BIE, FILE

COPUYEPAIRS TO DAMAGE TOLERANT AIRCRAFT

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1990r A

by

T. SWIFT

NFEDERAL

AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

presented to
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON STRUCTURAL
INTEGRITY OF AGING AIRPLANES
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
20 - 22 MARCH, 1990

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REPAIRS TO DAMAGE TOLERANT AIRCRAFT

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SWIFT

3229 E Spring Street

Long Beach,

Summary

Calif.

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The! esults of displacement compatibility analysis, representing

a variety of repair doubler and lap splice configurations, are
presented with a view to illustratinghow structural repairs can
degrade the fatigue initiation life and damage tolerance
capability of primary transport aircraft structure. Examples
show that fatigue initiation life is directly related to the
peak loads induced in the first
fastener rows at the edges of
repair doublers. Design of repairs to an equal or better static
strength capability and the associated static
strength analysis
will not normally highlight these peak loads which can result
in considerable degradation of structural fatigue life.
Critical
fastener loads, based on displacement compatibility analysis
accounting
for
fastener
flexibility,
are
parametrically
presented for a variety of skin and doubler thicknesses.
Suggestions are made on how repair designs can be modified to
improve fatigue initiation life and subsequent fatigue crack
detectability particularly in the event of multiple-site damage.
(MSD). The importance of riveting quality during repairs, often
not up to initial
manufacturing standards, is discussed with
respect
to
fatigue
initiation
life.
A
simplified
but
conservative method
to generate crack growth curves is
discussed with a view to easing the analytical burden for the
small modifiers. It is hoped that this information, together
with conservative fatigue Sn data, will help the many small
repair and modification stations gain an appreciation of the
fatigue and damage tolerance quality of structural repairs.-It
is pointed out in the paper that the FAA regulations were
amended in December, 1978 for new transport category aircraft
and in May, 1981 for aging transport aircraft to include a
damage tolerance philosophy. This means that any repair to a
transport category airframe,
which may effect threshold,
frequency and type of inspection of yprincipal structural
elements,
must
be
evaluated
for
itV
damage
tolerance
capability.
Introduction
In December, 1978 the Federal Aviation Administration amended
their Fatigue Evaluation requirements for Transport Category
Airplanes to include a damage tolerance philosophy. Prior to
this time FAR 25.571, Fatigue Evaluation of Flight Structure,
included an option to design to either "Fail-Safe" or "SafeLife" principles. The manufacturers had generally adopted the
Fail-Safe option with the exception of a few components such as

2
engine mounts and landing gear. In satisfying the regulation to
the Fail-Safe option they had designed structure to be redundant
so that catastrophic failure would not result after fatigue
failure or obvious partial failure of a single principal
structural element. However, the so-called Fail-Safe approach
had not included a disciplined engineering evaluation of crack
growth and residual strength characteristics of each principal
structural element using fracture mechanics technology necessary
to specify inspection methods, threshold and frequency which
would detect damage prior to catastrophic failure. There had
been a number of accidents in the mid seventies on aircraft
designed to the Fail-Safe principle which may have been
prevented had such inspections been imposed. Thus, in December,
1978 the FAA released amendment 45 to FAR 25.571 requiring that
new structure be designed to "Damage Tolerant" principles unless
it
could be shown that this approach would be impractical
whereupon a "Safe-Life" option could be used. In May, 1981 an
advisory circular AC-91.56 was issued to provide guidance
material for the issue of Supplemental Inspection Documents
(SIDs) for existing Large Transport Category Airplanes. It was
expected that advanced fracture mechanics principles would also
be adopted to dcvelop these SIDs. Thus, for both new designs and
existing aircraft it is expected that engineering evaluation of
the structure under typical load environmental spectra must show
that catastrophic failure due to fatigue, accidental damage or
corrosion will be avoided throughout the operational life of the
aircraft. Over the last decade this process has been carried
out. Inspection programs for both new designs and existing older
aircraft have been based on a damage tolerance philosophy.
However, up to the time of this writing, a system is not in
place to require that all repairs or modifications to principal
structural elements on these aircraft be evaluated to damage
tolerance principles. Currently, the majority of these repairs
are designed to an equal or better static strength requirement.
Inspection procedures specified for the basic airplane are not
being modified to reflect a change in design detail as a result
of the repair or modification.
Although the repairs cr
modifications
may have equal or better static strength
capability
their
effect
on
the
fatigue
quality
and
inspectability of the structure may be considerable. It
is
understood that a number of the major airframe manufacturers are
currently working towards including damage tolerant evaluated
standard repairs in their structural repair manuals. Others may
follow this lead. This paper is intended to highlight this
problem and perhaps outline some guidance to those occupied in
aircraft modification and repair.
Degradation of Structure Due to Repair
In
general,
any
repair
to
an airframe
structure
can
substantially degrade fatigue life if extreme care in design
detail is not taken. In the past, engineering evaluation of
repairs has been based on equal or better static strength only
without too much consideration for fatigue life. This philosophy
can easily lead to static strength overdesign with consequent
considerable loss in fatigue quality compared to the original
structure.
This
phenomenon
-an easil%,
be
demonstrated
anp-ytic.-l!y by ccnsidering a very simple example case. Figure

la shows a typical fuselage skin element 0.04 inches thick

riveted to a typical stringer. This element is subjected to
cyclic hoop (circumferential) stress due to internal cabin
pressure ah. Assume for our example this stress is 15 KSI with
stress ratio R = 0. The fatigue life of this element will be
based on the life at the row of rivet holes shown. These rivet
holes are initially unloaded in the hoop direction. For our
example case it will be assumed that the rivet holes have poor
quality. This will be explained in detail later. The fatigue
life of this row of rivet holes can be obtained from Figure 2
and as shown is

about 160,000 cycles for 15 KSI with abr/aCr = 0.

Suppose now we rivet a doubler to the skin as shown on figure

lb. For our example we are not assuming any damage to the
primary skin and we are not assuming the skin is cut. In other
words we are not depending on all load being transferred out of
the skin into the doubler. We are merely considering a doubler
fastened to a piece of undamaged skin. Following the usual
convention of increasing the doubler thickness one gauge, in the
case of damaged skin, we will assume the doubler thickness is
0.05 inches. Whether we need it or not there will be load
transfer out of the skin into the doubler due to strain
compatibility between the two pieces. The two pieces are
fastened together and will be attempting to strain together.
The highest rivet loads, induced from the skin into the doubler,
will be at the first
row as shown in Figure lb. Figure Ic
illustrates the induced fastener load F in the skin reacted by
the load F applied to the doubler. The gross stress ah, along
line AB in Figure lc, will be unchanged in the presence of the
doubler but now we have induced a bearing stress in the hole abr
which will degrade the fatigue life. This is illustrated by the
various Sn curves of Figure 2. It can be seen that for constant
amplitude stress the life is reduced with increasing abr/agr
ratio. The stress in the sheet will reduce to the bypass stress
a and the stress in the doubler will increase to ad' In most
cases the critical location for fatigue will be at row 1 in the
0
sheet where the gross stress is still
h and the bearing stress
in the sheet is highest due to the highest fastener load. In
order to determine the fatigue life at this location it is
necessary to determine the fastener loads in the first
row. This
is done through a displacement compatibility analysis of the
joint.
A typical strip, as indicated in Figure lb, is idealized as
shown in Figure 3. Each rivet is simulated as an elastic spring
under shear load and each portion of the skin and doubler strip
is idealized as a bar. Bar displacements are obtained simply,
from equation 1:
Bar displacement
Where P
L
A
E

=
=
=
=

Bar
Bar
Bar
Bar

6 bar

= PL/AE

(1)

load
length
area
modulus

Rivet shear displacements are given by empirical equation 2 [1]:

Rivet displacement

riv

F[A+B(D/tD + D/ts)]/(ED)

(2)

Where F
D
E

=
=
=
td =
ts =

A
B

Rivet shear load

Rivet diameter
Sheet modulus
Doubler Thickness
Skin thickness

= 5.0 for aluminum rivets and 1.666 for steel

fasteners
= 0.8 for aluminum rivets and 0.86 for steel
fasteners

Displacements in the skin at each rivet are made compatible with

those in the doubler after accounting for rivet displacement.
Load compatibility is merely assumed, for example as:
Ps
and

- Ps2= F 1,

PD1 -

PD2

F1

Ps2 -

P,2 -

P03

F2

etc.

