? Load carrying capacity = 134.500 x 11,114 = 1,494,833.0 N = 1494.833 kN < 2x 1825.411 kN which is safe. Allowable safe load on column treating it as a reinforced column, Steel area = 11,114 mm? Concrete area = (550 x 350 — 11,114) = 181,386 mm? Allowable safe load = safe load on uncased column + safe load on concrete = 119.256 x 11,114 + 181,386 x 4 = 2050.955 kN > load carrying capacity of cased column which is safe. Example 4.16 Design a built up column 10 m long to carry an axial load of 750 x 10% N. The column is restrained in position but not in direction at both the ends. Provide single lacing system with riveted connections. (a) Design the column with two channels placed back-to-backaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 173 2 or 2 x 6362.6 x 10' = 2 {0.8% 104 +4504($ ~23.6) } Ss 2 or ($-23.6) = 13,259,859 ‘S = 277.50 mm = 278 mm Let us place the channels at a spacing of 278 mm (Fig. Ex 4.16 (ii) NY s|_65 ISF 8 mm by ISMC 300 a i ° @ 325 Nim 356——t [+300 mm 278 mm ee Fig. Ex. 4.16(ii) Connecting system Provide a single lacing system. Assume the inclina- tion of the lacing bar be 45°. C = 2(278 — 50 — 50) cot 45° = 356 mm = 13.6393 <50 and should be < 0.7 x 84.674 (= 59.2718), which it is. Compressive force in lacing bar = 13.258379 x 10°N Section of lacing flat Let us provide 18 mm ¢ rivets Gross diameter of rivet = 19.5 mm Spacing Width of flat = 55 mm Thickness of flat = 3. (278 — 50 ~ 50) x cosee 45° = 6.29 mm = 8 mmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q #77 Provide depth of tie plate = 231 mm Length of tie plate = 183.5 + 2x 50 = 283.5 mm Thickness of the plate = Fh (183.5 2« 50) = 567mm = 8mm (to accommodate 5 mm weld) Provide a tie plate 283.5 x 231 x 8 mm and connect it with 5 mm weld as shown in Fig. Ex. 4.16(iii). Example 4.17 Design a connecting system as battens with riveted connections for the column in Example 4.16. Use two channel sections back-to-back. Solution P = 750 x 10°N L=10.0m Effective length = 1.1x« 10=11m 750 x 103 Cross-sectional area required = 20° 2"" - 6818 mm? Provide 2 LS.M.C. 300 @ 358 N/m. The relevant properties of I.S.M.C. 300 are, A = 4564 mm? Ty = 118.1 mm Ty = 26.1 mm Ty, = 6362.6 x 104 mm Jy = 310.8 x 10* mm* Area provided = 2 x 4564 = 9128 mm? 111x108 | 77 nea 79" For 4 = 93.14, and f, = 250 MPa, r Gy: = 86.86 N/mm? Load carrying capacity = 86.86 x 9128 = 792,858.08 N = 792.85 kN > 750 kN which is all right. The spacing of the channels will be same as calculated in the previous example i.e. 183.5 mm. In the design of battened column it is preferred to keep Iy, > Iyy- Therefore, let us assume a spacing of 200 mm.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 181 10x 103 Revised centre to centre spacing of battens = oe = 1250 mm Example 4.18 Design a column of effective length 5.90 m. It is , subjected to an axial load of 1400 KN. Provide two channels back-to-back connected with battens by welded connection. Assume f, = 250 MPa. Solution 1400 x 109 Cross-sectional area required = 2400* 10” _ 40769.2 mm? 130 Provide 2 I.S.M.C. 350 @ 421 Nim. The relevant properties of I.S.M.C. 350 are, A= 5366 mm* Ty = 186.6 mm Ty = 28.3 mm Tx. = 10008 x 10‘ mm* 1, = 430.6 x 10* mm* Cy = 24.4 mm Area provided = 2 x 5366 = 10,732 mm? 11x 5.90 x 103 136.6 » u I~ 4 For 4 = 47.51, and f, = 250 MPa, r Oye = 133.74 N/mm? Load carrying capacity = 133.74 x 10,732 = 1,435,927 N = 1435.9 kN > 1400 KN which is safe. Spacing of channels yy = afin +a($+Cy y} ‘ 2 or 2 x 10,008 x 10° = 2 {490.610 +5366 (+ 24.4) | or S' = 218.39 mm = 220 mmaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.—_—e_[_[_—_—_—_—==— Compression Members Q 189 Thickness of the tie plate = s (286 - 45 - 45) = 3.92 mm =8mm Provide 286 x 300 x 8 mm tie plate and connect it with rivets as shown in Fig. Ex. 4.19. 300 x 8 mm Tie plate 2 (ro ,_-ISA 90 x 90 x 6 mm aml Fig. Ex. 4.19 Example 4.20 A column LS.H.B. 300 @ 588 N/m is to support a load of 600 KN. The column section is to be spliced at a height of 2.5 m. Design the splice plate. Assume fy = 250 MPa. Solution Assume the ends of the column sections to be machined for complete bearing. As the column ends are flush it is assumed that 50% of the load is transferred directly and 50% is transferred through the splice and fastenings. Therefore, 600 x 1000 4 = 150 x 10°N Relevant properties of L.S.H.B. 300 @ 588 N/m are A= 7485 mm? The load on the splice =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Compression Members Q 193 5.415 =6mm Provide splice palte 250 x 6 mm cross-section. ‘Note The splice plate is made 250 mm wide because the lower column flange is 250 mm wide. But, for calculation of thickness of the splice plate, upper column flange width is considered being less and the width of the splice plate at the extreme top end will be 200 mm only. Connection Let us provide 18 mm diameter power driven rivets. Gross diameter = 18.0 + 1.5 = 19.5 mm Minimum pitch = 2.5 « 18.0 = 45 mm Provide 60 mm pitch. For 18 mm ¢ rivets, edge distance = 29 mm. Let us provide an edge distance of 30 mm. Strength of the rivet in single shear = fa Caf = F19.5) x 100/103 = 29.86 KN Strength of the rivet in bearing = dt a, = 19.5 x 6 x 300/10° = 35.1KN 162.5 x 103 29.86 x 103 = 5.44 ~6 Provide 6 rivets to connect the splice plate on each flange. The rivets are provided in two vertical rows at a pitch of 60 mm and at an edge distance of 30 mm. Depth of splice plate = 4 x 60 + 4x 30 + 50 = 410 mm Provide splice plate 410 250 (reducing to 200 mm at the top) x 6 mm as shown in Fig. Ex. 4.21. Number of extra rivets Extra rivets for filler plates are designed as per the LS. specifications. ‘Thickness of filler plates = 50 mm >6mm Number of rivets, n = For each 2 mm thickness rivets are increased by 2.5%. Increase rivets by EK 4 = 62.5% Extra rivets = 5.44 x 0.625 = 3.4 =4194 Q Design of Steel Structures mT) mm 6 Rivets 30mm a 60 mm o | 30mm + 30mm °° 7 60 mm 60 mm a8 30mm oo oo | \410mm 50 mm 30 mm oO oo 60 mm oo | 60 mm 30 mm — ISHB 300 @ 630 Nim Front View Side View Fig. Ex. 4.21 Provide 4 rivets on packings i.e. 2 in each vertical row on each filler plate Note Web cleat angles of nominal size are provided when the column sections to Ibe spliced are not of the same cross-section. Example 4.22 A column section .S.H.B. 300 @ 630 N/m (f, = 250 N/mm’) is to be spliced. The design loads are: Axial load over the column 300 kN Shear force 75 KN Bending moment 20 kNm Solution Assuming the column ends to be machined for complete bear- ing 50% of the load is transferred directly and 50% by the fasteners. Also, as splicing is done for both the flanges, Direct load on each splice = xe x 0.5 = 75 kN i 20 x 106 Load on splice due to moment = 7 = 65.36 kN (Assuming 6 mm thick splice plate, the lever arm = 300 + 6 mm) Total design load = 75 + 65.36 = 140.36 kN Width of splice plate = width of the flange = 250 mm , . |g 140.36 103 _ Thickness of splice plate required = >= e5— = 3.7429 mm =6mm Provide a 250 x 6 mm splice plate. Length of splice plate The length of the splice plate depends upon the number of rivets in the vertical row.Compression Members Q 195 Let us provide 22 mm ¢ rivets. Gross diameter of rivet = 22 + 1.5 = 23.6 mm Strength of rivet in single shear = " (23.5)? x 100 = 43,373.6 N Strength of rivet in bearing = 23.5 x 6 x 300 = 42,300 N The value of one rivet, R, = 42,300 N 140,360 42,300 Let us revise the design and provide 20 mm ¢ rivets for economy. The gross diameter of the rivet = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm Number of rivets required, n = = 3.318 Value of the rivet in single shear = ‘ (21.5)? x 100 = 36,305 N Value of the rivet in bearing = 21.5 x 6 x 300 = 38,700 N The rivet value is 36305 N 140,360 * "36,305 Provide four rivets 20 mm ¢ on each side of the splice. Minimum pitch of rivets = 2.5 9 = 2.5 x 20 = 50 mm Provide a pitch of 60 mm. For 20 mm of rivets minimum edge distance is 29 mm = 30 mm Let us provide edge distance of 30 mm Length of splice plate = 2 x 60 + 4 x 30 = 240 mm Provide a splice plate 240 x 250 x 6 mm on column fanges as shown in Fig. Ex. 4.22. = 3.866 =4 30 mm 60 mm 30mm 30mm 60 mm 30mm 20 mm ¢ Rivets ste te she. 300 @ 630 Nim Front View Side View Fig. Bx. 4.22196 Q Design of Steel Structures Splice plate for shear The splice plate for the shear force is provided on the web. Two splice plates (one on each side of the web) are provided. Connections Let us provide 20 mm ¢ rivets. Gross diameter of the rivet = 20 + 1.5 = 215mm The rivets will be in double shear Value of the rivet in double shear= 2x i ary =2x = x (21.5)? x 100 = 72,610 N Value of rivet in bearing = dt o,¢ (With 6 mm shear splice plate) = 21.5 x 6 x 300 = 38,700 N The value of rivet = 38,700 N Maximum shear force in the web = 75 kN . . 75x 108 _ Number of rivets required = 3>755-= 19379 Provide two rivets on each side of the splice, Minimum pitch = 2.59 2.5 x 20 = 50 mm Provide a pitch of 60 mm Minimum edge distance for 20 mm @ rivets = 29 mm Let us provide edge distance of 30 mm. Size of shear splice plate, Ty, max = 15%) avg Hence, maximum shear force = 1.5 x 75 = 112.5 kN Maximum permissible shear stress = 0.45 f, = 0.45 x 250 = 112.5 N/mm? Let A = cross-sectional area required by one plate. 1 112.5% 108 _ 3 A=9g* Ti2.5 = 500 mm: Provide a 140 mm wide splice plate. Thickness of the splice plate required, _ 500 t= 779 73-57mm ¢ 6mmCompression Members Q 197 So provide a 140 x 6 mm splice plate. Length of the plate = 60 + 2 x 30 = 120 mm Provide a 120 x 140 x 6 mm shear splice plate. [EXERCISES ‘Note : Use the steel of yield stress 250 MPa if not spcified in the problem. 4.1 A single angle section I.S.A. 60 x 60 x 8 mm, 3.0 m long, is used as a strut. The ends are welded to the gusset plates. Compute the maximum load it can carry. 4.2 A strut consists of a double angle section LS.A 70 x 70 x 8 mm and is 3.2 m long. The member is connected to the gusset plate by 20 mm ¢ power driven three rivets. Calculate the maximum compressive load the member can transfer. (a) when the angles are placed on the opposite sides of 12 mm thick gusset plate. (b) when the angles are placed on the same side of 12 mm thick gusset plate. 43 Find the safe compressive axial load for the following sections. (See Fig. Prob. 4.3). 