382 Microwave Linear-Beam Tubes (O Type) Chap. 9 600 + Vyp = Oe x 10° (We + Vol = Sea aps = 0-721 x 10 v, = 250V b. Assume that By = 1. Since bay = 2lod(X")Ro the direct current fais = 1145 mA "= S7ae Ra ~ HOSES KIO ¢. From Eqs. (9-4-11), (9-4-12), and (9-4-20) the electronic efficiency is 2X'JUX') _ 2(1.841)(0.582) _ 2an— [2 2wQ)— #/2 ee Efficiency 9-5 HELIX TRAVELING-WAVE TUBES (TWTs) Since Kompfner invented the helix traveling-wave tube (TWT) in 1944 [11], its basic circuit has changed little. For broadband applications, the helix TWTs are almost ex- clusively used, whereas for high-average-power purposes, such as radar transmitters, the coupled-cavity TWTs are commonly used. In previous sections klystrons and reflex klystrons were analyzed in some de- tail. Before starting to describe the TWT, it seems appropriate to compare the basic operating principles of both the TWT and the klystron. In the case of the TWT, the microwave circuit is nonresonant and the wave propagates with the same speed as the electrons in the beam. The initial effect on the beam is a small amount of veloc- ity modulation caused by the weak electric fields associated with the traveling wave. Just as in the klystron, this velocity modulation later translates to current modula- tion, which then induces an RF current in the circuit, causing amplification. How- ever, there are some major differences between the TWT and the klystron: 1, The interaction of electron beam and RF field in the TWT is continuous over the entire length of the circuit, but the interaction in the klystron occurs only at the gaps of a few resonant cavities. 2, The wave in the TWT is a propagating wave; the wave in the klystron is not. 3. In the coupled-cavity TWT there is a coupling effect between the cavities, whereas each cavity in the klystron operates independently. ‘A helix traveling-wave tube consists of an electron beam and a slow-wave struc- ture. The electron beam is focused by a constant magnetic field along the electron beam and the slow-wave structure. This is termed an O-type traveling-wave tube. ‘The slow-wave structure is either the helical type or folded-back line. The applied signal propagates around the turns of the helix and produces an electric field at theSec. 9.5 Helix Traveling-Wave Tubes (TWTs) 383, center of the helix, directed along the helix axis, The axial electric field progresses with a velocity that is very close to the velocity of light multiplied by the ratio of he- lix pitch to helix circumference. When the electrons enter the helix tube, an interac~ tion takes place between the moving axial electric field and the moving electrons. ‘On the average, the electrons transfer energy to the wave on the helix. This interac- tion causes the signal wave on the helix to become larger. The electrons entering the helix at zero field are not affected by the signal wave; those electrons entering the helix at the accelerating field are accelerated, and those at the retarding field are de- celerated. AAs the electrons travel further along the helix, they bunch at the collector end. The bunching shifts the phase by 2/2. Each electron in the bunch encounters a stronger retarding field. Then the microwave energy of the electrons is delivered by the electron bunch to the wave on the helix. The amplification of the signal wave is accomplished. The characteristics of the traveling-wave tube are: Frequency range: 3 GHz and higher Bandwidth: about 0.8 GHz Efficiency: 20 to 40% Power output: up to 10 KW average Power gain: up to 60 dB The present state of the art for U.S. high-power TWTs is shown in Fig. 9-5-1. To I ry i 1 =P H eT i i 1 i ot LEE EE Figure 9.61 Sute ofthe ar for US ean. * high-power TTS.384 Microwave Linear-Beam Tubes (0 Type) Chap. 9 9-5-1 Slow-Wave Structures [As the operating frequency is increased, both the inductance and capacitance of the resonant circuit must be decreased in order to maintain resonance at the operating frequency. Because the gain-bandwidth product is limited by the resonant circuit, the ordinary resonator cannot generate a large output. Several nonresonant periodic circuits or slow-wave structures (see Fig. 9-5-2) are designed for producing large ‘gain over a wide bandwidth. @ co) ane @ © AAAOD tb ied ted © Figure 95-2 Slow-wave