CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION ] Hydrology means the science of water. 1 It is the Scientific hydrology—the study nce that deals with the occurrence, circulation and distribution of water of the earth and the earth's atmosphere. As a branch of earth science, it is concemed with the water in streams and lakes, rainfall and snowfall, snow and ice on the land and water occurring below the earth’s surface in the pores of the soil and rocks. In a general sense, hydrology is a very broad subject of an inter-diseiplinary nature drawing support from allied sciences, such as meteorology, geology, statistics, chemistry, physics and fluid mechanics. Hydrology is basically an applied science. To further emphasise the degree of applicability, the subject is sometimes classified as which is concerned chiefly with academic aspects. 2. Engineering or applied hydrology—a study concerned with engineering applications. Ina general sense, engineering hydrology deals with (i) estimation of water resources, (ii) the study of processes such as precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration and their interaction, and (iii) the study of problems such as floods and droughts, and strategies to combat them. ‘This book isan elementary treatmentof engineering hydrology with descriptions that aid in a qualitative appreciation and techniques which enable a quantitative evaluation of the hydrologic processes that are of importance to a civil engineer. 1.2 Hydrologic Cycle ‘Water occurs on the earth in all its three states, viz. liquid, solid and gaseous, and in various degrees of motion. Evaporation of water from water bodies such as oceans and lakes, formation and movement of clouds, rain and snowfall, streamflow and groundwater movement are some examples of the dynamic aspects of water. The vari- ous aspects of water related to the earth can be explained in terms of a cycle known as the hydrologic eyele. Figure 1.1 is a schematic representation of the hydrologic cycle. A convenient starting point to describe the cycle is in the oceans, Water in the oceans evaporates2 | Engineering Hydrology Ay Precipitation TIN Clouas yyy ~— QOOO DWoOITD yy YEE Snow, gg Ov Precipitation Rey vryyyyy Evaporation from ocean 40 Pervious material 9 0= Evaporation from ocean 1=Raindrop evaporation 2=Interception 3=Transpiration 4=Evaporation from land ‘9 = Deep percolation Fig. 1.1 The Hydrologic Cycle -vaporation from water bodies urface runoff due to the heat energy provided by solar radiation. The water vapour moves upwards and forms clouds. While much of the clouds condense and fall back to the oceans as rain, a part of the clouds is driven to the land areas by winds. There they condense and precipitate onto the landmass as rain, snow, hail, sleet, ete. A part of the precipitation may evaporate back to the atmosphere even while falling, Another part may be inter- cepted by vegetation, structures and other such surface modifications from which it may be either evaporated back to the atmosphere or move down to the ground surface. A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth's surface through infiltration, enhances the moisture content of the soil and reaches the groundwater body, Vegetation sends a portion of the water from under the ground surface back to the atmosphere through the process of transpiration. The precipitation reaching the ground surface after meeting the needs of infiltration and evaporation moves down the natural slope over the surface and through a network of gullies, streams and rivers to reach the ocean. The groundwater may come to the surface through springs and other outlets after spending a considerably longer time than the surface flow. The portion of, the precipitation which by a variety of paths above and below the surface of the earth reaches the stream channel is called runoff: Once it enters a stream channel, runoff becomes stream flow. The sequence of events as above is a simplistic picture of a very complex cycle that has been taking place since the formation of the earth, It is seen that the hydrologic cycle isa very vast and complicated cycle in which there are a large number of pathsIntroduction | 3 of varying time scales. Further, it is a continuous recirculating cycle in the sense that there is neither a beginning nor an end or a pause. Each