400 x 16 mm ISMC 350 ISMC 350 ~~ ISLC 300 @ 'SHB 900 a5 | 58 Nn @ 588 Nim ISHB 250 | @siowm_| ‘wom 7m l=6m Fig. Prob. 4.3 4.4. A discontinuous strut of 3 m length between the intersections consists of two angles 110 x 110 x 8 mm. The angles are placed back to back on the opposite side of the gusset plate and are tack riveted. Calculate the per- centage change in the load carrying capacity if the two angles are placed on the same side of the gusset plate. 4.5 Design a single discontinuous strut to carry a 100 KN load. The length of the strut between c/c of intersections is 3.40 m. Assume /, = 280 N/mm’. 4.6 Design a double angle discontinuous strut to carry a load of 175 kN. The length of the strut between c/c of intersection is 3.85 m. 4.7 Design a continuous strut to carry a load of 160 kN. ‘The effective length of the strut is 5.8 m. Assume f, = 230 N/mm”. 4.8 Design a column section to be used in a public building. Column is 4.80 m long with its ends restrained in direction and position. The column is to support a 1800 kN load. 4.9 Design a built-up column with two channels. The column is of 6.6m. effective length and supports a load of 1080 KN. Also design the lacing. 4.10 Design a built-up column with four angles laced together. The effective length of the column is 7.20 m and it supports a load of 1200 KN.198 4.11 412 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 Q Design of Steel Structures Design a column with a two channel section laced together to support a load of 3300 KN. The effective length of the column is 5.2 m. Design a column of length 6.30 m to carry a load of 700 KN at an eccentric- ity of 100 mm from the centroidal axis of the column across the web. The ends of the column are pinned. Design the above column if the eccentricity of the load is 100 mm along the web and 180 mm across the web. Design a column section subjected to an axial load of 520 kN and a mo- ment of 80 kNm about the major axis. The effective length of the column is 4.80 m, How much moment along the minor axis can be allowed along with the above forces for the section designed. A column section 1.S.H.B. 150 @ 271 N/m is to be spliced with another column section [.S.H.B. 150 @ 346 N/m. The load on the column is 228 KN. Design the splice. Assume f, = 220 N/inm?. A column section I.8.H.B. 450 @ 872 N/m is to be spliced with a column LS.H.B. 300 @ 588 N/m. The load on the column is 572 KN. Design a suitable splice. If a shear force of 110 KN also acts, design the shear splice. A column section 1.S.H.B. 225 @ 468 N/m is to be spliced at floor level. The forces at the section are axial load, transverse shear and bending moment of 325 kN, 90 kN, 31 kN m. Design a suitable splice.Chapter Column Bases and Footings 5.1 INTRODUCTION Steel columns are normally supported over concrete blocks. However, when the loads supported by these columns are large and the bearing pressure of concrete from below is insufficient to resist the loads, they may fail. Therefore, it is a normal practice to distribute the column loads to steel base plates which are placed over these concrete blocks. When the soil has very low bearing capacity, large concrete blocks may become uneconomical and in such cases grillage footing is provided. 5.2 TYPES OF COLUMN BASES The safety of a column and thus of a structure depends mainly upon the stability of the foundation and conse- quently on the bases, in the case of steel | columns. Therefore, the column base should be designed with great care. For caume an axially loaded column, the pressure distribution between the base plate and concrete pedestal is assumed to be uni- form (Fig. 5.1). In actual cases, the pres- 1 Base sure distribution is non-uniform and the [~~ T —} plate effect of non-uniformity is accounted for ; i by taking a slightly low permissible bear- LEEREELLELS) ing pressure of concrete. Column bases fig, 5.1 Assumed Pressure Distri- are classified as follows: bution Under Base Plate 1, Slab base 2. Gusset base200 Q Design of Steel Structures 5.3 SLAB BASE When the column is subjected to only direct loads, the base can be designed by assuming a uniform bearing pressure from below. For small loads, a steel plate alone can be used to transmit the loads to the concrete pedestal. Such a base plate is called slab base (Fig. 5.2). When the columns are subjected to bending moments along with direct forces, angle sections are attached to the flanges of column. These angles are anchored with foundation bolts to the concrete pedestal. Even if the column is subjected to direct force only, nominal angle sections should be provided to keep the column in place, and to resist any tension due to erection and connections. Angles may be omitted if the base plate is shop welded to the column. Concrete pedestal Fig. 5.2 Slab Base 5.3.1 Theoretical Considerations It is assumed that the maximum bending moment occurs at the edge of the column (Fig. 5.3). As the slab tends to bend simultaneously about the two principal axes of the slab, the stress caused by bending about one axis is influenced by the stress due to bending about the other axis. Taking 1 mm strip of slab projection along x — x axis Maximum bending moment = w x 1 xa x a Ben (5.1) Taking 1 mm strip of slab projection along y-y axis b Maximum bending moment = w x 1x 6 x 5 (5.2)Column Bases and Footings OQ 201 Lx * a = Greater overhang b = Smaller overhang Column Slab base mt PEEPEREREEREEREE wa w N/énm? a2 ' Fig. 5.3. Slab Base Let oy. i and o,,, be the maximum tensile stresses for overhangs of lengths a and b respectively, and let 0, be the bending stress in slab base. Then, Moment of resistance for overhang of length a = yp, 2 = Oy, X EXE (5.3) and Moment of resistance for overhang of length b = Oz 2 = Oy, X 2X1 (5.4) For equilibrium, the moment should be equal to moment of resistance. From Eqs (5.1) and (5.3) Cart? wa? Bwa? Tee FR Fats = pe and from Eqs (5.2) and (6.4) Sat, _ wh? Bwb? igre gS ay Bg But the tensile stress o,,, in the axial direction ax causes a compressive stress equal to 4 Oy, in the axial direction yy, where y is Poisson's ratio, assumed to be 0.25. The net tensile stress o,, (axis yy) _3wa? (3wb2 =a -0.25 aap) U202 QO Design of Steel Structures or (5.6) where ¢ = thickness of the slab base 6, = permissible bending stress in the slab base (185 MPa) 5.3.2 Design The design of a base plate consists in finding out its size and thickness. Following are the design steps of base plate: 1. 2. 5. Assume a suitable allowable bearing pressure on the concrete, de- pending upon the grade of concrete used. The area of a slab base may be computed by _ P allowable bearing pressure on concrete where A = area of the base plate required in mm? P = direct load The allowable bearing pressure on the concrete of M-15 grade is taken as 4.0 N/mm’, |. A square base plate is generally provided. The side of the base plate may be worked out by Eq. 5.7. L=B=VA 6.72 Some designers feel that the projections of the base plate beyond column edges a, 6 as shown in Fig. 5.4 may be kept equal and the sides can be worked out by Eq. 5.8. (d + 2b) x (by + 2a) =A (5.8) where L = length of base plate in mm B = width of base plate in mm bigger projection of base plate beyond column in mm b = smaller projection of base plate beyond column in mm d = depth of column section in mm bo = width of the flange of column in mm |. The intensity of pressure w, from the concrete pedestal is worked out by --2 are where w = intensity of pressure from concrete under the slab in N/mm? A, = area of base plate provided in mm? ‘The minimum thickness of the slab base is calculated from Eq. 5.6.Column Bases and Footings OQ 203 , ae Column —-] ees Anchor bolts plate Concrete’ __| pedestal Base plate ——} Top View Fig. 5.4 Projections of Base Plate beyond Column Edges 6. Ifa solid round steel column is supported over a square base plate, then the thickness of the base plate is calculated from Eq. 5.9. v2 ¢=10/ S00 B } (59) 166, B-d where ¢ = thickness of plate in mm W = the total axial load in KN B = the length of the side of the base in mm $1.5(dy + 75mm dy = the diameter of the column in mm Note: The bottom of the column and the supporting surface of the base are T machined so that the load is transmitted to the plate by direct bearing. 5.3.3 Foundation Bolts Whenever bending moments are present, foundation bolts of adequate sizes must be designed to hold the column down to the concrete pedestal.206 Design of Steel Structures 3. The size of the gusset material is assumed. The gusset plate should not be less than 16 mm in thickness. The gusset angle is chosen so as to accommodate two rows of rivets in the vertical leg and one row of bolts in the horizontal leg. Subsequently an unequal angle section is provided. The thickness of the gusset angle should be almost same as that of the gusset plate. The length of the gusset material is normally kept equal to the length of the base plate, parallel to the flange of the column. The dimension of base plate parallel to the web, L = depth of section + 2(thickness of gusset plate + leg length of . angle + overhang) (The overhang should be kept maximum, say, about 1 cm from the gusset angle toe.) The dimension of base plate parallel to flange, B = 4 4. The intensity of the bearing pressure w from the concrete below the base is worked out using the following expression. P Bearing pressure, w = Ai where A, = area of the base plate provided. 5. The thickness of the base plate is computed by equating the mo- ment at the critical section to the moment of resistance of the gusset at that section. The critical section is assumed to lie at the root of the fillet of the angle section. For unit width of the plate, 2 BM. at the critical section 1-1, M = ” (6.11) Moment of resistance at the critical section 1-1, Mp=Z o,, = EX1x Px oy t2 -6 Tbs For equilibrium the moment should be equal to moment of resis- tance. M=Mz 2 42 S = £ Obs or > t= cfBw/o,, (5.12) t’ = ¢— thickness of angle sectionColumn Bases and Footings Q 207 where w = intensity of pressure from concrete under the slab in N/mm? c = the portion of the base plate acting as a cantilever in mm equired thickness of base plate in mm thickness of base plate at the critical section in mm = thickness of base plate + thickness of angle section resisting the moment at critical section 0,, = the permissible bending stress in slab base (185 MPa) 6. The connections are designed for forces to which the column is subjected. If the column ends and gusset materials are not faced/ machined for complete bearing, the fasteners are designed for the total forces to be transferred. If they are faced for complete bear- ing, 50% of the forces are transferred directly by the column and 50% through the fasteners. 