DESIGN

GUIDELINES
FOR
STAINLESS
STEEL
IN PIPING
SYSTEMS

Introduction
Contents
Introduction ............................................................
The Selection of a Piping System ...........................
Stainless Steel in Piping Systems ...........................
Advantages .........................................................
Limitations ..........................................................
The Economics of Stainless Steel
in Piping Systems ..................................................
Design Costs ......................................................
Material Costs .....................................................
Fabrication Costs ................................................
Erection Costs ....................................................
Applicable Standards .............................................
The Design, Fabrication, and Erection
of Plant Piping Systems .........................................
Construction Phase..............................................
Bibliography ...........................................................
Appendices ............................................................

3
6
6
6
13
17
18
18
19
19
19
20
21
22
23

This publication presents information on the design,

fabrication, installation and economy of stainless steel in
piping systems. The guidelines presented contain
important information for piping specialists and design
engineers that will save money, time and effort in the
several diverse industries utilizing piping systems.
Stainless steels are defined as iron-base alloys containing 10 percent or more chromium. They are engineering materials selected primarily for their excellent
resistance to corrosion, their outstanding mechanical
properties at either ambient, high, or low temperature,
and their economy.
Of the 57 stainless steels recognized as standard by
the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), those most
commonly used in piping systems are the austenitic
alloys represented by AISI Types 304, 304L, 316 and
316L. The austenitic Types 309 and 310, containing
considerably more chromium and nickel than Types 304
and 316, are also widely used, but for piping exposed to
elevated temperatures. The stabilized Types 321 and
347 are also used, as are some commercially available
proprietary grades. Appendix A shows chemical
compositions and typical properties. (Table 1 lists all 57
AISI numbered stainless steels.)

Table 1
RELATIVE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF AISI STAINLESS STEELS
AISI
TYPE
Number
201
202
205
301
302
302B
303
303 Se
304
304L
304N
305
308
309
309S
310
310S
314
316
316F
316L
316N
317
317L
321
329
330
347
348
384
403
405
409
410
414
416
416 Se
420
420F
422
429
430
430F
430F Se
431
434
436
440A
440B
440C
442
446

UNS
Number
(S20100)
(S20200)
(S20500)
(S30100)
(S30200)
(S30215)
(S30300)
(S30323)
(S30400)
(S30403)
(S30430)
(S30451)
(S30500)
(S30800)
(S30900)
(S30908)
(S31000)
(S31008)
(S31400)
(S31600)
(S31620)
(S31603)
(S31651)
(S31700)
(S31703)
(S32100)
(S32900)
(N08330)
(S34700)
(S34800)
(S38400)
(S40300)
(S40500)
(S40900)
(S41000)
(S41400)
(S41600)
(S41623)
(S42000)
(S42020)
(S42200)
(S42900)
(S43000)
(S43020)
(S43023)
(S43100)
(S43400)
(S43600)
(S44002)
(S44003)
(S44004)
(S44200)
(S44600)
(S13800)
(S15500)
(S17400)
(S17700)

Mild
Atmospheric
and
Fresh Water
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Atmospheric

Chemical

Industrial

Marine

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X
X
X
X

Salt
Water

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Mild

Oxidizing

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Reducing

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X

The "X" notations indicate that a specific stainless steel type may be considered as resistant to the corrosive environment categories.
This list is suggested as a guideline only and does not suggest or imply a warranty on the part of the American Iron and Steel Institute, the Committee of
Stainless Steel Producers, or any of the member companies represented on the Committee. When selecting a stainless steel for any corrosive
environment, it is always best to consult with a corrosion engineer and, if possible, conduct tests in the environment involved under actual operating
conditions.

Source: STEEL PRODUCTS MANUAL, STAINLESS AND HEAT RESISTING STEELS, DECEMBER 1974, American Iron and
Steel Institute, Washington, D. C.

Table 2
WHERE DIFFERENT GRADES ARE USED
Environment

Grades

Environment

Grades

Stainless generally is not recommended except

when solutions are very dilute and at room temperature.

Aldehydes

Type 304 is generally satisfactory.

Amines

Type 316 is usually preferred to Type 304.

"Mixed acids"

There is usually no appreciable attack on Type 304

or 316 as long as sufficient nitric acid is present.

Cellulose
acetate

Type 304 is satisfactory for low temperatures, but

Type 316 or Type 317 is needed for high temperatures.

Nitric acid

Type 304L or 430 is used.

Phosphoric acid

Type 304 is satisfactory for storing cold phosphoric

acid up to 85% and for handling concentrations up
to 5% in some unit processes of manufacture. Type
316 is more resistant and is generally used for
storing and manufacture if the fluorine content is
not too high. Type 317 is somewhat more resistant
than Type 316. At concentrations up-to 85%, the
metal temperature should not exceed 212F
(100C) with Type 316 and slightly higher with Type
317. Oxidizing ions inhibit attack and other
inhibitors such as arsenic may be added.

Citric, formic and

tartaric acids

Type 304 is generally acceptable at moderate temperatures, but Type 316 is resistant to all concentrations at temperatures up to boiling.

Esters

From the corrosion standpoint, esters are comparable with organic acids.

Fatty acids

Up to about 300F (150C), Type 304 is resistant to

fats and fatty acids, but Type 316 is needed at 300
to 500F (150 to 260C) and Type 317 at higher
temperatures.

Paint vehicles

Type 316 may be needed if exact color and lack of

contamination are important.

Phthalic
anhydride

Type 316 is usually used for reactors, fractionating

columns, traps, baffles, caps and piping.

Soaps

Type 304 is used for parts such as spray towers,

but Type 316 may be preferred for spray nozzles
and flake-drying belts to minimize offcolor product.

Synthetic
detergents

Type 316 is used for preheat, piping, pumps and

reactors in catalytic hydrogenation of fatty acids to
give salts of sulfonated high molecular alcohols.

Tall oil (pulp and

paper industry)

Type 304 has only limited usage in tall-oil distillation service. High-rosin-acid streams can be handled by Type 316L with a minimum molybdenum
content of 2.75%. Type 316 can also be used in the
more corrosive high-fatty-acid streams at temperatures up to 475F (245C), but Type 317 will
probably be required at higher temperatures.

Tar

Tar distillation equipment is almost all Type 316

because coal tar has a high chloride content. Type
304 does not have adequate resistance to pitting.

Urea

Type 316L is generally required.

Acids
Hydrocloric acid

Sulfuric acid

Type 304 can be used at room temperature for

concentrations over 80%. Type 316 can be used in
contact with sulfuric acid up to 10% at termperatures up to 120F (50C) if the solutions are
aerated; the attack is greater in airfree solutions.
Type 317 may be used at temperatures as high as
150F (65C) with up to 5% concentration. The
presence of other materials may markedly change
the corrosion rate. As little as 500 to 2000 ppm of
cupric ions make it possible to use Type 304 in hot
solutions of moderate concentration. Other
additives may have the opposite effect.

Sulfurous acid

Type 304 may be subject to pitting, particularly if

some sulfuric acid is present. Type 316 is usable at
moderate concentrations and temperatures.

Bases
Ammonium
hydroxide,
sodium
hydroxide,
caustic solutions

Steels in the 300 series generally have good corrosion resistance at virtually all concentrations and
temperatures in weak bases, such as ammonium
hydroxide. In stronger bases, such as sodium hydroxide, there may be some attack, cracking or etching in more concentrated solutions and at higher
termperatures. Commercial purity caustic solutions
may contain chlorides, which will accentuate any
attack and may cause pitting of Type 316 as well as
Type 304.

Organics
Acetic acid

Acetic acid is seldom pure in chemical plants but

generally includes numerous and varied minor
constituents. Type 304 is used for a wide variety of
equipment including stills, base heaters, holding
tanks, heat exchangers, pipelines, valves and
pumps for concentrations up to 99% at temperatures up to about 120F (50C). Type 304 is also
satisfactory for contact with 100% acetic acid vapors, andif small amounts of turbidity or color
pickup can be toleratedfor room temperature
storage of glacial acetic acid. Types 316 and 317
have the broadest range of usefulness, especially if
formic acid is also present or if solutions are
unaerated. Type 316 is used for fractionating
equipment, for 30 to 99% concentrations where
Type 304 cannot be used, for storage vessels,
pumps and process equipment handling glacial
acetic acid, which would be discolored by Type
304. Type 316 is likewise applicable for parts having temperatures above 120F (50C), for dilute
vapors and high pressures. Type 317 has somewhat greater corrosion resistance than Type 316
under severely corrosive conditions. None of the
stainless steels has adequate corrosion resistance
to glacial acetic acid at the boiling temperature or at
superheated vapor temperatures.

Pharmaceuticals Type 316 is usually selected for all parts in contact

with the product because of its inherent corrosion
resistance and greater assurance of product purity.
Elevated
Temperatures

Generally speaking increased chromium content

increases oxidation resistance. Those alloys containing 16 to 20% chromium such as Types 304
and 316 are generally useful in air to temperatures
of 1600 to 1700F (870 to 925C). Alloys such as
Types 309 and 310 with higher chromium and
nickel contents may extend this temperature range
to 1800 or 1900F (180 to 1035C). Exposure to
fluctuating temperatures or even mild environments such as carbon dioxide or water vapor may
result in significant increases in corrosion rates at
these temperatures.

Cryogenic
Temperatures

Austenitic stainless steels exhibit good ductility and

toughness at the most severe of cryogenic
temperatures - minus 423F (- 253C). Impact tests
show that Type 304 is very stable over long periods
of exposure and does not exhibit any marked
degradation of toughness. Properly made welds
also have excellent low-temperature properties.
Austenitic grades cold worked to high strength
levels are also suitable for low-temperature service. Type 310 can be cold worked as much as
85% and still exhibit a good notched-to-unnotched
tensile ratio down to - 423F (- 253C).

Source: STAINLESS STEEL AND THE CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, Climax Molybdenum Company, Greenwich, Connecticut, 1966.

THE SELECTION
OF A PIPING
SYSTEM
The most commonly used material for metal piping
systems is carbon steel. Where carbon steel pipe is
satisfactory, it generally results in the most economical
system. The justification for the selection of a more
expensive material, however, is usually either a longer
life because of reduced corrosion, or an improvement in
product quality as a result of reduced contamination
(corrosion). The selection of a more expensive material
may also be dictated by piping code material restriction,
such as in those cases where operating conditions are
above or below the range of working temperatures
approved for carbon steel.
A variety of materials, both metallic and nonmetallic,
are available to fill the varied piping needs of industry.
Each of these materials has its own particular attributes
that justify its use in certain applications and they each
have limitations. A check-list has been developed (Appendix B) listing some of the factors which should be
weighed in making a decision on the relative merits of
alternative pipe materials. These include, among other
important considerations, pressure and temperature
limitations, supporting structure requirements, chemical
resistance, protection from exposure to fire, thermal
expansion, piping code restrictions, safeguarding requirements, tracing, vacuum collapse and insulation.