path of the hydrologic cycle involves one or more of the following aspects: (i) transportation of water, (ii) temporary storage, and (iii) change of state. For example, (a) the process of rainfall has the change of state and transportation, and (b) the groundwater path has storage and transportation aspects. ‘The main components of the hydrologic cycle can be broadly classified as srans= portation (flow) components and storage components as below: et as 5 Penna + Precipitation * Storage on the land surface (Depression storage, Ponds, Lakes, Reservoirs, etc) * Evaporation + Soil moisture storage + Transpiration * Groundwater storage + Infiltration + Runoff Numerous diagrams have been designed to illustrate the salient aspects of the hydrologic cycle. Figure 1.1, described earlier, is a typical one of the descriptive type. A qualitative representation of the hydrologic cycle first introduced by Horton shown in Fig. 1.2. This diagram, popularly known as Horton's representation of jure in ransporiatig jatut talon an ve erage Precipitation ae va ] p | Surlace f Sunot sé] "ino f sveams Fig. 1.2. Hoston’s Representation of the Hydrological Cycle ( Ref: 1).4 | Engineering Hydrology the hydrologi cycle, illustrates Evapo- Precipitation transpiration very Clearly the storage and trans- tid cveamt portation components and their t ream flow relative positions in the cycle. The (Runoff) figure is read in the counter- Tytt+ * clockwise manner and is self- <4 Infiltration imaiae explanatory, i Schematically, the interdepend- | , ency of the transportation com- | ponents can be represented as in % >—¥_Base flow Fig. 1.3. The quantities of water Groundwater flow going through various paths of the hydrological cycle in a given system can be described by the continuity principle known as water-budget equation or hydrologic equation. It is important to note that the total water resources of the earth is constant and the sun is the source of energy for the hydrologic cycle. A recognition of the various processes such as evaporation, precipitation and groundwater flow helps one to study the science of hydrology in a systematic way. Also, one realises that humans can interfere with virtually any part of the hydrologic cycle, e.g. through artificial rain, evaporation suppression, change of vegetal cover and land use, extraction of groundwater, etc, Interference at one stage can cause serious repercussions at some other stage of the cycle. ‘The hydrological cycle has important influences in a variety of fields including agriculture, forestry, geography, economics, sociology and politics. Engineering applications of the knowledge of the hydrologic cycle, and hence of the subjects of hydrology, are found in the design and operation of projects dealing with water supply, irrigation and drainage, water power, flood control, navigation, coastal works, salinity control and recreational uses of water. 1.3. Water-Budget Equation ] 1.3.1 Catchment Area The area of land draining into a stream or a water course at a given location is known as the catchment area. It is also called drainage area or drainage basin. In the USA, it is known as watershed. A catchment area is separated form its neighbour- ing areas by a ridge called divide in GF the USA and warershed in UK (Fig. Station M 1.4), The areal extent of the catchment is obtained by tracing the ridge on a topographic map to delineate the catchment and measuring the area by Fig. 1.3 Transportation Components of the Hydrologic Cycle Watershed (divide) L<——_—— A ary, river A Fig. 1.4 Schematic Sketch of Catchment of River A at Station MIntroduction | 5 a planimeter: It is obvious that for a river while mentioning the catchment area, the station to which it pertains (Fig. 1.4) must also be mentioned. It is normal to assume the groundwater divide to coincide with the surface divide. Thus, the catchment area affords a logical and convenient unit to study various aspects relating to the hydrology and water resources of a region, Further, it is probably the singlemost important drainage characteristic used in hy- drological analysis and design. Some of the geometrical parameters of the catchment as related to runoff process are described in See. 5.4, Chapter 5 1.3.2 Water-Budget Equation For a given problem area, say a catchment, in an interval of time Ar, the continuity