F2

etc.

Where S and D denote skin and doubler.

The resulting load distribution in our example case is shown in
Figure 4. It can be seen the highest loads are at the first
row
and are 187.2 lbs per rivet. The skin bearing stress is
therefore 187.2/(0.04 x .19) = 24632 psi. Bearing stress to
gross stress ratio abr/agr = 24362/15000 = 1.642.

The calculated

life is therefore 53800 cycles as indicated by Figure 2. Thus,

the addition of the 0.05 inch thick doubler, even though for our
example case is not transferring load across a damage area, has
caused a reduction in fatigue life from 160,000 cycles to 53,800
cycles because of load transfer from the skin into the doubler
due to displacement compatibility. Figure 5 shows decreasing
skin life with increasing doubler thickness obtained by similar
analysis. Further reductions in skin life are shown when steel
fasteners are used due to higher first fastener load due to
increased stiffness.
It is shown in Figure 5 that the fatigue life of the skin is
extremely sensitive to doubler thickness and that the life is
controlled by the first fastener load. In order to provide some
guidance to repairers and modifiers of airframe structure a
number
of
typical
configurations
have
been
analyzed.
Displacement compatibility analysis was performed to give
critical fastener loads for a variety of skin doubler and lap
splice combinations. Figure 6 shows the idealization used for
the skin/doubler combinations.
Sufficient rivets (5)
were
considered so that rivet load away from the doubler edge was
insignificant. The rivet load distribution is shown in Figure
6 for a typical configuration assuming a unit 1 KSI applied
gross stress. Strip and rivet displacements were based on
equations 1 and 2 respectively.
Figure 7 shows first
and
critical fastener load as a function of basic skin and doubler
thickness for 1 KSI unit applied gross stress when 3/16 inch
diameter aluminum rivets were assumed for the skin/doubler
configuration.
Figirc 0 shows similar data when 3/16 inch
diameter steel fasteners are assumed. Figures 9, 10 and 11 show
critical fastener loads for 3, 4 and 5 rivet lap splices.
Aluminum rivets, 3/16 inch diameter, were assumed for the lap

5
splice configurations.
In the case of the lap splice configurations represented
Figures 9, 10 and 11 the following rules will be helpful.
1) When t 2 is
highest.

thinner than t,

2)

thicker than tI the last attachment load is

When t 2 is
highest.

3) When tI and t
are equal.

the first

are equal the first

attachment load is

by
the

the

and last attachment loads

Skin bearing stress abr can be calculated as a function of

applied gross stress.agr from Figures 7 through 11. An estimate
of conservative fatigue lives, not including local bending
stresses due to eccentricity, can be made using this information
along with open hole fatigue data shown in Figures 12, 13 and
14 for 2024-T3 material at stress ratios R = amir/mx of -0.2,
0.0 and +0.2 respectively.
Figure 5 shows how overall fatigue life can be drastically
reduced with increasing doubler thickness. Crack propagation
life is also influenced by fastener load induced by transfer of
load out of the skin into the doubler. However, the effect on
crack growth life
is not so great as on overall fatigue life.
The effect of fastener load is a very localized effect taking
place near the hole boundary. As the crack forms and starts to
propagate the fastener bearing load becomes less significant in
it's
influence on the crack tip stress intensity factor. The
major difference in overall fatigue life is created in the
nucleation portion of the life when the crack is extremely
small. The effect of doubler thickness on crack growth life is
illustrated by Figure 15. This figure shows the number of
constant amplitude cycles, at a gross stress of 15.0 KSI with
stress ratio R = 0, to propagate a crack in a 0.04 inch thick
by 1.0 inch wide strip of 2024-T3 material. The initial crack
size is 0.02 inches on both sides of a 3/16 inch diameter hole
and the final crack size is 0.35 inches on both sides of the
hole. The table on Figure 15 shows some difference in crack
growth life up to a doubler thickness of 0.05 inches but beyond
this doubler thickness there is little
difference. Induced
fastener loads shown in Figure 15 assumed the configuration
illustrated by Figure 7. It should be noted, however, that skin
bending due to eccentricity of the load reaction due to doubler
thickness is not accounted for. The curves on Figure 15 show the
difference in life between a configuration with no doubler and
one with a 0.05 inch thick doubler. This analysis was performed
using the computer programs GEOFAC and LICAFF (2].
Forman's
equation was used to represent the crack growth rate as follows:
da/dN = (4.372 x 10"7 (AK)"z ... ]/((I-R)80 - AK]

(3)

Repaired Structure Life Improvement

It

has been illustrated by previous examples that repairs can

6
of basic structure. It was
drastically degrade fatigue life
analytically demonstrated that this degradation is primarily due
load caused by displacement
fastener
induced
to
first
compatibility. This fastener load can be reduced and the fatigue
life improved by tapering the doubler. The objective in tapering
and second
is to reduce the doubler thickness between the first
fasteners. Merely tapering the doubler between the edge and the
fastener
first
fastener has no effect on reducing the first
load.
Figure 16 illustrates an example of how tapering can reduce the
first
fastener load. The fastener load distribution is compared
to the original example case of 0.04 inch thick skin with a
uniform 0.05 inch thick doubler. The reduced fastener load,
resulting in a reduced bearing stress abr and therefore reduced
of 59,001 cycles at a gross
abr/agr ratio, results in a life
stress agr of 15.0 KSI with R = 0. This is a life improvement of
nearly 10% compared to the life of 53,800 cycles obtained for
the uniform 0.05 inch thick doubler. It should be noted that
these comparisons are being made with conservative open hole
fatigue data. Greater improvements could be shown using fatigue
Sn data representative of good quality riveting. However, this
type of riveting is rare in field repaired structure usually due
to space restrictions as will be discussed later.
fastener load resulting in life
Further reductions in first
improvement can be achieved if the typical 0.05 inch thick
doubler is replaced by multiple doublers. This is usually easier
to accomplish in field repairs anyway. As an example, a doubler
system involving standard gauges of 0.025 inches and 0.032
inches were analyzed for comparison. The configuration is shown
in Figure 17a. The 0.025 inch thick doubler is extended another
fastener row. For this comparison strain compatibility analysis
fastener
accounting for fastener flexibility results in first
load of 122.4 lbs resulting in skin bearing stress of 16.105 KSI
and abr/a
= 1.074. This results in a fatigue life of 70,500
cycles aV a gross stress of 15.0 KSI. Thus, laminating the
doubler increases the fatigue life by 31% over the life obtained
for the example case using a single 0.05 inch thick doubler.
Improvements in Inspectability
Any repair doubler applied externally to the fuselage structure
such as that shown in Figure 1(b) will degrade the external
detectability of the skin at the critical fastener row. Skin
fastener will be hidden externally by the
cracking at the first
be visually
Of
course
the skin will still
repair doubler.
inspectable internally but then internal lining would have to
be removed. Also external inspectability of this type of repair
is still
possible with more sophisticated low frequency eddy
current NDI. The inspectability of the repair can be improved
by placing the secondary doubler inside and the primary doubler
outside as shown in Figure 17b.
Further improvements in external inspectability can be made by
removing alternate fasteners at the first critical row to
improve residual strength capability and increase multi-sitedamage (MSD) critical crack sizes. For example, Figure 18 shows
our laminated doubler case but with alternate fasteners in the

7
critical first
row removed. This allows the net cross sectional
area in the skin at the critical first
fastener row to be
increased. In the case of MSD in 2024-T3 material the residual
strength is governed approximately by net section yield criteria
between crack tips. Assuming net section yield governs the
residual strength capability then the critical MSD crack size
can be expressed as:
acr = [ay(P-D) - uP]/[2(ay)]
Where a=
S=
D =
a =