STAINLESS STEEL
IN PIPING
SYSTEMS
The role of stainless steel in piping systems can be
defined by outlining its advantages and disadvantages
as a piping material.

Advantages
CORROSION RESISTANCE
Stainless steels possess broad resistance to a wide
variety of corrosives from fresh water to strong nitric
acid. This corrosion resistance generally allows the use
of light-weight construction with Schedule 5S or 10S
piping.
While full discussion of corrosion resistance in specific media is beyond the scope of this publication,
Table 1 lists the relative corrosion resistance of the 57
AISI-numbered stainless steels in seven broad catego-

ries of corrosive environments. Table 2 details more

specific environments in which various grades are used,
and a list of useful references to aid in the selection of
stainless steels is included on page 22.
When dealing with corrosive environments, the piping system designer and specifier should take careful
note of the fact that there are significant differences in
corrosion resistance and strength among the various
stainless alloys. If Type 304 is not suitable for a particular environment there is no reason to rule out other
stainless steels. There are stainless steels with higher
chromium and nickel contents or with other alloying
elements that provide better resistance to corrosion
than Type 304. For instance, the AISI-numbered stainless steels are not recognized as being outstanding
materials for use in seawater environments. There are,
however, commercially available proprietary stainless
steels that have exhibited excellent resistance in seawater environments.

STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS
A very important consideration in evaluating various
pipe system materials is strength. The mechanical
properties of stainless steels yield a number of important
advantages over nonmetallic pipe systems.
High-Temperature Characteristics . The austenitic
stainless steels are unique in that they combine hightemperature strength and oxidation resistance. Applications at 1000F are common and some applications
utilizing stainless steels operate at temperatures approaching 1900F.
Figure 1 gives a broad concept of the hot strength
advantages of the austenitic stainless steels in comparison with other materials. The stress values for Type
304 seamless pipe compared with a low-alloy chrome
molybdenum steel pipe shown in Table 3 illustrate an
important reason why austenitic stainless steels are
preferred over other alloys for steam service at temperatures over 1050F. (Many companies use Type 316 for
high-temperature steam service.)
The most common criteria currently used in the
United States for the design of hot piping are found in
ANSI B31.3.* This code prescribes minimum requirements for piping systems subject to pressure or vacuum,
over a range of temperatures up to 1500F.
The basic allowable stress for a particular material at
a particular temperature is based on several criteria, any
of which may govern. In accordance with the Code, this
basic allowable stress shall not exceed the lowest of the
following:
1. One third of the material's minimum tensile
strength at room temperature.
2. One third of the material's minimum tensile
strength at design temperature.
3. Two thirds of the material's minimum yield
strength at room temperature.
4. Two thirds of the material's minimum yield
strength at the design temperature.
*ANSI B 31.3. American National Standards Institute Code for Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping, published by the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1976.

Table 3
ALLOWABLE STRESS AT MAXIMUM METAL TEMPERATURE
F
C
Type
304
2Cr-1 Mo

900
482
ksi
10.0
13.1

950
510
MPa
68.9
90.3

ksi
9.8
11.0

1000
538
MPa
67.2
75.8

ksi
9.5
7.8

1050
566
MPa
65.2
53.8

ksi
9.0
5.8

1100
593
MPa
62.1
40.0

ksi
8.3
4.2

1150
621
MPa
56.9
29.0

ksi
6.9
3.0

1200
649
ksi
MPa
5.5
37.9
2.0
13.8

MPa
47.6
20.7

Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

5. The average stress for a creep rate of 0.01 percent

per 1,000 hours.
6. 67 percent of the average stress for rupture at the
end of 100,000 hours.
7. 80 percent of the minimum stress for rupture at the
end of 100,000 hours.
An exception to the fourth criterion above is that for
austenitic stainless steels (generally the 300 series)
and for some of the nickel alloys, when used at temperatures below 1100F, the limit may be as high as 90
percent of the minimum yield strength at the design
temperature. However, this high allowable stress is not
recommended for flanged, gasketed joints or other applications where a slight deformation could cause leakage.
An excellent discussion of this subject is in an article
by J.D. Dawson, "Designing High-Temperature Piping."
(CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, April 9, 1979.)
Low-Temperature Characteristics. At the other extreme, austenitic stainless steels are among the few
materials that retain their toughness and ductility at the

most severe of cryogenic temperatures. Table 4 shows

mechanical properties of some of these materials at
cryogenic temperatures.
In contrast, thermoplastics, fiberglass reinforced
plastic (FRP), and plastic-lined carbon steel have a
much narrower range of temperatures at which their
performance is acceptable. According to ANSI B31.3
the suggested temperature limits for thermoplastic pipe
is from -30F to 210F, depending upon the specific
material. The temperature limits for reinforced thermosetting resins are from -20F to 300F. For
thermoplastics used as linings, the range is from 0F to
500F, again depending upon the specific material.
Design Considerations. Because of excellent
strength characteristics, stainless steel piping can
withstand higher pressures, or a full vacuum, over a
wide temperature rangewhich, in turn, means a
greater degree of safety. For example, austenitic
stainless steels provide satisfactory service from low
cryogenic temperatures to temperatures of 1800F and
above. Strength and toughness are especially important for pipe systems handling hot acid solutions, other

Table 4
TYPICAL MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS AT
CRYOGENIC TEMPERATURES
AISI
Type
304

Test
Temperature
F
C
- 40
- 40
- 80
- 62
-320
-196
-423
-252

Yield
Strength
0.2% Offset
ksi
MPa
34
234
34
234
39
269
50
344

ksi
155
170
221
243

MPa
1,069
1,172
1,524
1,675

Elongation
in
2"
%
47
39
40
40

Tensile
Strength

Izod Impact
ft. lbs.
110
110
110
110

J
149
149
149
149

310

- 40
- 80
-320
-423

- 40
- 62
-196
-252

39
40
74
108

269
276
510
745

95
100
152
176

655
689
1,048
1,213

57
55
54
56

110
110
85

149
149
115

316

- 40
- 80
-320
-423

- 40
- 62
-196
-252

41
44
75
84

283
303
517
579

104
118
185
210

717
814
1,276
1,448

59
57
59
52

110
110

149
149

347

- 40
- 80
-320
-423

- 40
- 62
-196
-252

44
45
47
55

303
310
324
379

117
130
200
228

807
896
1,379
1,572

63
57
43
39

110
110
95
60

149
149
129
81

410

- 40
- 80
-320

- 40
- 62
-196

90
94
148

621
648
1,020

122
128
158

841
883
1,089

23
22
10

25
25
5

34
34
7

430

- 40
- 80
-320

- 40
- 62
-196

41
44
87

283
303
607

76
81
92

524
558
634

36
36
2

10
8
2

14
11
3

Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

hazardous liquids, or compressed gases (which in

large systems contain a substantial concentration of
potential energy). Flanged joints in nonmetallic systems are more susceptible to gasketing and leakage
problems due to their low modulus of elasticity. In lined
pipe, vacuum service often leads to liner buckling.
(Table 5 shows the thickness for stainless steel pipe
designed to withstand a full vacuum of 30 inches of
mercury.)
Because of their excellent high-temperature characteristics, stainless steel piping systems are readily
steam jacketed, and they have a greater tolerance for
steam tracing than the nonmetallic or lined systems.
Steam tracing of lined pipe may lead to buckling of the
liner. (Care should be exercised in steam tracing any
metallic pipe system to prevent hot spots, which could
cause accelerated corrosion.)
Also relative to the use of pipe systems at high or low
temperatures, are the thermal expansion characteristics of the materials. The coefficient of thermal expan-

Figure 1
HOT STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS

Table 5
THICKNESS FOR STAINLESS STEEL PIPE DESIGNED
TO WITHSTAND FULL 30 in. H.G. VACUUM
Where vibration exists, the thickness should be increased
and/or reinforcing rings added.
Size
1
1
2
3
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36

Gauge U.S. Standard

14
14
14
14
14
14
14
12
12
11
11
11
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16

Thickness
0.078
0.078
0.078
0.078
0.078
0.078
0.078
0.109
0.109
0.125
0.125
0.125
0.1875
0.1875
0.1875
0.1875
0.1875
0.250
0.250
0.250
0.250

Note: Standard rolled angle face rings may be used for reinforcing
rings. (Dimensions are given in inches)
Source: SUGGESTED STANDARDS FOR STAINLESS STEEL PIPING FOR THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY, Tappi Engineering Conference, November 1968, Houston, Texas

sion of stainless steels is much closer to that of carbon

steel than that of plastic materials. Lined metallic piping
systems have been known to fail because of the difference in expansion between the pipe and its lining.
In contrast to the excellent performance characteristics of stainless steel pipe systems exposed to elevated
temperature (either internally or externally), special
provisions are required to protect nonmetallic pipe systems. These provisions are frequently in the form of
thermal insulation, shields or process controls to protect
against excessive heat or thermal shock, and/or armor
guards or barricades for protection against mechanical
abuse.
In the event of a fire, a stainless steel piping system
is more resistant than a plastic system, as it is neither
flammable nor readily melted. Also, heat can seriously
affect nonmetallic systems.
High strength means fewer and less complicated
supporting structures. Generally speaking, in a metallic
piping system a minimum of two supports is used for
each length of pipe for practical handling during installation and removal, and valves are usually supported
by the pipe system itself. In contrast, nonmetallic systems use more supports, plus additional supports for
each valve. For outside pipe runs, the supporting structures for nonmetallic systems are more substantial and
more expensive.

EASE OF FABRICATION
General comparison of the hot-strength characteristics of austenitic,
martensitic and ferritic stainless steels with those of low-carbon unalloyed steel and semi-austenitic precipitation and transformationhardening steels.

The excellent ductility of the austenitic stainless

steels enables extensive forming operations. Forming

of Van Stone flanges and pipe bending, for example,

offer economies that are unavailable with other lessductile materials.