equation for water in its various phases is written as Mass inflow ~ Mass outflow = Change in mass storage Ir the density of the inflow, outflow and storage volumes are the same, ¥j—-Yy=as «ly where V, = inflow volume of water into the problem area during the time period, ¥, = outflow volume of water from the problem area during the time period, and AS = change in the storage of the water volume over and under the given area during the given period, In applying this continuity equation [Eg. (1.1)] to the paths of the hydrologic cycle involving change of state, the volumes considered are the equivalent volumes of water at a reference temperature. In hydrologic calculations, the volumes are often expressed as average depths over the catchment area. Thus, for example, if the annual stream flow froma 10 km? catchment is 10” m4, it corresponds to a depth 10 x 10° expressed in units of depth over the catchment. While realising that all the terms ina hydrological water budget may not be known to the same degree of accuracy, an expression for the water budget of a catchment for atime interval Asis written as P-R-G-E-T=AS (1.2-a) In this, P = precipitation, R = surface runoff, G = net groundwater flow out of the catchment, E = evaporation, T = transpiration and AS = change in storage. ‘The storage S consists of three components as S#=5S,4Syq +S, where — §, = surface water storage, om = Water in storage as soil moisture, and S, = water in storage as groundwater. Thus in Eq. (1.2-a), AS = AS, + AS,, + AS, All terms in Eq. (1.2-a} have the dimensions of yolume. Note that all these terms can be expressed as depth over the catchment area (¢.g. in centimetres), and in fact this is a very common unit. In terms of rainfall-runoff relationship, Eq. (1.2-a) can be represented as REPEE (1.2-b) where L = losses = water not available to runoff due to infiltration (causing addition to soil moisture and groundwater storage), evaporation, transpiration and surface storage. 107 of ( } = I m= 100 em, Rainfall, evaporation and often runoff volumes are ba won6_| Engineering Hydrology Details of various components of the water-budget equation are discussed in subsequent chapters. Note that in Egs (1.2-a and b), the net import of water into the catchment, from sources outside the catchment, by action of humans is assumed to be zero. LR IUTICIREEMM A lake had a water surface elevation of 109.200 m above datum at ‘the beginning of a certain month. In that month, the lake received an average inflow of 6.0 m’/s from surface runoff sources. In the same period, the outflow from the lake had an average value ‘of 6.5 m’Js. Further, in that month, the lake received a rainfall of 145 mm and the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6,10 cm. Write the water-budget equation for the lake and calcu- late the water surface elevation of the lake at the end of the month. The average lake-surface area ‘can be taken as 5000 ha, Assume that there is no contribution to or from the groundwater storage, Solution Ina time interval Ar, the water budget for the lake can be written as Input volume ~ Output volume = Change in storage of the lake (TAt+ PA) — (QAt + BA) = AS where / = average rate of inflow of water into the lake, @ = average rate of outflow from the lake, P'= precipitation, £ = evaporation, A = average surface area of the lake and AS = change in storage volume of the lake. Here Ar= 1 month = 30 x 24x 60 x 60 = 2.592 x 10°s = 2.592 Ms In one month: - Inflow volume = / At= 6.0 x 2,592 = 15.552 M m ‘Outflow volume = QAr= 6.5 x 2.592 = 16.848 M m* 145 x 5000 x 100 x 100 Input due to precipitation = PA= >">" Mm =7.25 Mm 1000 x 10° , 5000 x 100 «100 enya Outflow due to evaporation =EA = S10," * "= 3.05 Mm 100 10° Hence AS= 15.552 +7.25— 16.848 — 3.05 = 2.904 M m* i \ Ave AS n_72:904% 106 si hange inelevation Az= —-= Zp app = 0.058 m New water surface elevation at the end of the month = 103.200 + 0.058 = 103.258 m above the datum, ba eTul ts ‘A small catchment of 150 ha area received a rainfall of 10.5 om in 90 minutes due to a storm. At the outlet of the catchment, the stream draining the catchment was dry before the storm and experienced a runoff lasting for 10 hours with an average discharge of 1.5 ms, The stream was again dry after the runoff event. (a) What is the amount of water which was not available to runoff