(4)

material yield strength

fastener spacing
fastener diameter
applied gross stress

Assuming a B value of ay = 43.0 KSI for 2024-T3 unclad sheet

material in the LT direction from MIL-HDBK-5 the residual
strength diagram for the MSD case is shown on Figure 18 for P
= 1.0 and 2.0 inches with rivet diameter 0.19 inches. It can be
seen that the critical crack size is increased from 0.2306 with
1.0 inch fastener spacing to 0.5566 inches with 2.0 inch
fastener spacing. This provides for increased detectability and
longer crack growth life. However, the overall fatigue life will
be decreased with this configuration. Displacement compatibility
analysis indicates that when alternate fasteners are removed the
remaining fasteners in the critical first
row try to load up a
wider strip of the secondary doubler thus increasing the first
fastener load. Analysis for our typical example at an applied
stress of 15 KSI indicates the first
fastener load is increased
from 122.4 lbs to 184.2 lbs. This increases the bearing stress
to 24.237 KSI resulting in a bearing to gross stress ratio abr/agr
= 1.616. The resulting overall fatigue life becomes 54,500
cycles. Therefore removing alternate fasteners in the critical
first
row in the secondary doubler has degraded the overall
fatigue life of the laminated configuration but considerably
improved crack detectability.
The fatigue life can be improved by effectively tapering the
inner doubler. This is done by fingering as illustrated by
Figure 18. The fingers effectively reduce the inner doubler area
between the first
and second fastener rows thus relieving the
first fastener load. This results in a lower skin bearing stress
and improved crack initiation life. This configuration offers
the highest fatigue life coupled with the best external
detectability.
Remember,
again the fatigue lives quoted are for open hole
quality.
Riveting Quality
The fatigue initiation life of the basic skin in the presence
of a repair doubler can be related to the quality of the
riveting operation. If the rivets do not properly fill
the hole
after "bucking" then poor fatigue quality can be expected as
reflected in the open hole fatigue data of Figures 12 through
14. Open hole fatigue data reflects a stress concentration
factor, K,, of approximately 3.0 for wide thin sheet when Obr/Ogr
= 0. This concentration factor results when the boundary of the

rivet hole is allowed to deflect as illustrated in Figure 20(a).

If the hole is filled with a pin capable of restraining the free
boundary displacement of the hole then the stress concentration
factor is reduced to approximately 2.0 as illustrated by Figure
20(b). This reduction in stress concentration factor at the hole
Further
life.
improved fatigue
boundary will result in
can be
factor
concentration
stress
effective
reductions in
Figure 20(d)
bucked properly.
the rivet is
achieved if
illustrates that as the rivet is bucked it will swell in the
pin
hole and create the equivalent of an interference fit
turn
in
which
boundary
hole
to
the
pressure
a
radial
applying
creates local radial and tangential stresses in the sheet around
interference the material near the hole
the rivet. With little
boundary becomes plastically deformed. It can easily be shown
analytically how this effect can reduce the effective stress
concentration factor at the hole boundary. Elastic-plastic
stress analysis used in pressurized thick cylinders can be used
to illustrate this effect. Using this theory it is possible to
develop an equation relating the amount of interference to the
radius of the plastic front as shown below:
)/(l-Vr) (Er/Es) (P/r)

2Ln(P/r)+(l+

= IY3Er/(2rOy(l- vr)]

(5)

This equation is solved by iteration for p/r. The value of P is

then used to calculate the resulting stress distribution as
follows:
Stresses in the
elastic region

Stresses in the
elastic region

Where

aY/13[2Ln(R/P)

- 1]

(6)

Iap = ay/,3[2Ln(R/P)

+ 1]

(7)

CRP =

RP =

URE

ay/l3(P/R)2

(8)

a//3(P/R)

(9)

radial stress in plastic region

op = tangential stress in plastic region

aRE =

radial stress in elastic region

a=

tangential stress in elastic region

diametral interference

hole radius

r
P

radius of plastic

Er

modulus of rivet

front
material

Es= modulus of sheet material

Vr= Poisson's ratio for rivet material
Vs

Poisson's ratio for sheet material

9
R

= radius at which stresses are required

Cy

= material yield stress

Equation 5 was solved for diametral interference values, I, of

0.003 and 0.004 inches respectively to illustrate how proper
rivet swelling can provide beneficial residual compressive
stresses at the hole boundary. Rivet diameter was assumed to be
0.19 inches in 2024-T3 sheet material with yield strength equal
to 43 KSI. Poisson's ratio in the plastic range was assumed to
be 0.5. Figure 21 shows the resulting stress distribution in
both plastic and elastic regions. The compressive residual
stresses would be subtractive from the applied tension stresses
effectively reducing the stress concentration at the hole
boundary and subsequently improving the fatigue life. However,
to obtain substantial interference the rivet must be bucked
squarely. Very often, especially in field repairs where space
may be restrictive, the rivets are not bucked squarely resulting
in a "clinched" installation. This situation often occurs when
the working space is restrictive not allowing the bucking bar
to be held squarely. When clinching occurs the hole is not
properly filled and rivet swelling does not occur. Thus the
beneficial residual compressive stresses are not present. In
fact, severe clinching can cause a situation where there may be
a gap between the hole boundary and the rivet wall thus allowing
some free boundary displacement as shown in Figure 20(a). When
this occurs, reflective of poor quality riveting, the fatigue
life will be more representative of open hole Sn data shown in
Figures 12 to 14. Figure 22 shows an example of rivet clinching
taken from an actual failed field repair. The sketch on Figure
22 illustrates the gap which can exist between the rivet and the
hole boundary. This is graphically illustrated by Figure 23
which shows a cross sectioned purposely clinched rivet. The gap
between the hole boundary and the rivet wall is clearly visible.
Figure 24 illustrates the variation in fatigue life which can
be expected with variations in riveting quality in 2024-T3 sheet
at R = 0.
Figure 25 shows fatigue Sn data which may be reasonably expected
with good quality 3/16 inch diameter rivets in 2024-T3 material
where the riveting is square and hole filling but with no load
transfer. This data is a little
difficult to use in the presence
of load transfer but this author has found the methods of Lars
Jarfall [3,4] to be useful in obtaining an effective stress aess
which may be used with the Sn data of Figure 25 to approximate
the fatigue failure life. By reviewing the work of Jarfall it
is possible to determine an effective stress as follows:
Ceff = [l'
Where

Ktbr abr + Ktp a]/Ktp

aeff = effective stress

abr

bearing stress

bypass stress

(10)

10
stress concentration factor relating peak
stress at edge of hole to abr

Ktbr

Kt

stress
factor
stress concentration
at edge of hole
to ap-elating peak

Of course the study of Jarfall's results should be used to

obtain the proper parameters but this author has found the
following reduction of equation 10 to give reasonable results
with Sn data of Figure 25 for good quality riveting. Again this
data does not reflect possible bending in the joint due to
eccentricities.
Ktb

Therefore

3.2,

Ktbr

aeff = 0.

5 6 9

1.4

abr + a(1)

Stresses in equations 10 and 11 are defined in

and 14.

Figures 12,

13

It should again be pointed out that field repairs are very often
not of the fatigue quality represented by Figure 25. If advise
could be given it would be not to consider fatigue quality
beyond that depicted by Figures 12, 13 and 14 for field repairs.
Even then, a conservative scatter factor should be considered
to establish threshold for future detailed inspection of the
repair. The reason for including Figure 25 was mainly to
illustrate the differences in fatigue life between good quality
riveting and what may be expected in field repairs where access
may not be as good as in the initial assembly of the airplane.
Degradation of Inspectability Due to Repairs
It has been shown how repairs can degrade the overall fatigue
quality of the basic structure. It has also been shown that the
most critical locations for future fatigue damage are in the
basic skin at the first
attachment row in the doubler. In
addition to degradation in overall fatigue life the repair
itself can degrade the inspectability of the basic structure
considerably. In order to illustrate this assume that a crack
growing in a basic fuselage skin becomes visually detectable
with high reliability at say a half crack length of 0.5 inches.
Assuming a constant amplitude cyclic stress of 15 KSI aith
stress ratio R = 0 with crack growth rate represented by
Forman's equation 3, the crack growth life would be 29,600
cycles as illustrated by Figure 26. Now consider a repair
doubler 9.0 inches long has been riveted to the basic skin. The
most critical location for future fatigue damage is in the skin
at the first
row of fasteners. Still assuming the visual half
crack length of 0.5 inches the skin cr"ack would be able to
propagate

to

a half

crack

length

of

4.5 +

0.5 =

5.0

inches

before it could be detected visually externally. Thus the safe

inspectable crack growth life has been reduced from 29600 cycles
to 1200 cycles. It can be seen that A eDubler length slightly
longer than 9.0 inches would leave no visually detectable life
from an external inspection standpoint. Of course, a less
desirable internal visual inspection could be adopted but this
would require internal lining removal. Also a more sophisticated

11
low frequency eddy current inspection could be adopted. However,
the more desirable external visual inspection capability could
be completely degraded by this type of repair.
The external visual inspectability can be improved by including
an internal
doubler
as
indicated
by Figure
27.
This
configuration was addressed in Figure 17 and shown to have
improved fatigue life of 31% for our example case over the
doubler type shown in Figure 26. The first
fastener row in the
internal doubler is critical for fatigue cracking in the skin.
A crack propagating in the skin at this row will he externally
detectable and so the crack growth life would be about 29600
cycles as shown by Figure 26 for our example case. The residual
strength capability of this type of repair in the presence of
multi-site damage can be improved by eliminating alternate
fasteners in the critical row. This was indicated by Figure 18.
Also the external visual detectability of this configuration
would be improved like the straight edged internal doubler also
s.,own on Figure 27. However there is a penalty on overall
fatigue life by eliminating alternate fasteners. The purpose of
the fingers, as previously explained, is to restore some of this
fatigue life by reducing the first
fastener loads through
fingering or effectively tapering the internal doubler. The
finger doubler repair is, in the opinion of the author, the best
compromise for a permanent repair to basic fuselage structure.

