1.

MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
EXAMPLE 1: Prove that
n(n + 1)
2

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n =

(1.1)

for any integer n 1.

Proof:
STEP 1: For n=1 (1.1) is true, since
1=

1(1 + 1)
.
2

STEP 2: Suppose (1.1) is true for some n = k 1, that is

1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k =

k(k + 1)
.
2

STEP 3: Prove that (1.1) is true for n = k + 1, that is

?

1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =

(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2

We have
k(k + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + . . . + k + (k + 1) =
+ (k + 1) = (k + 1)
2
ST.2


k
(k + 1)(k + 2)
+1 =
.
2
2

EXAMPLE 2: Prove that

1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n 1) = n2
for any integer n 1.
Proof:
STEP 1: For n=1 (1.2) is true, since 1 = 12 .
STEP 2: Suppose (1.2) is true for some n = k 1, that is
1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k 1) = k 2 .
STEP 3: Prove that (1.2) is true for n = k + 1, that is
?

1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k 1) + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 .

ST.2

We have: 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2k 1) + (2k + 1) = k 2 + (2k + 1) = (k + 1)2 . 

1

(1.2)

EXAMPLE 3: Prove that

n! nn

(1.3)

for any integer n 1.

Proof:
STEP 1: For n=1 (1.3) is true, since 1! = 11 .
STEP 2: Suppose (1.3) is true for some n = k 1, that is k! k k .
?

STEP 3: Prove that (1.3) is true for n = k + 1, that is (k + 1)! (k + 1)k+1 . We have
ST.2

(k + 1)! = k! (k + 1) k k (k + 1) < (k + 1)k (k + 1) = (k + 1)k+1 . 

EXAMPLE 4: Prove that

8 | 32n 1

(1.4)

for any integer n 0.

Proof:
STEP 1: For n=0 (1.4) is true, since 8 | 30 1.
STEP 2: Suppose (1.4) is true for some n = k 0, that is 8 | 32k 1.
STEP 3: Prove that (1.4) is true for n = k + 1, that is 8 | 32(k+1) 1. We have
32(k+1) 1 = 32k+2 1 = 32k 9 1 = 32k (8 + 1) 1 = 3| 2k{z 8} + |32k{z 1} . 
div. by 8
St. 2
div. by 8
EXAMPLE 5: Prove that
7 | n7 n

(1.5)

for any integer n 1.

Proof:
STEP 1: For n=1 (1.5) is true, since 7 | 17 1.
STEP 2: Suppose (1.5) is true for some n = k 1, that is
7 | k 7 k.
STEP 3: Prove that (1.5) is true for n = k + 1, that is 7 | (k + 1)7 (k + 1). We have
(k + 1)7 (k + 1) = k 7 + 7k 6 + 21k 5 + 35k 4 + 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 7k + 1 k 1
=

6
5
4
7
k
k} + 7k
+ 35k 3 + 21k 2 + 7k} . 
| + 21k + 35k {z
| {z
div. by 7
St. 2
div. by 7

2. THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

DEFINITION:
Let n and k be some integers with 0 k n. Then
 
n
n!
=
k!(n k)!
k
is called a binomial coefficient.

PROPERTIES:
   
n
n
1.
=
= 1.
0
n
Proof: We have
 
n!
n
n!
=
= 1,
=
0!(n 0)!
1 n!
0
 
n!
n!
n
n!
=
=
= 1. 
=
n
n!(n n)!
n! 0!
n! 1

  

n
n
2.
=
= n.
1
n1
Proof: We have
 
n
(n 1)! n
n!
=
= n,
=
1
1!(n 1)!
1! (n 1)!



n
n!
n!
(n 1)! n
=
=
=
= n. 
n1
(n 1)![n (n 1)]!
(n 1)! 1!
(n 1)! 1!

  

n
n
3.
=
.
k
nk
Proof: We have
 


n
n!
n!
n!
n
=
=
=
=
.
k
k!(n k)!
(n k)!k!
(n k)![n (n k)]!
nk

  
 

n
n
n+1
4.
+
=
.
k
k1
k
Proof: We have
  

n!
n
n
n!
+
+
=
k!(n k)! (k 1)!(n k + 1)!
k
k1
=

n!(n k + 1)
n!k
+
k!(n k)!(n k + 1) (k 1)!k(n k + 1)!

n!(n k + 1)
n!k
+
k!(n k + 1)! k!(n k + 1)!

n!(n k + 1) + n!k
k!(n k + 1)!

n!n n!k + n! + n!k

k!(n k + 1)!

n!n + n!
k!(n k + 1)!