due to combined effect of infitration, evaporation and transpiration? What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation? Solution The water-budget equation for the catchment ina time Ar is R=P-L (1.2-b)Introduction | 7 where = losses = water not available to runoff due to infiltration (causing addition to soil moisture and groundwater storage), evaporation, transpiration and surface storage. In the present case, Ar = duration of the runoff = 10 hours Note that the rainfall occurred in the first 90 minutes and for the rest 8.5 hours, the precipitation was zero. (a) P = Input due to precipitation in 10 hours 50 x 100 x 100 x (10.5/100) = 157,500 m* unoff volume = outflow volume at the catchment outlet in 10 hours 5 10 «60 x 60 = 54,000 m* 157,500 - $4,000 = 103,500 m> (b) Runoff/rainfall = 54,000/157,500 = 0.343 (This ratio is known as runoff coefficient and is discussed in Chapter 5) cuts A.catchment area of 140 km? recelved 120 cm of rainfall in a year. At the ‘outlet of the catchment, the flow in the stream draining the catchment was found to have an average rate of (i) 1.5 ms for the first 3 months, (ii) 2.0 m'fs for 6 months and (il) 3.5 m‘/s for the remaining 3 months. (a) What's the runoff coefficient of the catchment? (i Ifthe afforestation of the catchment reduces the runoff coefficient fo 0.35, what is the increase in the abstraction from precipitation due to inftrtion, evaporation and transpiration for the same annual rainfall of 120 om? Hence, losses Solution (i) Before Afforestation Consider a period = Ar= 1 year Input volume to the catchment through precipitation = 120 3 ¥=140 «10° x 2). 168M f 100 a Runoff = Output volume = ¥, = (1.5 x 3) + (2 6) +(3.5 x 3) =27 Mm*.month 365 6 nd 3 =27 os x 24 x 60 x 60 = 70.956 x 10° m* = 70.956 Mn 70, Runoff coefficient = 0.4224 168.0 Abstraction volume = 168.0 — 70.956 = 97.044 Mm* (ii) After Afforestation Runoff = 0.35 x 168 = 58.8 Mm* n volume = 168.0 — 58.8 = 109.2 Mm* Increase in abstraction = 109.20— 97.044 = 12.156 Mm* 1.4 World Water Balance ] ‘The total quantity of water in the world is estimated to be about 1386 million cubic kilometres (M km?), About 96.5% of this water is contained in the oceans as saline water. Some of the water on the land amounting to about | % of the total water is also New abstra8_| Engineering Hydrology saline. Thus, only about 35.0 M km’ of fresh water is available. Out of this about 10.6 M km’ is both liquid and fresh and the remaining 24.4 M km* is contained in frozen state as ice in the polar regions and on mountain tops and glaciers. An estimated distribution of water on the earth is given in Table 1.1 Table 1.1 Estimated World Water Quantities Oceans 361.3 1338.0 = 2. Groundwater (a) fresh 134.8 10.530 0.76 30.1 (b) saline 134.8 12.870 0.93 = 3, Soil moisture 82.0 0.0165 0.0012 0.05 4. Ice caps and glaciers 16.0 24.0235 17 68.6 5. Other ice and snow 03 0.3406 0.025 1.0 6. Lakes (a) fresh 12 0.0910 0.007 0.26 (b) saline 08 0.0854, 0.006 _ 7. Wetlands 27 0.01147 0.0008 0.03 8. Rivers 148.8 0.00212 0.0002 0.006 Biological water 510.0 0.00112 0.0001 0.003 10. Atmospheric water 510.0 0.01290 0.001 0.04 ‘Total: (a) All kinds of water 510.0 1386.0 100.0 (b) Fresh water 148.8 35.0 z, 100.0 Table from WORLD WATER BALANCE AND WATER RESOURCES OF THE EARTH, © UNESCO, 1975. Reproduced by the permission of UNESCO. ‘The global annual water balance is shown in Table 1.2. Table 1.2 Global Annual Water Balance 1, Area (M km?) 361.30 148.8 2. Precipitation (km’/year) 458,000 119,000 (mm/year) 1270 800 3. Evaporation (kin*/year) 505,000 72,000 (mum/year) 1400 484 4, Runoff to ocean (i) Rivers (km'/year) 44,700 (ii) Groundwater (km'/year) 2,200 Total runoff (km*/year) 47,000 (mm/year) 316 Table trom WORLD WATER BALANCE AND WATER RESOURCES OF THE EARTH, © UNESCO, 1975. Reproduced by the permission of UNESCO. It is seen from Table 1.2 that the annual evaporation from the world’s oceans and inland areas are 0.505 and 0.072 M km’ respectively. Thus, over the oceans aboutIntroduction | 9 9% more water evaporates than that falls back as precipitation. Correspondingly, there will be excess precipitation over evaporation on the land mass. The differential, whieh is estimated to be about 0.047 M km? is the runoff from land mass to oceans and groundwater outflow to oceans. Itis interesting to know that less