Damage Tolerance Evaluation of Repairs

Current regulations mandate that repairs or modifications to
commercial
transport
category
airplanes which have been
certified to the damage tolerance regulations FAR 25.571, or are
operating under a Supplemental Inspection Document (SID), must
be evaluated for damage tolerance. The reason for this is that
the in-service structural safety of these aircraft is being
managed through inspection programs based on a damage tolerance
philosophy. Inspections for principal structural elements are
developed through an engineering evaluation of crack growth and
residual strength, both of which are extremely sensitive to
geometry. Any change in the geometry of principal structural
elements such as repairs or modifications can drastically change
the threshold, frequency and method of inspection and can also
effect the residual strength capability of the structure.
Obviously the original manufacturers of the airplanes are in the
best position to Jo this evaluation. They usually have the knowhow and are in possession of all the structural loads and stress
data necessary for such an evaluation. However, the current
system is such tnat there are hundreds of repair stations, small
modification companies, operators and private DERs who are
involved in the repair and modification of airplane structures.
In order to support the aging fleet over the next decade the
number of these repair stations and small modification companies
must increase.
Information contained in a recent General
Accounting Office (GAO) report on aging aircraft states that by
the year 2000 there will be 4474 commercial transport airplanes,
manufactured by Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed, world wide, which

12
will be operating beyond the initial 20 year life goal. The
manufacturers
of these airplanes will need considerable
assistance to keep them operating safely and repaired. The small
repairers and modifiers, currently performing repair analysis
based on equal or better static strength only, will need to
develop capability to perform damage tolerance evaluations.
Conservative, simplified methods need to be developed to assist
these small modifiers and repairers in performing crack growth
and residual strength analysis in order to ease the burden on
the major manufacturers. These manufacturers need to concentrate
on producing new aircraft to replace the aging fleet. These
statements are obviously over simplified. Exact damage tolerance
evaluation is an extremely sophisticated process requiring
experts in fracture mechanics who must also be experts in basic
airframe stress analysis. The number of these experts in the
industry is small and the job over the next decade will be
overwhelming unless we do something about it now. As a first
step, then, simplified methods need to be developed that will
enable
hundreds
of modifiers and
repairers
to perform
conservative analysis to support inspection programs for repairs
and modifications. It is the opinion of the author that all
repairs receive 100% continual inspection beyond a conservative
threshold. Because of operational schedules and the economic
need to keep airplanes flying the repair system may have to be
in two stages. Immediate temporary repairs good for a limited
time followed by permanent repairs supported by a damage
tolerance evaluation. The greatest problem to the small modifier
in performing
damage tolerance evaluations is crack growth
analysis. This generally needs original manufacturers load and
stress data. Residual strength evaluation is not necessarily a
considerable problem to a good fracture mechanics analyst since
this falls into the same category as equal or better static
strength analysis. ie the residual strength can usually be
assessed from a knowledge of the airframe geometry. The first
step then is to develop simplified, conservative, crack growth
analysis methods. This of course has been done to some extent
by a number of researchers. The most appealing method, at least
to this author, is the method developed by Boeing's Damage
Tolerance Technology group. Sufficient information exists in the
literature [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] to provide an outline of the method.
Some of the necessary data needed to complete this method does
not exist in the open literature but this data can be readily
developed with some effort.
Development of a simplified crack growth method
In general a crack growth analysis requires the solution of the
following equation:
N =
ai

Where ox
R
ai
af
M

da/[F(amx,R,a,M,G,oy)]

maximum applied stress

stress ratio omin/aax
initial crack length
final crack length
material influence

=
=
=
=

13
G

ay

=
=

geometric influence
material yield strength

The majority of large airplane manufacturers have developed

sophisticated numerical
integration crack growth computer
programs to solve this equation for a variety of materials and
geometries and load spectra variations. These programs are being
used to design new aircraft to meet the damage tolerance
regulations and in some cases to develop SIDs for aging
aircraft. Some manufacturers are using these methods to assess
standard repairs with a view to updating their structural repair
manuals. The crack growth method developed by Boeing allows
rapid development of crack growth curves. Boeing has added
sophistication to this method by considering load sequence
effects under spectrum loading. It is the opinion of this author
that for a conservative
analysis of repairs additional
sophistication needs to be left to the large manufacturers at
this stage. The following is an outline of the development of
the Boeing method but with parameters altered to fit
in with
familiar fracture mechanics methodology. The development here
neglects the sophistication of load sequence effects included
in the Boeing approach and which generally produce more accurate
and less conservative results. In other words crack growth
retardation is not included in the following approach. The
approach
is
made
possible
through the following
basic
assumptions:
" Walker type simulation of crack growth rate data
"*Separation of geometrical effects from stress and material so
that integration of geometrical effects can be performed
separately
"*Standardization of complex randomized load spectra into a
single repeatable flight
"*Simulation of this single flight by a single constant
amplitude cycle with zero stress ratio
" Subsequent constant amplitude crack growth analysis to produce
a crack growth versus flights curve.
The Walker crack growth equation is
da/dN = C{(l-R)q K"')p

expressed as:
(12)

The parameters for this equation are defined on Figure 28. The
equation is basically a straight line equation when plotted on
Log-Log paper. When da/dN is plotted against the effective
stress intensity factor range,
Keff = (l-R)q
x,, a single line
is produced as shown to the left of Figure 28. Plotting da/dN
as a function of the true stress intensity factor range,
AK,
allows several lines at different stress ratio, R, to be drawn
as shown to the right of Figure 28. The width of the band of
lines is controlled by the exponent q on the (l-R) term. This
enables a better fit
to be made of the test data points. The
value of P is the slope of the lines as indicated.

14
Inverting equation 12 gives:
dN/da = 1/C( (I-R)q Kax)"P
af
N = fa.

l/C((1-R)

N = I/C( (I-R)q}P

IKax)

da

f af(Km,)
a,

da

Substituting for K.,:

N = l/C(1/[aa,(l-R)q])P

fafSda/(d-w-&8 )

a,

load and material terms

let

GSP

i/C{Omx(l-R)}'1

P G-p
(13)

1/C(1/(Gaax(l-R)q])P

Or N =

Where

af da/[( ,/r-) P]
Ja,

Then N =

geometry terms

G =

da/[( .(A7

) P]

(14)

1}/P

Equation 13 gives the number of cycles N to propagate a crack

from an initial size a. to a final size af with the effects of
geometry defined by equation 14.
The term G will depend on the geometrical configuration. The
results of equation 14 for all possible geometries is not
included in the literature given by references [5, 6, 7, 8, 9,].
However,
this term can
easily be obtained by numerical
integration
for each specific geometry.
There are many
references in the literature providing the term . or the effect
of geometry on the stress intensity factor K. For example, one
of the most comprehensive of these is reference [10]. All other
terms in equation 14 are defined.
Only in the simplest of cases can equation 14 be analytically
integrated, for example, in the case of an infinitely wide
unstiffened panel, where
= 1.0.

(f

ai

a)"P da

-P/2

a)-P/2
1ai

15
-P/2 [ alP/._.2

Therefore

G'P

f
G

[_alP/2

(Or)

r~at)1~P/2

a2

11(7r) -P/

a1P/2]a

it

l-IP2(

Figure 29 shows a plot of this equation for two values of af.