Table 6
REPRESENTATIVE PRESSURE RATING FOR
VAN STONE FLANGED TYPES 304L and 316L

Van Stone Flanging

Van Stone flanging involves roll flaring of the pipe
end to form a lap perpendicular to the pipe axis. Using a
lap joint back-up flange, or a slip-on flange with the inner
corner between the flange face and bore slightly chamfered, offers one of the best methods of providing a
flanged connection. The advantages, compared to a
weld-neck flange, are readily apparent:
Reliability This is a machine operation with precise
tooling. Each lap is virtually identical.
Speed Always faster than welding.
Ease of Installation Since the back-up flange is free
to rotate, there is never a problem of bolt-hole alignment with the mating flange.
No Need for Expensive Flange Back-up flanges
have a mechanical function, which does not require
corrosion resistance. A forged steel or ductile iron
back-up flange may be used with stainless steel pipe.
Cost Fast fabrication, elimination of welds, fast installation, and inexpensive flanges add up to substantial cost savings.
Stainless steel welded and full-finished pipe manufactured in accordance with standard specification
ASTM A312 is preferred for flanging Type 304 or 316
(plus low-carbon grades) in to 12-inch diameters in
Schedules 5S, 10S, and 40S. Table 6 shows representative pressure rating data for Van Stone flanged Types
304 and 316, while Table 7 shows typical Van Stone lap
geometries. Figures 2 and 3 show typical examples.

Pipe Bending
The piping designer can achieve significant cost savings by specifying close-radius bending of stainless
steel wherever possible in the piping system. Important

Temp. F

Schedule 10S

Schedule 40S

100
200
300
400
500
600
650

275 psi
240 psi
210 psi
180 psi
150 psi
130 psi
120 psi

300 psi
300 psi
300 psi
300 psi
300 psi
300 psi
300 psi

Ratings are based on the following:

1. Stresses used are not more than allowed by ASME code.
2. Use of standard slip-on flanges per ASA B16.5.
3. Where lightweight back-up flanges are used, the bolt circle bolt size
and bore diameter should be per ASA B16.5. In this case the rating
of stub and back-up assembly is limited by the capabilities of the
back-up flange.
4. These ratings allow for normally encountered bending moments due
to thermal cycling. Where such conditions are severe and a piping
flexibility analysis is made, stresses due to bending moment should
be limited to a stress range of 20,000 psi (10,000) in the wall
adjacent to the lap.
Source: PIPE FABRICATION, SGL Piping Systems, a division of SGL
Industries, Inc., Newport, Delaware

is the fact that close-radius bends match standard

forged steel long-radius elbows per USAS B16.9; 4-inch
iron pipe size (IPS), for example, is bent on a 6-inch
radius while 2-inch IPS pipe is bent on a 3-inch radius.
Close-radius bending may be used interchangeably with
forged elbows in any piping system with no revision in
layout.
Bends of 1 to 180 degrees are possible. Table 8
provides guidelines for maximizing the use of bending,
and Figures 4 and 5 show typical applications. Bending
is used generally for sizes up to 4 inches in diameter.
Bending of larger sizes is possible with special equipment. For example, in some shops fabricating piping
systems for nuclear power plants, 34-inch diameter
pipe with a 4-inch wall thickness is being successfully
bent utilizing induction heating of the bend area. This
type of bending results in lower welding and fitting

Table 7
VAN STONE LAP GEOMETRIES
Flange Type
IPS
(in inches)

1
1
1
2
2
3
4
6
8
10
12

LAP OD
(in inches)
13/8
111/16
2
2
27/8
35/8
41/8
5
63/16
8
105/8
12
15

Schedules
5S/10S
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO
SO

Schedules
40S/80S
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ
LJ

Serrated
Face
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
NA
NA

SOSlip-On; LJLap Joint; A-Available; NANot Available

Back-up flanges may be forged steel or ductile iron, flat face or raised face.

Source: PIPE FABRICATION, SGL Piping Systems, a division of SGL Industries, Inc., Newport, Delaware

Figure 2
Typical example of a Van Stone flange. The flange,
which can be of a noncorrosion resistant material, is
slipped over the end of the pipe and then the end is
flared by an operation that resembles spinning.

Figure 3
The flared end of the pipe or tube can be smooth, or it can
be flared with a serrated face, as shown here. The
serrations are formed by the flaring tool and are "rolled"
in, not machined.

Table 8
CLOSE RADIUS BENDING TABLES
Min. Center-to-Center and Center-to-Face Dimensions to allow adequate clamping. (Dimensions in inches)

90Bends
Pipe
Size

1
1
2
3
3
4

Radius
R
1
11/8
1
2
3
41/8
5
6

A or DPlain or Beveled End

A
5
51/8
5
8
11
13
14
16
B or EFlanged End

B
7
7
8
9
9
12
13
14

45Bends
C
7
6
7
10
14
18
19
22

C or FCenter to Center

Source: PIPE FABRICATION, SGL Piping Systems, a division of SGL Industries, Inc., Newport, Delaware

10

45/8

65/8

5
5
5
7
10
12
133/8
15

49/16
45/8
611/16
9
107/8
11
13

6
73/8
77/8
73/8
9
10
10

Figure 4
This is a "pancake" heating coil of 1inch Type 304
stainless steel pipe, 40 feet in diameter. The detail
(inset) shows how 180 degree bends were made to the
centerline spacing. By bending, the fabricator eliminated
one weld per return, significantly reducing the cost as
compared to conventional U-bend fittings.

costs. In any piping system, the need for fewer welds

translates into a significant reduction of in-service inspections and nondestructive examination requirements.
The repair or replacement of a stainless steel section
can be easily and quickly accomplished while other
materials often require involved repair procedures with
significant downtime. For example, special fixtures are
required with lined pipe to form the liner over a flange
face.

AVAILABILITY
Stainless steel pipe and tubing are available as either
welded or seamless products.
Welded pipe is ordinarily preferred to seamless pipe
for chemical plant piping because it is more economical. The greater uniformity of wall is beneficial in
performing the fabricating operations of short radius

Figure 5
CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION
Requires seven welds and four purchased fittings.
FLARED LAPS AND BENT CONSTRUCTION Requires
one weld and no purchased fittings. (Branch is made
with a saddle weld.)

11

Table 9
PIPE SIZES AND WEIGHTS-304, 304L, 309, 310, 316 and 316L
Nominal

Nominal

IPS
inches

OD
inches

1/ 8

Schedule 5S
Wall
inches

Weight
pounds/foot

Schedule 10S

Schedule 40S

Wall
inches

Weight
pound/foot

Wall
inches

0.049
0.065
0.065

0.1880
0.3328
0.4274

0.068
0.088
0.091

Weight
pounds/foot

Schedule 80S
Wall
inches

Weight
pounds/foot

0.2470
0.4287
0.5729

0.095
0.119
0.126

0.3175
0.5401
0.7457

3/ 8

0.405
0.540
0.675

0.840
1.050
1.315

0.065
0.065
0.065

0.5430
0.6902
0.8759

0.083
0.083
0.109

0.6773
0.8652
1.417

0.109
0.113
0.133

0.8589
1.141
1.695

0.147
0.154
0.179

1.098
1.487
2.192

1
1
2

1.600
1.900
2.375

0.065
0.065
0.065

1.117
1.286
1.619

0.109
0.109
0.109

1.822
2.104
2.662

0.140
0.145
0.154

2.294
2.743
3.687

0.191
0.200
0.218

3.025
3.665
5.069

2
3
3

2.875
3.500
4.000

0.083
0.083
0.083

2.498
3.057
3.505

0.120
0.120
0.120

3.564
4.372
5.019

0.203
0.216
0.226

5.847
7.647
9.194

0.276
0.300
0.318

7.733
10.35
12.62

4
5
6

4.500
5.563
6.625

0.083
0.109
0.109

3.952
6.409
7.856

0.120
0.134
0.134

5.666
7.842
9.376

0.237
0.258
0.280

10.89
14.75
19.15

0.337
0.375
0.432

15.12
20.97
28.84

8
10
12

8.625
10.750
12.750

0.109
0.134
0.156

10.01
15.34
21.18

0.148
0.165
0.180

13.52
18.83
24.39

0.322
0.365
0.375

28.82
40.86
50.03

0.500
0.500
0.500

43.79
55.25
66.03

14
16
18

14.000
16.000
18.000

0.156
0.165
0.165

23.28
28.17
31.72

0.188
0.188
0.188

27.99
32.05
36.10

20
22
24
30

20.000
22.000
24.000
30.000

0.188
0.188
0.218
0.250

40.15
44.21
55.89
80.18

0.218
0.218
0.250
0.312

45.49
51.19
64.01
99.85

Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

bending and forming flared laps.

On the other hand, seamless pipe is accorded a
higher allowable hoop stress without special examination than is welded pipe, and heavier wall thicknesses
are more readily available in seamless pipe, which
would be required for some high-pressure applications.
The code for chemical plant and petroleum piping,
ANSI B31.3, permits use of the same stresses for
welded pipe as those used for seamless pipe, provided
the longitudinal seam weld has passed the requisite
100 percent radiographic examination.
Both pipe and the necessary fittings of stainless steel
conforming to ASTM and ANSI standards are readily
available from a number of sources. Table 9 shows pipe
sizes, wall thicknesses and weights of Types 304, 304L,
309, 310, 316, and 316L stainless steels.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS
Protective coatings are usually not required due to
the inherent corrosion resistance of stainless steel.
However, sometimes coatings are applied to the exterior
of pipe for color coding or for protection against chloride
attack from wet insulation.

EASE OF CLEANING
Stainless steels can be readily cleaned by a number

12

of different methods. If the application involves a sterile

environment, they are readily sterilized.

ABRASION RESISTANCE
Stainless steels possess good abrasion resistance
for handling slurries.

HEAT TRANSFER
A metallic piping system has distinct advantages
over nonmetallic systems if heat transfer is important.
Table 10 provides data on the conductivity and overall
heat transfer coefficients of various metals.

ECONOMY
When all costs are considered, stainless steel piping
systems often win out over other materials. This is especially true if advantage is taken of the mechanical
properties and corrosion resistance of stainless steel
which allow light-weight construction. For instance,
Schedule 5S, Type 304 stainless steel approaches
Schedule 40 carbon steel in installed cost, and it is
certainly more economical than Schedule 80 carbon
steel.

Limitations
CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
No piping material is resistant to all corrosive media.
Stainless steels have a few limitations (or precautions)
which must be considered in the design of a piping
system. For instance, unsatisfactory service may result
from use of stainless steels in strongly reducing environments, depending on concentration and temperature. Likewise, problems may be encountered with
stainless steels exposed to high-chloride environments. Precautions must also be taken to avoid corrosive attack on the exterior of the pipe by chlorides
leached from pipe insulation. Chlorides may cause pitting, crevice corrosion or stress-corrosion cracking.
Materials engineers familiar with these types of corrosive attack can avoid problems with stainless steels by
selecting the proper grade and by taking proper preventive measures, such as avoiding environments
known to corrode stainless steels, by eliminating crevices, by providing for regular cleaning to remove deposits or by using silicate inhibited insulation.
The types of corrosive attack which are more likely
to be of concern in utilizing stainless steels are: pitting,
crevice attack, stress-corrosion cracking, and intergranular corrosion.
Pitting occurs when the protective oxide film on stainless steel breaks down in small isolated spots. Halide
ions are most often responsible for this type of attack.
Once started, the attack may propogate because of
differences in electric potential between the large area of
passive surface vs. the small active pitted area.
Pitting is avoided in many environments by using
Type 316 or 317 or other stainless steels containing
higher levels of chromium and molybdenum.
Crevice corrosion results from local differences in
oxygen concentration associated with deposits on the
metal surface, gaskets, lap joints, or crevices under
bolt or rivet heads where small amounts of liquid can

collect and become stagnant.