(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
n!(n + 1)
=
=
=
=
k!(n k + 1)!
k!(n k + 1)!
k!(n + 1 k)!


n+1
.
k

PROBLEM:
For all integers n and k with 1 k n we have


  
 

n
n
n
n+2
+2
+
=
.
k1
k
k+1
k+1
Proof: By property 4 we have


  
 
     

n
n
n
n
n
n
n
+2
+
=
+
+
+
k1
k
k+1
k1
k
k
k+1

=

 
 

n+1
n+1
n+2
+
=
.
k
k+1
k+1

THEOREM (The Binomial Theorem):

Let a and b be any real numbers and let n be any nonnegative integer. Then
 
 




n n1
n n2 2
n
n
n
n
2 n2
(a + b) = a +
a b+
a b + ... +
ab
+
abn1 + bn .
1
2
n2
n1
4

PROBLEM:
For all integers n 1 we have
     
 
n
n
n
n
+
+
+ ... +
= 2n .
0
1
2
n
Proof: Putting a = b = 1 in the Theorem above, we get
(1 + 1)n
 
 




n
n
n
n
n1
n2
2
2
n2
=1 +
1
1+
1
1 + ... +
1 1
+
1 1n1 + 1n ,
1
2
n2
n1
n

hence

   

 

n
n
n
n
2 =1+
+
+ ... +
+
+ 1,
1
2
n2
n1
n

therefore by property 1 we get

     

 
  
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
2 =
+
+
+ ... +
+
+
.
0
1
2
n2
n1
n

PROBLEM:
For all integers n 1 we have
     
 
n
n
n
n n

+
. . . + (1)
= 0.
0
1
2
n
Proof: Putting a = 1 and b = 1 in the Theorem above, we get
(1 1)n


 
 
n
n
n
1n2 (1)2 + . . . +
1 (1)n1 + (1)n ,
= 1n +
1n1 (1) +
n1
2
1
hence

   


n
n
n
n1
0=1
+
. . . + (1)
+ (1)n ,
1
2
n1

therefore by property 1 we get

     


 
n
n
n
n
n1
n n
0=

+
. . . + (1)
+ (1)
.
0
1
2
n1
n

3. RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

DEFINITION:
Rational numbers are all numbers of the form

EXAMPLE:

p
, where p and q are integers and q 6= 0.
q

1
5
50
, , 2, 0, , etc.
2
3
10

NOTATIONS:
N = all natural numbers, that is, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Z = all integer numbers, that is, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Q = all rational numbers
R = all real numbers

DEFINITION:
A number which is not rational is said to be irrational.

PROBLEM 1: Prove that

2 is irrational.

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

2 is rational, that is

p
2= ,
q

where p and q are integers and q 6= 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then
2=

p2
q2

2q 2 = p2 .

(3.1)

Since 2q 2 is even, it follows that p2 is even. Then p is also even (in fact, if p is odd, then p2 is
odd). This means that there exists k Z such that
p = 2k.

(3.2)

Substituting (3.2) into (3.1), we get

2q 2 = (2k)2

2q 2 = 4k 2

q 2 = 2k 2 .

Since 2k 2 is even, it follows that q 2 is even. Then q is also even. This is a contradiction. 

PROBLEM 2: Prove that

4 is irrational.

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

4 is rational, that is

p
4= ,
q

where p and q are integers and q 6= 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then
4=

p3
q3

4q 3 = p3 .

(3.3)

Since 4q 3 is even, it follows that p3 is even. Then p is also even (in fact, if p is odd, then p3 is
odd). This means that there exists k Z such that
p = 2k.

(3.4)

Substituting (3.4) into (3.3), we get

4q 3 = (2k)3

4q 3 = 8k 3

q 3 = 2k 3 .

Since 2k 3 is even, it follows that q 3 is even. Then q is also even. This is a contradiction. 

PROBLEM 3: Prove that

6 is irrational.

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

6 is rational, that is

p
6= ,
q

where p and q are integers and q 6= 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then
6=

p2
q2

6q 2 = p2 .

(3.5)

Since 6q 2 is even, it follows that p2 is even. Then p is also even (in fact, if p is odd, then p2 is
odd). This means that there exists k Z such that
p = 2k.

(3.6)

Substituting (3.6) into (3.5), we get

6q 2 = (2k)2

6q 2 = 4k 2

3q 2 = 2k 2 .

Since 2k 2 is even, it follows that 3q 2 is even. Then q is also even (in fact, if q is odd, then 3q 2
is odd). This is a contradiction. 

PROBLEM 4: Prove that

1
2 + 5 is irrational.
3

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

1
2 + 5 is rational, that is
3
1
p
2+5= ,
3
q

where p and q are integers and q 6= 0. Then

Since

2 is irrational and

2=

3(p 5q)
.
q

3(p 5q)
is rational, we obtain a contradiction. 
q

PROBLEM 5: Prove that log5 2 is irrational.

Proof: Assume to the contrary that log5 2 is rational, that is
p
log5 2 = ,
q
where p and q are integers and q 6= 0. Then
5p/q = 2

5p = 2q .

Since 5p is odd and 2q is even, we obtain a contradiction. 

4. DIVISION ALGORITHM
PROBLEM: Prove that

3 is irrational.

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

3 is rational, that is

p
3= ,
q

where p and q are integers and q 6= 0. Moreover, let p and q have no common divisor > 1. Then
3=

p2
q2

3q 2 = p2 .

Since 3q 2 is divisible by 3, it follows that p2 is divisible by 3. Then p is also divisible by 3 (in

fact, if p is not divisible by 3, then ...???
THEOREM (DIVISION ALGORITHM): For any integers a and b with a 6= 0 there exist
unique integers q and r such that
b = aq + r,

where 0 r < |a|.