7. The diameter of the rivet is assumed and the rivet value is com- puted in single shear and bearing. The number of rivets are worked out by t af TER (6.13) v where number of rivets P’ = the force on the fasteners in Newtons R, = rivet value in Newtons These rivets are provided to connect the gusset plate with the column flange. The height of the gusset plate depends upon the number of rivets to be accommodated. The same number of rivets are provided to connect the gusset plate with the gusset angle. Nominal size rivets/bolts are provided on the horizontal leg of the gusset angle to keep the column in position. 5.4.2 Design of Bases for Eccentrically Loaded Columns ‘When the base plates are loaded eccentrically the pressure distribution from the concrete does not remain uniform. The compressive stress is maximum near one of the edges of the base plate and decreases towards the other edge. Let the column be subjected to a load P, at an eccentricity of e, caus- ing a moment M(= Pe) and an axial load P. This gives rise to a combina- tion of axial compressive stress and bending stress. Due to axial load P, the pressure distribution is uniform and stress diagram is rectangular, as shown in Fig. 5.7(a). P P The direct stress = A, 7 IE where A, = area of base plate provided. Due to the bending moment the bending stress developed (Fig. 5.7(b)) is208 \ Design of Steel Structures rae EETEET TET be oeet T Tt Bry + 6p. BL {a) Stress Distribution, Load Axial (b) Bending Stress Distribution 5(-#) wm + 1 \ecreeEEEE De 8) eee eerie LB L T t v () Combined Axial and Bending Stress (d) Combined Stress for no Tension v Axis of column i 3 i IN e—L/2 —e=<— L/2—1 es gore t Tr (e) Stress Distribution for Small Tension : bs $m} (f) Stress Distribution for Large Tension Fig. 5.7 Stress Distribution for Bases The combined stress due to axial load and bending moment as shown in Fig. 5.7(c) are, ‘i P , 6Pe Combined stress = iB + BIEColumn Bases and Footings OQ 209 =e (12%) (5.14) It is desirable to have the combined stress compressive because con- crete is weak in tension. Depending upon the eccentricity and length of the base plate, three cases are possible. From Eq. 5.14., (i) When there is no tension, 1-$2-9 = e=4 (Case D (ii) When the tension developed is small e= £ to & (Case II) (iii) When the tension developed is substantial e > £ (Case III) The length of base plate required in all the three cases is kept minimum from economy point of view. It is calculated in a way similar to that for an axially loaded column. The width and thickness of the base plate for the above cases are calculated by the procedures given below. The thickness so calculated does not include the thickness of gusset angle. Case I: When there is no tension e st 1, Draw the stress diagram by (Fig. 5.7(d)) substituting the value of eccentricity in Eq. 5.14. When e = £ Combined stress = a 0 2. Calculate the width of base plate using the Eq. 5.14. 3. Calculate the thickness of base plate by equating the bending mo- ment and moment of resistance at the critical section, which is assumed to be at the outer edge of the column section flange. Case II: When the tension developed is small. Lik lies between = to = ¢ lies between & to 3 It is assumed that tension in the far side bolts is negligible. 1. For calculating distance x refer to Fig. 5.7(e). x,,-L 3°82 L =3(E_ Ki > a(4 e) (5.15) 2. Caleulate the width of the base plate from Eq. 5.16. Compressive force (C) in concrete = area of stress triangle x width210 -Q Design of Steel Structures x0, C= B This compressive force should be equal to the load acting (P) xO, B=P 2 = Ba 2P (5.16) xO, Substituting the value of x from Eq, 6.15 into Eq. 5.16 (5.17) 3. The thickness of base plate is calculated in a way similar to that in case I. Case III: When the tension developed is substantial e >e The problem is analysed using the concrete beam theory. 1. Calculate the depth of the neutral axis. Fi ; G on From the stress diagram, (Fig. 5.7(f)) 5, [nae ave SE i (5.18) 1+— mo, where 0 = tensile stress in the bolts (120 MPa) n = depth of neutral axis from the near edge m = modular ratio (18) 2. Calculate the compressive force (C) in concrete by taking moment about the farthest side bolt (i.e. about line of action of tensile force). cag ember) where d = distance of bolts on the far side from near edge r = edge distance of bolts 3. Calculate the width of base plate. The compressive force in the concrete from the stress diagram is given byColumn Bases and Footings Q 211 Bro, 2 => Bete “26, (5.20) 4. The thickness of base plate is calculated in a way similar to that in case I. 5. Design the anchor bolts. Calculate uplift in bolts, 7=C -P Calculate net area of the bolts at root of threads, A, a tf Size of the anchor bolts may be chosen between 20 - 39 mm. Length of the bolts should not be less than 24 times the diameter. 5.5 WELDED COLUMN BASES Figure 5.8 shows some of the welded column bases for small loads. In Fig. 5.8(a) the column shown is shop welded to the base plate. The others shown in Figs 5.8(b, c) are intended for where the column and I ft | (a) (b) (e) Fig. 5.8 Welded Column Bases Loaded Lightly base plates are erected separately. The angles are shop welded to the column, and the column field welded to the base plate after erection. The design of these hold down angles is discussed in Sec. 5.6. Some typical welded column bases are shown in Fig. 5.9. In Figs 5.9 (a, b) brackets are welded to the flanges to develop greater moment of resistance for attachment to the base plate. The arrangement shown in Fig. 5.9(b) provides an excellent arrangement of multistorey buildings. A single bevel or vee joint is prepared by beveling the edge of the bracket; no beveling is done on the column flange.Column Bases and Footings O 213 The arrangement shown in Figs 5.9(c, d) are adopted when a fillet weld is employed. The two bracket plates may be attached to the face of the column flange (Fig. 5.9(c)) or to the outer edge of the column flange (Fig. 5.9(d)) and fillet welded-to the base of the column. The former arrangement is a better one since for moments in any rolled section used as a column, greater bending strength and stiffness is obtained about the x-x axis. Therefore, if the moment is about x-x axis, it would be better to attach the additional plates to the face of the column as in Fig. 5.9(c). This will provide a good transverse fillet across the column flange and good accessibility for welding to the two longitudinal fillet welds along the outer edge of the column flange. The only slight drawback is that the attached plates will not stiffen the overhung portion of the base plate for the bending due to tension in the hold-down bolts, or due to upward bearing pressure of the masonry or concrete support. However, if this is a problem, small brackets shown in dotted lines may be added. Channe! sections with stiffeners are shown in Figs 5.9(e, f). These are used for the required moment from the hold down bolts. When the chan- nels are set flush with the column ends (Fig. 5.9(e)) and milled to bear, the additional bearing load must be considered in the design. However, if channels are offset from the column ends (Fig. 5.9(f)), they should be designed for only tension from the hold down bolts. Any vertical tensile load on the channels from the hold down bolts, or vertical bearing load from the base plate will produce a horizontal force at the top which will be applied transverse to the column flange and for this stiffner plates shown by dotted lines are added (Fig. 5.9(e)) between the column flanges. Figure 5.9(g) shows the hold down bolt supports welded to the column flanges. A typical column base for a crane runway girder column is shown in Fig. 5.9(h). Two large plates are fillet welded to flanges of the column welded to the base plate. Two long narrow plates are welded to this, with small diaphragms. This provides additional strength and stiffeness of the base plate through beam action for the forces from the hold down bolts. 5.6 DESIGN OF HOLD-DOWN ANGLES AND BASE PLATES When there is appreciable uplift on the column, the angle connected to the column flange and base plate is subjected to bending action. The horizontal leg of the angle may be treated as a cantilever beam, fixed at one end by clamping action of the hold down bolts (Fig. 5.10). This is not quite true since there is some restraint offered by the other leg of the angle. Some designers assume the horizontal leg to act as a beam with both the ends fixed. The resulting moment will be half that indicated by the previous approach. Since the vertical leg of the angle is not completely fixed it will increase the moment in the horizontal leg near the bolt. This approach of analyses is probably more correct and is as follows:214 Q Design of Steel Structures Moment diagram Fig. 5.10 When an uplift force P, acts, the upper end of the vertical leg if not restrained will tend to move horizontally (A,) as shown in Fig. 5.11. P, rit te qd ~~ Resulting moment | t i IM = P,b Fb—Lp, T = Fig. 5.11 The resulting moment is, M = P, b _ area of moment diagram and Mn ET x lever arm 1 _FPbvbd preg -" "ET ~~ 25T Since the angle on the other side does provide restraint, a horizontal force P,, is applied to pull the leg back to its support position. The resulting moment is, M = P,, d (Fig. 5.12). Resulting momentColumn Bases and Footings OQ 215 = Area dun lever arm xEl 1 _Padod a PADGPOd pag EI 3a +? Since Anh = Shv P,d _ bed Bar (36+d) = ET _ 8Pyd? Pa sab +d) Combining the initial moment resulting from the uplift force (Fig. 6.13, (a)) and the secondary moment resulting from the restraint offered by M=P,b E = Pe b(3b + 20) E | = 3Pv 6? “~~ 2(3b +d) Mara * 2(8b +d) |= (@) (b) © Fig. 5.13 the opposite angle (Fig. 5.13(b)) gives the resulting moment diagram as shown in Fig. 5.13(c). ! 