The material being utilized in the formation of a crevice need not be metallic. Scale, wood, plastics, rubber, glass, concrete, asbestos, wax, and living organisms have all been reported to cause crevice corrosion. Once attack begins within the crevice, its progress may be very rapid. The stainless steels containing
molybdenum are more resistant to this type of attack
and are often used to minimize the problem. Notwithstanding, the best solution to crevice corrosion is a
design that eliminates as many crevices as possible.
Stress-corrosion cracking is caused by the combined effects of tensile stress and corrosion. Many alloy
systems have been known to experience stresscorrosion crackingfor example, brass in ammonia,
carbon steel in nitrate solutions, titanium in methanol,
aluminum in sea water, and gold in acetic acid. Some
stainless steels (i.e. the austenitic grades) are susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in chloride and caustic
environments.
It is necessary for tensile stress, chlorides in solution
and elevated temperature all to be present for stresscorrosion cracking to occur in stainless steel. Wet-dry or
heat transfer conditions, which promote the concentration of chlorides, are particularly aggressive with
respect to initiating stress-corrosion cracking. A typical
problem area is under pipe insulation. If the insulation
becomes wet, chlorides in the insulation can leach out
and concentrate on the metal surface as a result of
alternate wetting and drying. The problem with insulation can be prevented by using a silicate-inhibited insulation.
While the mechanism of. stress-corrosion cracking is
not fully understood, laboratory tests and service experience have resulted in methods to minimize the problem. For instance, Type 329 (an austenitic-ferritic stainless containing 25-30 percent chromium, 3-6 percent
nickel, and 1-2 percent molybdenum) exhibits superior
resistance to chloride stress-corrosion cracking; plus it
has a general corrosion and pitting resistance similar to
Type 316. Recent studies indicate that Type 317 with
3.5 percent (minimum) molybdenum has excellent re-

Table 10
EFFECT OF METAL CONDUCTIVITY ON "U" VALVES

Application

Film Coefficients
2
Btu/hr/ft /F
2
(W/m K)

Material
ho

Heating
water with
saturated
steam
Heating
air with
saturated
steam

Copper
Aluminum
Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel
Copper
Aluminum
Carbon Steel
Stainless Steel

300
300
300
300
5
5
5
5

(1704)
(1704)
(1704)
(1704)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)

Thermal Conductivity
2
of Metal Btu/hr/ft /F/in.
(W/mK)

"U" Value
2
Btu/hr/ft /F
2
(W/m K)

hi
1000 (5678)
1000 (5678)
1000 (5678)
1000 (5678)
1000 (5678)
1000 (5678)
1000 (5678)
1000 (5678)

2680
1570
460
105
2680
570
460
105

(387)
(226)
(66)
(15)
(387)
(226)
(66)
(15)

299
228
223
198
4.98
4.97
4.97
4.96

(1300)
(1295)
(1266)
(1124)
(28)
(28)
(28)
(28)

Where ho = outside fluid film heat-transfer coefficient

hi = inside fluid film heat-transfer coefficient
Stainless steel is 300 Series Type

Source: Tranter Mfg. Inc.

13

sistance. Several proprietary austenitic stainless steels

with higher nickel content also have shown resistance to
stress cracking in hot chloride environments.
The ferritic stainless steels, which are very resistant
to stress-corrosion cracking, should also be considered
when the potential exists for this type of corrosion.
Intergranular corrosion. When austenitic stainless
steels are heated or cooled through the temperature
range of about 800-1650F, the chromium along grain
boundaries tends to combine with carbon to form
chromium carbides. The carbide precipitation causes a
depletion of chromium and the lowering of corrosion
resistance in areas adjacent to the grain boundary. This
phenomenon, known as sensitization, is time and temperature dependent.
Sensitization may result from slow cooling from annealing temperatures, stress-relieving in the sensitization range, or welding. Due to the longer time at temperature of annealing or stress-relieving, it is possible
that the entire piece of material will be sensitized. Welding, on the other hand, may cause sensitization of a
narrow band adjacent to but slightly removed from the
weld in the region known as the heat-affected-zone
(HAZ).
Intergranular corrosion depends upon the magnitude of the sensitization and the aggressiveness of
the environment to which the sensitized material is exposed. Many environments do not cause intergranular
corrosion in sensitized austenitic stainless steels. For
example, glacial acetic acid at room temperature or
fresh clean water do not; strong nitric acids do. (High
purity water, however, such as used in primary circuits
of nuclear reactors can be aggressive to sensitized
stainless steels.)
Carbide precipitation and subsequent intergranular
corrosion in austenitic stainless steels have been thoroughly investigated; the causes are understood and
methods of prevention have been devised. These
methods include:
1. Use of welded stainless steel pipe in the annealed
condition (post-weld annealing).
2. Selection of the low-carbon (0.030 percent maximum) stainless steels when welding is involved.
Low-carbon grades are Types 304L, 316L, and
317L. The less carbon available to combine with
the chromium, the less likely is carbide precipitation to occur. However, the low-carbon grades
may become sensitized at extremely long exposures to temperatures in the sensitization range.
3. Selection of a stabilized grade, such as Type 321
(titanium stabilized) or Type 347 (columbium
stabilized). The stabilization provided by titanium
and columbium is based upon the greater affinity
that they have for carbon than does chromium.
Columbium stabilization is preferred because its
carbides are more readily retained in welds and it is
easier to add in the steelmaking process. However, the
use of columbium stabilized steel requires additional
care in welding.
A low-carbon grade is usually specified for welding
fabrication, while a stabilized grade is usually specified
when the component is to be used at elevated temperature.

14

HIGH-TEMPERATURE ENVIRONMENTS
Stainless steels are generally selected, first, on the
basis of their resistance to corrosion and, second, on
the basis of their mechanical properties. As the temperatures of operating environments increase, however,
elevated temperature properties quickly become the
primary concern. The stainless steels are most versatile in their ability to meet the requirements of hightemperature service.
There are three primary design factors that
engineers consider when choosing materials for service
at elevated temperature. These design factors are:
1. Service life (corrosion resistance and mechanical
properties)
2. Allowable deformation
3. Environment.
Service life For a given type of steel at a specific
thickness, the expected service life depends on the
maximum temperature to which it is exposed plus the
maximum stresses to which it is subjected; also
whether service is at a constant temperature or intermittent high temperature, plus corrosion resistance.
For a prolonged anticipated service life, such as 20
years, plain carbon steels are usually limited to a maximum operating temperature of 750F; the percent
molybdenum alloy steels to approximately 850F; and
the stainless steels to considerably higher temperatures depending upon the type used and the nature of
the environment. It is important to recognize that for
high-temperature service, strength at temperature is
related to time at temperature.
Allowable deformation Another factor to consider
in designing for high-temperature service is the amount
of deformation that can be permitted during the anticipated service life. This factor determines which of two
high-temperature strength properties should be given
priority; creep or creep-rupture (sometimes called
stress-rupture). If the component is small and/or the
tolerances very close (such as in turbine blades) creep
is regarded as the overriding factor. But if the component is large and capable of accommodating greater
deformation, such as shell-and-tube heat exchangers,
the creep rupture strength is the usual basis for selection. Where considerable deformation is permitted, it is
well to know the anticipated time to rupture, so parts
can be scheduled for replacement before failure occurs.
It is also useful to know whether or not service at
elevated temperature is cyclic or continuous. Cyclic
operation may lead to failure by fatigue or loss of metal
due to flaking of the oxide scale prior to the expected
creep-rupture time.
EnvironmentThe effect of exposure of a material
to media can be a very complex subject. Elevated temperatures tend to increase corrosive action, heat transfer may affect corrosivity, thermal cycling can increase
metal wastage through spalling of protective scale on
the metal surface, and metal temperature probably will
not be the same as the environment to which it is exposed. Generally, if oxidation or other forms of scaling
are expected to be severe, a greater cross-sectional
areabeyond that indicated by mechanical-property
requirementsis usually specified. Problems like this

cannot be solved by laboratory analysis. They require

observation of test specimens in actual operating environments in pilot plants or full-size units.
A brief discussion of the corrosion behavior of stainless steels in various high-temperature environments
follows:

Oxidation
In noncyclic-temperature service, the oxidation resistance (or scaling resistance) of stainless steels depends on chromium content. Stainless steels with less
than 18 percent chromium (ferritic grades primarily) are
limited to temperatures below 1500F. Those containing
18 to 20 percent chromium are useful to temperatures of
1800F, while adequate resistance to scaling at temperatures up to 2000F requires a chromium content of
at least 25 percent, such as Types 309, 310, or 446.

Sulfidation
Sulfur attack is second only to air oxidation in frequency of occurrence in many industries, and it is of
even greater consequence because deterioration is
likely to be more severe. Like oxidation, sulfidation proceeds by converting metal to scale, which may be
protective except that metal sulfides melt at lower temperatures than comparable oxides, and diffusion
through a molten corrosion product is much faster than
through a solid corrosion product. Also, sulfides are less
likely to form tenacious, continuous protective films.
Fusion and lack of adherence can result in accelerated
corrosion.
As with oxidation, resistance to sulfidation relates to
chromium content. Unalloyed iron will be converted
rather rapidly to iron sulfide scale, but when alloyed with
chromium, sulfidation resistance is enhanced. Silicon
also affords some protection against sulfidation.
In addition to the usual factors of time, temperature,
and concentration, sulfidation depends upon the form
in which the sulfur exists. Of particular interest is the
effect of sulfur vapor, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide,
and flue gases.
For example, it is extremely difficult to generalize
about corrosion rates in flue and processes gases,
since gas composition and temperature may vary considerably within the same process unit. Combustion
gases normally contain sulfur compounds; sulfur dioxide
is present as an oxidizing gas along with carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and excess oxygen.
Protective oxides are generally formed, and depending
on exact conditions, the corrosion rate may be
approximately the same as in air or slightly greater. The
resistance of stainless steels to normal combustion
gases is improved by increasing chromium content.
Reducing flue gases contain varying amounts of hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide and nitrogen. The corrosion rates encountered in
these environments are sensitive to hydrogen sulfide
content and temperature, and satisfactory material
selection often necessitates service tests.