The integers q and r are called the quotient and the reminder respectively.
EXAMPLE 1: Let b = 49 and a = 4, then 49 = 4 12 + 1, so the quotient is 12 and the
reminder is 1.
REMARK: We can also write 49 as 3 12 + 13, but in this case 13 is not a reminder, since it
is NOT less than 3.
EXAMPLE 2: Let a = 2. Since 0 r < 2, then for any integer number b we have ONLY
TWO possibilities:
b = 2q or b = 2q + 1.
So, thanks to the Division Algorithm we proved that any integer number is either even or odd.
EXAMPLE 3: Let a = 3. Since 0 r < 3, then for any integer number b we have ONLY
THREE possibilities:
b = 3q, b = 3q + 1, or b = 3q + 2.
Proof of the Problem: Assume to the contrary that

3 is rational, that is

a
3= ,
b

where a and b are integers and b 6= 0. Moreover, let a and b have no common divisor > 1. Then
3=

a2
b2

3b2 = a2 .

(4.1)

Since 3b2 is divisible by 3, it follows that a2 is divisible by 3. Then a is also divisible by 3.

In fact, if a is not divisible by 3, then by the Division Algorithm there exists q Z such that
a = 3q + 1 or a = 3q + 2.
Suppose a = 3q + 1, then
a2 = (3q + 1)2 = 9q 2 + 6q + 1 = 3(3q 2 + 2q ) + 1 = 3q 0 + 1,
| {z }
q0

which is not divisible by 3. We get a contradiction. Similarly, if a = 3q + 2, then

a2 = (3q + 2)2 = 9q 2 + 12q + 4 = 3(3q 2 + 4q + 1) + 1 = 3q 00 + 1,
|
{z
}
q 00

which is not divisible by 3. We get a contradiction again.

So, we proved that if a2 is divisible by 3, then a is also divisible by 3. This means that there
exists q Z such that
a = 3q.
(4.2)
Substituting (4.2) into (4.1), we get
3b2 = (3q)2

3b2 = 9q 2

b2 = 3q 2 .

Since 3q 2 is divisible by 3, it follows that b2 is divisible by 3. Then b is also divisible by 3 by

the arguments above. This is a contradiction. 

10

5. GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR AND EUCLIDS

LEMMA
PROBLEM: Prove that

101 is irrational.

Proof: Assume to the contrary that

101 is rational, that is

a
101 = ,
b

where a and b are integers and b 6= 0. Moreover, let a and b have no common divisor > 1. Then
101 =

a2
b2

101b2 = a2 .

Since 101b2 is divisible by 101, it follows that a2 is divisible by 101. Then a is also divisible by 101.
In fact, if a is not divisible by 101, then by the Division Algorithm there exists q Z such that
a = 101q + 1 or a = 101q + 2 or a = 101q + 3 or a = 101q + 4 . . .???

DEFINITION:
If a and b are integers with a 6= 0, we say that a is a divisor of b if there exists an integer q
such that b = aq. We also say that a divides b and we denote this by
a | b.
EXAMPLE: We have: 4 | 12, since 12 = 4 3
4 6 | 15, since 15 = 4 3.75
DEFINITION:
A common divisor of nonzero integers a and b is an integer c such that c | a and c | b. The
greatest common divisor (gcd) of a and b, denoted by (a, b), is the largest common divisor of
integers a and b.
EXAMPLE: The common divisors of 24 and 84 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. Hence,
(24, 84) = 12. Similarly, looking at sets of common divisors, we find that (15, 81) = 3, (100, 5) =
5, (17, 25) = 1, (17, 289) = 17, etc.

THEOREM: If a and b are nonzero integers, then their gcd is a linear combination of a and
b, that is there exist integer numbers s and t such that
sa + tb = (a, b).
Proof: Let d be the least positive integer that is a linear combination of a and b. We write
d = sa + tb,
11

(5.1)

where s and t are integers.

We first show that d | a. By the Division Algorithm we have
a = dq + r, where 0 r < d.
From this and (5.1) it follows that
r = a dq = a q(sa + tb) = a qsa qtb = (1 qs)a + (qt)b.
This shows that r is a linear combination of a and b. Since 0 r < d, and d is the least positive
linear combination of a and b, we conclude that r = 0, and hence d | a. In a similar manner,
we can show that d | b.
We have shown that d is a common divisor of a and b. We now show that d is the greatest
common divisor of a and b. Assume to the contrary that
(a, b) = d0

and d0 > d.

Since d0 | a, d0 | b, and d = sa + tb, it follows that d0 | d, therefore d0 d. We obtain a

contradiction. So, d is the greatest common divisor of a and b and this concludes the proof. 
DEFINITION:
An integer n 2 is called prime if its only positive divisors are 1 and n. Otherwise, n is called
composite.

EXAMPLE: Numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59 . . . are prime.
THEOREM (Euclids Lemma): If p is a prime and p | ab, then p | a or p | b. More generally,
if a prime p divides a product a1 a2 . . . an , then it must divide at least one of the factors ai .
Proof: Assume that p 6 | a. We must show that p | b. By the theorem above, there are integers
s and t with
sp + ta = (p, a).
Since p is prime and p 6 | a, we have (p, a) = 1, and so
sp + ta = 1.
Multiplying both sides by b, we get
spb + tab = b.

(5.2)

Since p | ab and p | spb, it follows that

p | (spb + tab).
This and (5.2) give p | b. This completes the proof of the first part of the theorem. The second
part (generalization) easily follows by induction on n 2. 
COROLLARY: If p is a prime and p | a2 , then p | a.
Proof: Put a = b in Euclids Lemma. 
12


THEOREM: Let p be a prime. Then p is irrational.