structures. (a) Helical line. (b) Folded-back line, (©) Zigzag line. (A) Inerdigital line. (e) Corrugated waveguide. Slow-wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to reduce the wave velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and the sig- nal wave can interact. The phase velocity of a wave in ordinary waveguides is greater than the velocity of light in a vacuum. In the operation of traveling-wave and ‘magnetron-type devices, the electron beam must keep in step with the microwave signal. Since the electron beam can be accelerated only to velocities that are about a fraction of the velocity of light, a slow-wave structure must be incorporated in the microwave devices so that the phase velocity of the microwave signal can keep pace with that of the electron beam for effective interactions. Several types of slow-wave structures are shown in Fig. 9-5-2. ‘The commonly used slow-wave structure is a helical coil with a concentric con- ducting cylinder (see Fig. 9-5-3) It can be shown that the ratio of the phase velocity vp along the pitch to the phase velocity along the coil is given by inv (9-5-1)Sec. 9.5 Helix Traveling-Wave Tubes (TWTs) 385 TO Figure 9-5.3 Helical slow-wave structure. (a) Helical eo. (b) One turn of helix P 1 -{farrs 4 ©) where ¢ = 3 x 10° m/s is the velocity of light in free space p = helix piteh d = diameter of the helix W = pitch angle In general, the helical coil may be within a dielectrie-filled cylinder. The phase velocity in the axial direction is expressed as (9-5-2) If the dielectric constant is too large, however, the slow-wave structure may intro- duce considerable loss to the microwave devices, thereby reducing their efficiency. For a very small pitch angle, the phase velocity along the coil in free space is ap- proximately represented by aXe 1-5 -: IB (9-5-3) Figure 9-5-4 shows the w-B (or Brillouin) diagram for a helical slow-wave structure. The helix «-8 diagram is very useful in designing a helix slow-wave struc- ture. Once f is found, v, can be computed from Eq. (9-5-3) for a given dimension of the helix. Furthermore, the group velocity of the wave is merely the slope of the curve as given by =o 1-5. oe = (9-5-4) Figure 9-5-4 w-f diagram for a helical 3 structure,386 Microwave Linear-Beam Tubes (O Type) Chap. 9 In order for a circuit to be a slow-wave structure, it must have the property of periodicity in the axial direction. The phase velocity of some of the spatial harmon- ics in the axial direction obtained by Fourier analysis of the waveguide field may be smaller than the velocity of light. In the helical slow-wave structure a translation back or forth through a distance of one pitch length results in identically the same structure again. Thus the period of a helical slow-wave structure is its pitch. In general, the field of the slow-wave structure must be distributed according to Floquet’s theorem for periodic boundaries. Floquet’s periodicity theorem states that: The steady-state solutions for the electromagnetic fields of a single propagating mode in «periodic structure have the property that fields in adjacent cells are related by a com- plex constant. Mathematically, the theorem can be stated Ex, yz — L) = Ela, y, e®e (9-5-5) where E(x, y, 2) is a periodic function of z with period. Since By is the phase con- stant in the axial direction, in a slow-wave structure By is the phase constant of aver- age electron velocity. It is postulated that the solution to Maxwell's equations in a periodic structure can be written F(x, y, ze? (9-5-6) where f(x, y, 2) is a periodic function of z with period L that is the period of the slow-wave structure. For a periodic structure, Eq. (9-5-6) can be rewritten with z replaced by = 6: E(x, y,2) E(x, y,2~ L) = fle y,2— Demir? (0-5-7) Since f(x, y, z — L) is a periodic function with period L, then fle y2- DL) = fly) (9-5-8) Substitution of Eq. (9-5-8) in (9-5-7) results in Elx,y,z — L) = fla, y, zleMoreltot (0-5-9) and substitution of Eq. (9-5-6) in (9-5-9) gives E(x, y,z — L) = E(x, y, ze" (9-5-10) This expression is the mathematical statement of Floquet’s theorem, Eq. (9-5-5) Therefore Eq. (9-5-6) does indeed satisfy Floquet’s theorem. From the theory of Fourier series, any function that is periodic, single-valued, finite, and continuous may be