Carburization
Carburization is the diffusion of carbon into a metal. It
can be carried to such a degree as to form high-carbon
alloys with low ductility and impact strength at ambient
temperature. The chromium carbides thus formed are
prone to rapid oxidation under oxidizing conditions.
The virtual disappearance of the metal carbides leaves
deep holes. Such an extension of carburization, which
is relatively uncommon, is known as metal dusting.
Carburization can be caused by continuous overheating of a metal in the presence of hydrocarbon
gases, carbon monoxide, coke, or molten metals containing dissolved carbon.
Laboratory and field experience indicate that the rate
of carburization is affected by chromium content.

Hydrogen Attack
Atomic hydrogen, which results from a corrosion
reaction or the dissociation of molecular hydrogen, can
diffuse rapidly through the steel lattice to voids, imperfections, or low-angle grain boundaries. The diffusing
atoms accumulate and combine to form molecular hydrogen or, at high temperature, react with carbon to form
methane. The larger hydrogen or methane molecules
are trapped, and the subsequent pressure buildup results in blisters or laminations (hydrogen damage)
and/or degradation of ductility (hydrogen embrittlement). Eventually the steel cracks and may become
unsuitable for continued use.
In low-temperature environments, carbon or lowalloy steels are usually suitable, but for temperatures
above 800F and at high pressures (about 10,000 psi)
the austenitic stainless steels have sufficient chromium
to impart good resistance to hydrogen attack.

Ammonia and Nitrogen

Most metals and alloys are inert towards molecular
nitrogen at elevated temperature. However, atomic nitrogen will react with and penetrate many steels, producing hard, brittle nitride surface layers.
The behavior of stainless steels in ammonia depends
on temperature, pressure, gas concentration, and
chromium and nickel contents. Results from service
tests have demonstrated that corrosion rates for
straight-chromium stainless steels are greater than
those for the chromium-nickel grades. (See publication
"Stainless Steels for Ammonia Production" by the
Committee of Stainless Steel Producers.)

Halogens
Austenitic stainless steels are severely attacked by
halogen gases at elevated temperatures. Fluorine is
more corrosive than chlorine, and the upper temperature limits for dry gases are approximately 480F and
600F, respectively, for the high chromium-nickel
grades. Wet chlorine gas containing 0.4 percent water
is more corrosive than dry chlorine up to about 700F.

15

Liquid Metals
Liquid-metal corrosion differs from aqueous and
gaseous corrosion since it depends primarily on the
solubility of the solid metal in the liquid metal instead of
on electro-chemical forces. Although chemical reactions
may play an important role in liquid-metal corrosion,
mass transfer mechanisms are the most significant.
The resistance of austenitic stainless steels to various liquid metals cannot be generalized, so some of the
low-melting metals and alloys are discussed separately:
Sodium and sodium-potassium alloysThe austenitic stainless steels have been used extensively to contain
sodium and sodium-potassium alloys (NaK). They are not
susceptible to mass transfer up to 1000F, and the rate of
transfer remains within moderate levels up to 1600F.
Molten sodium may cause severe carburization of
stainless steels if it becomes contaminated by carbonaceous material. For example, carburization has
occurred from the storage of the liquid metal under
kerosene.
LeadMass transfer will be experienced to varying
degrees with any of the common engineering alloys
exposed to molten lead under dynamic conditions. In
addition, lead is an active corrodent in static systems.
Lead has a comparatively high solubility for a number of
metals, and therefore simple solution attack may result
in serious deterioration even in the absence of mass
transfer. Further, lead absorbs oxygen readily and may
cause rapid oxidation of susceptible alloys, particularly
at the interface in an open pot where oxygen contamination is high. In some instances when the lead bath
has been maintained in a reduced state by the introduction of a hydrocarbon, carburization of stainless steel
containers has resulted.

Other low-melting metals Molten metals and alloys

such as aluminum, zinc, antimony, bismuth, cadmium,
tin, lead-bismuth, and lead-bismuth-tin are generally
corrosive to stainless steels.
Molten salts Molten salts may corrode metals according to the reaction processes described for liquidmetal corrosion, namely, simple solution, temperature
and concentration gradient mass transfer, and impurity
reactions. Corrosion may also occur by direct chemical
reaction, or a combination of corrosion and the reaction
processes. Most information available concerns the
corrosive nature of heat treating salts or salt mixtures.
Stainless steels high in nickel and low in chromium,
such as Type 330, are usually selected for chloride salt
containments.
For low-temperature heat treating (300 to 1100F)
mixtures of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate are frequently used. While cast iron or steel are serviceable for
temperatures below 800F, the austenitic stainless
steels show excellent resistance at the upper service
temperatures.
Molten cyanide salt baths are used widely to
surface-harden mild or low-alloy steels by the formation
of a carburized, nitrided, or carbonitrided layer on the
surface. Since a chemical reaction is an essential part
of the process, these salts are more corrosive than the
salts used purely as heat transfer media. As discussed
earlier, chromium inhibits carburization but promotes
nitriding. Nickel, however, inhibits both reactions,
therefore, stainless steels with low chromium and high
nickelType 330 for exampleare used in this service.

COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

The coefficient of thermal expansion of austenitic

Table 11
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL PIPING STAINLESS STEELS (ANNEALED)
Type 304
Modulus of Elasticity in Tension
6
psi x 10 (GPa)
Modulus of Elasticity in Torsion
6
psi x 10 (GPa)
3
3
Density, Ibs/in (kg/m )
Specific Heat, Btu/Ib/F
(J/kgK) 32-212F (0-100C)
Thermal Conductivity, Btu/hr/ft/ft/F
(JkgK) 212F (100C)
932F (500C)
Mean Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
-6
-6
x10 /F (x1 0 /C)
32-212F (0-100C)
32-600F (0-315C)
32-1000F (0-538C)
32-1200F (0-648C)
32-1500F (0-815C)
32-1800F (0-982C)
Melting Point Range F
(C)
Source: Stainless Steel Industry Data

16

Type 316

Type 309

Type 310

28.0

(193)

28

(193)

29

(200)

30

(207)

12.5
0.29

(86.2)
(8060)

0.29

(8060)

0.29

(8060)

0.29

(8060)

0.12

(503)

0.12

(503)

0.12

(503)

0.12

(503)

9.4
12.4

(0.113)
(0.149)

9.6
(17.3)
9.9
(17.9)
10.2
(18.4)
10.4
(18.8)
2550 to 2650
(1398 to 1454)

9.4

(0.113)

8.9
(16.0)
9.0
(16.2)
9.7
(17.5)
10.3
(18.6)
11.1
(20.0)
2550
(1398)

8.0

(0.096)

8.0

(0.096)

8.3
9.3
9.6
10.0

(15.0)
(16.6)
(17.2)
(18.0)

8.8
9.0
9.4
9.7

(15.9)
(16.2)
(17.0)
(17.5)

11.5
(20.6)
2650
(1454)

10.6
(19.1)
2650
(1454)

stainless steels is approximately 1 times that of carbon

steel. The design of a stainless steel pipe system must allow
for this by providing more flexibility. Coefficients of thermal
expansion and other characteristic physical properties are
given in Table 11.

PROPER IDENTIFICATION
Although stainless pipe is shipped from the mill with
proper identification, this identification is sometimes
damaged during fabrication and handling. Carelessness
in maintaining alloy identification can lead to the
installation and use of the wrong alloy, which in turn
often results in unexpected and premature pipe failure.
If the material has lost its identification, qualitative tests
can and should be made. Unfortunately, field tests
cannot distinguish among some grades of stainless
steel, so when in doubt, consult a stainless steel
supplier.

THE
ECONOMIES OF
STAINLESS STEEL
IN
PIPING SYSTEMS
For any proposed piping installation, the design engineer will quickly narrow down a long list of available
piping materials to one or more that satisfy chemical,
temperature, and pressure requirements. More often
than not, stainless steels emerge as the obvious and
uncontested choice, in which case design efforts are
then directed toward achieving maximum economies.
This includes "fine tuning" the piping layout to reduce
its complexity as much as possible, choosing the
proper stainless steel composition to avoid ''over
specifying," and selecting efficient and economical
fabrication and installation methods, such as shop fabrication utilizing Van Stone flanging and close-radius
bending.
Occasionally, situations arise when two or more pipe
materials appear suitable from an engineering standpoint, so the designer wants to base his final selection
on an economic study. In large companies with well
staffed engineering and construction departments, such
studies are often programmed for computer analysis
with much of the cost data available from previous
projects. For small companies or applications for which
there is no previous experience, a new study is conducted. This can be a complex problem, because the
costs of systems of different materials depend on many
factors, such as system complexity, pipe sizes, availability of building steel for support, capability of available
pipe fabricating facilities, etc.

Piping system designers should avoid the inclination

to base selection on general comparisons which have
been published in the literature. While many of these
comparisons appear complete with a large amount of
data, they are often based on one specific installation.
Furthermore, the installation on which the study is
based is usually tailored to take advantage of one particular material, and the data are often not valid for
other specific installations.
For example, it has been the experience of many
companies in the chemical and pulp and paper industries that the two materials most often vying for a particular piping installation are FRP and stainless steel. An
economic study conducted by one manufacturer of
nonmetallic piping (J. Yamartino, Dow Chemical Company, "Installed Cost of Corrosion-Resistant Piping
1978," CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, November 20, 1978)
gives the advantage to FRP.
In order for FRP and stainless steel to be considered
for the same installation, the service has to be corrosive
enough to warrant going to stainless steel; and the
temperature and pressure requirements must be low
enough to be within the range of FRP pipe. Furthermore, there have been many other studies of other
installations in which the installed cost gives the advantage to stainless steel. To illustrate, consider the following study, which was made in 1972.

STAINLESS STEEL
VERSUS
REINFORCED PLASTIC
A cost comparison between stainless steel and two
types of reinforced plastic for a scrubber water piping
system at Copper Cliff, Ontario, was made by an independent engineering firm. The study indicates that
stainless steel, in normal wall thickness of Schedules
10S and 40S, was competitive with the best reinforced
epoxy and polyester piping systems on an installedcost basis. The cost comparison is given in Table 12.
Dollar figures are Canadian and equivalent to .98 U.S.
dollars.
Most of the stainless steel considered in the study
was more expensive than Type 304; 53.8 percent of the
total length of piping was Type 316L, 27.4 percent was
Type 304L and 9.3 percent was Type 316 and only the
remaining 9.5 percent was Type 304.
Machine-made, reinforced epoxy pipe was not
made in Canada and had to be imported from the U.S.
Therefore, the material cost for this system included a
17 percent duty plus a small brokerage charge
amounting to a total of $7,890. The hand-layed-up
polyester system was made in Canada and no duty
was included in the estimate.
Several grades of machine-made, reinforced epoxy
piping systems were available. This estimate was based
upon one of the better grades with the best chemical
resistance and a rating of 150-350 psig. (depending on
size) and a temperature rating of 250-300F.
The system consisted of a total of 2,747 feet of piping
and 565 fittings which varied in size from one-inch to
14-inch as shown in Table 13.