than 4% of this total river flow is used for irrigation and the rest flows down to sea. These estimates are only approximate and the results from different studies var the chief cause being the difficulty in obtaining adequate and reliable data ona global scale. ‘The volumes in various phases of the hydrologic cycle (Table 1.1), as also the rate of flow in that phase (Table 1.2), do vary considerably. The average duration of a particle of water to pass through a phase of the hydrologic cycle is known as the residence time of that phase. It could be calculated by dividing the volume of water in the phase by the average flow rate in that phase. For example, by assuming that all the surface runoff to the oceans comes from the rivers, From Table 1.1, the volume of water in the rivers of the world = 0.00212 M km? From Table 1.2, the average flow rate of water in global rivers = 44700 km*/year Hence, residence time of global rivers, 7, = 2120/4700 = 0.0474 year = 17.3 days. Similarly, the residence time for other phases of the hydrological cycle can be cal- culated (Prob. 1.6). It will be found that the value of 7, varies from phase to phase. In a general sense, the shorter the residence time, the greater is the difficulty in predicting the behaviour of that phase of the hydrologic cycle, Annual water balance studies of the sub-areas of the world indicate interesting facts, The water balance of the continental land mass is shown in Table 1.3(a). It is interesting to see from this table that Africa, in spite of its equatorial forest zones, is the driest continent in the world with only 20% of the precipitation going as runoff. On the other hand, North America and Europe emerge as continents with highest runoff. Extending this type of analysis to a smaller land mass, viz. the Indian subcontinent, the long-term average runoff for India is found to be 46%. Table 1.3(a) Water Balance of Continents in mm/year (Ref. 2) Continent Wow cccc ne Ciel) ites ee OMe ie oie Africa 30.3 686 139 20 547 Asia 45.0 726 293 40 433 Australia 87 736 226 30 510 Europe 98 74 319 4B 15 N.Ameriea 20,7 670 287 43 383 S.America 17.8 1648 583 35 1065 Water-balance studies on the oceans indicate that there is considerable transfer of water between the oceans and the evaporation and precipitation values vary from one ocean to another (Table 1.3(b)).10 | Engineering Hydrology Table 1.3(b) Water Balance of Oceans mm/year $6 ld] wc] A Precipitation Inflow from Coat) adjacent Pees Auantic 107 780 200 Arctic 12 240 230 Indian 75 1O10 70 Pacific 167 1210 60 ORES oe CN 1040 -60) 120 350 1380 —300 1140 130 Each year, the rivers of the world discharge about 44,700 km* of water into the oceans. This amounts to an annual average flow of 1.417 Mm*/s. The world’s largest river, the Amazon, has an annual average discharge of 200,000 ns, i.e. one-seventh of the world’s annual average value. India’s largest river, the Brahmaputra, and the second largest, the Ganga, flow into the Bay of Bengal with mean annual average discharges of 16,200 m’/s and 15,600 m’/s respectively. 1.5 Global Freshwater Resources Table 1.1 lists the components of global freshwater resources in Col.5, In this section, the important components of fresh water resources in the world are described, Figure L5i lustrates schematically the distri Saline (Oceans) bution of global freshwater resources. — cecaps and Glaciers s = I Surface Soo Water Other Fig. 1.5 Distribution of Global FreshwaterIntroduction | i 1. Glaciers and Permanent Ice Caps This form of freshwater accounts for about 69% of the total freshwater resources of the globe. They are located in about 10% of the world’s land mass. Itis estimated that Greenland and Antarctica account for most of this category of water. Obviously, be- ing located in most inaccessible and uninhabited places of the world, this freshwater resource is not readily available for human use. 2, Groundwater Ground water represents the second-most abundantly available freshwater resource and constitutes about 30% of fresh water resources of the globe. More than 1.5 billion people in the world are known to depends on groundwater for their drinking water requirements. Groundwater forms an important component of hydrological studies and some basic aspects of groundwater are dealt with in Chapter 9 of this book 3. Freshwater Lakes Natural freshwater lakes account for about 0.26% of the freshwater resources. More than 50% of these lakes are found in Canada. 