3P,b2 Moment at the heel of the angle, M = Webra P,b (3b + 2d) and at the hold-down bolts = —a0@bsd)— Thickness of the angle ze o Le _M “r “eo 6M t= * Lo When the vertical leg of the angle is welded for its full length as shown in Fig. 5.14(a),216 Q Design of Steel Structures P, b(3b + 2d) “~~ 2(3b + d) Pyb 3P, b2 2 “Bap4q) Oo (a) (©) Fig. 5.14 When the vertical leg is welded only at its toe to the column as shown in Fig. 5.14(b), ,~_[8Pob b+ 2d) “VY Lo (8b+d) The design of the base plate is done as described in section 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5. 5.7 GRILLAGE FOOTING The Grillage footing, (Fig. 5.15) essentially consists of steel beams en- cased in concrete. These may be provided when, 1. The loads on the column are extremely heavy, e.g., in tall build- ings. The base plate required in such cases will be of a very large dimensions and this may not be feasible. 2. The bearing capacity of the soil on which the concrete block is to be placed may be poor, which results in large dimensions of the con- crete pedestal and base plate. The column in such cases is placed over the base plate which in turn is supported over two or more tiers of beams, and the whole thing is encased in concrete (Fig. 5.15). The successive tiers of beams run at right angles to each other. Concrete in the grillage footing checks theColumn Bases and Footings OQ 217 Top View Fig. 5.15 Grillage Footing buckling of the beam. As the grillage beams are encased in concrete, most of the requirements of cased beams apply to them. As per I.S: 800- 1984, the following conditions must be fulfilled: (a) The beam should be unpainted and solidly encased in concrete with 10 mm aggregate and a working cube strength of not less than 15 N/mm’ in 28 days. These are never painted as painted beams do not bond with concrete effectively. (b) The beams in each tier are spaced such that the minimum spacing between the flanges of two consecutive beams is not less than 75 mm. Pipe separators are provided to maintain proper spacing be- tween beams. This is done to place and compact the concreté prop- erly.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Column Bases and Footings Q 219 its ends and at the centre. Maximum shear occurs at the edge of the base plate. The load/mit length of beam = & + _P(L-a Maximum shear force = L ( 2 ) (5.21) Similarly, (5.22) The bending moment in the beam is zero at the ends and is maximum at the centre. woth te " woZ(E-8) or M= z (L-a) (5.23) Similarly, M Gusset plate = 1200 x 290 x 16 mm Gusset angle 150 x 115 x 15mm il iH gl x Base plate 1200 x 630 x 16 mm Front View 16, 24 mm ¢ rivets at 60 mm c/e — Side View Fig. Ex. 5.1 = cf 3w/o5, = 109 3 x3.968/185 = 27.64 = 28 mm Thickness of the base plate required = 28 — 15 = 13 mm. Provide a 16 mm thick base plate as it should not be thinner than the gusset plate. Provide a 1200 x 630 x 16 mm base plate. Connections: Let us provide 24 mm ¢ power driven rivets. Gross diameter = 24 + 1.5 = 25.5 mm Strength of rivet in single shear = a (25.5)? x 100 = 51,070.5 N Strength of rivet in bearing = 25.5 x 11.6 x 300 = 88,740 N Rivet value, R, = 51,070.5 N Let us assume that the column ends and gusset material are faced for complete bearing. Number of rivets required to connect the column flanges to gusset plates, 3000 x 103 «dy SA 229.970 = 32 aad? 2R, 2 §1,070.5aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Column Bases and Footings Q 225 The length of the base acting as cantilever, e=14+115-15 =114mm The combined thickness of base plate and gusset angle at critical sec- tion, t =c/3w/o,, = 114 /3 x 3.906/185 = 28.69 mm Thickness of the base plate required = 28.69 — 15 = 13.69 mm + 16 mm (the thickness of gusset plate) Hence, provide 640 x 440 x 16 mm base plate. Conriections: Let us provide 20 mm ¢ power driven rivets. Gross diameter, d = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm Strength of the rivet in single shear = qe ty = z (21.5) x 100 = 36,305.03 N Strength of the rivet in bearing = dt o,, 21.5 x 11.6 x 300 = 74820 N (The thickness ¢ is taken as the minimum of flange thickness of column section and of gusset plate.) Hence, rivet value, R, = 36,305.03 N Number of rivets required to connect flange of column to gusset plate assumihg the column ends and gusset material to be faced for complete bearing. (50% of the load will pass through fastenings.) _ 0.5P a _ 0.5 x 1100 x 108 86,305.03 = 15.14 = 16 Therefore, provide 8 rivets on each face in two rows. The number of rivets required to connect the gusset plate with gusset angle are kept same. Therefore, 8 rivets should be used to connect the gusset plate and the gusset angle. n226 1 Design of Steel Structures The gusset angles are fastened to the base plate by means of four rivets 22 mm ¢ to keep the column in position. The rivets on the gusset plate will be provided at a pitch as calculated below. R,=(s-d)t Om or Out 36,305.03. ~ 150x116 = 42.3 mm ¢ 2.5 $ (= 2.5 x 20 = 50 mm) Therefore, provide a pitch of 60 mm. Edge distance of 20 mm ¢ rivets is 29 mm. Let us provide an edge distance of 40 mm. Size of the gusset plate: Height of the gusset plate = 150 + 2 x 40 + 60 290 mm Length of the gusset plate = length of base plate = 440 mm Therefore, provide a gusset plate 290 x 440 x 16 mm. Provide 4 an- chor bolts 24 mm 9@ at the corners of the base plate to connect it to the concrete pedestal. Example 5.3 Design the base plate in Example 5.2, if in addition to the column load it is subjected to a bending moment of: (1) 60 KNm, and 215 (2) 120 kNm Design the anchor bolts if required. Solution qa) P= 1100 kN M = 60 kNm __ 60x 103 °= ~T100 = 54.54 mm Minimum length of base plate, assuming 100 mm projections on each side of column flange, = 350 +2 x 100 = 550 mmColumn Bases and Footings Q 227 Hence, width of base plate = <7 Pe(1+ 82) 4x 550 550 = 79749 mm = 810 mm Provide a base plate 810 x 550 mm. Thickness of the base plate: Maximum compressive stress in concrete under near edge of the plate (Fig. Ex. 5.3(a)). ee ( ones ———— | bp eee 1.00 Nim? DO 6 sant) ~ "550x810 = 3.938 N/mm? Minimum compressive stress in concrete under far edge of plate -E-9) - ea (1-8 54.54) 550 x 810 550 = 1.00 N/mm? 550 Stress under critical section x-x = 1.00 + (3.938 - 1.00) x 450 8 = 3.4038 N/mm?228 Design of Steel Structures Moment at the critical section = moment of hatched area about section xx = 3.4038 x 100 x ge + BOS 3.0058) x 100 «(2 x 100) = 18799.66 N mm Moment of resistance at critical section x-x 1 agxixe? XOps 50 185 N mm Moment of resistance = Moment 3 2 x 185 = 18,799.66 ie Poex sarees or ¢= 24.69 mm = 25mm Hence, provide a 25 mm thick plate. Since the moment is small the anchor bolts are not subjected to tension, therefore the design of anchor bolts is not required. (2) P=1100 kN M=120kNm M e=% P _ 120 103 ~~ 1100 = 109.09 mm Minimum length of base plate assuming 120 mm projections on each side of column flange (Fig. Ex. 5.3(b)). L= 350+ 2x 120 = 590 mm = 109.091 590 5.408 2 L Eccentricity lies between £ to £Column Bases and Footings Q 229 x ——____— 590 mm +——_—— 557.73 mm Fig. Ex. 5.3{b) =3 (2 7 109.09) 2 = 557.73 mm pa 2 XO, _ 2x 1100 x 108 557.73 x4 = 986.14 mm = 1000 mm Provide a base plate 590 x 1000 mm. Maximum compressive stress in concrete = 4 x 986.14 1000 = 3.94456 N/mm? 557.73 - 120 557.73 = 3.0958 N/mm? Stress at critical section x-« = 3.94456 x230 Q Design of Steel Structures Moment at section x-x = 3.0958 x 120 x 120, 28486 2.0058 x (2 x 120) x 120 = 26,363.808 N mm Moment of resistance = 4 x 1x x 185. N mm Moment of resistance = Moment or se x 185 = 26363.808 or t = /6 x 26363.808/185 or t= 29.24 mm = 30mm Provide a 1000 x 590 x 30 mm thick base plate. Design of anchor bolts is not required as the tension is assumed to be neglected when eccentricity lies between E to £. 3° 6 Example 5.4 Design a suitable base and anchor bolts for a column subjected to an axial load of 500 kN and a wind moment of 175 kNm. ‘The column section is I.S.H.B. 450 @ 925 N/m. The safe bearing pressure of concrete may be assumed to be 4000 kN/m?. Solution P=500 kN M=175 kNm 175 x 103 ~~500 = 350 mm Assuming 160 mm projection of the base plate on each side of the flange of the column, the minimum length of base plate = 450 + 160 + 160 =770 mm e _ 350 L770Column Bases and Footings U 231 This is greater than 3 therefore the design will be done on the basis of the concrete beam theory. According to the concrete beam theory, the depth of N.A., —¢_ oy n= 1+ mo, where j= 120 x 1.25 = 150 N/mm? 9, = 4 1.33 = 5.32 Nimm? (The stresses are increased to take into account the effect of wind.) Let m= 18 If the edge distance for bolts = 75 mm. 710 ~ 75 = 695 mm 695 150 18 x5.32 = 270.80 mm 1+ Lever arm = d — 270.80 = 695 - 200.80 3 = 604.73 mm Take moment about the line of action of tensile force. C x 604.73 = 175 x 10° + 500 x (385 — 75) or C = 545.69 kN 2 x 545.69 x 103 270.80 x 5.32 = 757.5 mm = 760 mm ‘The maximum value of compressive stress will be 757.5 760 = 5.302 N/émm? 270.80 -160 270.80 = 2.17 N/mm? =5.32x Stress ordinate at the critical section = 5.302 x232 Q Design of Steel Structures Bending moment at critical section =9.18:160 180 «(5202-218 s60x (2 «160) = 58,598.4 N mm Moment of resistance = 3 xix 2x 133 x 185 Nmm or 2 x 1x f x 1.83 x 185 = 58,598.4 58598.4 1.33 x 185 or t = 37.80 mm =40 mm or f= 6x Anchor bolts: Tension in wind ward bolts, P, = C -P = 545.69 — 500 = 45.69 kN 45.69 x 105 1.25 x 120 = 304.60 mm? Let us provide two bolts on the tension side. 304.60 2 Net area of bolts required = Net area of each bolt = = 152.3 mm? Provide 20 mm diameter bolts each giving a net area of 245 mm? on the tension side. Provide 2 bolts of same diameter on the other side also. cant 3 ad x bond stress __45.69x 103 ~ 2x2x20x0.7 = 519.4mm = 620 mm Hence, provide 4 bolts 20 mm ¢g and 520 mm long. Example 5.5 Design a two tier grillage foundation to carry an axial load of 1000 kN. A base plate 700 x 700 mm is provided below the stanchion. The concrete is of M-15 grade and bearing pressure of the earth is limited to 150 kN/m”. Length of each bolt =Column Bases and Footings O 233 Solution Axial load = 1000 kN Assume the self weight of grillage foundation as 10% of the axial load. Design load for footing = 1.1 x 1000 = 1100 kN = 1100 x 10°N Required area of the grillage foundation = 1100 =7.33 m2 = 7.4m? = 740 x 10! mm? Provide a square grillage base. The side of base = /740 x 10# = 2720.29 mm ~ 2800 mm Provide a base of size 2800 x 2800 mm. Upper tier beams: Maximum bending moment = Fu -a) _ 1000 x 108 —= = 262.5 x 10° N