17

Screwed fittings (150 lb) were specified for the stainless steel 1 inch and under, and butt-welded fittings
were specified for the larger sizes. Where welding was
required the low-carbon grade was utilized.
On the basis of this cost comparison, the stainless
steel system was chosen because it was more economical than either a machine-made epoxy system or a
hand-layed-up polyester system. There would have
been an even greater cost differential if an alllightweight stainless steel system could have been
used. If the installation were to be installed in the United
States, the epoxy system would have been more competitive but still higher priced ($128,650 vs $128,100 for
the installed stainless steel).
It should be stressed that every installation has to be
considered separately, and there are a number of considerations to take into account. A quick check of piping
costs alone is likely to indicate a definite cost advantage for reinforced plastic. There are, however, factors
favoring lightweight, thin-wall stainless steel piping that
should be considered. For example, the cost figures for
stainless steel cited in this example could be considerably less if Van Stone lapped joints were used and if
bending were substituted for many of the elbows in the
smaller diameter pipe.
It soon becomes apparent that each system must be
estimated in considerable detail to reach a trustworthy
cost comparison.
A comparative estimate should reflect a comparison
of costs for each of the following elements (their individual significance is reviewed in the following text):
Design Costs
Models
Piping Arrangement Drawings
Detail Sketching
Pipe Support Design
Material Costs
Pipe
Fittings
Valves
Supporting Structures
Miscellaneous Material
Fabrication Costs
Field Fabrication
Shop Fabrication
Purchase of Fabricated Pipe

Erection Costs
Pipe Supports
Pipe Erection
Testing
Incidental Work

Design Costs
Either models or piping arrangement drawings are
required on any major scope of piping work. They serve
the same purpose, namely to route pipe runs between
the pieces of equipment they are connecting. The requirements will be the same for all the piping materials
being compared; i.e. stainless steel, FRP, or plasticlined carbon steel.
Pipe support design and detail sketching are interrelated. They will be dependent on the kind of piping
installed. For example, FRP piping requires the most
support, including separate supports at each valve and
other special considerations covered in the manufacturers design manuals. (Note: Thermoplastic pipe systems would require more support than FRP.) The preferred routing of the three systems being compared may
differ somewhat to take advantage of the most
economical layout to suit fabrication or the use of
standard pieces. Plastic lined steel pipe can generally
follow the route of stainless steel pipe although the cost
and availability of standard or special fittings may become a problem. It should also be noted that the
smaller sizes of pipe valves and fittings are not available for FRP or plastic-lined steel systems.

Material Costs
It is common practice to purchase FRP and plasticlined steel pipe prefabricated. Stainless steel pipe and
fittings can be purchased and shop fabricated into a
piping system locally at the construction site. For small
projects it may be more economical to purchase the
pipe prefabricated. These alternatives are discussed
under Shop Fabrication.

Table 12
COST COMPARISON FOR GLASS-REINFORCED PLASTIC PIPING
SYSTEMS VS STAINLESS STEEL IN CANADIAN CHEMICAL PLANTa
Material

Machine-made, glass reinforced

epoxy (high quality)

$53,090c

$83,450

$136,540

HLU Glass reinforced polyester made in accordance

with Canadian Government Specifications Board
Standard 41-GP-22 (for 125 psig, 0 - 100F)

$58,422

$83,450

$141,872

Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L Stainless steel

Schedule 40S for 1 in. piping and below,
Schedule 10S for 2 in. piping and over

$56,930

$71,170

$128,100

(a) Estimates by independent engineering firm.

(b) Canadian dollar floating at time of estimateexchange rate,
$1.00 U.S. equal to $.98 Canadian.

18

Estimated Cost, Canadian Dollarsb

Labor

System

Total

(c) System has to be imported into Canada from U.S. and is subject to
duty of 17% plus brokerage charge. This comes to $7,890;
therefore, cost in U.S. would be $45,200 for material, $128,650 for
total, times .98.)

Table 13
PIPING BREAKDOWN FOR ESTIMATE
AISI
Type
304
304
304L
304L
304L
304L
304L
316
316L
316L
316L
316L
316L
316L
316L
316L
316L

Schedule
40S
40S
10S
10S
10S
10S
10S
40S
10S
10S
10S
10S
10S
10S
10S
10S
10S

Size
(inches)
1
1
8
6
4
3
2
1
14
12
10
8
6
4
3
2
2

Quantity
(feet)
115
145
300
98
40
195
120
255
70
60
65
227
382
245
155
15
160

Number
of Fittings
18
73
30
32
4
70
33
79
7
6
16
45
66
42
24
2
18

Fittings are generally high-cost items in FRP systems.

They are frequently an even greater cost item in
plastic-lined steel systems. The material cost for these
systems increases much more rapidly with increasing
complexity than does the cost of a stainless steel system. FRP and plastic-lined valves are likewise much
more expensive than stainless steel valves. The material requirements for supporting structures will usually
be somewhat greater for FRP and plastic-lined steel
than for a stainless steel system.
The requirements for miscellaneous materials, such
as paint, will vary according to the system. FRP may
require an ultra-violet resistant paint coat, while plasticlined steel pipe and flanges will require painting. The
steel backup flanges on the stainless steel system will
require corrosion protection by painting (an alternative
is galvanizing). Also, the supports should be painted,
while bolting is sometimes galvanized.
Generally, FRP does not require insulation because
the plastic is, in itself, a good insulator. However, some
insulation may be required for ambient heat or fire protection of the FRP pipe.

Fabrication Costs
Field fabrication of pipe at the point of installation is
extremely inefficient. Estimates of labor for field fabrication are often 50 percent higher than for the identical
work done under shop conditions. The concentration of
work in a shop may also increase the shop work load
sufficiently to justify improved shop facilities. For
example, the addition of equipment to make flared Van
Stone laps may reduce fabricating labor 15 percent and
eliminate the cost of stub ends. The addition of modern
short-radius bending facilities may reduce fabricating
labor another 20 percent in addition to eliminating the
purchase of elbows. In both cases, savings in labor
results from the elimination of the welds at the fittings,
two in the case of the elbow and one in the case of the
stub end.
Economies can often be effected by detailing pipe to

suit the fabricating methods available. As an example,

savings can be effected in a combination by routing the
pipe so that there is space for machine access to provide for the bending and lapping operations.
For small piping projects that must be carried out
with a minimum of shop facilities, purchase of
prefabricated pipe should be evaluated. Custom
fabricating shops are available with the capability of
short radius bending and flare-lapping stainless steel
pipe.
Stainless steel pipe has an advantage over competitive materials since last minute field modifications can
utilize conventional fittings and welding methods,
whereas FRP or plastic-lined pipe generally require
special fittings as well as special techniques and tooling. In the case of plastic-lined steel pipe, this means
liner flaring tooling for the various sizes. In the case of
an FRP system, it may mean tooling suited to forming
the proprietary joint arrangement of the particular pipe
manufacturer.

Erection Costs
Somewhat higher erection costs might be expected
with FRP due to more frequent support than that required for stainless steel pipe. In the case of plasticlined steel pipe, there are usually more erection joint
flanges to be bolted up, resulting in a direct cost increase.
Testing is required for all piping systems. Some FRP
manufacturers advocate the practice of test-pressure
application and release for 5 to 10 pressure cycles in
order to assure integrity of the system. This recommendation represents an added cost consideration compared to stainless steel or plastic-lined steel where a
one-cycle test is usually adequate.
Incidental erection labor is, of course, required for
painting, insulation, etc., already discussed under miscellaneous materials.
In conclusion, it is obvious that comparing the costs
of corrosion-resistant systems of various materials is a
complex problem. Very few overall conclusions can be
reached. There is no known shortcut solution. The assumptions used for a general comparison may or may
not be valid for a particular system. A detailed analysis
of the specific installation is the only reliable cost guide.

APPLICABLE
STANDARDS
AISI
The American Iron and Steel Institute recognizes 57
stainless steels as standard, and indicates their chemical composition limits. A table of the AISI stainless steel
grades most commonly used for piping and their corresponding UNS numbers, typical properties and applicable ASTM specifications are included in Appendix A.

19

ASTM

SPECIFICATION SUMMARY

The American Society for Testing and Materials covers

AISI grades and proprietary grades of stainless steel in
their specifications. They also add a number of other
requirements, such as dimensional tolerances, heat
treatment, mechanical property requirements, etc. and
in this way are more definitive and restrictive.

The characteristics of distinct piping systems may be

recapped by pipe codes for reference and possible use
for piping fluids not yet identified. See Appendix E.

ASME
Piping may be considered to fall under the fired or
unfired pressure vessel codes of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers. These codes are used for
design. Allowable design stresses for code piping are
defined in the codes.

ANSI
The American National Standards Institute has prepared
codes for pressure piping. These fall under the several
sections of B31 listed in Appendix C. ANSI B31.3 was
written specifically for chemical plants and petroleum
refineries.

THE DESIGN,
FABRICATION
AND ERECTION
OF PLANT
PIPING SYSTEMS

THE PROCESS PIPING DIAGRAM

This is a type of flow diagram. All significant pipe lines
complete with valves and equipment are assigned line
numbers and shown. Sizes are based on flow requirements. Information on piping system specifications, insulation, tracing, etc. is added as it is developed. See
Appendix F.

SELECTION OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Usually this step occurs simultaneously with the
preparation of the index of fluids and gases, although it
may be delayed until a cost analysis can be made. Cost
comparisons, reliability predictions, corrosion allowances and product contamination must be given consideration.

DEVELOPMENT OF PIPING
SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
Utilizing the size requirements from the process piping diagram (Appendix F) the wall thickness, and hence
the pipe schedule, is calculated from temperature,
pressure and corrosion allowances. Gasket materials,
fittings, joints, fabrication techniques, valves, weld
testing, and cleaning requirements are then determined. Allowable stresses are available in the applicable ANSI B31 Codes (Appendix C).

THE PROCESS MODEL

The following sequence indicates the natural development of the selection and design of a piping system.
The discussion is provided by Addison Hempstead. The
sequence is similar to that in use by some of the major
chemical companies.