There is a need to develop figures such as Figure 29, based on
equation 14, for a variety of typical geometries by numericai
integration.
For the benefit of those not familiar with this approach
consider the case of a through crack in a panel of finite width
20.0 inches. The value of P for this case is generally accepted
to be (Sec(ra/W)]1/2 reference (11). From equation 14
)P

af

"P=

da

f ai
Therefore for our example case

Jff
af

G-P=

ai

(15)

-P da

(aE[Sec(ira/W)j/2)

Now we need to plot the term {].ra[Sec(ra/W) 11/2 )p as a function

of a. Figure 30 shows this plot for ai = 1.0 to af = 4.0 for our
20 inch wide panel example. In this case the slope of the da/dN
curve, P, for aluminum alloy has been assumed 3.7. This value
will vary from alloy to alloy but a value of 3.7 is a reasonable
average value to use for aluminum. We now need a plot of G
versus initial crack size a,. Assume for a start a, = 1.0. The
value of GP will be the area under the curve ABCDEFGH shown in
Figure 30. This can be obtained either by the mid-ordinate or
Simpson's rule. For our case this value is approximately
for a.
Similarly
0.09345. Therefore G = [0.09345]31/3.7 = 1.89767. the
curve BCDEFG.
= 2.0 the value of G"P will be the area under
For our case this is approximately 0.02948. Therefore G =
[0.02948]"1/3.7 = 2.59204. Using this simple approach a curve of
G versus a1 can be plotted. The result for our case of a 20 inch
wide panel is shown on Figure 31. This procedure to obtain a
plot of G can be used for any complex geometry provided the term
P, as a function of crack size a, is known. As mentioned
previously# can be found for many geometries in the literature.
A useful tip to consider is that the term (/r
integrated in pieces. Therefore, for example:

Jf (,/i
a2

(af

' = Gfafi

)P da =P

fa

da +

P )_P

can be

)' da +

16

afr(4
f a,
This is

) P da

etc

illustrated by Figure 32.

Therefore G"P = [GI"P + G2 "P + G3 "P] or G = [GI"P + G2 "P+ G3 "P]"-/P

In this case Gi"P is the area under the curve ABGH, G2 "P is the
area under curve BCFG and G3 P is the area under curve CDEF. The
usefulness of being able to integrate the geometrical term Gin pieces is best illustrated if
one considers that the
objective of a crack growth analysis is to produce a crack
growth versus cycles curve. In this case it is an advantage to
plot a G curve for the maximum value of af expected. This single
curve can then be used to obtain G for lower values of af. This
concept is illustrated by Figure 33. For example if we have a
curve of G having been developed for af = 8.0 as shown to the
left of Figure 33 but we want to consider crack growth from a,
= 1.0 to af = 6.0 we can say:

G(6.0 - 1.0] = ((G[8.0

1.0])"p -

(G[8.0 - 6.0])'-P}"P

(16)

Terms similar to G(6.0 - 1.0] mean G obtained between the limits

1.0 to 6.0. We can obtain the respective values of G[8.0 - 1.0]
and G[8.0 - 6.0] from the curve to the left of Figure 33 and use
these values in equation 16 to obtain G[6.0 - 1.0]. This is
possible since (G[8.0 - 1.0])}p is the integral of (,/i fl )'P
between the limits 1.0 and 8.0 which is the area of the curve
shown to the right of Figure 33 represented as ABCDEF. Similarly
(G(6.0 - 1.0])- is the integral of (.i48)-P between the limits
1.0 to 6.0. Since the curve to the left of Figure 33 is based
on the upper limit of 8.0 only then we use this to obtain G[6.0
- 1.0) by subtracting area BCDE from area ABCDEF and this is
equivalent to area ABEF representing {G[6.0 -1.0]) P. We then
raise this area to the power -1/P and this represents G[6.0 1.0].
Expanding the concept illustrated by Figure 33 we can calculate
more points on the crack growth curve if we only have one curve
of G versus af by the same procedure. Figure 34 illustrates the
procedure for 4 points on a typical crack growth curve. The term
(G[8.0 - 1 .0])P represents the entire area under the curve of
(.Ira4)-p from 1.0 to 8.0 shown to the right of Figure 33. The
number of cycles to propagate the crack from 1.0 to other crack
lengths are obtained by subtracting the remaining area of the
curve of (,/7-4P8 )'P
beyond the crack length required as
illustrated in Figure 34. The values of G again are obtained
from the G versus a, curve as illustrated by the curve to the
left of Figure 33.
To simplify the crack growth analysis under spectrum loading the
first
assumption is to assume all flights are similar. That is
the crack is propagating under a single repeatable flight. This
assumption is more reasonable for commercial transport aircraft
than it
would be for say a military fighter. This single
repeatable flight is then simulated to a single cycle having the
same crack growth as the repeatable flight.

17
From equation 13
Or

N = I/C(i/[Gam,(l-R)q])P
N = I/(CGP) (i/[(

x(l-R)q])p

Crack growth per cycle

1/N = CGP(a

(17)

x(l-R)q)p

Consider a single repeatable flight as shown in Figure 35. The

total crack growth for this flight can be calculated using
equation 17 by summing the growth for each cycle. It is usual
practice to truncate the negative stresses so the cycles
considered are those represented by the heavy lines between dots
on Figure 35. However, some prefer to leave in the negative
stresses, take the full range of stress from negative to
positive, and then use the appropriate crack growth rate
corresponding to the negative R ratio. There is usually very
little
difference between the two results. The total crack
growth for the single flight is therefore:
i=n
T = CGP Z (aimx(l-Ri)q)p

(18)

i=1

The stress level S is then obtained, at a stress ratio R = 0,

which will give the same crack growth as the single flight. This
can be obtained by substituting R = 0 and amx S into equation
17. Therefore the growth for the single cycle is:
(19)

C(GS)P
We can equate equations 18 and 19 to obtain the value of S:
i=n
CGp Z (i,,x(l-Ri)q)P
i=l

i=n

Therefore

S =

[ E (aix(l-Ri)q)P

CGP (S)p

I1 /P

i=l
S =

[(alm,(l-R1 )q)p + (02ma(l-R2 )q)p + etc.]I/

(20)

This value of S, at a stress ratio R = 0, is substituted into

equation 13 to obtain the number of cycles to propagate the
crack from a, to af with G determined for a, to af.
Therefore N = I/C(I/[GS])P
Or N = 1/C(GS)"P

(21)

Crack Growth Evaluation of Specific Repair

Simplified methods to allow small repairers and modifiers to
develop crack growth curves have been discussed. However, even
to perform this simplified analysis it is necessary to have a

18
knowledge of stress levels in the basic structure. Without this
knowledge it is impossible to perform even a simple damage
tolerance evaluation. If,
however, a crack growth curve for a
particular element, prior to repair, were available then it may
be possible to use this information to obtain a crack growth
curve for the modified structure. Consider the very simple
example of an original structural element as shown in Figure 36a
which may be the vertical web of a wing spar cap. This element
may have been repaired by adding a reinforcement strap as shown
by Figure 36b perhaps to replace corroded material. If the
original element had been classified as a principal structural
element in the initial damage tolerance evaluation, performed
to either certify the airplane or to develop the SID, then a
crack growth curve must have been developed by the manufacturer.
This curve may have been generated using a more sophisticated
cycle-by-cycle crack growth analysis method including the
effects of retardation and using a particular equation to
simulate da/dN. What is needed is to determine the constant
amplitude stress level S at a R ratio of zero which will match
the crack growth curve for the original element. This would be
done by calculating G for the original configuration using
equation 14 and then varying S in equation 21 to match the
overall crack growth life covered by the original crack growth
curve. There are some minor problems associated with this
approach. A very simple example will help illustrate these
problems. Suppose the original stress spectrum for the element
shown in Figure 36a was as illustrated in Figure 37. This has
been simplified to illustrate a point. Suppose the existing
crack growth curve were based on an initial 0.05 inch crack at
one side of a hole as shown on Figure 36a. Suppose the original
crack growth curve was based on Forman's equation given by
equation 3. Crack growth retardation may have been accounted for
using the Willenborg model [12]. The resulting crack growth
curve, produced by RECYCL [2], would be as shown on Figure 38
curve A. Now if equation 21 were used to match the overall life
for this curve, using equation 14 for G, and varying the stress
level S in equation 21, then a life match would be established
at a stress S of 19.45 KSI using a Walker equation with C =
3.88xi010I. The value of C is not important since the same value
would be used to generate a crack growth curve for the modified
structure. The resulting curve is illustrated by curve B on
Figure 38. Even though the overall life has been exactly matched
the shape of this curve is not the same. The primary reason for
this is that retardation was considered to develop curve A and
the peak stress of 17 KSI in the spectrum created a plastic zone
at the crack tip which effected the growth of subsequent cycles
and reduced the slope of the crack growth curve when the crack
was small. Since retardation was not considered for curve B the
slope at the start of the curve was greater. If the original
curve had been generated neglecting retardation effects but
using the same Forman's equation 3 then the result would be as
shown by curve C, developed by LICAFF [2], on Figure 38. Again
using the value of G developed from equation 14 and varying the
stress level S in equation 21, the overall crack growth life
would be matched at a stress of 22.43 KSI using the Walker
constant C = 3.88xi0"I. The resulting curve is shown as curve D
on Figure 38. Now it can be seen that the shape of this curve
is a closer fit
to the curve developed under spectrum loading