mm As the beams are encased in concrete, the allowable bending stresses are (2800 - 700) increased by 335%. Oe, tea) = 0.66f, x 1.33 = 0.66 x 250 x 1.38 = 219.45 N/mm? _ 262,500 x 103 a 219.45 = 1196.172 x 10° mm? The minimum clear spacing between the flanges of the beams should be 75 mm as per LS. specifications. Let us select 4, I.S.M.B. 225 @ 312 N/m. From I.S. Handbook No. 1, the relevant properties are, Zz, B=110 mm t=6.5 mm Ag = 25.85 mm Z = 305.9 x 10° mm?234 ( Design of Steel Structures 700-4 x110 3 = 86.67 mm > 75 mm Clear spacing between the flanges of the beam = which is as it should be. Maximum shear force, V = 1, 1900 (2800 - 700) 4°" 2 2800 = 93.75 kN Vv "va, cal = Di _ 98.75 x 103 ~~ 2256.5 = 64.11 N/mm? < 100 N/mm? which is safe. Check for crippling: Oo, en oat n(a+2VBhg)t (where, a = length of base plate) 1000 x 103 4(700 + 2V3 x 25.82) x6.5 = 48.726 N/mm? < 187.5 N/mm? which is safe. Lower tier beams: Maximum bending moment = £ (B-b) 1000 x 105 — = 262.5 x 10°N mm 262.5 x 106 ~~319.45 = 1196.172 x 10° mm® (2800 — 700)Column Bases and Footings O 235 The length of the footing is 2800 mm. The minimum clear spacing between the flanges should be 75 mm as per LS. specifications. Let us provide 10, I.S.L.B. 175 @ 167 N/m. The relevant properties are, B=90mm t=5.lmm hy = 16.70 mm Zz = 125.3 x 103 mm? Clear spacing between the flanges = 3 (2800 - 90 x 10) = 211.11 mm >75mm which is as it should be. Section modulus provided = 10 x 125.3 x 10* = 1253 x 10° mm* > 1196.172 x 10° mm* which is sufficient. Check for shear: 2 = 37.5 x 10°N t= 315x108 oa, cal “T75x 5.1 = 42.01 N/mm? < 100 N/mm? which is safe. Check for crippling: os 1000 x 103 eal 10 x (700 + 23 x 16.7) x 5.1 = 25.875 < 187.5 N/mm? which is safe. Example 5.6 Two columns 1.8.H.B. 350 @ 647 N/m and 1.S.H.B 400 @ 774 N/m are spaced 6 m c/e. The columns carry loads 1100 kN and 1800 kN respectively. Design a combined grillage foundation for the columns. Bearing pressure of the earth is 200 kN/m?.236 Q Design of Steel Structures Solution The centre of gravity of the loads must be in the same verti- cal line as the centre of gravity of base of footing. Let % = the distance of C.G. of loads from 1800 KN load. 1100 x 6 1100 + 1800 = 2.2758 m = 2275.8 mm Length of the grillage: A minimum of 500 mm projection will be required for the 1100 kN column base plate. Length of the grillage = 2[(6000 — 2275.8) + 500] = 2(8724.2 + 500] = 8448.4 = 8450 mm Let us provide the grillage length = 8450 mm. X= The projection for column with 1100 KN load = 60 — 3724.2 = 500.8 mm Design moment: Assume the grillage to be an inverted beam supported at the columns and subjected to uniform pressure from below the grillage. 1100 + 1800 8450 = 0.343192 kN/mm = 343.192 N/mm Intensity of pressure from below the grillage = Refer to Fig. Ex. 5.6. Maximum negative shear below column with 1800 kN load = 343.192 x 1949.2 = 668,949.85 N = 668.9498 kN Maximum positive shear below column with 1800 kN load = 1800 — 668.9498 = 1131.0502 kN = 1,131,050 N Shear force is zero at a distance (from the left end of grillage) 1,131,050 343.192 = 5,244.8775 mm =1949.2+Column Bases and Footings Q 237 1800 KN C.G. line 1100 kN Soros aa7ea 37242 mm 1 fe 500.8 mm mm mm [-<—___——"__ 8450 mm —____»} 1131.050 kN 668.949 kN /e-— 5244.8775 mm—>| Shear Force Diagram 121182.98 x 10* Nmm. Peet x 10¢N mm Bending Moment Diagram Fig. Ex. 5.6 Bending moment will be maximum at this point as it is the point of inflexion. ‘The maximum cantilever moment is also calculated. The grillage is designed for the maximum of the two moments. 343, 192 x (1949, 2)? 2 = 65,195.851 x 10N mm Maximum bending moment at the point of inflexion Maximum cantilever moment = 843. 192 x (5244.8775)2 = ee eT + 1800 x 10° (5244.8775 — 1949.2) = ~ 472,038.97 x 104 + 593221.95 x 10¢ = 121,182.98 x 10 N mm Therefo. ¢, the design moment is 121,182.98 x 10 N mm. Section modulus: Alluwable bending stresses are increased by 333% as the beams are encased in concrete. M Fbe,t Zea = req, _ 121,182.98 x 104 ~~ 188 165 = 5,522,122.6 mm*®238 O Design of Steel Structures Select 3, I.S.L.B. 550 @ 863 N/m providing section modulus = 3 x 1933.2 x 10° = 5,799,600 mm* > 5522122.6 mm? which is all right. Check for shear: Maximum shear force = 1,131,050 N toa = 22131050 way cal 3x(Dxt) _ 1,181,050 ~ 3x550x9.9 = 69.24 N/mm? < 100 N/mm? which is safe. No bottom tier is required as the area provided by the grillage beam tier brings down the bearing pressure on the foundation below the safe bearing pressure. Provide a base plate extending over the grillage beams equal to the width as calculated below. Total load on the foundation = 1100 + 1800 = 2900 kN Self weight of the foundation = x x 2900 = 290 kN Total load = 2900 + 290 = 3190 kN 3190 200 Assuming the bearing pressure from soil 200 kN/m?, Length of the grillage provided = 8.450 m 15.95. 8.450 = 1.887 m = 2.0m As the width is quite small, the base plate in the other direction shall run for at least 2.0 m. Area of the grillage required = = 15.95 m? Hence, width of the grillage required =Column Bases and Footings O 239 [BXERCISES BL 5.2 5.3 5A 56 5.6 o a Design a suitable slab base for a column section I.S.H.B. 200 @ 373 N/m supporting an axial load of 400 KN. The base plate is to rest on a concrete pedestal of M-15 grade. Design the section of steel column and a suitable base for an axial com- pressive force of 3500 kN. The effective length of the column is 5.2 m. The safe bearing pressure from concrete may be assumed to be 4 N/mm’, A column of 6.0 m effective length is carrying an axial load of 400 kN and a bending moment of 50 kN m. The bearing pressure from the concrete pedestal may be assumed to be 4000 N/m?, Design a suitable base. Also design the anchor bolts, if required. Design a column base for an axial load of 700 kN and a bending moment of 100 kN m. The column section provided is I.S.H.B. 400 @ 822 N/m. Design the anchor bolts also, if required. The bearing pressure from con- crete may be assumed to be 4200 kN/m?. Design a grillage foundation for a column subjected to an axial load of 1050 kN. The column section provided is 1S.H.B. 450 with a base plate 700 x 700 mm and the bearing capacity of the soil is 120 kN/m?, Design a grillage foundation for a column subjected to an axial load of 3000 KN. The bearing capacity of the soil is 150 kN/m? and the size of base plate is 750 x 750 mm. Design a combined grillage footing for the two columns I.S.H.B. 300 @ 588 Nim and 1.S.H.B. 350 @ 674 N/m spaced 3.5 m e/e. The columns carry axial loads of 1200 kN and 2000 kN respectively. The safe bearing pressure from soil is 160 kN/m?.Chapter a Tension Members 6.1 INTRODUCTION A structural member subjected to two pulling (tensile) forces applied at its ends is called a tension member. The member and connections are so arranged that eccentricity in the connection and bending stresses on the member are not developed. The'stress in such members is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the net section and hence members subjected only to axial tension are supposed to be the most efficient and economical. On the other hand, if some eccentricity exists either due to the member not being perfectly straight or due to eccentricity in connections, either bending stresses are considered in the design or specifications are provided to account for reduction in the net area. 6.2 TYPES OF TENSION MEMBERS The various forms of tension members are as follows: Wires and Cables Wire ropes are exclusively used for hoisting purposes and as guy wires in steel towers. These are not recommended in bracing systems as they cannot resist compression. Cables are used in suspension bridges. Since cables are generally long and their flexural stiffness is negligible, initial sag and other geometri- cal effects must be accounted for in the design. Bars and Rods Bars and rods are often used as tension members in bracing systems, as sag rods to support purlins between trusses, to support girts in industrial buildings and where a light structure is desirable, e.g., tower masts, etc. Such members are in general, welded to the gus- set plates or may be threaded and bolted. Threading reduces the section and thus, the strength is reduced. The larger dimension of the section is kept vertical to reduce sag. When rods are used in wind bracing systems,Tension Members O 241 they are pre-tensioned to reduce the ef- fect of sway. Eye bar tension members are used in truss bridges, chains of suspension bridges and as floor beam hangers for suspension and through arch bridges. Various types of bars and rods are shown in Fig. 6.1. Fig. 6.1 Shapes of Bars and Rods Sagging of members built-up of bars and rods may be minimised by limiting the length-diameter ratio, or by fabricating the rod short of its required theoretical length by some arbi- trary amount and drawing it into place to provide an initial tension. The same effect may be produced by providing a turn buckle in the rod. Rods are generally connected to supporting members by running them through a hole in the member and attaching a nut on the far end. The use of rectangular bars is diminishing but they can still be found as hangers in special structures. Loop tod Plates and flats Plates and flat bars are often used as tension members in transmission towers, foot bridges, etc. These are also used in columns to keep the component members in their correct position, e.g. lacing flats, batten plates, end tie plates, etc. Single and built-up structural shapes Normally, when some rigidity is required or reversal of stress is there, angle sections, [either one or two (connected by tack rivets)] are used as tension members. If the tension is very high, channels or I-sections may be used. It is preferable to select a section which is symmetrical at least about one axis, to avoid eccentricity. It would normally be found that a single angle section will be the most economical because a limited series of rolled angle section is available. However, it needs close examination for the assumption made is that the section is used for axial tension. A single angle section with riveted connections produces eccentricity about both the planes, Fig. 6.2(a), while the welded connections may be so designed and adjusted as to reduce eccentricity about one plane only, Fig. 6.2(b). Two angle sections