represented by a Fourier series. Hence the field distr bution function E(x, y, 2) may be expanded into a Fourier series of fundamental pe- riod L as E(x, 9.2) (x, yee? (9-5-1) > E,lx, ye Pane Hoe z E,lSec. 9.5 Helix Traveling-Wave Tubes (TWTs) 387 where . Ess, y) if Ele, y, 2229" de (9-5-12) are the amplitudes of n harmonics and B. = By + 22 (4-5-13) is the phase constant of the nth modes, where n = —, 4, 72, -1,0, 1, 2,3, ‘The quantities E,(x, ye? are known as spatial harmonics by analogy with time-domain Fourier series. The question is whether Eq. (9-5-11) can satisfy the electric wave equation, Eq. (2-1-20). Substitution of Eq. (9-5-11) into the wave equation results r S bls. ye in] - | D, bale, ye ma =0 — (9-5-14) Since the wave equation is linear, Eq. (9-5-14) can be rewritten as Iv n(x, yea” — yPE n(x, yen] = 0 It is evident from the preceding equation that if each spatial harmonic is itself a solu- tion of the wave equation for each value of n, the summation of space harmonics also satisfies the wave equation of Eq. (9-5-14). This means that only the complete solu- tion of Eq. (9-5-14) can satisfy the boundary conditions of a periodic structure. Furthermore, Eq. (9-5-11) shows that the field in a periodic structure can be expanded as an infinite series of waves, all at the same frequency but with different phase velocities tm. That is o © * By Bo * QanjL) Cs The group velocity v,,, defined by v.- = dw/AB , is then given as oye = |Get Zeal 2] * i do Bo 16) (9-5-17) which is independent of n. It is important to note that the phase velocity vm in the axial direction de- creases for higher values of positive n and Bo . So it appears possible for a microwave of suitable n to have a phase velocity less than the velocity of light. It follows that interactions between the electron beam and microwave signal are possible and thus the amplification of active microwave devices can be achieved Figure 9-5-5 shows the w-B (or Brillouin) diagram for a helix with several spatial harmonics. This «-B diagram demonstrates some important properties need ing more explanation. First, the second quadrant of the w-8 diagram indicates the negative phase velocity that corresponds to the negative n. This means that the elec- tron beam moves in the positive z direction while the beam velocity coincides with388 Microwave Linear-Beam Tubes (0 Type) Chap. 9 Forbidden region Figure 9-5-5 «-B diagram of spatial harmonics for helical structure, the negative spatial harmonic's phase velocity. This type of tube is called a backward-wave oscillator. Second, the shaded areas are the forbidden regions for propagation. This situation occurs because if the axial phase velocity of any spatial harmonic exceeds the velocity of light, the structure radiates energy. This property has been verified by experiments [10]. 9-5-2 Amplification Process A schematic diagram of a helix-type traveling-wave tube is shown in Fig. 9-5-6. The slow-wave structure of the helix is characterized by the Brillouin diagram shown in Fig. 9-5-5. The phase shift per period of the fundamental wave on the structure is given by 41 = Bol. (9-5-18) where Bo = w/to is the phase constant of the average beam velocity and L is the pe- riod or pitch Since the dc transit time of an electron is given by nat (9-5-19) be the phase constant of the nth space harmonic is 0, + 2nn 2nn = 2 = Mtn _ 5, 2mn 5. Be = wel (9-5-20) In Eq. (9-5-20) the axial space-harmonic phase velocity is assumed to be synchro- nized with the beam velocity for possible interactions between the electron beam and electric field. That is, fap = 0 (9-5-21) Equation (9-5-20) is identical to Eq. (9-5-13). In practice, the de velocity of the electrons is adjusted to be slightly greater than the axial velocity of the electromag- netic wave for energy transfer. When a signal voltage is coupled into the helix, the axial electric field exerts a force on the electrons as a result of the following rela- tionships: F=-eE ad E=-W (9-5-2)Sec. 9.5 Helix Traveling-Wave Tubes (TWTs) 389 Electron beam Control anode focusing magnet rea Attenuator Tube body Collector ES reton beam RF output Gain or modulation ‘contro! vol if Helix current overload relay Regulated : Figure 9-5-6 Diagram of helix traveling-wave tube: (a) schematic diagram of helix traveling-wave