Proof: Assume to the contrary that p is rational, that is

a
p= ,
b

where a and b are integers and b 6= 0. Moreover, let a and b have no common divisor > 1. Then
p=

a2
b2

pb2 = a2 .

(5.3)

Since pb2 is divisible by p, it follows that a2 is divisible by p. Then a is also divisible by p by

the Corollary above. This means that there exists q Z such that
a = pq.

(5.4)

Substituting (5.4) into (5.3), we get

pb2 = (pq)2 b2 = pq 2 .
Since pq 2 is divisible by p, it follows that b2 is divisible by p. Then b is also divisible by p by
the Corollary above. This is a contradiction. 

PROBLEM: Prove that

101 is irrational.

Proof: Since 101 is prime, the result immediately follows from the Theorem above. 
PROBLEM: Prove that if a and b are positive integers with (a, b) = 1, then (a2 , b2 ) = 1 for
all n Z+ .
Proof 1: Assume to the contrary that (a2 , b2 ) = n > 1. Then there is a prime p such that p | a2
and p | b2 . From this by Euclids Lemma it follows that p | a and p | b, therefore (a, b) p.
This is a contradiction. 
Proof 2 (Hint): Use the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic below.

13

6. FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC

THEOREM (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic): Assume that an integer a 2 has
factorizations
a = p1 . . . pm and a = q1 . . . qn ,
where the ps and qs are primes. Then n = m and the q 0 s may be reindexed so that qi = pi for
all i.
Proof: We prove by induction on `, the larger of m and n, i. e. ` = max(m, n).
Step 1. If ` = 1, then the given equation in a = p1 = q1 , and the result is obvious.
Step 2. Suppose the theorem holds for some ` = k 1.
Step 3. We prove it for ` = k + 1. Let
a = p 1 . . . p m = q1 . . . qn ,

(6.1)

max(m, n) = k + 1.

(6.2)

where
From (6.1) it follows that pm | q1 . . . qn , therefore by Euclids Lemma there is some qi such
that pm | qi . But qi , being a prime, has no positive divisors other than 1, therefore pm = qi .
Reindexing, we may assume that qn = pm . Canceling, we have
p1 . . . pm1 = q1 . . . qn1 .
Moreover, max(m 1, n 1) = k by (6.2). Therefore by step 2 qs may be reindexed so that
qi = pi for all i; plus, m 1 = n 1, hence m = n. 
COROLLARY: If a 2 is an integer, then there are unique distinct primes pi and unique
integers ei > 0 such that
a = pe11 . . . penn .
Proof: Just collect like terms in a prime factorization. 
EXAMPLE: 120 = 23 3 5.
PROBLEM: Prove that log3 5 is irrational.
Proof: Assume to the contrary that log3 5 is rational, that is
p
log3 5 = ,
q
where p and q are integers and q 6= 0. Then
3p/q = 5

3p = 5q ,

which contradicts the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. 

14

7. EUCLIDEAN ALGORITHM
THEOREM (Euclidean Algorithm): Let a and b be positive integers. Then there is an
algorithm that finds (a, b).
LEMMA: If a, b, q, r are integers and a = bq + r, then (a, b) = (b, r).
Proof: We have (a, b) = (bq + r, b) = (b, r). 
Proof of the Theorem: The idea is to keep repeating the division algorithm. We have:
a = bq1 + r1 ,

(a, b) = (b, r1 )

b = r 1 q2 + r 2 ,

(b, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 )

r 1 = r 2 q3 + r 3 ,

(r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r3 )

r 2 = r 3 q4 + r 4 ,

(r2 , r3 ) = (r3 , r4 )

...
rn2 = rn1 qn + rn ,
rn1 = rn qn+1 ,

(rn2 , rn1 ) = (rn1 , rn )

(rn1 , rn ) = rn ,

therefore
(a, b) = (b, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r3 ) = (r3 , r4 ) = . . . = (rn2 , rn1 ) = (rn1 , rn ) = rn .

PROBLEM: Find (326, 78).
Solution: By the Euclidean Algorithm we have
326 = 78 4 + 14
78 = 14 5 + 8
14 = 8 1 + 6
8=61+2
6=23
therefore (326, 78) = 2.
PROBLEM: Find (252, 198).
Solution: By the Euclidean Algorithm we have
252 = 198 1 + 54
198 = 54 3 + 36
54 = 36 1 + 18
36 = 18 2
therefore (252, 198) = 18.
15

PROBLEM: Find (4361, 42371).

Solution: By the Euclidean Algorithm we have
42371 = 9 4361 + 3122
4361 = 1 3122 + 1239
3122 = 2 1239 + 644
1239 = 1 644 + 595
644 = 1 595 + 49
595 = 12 49 + 7
49 = 7 7 + 0,
therefore (4361, 42371) = 7.
THEOREM: Let a = pe11 . . . penn and b = pf11 . . . pfnn be positive integers. Then
min(e1 ,f1 )

(a, b) = p1

n ,fn )
. . . pmin(e
.
n

EXAMPLE: Since 720 = 24 32 5 and 2100 = 22 3 52 7, we have:

(720, 2100) = 22 3 5 = 60.
PROBLEM: Let a Z. Prove that (2a + 3, a + 2) = 1.
Proof: By the Lemma above we have
(2a + 3, a + 2) = (a + 1 + a + 2, a + 2)
= (a + 1, a + 2)
= (a + 1, a + 1 + 1)
= (a + 1, 1)
= 1. 
PROBLEM: Let a Z. Prove that (7a + 2, 10a + 3) = 1.
Proof: By the Lemma above we have
(7k + 2, 10k + 3) = (7k + 2, 7k + 2 + 3k + 1)
= (7k + 2, 3k + 1)
= (6k + 2 + k, 3k + 1)
= (k, 3k + 1)
= (k, 1)
= 1. 