19
without the effects of retardation. The slight difference in
shape is due to the differences in the crack growth equation
used. The Forman equation, used to generate curve C, is not a
straight line equation as is the Walker equation. The spectrum
analysis without retardation was repeated using the Walker
equation with C = 3.88x10 10 , q = 0.6 and P = 3.7. The results
are shown on Figure 39. Equation 21 was then used to match this
curve and a perfect match was achieved at a constant amplitude
stress of 19.95 KSI. This match is illustrated by the points on
the curve. The purpose of determining the constant amplitude
stress level S which matches the original curve is to use this
stress in equation 21 to develop a crack growth curve for the
modified element. This would be done by calculating G for the
rivet
modified element accounting for load transfer at the first
and the loss in visual detectability when the crack is under the
doubler. Equation 14 would be used to develop the new G value
based on standard stress intensity expressions found in the
literature. This procedure would allow a crack growth curve for
the modified structure to be developed without a knowledge of
the original stresses but with a knowledge of the original crack
growth curve. The purpose of Figure 38 was to illustrate that
some caution must be exercised when using this procedure because
of the possible mismatched shape illustrated by Figure 38 curves
A and D. For example the matching curve B reflects a longer
crack growth life from a detectable crack to critical if the
detectable size is larger than the initial crack size used to
produce the curve. For example, if the detectable size was
considered to be 0.15 inches (say) the safe crack growth life
from the original curve is 19000 flights but is 35000 flights
is better to
using the matched curve. Because of this it
determine S in equation 21 to fit the curve from the detectable
size to the critical size.
Future Possibilities
A method to generate crack growth curves for the modified or
repaired structure was discussed using a very simple example
case. The approach required a knowledge of the original crack
growth curve. Without this curve or a knowledge of the original
is
impossible to obtain the required
stress spectrum it
information. One possibility requiring some limited research may
be to divide the airplane structure into a numaber of zones,
perhaps six or eight zones for the fuselage, the lower wing
surface and the horizontal stabilizer tension surface. Standard
conservative stress spectra could be developed, perhaps using
the standard TWIST spectrum, for the most critical points in
each zone. This could be done using the most conservative ig and
1P stresses to be found anywhere in the industry. These standard
spectra would then be used along with the simplified methods
discussed to produce conservative crack growth curves and
inspection intervals. The only alternative to this is to
persuade the original manufacturer, with all his knowledge of
the original stress spectra and loads, to perform the analysis.
Conclusions
Any repair to an airframe structure has the potential to
drastically degrade fatigue life and damage tolerance

20
capability.
"* In most cases the critical location for future fatigue
initiation is in the basic skin at the first
fastener row in
the repair doubler.
"* Curves are presented illustrating degradation in fatigue life
of the basic structure as a function of repair doubler
thickness.
"

Fatigue life of the basic structure can be calculated as a

function of applied gross stress and bearing stress in the
skin at the first
fastener row.

"

Curves are presented, based on displacement compatibility

analysis accounting for fastener flexibility, which will
enable the critical fastener loads to be determined as a
function of skin and doubler thickness for five common repair
configurations.

"* Data from these curves, together with conservative Sn curves

provided, will allow a repairer or modifier to assess the
fatigue quality of the repair.
"

Some ideas are provided which will enable improved fatigue

life and inspectability by laminating the repair doubler.

"

Simplified methods which may enable a small modifier or

repairer to develop crack growth curves for the basic
structure after repair are discussed.

Bottom Line
All repairs to principal structural elements on aircraft
certified to FAR 25.571 amendment 45 or on aircraft assessed
to AC 91-56, where a SID document exists for the airplane,
must be evaluated for damage tolerance.
New inspection methods/thresholds/frequencies must be
established for the repaired structure.
The repaired airplane should be inspected at the determined
frequencies after the established threshold.
Note
The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author and
not necessarily those of the FAA. The author is an advisor to
The Aircraft Certification Service who have final authority.

21
References
(1].

Swift, T., "Damage Tolerance Analysis of Redundant

Structures," Fracture Mechanics Design Methodology, AGARDLS-97, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, London, England,
Jan. 1979, pp. 5-1.

[2]

Computer programs LICAFF, GEOFAC and RECYCL, FractuREsearch

Inc. 9049 Cupstone Drive, Galena, Ohio 43021, USA.

(3]

Jarfall, Lars., "Optimum Design of Joints: The Stress

Severity Factor Concept," Aircraft Fatigue Proceedings of
the 5th ICAF Symposium, Melbourne, Australia, 22-24 May,
1979.

(4]

Jarfall, Lars., "Fatigue Cycling of Riveted or Bolted

Joints," FFA report HF-1239. The Aeronautical Research
Institute of Sweden, June 1969.

(5]

Craig, L., and Goranson, U.G., "Airworthiness Assessment

of Boeing Jet Transport Structures." Presented at the 10th
ICAF Symposium, Brussels, Belgium, May 16-18, 1979.

[6]

Goranson, U.G., and Hall, J., "Airworthiness of Long-Life

Jet Transport Structures." Presented to the Royal
Aeronautical Society Spring Convention on Long-Life
Aircraft Structures, London, England, May 14-15, 1980.

(7]

Craig,L., et al "Airworthiness o2 Long-Life Jet Transport

Structures." Presented at the Air Transport Association
of America Forum, Miami, Florida, October 1-3, 1980.

[8]

Goranson,U.G., et al "Long-Life Damage Tolerant Jet

Transport Structures." Presented at ASTM Symposium "Design
of Fatigue and Fracture Resistant Structures," Bal Harbor,
Florida, Nov. 10-11, 1980.

(9]

Gunther, C.K., and Goranson, U.G., "Spectrum Loading

Effects on Crack Growth in Major Components of Commercial
Transport Aircraft." Presented to the International
Conference on Application of Fracture Mechanics to
Materials and Structures, Freiburg, Germany, June, 1983.

[10] Rooke, D., and Cartwright, D., "Compendium of Stress

Intensity Factors." Printed in England for Her Majesty's
Stationary Office by The Hillingdon Press, Uxbridge, Middx.
England, Sept 1974.
[11] Feddersen, C.E., "Evaluation and Prediction of the Residual
Strength of Center Cracked Tension Panels." Published in
"Damage Tolerance in Aircraft Structures," ASTM STP 486,
May 1971.
[12] Willenborg, J., Engle, R.M. and Wood, H.A., "A Crack Growth
Retardation Model Using An Effective Stress Concept." US
Air Force Tech. Memo. 71-I-FBR. Jan. 1971.

22

ah

O6KS
h is KII

0.04Z

-4.
4..

0.06

CRTIA LOCATION

ROW
OFRIE

RIVLTS

Fig.

1.

Exampl

d.

of Doule

Eleen

23
50

30

-b

GROSS STRESS

RATIO R -0
20 SSTRESS
16 K6I

BEARING STRESS

_______

10
2024-T3 CLAD SHEET
.I

..... I

i i

,a i~Iaami

iii

o0s

104

10

10

,,,,
ui

Il,,,I

106

LIFE (CYCLES)
Fig.

Open Hole Sn Data 2024-T3

2.

DOUBLER
ELEMENTS
Ps

Ps2

PS2

Ps3

PS3 PS4

Ps4

je- jRIVETS

2T

~II

PD2 P03

11 Pi2

3II

D03 PD4

SKIN

ELEMENTS

Fig. 3.