INDEX OF FLUIDS AND GASES

It is appropriate to begin with an alphabetical list of
the products and services that will require piping systems (Appendix D is a hypothetical listing which serves
as a basis for discussion in this section). The piping
material, maximum operating pressures and temperatures and other pertinent information are tabulated for
each item. If sizes or operating conditions cover a
broad range for a given service, it may be desirable to
assign two or more pipe codes to most effectively
satisfy the requirements (Example: Items 1 and 8, Appendix D). When a line carrying any one of these services is added to a piping diagram, the proper pipe
code can be selected from this list. This procedure
provides for an orderly assignment of piping specifications, and it may be maintained as a standard for
reuse on future installations having the same service.
This will save design time otherwise required to redevelop the pipe code requirements.

20

A scale model of the proposed installation is frequently made, which is useful for many purposes such
as:
1. Visualizing equipment arrangement to assure
space for operating access and maintenance.
2. Planning installation of the facilities.
3. Avoiding interferences.
4. Pipe sketching and takeoff of construction materials.
5. Operator training.
The detail of the model depends on its complexity
and the specific design. Models usually include all
significant pipelines with their valves and flanged joint
locations.
Final models are usually scaled inch equals one
foot, although a preliminary study model is sometimes
made at a scale of 3/8 inch equals one foot.

PIPING FLEXIBILITY ANALYSIS

ANSI B31.3, The Code for Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping, requires that piping systems shall
have sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal expansion or
contraction or movements of pipe supports and terminals from causing: Failure of piping or supports from

overstress or fatigue, leakage at joints, or detrimental

stresses or distortions in piping or in connected pumps,
turbines, valves, etc.
A formal analysis of piping flexibility is not always
required to meet code requirements. For details the
reader is referred to the ANSI B31 Codes.

ESTIMATING
At this point in the development of design information, it is usually possible for an experienced estimator
to develop an estimate to any degree of detail required.
Organizations with highly developed estimating data
often can calculate average costs based on a typical
pipe line run, which is then multiplied by a simple count
of the number of pipelines. This provides an estimate on
a broad scope. However, in order to accurately compare
costs of alternate pipeline materials, it may be
necessary to calculate the costs of individual elements,
such as pipe, fittings, valves, hangers, etc., which may
then be built up into a detail estimate of a single pipe
line.

PRELIMINARY COMMENTS AND

APPROVALS
It is appropriate at this point to review the model, the
index of fluids and gases, the specifications for the
piping systems, corrosion data, system safety under
emergency conditions, maintainability of the piping,
experience with the operation of similar facilities etc.,
among the interested parties. This is the "last chance"
to make changes without incurring major cost penalties.

PIPING SKETCHES
Isometric pipe sketches are prepared from a combination of the model and equipment arrangement data
that provide precise connection locations. These
sketches and the requisite material takeoff may be
drawn manually or computer generated. Computer
generated sketches are generally more accurate.
Computer programs are available that also generate
shop (traveller) cards providing exact cut lengths for
each piece of pipe as well as shop routing for any
bending or end preparation (laps, flanges, bevels or
threading).

Construction Phase
FABRICATION
General considerations Craft labor is more efficient working in a shop than at the pipe installation site.
For economy, productivity and quality, any large volume of pipe, as a general rule, should be shop fabricated. The shop, to be efficient, should have suitable
modern equipment and it must have some effective
production control system. Material should not be released to the shop for fabrication until all the material
required for a line or other unit has been assembled.
Since labor is usually more than half the cost of a piping
system, it must be used efficiently. When a pipe line

goes from the shop to the field for erection, it should be

sent complete with all of the valves, bolts, nuts, hangers
and gaskets.
If possible, steam tracing and insulation should be
applied before the piping leaves the shop. The improvements in productivity and quality come both from
the better facilities that can be made available at a shop
and from the conveniences in material availability and
better working conditions. Pipe should follow a rudimentary production line thru the shop.
It should be noted that stainless steels are generally
more easily fabricated (for repair or replacement) in the
field as compared with other piping materials.
Welding There are four principal processes for fusion welding stainless steels. They are:
1. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), using
coated electrodes.
2. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW or TIG),
using an inert gas (such as argon) to protect the
weld zone from the atmosphere.
3. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW or MIG), also an
inert gas shielded process.
4. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), which is seldom
used on piping except for heavy sections.
In the submerged arc process shielding is provided
by a granulated flux covering the weld area and welding
electrode. Automated or semi-automated welding
equipment is available. Table 14 shows time study data
for GTAW welding of eight sizes of stainless steel pipe.
Bending Modern "push" bending equipment is
available that will accomplish bends at conventional
Long Radius (bend radius = 1 x nominal pipe diameter) radii with wall thinning of 20 percent or less. This
operation eliminates the cost of the purchased elbow
and the two welds required for its installation, with savings up to approximately 35 percent realized in some
sizes.
Flared (Van Stone) laps The ANSI B31 Series of pipe
codes permits the use of laps formed by flaring the end
of the pipe in most applications. (ANSI B31.3-76
paragraph 306.4.2). Flared laps can be formed with
either a smooth or modified spiral finish depending on
the type of roller used for flaring. This technique eliminates the cost of a purchased stub end and the weld
required for its installation.

ERECTION
To maintain the pattern of labor effectiveness, pipe
erection in the field should follow a production sequence. When a line has been received complete in the
field, it can be erected most efficiently by first installing
the hangers, followed by sequential erection of the pipe
and bolting up the flanges. Efficient tools, such as
rachet wrenches, are a labor-saving investment. Specialized crews may be utilized for the various operations where the scope of the job warrants, such as a
crew for hangers, one for pipe erection, one for testing,
etc.

TESTING
Testing requirements are usually prescribed by the
specifications. Shop testing of individual fabricated
sections followed by testing the erected pipe may

21

prove economical. It is generally permissible to make a

preliminary air test at not more than 25 psig prior to
making a final hydrostatic test. This preliminary air test
is useful in locating major leaks before the system is
filled with a fluid that must be drained before the leak
can be corrected.

An excellent presentation of a method for establishing nondestructive examination (NDE) levels for fluid
services in chemical plants and refineries is in an article, ''A Quantitative Method for Determining NDE
Levels" by R. Getz. (HEATING/PIPING/AIR CONDITIONING, August 1979.)

Table 14
TIME STUDY DATA FOR WELDING THREE SIZES OF STAINLESS STEEL PIPEa
Time, hr

b,c

1 & 1

0.067
0.1
0.25

0.083
0.1
0.3

0.083
0.133
0.333

0.1
0.166
0.415

0.1
0.2
0.415

0.112
0.232
0.5

0.166
0.333
0.75

0.333
0.5
1.166

Time required to align, tack, and

weld one 90 deg elbow
Schedule 5S
Schedule 10S
Schedule 40S

0.465
0.57
0.866

0.5
0.57
0.93

0.5
0.6
1.0

0.535
0.665
1.1

0.535
0.735
1.16

0.57
0.8
1.333

0.675
1.8
2.0

1.0
1.333
2.5

Time required to align, tack, and

weld one 45 deg elbow
Schedule 5S
Schedule 10S
Schedule 40S

0.666
0.735
1.0

0.666
0.75
1.0

0.666
0.75
1.166

0.7
0.83
1.333

0.7
0.9
1.333

0.73
1.0
1.5

0.89
1.166
2.1

1.166
1.75
2.65

Time required to align, tack and

weld one tee
Schedule 5S
Schedule 10S
Schedule 40S

1.0
1.5
2.0

1.1
1.5
2.0

1.25
1.5
2.0

1.33
1.5
2.25

1.5
1.65
2.25

1.5
1.65
2.5

1.75
2.0
3.5

2.0
3.5
4.0

Time required to align, tack and

weld one slip-on flange
Schedule 5S
Schedule 10S
Schedule 40S

0.166
0.166
0.25

0.166
0.166
0.3

0.25
0.3
0.33

0.333
0.42
0.5

0.333
0.42
0.5

0.42
0.5
0.58

0.5
0.666
0.835

0.75
0.75
1.25

Time required to align, tack and

weld one butt-weld flange
Schedule 5S
Schedule 10S
Schedule 40S

0.25
0.333
0.42

0.25
0.333
0.42

0.33
0.5
0.666

0.33
0.5
0.666

0.42
0.5
0.75

0.5
0.666
0.835

0.6
0.75
1.0

0.835
1.0
1.333

Pipe size, in.

Time required to make one butt weld
Schedule 5S
Schedule 10S
Schedule 40S

All values are based on gas tungsten-arc welding of austenitic stainless

steel, using 3/32 and 1/8 in. diam filler metals, where required.

Add 10 minutes to each fabrication (tee, elbow, pipe joint, etc.) for
purging, if a purge is required.
These times do not include cutting and beveling.

Source: H. A. Sosnin, "The Joining of Light-Wall Stainless Steel Piping," WELDING JOURNAL, October 1967.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. "Design Guidelines for the Selection and Use of
Stainless Steel," April 1977, Committee of Stainless
Steel Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
2. "High Temperature Characteristics of Stainless
Steels," April 1979, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
3. "Welding of Stainless Steels and Other Joining
Methods," April 1979, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
4. "The Role of Stainless Steels in Petroleum Refining,"
April 1977, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C.
5. "Effective Use of Stainless Steels in FGD Scrubber
Systems," April 1978, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
6. "Stainless Steels for Pumps, Valves and Fittings,"

22

April 1978, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
7. "The Role of Stainless Steels in Desalination," April
1974, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
8. "Stainless Steels: Effective Corrosion Control in
Water and Waste-Water Treatment Plants," March
1974, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
9. "Stainless Steels in Ammonia Production,"
November 1978, Committee of Stainless Steel
Producers, American Iron and Steel Institute,
Washington, D.C.
10."Stainless Steels for Acetic Acid Service," April
1977, Committee of Stainless Steel Producers,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington,
D.C.
11.''Joining of Light Wall Stainless Steel Piping,"
WELDING JOURNAL, October 1967

16.018.0

16.018.0

17.019.0
17.019.0

316
(S31600)

316L
(S31603)

321
(S32100)
347
(S34700)

9.012.0
9.013.0

10.014.0

10.014.0

19.022.0

2.0
2.0

0.08

2.0

2.0

2.0

2.0

0.08

0.03

0.08

0.08

0.25

2.0

0.08

0.045 0.03

0.045 0.03

0.045 0.03

0.045 0.03

0.045 0.03

P
S
0.045 0.03

1.0

1.0

0.045 0.030

0.045 0.030

1.0 2.0-3.0 0.045 0.030

1.0 2.0-3.0 0.045 0.03

1.5

1.5

1.0

1.0

1.0

Mo

Ti, 5xC
min.
Cb+ta,
10xC min.