can either be placed back-to-back on the same side of gusset plate, Fig. 6.2(c), or back-to-back on the opposite side of gusset plate, Fig. 6.2(d). When angles are connected on the same side of the gusset plate, the eccentricity is about one plane (e,) only which is almost elimi- nated when the angles are connected on the opposite side of the gusset plate. However, for riveted or bolted connections the eccentricity (e,) between the connector gauge lines and the centroidal axis of the mem- bers, which is very small, may be neglected. Structural Tees make excel- lent chord members for lightly loaded welded trusses, since the stem may serve as a gusset for attachment for single angle or double angle web members.242 © Design of Steel Structures Og #) 0 0 —) 0 Fig. 6.2 Shapes of Tension Members In highway bridge trusses where heavy sections are required, e.g. chord members, angle sections either with connecting system, Fig. 6.2(e), or with plates, Fig. 6.2(g, h, i) are used. Channel sections may also be used effectively when the loads are heavy and more rigidity is required, Fig. 6.2(j, k, D. I-sections are occasionally used but are economical over built-up sections shown in Fig. 6.2(e to i, k, 1) of which the section shown in Fig. 6.2()) is the best. Built-up sections have a great advantage of rigidity over single angle sections. These can also withstand reversal of stresses effectively. As there is a variety of sections the designer has ample latitude to select and provide a particular section as a tension member. The choice of cross-section is based on the type of connection to be used. When welded connections are used, plates, tubes, tees are provided, whereas if riveted connections are used angles, channels and I-sections are preferred. 6.3 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES 6.3.1 Axial Stress The permissible stress in axial tension ¢,, on the net effective area of the sections should not exceed 0.60 f,. The permissible stress in tension hasTension Members O 243 been worked out after applying a factor of safety of 1.65. Oy = 0.6 fy stress in axial tension in MPa yield stress of steel in MPa where Oy 6 6.3.2 Combined Axial and Bending Tensile Stresses A member subjected to both axial tension and bending should be proportioned so that the following condition is satisfied: Fat.cal_ , Sbte,cal , Thoy.eal <4 0.6f, 0.66, " 0.66/, where 6,,, .4|= calculated average axial tensile stress in MPa Ginx cai = Calculated bending tensile stress in the extreme fibre when bending is about xx-axis and yy-axis respectively f, = yield stress of steel in MPa 6.4 SLENDERNESS RATIO (A) The slenderness ratio of a tension member is the ratio of its unsupported length (J) to its least radius of gyration (r). Theoretically, there is no limitation on the slenderness ratio of tension members since stability is of little concern. However, they may be subjected to load reversals during transportation, shipping, erection, ete. In order to provide adequate rigidity to prevent undesirable lateral movement or excessive vibrations, design specifications usually contain a limiting slendernesé ratio for ten- sion members. IS 800-1984 limits it as listed in Table 6.1. Table 6.1 Maximum Slenderness Ratios S.No. Member Maximum slenderness ratio 1. A tension member in which a reversal of direct stress due to 180 loads other than wind or seismic forces occurs. 2, A member normally acting as a tie in a roof truss or a bracing system 350 but subjected to possible reversal of stresses resulting from the action of the wind or earthquake forces. 3 Tension members (other than pre- tensioned members) 400 6.5 NET SECTIONAL AREA The net sectional area of a tension member is the gross-sectional area of the member minus the sectional area of the maximum number of holes.244 =O Design of Steel Suuctures Stresses in a tension member are calculated on the basis of minimum section in the calculation of stresses is the failure of sections with holes. The unit stress in a tension member is increased due to the presence of a hole even if the hole is occupied by a rivet. This is because the area of steel to which load is distributed is reduced and some concentration of stress occurs along the edges of the hole. But for static loading this increase in unit stress is neglected because at yielding, the effect of stress concentration is nullified and tension is therefore assumed to be uniformly distributed over the net section. The net sectional area for various sections can be arrived at as follows: 6.5.1 Threaded Rods For threaded rods the area at the root of the rod is the net sectional area (Appendix vi). Bolts, sag rods and tie rods are a few examples of threaded rods. Sag rods are placed between two consecutive purlins in a roof truss system, to achieve economy. Various arrangements of sag rods are shown in Fig. 6.3. Since individual sag rods are placed between successive pairs of ‘Section A-A (a) Channel Purlins with and Clip Angles 3 " 3 2 = r e £ Puri (b) Various Arrangements of Sag Rods Fig. 6.3 Channel Purlins Reinforced with Sag RodsTension Members O 245 purlins, they may be designed individually, each to carry a tangential component from all the purlins below it. Thus sag rods just below and suspended from a ridge purlin will be subjected to maximum force. The tie rod between ridge purlins at first glance would seem to carry only the horizontal component of the stress in the adjacent sag rod. On the contrary, the stress in the sag rod must be considered a component: of that in the tie rod. 6.5.2 Plates The net sectional area of the plate members is obtained by deducting the area of rivet holes from the gross sectional area of plates as follows. @)__ Refer to the plate shown in Fig. 6.4(a) subjected to a pull P, and provided with chain riveting. The possibility of failure can be along the section ABCD. Net area at the section is equal to the gross area minus the area of rivet holes B and C. KS 3) Fig. 6.4 Net Sectional Area of Riveted Plates Avet = Agro — Sectional areas of holes = bt —n(de) =@6-nadX¥ where A,,, = net sectional area of plate = gross sectional area of plates 6 = width of plate n = number of rivets d = gross diameter of rivet t = thickness of platesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Tension Members Q 247 while the other leg is outstanding. In cases where the load is applied to one leg only, it will not cause uniform stress in the section as a whole. Therefore, the stress distribution is non-uniform near or at the connec- tion because of the eccentricity of load (assumed to be applied at the centroid of sections) w.r.t. the connection. This eccentric force produces bending in the member. Therefore, the connection should be designed so as to reduce the effect of bending to a minimum. Sections which are symmetrical about one or both axes are, therefore, an ideal choice. As per LS. specifications the sectional area of tension members is reduced by making empirical allowances as discussed below: (i) In case of single angle connected through one leg (Fig. 6.5(a)), the net effective sectional area should be taken as Aner = Ay + RA where A, = effective net cross-sectional area of the connected leg A, = the gross cross-sectional area of the unconnected (outstand- ing) leg he = BABA, + Ag) te Where lug angles are used, the effective sectional area of the whole of the angle member should be considered. (ii) In case of a pair of angles back-to-back (Fig. 6.5(b)) (or a single Tee) connected by one leg of the angle (or by a flange of the Tee) to the same side of gusset plate, the net effective area should be taken as Avot = Ar + hAg where, k = BA\(5A, + Ap). (ii) For double angles (Fig. 6.5(c)), (or flange of Tees) placed back-to- back and connected to each side of a gusset plate or to each side of part of a rolled steel section, the net area considered should be taken as, Anet = Agross — deduction for rivet holes. (a) (b) (c) Fig. 6.5 Net Section of Angles ‘Notes 1. In calculating the area for rivet holes the projected area of the hole is I considered.248 Q Design of Steel Structures 2. In tension members composed of two sections in contact back-to-back or separated back-to-back by a distance not exceeding the aggregate thickness of the connected parts, tacking rivets should be provided at pitch in line not ex- ceeding 1000 mm. 3. When the two sections are not tack riveted the provisions discussed in (ii) and {jil) for calculation of net sectional area do not apply and each section should be designed as a single section (angle or Tee) connected through one leg only. 4. The area of the leg of an angle should be taken as the product of the thickness and the length from the outer corner minus half the thickness and the area of the leg of a Tee as the product of the thickness and the depth minus the thickness of the table (flange). 5. In a built-up member where the chains of holes considered in individual parts do not correspond with the critical chain of holes for the member as a whole, the value of any rivet joining the paris between such chains should be taken into account while calculating the strength of the member. 6.5.4 Channels and I-Sections The net effective sectional area of a single channel section connected through the web is treated as for double angles connected to one leg each on the gusset. When a rolled or built-up channel and I-Sections are connected only through flanges, the web is found to be partially ineffec- tive in resisting the applied tensile load. In such cases, the net area may be taken as the total area less half the web area. 6.6 DESIGN OF A TENSION MEMBER The design of a tension member consists in selecting a section with sufficient area to carry the design loads without exceeding the permis- sible tensile stress. This selection of a tension member is the most simple and straight forward method because the stability of the tension mem- ber is of minor concern. Before designing a tension member the nature of loading and the types of stresses to which the member may be sub- jected are ascertained. The tension member may be subjected to either pure axial tension or combined axial tension and bending. The tension member sections should be designed as compact sections and should be so placed that a large area of the section is connected directly to the gusset plate. This is done to minimise the stress concentration. Effect of staggered holes In the design of tension members it is desir- able to provide as large a net area as possible. Therefore, whenever more than one row of rivets is provided, the rivets are staggered. In case of chain riveting (Fig. 6.4(a)), failure in a section takes place transverse to the line of action of the load, i.e. along ABCD. But in the case of staggered rivets (Fig. 6.4(b)), the failure can take place either trans- versely along ABC or along a zig-zag line passing through various rivets ABDE. There may be several such paths which may be assumed to beTension Members Q 249 critical. Each such path is checked and the path giving minimum net sectional area is used for computations. 