16

8. FERMATS LITTLE THEOREM

Theorem (Fermats Little Theorem): Let p be a prime. We have
p | np n

(8.1)

for any integer n 1.

Proof 1:
STEP 1: For n=1 (8.1) is true, since
p | 1p 1.
STEP 2: Suppose (8.1) is true for some n = k 1, that is
p | k p k.
STEP 3: Prove that (8.1) is true for n = k + 1, that is
p | (k + 1)p (k + 1).
Lemma: Let p be a prime and ` be an integer with 1 ` p 1. Then
 
p
p|
.
`
Proof: We have
 
p
p!
`!(` + 1) . . . p
(` + 1) . . . p
=
=
=
,
`
`!(p `)!
`!(p `)!
(p `)!
therefore

 
p
(p `)! = (` + 1) . . . p.
`
Form this it follows that
 
p
p|
(p `)!,
`
 
p
hence by Euclids Lemma p divides
or (p `)!. It is easy to see that p 6 | (p `)!. Therefore
`
 
p
p|
.
`
We have
(k + 1)p (k + 1)
 
 


p
p p1
p p2
p
=k +
k
+
k
+ ... +
k+1k1
1
2
p1
 
 


p p1
p p2
p
p
k
+
k
+ ... +
k. 
= k
k} +
| {z
1
2
p1
|
{z
}
St. 2
div.
by
p
by
Lemma
div. by p

17

9. CONGRUENCES
DEFINITION:
Let m be a positive integer. Then integers a and b are congruent modulo m, denoted by
a b mod m,
if m | (a b).
EXAMPLE:
3 1 mod 2,

6 4 mod 2,

14 0 mod 7,

25 16 mod 9,

43 27 mod 35.

PROPERTIES:
Let m be a positive integer and let a, b, c, d be integers. Then
1. a a mod m
2. If a b mod m, then b a mod m.
3. If a b mod m and b c mod m, then a c mod m.
4. (a) If a qm + r mod m, then a r mod m.
(b) Every integer a is congruent mod m to exactly one of 0, 1, . . . , m 1.
5. If a b mod m and c d mod m, then
a c b d mod m and ac bd mod m.
50 . If a b mod m, then
a c b c mod m and ac bc mod m.
500 . If a b mod m, then
an bn mod m for any n Z+ .
6. If (c, m) = 1 and ac bc mod m, then a b mod m.

Proof 2 of Fermats Little Theorem: We distinguish two cases.

Case A: Let p | n, then, obviously, p | np n, and we are done.
Case B: Let p 6 | n. Since p is prime, we have
(p, n) = 1.
Consider the following numbers:
n, 2n, 3n, . . . , (p 1)n.
18

(9.1)

We have

n r1 mod p
2n r2 mod p
3n r3 mod p
...
(p 1)n rp1 mod p,

(9.2)

where 0 ri p 1. Moreover, ri 6= 0, since otherwise p | in, and therefore by Euclidd Lemma

p | i or p | n. But this is impossible, since p > i and p 6 | n. So,
1 ri p 1.

(9.3)

From (9.2) by property 5 we have

n 2n 3n . . . (p 1)n r1 r2 . . . rp1 mod p

(p 1)!np1 r1 r2 . . . rp1 mod p.

(9.4)

r1 r2 . . . rp1 = (p 1)!.

(9.5)

Lemma: We have
Proof: We first show that
r1 , r2 , . . . , rp1

are all distinct.

(9.6)

In fact, assume to the contrary that there are some ri and rj with ri = rj . Then by (9.2) we
have in jn mod p, therefore by property 6 with (9.1) we get i j mod p, which is impossible.
This contradiction proves (9.6).
By the Lemma we have
r1 r2 . . . rp1 = (p 1)!.
(9.7)
By (9.4) and (9.7) we obtain
(p 1)!np1 (p 1)! mod p.
Since (p, (p 1)!) = 1, from this by by property 6 we get
np1 1 mod p,
hence
np n mod p
by property 40 . This means that np n is divisible by p. 
COROLLARY: Let p be a prime. Then
np1 1 mod p
for any integer n 1 with (n, p) = 1.
THEOREM: If (a, m) = 1, then, for every integer b, the congruence
ax b mod m
19

(9.8)

has exactly one solution

x bs mod m,

(9.9)

as 1 mod m.

(9.10)

where s is such number that

Proof (Sketch): We show that (9.9) is the solution of (9.8). In fact, if we multiply (9.9) by
a and (9.10) by b (we can do that by property 50 ), we get
ax abs mod m and bsa b mod m,
which imply (9.8) by property 3. 

Problems
Problem 1: Find all solutions of the congruence
2x 1 mod 3.
Solution: We first note that (2, 3) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since
2 2 1 mod 3, we get
x 1 2 2 mod 3.