Idealization of Strip

D4

H5 h/

PDS

APPLIED LOAD-'

24
0. 04 SKIN
0.05 DOUBLER
+J

..4,- .+.-t
+

+ 4. .-

.t

20

40

100

120 140

160

180

LOAD IN EACH RIVET (LBS)

15 KSI

Fig. 4.

so

60

Rivet Load Distribution For Example Case

CRITICAL IN SKIN AT FIRST ROW

140

.- .

.+ . .

S100
r-4

KSI

+15

++

S++

DOUBLER
0.04 INCH THICK SKIN

S~
S40

RIVETS
\-

0 0STEEL
FASTENERS

to
a

0.01

0.04

0.0o

0.0o

DOUBLER THICKNESS (INCHES)

Fig.

5.

Skin Fatigue Life At First Fastener

0.10

200

25

0.04 INCH THICK

UBLR\

3/16 ALUM. RIVETS--

0.04 INCH THICK

SKIN
1.0 INCH

1.0 INCH TYPICAL

GROS
1 KSI

235STRESS

SI

FIRST RIVETi
12
10
8
6

Fig.

6.

Rivet Load Distribution in

1
4

a Example Idealized Strip

26

BASIC SKIN THICKNESS (INCHES)- 9I

40-----------------------------------------0.190

40

0.160
35___

0.125

/____1

30_

0.100

1-,

0.090
0.080

U)

&

~25

/00.071.
0.063

U)

1____

S20

__0.050

0.04

0.042

04

0.4

00Z.2

DOUBLLRR

0.202

01

KINHES
1HCNS

Fig. 7. First Fastener Load Per 1 KSI Gross Stress

Inch Diameter Aluminum Rivets

3/16

27
BASIC SKIN THICKNESS (INCHES)50------------------------------0.190

45

0.160

40

0.125

0.100

7Z

0.090

00
E-4

0.050

0
el2O

0.4
0.0632

215
0.0250

0.0320

CA 10

FIRST ATTACHMENT-

DOUBLER

1 KSI

BASIC SKIN
0.04
0.08
0.12
DOUBLER THICKNESS (INCHES)

0.16

Fig. 8. First Fastener Load Per i KSI Gross Stress

Diameter Steel Fasteners

0.20

-3/16

Inch

28

SKIN THICKNESS t1

70
+

(INCHES)
0.190

60
FIRSTATTACMENT0.160
(255

*50
0.125

~45
~40

0.100
/A

S35

"11000.090
0.080

'a'

0.063
0.050
Oc0
E-__

0.040
_

15__

cn

__

0.032

____0.025

0.020

10

0.04

0.08
0.12
0.16
SKIN THICKNESS t2 (INCHES)

0.20

Fig. 9. First Fastener Load Per 1 1(SI Gross Stress. 3 Attachment

Lap Splice - 3/16 Inch Diameter Aluminum Rivets

29

SKIN THICKNESS t1 (INCHES)

55

0.190

50_

0.160

__

45

40

CO)

35

X)

30_

-012

0.100
0.9
A

0.080

25
0.050
z

20
0.040
0.032

~15

0.025

E-4

~1o

0.04
0.08
0.12
SKIN THICKNESS t2 (INCHES)

Fig.

10.

____0.020

0.16

First Fastener Load Per 1 1(51 Gross Stress.

Attachment Lap Splice - 3/16 Inch Diameter
Aluminum Rivets

0.20

30
SKIN THICKNESS t1

50

(INCHES)

0.190

45
____

0. 160

C4)

M 35

OOlO
0.100
C,)o

00

30

0. 090

V-4

0.080
0.071
S0.063

E-4

0.050

///
-

----

0.040
015025

10

5_

0.020

_________FIRST ATTACHMENT -7

.4t

.4

.,
__~~-4

0.04

0.08

SKIN THICKNESS t

Fig.

11.

0.12
2

_ 1. KSI

0.16

0.20

(INCHES)

First Fastener Load Per 1 KSI Gross Stress. 5

Attachment Lap Splice - 3/16 Inch Diameter Aluminum
Rivets

31

'I

T-r-

440

IL-T-FEB

fII

__A_

(0J

E4~4J

0010
U)0U~-Y

0V00
L9*0,

CUT).B

7-L-'-

S3ISSO~WlIV

iT

JT1-

32

4444i
7

z2

C'4

Pi__

00*U)0

A_

00

('4i

(I001V3~L

SO

flIY

33

'C1

00*0

L9.0

4.i

l<0
E-4

02"
'd

(I~

SH

KLIV

0X

4.)S3dl

34

CYCLES REQUIRED TO GROW CRACK

FROM 0.02 INCHES TO 0.35 INCHES
AT 15.0 KSI R = 0
DOUBLER
THICKNESS
(INCHES)
0
0.050
0.063
0.071
0.100

DOUBLER

INDUCED
FASTENER LOAD
(LBS)
0
187.2
203.4
211.2
232.2

SKIN

CYCLES
27508
25524
25456
25423
25337

15 KSI
Ile

Ile 15 KSI

THICKNESS

0.4.04

S0.3

BEARING LOAD INDUCED

BY DOUBLER

oz

0.2

0.05 INCH THICK DOUBLER

g0.1

NO DOUBLER

Fig.

15.

10

15
CYCLES

20
X 10.3

25

Effect of Doubler Thickness on Crack Growth Life

30

35

DOUBLER--

0.
02

0.05
0.05

o.0A

15 KsI

,SKIN

BASIC 0.05 DOUBLER-

TAPERED DOUBLER

150-+

'~100

AT FIRST FASTENER

br =

E4

"50

21.632 KSI

Obr/O or =

1.442

LIFE =59000 CYCLES

Fig.

16.

Effect of Doubler Tapering on First

Fatigue Life

Fastener Load And

36

~0.04

0.025
SKIN

.4..

0.032

"-..-*
..

4-+

SECONDARY DOUBLER
INSIDE .

*4
I

IMPROVED EXTERNAL
.. "DETECTABILITY
-.
AT CRITICAL
FIRST FASTENER ROW
.4-."PRIMARY
.

DOUBLER

"SECONDARY DOUBLER
EXTENDED ONE FASTENER ROW
15 KSI
ADVANTAGES OF THIS REPAIR DESIGN

" FIRST FASTENER LOADS IN SKIN REDUCED FROM 187.2 TO 122.4 LBS
" SKIN BEARING STRESS oa
4 REDUCED FROM 24.632 KSI TO 16.105 KSI
"* BEARING STRESS TO GROSS STRESS RATIO

a/lar

REDUCED FROM

1.642 TO 1.074

" FATIGUE LIFE INCREASED FROM 53,800 CYCLES TO 70,500 CYCLES

Fig.

17.

Improved Fatigue Life by Doubler Lamination

37
15 KSI

"SKIN

+-

FIRST FASTENER LOAD IN SKIN

+~

S4.

4- +

S O

D4-

SECONDARY

DOUBLER

184.2 LBS

BEARING STRESS IN SKIN 24.237 KSI

FATIGUE LIFE 54,500 CYCLES

++

4-4-4- 4.

1.616

-b/aoo

-PRIMARY

DOUBLER

++4ALTERNATE FASTENERS REMOVED

4-

P"1.0

2"

2.0

~25
S20

S15

io

_y [P - D]c

10

cn
~01

aP

2 (ay]

0n

BASED ON a
SII

D=
I

0.5

43 KSI
0.19
i

1.0

CRITICAL CRACK SIZE ac, (INCHES)

Fig.

18.

Improved Crack Detectability

Fasteners In Critical Row

By Removing

Alternate

38

ANY SKIN CRACKING AT CRITICAL FASTENER ROW

IS EXTERNALLY VISIBLE

~15

KSI

SKIN

FIRST FASTENER ROW

FINGER TO REDUCE
FIRST FASTENER LOAD

INNER SECONDARY DOUBLER

(0.025 INCHES THICK)

INSIDE
OUTER PRIMARY DOUBLER
(0.032 INCHES THICK)
0 FIRST FASTENER LAD IN SKIN 174 LBS
* BEARING STRESS IN SKIN 22.895 KSI
obr/ogr = 1.526
0 FATIGUE LIFE 57,000 CYCLES

Fig.

19.