6.6.1 Tension Member Subjected to Axial Load The following procedure may be followed in the design of an axially loaded tension member. 1. The net area required (Aye) to carry the design load P is obtained by the equation, P= Oy Anet 2. The net area calculated thus, is increased suitably (25% — 40%) to compute the gross sectional area. From LS. Handbook No. 1 suit- able section/sections providing a cross-sectional area greater than the computed gross sectional area is selected. 3. The number of rivets required to make the connection is calculated. These are arranged in a suitable pattern and the net area of the section provided is calculated. This should be more than the net area calculated in step (1). 4. The slenderness ratio of the member is checked as per the LS. sepcifications. 6.6.2 Tension Member Subjected to Axial Load and Bending Moment A tension member may be subjected to bending stresses along with direct tensile stress for the following reasons: 1. It may not be perfectly straight. 2. The member may not be vertical, in which case its self-weight will give rise to bending stresses. 3. The connection may be eccentric. This would induce moments, and thus generate bending stresses. ‘The bending stresses in the tension members are not of much impor- tance because the direct pull of a tension member tends to reduce the lateral deflection caused by bending. Design Whereas computing the required net area of a tension member is simple enough, the proportioning and arrangement of the member, so that it is appropriate and economical may become quite involved. -For instance it is often difficult to arrange a connection without eccentricity; and stress concentration induced by the connected parts can be extremely complicated. Although the designer has considerable freedom in the se- lection of members, the resulting section should be compact, its dimen- sions should fit into the overall dimensions of the structure, and, in order to minimise stress concentrations, as large a portion as possible should be connected to the gusset plate. The following method is useful: 1. Ascertain the axial tensile force and bending moment on the member.252 Design of Steel Structures extra rivets are calculated by providing additional 2.5% of total rivets for each 2 mm thickness, if packing thickness is more than 6 mm. L, fs (a) a ° ap (d) fe) Fig. 6.7 Normally in the design of a tensiofi splice the effect of eccentricity is neglected but as far as possible it should be avoided. Figures 6.7(a, e) show an angle section spliced on one leg by the plate. Such an arrange- ment causes eccentricity and, thus, moments are created. To overcome this both the legs of the angle should be spliced, as shown in Fig. 6.7(b). Figures 6.7(c, d) show the splicing of plates. 6.9 GUSSET PLATE A gusset. plate is a plate provided to make connections at the place where more than one member is to be jointed, e.g. joints of truss, truss girders, etc. The lines of action of truss members meeting at a joint are assumed to coincide, as shown in Fig. 6.8(a). In case any eccentricity is present, secondary stresses are generated.Tension Members Q 253 The size and shape of the gusset plates are usually decided from the direction of the members meeting at the joint. The plate outlines are fixed so as to meet the specifications of edge distance for the rivets used to connect the various members at that joint. ‘The edges of the plates should be kept parallel as far as possible but this causes wastage of material of the gusset plate. Therefore, two sides are kept parallel and the other two are suitably cut. Figure 6.8(b) shows the gusset plate with one side sheared. The opposite side can also be sheared to achieve economy, Fig. 6.8(c). The size of the plate can still be reduced by shearing the top edge of the plate, Fig. 6.8(d), but this gives a bad appearance and generally avoided. Due to the deflection of the truss, the angle between the truss mem- bers reduces. The truss members offer resistance to it, so compressive forces are set up in the portion of the plate between them. This portion of the plate behaves like a column and buckles. Therefore, the length of the top edge of gusset plate is kept minimum. The top edge of the gusset plate is stiffened if it becomes more than 60 times the thickness of the plate. Design specifications give a little guidance to decide thickness of gus- set plates but in any case it should not be less than 12 mm. Structurally a gusset plate is subjected to shear stresses, direct stresses and bending stresses and therefore it should be of ample thickness to resist these at the critical section. SQWED FXAMPLES Example 6.1 A 300 LSE 8 mm is used as a tension member in a lattice girder. It is connected to a 12 mm gusset plate by 18 mm ¢ hand driven rivets. Calculate the maximum force that the member can carry, if (a) chain riveting is done, Fig. Ex. 6.1(a) (b) zig-zag riveting is done, Fig. Ex 6.1(b) Gusset plate (a) Chain Riveting (b) Zig-zag Riveting Fig. Ex. 6.1254 Q Design of Steel Structures Solution ¢=18mm Gross diameter, d = 18 + 1.5 =19.5 mm (a) In chain riveting (Fig. Ex. 6.1(a)) the critical section can be 1-1. Net area = (6 — nd)t = (300-4 x 19.5)x8 = 1776 mm? Strength of member = 1776 x 150 = 266,400 = 266.4 KN (b) In zig-zag riveting (Fig. Ex. 6.1(b)) the section can fail along (1)~ (2)H48)44), (1)-(2)- (5)46){(7), (142) 15)(3)-(4), (142) H15)48)-(9)-(10). The net area which comes minimum out of this will give the strength of the member. Section (1)(2)(3)14) Net area = (300 — 2 x 19.5) x 8 = 2088 mm? Section (1)-(2)-(5)-(6)-(7) Net area = (a-na+ ae }e 4g 1x 652 - (300-2. 19.5 + Ix75 )» = 2044.66 mm? The section (1}(2)5)(3)-(4) should also be checked. But in the present. case n=3 n= If we substitute these values in the equation of the net area, the value will be more than 2044.66 mm’. Therefore, the net area at section (1)(2)(5)(3)-(4) has not been worked out. Section (){2)(5)-(8)(9)(10) Net area=(B—nd+ Mis )s 4g 2 = (s00-4x 19.5 « 2565 } 8 4x75 = 2114 mm?Tension Members Q 255 The minimum net area available is at section (1)4(2)-(5){6)(7). Therefore, the strength of the member will be calculated at this section. Strength = 2044.66 x 0.6 x 250 (f, = 250 N/mm’) = 306,699 N = 306.699 kN The strength of the member when chain riveted is 266.4 kN and, when zig-zag riveted it is 306.699 kN. Example 6.2 Determine the tensile strength of a roof truss diagonal 100 x 75 x 10 mm (f, = 260 N/mm”) connected to the gusset plate by (Ref. Fig. Ex. 6.2) (a) 20 mm diameter power driven rivets in one row along the length of the member. The short leg of the angle is kept outstanding. (b) 5 mm fillet weld. f - 100 100 mn mm 4 4 75 mm 75 mm @) -—| 0) Fig. Ex. 6.2 Solution (a) Norminal diameter of the rivet, ¢ = 20 mm Gross diameter of the rivet, d = 20 + 1.5 1.5 mm Area of connected leg, Ay = (200 . 215-42) x10 = 735 mm? Area of outstanding leg, A = (7 A ) x10 = 700 mm? 3A, 3A, +A, 3x 735 “3x 785 +700 = 0.759256 ( Design of Steel Structures Net area, A, =A, + kAg Strength of the diagonal = o,, x Ane 6 x 260 x 1266.32 = 197,542.95 N = 197.542 kN (b) Area of cross-section of I.S.A. 100 x 75 x 10 mm from I.S. Handbook No. 1, A= 1650 mm? Area of connected leg, Ay = (100-22) x 10-950 mm? Area of outstanding leg, A, = (75 _ 2) x 10 = 700 mm 2 pe 8 = BA, + Ap ___3x950 ~ 3x 950+ 700 = 0.8028 Net area, A, = A; + kA, = 950 + 0.8028 x 700 = 1511.96 mm? Strength of the diagonal = oy, x Aner = 0.6 x 260 x 1511.96 = 235,865.76 N = 235.865 kN Example 6.3 A tie member in a bracing system consists of two angles 150 x 115 x 10 mm (f, = 250 MPa) with long legs connected to a gusset plate by 18 mm diameter rivets in such a way that each angle section is reduced in section by one rivet hole only. Determine the ten- sile strength of the member if (a) The angles are connected on the same side of the gusset plate, 12 mm thick and tack riveted. (b) The angles are connected on the opposite side of the gusset plate, 12 mm thick and tack riveted. (c) What is the effect on tensile strength of the member if the angles are not tack riveted? Solution Nominal diameter of the rivet, ¢= 18 mm Gross diameter of the rivet, d = 18 + 1.5 = 19.5 mmTension Members Q 257 (a) The relevant properties of 2 I.S.A. 150 x 115 x 10 mm on the same side of gusset plate, A= 5,104 mm? Area of connected legs = 2(150 4 19.5- 42) x 10 = 2510 mm? Area of outstanding legs = 2(115-22)x 10 = 2200 mm? BA, Re BA, +A, 5x 2510 5x 2510 + 2300 8508 Net area provided = A; + kAy = 2510 + 0.8508 x 2200 = 4381.8642 mm? Strength of the member = 4381.8642 x 150 = 657,279.63 N = 657.2796 kN (b) Net area = gross area — area of rivet hole = 6104 -2x19.5 x 10 = 4714 mm? Strength of the member = 4714 x 150 = 707,100.00 N = 707.10 kN (c) If the angles are not tack riveted, they behave as single angles connected to a gusset plate. Area of connected legs, A, = 2 (150 -19.5- B)x 10 = 2510 mm? Area of outstanding legs, Ay = 2 (11s -22) x10 = 2200 mm? 3A, al 3A, +A,258 O Design of Steel Structures 3x 2510 “3x 2510 + 2200 = 0.773895 Net area provided = 2510 + 0.773895 x 2200 4212.5692 mm? Strength of the member = 4212.5692 x 150 = 631,885.38 N = 631.885 kN Therefore, the load carrying capacity is reduced by 75.215 KN, if the angles are not tack riveted. Example 6.4 A bridge truss diagonal carries a pull of 200 kN. The length of the diagonal is 3.0 m. Design a suitable section. The member is connected to a gusset plate 14 mm thick. Assume f, = 250 N/mm?. Solution The diagonal member has been designed as a single angle section, a double angle section placed on the opposite