Problem 2: Find all solutions of the following congruence

2x 5 mod 7.
Solution: We first note that (2, 7) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since
2 4 1 mod 7, we get
x 5 4 6 mod 7.

Problem 3: Find all solutions of the congruence

3x 4 mod 8.
Solution: We first note that (3, 8) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since
3 3 1 mod 8, we get
x 4 3 12 4 mod 8.

Problem 4: Find all solutions of the following congruence

2x 5 mod 8.
20

Solution: Since (2, 8) = 2, we cant apply the theorem above directly. We now note that
2x 5 mod 8 is equivalent to 2x 8y = 5, which is impossible, since the left-hand side is
divisible by 2, whereas the right-hand side is not. So, this equation has no solutions.

Problem 5: Find all solutions of the congruence

8x 7 mod 18.
Solution: Since (8, 18) = 2, we cant apply the theorem above directly. We now note that
8x 7 mod 18 is equivalent to 8x 18y = 7, which is impossible, since the left-hand side is
divisible by 2, whereas the right-hand side is not. So, this equation has no solutions.

Problem 6: Find all solutions of the following congruence

4x 2 mod 6.
Solution: Since (4, 6) = 2, we cant apply the theorem above directly again. However, canceling out 2 (think about that!), we obtain
2x 1 mod 3.
Note that (2, 3) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above to the new equation. Since
2 2 1 mod 3, we get
x 1 2 2 mod 3.

Problem 7: Find all solutions of the congruence

6x 3 mod 15.
Solution: Since (6, 15) = 3, we cant apply the theorem above directly again. However,
canceling out 3, we obtain
2x 1 mod 5.
Note that (2, 5) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above to the new equation. Since
2 3 1 mod 5, we get
x 1 3 3 mod 5.

Problem 8: Find all solutions of the congruence

9x + 23 28 mod 25.
21

Solution: We first rewrite this congruence as

9x 5 mod 25.
Note that (9, 25) = 1. Therefore we can apply the theorem above. Since 9 14 1 mod 25, we
get
x 5 14 70 20 mod 25.

Problem 9: What is the last digit of 34527179399 ?

Solution: It is obvious that
345271 1 mod 10,
therefore by property 500 we have
34527179399 179399 1 mod 10.
This means that the last digit of 34527179399 is 1.

Problem 10: What is the last digit of 43214321 ?

Solution: It is obvious that
4321 1 mod 10,
therefore by property 500 we have
43214321 14321 1 mod 10.
This means that the last digit is 1.

Problem 11: Prove that there is no perfect square a2 which is congruent to 2 or 3 mod 4.
Solution 1: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0 or 1 mod 2. Consider
all these cases and use property 4(a):
If a 0 mod 2, then a = 2k, therefore a2 = 4k 2 , hence a2 0 mod 4.
If a 1 mod 2, then a = 2k + 1, therefore a2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1, hence a2 1 mod 4.
So, a2 0 or 1 mod 4. Therefore a2 6 2 or 3 mod 4.
Solution 2: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, 2, or 3 mod 4.
Consider all these cases and use property 500 :
If a 0 mod 4, then a2 02 0 mod 4.
If a 1 mod 4, then a2 12 1 mod 4.
If a 2 mod 4, then a2 22 0 mod 4.
If a 3 mod 4, then a2 32 1 mod 4.
So, a2 0 or 1 mod 4. Therefore a2 6 2 or 3 mod 4.
22

Problem 12: Prove that there is no integers a such that a4 is congruent to 2 or 3 mod 4.
Solution: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, 2, or 3 mod 4.
Consider all these cases and use property 500 :
If a 0 mod 4, then a4 04 0 mod 4.
If a 1 mod 4, then a4 14 1 mod 4.
If a 2 mod 4, then a4 24 0 mod 4.
If a 3 mod 4, then a4 34 1 mod 4.
So, a4 0 or 1 mod 4. Therefore a4 6 2 or 3 mod 4.

Problem 13: Prove that there is no perfect square a2 whose last digit is 2, 3, 7 or 8.
Solution: By the property 4(b) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, 2, . . . , 8 or 9 mod 10.
Consider all these cases and use property 500 :
If a 0 mod 10, then a2 02 0 mod 10.
If a 1 mod 10, then a2 12 1 mod 10.
If a 2 mod 10, then a2 22 4 mod 10.
If a 3 mod 10, then a2 32 9 mod 10.
If a 4 mod 10, then a2 42 6 mod 10.
If a 5 mod 10, then a2 52 5 mod 10.
If a 6 mod 10, then a2 62 6 mod 10.
If a 7 mod 10, then a2 72 9 mod 10.
If a 8 mod 10, then a2 82 4 mod 10.
If a 9 mod 10, then a2 92 1 mod 10.
So, a2 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 mod 10. Therefore a2 6 2, 3, 7 or 8 mod 10, and the result follows.

Problem 14: Prove that 444444444444444444443 is not a perfect square.

Solution: The last digit is 3, which is impossible by Problem 13.

Problem 15: Prove that 888 . . . 882 is not a perfect square.

Solution 1: The last digit is 2, which is impossible by Problem 13.
Solution 2: We have 888 . . . 882 = 4k+2. Therefore it is congruent to 2 mod 4 by property 4(a),
which is impossible by Problem 11.