4, Reservoirs. Reservoirs are artificial lakes created by humans through construction of dams across rivers. Most of the water in these reservoirs , estimated to be of the order of 4300 ki‘, are used for beneficial purposes such as irrigation, drinking water, hydropower feneration and industrial use. 5. Wetlands A part of the freshwater resource (amounting to about 0.04%) is distributed in the globe as wetland, marshes, lagoons, swamps, bogs and mires. These water-bearing bodies play a very important role in maintaining the freshwater ecology as well as in the recharge of groundwater. 6. Rivers Flowing water in rivers form one of the most important part of freshwater resource sustaining human activity and ecology in the world. Even though this component forms a tiny fraction (0,006%) of freshwater resource, it forms the core of human activity related to natural water use. A substantial part of the subject of engineering hydrology deals with river flow, Some important aspects related to river flow are discussed in chapters 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 of this book. 1.6 History of Hydrology | Water is the prime requirement for the existence of life and thus it has been human- kind’s endeavour from time immemorial to utilise the available water resources. His- tory has instances of civilisations that flourished with the availability of dependable water supplies and then collapsed when the water supply failed, Numerous references exist in Vedic literature to groundwater availability and its utility. During 3000 BC,12 | Engineering Hydrology groundwater development through wells was known to people of the Indus Valley civilisation as revealed by archaeological excavations at Mohenjodaro. Quotations in ancient Hindu scriptures indivate the existence of knowledge of the hydrologic cycle even as far back as the Vedic period. The first description of the raingauge and its use is contained in the Arthashastra by Chanakya (300 sc). Varahamihira’s (ap 505-587) Brihatsamhita contains descriptions of the raingauge, wind vane and prediction procedures for rainfall. Egyptians knew the importance of the stage measurement of rivers, and records of the stages of the Nile dating back to 1800 Bc have been located. The knowledge of the hydrologic cycle came to be known to Europe much later, around ap 1500, Chow’ classifies the history of hydrology into eight periods: Period of speculation—prior to ab 1400 Period of observation—1400-1600 Period of measurement—1600-1700 Period of experimentation—1 700-1800 Period of modernisation—1800-1900 Period of empiricism—1900-1930 Period of rationalisation—1930-1950 . Period of theorisation—1950-to-date Most of the present-day science of hydrology has been developed since 1930, thus giving hydrology the status of a young science. The worldwide activities in water- resources development since the last few decades by both developed and developing countries aided by rapid advances in instrumentation for data acquisition and in the computer facilities for data analysis have contributed towards the rapid growth rate of this young science. veeNe eae 1 Applications In Enginee. 1S Hydrology finds its greatest application in the design engineering projects, such as those for (i) irrigation, (ii) water supply, (iii) flood control, (iv) water power, and (v) navigation. In all these projects, hydrological investigations for the proper assessment of the following factors are necessary: nd operation of water-resources ‘The capacity of storage structures such as reservoirs. ‘The magnitude of flood flows to enable safe disposal of the excess flow. The minimum flow and quantity of flow available at various seasons. The interaction of the flood wave and hydraulic structures, such as levees, res- ervoirs, barrages and bridges. Buna ‘The hydrological study of a project should necessarily precede structural and other detailed design studies. It involves the collection of relevant data and analysis of the data by applying the principles and theories of hydrology to seek solutions to practical problems. Many important projects in the past have failed due to improper assessment of hydrological factors. Some typical failures of hydraulic structures