side of the gusset plate and a double angle section on the same side of the gusset plate. The relative economy in weight is worked out. However, the additional cost of making holes for rivets and tack rivets has not been considered while working out the economy. Allowable tensile stress, o,, = 0.6/, = 0.6 x 250 = 150 N/mm? 200 x 108 150 = 1333.33 mm? Increase the net area by about 40% (to account for rivet holes) to find the gross area. Gross cross-sectional area required = 1.4 x 1333.33 = 1866.67 mm? (a) Single angle section It is found from 1S. Handbook No. 1, that as a first trial the angle sections furnishing the required area are I.S.A. equal angle section 100 x 100 x 10 mm (1903 mm?) and I.S.A. unequal angle section 125 x 75 x 10 mm (1902 mm”). The weight of each angle is 149 N/m. From the economy consideration, both the angles will cost the same. Therefore, the selection will be based on the load carrying capac- ity of the two angle sections. From the calculations below it is found that the unequal angle section with its long leg connected has a higher load carrying capacity and therefore, should be provided. Assume nominal diameter of the rivet, ¢ = 20 mm Gross diameter of the rivet, d = 20+ 1.5 = 215mm Net cross-sectional area required =Tension Members O °259 Try I.S.A 100 x 100 x 10 mm @ 149 N/m: Area of connected leg, Ay = (100-215 -42)x 10 = 735 mm? Area of outstanding leg, Ap = (200 a 42) x10 = 950 mm? pe BAL “BA, +A 3x 735 “3x 735 + 950 = 0.69889 Net area provided = 735 + 0.69889 x 950 1398.946 mm? Strength of the member = 1398.946 x 150 = 209,841.9 N = 209.8419 kN > 200 kN which is all right. (Pmin = Ty = 19.4 mm) £ _ 3000 _ 7 = 49.4 = 154.639 <350 which is safe. Try LS.A. 125 x75 x 10 mm @ 149 Nim: Area of connected leg, A, = (125 ~215- 22) x 10 = 985 mm? i - 10 \ Area of outstanding leg, A, = | 75 - 2 )* 10 = 700 mm? 3A, R= 3A, +A, ___ 3x 985 ~ 3x 985 + 700 Net area provided = 985 + 0.80848 x 700 = 1550.937 mm? = 0.80848260 Q Design of Steel Structures Strength of the member = 1550.937 x 150 = 232,640.55 N = 232.6405 kN > 200 kN which is all right. L . 3000 _ = = ig 7 = 186-33 <350 which is all right. It is to be noted that the load carrying capacity of the unequal angle section is substantially large and a still smaller size angle can be pro- vided. Try LS.A. 150 x 75 x 8 mm @ 137 N/m: Area of connected leg, A; = (150- 215-8)x 8 = 996 mm? Area of outstanding leg, Ay = (7 -8) x8 = 568 mm? 3A, *- Sata, 3x 996 *3x996 + 568 = 0.84026 Net area provided = 996 + 0.84026 x 568 = 1473.2733 mm? Strength of the member = 1473.2733 x 150 = 220,990.99 N = 220.990 kN > 200 kN which is all right Check for slenderness ratio £ _ 3000 r 16.0 = 187.5 < 350 which is all right. Hence, provide I.S.A, 150 mm x 75 mm x 8 mm. (b) Let us try a double angle section (tack riveted) placed on the same side of the gusset plate.Tension Members OQ 261 Try two S.A. 75 x 50 x8 mm @ 148 Nim: A= 1876 mm? Minimum radius of gyration, r = 14.0 mm Provide 20 mm diameter rivet. Gross diameter, d = 20 + 1.5 = 21.5 mm Area of connected legs, A, = (7 -215- 8) x8 = 792 mm? Area of outstanding legs, Ay = 2 (50 - 8) x8 = 736 mm? 5A, hoa +A, 5x 792 “Bx 792 + 736 = 0.8432 Net area provided = 792 + 0.8432 x 736 = 1412.6473 mm? Strength of the member = 1412.6473 x 150 = 211,897.09 N = 211.897 kN which is safe. = 214.28 < 350 which is within the permissible limit. It is to be noted that by providing the two angles on the same side of the gusset plate the load carrying capacity is reduced as compared to the single angle section. Also, the weight of the double angle section is more as compared to that of the single angle section and thus, uneconomical. (c) Let us try the double angle section (tack riveted) on the opposite side of gusset plate. Try two 1.S.A. 75 x 50 x 8mm @ 148 N/m. Net area = gross area — area of rivet hole = 1876 - 2x 21.5 x 8 = 1532 mm? Strength of the member = 1532 x 150 = 229,800 N = 229.800 kN > 200 kN262 ( Design of Steel Structures The section can be revised for economy. Provide 2 1.S.A. 70 x 45 x 8 mm @ 134 N/m A= 1716 mm? r= 21.9 mm Net area provided = gross area — area of rivet hole = 1716 - 2x 21.5 x 8 = 1372 mm? Strength of the member = 1372 x 150 = 205,800 N = 205.800 kN > 200 kN which is all right. L - 3000 _ 136.98 < 350 It is to be noted that this section is the most economical, and stable section. However, the cost of making extra holes and of tack rivets will have to be added to do the final estimation and selection. Example 6.5 The bottom chord tension member of a roof truss is subjected to an axial pull of 300 KN. A differential chain hoist arrange- ment is attached to the bottom chord and gives a point load of 10 KN at the centre. The length of the member between panel points is 4.0 m. Design the section consisting of two unequal angles with long legs kept back-to-back and turned upwards. Assume f, = 250 N/mm’. Solution 300 x 103 = 2 150 = 2000 mm’ Net area required for axial pull = Increase the net area by 50% to account for bending moment = 1.5 x 2000 = 3000 mm? Gross area required = 1.4 x 3000 = 4200 mm? Let us assume the section to be weakened by one rivet hole and let the diameter of rivet be 14 mm. Try 2 LS.A. 150 x 75 x 10 mm from IS. Handbook No. 1 (longer legs back-to-back). The relevant properties of the sections are C,, . 53.2 mm A= 4312 mm? Ty, = 998.2 x 104 mm Net area provided = 4312 - 2x 15.5 x 10 = 4002 mm? _ 300x 108 Sct, el = ogg — = 74-96 N/mm?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.264 Q Design of Steel Structures 1,S.A. 150 x 115 x 8mm S.A. 150 x 115 x 12 mm Fig. Ex. 6.6 Area of outstanding leg, Ay = (11: yy? = 1308 mm? 3x 1470 *> Sy7ato+ 1508 ~ 07712486 Net area provided = A, + bAy = 1470 + 0.7712486 x 1308 = 2478.79 mm? Strength of the member = 2478.79 x 150 = 371,818.98 N = 871.818 KN > 300 kN which is sufficient. Connection: Strength of rivet in single shear = Fatty = 715)? x 100 = 36305.03 N Strength of rivet in bearing = 300 x 103 36305.03 = 8.263 ~ 10 Number of rivets required for connection =Tension Members Q 265 Length of gusset plate required: Pitch of rivets = 2.59 = 2.5 x 20 = 50 mm = 60 mm For 20 mm ¢ rivets, edge distance = 29 mm. Let edge distance be 30 mm. Provide a pitch of 60 mm and edge distance 30 mm. Minimum length of gusset plate required = 9 x 60 + 2 x 30 = 600 mm The length of gusset plate available for the connection is 310 mm only, whereas the required connection length is 600 mm. Even if the rivets ore :+>7gered and arranged in two rows, the length of the gusset yiate avauapie for making the connection will be insufficient. Therefore, provide a lug angle. Design of lug angle: Total axial load = 300 x 10° N Gross area of connected leg of the main angle section =(150- 42) 12 (180-37) = 1728 mm? Gross area of outstanding leg of the main angle section =(115- 42) x12 (us-3) = 1308 mm? In case of unequal angle sections used as tie members, the load gets distributed in the ratio of the gross area of connected and outstanding legs. Load shared by outstanding leg of main angle 1308 1728 + 1308 = 129,249 x 103N Load on lug angle = 1.2 x 129.249 x 10° = 155.099 x 10°N = 300x103 x 3 Net cross-sectional area required = see 1033.99 mm? Let us select 1.S.A. 150 x 115 x 8 mm angle section from I.S. Handbook No.1. Cross-sectional area, A = 2058 mm? Assume the section to be weakened by one rivet hole only (¢ = 20 mm) Net area provided = 2058 - 21.5 x 8 = 1886 mm” > 1033.99 mm? which is safe.266 Design of Steel Structures The lug angle is placed symmetrical to the main angle section. The 115 mm long leg is kept as outstanding leg. Strength of rivet in single shear = 36305.03 N Strength of rivet in bearing = 21.5 x 8 x 300 = 51600 N Rivet value, R, = 36305.03 N Number of rivets to connect 150 mm leg of lug angle with 14 mm thick gusset plate = strength of lug angle/R,, 155.099 x 10 ~~36,305.03 Provide 5 rivets, 20 mm ¢ to connect lug angle with gusset plate. . Number of rivets to join the main angle leg with gusset plate =10-5=5 =4,272=5 Check: Load on connected leg = 300 x 10? x 1728 __ = 170.750 x 10° N 1728 + 1308 : 3 Number of rivets required = 120:750x10" _ 4 793.5 36,305.03 which is all right. Number of rivets required to join outstanding legs of the two angles _ 14x 129,249 x 10% ~ 36,305.03 Provide five rivets, 20 mm ¢ to connect the outstanding legs. Length of gusset plate required = 4 x 60 + 2 x 30 = 300 mm < 310 mm which is all right. =4.984=5 Example 6.7 Design a splice for tension member sections 160 x 10 mm and 250 x 14 mm. The member is subjected to a pull of 200 KN. Assume f, = 250 N/mm’. Solution A splice plate will be provided on both sides of the tension member. A suitable arrangement of the connectors designed is assumed and then the width and thickness of the splice plate is computed. Let nominal diameter of rivet, ¢ = 18 mm Gross diameter = 18 + 1.5 = 19.5 mm Net tensile strength of the member assuming section to be weakend by one rivet hole (Fig. Ex. 6.7) = (160 - 19.5) x 10 x 150/10* = 210.75 KNaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.268 Ui Design of Steel Structures The sum of the thickness of splice plates should not be less than the maximum thickness of the plates to be connected. Therefore, an 8 mm thick plate is sufficient. Provide two 160 mm x 8 mm thick splice plates. Length of the splice plate Pitch of rivets = 2.5 9 = 2.5 x 18 = 45 mm Provide rivets at a pitch of 60 mm. For 18 mm ¢ rivets edge distance is 29 mm. Let us provide an edge distance of 30 mm. Length of splice plate = 4 x 60 + 4 x 30 = 360 mm Therefore, provide two 360 x 160 x 8 mm splice plates. Example 6.8 A tension member 10 m long is subjected to an axial tensile load of 1200 kN. Design the section with channels facing each other. The rolled section available is I.8.M.C. 300 @ 358 N/m only. The channel sections are weakened by one rivet hole on each flange. Check the adequacy of the section and provide the plates if required. Solution P= 1200 kN = 1200 x 10°N L=10m=10x 10'mm Assume steel with yield stress 250 N/mm?. Oat = 0.60 x 250 = 150 N/mm? 3 Net area required = 2200*10° _ g099 mm? 150 From I.S. Handbook No. 1, note the properties of I.S.M.C. 300 @ 358 N/m. A= 4564 mm? I, = 6362.6 x 10¢ mm* T,y = 310.8 x 10 mm* vy T=13.6 mm Tee = 118.1 mm t Cy g= B Assume 16 mm @ rivets for connection. Gross diameter of rivets = 16 + 1.5 =17.5mm