Finger Doubler Configuration To Reduce First Fastener

Load, Improve Fatigue Initiation Life And Skin Crack
Detectability

39

HOLE BOUNDARY ALLOWED TO

DISTORT

HOLE BOUNDARY HELD

RIGID

a
OPEN HOLE
Kt APPROX.

3.0

b
FILLED HOLE
NO INTERFERENCE
Kt APPROX.

lI

2.0

BUCKED RIVET

PRESSURE INDUCED BY RIVET

SWELLING
EFFECTIVE Xt CAN BE LESS THAN
2.0 DEPENDING ON AMOUNT OF
INTERFERENCE DUE TO RIVET
SWELLING

Fig.

20.

Effect Of Riveting On Stress

Concentration

Factor

40

PLASTIC ZONE
R

PLASTIC FRONT

RP

STRESSES WITHIN
ELASTIC ZONE
P 0.004 INCHES
INTERFERENCE
30

STRESSES WITHIN
PLASTIC ZONE

P 0.003 INCHES
INTERFERENCE

S20

INCHES

-0.004

INTERFERENCE

>

b2
m

S10
E

0
0.003 INCHES
0b
0

S0.2
z

-10

INTERFERENCE

0.4

THESE STRESSES AT THE HOLE

BOUNDARY WOULD BE SUBTRACTIVE
FROM APPLIED TENSION STRESSES
RESULTING IN IMPROVED LIFE

-20

Fig.

21.

Elastic-Plastic Stress Distribution Around a 0.19 Inch

Diameter Rivet In 2024-T3 Sheet With Varying Degrees
Of Equivalent Interference

41

EXAMPLE OF RIVET CLINCHING

FROM AN ACTUAL FIELD REPAIR

3$

RIVETS REMOVED FROM THE

REPAIR

GA

BOUNDARYKIN
HOL
ALLWIN

DISPLACEMENT

Fig.

22.

Examples Of Rivet Clinching

42

Fig. 23.

Lack Of Rivet Hole Filling Due To clinching

40

~-

30

-FILLED HOLE WITH ZERO

E-4

20

----

-INTERFERENC
----

Fig.

.. +

(CYLS

10'4
24.

OPEN HOLE-.

.-

)'

H#4'AT

i:::}::LIFE

103

10

Effect Of Riveting Quality On Fatigue Life

0
106

43

e4U1

0
T
7-44-

-z-l
444

1Ml

1-10

4=6

_
----------

E-'0

4 N

4-)

-af'

(ism) ssaHiIS ssoH

4)

44

SKIN IS CRITICAL AT
FIRST RIVET ROW

CRACK IN PARENT SKIN

(NO REPAIR)
REPAIR DOUBLER

CRACK AT CRITICAL
RIVET ROW IN SKIN
IS VISUALLY UNDETECTABLE

AcJ

UNDER REPAI/R

BECOMES DETECTABLE
1/2 INCH BEYOND
~DOUBLER
CREPAIR

Sk

k15

KSI, R =0

20
NO REPAIR CRACK GROWTH LIFE
DETECTABLE TO CRITICAL
29600 CYCLES
15

10

2024-T3 MATERIAL

E-

CRACK GROWTH PERIOD

0
z

DETECTABLE TO CRITICAL

1200 CYCLES

DETECTABLE CRACK LENGTH

BEYOND DOUBLER

EDGE OF DOUBLER

INITIAL DETECTABLE CRACK

10

15

20

25

30

CYCLES X 10'3

Fig.

26.

Example Of Impaired Crack Growth Detectability With

Repair Doubler

45

EXTERNAL DOUBLER

INTERNAL DOUBLER

t.ArArA,

CRITICAL FASTENER

ROW
CRACK EXTERNALLY DETECTABLE

INTERNAL FINGER
EXTERN
DOUBLER

%-%

CRACK EXTERNALLY
DETECTABLE

THIS CONFIGURATION HAS

IMPROVED RESIDUAL STRENGTH IN PRESENCE OF MSD

Fig.

27.

Improved Doubler Design For External Detectability And

Residual Strength Improvement

46

.4

.2
0

, STRESS
RATIO

R = amil/Jmax

p
da/dN

da/dN

/
C

C
1

100

10

10

100

AK

Keff = (l-R)qKm,

da/dN = C{ ((-R)q K.x)P

where

= Intercept with

K = 1.0 ordinate

= Stress Ratio ami.l/Cx

= Exponent to control width of R ratio

band of lines
rx = Maximum stress intensity factor a.oYwa

aWX = Maximum applied gross stress

Fig.

28.

= Geometry effect

= Slope of da/dN line

Walker Crack Growth Rate Equation

47

FINAL

FNA SIZE
5.0 - CRACK

af = 2. 0

4.0
af = 4.0

3.0

2.0
1.0

1.0

3.0

2.0

INITIAL CRACK SIZE a1

Fig.

29.

Example Of The Geometric Term G For An

Infinitely Wide Panel

0.12
,

(INCHES)

0.10

0.08

0.06

U')

0.04

0.02
'H

'G

1.0

2.0

C
,

CRACK SIZE a
Fig.

30.

3.0

ED

4.0

(INCHES)

Curve Of (,"aj)"P For Finite Width Panel

48
4.0 FINAL CRACK SIZE af

4.0

3.0 W

20.0 INCHES

2.0 G

1.0 -

'T'T3.0

2.0

1.0

(INCHES)'

INITIAL CRACK SIZE a,

Fig. 31. Example Plot Of G For 20.0 Inch Wide Panel

D
H

E
a,

af

da

Fig. 32. Step Integration

of

(,/-ra

-P

49

G
8.0

af=

G[8.0-6.0]
G(8.0-1.0)

IIC

II

1.0

6.0

1.0

33.

8.0

CRACK SIZE

CPACK SIZE

Fig.

_D
,__

6.0

Integration of G"p In Pieces

G[2.0-1.0]

= ([G(8.0-1.0)]'p

[G(8.0-2.0)]'p}'I/p

G[3.0-1.0]

= ([G(8.0-1.0)]'p

[G(8.0-3.0)]-p)-/p

G[4.0-1.0]

= ([G(8.0-1.0)]'p

[G(8.0-4.0)]-p)-/P

G[5.0-1.0]

= ([G(8.0-1.0)]"p

[G(8.0-5.0)]

f"I/P

N1 = N[2.0-1.0) = 1/C([G(2.0-1.0)]S)"p
N 2 = N[3.0-1.0]

= 1/C([G(3.0-1.0)]S)'p

N3 = N[4.0-1.0]

= 1/C([G(4.0-1.0)]S)"e

N4 = N[5.0-1.0]

= 1/C((G(5.0-1.0))S)"p

a 5.0

~a 4

.0

-.

Sa3.0

a 2 .0

a. 0
at)

aLIFE

Ng3.o

(CYCLES)

N2On N 1 N

Fig. 34. G For various Points On Crack Growth Curve

50

SINGLE REPEATABLE FLIGHT

GROWTH ASSUMED ON
-CRACK
INCREASING LOAD ONLY

I#
Fig.

35.

SINGLE CYCLE PRODUCING

SAME CRACK GROWTH AS
REPEATABLE FLIGHT

Simulation Of Repeatable Flight To A Single Cycle

ORIGINAL CRACK GROWTH CURVE

BASED ON A CRACK AT ONE
SIDE OF A HOLE

3.0-1

0.19 INCH DIA.

0.16"

REPAIR REINFORCING STRAP

b
Fig.

36.

Example Of Repaired Element

51

20
1 16

16
16
1717STRESSES

17
17

10
9

Fig.

S
S10

Simple Example Spectrum For Repeatable Flight

37.

1.6
CONSTANT AMPLITUDE'
SPECTRUM
(d)

U,

S-1.2-

S1.2

C.AMP.
22.43 KSI
WALKER

(c) SPECTRUM
"NO RETARDATION
FORMAN

0.8
H

(b)

C. AMP.
19.45 KSI

WALKER

S0.4
(a) SPECTRUM
RETARDATI ON

FORMAN

10

20

30

40

50

FLIGHTS X 10.3
Fig.

38

Crack Growth Comparison Spectrum/Constant Amplitude

52

1.6

1.2

SPECTRUM

"NO RETARDATION
WALKER
N

0.8

0.4

C.
19.95 KSI

S~WALKER

10

20

30

40

50

FLIGHTS X 10.3

Fig.

39.

Crack Growth Comparison Spectrum/Constant Amplitude

Using Same Crack Growth Equation