are (i) overtopping and consequent failure of an earthen dam due to an inadequate spillwayIntroduction | 13 capacity, (ii) failure of bridges and culverts due to excess flood flow, and (iii) inability of a large reservoir to fill up with water due to overestimation of the stream flow. Such failure, often called Aydrologie failures, underscore the uncertainty aspect inherent in hydrological studies. Various phases of the hydrological cycle, such as rainfall, runoff, evaporation and uanspiration, are all nonuniformly distributed both in time and space. Further, practi- cally, all hydrologic phenomena are complex and at the present level of knowledge, they can at best be interpreted with the aid of probability concepts. Hydrological events are treated as random processes and the historical data relating to the event are analysed by statistical methods to obtain information on probabilities of occurrence of various events, The probability analysis of hydrologic data is an important component of present-day hydrological studies and enables the engineer to take suitable design decisions consistent with economic and other criteria to be taken in a given project. 18 Sources of Data | Depending upon the problem at hand, a hydrologist would require data relating to the various relevant phases of the hydrological cycle playing on the problem catchment. The data normally required in the studies are ¢ Weather records—temperature, humidity and wind velocity © Precipitation data Stream-flow records Evaporation and evapotranspiration data Infiltration characteristics of the study area Soils of the area Land use and land cover Groundwater characteristics Physical and geological characteristics of the area Water-quality data In India, hydro-meteorological data are collected by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and by some state government agencies. The Central Water Commission (CWC) monitors flow in major rivers of the country. Stream-flow data of various rivers and streams are usually available from the State Water Resources/Irrigation Department. Groundwater data will normally be available with Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) and state government groundwater development agencies. Data relating to evapotranspiration and infiltration characteristics of soils will be available with state government organisations such as Department of Agriculture, Department of Watershed Development and Irrigation Department. The physical features of the study area haye to be obtained from a study of topographical maps available with the Survey of India. The information relating to geological characteristics of the basin under study will be available with the Geological Survey of India and the State Geology Directorate. Information relating to soils at an area are available from relevant maps of National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (VBSS&LUP), 1996. Further additional or specific data can be obtained from the State Agriculture Department and the State Watershed Development Department. Land use and land-cover data14 | Engineering Hycrology would generally be available from State Remote Sensing Agencies. Specific details will have to be derived through interpretation of multispectral multiseason satellite images available from National Remote Sensing Ageney (RSA) of Government of India, Central and State Pollution Control Boards, CWC and CGWB collect water- quality data, ——________| REFERENCES J} Chow, V.T,, (Ed), Handbook of Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1964. 2, Schendel, V., “The world’s water resources and water balance”, Natural Resources and Developiient, Inst. for Sci. Coop, Hannover, Germany, pp. 8-14, Vol. 1, 1975. 3, UNESCO, "World Water Balance and Water Resources of the Earth”, Studies and Reports in Hydrology, 25, UNESCO, Pacis, France, 1978. 4, Van der Leeden, Water Resources of the World, Water Information Center, Port Wasghington, N.¥., USA, 1975. | REVISION QUESTIONS Ll Describe the hydrologic parts of this eyele. 1.2. Discuss the hydrological water budget with the aid of examples. 1.3, What are the significant features of global water-balance studies? 1.4 Explain briefly the distribution of fresh water resources in the world. 1.5. List the major activities in which hydrological studies are important. 