Other

Composition and Mechanical Properties may vary from those shown, see the ASTM Spec for
actual values. Due to space limitations, only the most common ASTM Specs have been listed.

24.026-0

310S*
(S31008)

19.022.0

2.0

0.20

2.0

0.03

Si
1.0

**

24.026.0

310*
(S31000)

12.015.0
12.015.0

Mn
2.0

C
0.08

Composition of Type 310 and 310S pipe and tubing varies slightly from AISI values shown. See
ASTM A312.

22.024.0
22.024.0

309
(S30900)
309S
(S30908)

Ni
8.010.5
8.012.0

Cr
18.020.0
18.020.0

AISI
Type
(UNS)
304
(S30400)
304L
(S30403)

Chemical Analysis, %
(Single Values are Maximums Except as Noted)

85

84

80

85

95

95

90

90

78

586

586

552

586

655

655

621

621

538

35

35

35

35

45

45

45

45

34

241

241

241

241

328

328

310

310

234

Yield
Tensile
Strength
Strength (Offset 0.2%)
ksi MPa ksi
MPa
85
586 35
241

Mechanical Properties of Solution

Annealed Material at Room Temperature
Corresponding ASTM Specs
Elongation
For Piping Components **
in 2"
(50.80mm) Pipe &
%
Tubing Fittings Forgings Castings
Characteristics
50
A312
A403
A182
A296 The most commonly used
A409
A351 stainless piping material
55
A312
A403
A182
A296 Lower carbon than Type 304
A409
A351 reduces potential for carbide
precipitation during welding
45
A312
A403
A182
A296 For high temperature
A409
A351 applications
45
A312
403
A182
A296 Low carbon modification of
A409
A351 Type 309 reduces potential
for carbide precipitation
45
A312
A403
A182
A296 Better high temperature
A409
A351 resistance than Type 309
but more prone to welding
problems
45
A312
A403
A182
A296 Low carbon modification of
A409
A351 Type 310 reduces potential
for carbide precipitation
50
A312
A403
A182
A296 Molybdenum increases
A409
A351
corrosion resistance of
this alloy compared to
Type 304
55
A312
A403
A182
A296 Lower carbon than Type 316
A409
A351 reduces potential for carbide
precipitation during welding
50
A312
A403
A182
A246 Stabilized for service in
A409
A351 800-1600F range
45
A312
A403
A182
A296 Similar to Type 321
A409
A351

APPENDIX A
CHEMICAL COMPOSITIONS AND TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS
COMMONLY USED IN PIPING SYSTEMS

23

347

321

316L

316

310S

310

309S

309

304L

AISI
TYPE
304

APPENDIX B
Useful Guides In Making A Selection Of Material For A Piping System

I. General Considerations
A. Consider the safety inherent in stainless steel
compared to alternative materials by virtue of its
properties, methods of joining and history of service, reliability.
1. Does the fluid have hazardous properties
that need special consideration?
2. What quantity of fluid could be released by a
piping failure?
3. What would be the effect on the environment?
4. What potential exists for personnel exposure?
B. Would special provisions be required to protect
plastic or reinforced thermo-setting resin pipe
against possible failures such as: thermal insulation, shields or process controls to protect from
excessive heat or thermal shock; armor, guards,
barricades or other protection from mechanical
abuse?
C. Is a metallic system preferred tofacilitate grounding static charges?
D. How important is continuity of service?
1. What are the relative reliabilities of the pipe,
fittings, and joints of the alternative system
materials under consideration?
E. Is insulation an adequate precaution to protect
piping against failure under fire exposure?
F. Are the thread sealant, packing, gasket material,
etc., compatable with the fluid being handled?

II. Metallic Pipe

A. Ability of stainless steel pipe to withstand higher
and lower temperatures than plastic, reinforced
thermo-setting resin, or plastic-lined carbon steel
pipe.
B. Ability to withstand full vacuum over a wide temperature range.
C. Greater tolerance for steam tracing than nonmetallic or lined systems.
D. Readily steam jacketed.
E. Minimum of flanged joints required.
1. Reduces cost of piping.
2. Reduces leakage potential and maintenance
cost.

24

F. Branches and taps can be provided without special fittings at a minimum cost.
G. Requires fewer supports.
1. Requires less support for runs. A minimum of
two supports are often provided for each
length of pipe for practical handling in installation and removal.
2. Valves are generally supported by the piping
in a metallic pipe system. Special valve
support is usually required in most nonmetallic piping systems.
H. Thermal expansion of stainless steel is greater
than that of carbon steel but considerably less
than that of most nonmetallic piping materials.
Lined metallic piping systems sometimes fail because of the difference in the expansion of the
pipe and liner.
I. A metallic system offers greater safety for compressed air or gas service applications. This is
especially true for larger systems with a substantial amount of potential energy stored in the compressed gas.
J. Carbon and low-alloy steels are generally more
susceptible to corrosion than stainless steels,
leading to reduced life and potential contamination
of the product.
K. The maximum and minimum temperatures for
carbon and low-alloy steel and nonmetallic piping
systems are limited compared to stainless steels.
See the B31. Piping Codes for limitations.
L. Is the pipe material compatible with the fluid being
handled?
1. Consider the possibility of embrittlement
when handling strong caustic fluids in carbon
or low-alloy steel.
2. Consider the increased possibility of hydrogen damage under some conditions when
carbon or low-alloy steel piping material is
exposed to hydrogen or aqueous acid
solution. The austenitic stainless steels resist hydrogen effects.
M. Stainless steel pipe has excellent resistance to
most atmospheric corrosion. Does not require
painting or other protection from sunlight, oxygen
or ultraviolet exposure, as is the case with some
nonmetallic materials.

III. Nonmetallic Pipe

A. Principal Classes
1. Thermo-plastic
2. Reinforced thermo-setting resin
3. Special materials, (ceramic, asbestoscement, glass, impregnated graphite) generally are limited to very specialized applications.
B. The applications of thermo-plastic pipe are severely limited by service temperature considerations.
C. Thermo-plastics are excluded from use in flammable liquid service above ground by the B31.3
Code.
D. Nonmetallic pipe is not susceptible to electrolytic
corrosion.
E. Nonmetallic pipe may be permeable by toxic
materials.
1. Internal to external permeation.
2. External to internal (buried lines in contaminated soil).
F. Nonmetallics are very resistant to corrosion in
some classes of fluids such as non-oxidizing
acids and chlorides.
G. Nonmetallic pipe may require insulation or other
provisions for protection from any potential fire
exposure.

H. Flanged joints of nonmetallic materials are susceptible to gasketing and leakage problems due
to the low modulus of elasticity of the flanges.
I. Nonmetallic lines generally require more closely
spaced supports and guiding than metallic piping. This may necessitate supplementary intermediate steel structures.
J. Valves generally require independent support.

IV. Lined Metallic Pipe

A. Linings are available of materials resistant to
most chemical environments.
B. Fittings are required for all branches and taps.
All pipe joints are flanged.
C. Less support is required than for nonmetallic
pipe, particularly in smaller sizes. Valves generally do not require independent support.
D. Steam tracing or vacuum service may result in
liner buckling.
E. Thermal cycling may cause liner to crack at
flanges.
F. Lined flanged fittings are required at all
branches, taps and changes in direction. These
added flange joints increase both the cost and
potential for leakage.
G. Field or shop fabrication requires special fixtures
for forming the liner over the flange face.

APPENDIX C
Status of ANSI B31 Code for Pressure Piping
Standard Number and Designation
Scope and Application

Remarks

B31.1.0

Power Piping

For all piping in steam generating stations.

B31.2

Fuel Gas Piping

For fuel gas for steam generating stations

and industrial buildings.

B31.3

Chemical Plant and

Petroleum Refinery
Piping

For all piping within the property limits of

facilities engaged in the processing or
handling of chemical, petroleum, or related
products unless specifically excluded by the
code.

B31.4

Oil Transportation
Piping

For liquid crude or refined products in

cross-country pipe lines.

B31.5

Refrigeration Piping

For refrigeration piping in packaged units

and commercial or public buildings.

B31.7

Nuclear Power Piping

For fluids whose loss from system could

cause radiation hazard to plant personnel or
general public.

B31.8

Gas Transmission
and Distribution
Systems

For gases in cross-country pipe lines as well

as for city distribution lines.

Withdrawn; see Section

3, ASME Boiler & PV
Code
*

* Addenda are issued at intervals between publication of complete

editions. Information on the latest issues can be obtained from the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, NY

25

APPENDIX D
Index of Fluids and Gases
Max. Operating
Condition
Degrees
PSIG
F
C

Product
or
Service

Item

Test
Press.
PSIG

Basic
Material

Pipe
Code
Number

Remarks

Air, Plant

150
150

375
300

190
148

Copper
Steel
Galv.

P14
P13

" and smaller

On-Off valve-B120 for
"2"; G92JH for 3"

Oil, Lubrication

150

300

148

304 SST

P10

Tubing

Process Piping

175

350

176

304 SST

P16A

Steam Tracers,
Acid Exposure

1000

600

315

304 SST

P10

Steam, 50 PSIG &

Lower

50

300

148

Steel

P18

Water,
Aboveground,

120

220

104

Steel

P11

Water,
Condensate

50

300

148

Steel

P19

Water,
Demineralized

150
1400

376
200

190
93

304 SST
304 SST

P16
P17

Water, Process
A.G. 3" & Larger

150
220

500
150

260
65

Steel
Steel

10

Water, Process,
Hot

150

375

190

304 SST

P16

11

Water, Process
Underground

150

150

65

Cast Iron
Cement
Lined

P15

Tubing

Use X11A
Ball Valve

P12
P12A

APPENDIX E
Pipe Code Summary
Max. Operating Condition

26

Pipe
Code
Number

PSIG

Basic
Material

P10
P11
P12
P12A
P13
P14
P15
P16
P16A
P17
P18
P19

1000
125
150
220
175
150
150
150
175
1500
75
100

600
220
500
150
330
375
150
375
350
250
350
340

316
104
260
65
148
190
65
190
176
120
176
171

304 SST
Steel
Steel
Steel
Steel-Galvanized
Copper
Cast Iron Cement Lined
304 SST
304 SST
304 SST
Steel
Steel

Degrees

Remarks
Tubing

APPENDIX F
Typical Process Piping Diagram

(a)
(b)
(c)

Line Numbers
Numbers allotted
1-99
Last number used
7
Numbers canceled
1

(a) Record Numbers allotted to this diagram in this block.

(b) Record last number used in this block.
(c) Record canceled numbers of those allotted in this block.

Valve
Line Number and Direction of Flow

27