Problem 16: Prove that there is no perfect square a2 whose last digits are 85.
Solution: It follows from problem 13 that a2 5 mod 10 only if a 5 mod 10. Therefore
a2 85 mod 100 only if a 5, 15, 25, . . . , 95 mod 100. If we consider all these cases and use
property 500 is the same manner as in problem 13, we will see that a2 25 mod 100. Therefore
a2 6 85 mod 100, and the result follows.
23

Problem 17: Prove that the equation

x4 4y = 3
has no solutions in integer numbers.
Solution: Rewrite this equation as
x4 = 4y + 3,
which means that
x4 3 mod 4,
which is impossible by Problem 12.

Problem 18: Prove that the equation

x2 3y = 5
has no solutions in integer numbers.
Solution: Rewrite this equation as
x2 = 3y + 5,
which means that
x2 5 2 mod 3.
By the property 4(a) each integer number is congruent to 0, 1, or 2 mod 3. Consider all these
cases and use property 500 :
If a 0 mod 3, then a2 02 0 mod 3.
If a 1 mod 3, then a2 12 1 mod 3.
If a 2 mod 4, then a2 22 1 mod 3.
So, a2 0 or 1 mod 3. Therefore a2 6 2 mod 3.

Problem 19: Prove that the equation

3x2 4y = 5
has no solutions in integer numbers.
Solution: Rewrite this equation as
3x2 = 4y + 5,
which means that
3x2 5 1 mod 4.
On the other hand, by Problem 11 we have x2 0 or 1 mod 4, hence 3x2 0 or 3 mod 4.
Therefore x2 6 1 mod 4.
Problem 20: Prove that the equation
x2 y 2 = 2002
has no solutions in integer numbers.
24

Solution: By Problem 11 we have x2 0 or 1 mod 4, hence x2 y 2 0, 1 or -1 mod 4. On

the other hand, 2002 2 mod 4. Therefore x2 y 2 6 2002 mod 4,

Problem 21: Prove that 10 | 1110 1.

Solution: We have 11 1 mod 10, therefore by property 500 we get 1110 110 1 mod 10,
which means that 10 | 1110 1.

Problem 22: Prove that 10 | 1012003 1.

Solution: We have
101 1 mod 10,
therefore by property 500 we get
1012003 12003 1 mod 10,
which means that 10 | 1012003 1.
Problem 23: Prove that 23 | a154 1 for any a Z+ with (a, 23) = 1.
Solution: By Fermats Little theorem we have
a22 1 mod 23,
therefore by property 500 we get
a227 17 1 mod 23,
and the result follows.
Problem 24: Prove that 17 | a80 1 for any a Z+ with (a, 17) = 1.
Solution: By Fermats Little theorem we have a16 1 mod 17, therefore by property 500 we
get a165 15 1 mod 17, and the result follows.

Problem 25: What is the remainder after dividing 350 by 7?

Solution: By Fermats Little theorem we have 36 1 mod 7, therefore by property 500 we get
368 148 1 mod 7, therefore 350 9 2 mod 7.

25

10. PERMUTATIONS
DEFINITION:
A permutation of a set X is a rearrangement of its elements.
EXAMPLE:
1. Let X = {1, 2}. Then there are 2 permutations:
12, 21.
2. Let X = {1, 2, 3}. Then there are 6 permutations:
123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321.
3. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4}. Then there are 24 permutations:
1234,
2134,
3214,
4231,

1243,
2143,
3241,
4213,

1324,
2314,
3124,
4321,

1342,
2341,
3142,
4312,

1423,
2413,
3421,
4123,

1432
2431
3412
4132

REMARK:
One can show that there are exactly n! permutations of the n-element set X.
DEFINITION0 :
A permutation of a set X is a one-one correspondence (a bijection) from X to itself.
NOTATION:
Let X = {1, 2, . . . , n} and : X X be a permutation. It is convenient to describe this
function in the following way:


1
2
...
n
=
.
(1) (2) . . . (n)
EXAMPLE:


1 2
2 1

1 2 3
1 2 3

1 2 3
2 3 1

1 2 3 4
1 4 3 2

1 2 3 4 5
3 5 4 1 2

CONCLUSION:

For a permutation we can use two different notations. For example,
24513 are the same permutations.

26

1 2 3 4 5
2 4 5 1 3


and

DEFINITION:
Let X = {1, 2, . . . , n} and : X X be a permutation. Let i1 , i2 , . . . , ir be distinct numbers
from {1, 2, . . . , n}. If
(i1 ) = i2 ,

(i2 ) = i3 , . . . , (ir1 ) = ir ,

(ir ) = i1 ,

and (i ) = i for other numbers from {1, 2, . . . , n}, then is called an r-cycle.
NOTATION:
An r-cycle is denoted by (i1 i2 . . . ir ).
EXAMPLE:


1
1

1 2
1 2

1 2
2 1

1 2 3
3 2 1

1 2 3
2 3 1

1 2 3 4
4 3 1 2

1 2 3 4 5
3 5 4 2 1

1 2 3 4 5
2 5 3 4 1

1 2 3 4 5
2 5 4 3 1










= (1) 1 cycle
= (1) 1 cycle
= (12) 2 cycle
= (13) 2 cycle
= (123) 3 cycle
= (1423) 4 cycle
= (13425) 5 cycle
= (125) 3 cycle
is not a cycle

REMARK:
We can use different notations for the same cycles. For example,




1 2 3
1 2 3
= (1) = (2) = (3),
= (123) = (231) = (312).
1 2 3
2 3 1
WARNING:
Do not confuse notations of a permutation and a cycle. For example,
(123) 6= 123.
Instead, (123) = 231 and 123 = (1).
27

Composition (Product) Of Permutations

Let


=

1
2
...
n
(1) (2) . . . (n)

Then


=

=


and =

1
2
...
n
(1) (2) . . . (n)

1
2
...
n
((1)) ((2)) . . . ((n))

1
2
...
n
((1)) ((2)) . . . ((n))


.