1.6 Describe briefly the sources of hydrological data in India. | PROBLEMS 1.1 Two and half centimetres of rain per day over an area of 200 km: is equivalent to aver- age rate of input of how many cubic metres per second of water to that area’? 1.2. The watershed at a site on a stream has 77000 ha area. The mean annual precipitation at this place is 950 mm. (i) If 25% of rainfall reaches the basin outlet as stream flow, estimate the mean annual flow rate of the stream in m’/s. (ii) If watershed treatment, including afforestation, causes the munoff rate to reduce to 22%, what is the increase in the volume of abstraction from all causes for the same mean annual rainfall of 950 mm? 1.3. Estimate the constant rate of withdrawal from a 1375 ha reservoir in a month of 30 days during which the reservoir level dropped by 0.75 m in spite of an average inflow into the reservoir of 0.5 Mm'/day. During the month, the average seepage loss from the reservoir was 2.5 em, total precipitation on the reservoir was 18.5 cm and the total evaporation was 9.5 cm, 1.4 A river reach had a flood wave passing through it. At a given instant, the storage of water in the reach was estimated as. 15.5 ha.m. What would be the storage in the reach after an interval of 3 hours if the average inflow and outflow during the time period are 14.2 m/s and 10.6 m/s respectively? 1.5. A catchment has four sub-areas. The annual precipitation and evaporation from each of the sub-areas are given below. le. Explain briefly humankind’s interference in variousIntroduction | 18 Assume that there is no change in the groundwater storage on an annual basis and calculate for the whale catchment the Values of annua! average (i) precipitation, and (ii) evaporation. What are the annual runoff coefficients for the sub-areas and for the total catchment taken as a whole? A B 3.0 © 8.2 D 17.0 1300 1.6 Estimate the residence time of the following by using Tables 1.1 and 1 (a) Global atmospheric moisture (b). Global groundwater by assuming that only the fresh groundwater runs off to the oceans (©) Ocean water | OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS lage of earth covered by oct ans is about (by 51% (c) 71% (d) 97% 1.2, The percentage of total quantity of water in the world that is saline is about (a) 71% (by 33% ©) 67% @) 97% 1.3. The percentage of total quantity of fresh water in the world available in the liquid form isabout (a) 30% (b) 70% (©) 11% (d) 51% 1.4 Ifthe average annual rainfall and evaporation over land masses and oceans of the earth are considered, it would be found that (a) over the land mass the annual evaporation is the same as the annual pree (b) about 9% more water evaporates from the oceans than what falls precipitation (©) over the ocean about 19% more rain falls than what is evaporated (d) over the oceans about 19% more water evaporates than what falls back on them as precipitation 1.5. Considering the ratio of annual precipitation to runoff = for all the continents on the earth, (a) Asia has the largest value of the ratio ry (b) Europe has the smallest value of 7, (6) Africa has the smallest value of ry (d) Australia has the smallest value of ry 1.6 In the hydrological cycle, the average residence time of water in the global (a) atmospheric moisture is larger than that in the global rivers (b) oceans is smaller than that of the global groundwater (c) rivers is larger than that af the global groundwater (4) oceans is larger than that of the global groundwater 1.7 A watershed has an area of 300 ha, Due to a 10 em rainfall event over the watershed, a stream flow is generated and at the autlet of the watersheds it lasts for 10 hours. As- suming a runoff/rainfall ratio of 0.20 for this event, the average stream-flow rate at the outlet in this period of 10 hours is (a) 1.33 m'7s (b) 16.7 m/s (©) 100m'minute — (@)_ 60,000 m'/h tation, yack on them as16 |_ Engineering Hycrology 1.8 Rainfall of 20 mm/h intensity occurred over a watershed of 100 ha area for a duration of 6 h, Measured direct runoff volume in the stream draining the watershed was found to be 30,000 m’, The precipitation not available to runoff in this case is (a) 9cm (b) 3cm (©) 17.5 mm @ Smm 1.9 Acatchment of area 120 km? has three distinet zones as belaw: A 61 52 B 39 42 c 20 32 ‘The annual runoff from the catchment is (a) 126.0cm (b) 42.0cm (©) 454m (d) 47.3 cm