tube; (b) simplified circuit The electrons entering the retarding field are decelerated and those in the accelerat- ing field are accelerated. They begin forming a bunch centered about those electrons that enter the helix during the zero field. This process is shown in Fig. 9-5-7. Since the de velocity of the electrons is slightly greater than the axial wave ve- locity, more electrons are in the retarding field than in the accelerating field, and a great amount of energy is transferred from the beam to the electromagnetic field ‘The microwave signal voltage is, in turn, amplified by the amplified field. The bunch continues to become more compact, and a larger amplification of the signal voltage occurs at the end of the helix. The magnet produces an axial magnetic field to prevent spreading of the electron beam as it travels down the tube. An attenuator placed near the center of the helix reduces all the waves traveling along the helix to nearly zero so that the reflected waves from the mismatched loads can be prevented from reaching the input and causing oscillation. The bunched electrons emerging390 Microwave Linear-Beam Tubes (O Type) Chap. 9 _— Retarding field _— Retarding force Electric field Electron beam / C accelerating field ‘Accelerating force Figure 9-8-7 Interactions between electron beam and electric field from the attenuator induce @ new electric field with the same frequency. This field, in turn, induces a new amplified microwave signal on the helix. The motion of electrons in the helix-type traveling-wave tube can be quantita- tively analyzed in terms of the axial electric field. If the traveling wave is propagat- ing in the z direction, the z component of the electric field can be expressed as E, = Ey sin (wt — By2) (9-5-23) where E, is the magnitude of the electric field in the z direction. If 1 = fo at z = 0, the electric field is assumed maximum. Note that B, = w/v, is the axial phase con- stant of the microwave, and ois the axial phase velocity of the wave. ‘The equation of motion of the electron is given by sin (wt ~ Bp2) (9-5-24) Assume that the velocity of the electron is v= ty + % 60S (wet + 6.) (9-5-25) Then 2 vet sin (wet + 6.) (9-5-26) where 0) = de electron velocity magnitude of velocity fluctuation in the velocity-modulated electron beam angular frequency of velocity fluctuation phase angle of the fluctuation Substitution of Eq. (9-5-26) in Eq. (9-5-24) yields ‘moeide Sin (wet + w,) = eEr sin (wt ~ B,2) (9-5-27) For interactions between the electrons and the electric field, the velocity of the velocity-modulated electron beam must be approximately equal to the de electron velocity. This is vt» (9-5-28)Sec.9.5 Helix Traveling-Wave Tubes (TWTs) 391 Hence the distance traveled by the electrons is 2 = wt — 6) (9-5-29) and mv,w, sin (et + 0) = ey sin [wt Bytalt - tJ] (9-5-30) Comparison of the left and right-hand sides of Eq. (9-5-30) shows that a= (9-5-31) ime We = Bylvp — vo) 4 = Byvoto It can be seen that the magnitude of the velocity fluctuation of the electron beam is, directly proportional to the magnitude of the axial electric field. 9-5-3 Convection Current In order to determine the relationship between the circuit and electron beam quanti- ties, the convection current induced in the electron beam by the axial electric field and the microwave axial field produced by the beam must first be developed. When the space-charge effect is considered, the electron velocity, the charge density, the current density, and the axial electric field will perturbate about their averages or de values. Mathematically, these quantities can be expressed as v= vu + pemr p= po + pe Jadot emer (9-5-34) E,= Ber (9-5-35) where y = a, + jB- is the propagation constant of the axial waves. ‘The minus sign is attached to Jo so that Jy may be a positive in the negative z direction. For a small signal, the electron beam-current density can be written J = po = Jot Nem (9-5-36) where —Jo = povo, J = pio + povr, and piv; ~ 0 have been replaced. If an ax- ial electric field exists in the structure, it will perturbate the electron velocity accord- ing to the force equation. Hence the force equation can be written ee ( Ps fae} Ay moiem (95x a Fy yoooie’ (9-5-37) where dz/dt has been replaced by to. Thus elm, (9-5-38) =e jo = yoo)