,
.

WARNING:
In general, 6= .
EXAMPLE:


1 2 3 4 5
Let =
,
5 1 2 4 3

1 2
=
5 1

1 2
=
4 2


=
3 4
2 4
3 4
5 1

1 2 3 4
4 2 5 1

5
1 2
3
4 2

5
1 2
3
5 1

5
3


. We have:

3 4 5
5 1 3

3 4 5
2 4 3


=

=

1 2 3 4 5
4 1 3 5 2

1 2 3 4 5
3 4 2 1 5

REMARK:
It is convenient to represent a permutation as the product of circles.
EXAMPLE:


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 2 6 9 5 7 1 8 4


= (1367)(49)(2)(5)(8) = (1367)(49)

REMARK:
One can find a composition of permutations using circles.
EXAMPLE:




1 2 3
1 2 3
1. Let =
= (123), =
= (12)(3) = (12). We have:
2 3 1
2 1 3


1 2 3
= (123)(12) = (13)(2) = (13) =
,
3 2 1


1 2 3
= (12)(123) = (1)(23) = (23) =
.
1 3 2
28

2. Let


1 2 3 4 5
=
= (1532)(4) = (1532),
5 1 2 4 3


1 2 3 4 5
=
= (14)(2)(35) = (14)(35).
4 2 5 1 3

We have:

= (1532)(14)(35) = (1452)(3) = (1452) =

= (14)(35)(1532) = (1324)(5) = (1324) =

1 2 3 4 5
4 1 3 5 2

1 2 3 4 5
3 4 2 1 5

THEOREM:
The inverse of the cycle = (i1 i2 . . . ir ) is the cycle 1 = (ir ir1 . . . i1 ).
EXAMPLE:


1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Let =
= (15724)(36). Find 1 . We have:
5 4 6 1 7 3 2
1 = (42751)(63)
In fact,
1 = (15724)(36)(42751)(63) = (1)
and
1 = (42751)(63)(15724)(36) = (1).
THEOREM:
Every permutation is either a cycle or a product of disjoint (with no common elements)
cycles.

Examples
1. Determine which permutations are equal:
(a) (12) 6= 12

(g) (124)(53) = (53)(124)

(b) (1) = 12

(h) (124)(53) = (124)(35)

(c) (1)(2) = (1)

(i) (124)(53) 6= (142)(53)

(d) (12)(34) 6= (1234)

(j) (12345) 6= 12345

(e) (12)(34) = (123)(234)

(k) (12345) = 23451

(f) (12)(34) 6= (123)(234)(341)

(l) (23451) = 23451

29

2. Factor the following permutations into the product of cycles:



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
= (4 5)
1 2 3 5 4 6 7 8


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
= (1 5 11 8 9)(2 3 10)(6 12 7)
5 3 10 4 11 12 6 9 1 2 8 7


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
= (3 12 10)(4 7 8)(5 9)(6 14 13 11)
1 2 12 7 9 14 8 4 5 3 6 10 11 13 15
3. Find the following products:
(12)(34)(56)(1234) = (24)(56)
(12)(23)(34)(45) = (12345)
(12)(34)(56) = (12)(34)(56)
(123)(234)(345) = (12)(45)
4. Let = (135)(24), = (124)(35). We have:
(a) = (143)
(b) = (152)
(c) 1 = (421)(53)
(d) 2004 = (1)

30

11. GROUPS
DEFINITION:
An operation on a set G is a function : G G G.
DEFINITION:
A group is a set G which is equipped with an operation and a special element e G, called
the identity, such that
(i) the associative law holds: for every x, y, z G,
x (y z) = (x y) z;
(ii) e x = x = x e for all x G;
(iii) for every x G, there is x0 G with x x0 = e = x0 x.
EXAMPLE:
Set
N

Operation + Operation Additional Condition

no
no

yes

no

yes

no

for Q \ {0}

yes

no

for R \ {0}

R\Q

no

no

EXAMPLE:
Set
Z>0

Operation + Operation
no
no

Z0

no

no

Q>0

no

yes

Q0

no

no

R>0

no

yes

R0

no

no

31

EXAMPLE:
Set
{2n : n Z}

Operation + Operation
yes
no

{2n + 1 : n Z}

no

no

{3n : n Z}

yes

no

{kn : n Z}, where k N is some fixed number

yes

no

{an : n Z}, where a R, a 6= 0, 1, is some fixed number

no

yes

o
np
: p Z, n Z0
2n

yes

no

EXAMPLE:
Set
R>0

Operation
a b = a2 b2 no

R>0

a b = ab no

32